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4256655 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia%20Douglas%20Johnson | Georgia Douglas Johnson | Georgia Blanche Douglas Camp Johnson, better known as Georgia Douglas Johnson (September 10, 1880 – May 15, 1966), was a poet and playwright. She was one of the earliest female African-American playwrights, and an important figure of the Harlem Renaissance.
Early life
She was born as Georgia Blanche Douglas Camp in 1880 in Atlanta, Georgia, to Laura Douglas and George Camp (her mother's last name is listed in other sources as Jackson). Both parents were of mixed ancestry, with her mother having African-American and Native American heritage, and her father of African-American and English heritage.
Camp lived for much of her childhood in Rome, Georgia. She received her education in both Rome and Atlanta, where she excelled in reading, recitations and physical education. She also taught herself to play the violin. She developed a lifelong love of music that she expressed in her plays, which make distinct use of sacred music.
She graduated from Atlanta University's Normal School in 1896. She taught school in Marietta, Georgia. In 1902 she left her teaching career to pursue her interest in music, attending Oberlin Conservatory of Music in Ohio. She wrote music from 1898 until 1959. After studying in Oberlin, Johnson returned to Atlanta, where she became assistant principal in a public school.
Marriage and family
On September 28, 1903, Douglas married Henry Lincoln Johnson (1870–1925), an Atlanta lawyer and prominent Republican party member who was ten years older than she. Douglas and Johnson had two sons, Henry Lincoln Johnson, Jr., and Peter Douglas Johnson (d. 1957). In 1910, they moved to Washington, DC, as her husband had been appointed as Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia, a political patronage position under Republican President William Howard Taft. While the city had an active cultural life among the elite people of color, it was far from the Harlem literary center of New York, to which Douglas became attracted.
Douglas' marital life was affected by her writing ambition, for her husband was not supportive of her literary passion, insisting that she devote more time to becoming a homemaker than on publishing poetry. But she later dedicated two poems to him, "The Heart of a Woman" (1918) and "Bronze" (1922), which were praised for their literary quality.
Career
After the Johnson family moved to Washington, D.C., in 1910, Douglas Johnson began to write poems and stories. She credited a poem written by William Stanley Braithwaite, about a rose tended by a child, as her inspiration for writing poetry. Johnson also wrote songs, plays, short stories, taught music, and performed as an organist at her Congregational church.
Poetry
She had already begun to submit poems to newspapers and small magazines when she lived in Atlanta. Her first poem was published in 1905 in the literary journal The Voice of the Negro. Her first collection of poems was not published until 1916.
Johnson published a total of four volumes of poetry, beginning in 1916 with The Heart of a Woman. In the 21st century, her poems have been described as feminine and "ladylike", or "raceless". They have titles such a "Faith", "Youth", and "Joy".
Her poems were published in several issues of The Crisis, the journal of the NAACP that was founded and edited by W. E. B. Du Bois. "Calling Dreams" was published in January 1920, "Treasure" in July 1922, and "To Your Eyes" in November 1924.
During the 1920s, Douglas Johnson traveled extensively to give poetry readings. In 1925 her husband died, and she was widowed at the age of 45. She had to rear their two teenage sons by herself. For years she struggled to support them financially, sometimes taking the clerical jobs generally available to women.
But as a gesture to her late husband's loyalty and political service, Republican President Calvin Coolidge appointed Douglas Johnson as the Commissioner of Conciliation, a political appointee position within the Department of Labor. In 1934, during the Democratic administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, she lost this political appointee job. She returned to supporting herself with temporary clerical work.
Johnson's literary success resulted in her becoming the first African-American woman to get national notice for her poetry since Frances Ellen Watkins Harper. In 1962 she published her last poetry collection, Share My World.
The Heart of a Woman
Johnson was well recognized for her poems collected in The Heart of a Woman (1918). She explores themes for women such as isolation, loneliness, pain, love and the role of being a woman during this time. Other poems in this collection consist of motherly concerns.
Bronze
Johnson's collection published as Bronze had a popular theme of racial issues; she continued to explore motherhood and being a woman of color. In the foreword of Bronze she said: "Those who know what it means to be a colored woman in 1922– know it not so much in fact as in feeling ..."[1]
Plays
Johnson was a well-known figure in the national black theatre movement and was an important "cultural sponsor" in the early twentieth century, assembling and inspiring the intellectuals and artists who generated the next group of black theatre and rising education (16). Johnson wrote about 28 plays. Plumes was published under the pen name John Temple. Many of her plays were never published because of her gender and race. Gloria Hull is credited with the rediscovery of many of Johnson's plays. The 28 plays that she wrote were divided into four groups: "Primitive Life Plays", "Plays of Average Negro Life", "Lynching Plays" and "Radio Plays". The first section, "Primitive Life Plays", features Blue Blood and Plumes, which were published and produced during Johnson's lifetime.
Like several other plays that prominent women of the Harlem Renaissance wrote, A Sunday Morning in the South (1925) was provoked by the inconsistencies of American life. These included the contrast between Christian doctrine and white America's treatment of black Americans, the experience of black men who returned from fighting in war to find they lacked constitutional rights, the economic disparity between whites and blacks, and miscegenation.
In 1926, Johnson's play Blue Blood won honorable mention in the Opportunity drama contest. Her play Plumes also won in the same competition in 1927. Plumes is a folk drama that relates the dilemma of Charity, the main character, whose baby daughter is dying. She has saved up money for the doctor, but also she and her confidante - Tilde - don't believe the medical care would be successful. She has in mind an extravagant funeral for her daughter instead - with plumes, hacks, and other fancy trimmings. Before Charity makes a decision, her daughter dies. Plumes was produced by the Harlem Experimental Theatre between 1928 and 1931.
Blue-Eyed Black Boy is a 1930 lynching genre play written to convince Congress to pass anti-lynching laws. This lesser known play premiered in Xoregos Performing Company's program: "Songs of the Harlem River" in New York City's Dream Up Festival, from August 30 to September 6, 2015. "Songs of the Harlem River - a collection of five one-act plays including Blue-Eyed Black Boy also opened the Langston Hughes Festival in Queens, New York, on February 13, 2016.
In 1935, Johnson wrote two historical plays, William and Ellen Craft and Frederick Douglass. William and Ellen Craft describes the escape of a black couple from slavery, in a work about the importance of self-love, the use of religion for support, and the power of strong relationships between black men and women. Her work Frederick Douglass is about his personal qualities that are not as much in the public eye: his love and tenderness for Ann, who he met while still enslaved, and then was married to in freedom for over four decades. Other themes include the spirit of survival, the need for self-education, and the value of the community and of the extended family.
Johnson was one of the only women whose work was published in Alain Locke's anthology Plays of Negro Life: A Source-Book of Native American Drama. Although several of her plays are lost, Johnson's typescripts for 10 of her plays are in collections in academic institutions.
Anti-lynching activism
Although Johnson spoke out against race inequity as a whole, she is more known as a key advocate in the anti-lynching movement as well as a pioneering member of the lynching drama tradition. Her activism is primarily expressed through her plays, first appearing in the play Sunday Morning in the South in 1925. This outspoken, dramatic writing about racial violence is sometimes credited with her obscurity as a playwright since such topics were not considered appropriate for a woman at that time. Unlike many African-American playwrights, Johnson refused to give her plays a happy ending since she did not feel it was a realistic outcome. As a result, Johnson had difficulty getting plays published. Though she was involved in the NAACP's anti-lynching campaigns of 1936 and 1938, the NAACP refused to produce many of her plays claiming they gave a feeling of hopelessness. Johnson was also a member of the Writers League Against Lynching, which included Countée Cullen, James Weldon Johnson, Jessie Fauset, and Alain Locke. The organization sought a federal anti-lynching bill.
Gloria Hull in her book Color, Sex, and Poetry, argues that Johnson's work ought to be placed in an exceedingly distinguished place within the Harlem Renaissance, and that for African-American women writers "they desperately need and deserve long overdue scholarly attention". Hull, through a black feminist critical perspective, appointed herself the task of informing those within the dark of the very fact that African-American women, like Georgia Douglas Johnson, are being excluded from being thought of as key voices of the Harlem Renaissance. Johnson's anti-lynching activism was expressed through her plays such as The Ordeal, which was printed in Alain Locke's anthology The New Negro. Her poems describe African Americans and their mental attitude once having faced prejudice towards them and the way they modify it. Isolationism and anti-feminist prejudice however prevented the sturdy African-American women like Johnson from getting their remembrance and impact with such contributions.
S Street Salon
Soon after her husband's death, Johnson began to host what became 40 years of weekly "Saturday Salons" for friends and authors, including Langston Hughes, Jean Toomer, Anne Spencer, Richard Bruce Nugent, Alain Locke, Jessie Redmon Fauset, Angelina Weld Grimké and Eulalie Spence — all major contributors to the New Negro Movement, which is better known today as the Harlem Renaissance. Georgia Douglas Johnson's house at 1461 South Street NW would later become known as the S Street Salon. The salon was a meeting place for writers in Washington, D.C., during the Harlem Renaissance. Johnson's S Street Salon helped to nurture and sustain creativity by providing a place for African-American artists to meet, socialize, discuss their work, and exchange ideas. According to Akasha Gloria Hull, Johnson's role in creating a place for black artists to nurture their creativity made the movement a national one because she worked outside of Harlem and therefore made a trust for intercity connections. She has been described as "a woman of tremendous energy, much of which she channeled into her effort to create for the writers who gathered in her home on Saturday nights an atmosphere that was both intellectually stimulating and properly supportive."
Johnson called her home the "Half Way House" for friends traveling, and a place where they "could freely discuss politics and personal opinions" and where those with no money and no place to stay would be welcome. Although black men were allowed to attend, it mostly consisted of black women such as May Miller, Marita Bonner, Mary Burrill, Alice Dunbar-Nelson, Zora Neale Hurston, and Angelina Weld Grimke. Johnson was especially close to the writer Angelina Weld Grimké. This Salon was known to have discussions on issues such as lynching, women's rights, and the problems facing African-American families. They became known as the "Saturday Nighters."
Weekly column
Between 1926 and 1932, she wrote short stories, started a letter club, and published a weekly newspaper column called "Homely Philosophy".
The column was published in 20 different newspapers, including the New York News, Chicago Defender, Philadelphia Tribune, and Pittsburgh Courier and ran from 1926 to 1932. Some of the topics she wrote on were considered inspirational and spiritual for her audience, such as "Hunch", "Magnetic Personality", and "The Blessing of Work." Some of her work was known to help people cope with the hardships of the Great Depression.
One of the articles that focused on spirituality was "Our Fourth Eye", in which she wrote about "closing one's natural eyes" to look with the "eyes of one's mind". She explains that the "fourth eye" assists with viewing the world in this way. Another essay of Johnson's, titled "Hunch", discusses the idea that people have hunches, or intuition, in their lives. She goes on to explain that individuals must not quiet these hunches because they are their "sixth sense– your instruction".
Legacy and honors
Throughout her life, Johnson had written 200 poems, 28 plays and 31 short stories. In 1962, she published her last poetry book, entitled Share My World, the poems in which reflect on love towards all people and forgiveness, showing how much wisdom she has gained throughout her entire life.
In 1965, Atlanta University presented Douglas with an honorary doctorate of literature, praising her as a "sensitive singer of sad songs; faithful interpreter of the feminine heart of a Negro with its joys, sorrows, limitations and frustrations of racial oppression in a male-dominated world; dreamer of broken dreams...".
When she died in Washington, D.C., in 1966, one of her sister playwrights and a former participant of the S Street Salon, sat by her bedside "stroking her hand and repeating the words, 'Poet Georgia Douglas Johnson.
In September 2009, it was announced that Johnson would be inducted into the Georgia Writers Hall of Fame.
Major works
Poems
The Heart of a Woman (1918)
Bronze (1922)
An Autumn Love Cycle (1928)
Share My World (1962)
The Ordeal
Plays
A Sunday Morning in the South (1925)
Blue Blood (1926)
Paupaulekejo (1926)
Plumes (1927)
Safe (c. 1929)
Blue-Eyed Black Boy (c. 1930)
Starting Point (play) (1930s)
William and Ellen Craft (1935)
Frederick Douglass (1935)
And Yet They Paused (1938)
A Bill to Be Passed (1938)
References
Bibliography
Shockley, Ann Allen, Afro-American Women Writers 1746-1933: An Anthology and Critical Guide, New Haven, Connecticut: Meridian Books, 1989.
Further reading
Harold Bloom, ed., Black American Women Poets and Dramatists (New York: Chelsea House, 1996).
Countee Cullen, ed., Caroling Dusk: An Anthology of Verse by Negro Poets (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927).
Gloria T. Hull, Color, Sex, and Poetry: Three Women Writers of the Harlem Renaissance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).
Judith Stephens, And Yet They Paused' and 'A Bill to Be Passed': Newly Recovered Lynching Dramas by Georgia Douglas Johnson", African American Review 33 (Autumn 1999): 519–22.
Judith Stephens, The Plays of Georgia Douglas Johnson:From The New Negro Renaissance to the Civil Rights Movement (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006)
C. C. O'Brien, Cosmopolitanism in Georgia Douglas Johnson's Anti-Lynching Literature, African American Review, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Winter 2004), pp. 571–587 (St. Louis University)
External links
African American Heritage Trail, Washington DC
FBI file on Georgia Douglas Johnson
1880 births
1966 deaths
20th-century African-American women writers
20th-century African-American writers
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
African-American dramatists and playwrights
African-American poets
American anti-lynching activists
American salon-holders
American women dramatists and playwrights
American women poets
Harlem Renaissance
Oberlin College alumni
Writers from Atlanta
Writers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Writers from Washington, D.C. |
4256847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amr%20Zaki | Amr Zaki | Amr Hassan Zaki (; born 1 April 1983) is an Egyptian retired professional footballer who played as a striker.
He has played for numerous different clubs in Egypt, Russia, England, Turkey and Kuwait. Zaki has made 63 appearances and scored 30 goals for the Egyptian national team. In his career, Zaki has been nicknamed the "bulldozer" and has been likened to former England striker Alan Shearer.
However, his career has not been without controversy. He was labelled "highly unprofessional" by former Wigan manager Steve Bruce. Also, his decision not to join English club Portsmouth due to the nationality of some of the players garnered much criticism in the English press.
Club career
Early career
Born in Mansoura, Zaki started his career at El Mansoura. He moved to ENPPI for the 2003–04 season. At ENPPI, he became the Egyptian Premier League top goalscorer for the 2004–05 season and helped the club win its first trophy, the 2005 Egyptian Cup, as well as being runners-up in the Egyptian Premier League,
After impressing in the 2006 African Cup of Nations, Zaki caught the attention of many clubs, such as El Zamalek and Al-Ahly from Egypt, Al-Ain FC from the UAE, and Nantes from France. But Zaki later decided to play for Russian club Lokomotiv Moscow, who signed him for a reported sum of €1.7 million. However, he did not play a single match for Lokomotiv.
In 2006, Zaki moved back to the Egyptian Premier League and signed to play for El Zamalek. Owing to his powerful physical displays as a forward, fans nicknamed him the "Bulldozer" and newspapers nicknamed him the "Egyptian Gladiator".
Wigan Athletic
On 22 July 2008, Wigan Athletic completed a one-year loan deal to bring Zaki to the JJB Stadium for a sum of £1.5 million. After scoring two goals in his two pre-season appearances for Wigan, Zaki scored on his league debut on 16 August against West Ham United. On 30 August he scored his first brace for Wigan in a 5–0 victory over Premier League new-boys Hull City. On 13 September he scored his fourth goal in as many games in the Premier League as Wigan drew with Sunderland, putting him joint top of the goal scoring charts alongside Jermain Defoe. On 28 September, Zaki scored again in the Premier League from the penalty spot against Manchester City, and this goal took him to the top of the goal scorers list with 5 goals in 6 games. He followed it with two more goals against Liverpool, further solidifying his position as top scorer in the English Premier League. He also scored penalties in 2–1 victories over Portsmouth and Newcastle. At one point he was the third top scorer in the Premier League behind Chelsea's Nicolas Anelka and Manchester City's Robinho who had 15 and 12 respectively to Zaki's 10, however he failed to add to that tally in which Anelka finished top with 19.
Wigan Athletic chairman Dave Whelan likened Zaki to Alan Shearer, saying "when you look at this lad and his build... He has the same confidence when he gets the ball, he knows where the goal is, he doesn't need to look up, he has this instinct. Strikers like that have an instinct as to where the goal is. You can't describe it, you can't give it to anybody. Former Wigan manager Steve Bruce had also been highly impressed with Zaki, and told the press he believes he is "awesome". Bruce said "he put in a fantastic performance. If he keeps playing like that he is going to have a real future in the Premier League" and "his physique is great, he has awesome power and pace and of course he wants to score goals which is the important thing".
Controversy
In April 2009, Zaki failed to return to Wigan Athletic from one of Egypt's World Cup qualification matches, leading his former-club manager, Steve Bruce, to label him as the most unprofessional player he had ever worked with. His late returns from international duty led to Bruce publicly branding Zaki "highly unprofessional" and fining him the maximum amount permitted, which he has done on more than one occasion;
"Before this latest incident, Zaki had already been fined considerably more than the average person in Britain earns in a year and he will now face another heavy fine". However, Bruce said that repeatedly fining him does not seem to alter his poor behaviour. Bruce subsequently confirmed on 17 May 2009 that the club will not be taking up the option of making his loan deal permanent.
Return to Zamalek
Zaki returned to Egyptian Premier League side El Zamalek for the 2009–10 season. During the summer transfer window he turned down a move to English Premier League club Portsmouth, which had been strongly linked with the player. This has been largely criticized in the English press, because his refusal was due to the presence of two Algerians and an Israeli on the team. Zaki said "after Portsmouth signed an Israeli player and also hired an Israeli football director a possible move was ruled out. On top of that, no way could I play at Portsmouth with an Algerian within their ranks." During his time at El Zamalek he struggled with injuries, sickness, goal scoring ducks, and his spot on the team.
Hull City
On 17 January 2010, Zaki passed a medical with Hull City moving to the club on a 5-month loan.
On 30 January 2010 he made his debut for Hull coming on as substitute for Jozy Altidore in the 69-minute. Hull went on to draw the match 2–2 with Wolverhampton Wanderers.
Amr Zaki quoted "If an offer from a decent club does not come up by the end of my time at Hull, then I will return to Zamalek." On 17 April 2010 it was confirmed by his agent that his loan had been terminated and he returned to Zamalek.
Return to Zamalek
Zaki returned to Zamalek at the beginning of the 2010–11 season and gave phenomenal performances becoming the team's top scorer after scoring 3 goals in the league's first 4 matches. However, in October 2010 Zaki suffered a career threatening injury that kept him away for the better part of 10 months. Zaki returned from injury and participated with Zamalek in the Egypt Cup, scoring twice in the semi-final match against defending champions Haras El-Hodood, thus leading his team to qualify for the final with a 2–1 victory.
In November 2011, Zaki had a financial dispute with Zamalek board over his unpaid wages, claiming that he hasn't been paid over a year. The dispute lasted 3 months before Zamalek chairman, Mamdouh Abbas, paid Zaki a large percentage of his late wages. Zaki made his first appearance for Zamalek after the dispute, coming on as a second-half substitute in a Round of 64 CAF Champions League game against Tanzanian club Young Africans. Zaki scored the equalizer goal in the 74th minute, and the game finished 1–1.
After his return to Zamalek from his loan moves from Hull City and Wigan, Zaki received many offers to play abroad, including good offers from Russia, China, and France, but Zamalek kept on refusing to let him go, as he was considered one of the team's main pillars and star players.
On 5 June 2012, Zaki told Egyptian sports website FilGoal that he relished a return to play in England again. This came in parallel with Egypt U-23 coach Hany Ramzy statement that Zaki may be called up to play for Egypt in the 2012 London Olympics U-23 tournament as one of the 3 allowed overage players. Zaki commented on that by saying, “I think it's a good chance for me to re-appear on English grounds. It is an opportunity to be watched again." Eventually, Zaki was not picked for the Olympics by Ramzy. However, since Zamalek continued to face financial problems throughout 2011 and 2012, Zaki started to be considered on his way out of the club as a way to bring in cash. Gaziantepspor and other Turkish sides along with some English teams and other Persian Gulf sides have all shown their interest in Zaki. On 20 July 2012, English Championship side Blackpool sent an official request to the player to go on a one-week trial at the club. Zaki and Zamalek had accepted the trial offer, but Blackpool later pulled out of the transfer negotiations and cancelled their trial offer. Fellow Championship club Middlesbrough had also shown an interest as well. Zaki stated his desire to join Middlesbrough after speaking with his former teammate Mido about the club and insisted on a two-year contract, but Manager Tony Mowbray only offered Zaki a deal until the end of the season. Zaki turned down the offer. Zaki's agent later said, Everything was agreed, his medical, his contract, his house, but Middlesbrough changed their minds at the last minute. Amr wanted to join Middlesbrough and help them win promotion, it was not about money. Amr was ready to travel. A Middlesbrough spokesman stated that Zaki was one of a number of players being chased by the club, and no offer was submitted to the player.
Elazığspor
In late July 2012, Turkish side Gaziantepspor offered Zamalek club 250,000 Euros for Zaki, and Zamalek accepted the offer on 31 July 2012. However, speculation appeared on the bid after Gaziantepspor failed to send the official contract on the agreed deadline. Because of that, Zaki's move to Gaziantepspor was thrown into doubt, and fellow Turkish side Elazığspor began to show interest in signing the player. On 6 August, Elazığspor club official Selçuk Cengiz Öztürk stated that Elazığspor have reached an agreement with Zamalek to sign Zaki according to Elazığspor manager Bülent Uygun and it is expected that he will join on a three-year deal. He later stated that he will arrive in Egypt on Monday 7 August to complete the move. On the next day, Gaziantepspor officially dropped out of the negotiations with Zamalek due to unstated reasons. Later on, Elazığspor officially signed Zaki on a two-year deal, for the same price which Gaziantepspor had previously offered (250,000 Euros) During the contract agreement phase, Zaki requested to put a special clause in his contract which states that if Elazığspor get relegated to the Turkish second division, Zaki would be free to leave the club if he wants.
After missing the first 2 games of the season due to registration and contractual problems, Zaki made his debut for Elazığspor in a 0–3 loss against Kasimpasa SK, coming in as a substitute in halftime. After losing 0–3 to Beşiktaş in his second game, Zaki put in a wonderful performance in his third appearance against Bursaspor, scoring an assist and scoring a disallowed goal due to Zaki being in an offside position. After that, a couple of injuries kept Zaki on the sidelines a few times, and he was able to make only 8 appearances out of potential 17.
Near the end of December 2012, Zaki asked Elazığspor to allow him to leave the club, as he had received a number of offers from England, France, Ukraine, and the Persian Gulf region. Elazığspor board conceded to give up on the player for a fee of 400,000 Euros. However, no club met the €400,000 price tag that the Turkish Club had put on Zaki, and Zaki later agreed with the club board to rescind his contract due to his not receiving his wages since two months. In late January, Zaki had officially rescinded his contract with the club he became a free agent. He finished his short stint with the Turkish club without goals and with only one assist.
Return to ENPPI
After being close to signing with Ukrainian giants Shakhtar Donetsk in the 2013 winter transfer window, Zaki made a surprise move to former club ENPPI that surprised Egyptian and football fans around the world. Zaki had signed for 2 and half years keeping him at the Egyptian club until June 2015. It was mostly expected that Zaki would return to his home club Zamalek once again but Zaki had explained that the Zamalek chairman Mamdouh Abbas had "rejected his return to Zamalek." Twelve days after his signing with the club, Zaki and the club had terminated the player's contract after a "disagreement" between the two sides. And Zaki was once again a free agent.
Al-Salmiya
On 18 June 2013, Zaki officially signed for Kuwaiti club Al-Salmiya for one year and was presented to the press a few days after. He received the number 9 jersey. On his debut, Zaki scored in the league opener against Yarmouk scoring the final goal in Al-Salmiya's 4-0 win. In the third game of the season against Kazma, he scored his 2nd goal in 3 games scoring Al-Salmiya's first goal in a 3–1 win over the Kuwaiti giants. After suffering a couple injuries and some minor issues with his salary, in December 2013 Zaki and Al Salmiya agreed to terminate the player's contract to prevent any more financial issues and also because Zaki wasn't performing as well as he'd hoped in the Kuwaiti Premier League and wanted to move to Europe or a different Arab League. Zaki ended his stint with Al Salmiya with 2 goals and an assist from 9 matches.
Raja CA
On 30 December 2013, it was reported that Zaki was going to join Moroccan champions Raja CA on 1 January 2014 when the winter transfer window re-opened. In a friendly match, Zaki broke his foot and ankle ligaments and required surgery which would leave Zaki out action for up to 3–4 months, which resulted in him missing the rest of the 2013–14 season. However, controversy broke out when the club claimed they had no knowledge that Zaki went to do a surgery on his foot, and they later expressed their anger with Zaki for not letting the club officials know that he was going to perform a surgery. Raja and Zaki later agreed to the termination of the contract to avoid any further issues. Zaki featured in three friendlies during the club's winter break, scoring 1 goal. He never made an official competitive appearance for Raja CA. And for the fourth time in two years, Zaki was once again a free agent.
Al Ahed
On 16 August 2014, Zaki signed a one-year deal with Lebanese Premier League club Al Ahed. The transfer was the most expensive in the history of the league to date. On 12 September 2014, he terminated his contract with the club due to injury concerns. He didn't play a single game with the club.
El Mokawloon
In January 2015 he signed with El Mokawloon an 18-month-contract uniting with his former coach in national team Hassan Shehata. He made his return to football after almost 400 days away from the game in round 32 in Egypt Cup.
Retirement
On 18 August 2015, Zaki announced retirement from football via his Twitter account.
International career
Zaki played for the Egyptian National Team. In the 2006 African Cup of Nations Zaki scored the winning goal for Egypt in the semi-final against Senegal late in the second half, with his first touch moments after coming off the bench to replace a visibly irate Mido – whose argument with coach Hassan Shehata held up play and resulted in a six-month international ban from the Egyptian Football Association for the player. Egypt later went on to win their fifth continental title.
Two years later in the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, Zaki scored a goal against Zambia in the group stage and another in the quarter final against Angola. Additionally, he scored another header and then added another goal in the semi-final match against Ivory Coast. Egypt again went on to win the title for a record sixth time. He was chosen in the CAN 2008 All Star Starting XI.
After Egypt's failure to qualify to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Zaki was fairly absent from the national squad for almost two years due to his many injuries with Hull City and Zamalek for the 2009–10 and 2010–11 seasons. After American Bob Bradley took over as coach of the national team, Zaki had been called up to the squad three times (November 2011, March 2012, and April 2012) and Zaki dropped out of the squad due to injury each time. Bradley was "done with Zaki" after citing an ear infection being the reason for Zaki to drop out for the third time. Media reported that Zaki was trying to avoid the national team and playing under Bradley, but he denied these rumors claiming that he ready to be called up at any time from now on. And finally after a lengthy absence from the national team, he was recalled by Bradley in October 2012 to play two friendlies against DR Congo and Tunisia. After nearly a four-year goal drought, Zaki scored in the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Guinea on 10 September 2013, scoring the fourth goal in the 4–2 win.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Egypt's goal tally first.
Personal life
Zaki is a practicing Muslim and has stated that “When I was in England I was eager to fast all the time and keep praying and also reading Quran in my spare time. He once went 24 days without eating as stated on BBC one's Match of The Day. I fasted on every day and I don’t think it affected my performance – actually I think I got stronger. I have played many matches on days which I have fasted.” Despite Zaki's insistence that fasting has never affected him, it was to prove a sticking point at Wigan. “The manager Steve Bruce said to me that he understands my fast but he can’t let me play while I'm fasting. “He told me that I have to choose. I chose fasting but then I played several matches without telling him that I'm fasting and I also kept playing well without problems.”
Honours
ENPPI
Egypt Cup: 2004–05
Zamalek
Egypt Cup: 2007–08
Egypt
Africa Cup of Nations: 2006, 2008
Individual
2008 CAF African Footballer of the Year Nomination
Africa Cup of Nations Team of the Tournament: 2008
References
External links
Official website
BBC World Service: African Footballer of the Year 2008
Living people
1983 births
People from Mansoura, Egypt
Men's association football forwards
Egyptian men's footballers
Egypt men's international footballers
Egyptian Muslims
2006 Africa Cup of Nations players
2008 Africa Cup of Nations players
Egyptian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Russia
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Expatriate men's footballers in Lebanon
Egyptian expatriate sportspeople in England
Egyptian expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Egyptian expatriate sportspeople in Lebanon
Egyptian expatriate sportspeople in Morocco
ENPPI SC players
FC Lokomotiv Moscow players
Zamalek SC players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
Raja CA players
Elazığspor footballers
Al Ahed FC players
Premier League players
Russian Premier League players
Süper Lig players
Egyptian Premier League players |
4257673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegro%20%28musical%29 | Allegro (musical) | Allegro is a musical by Richard Rodgers (music) and Oscar Hammerstein II (book and lyrics), their third collaboration for the stage. Opening on Broadway on October 10, 1947, the musical centers on the life of Joseph Taylor Jr., who follows in the footsteps of his father as a doctor, but is tempted by fortune and fame at a big-city hospital.
After the immense successes of the first two Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals, Oklahoma! and Carousel, the pair sought a subject for their next play. Hammerstein had long contemplated a serious work which would deal with the problems of the ordinary man in the fast-moving modern world. He and Rodgers sought to create a work which would be as innovative as their first two stage musicals. To that end, they created a play with a large cast, including a Greek chorus. The production would have no sets; props and projections served to suggest locations.
After a disastrous tryout in New Haven, Connecticut, the musical opened on Broadway to a large advance sale of tickets, and very mixed reviews. Agnes de Mille, the choreographer of Rodgers and Hammerstein's previous Broadway productions, both directed and choreographed the work. The show was viewed as too moralistic, and the Broadway run ended after nine months; it was followed by a short national tour. It had no West End production and has rarely been revived. There are two recordings of Allegro, the original cast album and a studio recording released in 2009.
Conception
Oscar Hammerstein II had always wanted to write a serious drama, one which would address the problems of life confronting ordinary people. By early 1946, three years after his partnership with Richard Rodgers commenced, the duo had two hits (Oklahoma! and Carousel) on Broadway, and success as producers of musicals others had written. In March, Hammerstein approached Rodgers with the idea for a play with two men as the central characters, rather than the usual "boy and girl" format. Over the following weeks, the two discussed it, and the concept evolved into a musical about one man, a doctor's son, which appealed to Rodgers, the son and brother of doctors. By September, the general theme for the story had been established: the struggle of the main character to avoid compromising his principles as he progresses in life.
Hammerstein had thought of writing a play about a man, from birth to death. However, having just killed his leading male character, Billy Bigelow, onstage in Carousel, he was reluctant to kill off another. In the end, he took his protagonist from birth to age 35. He envisioned a simply staged work like Our Town which after its initial run would lend itself to college productions. Allegro was conceived as taking place in an open space, using props and projections to convey scenery to the audience. In addition to the usual singing chorus, there would be a speaking chorus, in the manner of a Greek chorus, which would comment on the action, and speak to both characters and audience.
As background research about the medical profession, Hammerstein interviewed his own doctor. He wrote a few pages of the book before embarking with his wife for Australia to visit his mother-in-law; when his ship arrived in Brisbane he mailed Rodgers part of the remainder. On receiving the packet, Rodgers, who generally did not compose until Hammerstein supplied him with a lyric, immediately sat down and composed three songs. Hammerstein put a good deal of his own experiences into the play. According to his son, William, "Most of the first act was based on his own memories of his own childhood. He had always been intrigued by it, you know; his mother died when he was twelve. I always felt his songs came out of his feelings about her."
Hammerstein spent a year writing and polishing the first act, taking infinite pains over the wording. The second act was more rushed; under a deadline, Hammerstein completed it only a week before rehearsals began. Hammerstein's protegee Stephen Sondheim, who served as a $25-a-week gofer on the production, stated,
Rehearsals and tryouts
The duo hired choreographer Agnes de Mille to direct—a move between two theatre functions which was unusual at the time. De Mille had been the choreographer for the dances in Oklahoma! and Carousel, designing ballets which disclosed the characters' psychological states to the audience. She had been concerned about the cohesion of the script as she received it from Hammerstein. When a few days before rehearsals began, she asked Hammerstein what the show was about, the lyricist replied, "It's about a man not being allowed to do his own work because of worldly pressures." De Mille answered, "That's not the play you've written. You haven't written your second act." Hammerstein replied, "But we're already committed to the theatre in New York."
De Mille faced an immense task. Instead of conventional sets, locations were suggested by platforms, images projected onto backdrops, and lighting—there were 500 lighting cues, at the time a Broadway record. There were forty stagehands, needed to shift sixty partial sets, with objects moved onto the stage by a semicircular track hidden by an elaborate series of curtains. According to de Mille biographer Carol Easton, "Allegro was a leviathan of a show, on a scale exceeding the grasp of any individual."
Rehearsals took place in three New York locations, for principals, singers, and dancers. The production contained 41 principals and over a hundred dancers. De Mille also choreographed the dances, which were both extremely complicated and provided the framework for the scenes which made up the show. During the dances, Joe learns to walk, falls in love, goes astray, and then gets back on the proper track. De Mille used adults in children's clothes for the dances when Joe is a child; since there were no actual children on stage to provide scale, the illusion worked. The dance which accompanied "One Foot, Other Foot" was based on de Mille's own experiences in watching her own son Jonathan learn to walk.
Sondheim later expressed his view of de Mille's directing, calling her "a horror. She treated the actors and singers like dirt and treated the dancers like gods ...[she was,] I think, an extremely insensitive woman, an excellent writer, and a terrible director, in terms of morale, anyway. That was my first experience of bad behavior in the theatre." However, Rufus Smith, who played the minor role of the football coach, stated, "Never again in my life will I experience what it is like to stop a show cold, by doing exactly what she taught me". The immense job of directing the play finally proved too big for de Mille, who stated "I can't do the new dances and the new songs and the new book," and Hammerstein stepped in to direct the dialogue. According to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest, at this point the cast was up in arms over de Mille's treatment of them. James Mitchell, one of the dancers in the production, later stated that de Mille was better at directing dancers than actors, as actors come to the stage with preconceived notions about how to play a part, and dancers do not.
The first tryout, in New Haven, Connecticut, did not go to plan. During the first act, William Ching, playing Joseph Taylor Sr., was singing "A Fellow Needs a Girl" when the scenery wall began to collapse, forcing him to hold it up until the stagehands noticed. Dancer Ray Harrison caught his tap in a track in the stage, tore the ligaments in his knee and was carried from the stage, screaming. Lisa Kirk, the first Emily, fell into the orchestra while singing "The Gentleman Is a Dope". She was catapulted back onto the stage with no pause in her singing, to great applause by the audience. Sondheim remembered,
The disasters of the New Haven opener concluded during "Come Home", a song near the end of the play—the quiet urgings of the chorus and Joe's mother to entice him to return to his small town. A false fire alarm went off, and the audience began to push towards the exit. Joshua Logan, who was in attendance, loudly ordered the crowd to sit down, which it did. One of the Boston tryouts that followed New Haven was marked by boisterous behavior by conventioneers, until Hammerstein yelled, "Shut up!" and the audience subsided.
Synopsis
Act 1
The play opens with Marjorie Taylor in bed, in 1905. Wife of small-town doctor Joseph Taylor, she has just had a son. The people of the town predict great things for Joseph Taylor Jr., or Joe as he will come to be called (Musical number: "Joseph Taylor, Jr."). Joe learns what a baby learns: the comforting presence of his mother, the presence of another figure, who does not smell as nice, and who always leaves as soon as he picks up his black bag. Joe is seen as a baby and then not again as a child; the audience takes his perspective. Joe's grandma notices him trying to walk, calls for Marjorie to witness the first steps, and once he takes them, as the chorus states, "the world belongs to Joe" ("One Foot, Other Foot"). Joe grows to school age, and loses his beloved Grandma. He is comforted by Jennie Brinker, a businessman's daughter. The two grow to high school age and date, though Joe lacks the nerve to kiss her, to Jennie's frustration. As Joe prepares to leave for college, Dr. Taylor hopes that his son will help him in his medical practice, and he and Marjorie wonder if Joe will marry Jennie ("A Fellow Needs a Girl").
At the freshman mixer ("Freshman Dance"), the audience finally sees Joe onstage. He marvels at his new world, in which he is a loner ("A Darn Nice Campus"). Joe serves ineffectively as a cheerleader ("The Purple and the Brown"), rooting for the Wildcats, whose star player is Joe's freshman classmate Charlie Townsend. Both are pre-medical students and soon become close friends. The friendship helps both; Joe gains entrance to Charlie's fraternity and social circles, while Charlie is allowed to copy Joe's conscientious schoolwork.
While Joe is at college, Jennie remains at home, and her wealthy father, Ned Brinker, who disapproves of Joe for spending so many years in school before earning a living, encourages her to find other boyfriends. Jennie does not bother to conceal these romances in her letters; Joe is finally fed up, and goes on a double date with Charlie and two girls. Beulah, Joe's date, is initially enthusiastic about the budding romance ("So Far") but walks away in disgust when Joe, who is unable to keep thoughts of Jennie from his mind, falls asleep after a passionate kiss. Jennie breaks up with the boy that Joe was afraid would marry her, and she is waiting for Joe when he returns home ("You Are Never Away"). Marjorie Taylor is convinced that Jennie is the wrong girl for Joe, and after a confrontation with Jennie when she tells her this, Marjorie dies of a heart attack. Despite the disapproval of both families ("What a Lovely Day for a Wedding"), Joe and Jennie marry, a wedding observed by the unhappy ghosts of Marjorie and Grandma ("Wish Them Well").
Act 2
It is the Depression. Joe makes a bare living as assistant to his father. Mr. Brinker's business has failed, and he lives with the couple, who are experiencing poverty for the first time in their lives. The poverty affects Jennie more than Joe—the new Mrs. Taylor dislikes life as an impoverished housewife ("Money Isn't Everything"). When she learns that Joe turned down a lucrative offer from a prominent Chicago physician, who is Charlie's uncle, Jennie at first rages. When she finds that is not effective, she gets him to change his mind through guilt—if he accepts Dr. Denby's offer, he can earn the money to start the small hospital of which his father dreams and they will have the money to bring up a child properly.
Joe accepts the job, and sadly leaves his father. He soon finds himself ministering to hypochondriacs; he is required to spend time at cocktail parties marked by useless conversation ("Yatata, Yatata, Yatata"). Charlie is also part of the practice, but the former football star has turned to drink. Joe himself is becoming careless due to the distractions; one mistake is caught by his nurse, Emily, who greatly admires the physician Joe could be ("The Gentleman Is a Dope"). Denby congratulates Joe on his skills, both medical and social. The elder doctor has less time for a nurse, Carrie Middleton, who has worked at his hospital for thirty years and once dated him, but who is involved in a labor protest—Denby orders her fired at the request of Lansdale, an influential trustee and soap manufacturer. Charlie, Joe and Emily comment on the frenetic pace of the Chicago world in which they live ("Allegro").
Joe has become increasingly disillusioned by his life in the city, and worries about his former patients in his home town. He learns that Jennie is having an affair with Lansdale. As Joe sits, head in hands, his late mother and a chorus of the friends he left behind appeal to him to return ("Come Home"). Joe has been offered the position of physician-in-chief at the Chicago hospital, replacing Denby, who is taking an executive position, or as the elder doctor terms it, being "kicked upstairs". At a dedication of a new pavilion at the hospital, Joe has a revelation and shifts the path of his life; as he does so, Grandma appears and calls for Marjorie to come watch, an echo of the scene in which he learned to walk. Joe refuses the position, and will return to his small town to assist his father, accompanied by Emily and Charlie, but not by Jennie (Finale: "One Foot, Other Foot" (reprise)).
Musical numbers
Act I
"Overture" – Orchestra
"Joseph Taylor, Jr." – Ensemble
"I Know It Can Happen Again" – Grandma Taylor
"Pudgy Legs" – Ensemble
"One Foot, Other Foot" – Ensemble
"Children's Dance" – Orchestra with Children
"Grandmother's Death: I Know It Can Happen Again (Reprise)" – Grandma Taylor
"Winters Go By" – Ensemble
"Poor Joe" – Ensemble
"Diploma" – Ensemble
"A Fellow Needs a Girl" – Dr. Taylor and Marjorie Taylor
"Dance: Freshmen Get Together" – Orchestra with Ensemble
"A Darn Nice Campus" – Joe Taylor
"Wildcats" – Ensemble and Joe Taylor
"Jennie Reads Letter: A Darn Nice Campus (Reprise)" – Jennie Brinker
"Scene of Professors" – Professors, Joe Taylor, Jennie Brinker, and Ensemble
"So Far" – Beulah
"You Are Never Away" – Joe Taylor and Ensemble
"You Are Never Away (Encore)" – Joe Taylor and Ensemble
"Poor Joe (Reprise)" – Ensemble
"What a Lovely Day for a Wedding" – Ensemble and Mr. Brinker
"It May Be a Good Idea for Joe" – Charlie Townsend
"Finale Act I: I Know It Can Happen Again/To Have and To Hold/Wish Them Well" – Ensemble
Act II
"Entr'acte" – Orchestra
"Money Isn't Everything" – Jennie Brinker and Other Wives
"Dance: Money Isn't Everything" – Orchestra
"Poor Joe (Reprise)" – Ensemble
"You Are Never Away (Reprise)" – Joe Taylor
"A Fellow Needs a Girl (Reprise)" – Majorie Taylor
"Ya-ta-ta" – Charlie Townsend and Ensemble
"The Gentleman Is a Dope" – Emily
"Allegro" – Charlie Townsend, Joe Taylor, Emily and Ensemble
"Allegro" Ballet – Orchestra with Ensemble
"Come Home" – Marjorie Taylor and Ensemble
"Finale Ultimo: Ya-ta-ta/Come Home/One Foot, Other Foot" – Ensemble
Production history
[[File:Allegro program.jpg|thumb|Program for Allegro'''s US tour, April 1949 (Davidson Theatre, Milwaukee)]]
Given the outstanding success of Oklahoma! and Carousel, Allegro was anticipated with close interest by the theatre community and public. The musical attracted $750,000 in advance sales, at a time when the top price ticket for a Broadway musical was $6.Allegro opened on Broadway at the Majestic Theatre on October 10, 1947. It starred John Battles as Joseph Taylor Jr., Annamary Dickey as Majorie Taylor, William Ching as Dr. Joseph Taylor, Roberta Jonay as Jennie Brinker, Lisa Kirk as Emily, and John Conte as Charlie Townsend. A special performance the afternoon of the opening for friends and associates generated wild applause; the audience at the official opening that evening clapped little. As de Mille's husband, Walter Prude, put it, Allegro went over "like a wet firecracker".
The mixed reviews prompted ongoing discussions of the play's merit, continuing well after the first night. Some of the news that the show generated had nothing to do with its worth—de Mille had dancer Francis Rainer fired, and Rainer alleged that the dismissal was due to her union activism. After Actors Equity became involved, Rainer was rehired. More bad publicity came when the producers proposed to dismiss several orchestra and chorus members to cut costs so the show might continue through the summer of 1948, and the fired performers also alleged dismissal for union involvement. The show closed July 11, 1948 after 315 performances, and in the fall, a national tour began. The national tour ran eight months, much shorter than that of Oklahoma! or Carousel. No London production was mounted. According to Thomas Hischak in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia, the show made a small profit; other sources state that the show lost money.
The show was popular in the 1950s among amateur drama societies, because of the large cast with no star and the bare stage. It has rarely been revived professionally: the St. Louis Municipal Opera presented it in 1955; Goodspeed Musicals presented it in Connecticut in 1968. An abridged version was presented Off-Off-Broadway in 1978 by Equity Library Theatre.
In March 1994 a staged concert version was presented by New York City Center Encores!, with a cast that included Stephen Bogardus (Joseph Taylor Jr.), Karen Ziemba and Jonathan Hadary. Christopher Reeve was the narrator, and the concert was directed by Susan H. Schulman. A revised version of Allegro, re-written by Joe DiPietro, who was a protege of Oscar's son James Hammerstein, was produced at the Signature Theatre (Arlington, Virginia) in January 2004. This version cut the musical in size and scale. The cast was cut with some characters being combined; the original, lavish orchestrations were simplified.
The Canadian premiere of Allegro took place in 2004, staged by the Toronto Civic Light-Opera Company. With full orchestra and a cast of 30, the production was designed and directed by Joe Cascone, and became one of the inspirations for the all-star 2009 recording. It was attended by Ted Chapin, Bruce Pomahac and Dena Hammerstein, respectively, CEO of the Rodgers & Hammerstein organization, director of music for R&H, and Hammerstein's daughter-in-law. The production was a major success, both artistically and financially for the company.
The Astoria Performing Arts Center in cooperation with Actor's Equity mounted a production from May 1–17, 2014 in Astoria, Queens, New York, Tom Wojtunik director. APAC has offices in the historic Kaufman Astoria Studios; APAC's performance space is located within the Good Shepherd United Methodist Church.
A 90-minute edited version directed by John Doyle was presented by the Classic Stage Company in New York City in November 2014.
The show received its European première in a revival that took place at the Southwark Playhouse, London UK, running from August to September 2016 to positive reviews.
Music and recordings
Musical treatment
Although Allegro is filled with music, the music is fragmented, as the characters often break into song briefly. The character of Joe was unusual for a male lead of the time in having relatively little to sing; Joe has only one solo number ("A Darn Nice Campus"). Important songs are given to minor characters, such as "So Far", given to Beulah, who only appears on the one date with Joe. Author and composer Ethan Mordden calls Rodgers's technique "the deconstruction of theatre music, to match the show's deconstruction of traditional theatre design".
Rodgers's music is more subtle than in his previous musicals, and his melodies more muted. The key changes are less dramatic than in other musicals of that time. Rodgers did not intend for the songs to become hits; instead they were designed to draw the audience into the action, as onstage events were described subjectively in song.
Recordings
An original cast recording was released in 1947, heavily abridged. According to Hischak, only Lisa Kirk as Emily shines on the recording, which he calls "sad evidences of a very ambitious undertaking". Originally issued by RCA Victor Records on five 78s, sales were poor; Victor did not reissue it on LP during the rapid transition from 78s to long-playing records in 1949–1950, when most record companies were hastily transferring their entire catalogues onto the new medium. The recording was made available briefly in simulated stereo in the 1960s, and was reissued in the 1970s in the original mono. The original cast recording was released on compact disc in 1993.
A studio recording of the complete score was made in 2008, with an all-star cast featuring Patrick Wilson as Joe, Nathan Gunn and Audra McDonald as his parents, Marni Nixon as Grandma, Laura Benanti as Jennie, Liz Callaway as Emily, Judy Kuhn as Beulah, Norbert Leo Butz as Charlie, with special appearances by Stephen Sondheim, Schuyler Chapin and, through archival audio recordings, Oscar Hammerstein. The album, produced by Sony Masterworks Broadway, was released on February 3, 2009. According to musical theatre author John Kenrick, "this all star studio cast glorifies all that is right with this melodious and sometimes adventurous score".
Vocalist Jo Stafford had a pop hit with 'The Gentleman Is a Dope' in 1947.
Frank Sinatra took 'A Fellow Needs a Girl' to Number 24 in 1947. Another song from the musical, 'So Far', was the B-Side of the 78 rpm record.
Critical reception
The musical received mixed reviews following its opening night. The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson opined that Rodgers and Hammerstein had "just missed the final splendor of a perfect work of art". Robert Coleman of the New York Daily Mirror stated that "Allegro is perfection", and added that it was "a stunning blending of beauty, integrity, intelligence, imagination, taste and skill ... it lends new stature to the American musical stage". Ward Morehouse of The Sun wrote that Allegro was "distinguished and tumultuous. It takes its place alongside of Oklahoma! and Carousel as a theatrical piece of taste, imagination, and showmanship."
However, Wolcott Gibbs of The New Yorker called the musical "a shocking disappointment". Robert Garland, in the New York Journal American suggested that Rodgers and Hammerstein "had confused allegro [which means at a fast pace] with, say, lento, which means 'slow', 'unhurried', and even downright 'serious'". Critic George Jean Nathan, in a special piece in the Journal American, decried "such hokum mush as the familiar wedding scene and the ghost of a mother who returns at intervals to keep her son from error, but a cocktail party chatterbox number paraphrased from an old Noël Coward movie, a college number dittoed from an earlier George Abbott one, and various other elements hardly rivaling the daisy in freshness". In Theatre Arts, Cecil Smith called Allegro "acceptable only as an exercise in stagecraft, not as a work of art ... Allegro fails where Our Town succeeded ... Joseph Taylor, Jr.'s life has little or nothing to tell us about our own lives." Louis Kronenberger of New York P.M. called the show "an out-and-out failure."
De Mille's direction and choreography were reviewed generally positively; Cecil Smith applauded her for the "ease and flawless design with which Miss de Mille brings mobility to these non-dancing [singing and speaking choruses] ... no previous musical has approached Allegro in consistency of movement, expertness of timing and shapeliness of visual patterns. Times dance critic John Martin stated, "Allegro has definitely made history" for de Mille's giving "form and substance to material with little of either". Dance Magazine praised her for creating "the illusion of space and depth far beyond the confines of the proscenium".
As the disagreement continued past the opening night, Wayne Abrams wrote in the Chicago Sun-Times, "Nobody is neutral about Allegro. The Hammerstein-Rodgers-de Mille musical play is either nigh unto perfection or a dismal flop. There's that much room for disagreement."
Aftermath
Hammerstein was embittered by audience and critical reaction to his book, and felt they misunderstood it. Public perception was that Hammerstein had implied that small-town folk were good while their big-city cousins were neurotic and venal. The lyricist objected, pointing out that the worst character in the musical was a small-town girl, but according to Hammerstein biographer Hugh Fordin, "he knew it was his fault that the message was not clear." In a preface to the published script, issued in 1948, Hammerstein tried again to make his point:
According to Frederick Nolan, in his book about the pair's music, "Reexamined today, Allegro's main fault seems to have been that it was ahead of its time, the integration of story and music far too advanced even for audiences now becoming accustomed to musicals which actually had stories." Sondheim noted, "Allegro was an attempt to use epic theatre in contemporary musical theatre. It used a Greek chorus, and tried to tell the story of a life, not through events but through generalities. This is now what would be called a Brechtian approach."
A decade after Allegros premiere, after learning of his terminal cancer, Hammerstein returned to the musical, hoping to correct its flaws, but he did not complete the project. While recording an oral history tape for Columbia University, Hammerstein stated, "I intended Dick to write music for it [the chorus in Allegro] but we wound up reciting the chorus instead ... I'm not blaming anyone, because we all accepted it, we all collaborated ... but it was a mistake." Rodgers later stated that the show was "too preachy, which was the one fault that Oscar had, if any," and "[n]othing to be ashamed of, certainly". Rodgers further defended the play, "The comments we made on the compromises demanded by success, as well as some of the satiric side issues—hypochondria, the empty cocktail party—still hold."
The relative failure of Allegro reinforced the team's determination to have another hit. Author James Michener recalled his meeting with the duo over the possibility of converting his book Tales of the South Pacific into a musical. "They were inwardly burning because of the reception accorded to Allegro. Those fellows were so mad I was fairly certain that they could make a great musical out of the Bronx telephone directory." That project would become South Pacific and be a tremendous hit.
Hischak ties the failure of Allegro to a change in the pair's style:
Awards and nominations
Original Broadway production
References
Bibliography
Online sources'
External links
Allegro info page on StageAgent.com – Allegro'' plot summary & character descriptions
1946 radio adaptation on Theater Guild on the Air at Internet Archive
1947 musicals
Broadway musicals
Original musicals
Musicals by Rodgers and Hammerstein |
4257798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Observatory%20%28band%29 | The Observatory (band) | The Observatory is an art rock, experimental and electronica band based in Singapore, consisting primarily of members from 1990s Singaporean bands. The band formed in 2001 and performed for the first time at the Baybeats music festival in December 2002. They have released eight albums: Time of Rebirth (2004), Blank Walls (2005), A Far Cry From Here (2007), Dark Folke (2009), Catacombs (2012), Oscilla (2014), Continuum (2015) and August is the Cruellest (2016). The band has performed in Norway, Italy, Japan, France, Germany and Singapore, and headlined regional music events in Malaysia and Thailand and Korea, such as MTV's Pattaya Music Festival, Heineken Fat Festival Bangkok, St Jerome's Laneway Festival and the Seoul Fringe Festival.
The Observatory is the subject of a crowd-funded experimental music documentary, The Obs: A Singapore Story, which premiered at the Singapore International Film Festival in December 2014 and travelled to the CINEDAYS Festival of European Film in Macedonia, DORF film festival in Croatia, Bare Bones International Music and Film Festival in the United States and more.
Discography
Albums
Time of Rebirth
Released: March 2004
Produced by The Observatory & Rennie Gomes
Mixed by The Observatory & Rennie Gomes at members' homes and at Yellow Box Studios, Singapore
The debut album, Time of Rebirth, released in March 2004, is described by the band as "a quiet, ruminating album of poignant songs underlined by delicate textures and lush instrumentation. Delivered in hush tones over layers of subtle electronic elements blended with a distinct acoustic feel." It was written and recorded over a period of two-and-a-half years.
Reviewing the demo version of Time of Rebirth on BigO, Ivan Thomasz called it "a timely way-station on the journey of life", while critic Paul Zach praised the official album as being "so achingly, subtly gorgeous, it defies categorisation". Despite not receiving any airplay from local radio stations, 800 copies of the Time of Rebirth demo were sold, with the official album being picked up by Universal Music SIngapore for distribution, selling out its first run of 2,000 copies. Nominating Time of Rebirth as the Best Album of 2004, Razali Abdullah of Today called it "a groundbreaking album so ethereally beautiful...a local band as good as [The Observatory] comes by once a millennium." Reviewing the album in The Straits Times, Yeow Kai Chai wrote that "The Observatory invoke otherworldly beauty through a blend of electric gadgetry and classic instrumentation…gradually laying bare their emotional core while taking your breath away", while Chris Ho praised Time of Rebirth for being "[t]ender and beautiful in its intimacy".
Time of Rebirth features non-standard packaging designed by Kinetic. Rather than coming in a jewel case, it was released in the form of a diary, complete with paper-clipped photographs and torn pages. The band all had a hand in assembling the packaging. A music video for "Killing Time", directed by Royston Tan, was also released.
Blank Walls
Released: September 2005
Produced by The Observatory & Jorgen Traeen
Mixed by Jorgen Traeen at Duper Studio (Bergen, Norway)
Their second album, Blank Walls, elaborates on the band’s philosophy of perpetual change, and is described by the band as "deliberately loose, eschewing particular themes and genres while embracing unconventional structures, progressive sounds and improvisatory forms, continuing an experimentation with song form, delving into greater depths of musical and lyrical tension, creating a diverse, experimental palette of words, sonic layering, and musical contrasts. The subject matter signals a mood-shift towards a more palpable intensity, exploring various themes from anger to disenchantment, from the quaint and humorous to self-mockery or plain indignation."
Today gave Blank Walls 4/5, praising The Observatory for "upp[ing] the ante by bringing in new drummer Adam Shah – who gives the band an unexpected edge – and crafting a beautiful opus that is hauntingly powerful." Complimenting The Observatory on how "the[ir] audacity can be heard in the way sounds are spliced, unwound and transplanted without warning", Yeow Kai Chai of The Straits Times wrote, "No other Singapore band, past or present, has captured the imagination quite like The Observatory. In two brief years, this experimental space-rock combo has risen from nowhere to become a premier act which everybody talks about with a kind of reverential hush."
Featuring art by Andy Yang, Blank Walls was launched on 2 September 2005 at a sold-out, lauded concert at the Recital Studio of Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay. A music video for "Olives", directed by Patrick Ong and fFurious, was also released.
A Far Cry From Here
Released: April 2007
Produced by Jørgen Træen and The Observatory
Mixed & mastered by Jørgen Træen at Duper Studio (Bergen, Norway)
Recorded by Jørgen Træen at Boss Studio (Singapore) with Philip Wong
Following on from Time of Rebirth and Blank Walls, this was The Observatory's third album in four years. The band was influenced by Soft Machine, This Heat, Tortoise, Talk Talk, Supersilent, Brian Wilson, Robert Wyatt, Nick Drake and Jaga Jazzist, whom The Observatory opened up for at the Mosaic Music Festival in 2007, amongst others. The album was described by the band as "a rich and imaginative musical vision, on which vocalist-guitarist Leslie Low builds his pensive, tender yet elliptical song-craft. The adventurous and epic exist in perfect tandem with restraint and intricacy. Exploring an ocean of sound and emotion, A Far Cry From Here should strike a chord with fans of experimental and progressive-minded classics such as Radiohead's OK Computer, Talk Talk's Spirit of Eden and Wilco's A Ghost Is Born." Unlike the process on Time of Rebirth and Blank Walls, where the band built on frontman Leslie Low's arrangements, each band member contributed ideas for songs on A Far Cry From Here.
Reviewing the album for the Singapore edition of Time Out, Chris Toh wrote that A Far Cry From Here "delves even deeper into experimental melodies and rhythms than the band's previous critically acclaimed albums". The Today review noted how A Far Cry From Here "revels in a sense of unease and is the most obvious sign yet of the band's move away from its past 'ambient candy' sound". Yeow Kai Chai of The Straits Times praised The Observatory for "delving deep and venturing into the unknown...This sense of unease, a constant calibration between heaviness and lightness, informs the way the music switches between jazzy delicacy and far-out phases of post-rock noiseniks. It's both the beauty and the beast... it's a ghostly, raw, sometimes intense soundscape with minimal overdubs to frighten off lazy lounge cats."
As with previous releases, the band chose a non-standard packaging instead of the conventional jewel case. The outer package is a small box with flap, containing a foldout multipanel slipcover with information, and a CD holder in the last section. A Far Cry From Here was launched on 14 April 2007 at Zouk.
Dark Folke
Released: July 2009
Produced by Jørgen Træen and The Observatory
Recorded, Mixed & mastered by Jørgen Træen at Duper Studio (Bergen, Norway)
The fourth album was again recorded and mixed in Bergen, Norway with their longtime collaborator, Jorgen Traeen. The band describes the work as "a change in musical direction" and said "the math prog rock of The Observatory's third album A Far Cry From Here has morphed into a fluid mystical beast called Dark Folke. Most songs have no drums on them. But there is rhythm. Only the type of rhythm associated with an invisible pulse. An implied rhythm. 5 folks sitting around a fire. A metaphorical fire. Chanting for the rain to come."
"Moving away from the melodious constraints of song," Ang Song Ming writes in his review, "Dark Folke veers towards ambience – an almost asphyxiating kind", calling it the band's Kid A. Noah Berlatsky remarked in Metro Pulse on the album's combination of freak folk, drony psychedelia and near-metal. Christopher Lim of The Business Times called Dark Folke "A rich sonic feast.. a diving pool that begs to have its depths plumbed", while Christopher Toh of Today awarded the album 4 out of 5, writing that "Album No 4 for The Observatory is a great excursion into what making music in Scandinavia in the wintertime sounds like...the album is wonderfully hypnotic."
The CD album is a hardbound book, designed and drawn by metal/hardcore/underground illustrator and designer, Justin Bartlett, the artist behind the art of Sunn O))), Moss, Aura Noir and more. Dark Folke was also released on double vinyl. A music video for "Mind Roots", directed by Ler Jiyuan, was also released.
In the lead-up to the release of Dark Folke, The Observatory collaborated with filmmaker Ho Tzu Nyen and theatre director Kok Heng Leun on Invisible Room, a multimedia work for the Singapore Arts Festival featuring the band performing in an 'inverted' music space. "Invisible Room" is also the title of a Dark Folke song.
Catacombs
Released: April 2012
Produced by Jørgen Træen and The Observatory
Recorded and Mixed by Jorgen Traeen
Mastered by James Plotkin
Design by Keith Utech
Art by Thomas Hooper
Offset, Letterpress Printing and Bindery by Stumptown Printers
The Observatory's fifth album, Catacombs, is described by the band as containing "a more primal, new dark wave sound...[a] study in delusion, insanity and obsession [that] provokes and inspires in a deeply enigmatic way. Even at its coldest and most abstract, it is human to the core."
Writing that "The Observatory have outdone themselves this time", X' Ho reviewed Catacombs by declaring, "Someday in the future, some pop historian is gonna look back and say – Catacombs marks the beginning of a new horizon in local music for the sheer fact that waywardness in Singapore's ultra-leftfield, alternative-rock has been deemed fetching and unanimously praised with this album." Critic Kevin Mathews praised Catacombs by calling it "an uncompromising honest work of art that expresses the deepest feelings and emotions of the artist and lays them bare for its audience to dissect, absorb and devour." my Paper described Catacombs as "dark, visceral and multi-faceted", promising that it will "get under your skin – and stay there." Yeow Kai Chai of The Straits Times awarded the album four out of five stars, comparing it to late Scott Walker and noting lyricist Leslie Low's references to Dutch occultist Johann Weyer and French philosopher Michel Foucault, writing that "the band have moved out of the mainstream into the furthest frontiers of the universe." Alia Azmi of Juice magazine noted that the album "explores a deeper, heavier sound than their previous works". In 2017, music website Bandwagon ranked Catacombs as the best The Observatory album, writing that "it stands as the band’s crowning achievement in framing primal emotions within intricate instrumentation...an incredible singular statement of artful intention and uninhibited honesty".
Featuring design by Keith Utech and art by Thomas Hooper, Catacombs was released on deluxe CD, digital and double vinyl. Catacombs was launched on 20 and 21 April 2012 at The Substation Theatre. Enter the Catacomb, a series of live sessions featuring the band performing Catacombs in its entirety in the studio, was also released.
Oscilla
Released: August 2014
Music composed and performed by The Observatory
Cheryl Ong - Drums, Percussion; Dharma - Guitar; Leslie Low - Guitar, Vocal; Vivian Wang - Synth Bass, Keys, Percussion; Yuen Chee Wai - Electronics, Synth
Lyrics by Leslie Low
Produced by The Observatory
Recorded live at The Black Axis, Singapore, May 2014
Engineered by Johnny Sarcophagus
Mixed by Leslie Low
Mastered by James Plotkin
Concept & direction by The Observatory
Photos from "On the blue shores of silence" by Philipp Aldrup
Typography, layout and additional photography by Yuen Chee Wai
The Observatory's sixth album, Oscilla, is described by the band as "the imagined swing of our imperfect times", featuring "vibrations of shifting rhythms, synth bass space, oscillators and abused guitars". The four songs on Oscilla were developed on a tour with Norwegian noise band MoE in Norway in 2012 and Italy in 2013, then tested on the road during a Southeast Asian tour in October and November 2013, culminating in a divisive performance at St. Jerome's Laneway Festival in Singapore. The lyrics deal with political tumult and according to the band's lyricist Leslie Low, reflect "[c]ommon people like us making a stand. Living off the grid in some way or another, (offering) criticism of existing paradigms, alternatives, the view from the ground up". The title track makes reference to Zomia, historian Willem van Schendel and James C. Scott's term for the huge mass of mainland Southeast Asia that has historically been beyond the control of governments based in the population centres of the lowlands.
Reviewing the album in Today, Kevin Mathews writes, "Oscilla is cutting-edge art that one can conceivably rock out to, which is no mean feat", awarding it full marks. Yeow Kai Chai gave the album four out of five stars, writing in The Straits Times that Oscilla "scans the deplorable state of the world, questions war and strife, and assesses the value of life. To that end, its restless, angular riffs cut and draw blood." Daniel Peters of Bandwagon observed the "politically-charged" dimension of Oscilla, writing that the "elongated hypnotic rhythms akin to krautrock and a harsh post-punk intensity...establishes Oscilla as one of the most confrontational records we've heard all year."
Featuring photographs by Philipp Aldrup, Oscilla was released on CD, digital, vinyl and cassette. Oscilla was launched on 16 and 17 August 2014 at The Substation Theatre, featuring appearances by Hanging Up the Moon's Sean Lam, Dean Aziz and former member Victor Low on back-up vocals.
Continuum
Released: 15 July 2015
Performed by Dharma - guitar, bass; Bani Haykal - guitar, reyong, cengceng; Vivian Wang - synth, voice; Leslie Low - Acoustic guitar, bass, drums, voice, pemade, jegogan, reyong
Concept & direction by The Observatory
Recorded & mixed by Leslie Low
Mastered by James Plotkin
Illustration by Massimiliano Amati (Redellearinghe)
Album design by Yuen Chee Wai
Four years in the making, The Observatory's seventh album, Continuum, is their take on Indonesia's gamelan music tradition. Partially written and recorded in Lodtunduh, Bali, Continuum found The Observatory devising their own six-note scale of E, F, F#, A#, C and D#. Inspired in part by Talk Talk and Jiddu Krishnamurti, Continuum had the noise musician Lasse Marhaug contributing a remix, "Part 6", to its release. Released on double vinyl, CD and digitally, Continuum was launched at The Substation on 23 July 2015 at a launch concert with an ensemble of 10 musicians, with The Straits Times finding "the East-meets-West soundscape...hypnotic in the way it tightly enveloped the audience" at the "seamless art-rock concert[s]". Continuum was partially funded by the National Arts Council's Arts Creation Fund.
The Straits Times found Continuum a "sonically stellar mix" and "tenebrous but at the same time, musically cutting-edge and far-out", giving it four out of five stars. Time Out Singapore ranked Continuum amongst the best albums of 2015, noting that while the album is "not their best release by a long shot... this EP of gamelan music spiked with noise and doom rock deserves mad props for its bravery". Bandwagon ranked it #7 on its list of Top 10 Singapore LPs of 2015.
In February 2016, the band performed Continuum at the Performing Arts Meeting in Yokohama, Japan, directed by Aki Onda as part of a programme curated by Tang Fu Kuen. The one-night performance was supported by the National Arts Council.
August is the Cruellest
Released: 29 February 2016
Music composed, performed and arranged by The Observatory
Additional instrumentation on "The Weight of It All" features Natalie Alexandra Tse on guzheng and Andy Chia on dizi
Recorded and mixed by Leslie Low
Recorded at Solslottet Studios, Bergen, Norway except "August is the Cruellest" and "Brutal Blues", recorded at Black Axis & The Well, Singapore
Mastered by James Plotkin
Photographs by Bjorn Vaughn
Album design by Yuen Chee Wai
Recorded in Singapore and Norway during the height of the 2015 Southeast Asian haze crisis, August is the Cruellest, inspired by King Crimson, Soft Machine, Zircon Lounge and others, is described by the band as "a work of political noise, a punishing challenge to look inward and move forward." The title track, inspired by T. S. Eliot's poem "The Waste Land", was previously performed live at theatre company Drama Box's Singapore International Festival of Arts 2015 production, The Cemetery. Writer Ng Yi-Sheng described the song as "growling rock, loud as bulldozers", another critic called it "a searing rock track... raw and loud, melancholic and frustrated, and ends with high-pitched feedback", while TODAYs Mayo Martin noted that "the music evokes anger, frustration, despair and destruction — but perhaps also the slightest trace of hope".
Reviewing the album on Bandwagon, three critics called this "proper follow-up to Oscilla" "challenging and disconcerting", "sinister, raw and explosive", and praised how the production, especially the drums, "sounds great". "Designed to grip you and shock you out of apathy and just make you think––that's the sense of hope," they noted, singling out "Everything is Vibration" and "The Weight of It All" as highlights of "their strongest album yet", giving it ratings of 8/10, 7/10 and 8.5/10. In a review of their album launch gig, Bandwagon also noted that the album "doesn't just see them at their most sonically intrusive — they're pissed off." Time Out Singapore'''s editor Iliyas Ong called August is the Cruellest a "seething, fire-breathing monster", declaring this "soundtrack for our times" "The Observatory's – and possibly the local scene's – tightest and most mature effort to date". Interviewing the band in TODAY, Kevin Mathews called August is the Cruellest a "multi-layered work", while he declared it "their most accessible of their recent releases" and "progressive rock with a conscience" that "succeeds at every level" on his blog.The Straits Times music correspondent Eddino Abdul Hadi gave the album 4/5, noting how it is "full of heartfelt anthems" and features "some of their most visceral and strident anthems to date". Eddino highlighted the songs "You Have No Heart" and "Wait For The Real Storm" as stand-outs, comparing "Low's layered harmonies" on the former to his Humpback Oak tunes. Jun Sheng Ng of Juice magazine described August is the Cruellest as an "immediate counterpoint to the prevailing spirit and sentiment widespread through the city" soon after Singapore's golden jubilee celebrations, noting that it "paints a landscape of desolation [and] the infertile and impotent wasteland we are mired in". Observing that the songs "Everything is Vibration" and "The Weight of It All" reflect the "group’s effort to return to or construct a Southeast Asian or Singaporean sound", with their quotes from Yan Jun’s poetry and use of traditional Chinese instruments like the guzheng and dizi, Ng criticised how "they are unavoidably dwarfed by the already heavy weight and influence of Eliot’s". Honeycombers praised August is the Cruellest as an "audial commentary on the looming, cataclysmic destruction of the earth" and a "revolutionary record [that] challenges a negative status quo that many have refused to acknowledge".
Released on CD, cassette, double vinyl and digitally, August is the Cruellest was launched at the band's acclaimed The Substation gigs on 18 and 19 March 2016, with special guests Dharma and SA Trio and featuring covers of The Cure and Talking Heads. On 9 March 2016, a black-and-white music video for album closer "The Weight of It All" was released.
Compilations
City Sharks: Music From the Motion Picture
Released: 2003
Executive Producers: Esan Sivalingam and Bratina Tay
Music Supervisors: Vivian Wang and Esan Sivalingam
An early incarnation of The Observatory contribute two songs, "Sweetest Man" and "Coffee Break (Intermission)", to the soundtrack of this film, written and directed by Esan Sivalingam.
For Good!
Released: 2006
Mastered by Reece Tunbridge at Studios 301, Sydney, Australia
Rennie Gomes' remix of "This Sad Song" from The Observatory's debut album, Time of Rebirth, was included on this charity release. Proceeds from this Aging Youth Records release went to Music For Good, a non-profit organisation involved in outreach programs to youths.
+65 Indie Underground
Released: 2009
The Observatory's "This Sad Song" from their debut album, Time of Rebirth, was collected in this three-CD compilation of Singapore indie rock, alongside tracks by Humpback Oak, The Oddfellows and Zircon Lounge.
Peter Kruder Private Collection
Released: 2009
The Observatory's "Waste Your Life" from their debut album, Time of Rebirth, was handpicked by Peter Kruder of electronic duo Kruder & Dorfmeister for G-Stone Master Series №1: Peter Kruder Private Collection. Other acts on the compilation include Talk Talk, Tortoise, whom The Observatory opened up for at the Mosaic Music Festival in 2005, and Tom Waits.
Anatomicron
Released: Sep 2012
A collection of unreleased and live material, demos, covers and rarities, Anatomicron’s 13 tracks, including a Nick Drake cover, trace The Observatory's evolution through constantly changing trajectories and terrains. Anatomicron was released in support of the crowd-funded, experimental music documentary, The Obs: A Singapore Story.
Behind These Eyes: The Catacombs Remixes
Released: Apr 2014
Jointly released by The Observatory and Ujikaji
Featuring 11 interpretations of Catacombs songs by artists from Singapore, China, Norway, Thailand/Japan, and the US, including James Plotkin, Lasse Marhaug and Xhin. Interviewed about Behind These Eyes: The Catacombs Remixes, singer Low called the album "Eleven musical visions-lessons-perspectives. The interpretations elaborate on Catacombs' theme of madness and reach sonic territories we could never achieve on our own."
The album was reviewed positively on Midnight Shift Records' blog: "As these artists take The Observatory’s songs further into a digital register, what seemed like a highly personal album dilates into something like a genre unto itself." Reviewing the album in The Straits Times, Yeow Kai Chai wrote that Behind These Eyes: The Catacombs Remixes "meddles with the songs to spectacular effect...Overall, it's a rabbit hole to somewhere riskier and more exciting", while Bandwagon called it "stunning".
Featuring art by Mark Wong, Behind These Eyes: The Catacombs Remixes was released on double vinyl. The album was launched on 25 April 2014 at Artistry, featuring performances and DJ sets by Kiat, Xhin, George Chua and former member Evan Tan.
Split Albums and Collaborations
Gezeitentümpel | Tidal Pools
Released: 2013
An hour-long improvisational soundtrack to photographer Philipp Aldup's 2013 exhibition, Gezeitentümpel, released as a seven-track CD-R.
i.i.i. / Mankind
Released: June 2013
Mixing by Leslie Low and Håvard Skaset
Mastering by James Plotkin
Design and album art by Lasse Marhaug
This split vinyl single with Norway's MoE features Balinese gamelan-inspired bronze instruments the band built on their song, "Mankind". Other instruments on the track include a pair of jegogan and pemade, one cengceng, and a reyong set with acoustic guitar, electric guitar, bass, drums and vocals. "Mankind" was later released on Continuum.
Shadows
Released: 1 July 2018
Produced by The Observatory and MoE
Co-produced by Lasse Marhaug
Mixed and mastered by Lasse Marhaug
Art direction and layout by Yuen Chee Wai
Recorded in Singapore and Norway, Shadows is a three-track collaborative album with MoE, in which both bands experiment with heavy noise rock, gamelan, and konnakol. The nearly 20-minute album alludes to the need for self-examination, wayang kulit, instincts and illusions.
Trails to the Cosmic Vibrations
Released: 22 November 2018
Mixed by Kawabata Makoto and Leslie Low
Mastering by James Plotkin
Artwork by Takahiro Kurashima
Art direction and layout by Yuen Chee Wai
A split vinyl single with Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. Acid Mothers Temple's 20-minute contribution, "Flatwoods Monster A Go Go ~ Cometary Orbital Drive 00∞00", is a Hawkwind tribute that was performed on their 2017 and 2018 tour. "Vibrational" by The Observatory was recorded at their concert at the National University of Singapore (NUS) Arts Festival 2017, featuring an orchestra of 30 guitarists from the NUS Guitar Ensemble and the university. Trails to the Cosmic Vibrations was launched with Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O.'s concert in Singapore on 22 November 2018.
Authority is Alive
Released: 30 September 2020
Mixed and mastered by Lasse Marhaug
Cover photography by Darren Soh
Art direction by Yuen Chee Wai
A live collaboration with the legendary Japanese avant garde musician Haino Keiji, recorded live at "The Transparency of Turbulence" Playfreely Festival, 29 November 2019, at 72-13 (Singapore). In a four-star review, NME writer Azzief Khaliq says, "Over the album’s 22 minutes, The Observatory and Keiji Haino create improvised music that showcases what talented musicians can achieve in such a setting. It’s an example of steely-eyed energy and musical alchemy, four musicians pushing each other forward and taking everything that comes out of it in their stride. The results are intoxicating, gripping, and more than a bit exhilarating."
Members
Dharma – Electric Guitar
Dharma been involved in the Singapore underground music scene since the early 1990s as a bassist and sometimes guitarist with Manic Mushroom, a guitarist with the band Heritage from 1995–1998, frontman of the local funk band, Throb, and member of Meddle, Chöd, and Tenggara Trio.
Yuen Chee Wai – Guitar, Synth, Electronics
Yuen Chee Wai has been active in the local and international experimental and improv circuit for the past two decades. He is also a part of the Far East Network (FEN) – a quartet comprising Otomo Yoshihide (Japan), Yan Jun (China) and Ryu Hankil (South Korea) since 2008. In 2015, he was appointed as Director of the Asian Music Network in Japan, which organises the annual Asian Meeting Festival, of which he is co-curator.
Cheryl Ong – Drums, Percussion, Electronics
Cheryl Ong is a Singaporean percussionist who is active in music performance and education. In addition to performing with The Observatory, she has also played with SA, a trio that fuses traditional Chinese instruments and electronics.
Past members
Leslie Low – Lead Vocals, Electric + Acoustic Guitars, Programming, Bass, Harmonica, Percussion
Former frontman of veteran local band Humpback Oak, Low was the singer, guitarist and occasional bassist in the band. He is a music composer and sound designer by profession. Low graduated from the School of Film and Media Studies at Ngee Ann Polytechnic with a Diploma in Film, Sound and Video. He has also been involved in several side projects. As PAN GU, Low's collaboration with Lasse Marhaug (electronics), Primeval Man Born of the Cosmic Egg, made it to SPIN's Top 20 Avant albums of 2013. He left The Observatory after the band released their eighth album, August is the cruellest, in 2016. He has since released multiple, mostly solo albums digitally through Bandcamp.
Vivian Wang – Vocals, Piano, keyboards, Melodica, Percussion
A classically trained pianist, Vivian Wang sang, played keyboards and generated sonic effects on laptops and synthesizer in The Observatory. Wang is a former TV presenter of the arts programme "Artitude" on local channel TV12 and also a host of Cathay Pacific's inflight series "World of Travel". A music supervisor and film producer by profession, Wang graduated with an Honours in Music. Wang is active in ARCN TEMPL, a duo with Low. Their debut Emanations of a New World (May 2010) and a web-only commemorative release Glass Blood (May 2014), were both released by American label Utech Records. Wang left the band after the release of August is the cruellest and has since worked on projects including Jenny Hval's The Practice of Love album.
Bani Haykal – Drums, Percussion, Clarinet
Born in 1985, Bani Haykal is a multidisciplinary artist whose work spans the fields of visual and literary performances, using music and sound as primary mediums. A critically reflective artist and thinker, Bani's work examines the perceptions, relevance and culture of sound and music. In 2013, Bani was awarded the Young Artist Award by Singapore's National Arts Council. Bani joined the band after the release of Catacombs and left before Oscilla, but contributed to Continuum.
Victor Low – Electric Guitar, Classical Guitar, Bass Guitar, Glockenspiel, Percussion
Victor Low is a music composer by profession, Low is an Economics graduate of Boston University. He is the former bassist of veteran local Singapore band Concave Scream. A classical guitar specialist, Low also performed on drums after Ray Aziz left the band. Low left the band after the release of Catacombs. In 2015, he recorded an instrumental album Songs of the Well inspired by his daughter's piano lessons. In 2019, Victor and former bandmate Leslie Low released The Monsoon.
Evan Tan – Programming, Keyboards, Melodica, Percussion
One-time archivist specialising in audio-visual restoration at the National Archives of Singapore. Tan toured overseas with former band The Padres during their album promotion organised by Rock Records. An active performer/programmer in the digital music scene, he released a solo album Coast to Coast previously. Tan left the band after the release of Dark Folke.
Ray Aziz – Drums, Percussion
Veteran drummer in Singapore, his former bands include Swirling Madness, Opposition Party, Sugarflies and Popland. He was concurrently also playing with Throb and The Blues Machine. Joining The Observatory during the A Far Cry From Here recording sessions, Ray contributed jazz/avant rock-styled drumming. He did not appear on Dark Folke and has since left the band. However, in 2011 he played drums for the band in a special performance commissioned by the Singapore Arts Festival to play a concert pull of reworkings of the Beatles' White Album.
Adam Shah – drums, percussion
Formerly the youngest member of the group. A sessionist since 15, Adam is musically adept at guitar and bass as well. He joined in January 2005 at 17 years of age, after successfully auditioning for the position, bringing with him a style that reflects his eclectic influences such as Bloc Party, Radiohead, Broken Social Scene, Lamb of God, Mastodon, John Coltrane, John Butler, The Mars Volta and Pat Metheny, to name a few. Adam left the band after the release of Blank Walls and before A Far Cry From Here.
References
External links
The Observatory website
The Observatory blog
The Observatory on Vimeo
POSKOD.SG Interview with frontman Leslie Low
Leslie Low website
NYLON SINGAPORE Video Interview with The Observatory
Razor TV Video Interview with The Observatory
Note: Some material for this article adapted from The Observatory Press pack(zip file)'', accessed 3 March 2006
Singaporean indie rock groups
Singaporean rock music groups
Electronic music groups
Musical groups established in 2001
Musical quintets |
4258255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jade%20Ribbon%20Campaign | Jade Ribbon Campaign | The Jade Ribbon Campaign (JRC) also known as JoinJade, was launched by the Asian Liver Center (ALC) at Stanford University in May 2001 during Asian Pacific American Heritage Month to help spread awareness internationally about hepatitis B (HBV) and
liver cancer in Asian and Pacific Islander (API) communities.
The objective of the Jade Ribbon Campaign is twofold: (1) to eradicate HBV worldwide; and (2) to reduce the incidence and mortality associated with liver cancer.
Considered to be the essence of heaven and earth, Jade is believed in many Asian cultures to bring good luck and longevity while deflecting negativity. Folded like the Chinese character "人" (ren) meaning "person" or "people", the Jade Ribbon symbolizes the spirit of the campaign in bringing the Asian and global community together to combat this silent epidemic.
Outreach efforts
Since the campaign's founding, the Asian Liver Center (ALC) has been spearheading the Jade Ribbon Campaign through public service announcements in various media such as newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, billboard, and buses targeting communities with large API populations. The ALC also holds numerous seminars for health professionals and the public, cultural fairs, conferences, and HBV screening/vaccination events.
3 For Life
One of the ALC's largest achievements was the founding of 3 for Life in September 2004, a pilot program in collaboration with the San Francisco Department of Public Health that provided low-cost hepatitis A and B vaccinations and free hepatitis B testing to the San Francisco community every first and third Saturday of the month for a year. The program tested and vaccinated over 1,200 people—50% of which were found to be unprotected against HBV and 10% to be positive for HBV. Upon the completion of 3 for Life in September 2005, the ALC currently is working on plans to launch a similar screening/vaccination program to service the large API population in Los Angeles.
LIVERight
The Answer to Cancer (A2C) run was founded by Adrian Elkins, a 20-year-old student at Southern Oregon University who was diagnosed with liver cancer in 2002. Had he known during his childhood that his ethnicity and chronic hepatitis B infection increased his chance of developing liver cancer by 100%, he would have been regularly monitored for liver damage. He had no idea that hepatitis B – a disease he contracted at birth in Calcutta, India – causes 80% of the world's liver cancer cases. Adrian battled his disease for ten months, working tirelessly to organize an event to raise money for liver cancer research. Adrian saw the first-ever A2C run take place on August 8, 2003. Thanks to the generous support of friends, families and numerous companies, the 2003 Answer to Cancer Race was able to raise more than $20,000 for three charities and reach out to more than 240 participants. Adrian died only eight days after this first race.
Adrian Elkins inspired the Asian Liver Center to start LIVERight on the go!, a 5K Run/Walk to raise awareness about hepatitis B and liver cancer in the Asian Pacific Islander community.
On April 30, 2005 in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the Asian Liver Center and the Answer to Cancer Foundation hosted LIVERight, the first 5K run/walk to raise awareness about hepatitis B and liver cancer.
On November 11, 2006, the 2nd annual LIVERight was held at Stanford's Sand Hill Fields. The community event had 700 registered participants, 100 volunteers, and raised over $135,000.
The 3rd Annual LIVERight 5k Run/Walk took place on May 10, 2008. It had over 600 registered runners and raised over $100,000 to fight hepatitis B and liver cancer.
The 4th Annual LIVERight 5k Run/Walk was held on Saturday, May 2, 2009 at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco, California. The over 400 runners raised over $100,000 to fight liver cancer and hepatitis B.
The goal of LIVERight was not only to raise money to support ALC's outreach efforts, but more importantly to educate and increase awareness of this pressing public health issue. Educational displays, informational booths and course signs were unique and significant components to the event. The education allowed participants to learn more about hepatitis B prevention and treatment, as well as hear the real stories about the lives lost and won to liver cancer.
Jade Ribbon Campaign reusable bag
99 Ranch Market and the Asian Liver Center at Stanford University joined together to create the Jade Ribbon reusable shopping bag—an environmentally-friendly way to raise awareness about an urgent health concern for Asians. The eco-friendly reusable shopping bag, along with educational materials on hepatitis B, was made available from July 24 to August 31 in 2009 with every donation of two dollars or more to the Jade Ribbon Campaign to support hepatitis B education and outreach.
Team HBV collegiate chapters
Team HBV is the official chapter of the Asian Liver Center at Stanford University and is currently the only student-run, non-profit, collegiate organization in the United States that addresses the high incidence of hepatitis B and liver cancer in the Asian and Pacific Islander community.
The mission of Team HBV is to advance the goals of the ALC at college campuses across the United States to help fight hepatitis B and liver cancer worldwide.
Adopted by the Asian Liver Center in Fall 2006, the first official Team HBV chapters were founded in Cornell, Duke, and University of California, Berkeley. There are now Team HBV Collegiate Chapters at Duke, Cornell, UC Berkeley, Stanford, Brown, UC Davis, Harvard, Wesleyan, the University of Pennsylvania, Rice, Wesleyan, and UC San Diego, and international chapters at Jiaotong University in China, Central University for Nationalities, Tsinghua University, and Minzu University of China.
The Inaugural Team HBV Collegiate Conference, organized by the Asian Liver Center, brings together individuals representing Team HBV chapters worldwide, Jade Ribbon Campaign advocates, and hepatitis B and liver cancer experts. The conference provides a professional forum for Team HBV chapters to share insights, best practices, and strategies to advance hepatitis B outreach, education, and communication. The first Team HBV Collegiate Conference took place November 2009 at Stanford University.
San Francisco Hep B Free
San Francisco Hep B Free is a citywide campaign to turn San Francisco into the first hepatitis B free city in the nation. This unprecedented 2-year-long campaign beginning April 2007 will screen, vaccinate and treat all San Francisco Asian and Pacific Islander (API) residents of hepatitis B (HBV) by providing convenient, free or low-cost testing opportunities at partnering health facilities and events.
The SF Hep B Free campaign puts San Francisco at the forefront of America in fighting chronic hepatitis. It will be the largest, most intensive healthcare campaign for Asian and Pacific Islanders in the US This initiative has received national attention and is being looked to as a model by the California legislature. Mayor Gavin Newsom, Assemblywoman Fiona Ma and Supervisor Ed Jew are leading the effort with more than 50 healthcare and Asian Pacific Islander organizations. The SF Board of Supervisors and SF Health Commission have passed unanimous resolutions supporting SF Hep B Free.
Cal Hep B Free
Cal Hep B Free is a student-led, not-for-profit health promotion pilot program launched on September 15, 2008 at the University of California, Berkeley. Supported by numerous student organizations on campus and endorsed by Vice Chancellor of Student Affairs Harry Le Grande, City of Berkeley Public Health Division, and California Assemblywoman Fiona Ma, the major student-initiated campaign effort brings together university students, faculty, and administration at UC Berkeley in an effort to screen, vaccinate, and treat high-risk ethnic groups, particularly individuals of Asian and Pacific Islander (API), Middle Eastern, Eastern European, Russian, and African descent for hepatitis B (HBV). The Cal Hep B Free campaign will allow UC Berkeley to join San Francisco Hep B Free, the largest healthcare campaign in the US to target APIs in the US, at the forefront of America in fighting chronic hepatitis B.
The slogan for Cal Hep B Free is: B SMART, B TESTED, B FREE! and outlines the specific objectives of the campaign:
B SMART: Dispel misconceptions and create campus awareness about the health risks of HBV and the importance of screening for HBV.
B TESTED: Promote routine hepatitis B screenings and assist and direct students, faculty, and staff to campus and other local sites where they may obtain free or low-cost screenings.
B FREE: Design and implement a unique, coalition-partnership model that involves campus and local entities to maximize awareness and sustainability. Knowledge is power and can prevent what you don't know from killing you!
Erik's DeliCafe Partnership
JoinJade campaign at Stanford University partnered with three Erik’s DeliCafe locations to promote hepatitis B and liver health awareness in Santa Clara County, where an estimated 31,273 people are living with chronic hepatitis B. The collaboration aimed to promote testing, as diagnosis and regular monitoring significantly reduce a chronic carrier’s chance of developing liver cancer.
Franchise owners Mayank and Ambika Agrawal distributed awareness inserts to 5,000 customers between July 15-July 28, 2019, in recognition of World Hepatitis Day. The owners also helped sponsor scholarships for students to attend the Annual Youth Leadership Conference on Asian and Pacific Islander Health.
International efforts
Qinghai Project
Home to a large population of ethnic minorities of low socioeconomic status, the Qinghai province is a remote, often neglected, rural region of China with a high prevalence of chronic hepatitis B. Since many children 5 years of age and older in Qinghai were not vaccinated against the hepatitis B virus at birth, a private-public partnership was formed between the Ping and Amy Chao Foundation, the ZeShan Foundation, the Asian Liver Center at Stanford University, the China Center for Disease Control and Prevention, the Chinese Foundation for Hepatitis Prevention and Control, and the Qinghai government. Using the existing provincial China CDC structure, this private-public partnership in Qinghai resulted in a unique two-part school-based immunization program to educate and provide free Hep B vaccination for all children in kindergarten and grade school within the region.
Between 2006 and 2008, this program demonstrated the feasibility and successful implementation of:
A province-wide catch-up vaccination program that reached 600,000 children in 2,200 schools, and
A hepatitis B education program incorporated into the school curriculum.
Impact: The success of this large scale province-wide demonstration program led the Chinese government to announce the adoption of a new policy beginning in 2009 to provide free catch-up hepatitis B vaccination for all children in China under the age of 15 who have not been vaccinated.
Prevalence and risks for Asians and Pacific Islanders
While 0.3% of the United States population has chronic hepatitis B infection, APIs make up more than half of the 1.3-1.5 million known hepatitis B carriers. Depending on the country of origin, 5-15% of foreign born APIs in the US are hepatitis B carriers. In some Pacific Rim countries, as many as 10-20% of the population are hepatitis B carriers.
Despite the availability of the hepatitis B vaccine, vaccination rates outside the US are low and hepatitis B remains a global health problem. Therefore, many children worldwide remain unvaccinated and many adults may be chronic carriers. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that there are 350-400 million people with chronic hepatitis B and many are not even aware of their condition. Although most hepatitis B carriers have no symptoms, they can still transmit the infection and develop liver cancer.
Reasons for lack of diagnosis
The danger of hepatitis B lies in its silent transmission and progression. Many chronic hepatitis B carriers are asymptomatic (have no symptoms) and feel perfectly healthy. Chronically infected individuals may exhibit normal blood tests for liver function and be granted a clean bill of health. The diagnosis cannot be made without a specific blood test for the presence of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), a marker for chronic infection. Since the detection of hepatitis B is so easily missed, even by doctors, it is also up to the patient to specifically request the HBsAg test. Early detection not only benefits the person tested, but prevents infection from being passed silently from one child to another, and from one generation to another.
In addition, misconceptions about the endemic nature of hepatitis B in the API population and the efficacy of US vaccination programs has led many individuals and health-care providers to overlook the need for testing for APIs.
Transmission
Most APIs are infected by HBV at birth by their carrier mothers (perinatal infection). Individuals who are infected at birth can develop liver cancer at age 35 or earlier. Also, individuals infected at birth will carry the virus for life, regardless of future vaccination. Transmission is also common during early childhood through direct contact with blood of infected individuals, occurring from contact between open wounds, sharing contaminated toothbrushes or razors, or through contaminated medical/dental tools. Hepatitis B can also be transmitted by blood transfusions, sharing or reusing needles for injection or tattoos, and unprotected sex.
Common misconceptions
Contrary to common misconceptions
Hepatitis B is not transmitted through food/water.
Hepatitis B is not transmitted through casual contact, such as hugging or shaking hands.
Hepatitis B is not transmitted through kissing, sneezing, or coughing.
Hepatitis B is not transmitted through breastfeeding.
Vaccination does not help individuals who are already infected with hepatitis B.
Mortality risks
Without appropriate management and screening, one in four hepatitis B infected individuals (25%) will die from liver cancer or cirrhosis (liver damage leading to scarring and eventually death from liver failure). Some develop cancer as early as 30 years of age. Every year, approximately one million people worldwide die from the disease because they are not diagnosed before the point where current treatment can be effective. Because so many chronically infected individuals feel perfectly healthy even with early liver cancer, the disease can progress without the carrier even knowing. When symptoms do appear, it is often only at the late stages of the disease. All people with chronic hepatitis B infection, whether they feel healthy or sick, are at risk for developing liver cancer or cirrhosis. Finding the cancer when it is small by regular screening remains the best chance of surviving liver cancer.
Hepatitis B is one of the largest health threats for Asians and Pacific Islanders. All individuals of Asian descent should request the hepatitis B surface antigen test (HBsAg) to identify infection. Also, individuals should request the hepatitis B surface antibody test (HBsAb) to identify immunity. 5%-10% of those vaccinated do not develop the antibodies and are not protected. The only way to prevent deaths from liver cancer is to identify chronic HBV individuals early enough for treatment.
Statistics
Global statistics
350-400 million people worldwide have chronic HBV infection (compare with 40 million living with HIV)
Without appropriate treatment or monitoring, 1 in 4 people with chronic HBV will die of liver cancer, cirrhosis or liver failure.
HBV takes a million lives a year in the world.
HBV is second only to tobacco in causing the most cancer deaths worldwide.
80% of primary liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma) is caused by chronic HBV infection.
HBV is preventable with a vaccine available for over 25 years.
United States statistics
HBV is the biggest health disparity between Asian American and White Americans.
10% of Asian Americans are chronically infected versus less than 0.3% of the general population.
1.4 million people are chronically infected in US and more than half are Asian.
Liver cancer incidence is 6 - 13 times higher for Asians.
Liver cancer mortality remains higher than other cancers despite advances in research and medical technology:
There are more HBsAg-positive (chronically infected with HBV) API women than women of other ethnicities:
API population has increased 4x since 1980 (14.4 million in 2002)
Foreign born API: 2.5 million in 1980 and 8.3 million in 2002
75% came from countries with chronic HBV rates of 8-15%
APIs tend to live in large households; 20% live with 5 or more people
Many API seek medical treatments from Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) practitioners.
No routine blood tests and medical check-ups.
Under-reporting of both acute and chronic HBV infection.
Federal ACIP guidelines recommending that universal infant vaccination against HBV at birth, regardless of the mother's HBV status were implemented in November 1991.
China statistics
1/3 of the world's chronic HBV patients live in China.
130 million Chinese (1 in 10) have chronic HBV.
In one day, 3 times more people die of HBV than the entire SARS outbreak.
In two years, fewer than 10 people have died from avian flu in China.
HBV kills 500,000 mainland Chinese each year (50% of global deaths).
Comparing HBV with HIV/AIDS in mainland China:
Rates of hepatitis B infection
Chronic HBV infection rates in US and Western Europe (lowest): 0.1-0.5%
Chronic HBV infection rates in Asia, Pacific and sub-Saharan Africa: 10% (5-20%)
Chronic HBV infection rates in API Americans: 7% (approximately 840,000)
Foreign born API: 9% (range 5-15%)
US born API: 1.4%
Chronic HBV infection rates in Caucasian, Hispanic, or African American: 0.1%, 0.1%, 0.5%
See also
Hepatitis B
Liver cancer
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
San Francisco Hep B Free
Hepatitis B in China
References
External links
Asian Liver Center at Stanford University official website
HepBMoms
Know HBV Brochure on Hepatitis B
Physician's Guide to Hepatitis B
Jade Ribbon Campaign Arizona
Team HBV official website
Team HBV at University of California, Berkeley
San Francisco Hep B Free official website
Cal Hep B Free official website
CDC fact sheet on Hepatitis B
ThinkB.org
Personal video message on the dangers of Hepatitis B to the Asian community
Medical and health organizations based in California
Ribbon symbolism
Health campaigns
Green symbols
Hepatitis B |
4258896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93%20hAnluain | Ó hAnluain | The Ó h-Anluain (anglicised as O'Hanlon) family was an agnatic extended family comprising one of a string of dynasts along the Ulster-Leinster border. Depending on the advantage to the clan, the Chief of the Name—The O'Hanlon—supported either the Earl of Tyrone or authorities within the English Pale. During the 15th century, ties were close with the famed Earls of Kildare. Frequently, members of the clan would fight on both sides during a rebellion. Some would be outlawed; others pardoned; some ending up on the winning side.
The heart of "O'Hanlon's Countrie" was centered on south central Ulster, much of it being in what is now the Republic of Ireland. The first O'Hanlon on record is Flaithbheartach Ua h-Anluain, lord of Ui Niallain, whose murder in the year 983 AD is recorded in the Annals of the Four Masters.
The anglicised version of the name is usually given as Hanlon or O'Hanlon, but there are many variants: Handlon, Handlan, Hanlan, Hanlen, Hanlin, Hanlyn etc. Occasionally some variants of the names Hanly, Hanley and Handly are also derived from Ó h-Anluain, although Hanly is usually the anglicised form of Ó h-Ainle, an ancient Roscommon sept (the oldest on record is Donal O'Hanly, Bishop of Dublin from 1085 to 1096).
O'Hanlon's Country
The ancestors of the Ó h-Anluain sept originated in the kingdom of Airgialla. By the 5th century A.D. the sept held territory in and around the modern barony of Oneilland, County Armagh, Northern Ireland, on the southwest shore of Lough Neagh. As the O'Neills rose in prominence from Dungannon to the west, the O'Hanlons moved to territory west of Armagh City. For half a millennium, they served as kings of Orior. The chieftain's name was synonymous with the territory which was better known as "O'Hanlon's Country". It comprised about one-third of modern County Armagh, predominantly the eastern third, and also included a large tract of County Louth, from Faughart to Ravensdale, and then over the Cooley mountains to Omeath near Carlingford. The peak of land acquisition was in 1504; in 1505 the territory beyond the Gap of the North was granted to the Earl of Kildare. Two of the earliest maps of Ulster, Jobson's Ulster maps (c. 1590) and Norden's map of Ireland (1610), both show O'Hanlon's Country. In 1586, when Sir John Perrot created the County of Armagh, O'Hanlon's country accounted for one of the five baronies: Armaghe, Toaghriny, Orier, Fuighes (Fews) and Onylane (O'Neilland). In later times "Orier" became the Baronies of Orior Upper and Orior Lower, the southernmost two of Armagh's eight Baronies. It is often overlooked that the Gaelic territory of Orior predates and extended beyond the Barony of that name in County Armagh. O'Hanlon's Country extended southwards into northern County Louth and to the East it encroached slightly into County Down. Before the county lines were finalised, some old maps show the old O'Hanlon seat of Loughgilly in County Down.
O'Hanlon strongholds
Anciently, the O'Hanlons – when sitting as kings of Aithir – kept their residence, and the sept's assembly, at Loughgall (Loch gCál), north of Armagh city. Even after the sept moved east toward Loughgilly, Loughgall was retained as a summer residence. When Edmond Mortimer arrived in Ireland in 1380 as Lord Justice, the chief O'Hanlon was recorded as amongst the righdamhna (those eligible to become a tanist, or heir-apparent, of an Irish kingdom) that were required to pay their court to him. The rock of Tanderagee rose to support the family's castle. Having secured the northern lowlands of County Armagh and the highlands approaching and surrounding the Ring of Gullion, the O'Hanlons located the chieftain's gateway strongholds on the approaches from Armagh and eastern Ulster in the north, and Dublin and the English Pale in the south." The northern roads converged on the modern-day village of Tandragee; the approaches from Dublin and the English Pale had to force the Gap of the North, and the chieftain's stronghold adjacent to Forkill at Mullagh. The third stronghold, Mullaghglass, guarded the road north from the English frontier town of Newry. Closer to the center of the O'Hanlon lands than Tanderagee and Forkill, Mullaghglass is also the easternmost edge of a tract of land stretching from the Newry vale to the Fews, passing Camlough lake and the northern slope of Sliab Gullion, to which the sept retreated after the fall of the Gaelic order.
Despite surrender and regrant under her father, Queen Elizabeth I confiscated O’Hanlon territory in 1571, granting all of Orior to a Captain Thomas Chatterton. He was unable to found a settlement as required, and had his grant revoked, with Sir Eochaidh "Oghy" O’Hanlon of Tanderagee able to reassert control over south Armagh.
After the Plantation of Ulster, Oliver St John (the Lord Deputy of Ireland) took over and rebuilt O'Hanlon Castle. During the Ulster Rebellion of 1641 the clan attempted to take back their former lands, however failed with the castle burnt down. Having passed out of the family it became known as Tandragee Castle and remained a ruin for 200 years, until it was completely rebuilt by the Comtes de Salis, and later the Dukes of Manchester.
Various branches of the O'Hanlon sept
After the Battle of the Boyne, those holding the O'Hanlon and Hanlon names diverged socially, some assimilating into colonial Irish society and others staying rooted to their Gaelic past. The years 1590 to 1690 mark a century dividing past and present. Prior to those years, there was only one "Gaelic" sept. After those years, each branch of the family chose—or was forced to choose—to remain tied to their aboriginal identity or to be identified with the Irish colonial elite. The O'Hanlons had always been marchland brokers between the English Pale and the Gaelic north. Now they were forced to divide themselves along those lines. Two members of the sept best personify these widening challenges: Sir Eochaidh "Oghy" O'Hanlon and the Tory outlaw, Count Aodh Ruadh ("Redmond") O'Hanlon.
Sir Eochaidh "Oghy" Ó Hanlon
The origins of the colonial O’Hanlons lay in two sons of Sean, The O’Hanlon (c. 1510–1575). In addition to Sir Eochaidh O’Hanlon, last of the Name, there was also his brother, Feidliminh, and his four sons. All supported the Tudor monarchy, more or less, during the Nine Years' War and were granted lands in south Armagh for their loyalty to the Crown.
Eochaidh "Oghy" O'Hanlon, son of Shane Oge O'Hanlon, maintained his seat at Tandragee, near modern Poyntzpass, County Armagh. Oghy was lord of the baronies of Orior Lower and Orior Upper, and by Irish tradition (Brehon law) Chief of his name. In 1595, he married the sister of the Earl of Tyrone. This made his son and heir, Eochaidh Óg O'Hanlon, great-grandson to the Earl of Kildare. Young Oghy was also a great-grandson of Conn O'Neill, Prince of Ulster, and all the ties to the Gaelic aristocracy that entailed. When he was exiled to service under the King of Sweden, he took the blood of Irish and English kings with him.
Queen Elizabeth operated a policy of surrender and regrant to Irish nobles, where the Gaelic chiefs surrendered their lands, but were re-granted them with an English title after swearing allegiance to the Crown and promising to abide by English laws and customs. Amongst those who did was Hugh O'Neill in 1587 who was given the English title Earl of Tyrone. Eochaidh followed his example and had his lands re-granted by letters of the patent in the same year. He became a Knight under English law, "Sir" Eochaidh Oghy O'Hanlon, hereditary royal standard-bearer north of the River Boyne. Though an English peer, Eochaidh never made the cultural transition. He kept his Gaelic ways. As John O'Donovan edited into O'Daly's Tribes of Ireland,
Spenser was referring to the Gaelic proverb, applied when someone was heavily native in their appearance and actions. Such people
were "as Irish as O'Hanlon's breech." Spenser was not denigrating The O'Hanlon, as much as he was noting that erstwhile English families such as the Fitzsimons of counties Cavan and Down, had 'gone native' over the years.
Redmond O'Hanlon
Born around 1640 in Poyntzpass, O'Hanlon's Country, Count Redmond O'Hanlon was the son of Loughlin O'Hanlon. As a young man he worked as a footboy to Sir George Acheson of Markethill, but became fiercely anti-English. He spent several years in exile with the French army and tried to organise a French invasion of Ireland to depose the British. He was popular in France where he was reportedly awarded the courtesy title of Count O'Hanlon (the English title was extinguished in the family with the death of Sir Eochaidh O'Hanlon; the family lost Tandragee castle during the Plantation of Ulster in 1609). When the French negotiations failed, Redmond returned to Armagh in 1671 and became a notorious highwayman or rapparee. A real-life Robin Hood, Redmond robbed the English settlers, extorted protection money from the Scots, and was adored by the largely Catholic peasantry. A letter from the era states that his criminal activities were bringing in more money than the King's revenue collectors, and therefore the outlaw Count was easily able to bribe military officers and public officials. In 1674 the government of King Charles II put a price on his head with posters advertising for his capture, dead or alive. He was eventually murdered in his sleep by his foster brother and close associate Art MacCall O'Hanlon at Eight Mile Bridge near Hilltown on 25 April 1681. Art received a full pardon and two hundred pounds for murdering his leader. As had become the custom in English-ruled Ireland, there were gruesome displays of his body parts including his head which was placed on a spike over Downpatrick jail. His remains are said to lie in a family plot in the Church of Ireland cemetery in Letterkenny, County Donegal.
Aboriginal
Following the Plantation of Ulster, Ó Hanlon control over land in County Armagh dwindled. At the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1641, two members of the sept still held land under English law. Aodh Buide O'Hanlon held the largest tract, 2,045 acres stretching from the northern slope of Sliab Gullion northwest toward Belleeks at the edge of the Fews. And Padraig MacRory Ó Hanlon held another 133 acres. The acreage held by Aodh Buide and Padraig Ó h-Anluain lay at the center of those lands associated with the family over the next two centuries.
Passing as ascendancy
Following the Act for the Settlement of Ireland (1652) and the Penal Laws following the defeat of James II, the descendants of Sir Eochaidh and his people of the Ó Hanlon nation could only hold land, or even leases, if they conformed to the rites of the Church of Ireland. Adherents to the Roman rite could not practice law, could not bear arms, and could not serve in public office. Following the Battle of the Boyne, Tandragee became the heart of the Order of the Orange. The Ó Hanlons remaining in County Armagh retreated to Armagh City or their former heartland in the south, in and around the parish of Killevy.
The O'Hanlons of Newry. Among those who conformed to the Church of Ireland's rites were the Ó Hanlons of Newry, direct descendants of Padraig Mór Ó h-Anluain, a son of Eochaidh Óg Ó h-Anluain, the last lord of Orior and heir to Sir Eochaidh. Padraig's son, Edmond, served under James II. His son, Felix, remained in Killevy parish as the Jacobite officers followed the King into exile, as did Felix's son, Edmond. By the second half of the 18th century, this branch relocated to the town of Newry. Hugh of Newry's (1721–1807) sons conformed, and one, Padraig, was admitted to the Irish bar. He served first as a Magistrate for Cos. Tyrone and Armagh. In 1808, Orangemen circulated information in Dublin Castle against his loyalty. He was cleared on inquest by the Duke of Richmond.
Following his move to Mill Street in the 18th century, Hugh O’Hanlon headed the most notable Roman Catholic family in Newry. Hugh was a direct descendant of Sir Eochaidh, and through him the lords of Orior. The family moved down east from south Armagh's hill communities to the west. Hugh's father was Hugh Ruadh O’Hanlon of Killeavy and his uncle was the "Bard of Armagh", Patrick Donnelly, Bishop of Dromore (1679–1716). This branch of the family took part in the Volunteer Movement. Hugh of Newry served on Dublin's Catholic Committee. He is also thought to have founded, in part, the Bank of Newry, dying in 1808. The O’Hanlon vault in Newry's Saint Mary's Cemetery bears the O’Hanlon coat-of-arms.
Hugh Padraig O’Hanlon, Jr., eldest son of Hugh of Newry, was admitted to the bar after the ban against Roman Catholics was lifted, and was known locally as "Counselor O’Hanlon". The Counselor was a member of the Volunteer Movement, but was radicalized and moved briefly out of the colonial circle of his father, becoming an Irish nationalist of United Ireland. Moving the Newry branch into the nationalist, republican camp, Hugh, Jr. was friend and acquaintance to Theobald Wolfe Tone, mentioned in the Tone's diaries. O’Hanlon became publican of the Crown Inn at 106–108 Hill Street, Newry, where the local chapter of the United Irishmen was formed and met. Though many United men were reprised against following the defeats at the Battle of Ballynahinch and the Battle of Vinegar Hill, Hugh and his brother escaped censure. In 1812, Hugh, Jr. supported the failed campaign of John Philpot Curran, Master of the Rolls, as Member of Parliament (Westminster) for Newry. At a dinner in Curran's honour, held at the Whitecross Hotel in Margaret Street, Hugh was lauded for efforts made on behalf of the Patriot-lawyer's election.
During Daniel O’Connell's agitation for Catholic Emancipation through repeal of the remaining apartheid laws, Hugh, Jr. campaign furiously for religious tolerance and equal protection of the laws. In 1826, however, he departed for colonial India. He became a leading barrister. In 1846, he raised funds in Calcutta for Famine relief. Hugh O’Hanlon III, Counselor O’Hanlon's eldest son, returned from colonial service in India to become a London barrister in the Irish Colonial Office at Westminster. There, Hugh III founded Ireland's system of local government through a pilot program for Newry in the form of a Westminster bill, for "Better Lighting, Watching, Cleansing and Paving". The legislative system proved so successful that it was applied nationally. Hugh III was then applied Law Advisor to Dublin Castle, a peak appointment in the colonial order. Other sons of Hugh, Jr. included Pringle, who served in the First Bengal Cavalry; another, Edward, died in colonial service at Rangoon, in the British East Indies.
The O'Hanlons of Dublin. Included among those who also passed into Irish colonial society was the Colonel Ó Hanlon of 1821, who petitioned to resume Sir Eochaidh O'Hanlon's honorary position as Royal Standard Bearor to the King (or Queen) "north of the river Boyne". During the visit of George IVth to Ireland in 1821, the Colonel was permitted to resume the position. George the IVth was the first English monarch to visit the Irish colony since Richard II.
The O'Hanlons of Louth. Eoghan H. Hanlon of Roodstown, County Louth Ireland emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts. He became a saddle maker and a principal of Hanlon & Bradstreet, saddler and harnessmakers. Eoghan was a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts, as served in the company with H.R.H. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.
The O'Hanlon title
The lands between the strongholds enclosed the "creaght" of the sept, the unit of land under Gaelic law used for the pasturing and seasonal droving of the nation's herds. Governing the creaghts and strongholds for the sept was the Chief of the Name, "The Ó Hanlon." Under Gaelic law, all male relations sharing the same great grandmother with the dying Chieftain were eligible for "acclaimation" as the next Chief of the Name at the sept's coronation stone, Cairn Magha at Clontygora, or "the Slaughter Stone".
The O'Hanlon ruled the eastern portion of the medieval kingdom of Oirghialla, capitaled at Clones in modern County Monaghan. To him fell the duty of protecting Oirghialla's eastern march against Ulstermen pushed to the seaboard in the 5th century, Common Era. The region stretched from Lough Neagh's shore adjacent to the Tyrone/Armagh border all the way to Carlingford Lough. It was called Croich na n'Airthear, i.e. regio Orientalium, later preserved in the names attached to the baronies of Orior.
The title "The O'Hanlon" was extinguished at English law, and the last Chief of the Name took the English title, "Baron of Orior". The Ó Hanlon title (Barony) is believed to have died with that first holder, Sir Oghy (Eocha) Ó Hanlon in 1600. At the time Sir Eochaidh's death, his heir, Eochaidh "Ochy" Og, was leading the Ó Hanlons fighting with the Earl of Tyrone the Nine Years' War (1596–1603) against the English Crown and its colonial elite in the Pale. As such, the title could not pass to the Baron's heir. Oghie Oge's omission from the plantation would appear to confirm this. As would the inclusion of Oghie Oge's two sons Felim and Brian as a single entry; if either of them had inherited a title, they would surely have been listed separately. Oghie Oge was still alive at the time of the Plantation. Ee only died in 1611, fighting for the King of Sweden against the Poles.
The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland has an early patent of 1609 (Document ref. D/1854) in which King James I grants to Patrick O'Hanlon in perpetuity various towns and lands near Mountnorris, County Armagh. It is unknown if this is one of the two Patrick Hanlons named above in the plantation, and/or if this might refer to the seven townlands granted to the descendants of Sir Oghy Ó Hanlon. Whatever their history, the lands did not remain in Ó Hanlon hands for long: the Mountnorris estate shortly afterwards became the property of Francis Annesley, 1st Viscount Valentia (an Englishman).
As for the title "The O'Hanlon", it existed at Gaelic law, not English, or even the Irish law developed after the declaration of the Republic. Presumably, a gathering of the O'Hanlons could still declare one of their own "The O'Hanlon", Gaelic An t-Anluain, in the same manner of other septs and clans.
Heraldry
Though regarded as Irish sept arms now, the arms historically associated with the Gaelic O'Hanlon sept are thought to have been adopted by Sir Eochaidh O'Hanlon at the time of Surrender and Regrant under Henry Tudor. The arms may incorporate older sept icons, such as the boar, the lizard, and the earthen mound.
1: The O'Hanlon Blazon and Coat of Arms
According to Burke's General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, the O'Hanlon/Hanlon name has four blazons registered (pages 453 & 752). The four blazons are:
Argent on a mount vert, a boar passant proper, armed or.
Vert on a mount in base proper a boar passant ermine.
Gules, three crescents argent.
Gules, three plates argent.
The first two are for the descendants of the O'Hanlons of Armagh. These are those most often seen and are shown below. The third is used by the Hanlons of Kent, England, and the fourth by another Hanlon branch in England; these last two are very rarely seen.
Ó Hanlon Coat of Arms (1) The Boar is the symbol of Bravery and ermine signifies nobility or royalty. Ó Hanlon Coat of Arms (2)
The boar was an ancient Celtic motif used well before medieval heraldry came into being to symbolise courage, aggression and savagery. This choice for the Ó Hanlons of Armagh would have been a none-too-subtle message implying Gaelic defiance and hinting at the Ó Hanlons' military strength and courage.
2: The Ó Hanlon crest
"A lizard displayed vert" is the crest described in Burke's General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. This crest appears on the Hanlon tomb of 1708 in Letterkenny, County Donegal.
A hand grasping a dagger appears on the Ó Hanlon tomb of 1759 in Newtown Cemetery, Lordship, County Louth.
3: The Ó Hanlon motto
This varies from family to family, but the following are known to have been used:
Sine Macula: translates to "without stain" or "untainted".
Le dsais: translates to "By all means". (Source: website quoting Irish Family Mottoes by Tomas O'Baoill).
Re Et Merito: translates to "By Reality and Merit". (Source: 1759 Ó Hanlon tomb in County Louth.)
4: The Ó Hanlon war cry
"Ard Cullaigne Abaugh!” or "Defend the Wooded Heights," thought to refer to the Gap of the North. The Gap was a gateway to Ulster from the English Pale, and the duty to hold it for the Gaels was historically assigned to the men of Orior.
History
Origins of the Ua h-Anluain Sept
Niall of the Nine Hostages, the Three Collas & The Milesian Genealogies
The Ua hAnluain sept according to Irish tradition and legend descend from Eochaidh Dubhlen, who had three sons in the 4th century AD known as The Three Collas:
Muireadach, or Colla da Chrioch (Colla Fo Críth) : "Colla of the two territories".
Carioll, or Colla Uais : "Colla the Noble", 121st Monarch of Ireland.
Meann, or, Colla Meann : "Colla the Famous".
Colla da Crioch appears in the Milesian genealogies as the 91st in his line and died in 357 AD. His descendant Anluain appears nine generations later as the 100th, probably born around the end of the 7th century AD The name Anluain comes from the Gaelic words 'an' = the (emphatic) and 'luain' = of the Moon, the brilliance of, the glittering of a flashing sword, thus 'great champion.' It appears that the 104th in this line, Anluain's great great grandson Flaitheartach Ua'h-Anluain (Laverty O'Hanlon), was the first to use the Ua'h-Anluain surname. (See Milesian genealogy below.) Clann Ua'h-Anluain (in English: Clan O'Hanlon) are therefore the descendants of Anluain.
332 C.E. The Ultonians of Ulster are defeated on the fields of Farney, by the three Collas, brothers who subsequently divided their conquered swordlands between them, which would become the over-kingdom of Airgialla.
470 C.E. Colla dna Crioch, had a descendant, Daire. son of Finnchad. Daire lived on a hill amidst the drumlins of north County Armagh, south of Lough Neagh on the approaches to the Blackwater river. Saint Patrick asked for the hill, a place to site his cathedral.
500 C.E. According to some accounts the O’Hanlons held the territory around Saint Patrick's future settlement at Armagh and was descended through Niallan. Daire, common ancestor to the septs O’Hanlon, MacMahon, Maguire and McCann offered Saint Patrick a church site lower down on the hill on which the chieftain's rath was located. This was the site of Patrick's first Church. Once Daire was converted, the Saint was given the hill-top site, including the rath. Daire, ancestor to the O’Hanlons, endowed the bishop with lands surrounding the town to support its inhabitants. A group of twenty townlands were given to the church at a very early date, including the historic capital of Ulster, Navan Fort.
This line was committed to memory by bards and was eventually transcribed when the first missionaries brought writing to Ireland in the 5th century AD. The ancient writings from the 5th century onwards were compiled in 1632–1636 by a Franciscan friar, Michael O'Clery, into a volume which became known as the Milesian genealogies and survived to modern times.
Ua'h-Ainlighe sept
The Ua'h-Ainlighe sept has its roots in the ancient recesses of the Roscommon Area and is associated with the tribe of Cinel Dobtha, or O'Hanley of Doohey Hanley, to which also belong the MacCoilidh family
The MacCoilidh family, whose name was anglicized to Cox in the early years of the seventeenth century, were hereditary custodians of Saint Berach crosier, and were considered as 'lay abbots' of Kilbarry. The crosier is now in the Dublin Museum.
The Ó Hanlons in the Milesian genealogies
Generation numbers as given in the Milesian genealogies.
The Surname O'Hanlon
The O'Hanlons are cited throughout Ireland's ancient texts under the clan's ancient name of Ua'h-Anluain. The name means descendants of Anluain. Anluain was the head of one of the septs of Ui'Niallan, the descendants of Niallan. He was probably born around the end of the 7th century. The first mention of the name O’Hanlon (Ui Anluain) was in the first millennium, in the year 938 in the Annals of the Four Masters, which states: M983.6 Flaithbheartach Ua hAnluain, lord of Ui-Niallain, was treacherously slain by the Ui-Breasail.
The Kingdom of Airgialla
By 1004 The O’Hanlons are the de jure rulers of territory beginning at the townlands supporting the bishop at Armagh and stretching in an arc south and east to the mountains overlooking Viking settlements on Carlingford Lough. The last High King of Ireland, Brian Boru, makes a royal visit to Orior and Armagh in 1004, assessing the Viking presence. A decade later, Brian Boru defeated the combined forces of the Norsemen at Clontarf, assisted by The O’Hanlon. The king died at Clontarf. His body was carried through Orior on its way to interment at Armagh.
In 1150, the O’Hanlon chief had established himself as Lord of Oneillland (north County Armagh). Oneilland was the kingdom of Airgialla's northeastern outpost, adjacent to the kingdom of Tyrone and the Earldom of Ulster.
The Kingdom of Airthir
In the south east of Airghialla lay the Kingdom of Airthir, meaning Eastern (i.e. Eastern Airghialla). This was the stronghold of the Ua'h-Anluain. Airthir covered a large tract of what is now southern County Armagh, spilling over slightly into Counties Down, Louth and Monaghan. The Kingdom of Airthir was also known as Ind-tÁirthir, Oirthir and later Orior. The following were chiefs;
Donnchad Ó hAnluain
Ardghal Ó hAnluain
Gilla Patraig Ó hAnluain (also Kings of Airgíalla)
Murchadh Ó hAnluain
Cu Uladh Ó hAnluain
Eachmarcach Ó hAnluain
Cu Ulad Ó hAnluain
Niall Ó hAnluain
Magnus Ó hAnluain
Niall Ó hAnluain
The Middle Ages
By the Middle Ages Clann Ua'h-Anluain was one of Ireland's dynastic families and the clann's deeds are thoroughly documented in The Annals of The Four Masters, The Annals of Ulster, The Annals of Connacht and Mac Carthaigh's Book. They are cited as medieval chiefs of Ui Meith Tiri, Lords of Airthir, and occasionally Kings of Uí Nialláin, and Lords of Airghialla. (See Hanlons in ancient Irish texts for citations).
End of The Kingdom of Airghialla
The over-kingdom of Airgialla, which had gradually come under the domination of the Cenel Eoghain and pushed southwards, shrunk further in the advance of the Normans in the late 12th and early 13th century. Almost all of the Airgiallan sub-kingdom of Airthir was retained by the Ó Hanlons who lost only the southern tip of their territory to the Normans. The O'Hanlons continued to rule Orior without interruption for the next four centuries and were known henceforth as the lords of Orior.
The O'Hanlons lost the town of Dundalk in the south of Airthir (modern day County Louth), but were allowed to stay as paying tenants. The town's coat of arms still has an ermine boar representing the O'Hanlons supporting a shield with the De Verdon coat of arms.
1246. The O’Hanlons move south from Oneilland. Murrough O’Hanlon is described as "Lord of Orier". Orier included most of modern-day eastern County Armagh, stretching well into Louth, and over the Cooley mountains to the shore of Carlingford Lough.
1254. Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, "The O’Hanlon" is listed among the Ulster chieftains to whom the English King Henry III appealed for aid in his war against the Scots.
1273. Eochaidh "Eochy" O’Hanlon is listed as 'king of Orghialla'. It is the first known use of the name "Eochaidh" by the O'Hanlons, which means "horseman" or "jockey" in Gaelic. The name persists in the sept through the 17th century.
1285. Edward I sends The O’Hanlon a robe as a gift.
1312. Edward II styles The O’Hanlon, Nigellus, as "Duke of Orior".
1310. The O’Hanlon imposed 'black rents' upon English colonists living in and around Dundalk. Black Rent was insurance against incursions and other plundering; a colonist paid the rent, The O’Hanlon did not raid them in response to their trespass. It is thought that he levied the rent over areas south of Dundalk, too.
1314–1315. The O’Hanlon sept changes allegiances when Edward Bruce, in support of his brother Robert Bruce, in his war against the English, invaded Ireland and swept southwards. Bruce had seized O’Hanlon's son and heir, sent him to Scotland and demanded The O’Hanlon's good faith.
1321. Manus O’Hanlon, lord of Orior, is blinded by sept members under the leadership of his kinsman, Niall, son of Cu-Uladh O’Hanlon, on Spy Wednesday. Niall becomes lord of Orior, submitting to Edward III. The men of Dundalk march north and kill Niall.
1341. The men of Dundalk entered into a treaty with The O’Hanlon, formalizing the payment of Black Rent, and the document is approved by Edward III.
23 April 1346. Edward III grants protection to the O’Hanlon sept, security in their territorial lands, and in their possessions. But they must 'behave'.
c. 1350. Recorded in the Register of Archbishop Sweteman, "Malachy O’Hanloyn, King of Erthyr" was admonished to restore certain goods and clothing taken by a member of the O’Hanlon sept from the Archbishop's retinue.
1366. The Archbishop of Armagh several times excommunicated Malachy O’Hanlon, with all the members of the sept, as thieves of Church goods. A 7 December 1366 entry in the Archbishop's ledger notes that the O’Hanlons promised amendment and restitution, upon absolution, and they behaved worse and were again sentenced.
18 September 1367. Recorded in the Register of Archbishop Sweteman, "O’Handeloyn had prevented the clergy of the Cathedral from performing divine service in the church and had hindered and despoiled them". O’Hanlon deceived the Archbishop, even after receiving absolution for past crimes.
1380. The O’Hanlon, lord of Orior, was slain along with many English allies in a battle against the Magennis of Iveagh.
1391. The O’Hanlon, lord of Orior, is killed in an inter-sept civil war.
15th century: Henry VII & VIII
1407. Archbishop Fleming's Register records on 1 May that the Archbishop excommunicated "Argallus O’Hanlan, Captain of his Nation, Malachy O’Hanlan and Odo McLoy, together with their familiar aiders and abettors, for various injuries inflicted upon himself and his tenants, especially for the slaying of Maurice Ddowgenan, his tenant and falconer". Fleming instructed the clergy to post "the excommunication and interdict on Sunday and festivals in all their churches and market places, while clad in albs and stoles, with cross erect, bells and candles, until further order". At the same time he warned "all, English and Irish, within his diocese to refrain from conversation, eating or drinking with the above-named persons, and desired that they should not be sold bread, beer, salt or any of the necessities of life".
1422. The O’Hanlon and the sept joined a predominantly Ulster-manned force, accompanying the Lord Deputy and English colonial allies on an expedition into Connachta.
1423. The O’Hanlon, with the Ulster Gaels attacked the English colonists of Louth and Meath, exacting black rents and taking plunder.
1424. The Lord Deputy and an army from Dublin ride against The O’Hanlon and other Ulster chieftains, forcing their renewed submission. This bonanza ended when the English sent a determined Viceroy to Ireland in 1424.
In the early 1490s, Henry VII appointed his son Henry, Duke of York, as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The future Henry the VIIIth did not actually go to Ireland. The Duke of York sent Sir Edward Poynings to Ireland as to serve as Lord Deputy. Poynings arrived on 13 October 1495, with a large army. He arrived on an island deeply divided in its collective identity. The emerging division was between the new Tudor royal administration (and its followers) and some of the Old English colonial elite, and their new allies among a resurgent Gaelic aristocracy. This was the result of English policy, administered between 1478 and 1492, when Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, served as Lord Deputy. During these years, inter-marriage between the O'Neills of Tyrone and the Fitzgeralds brought the lead Gaelic sept into alliance with the leading Old English family.
The closer working relationship between Kildare and O'Neill gave Kildare access to the services of O'Neill's circle of leaders among the Roydama. Kildare worked closely with Malachi Ó Hanlon and The Magennis. Lord Deputy Poynings pursued a strategy of driving wedges between O'Neill and his allieds (including The Ó Hanlon and his neighbor, The Magennis), especially when those wedges would also prevent further bonding between the Gaelic lords and the Geraldine power base at Kildare. He demanded hostages (the sons, and heirs, of Ó Hanlon and Magennis) in order to secure their good behavior. When Ulster's march, or border, lords would not give up their sons, the Lord Deputy took the largest army assembled by the English colonists north to burn out both Orior and Iveagh, homelands to the Ó Hanlons and the Magennis. Being first through the Gap of the North, the Ó Hanlons were especially hard hit. Kildare advise Malachi Ó Hanlon to provide his son to Dublin Castle, to end the violence. So the Ó Hanlons suffered several defeats at the hands of Poynings. But they were supported quietly by their ally in the deposed Lord Deputy, Earl Kildare, who was widely rumoured to have supported the Ó Hanlons in their ongoing rebellion against the Tudor Crown. Following the Lord Deputy's raid, the Earl was charged with treason and the Act of Attainder (Nov. 1495) charged him with "encouraging Ó Hanlon," among other acts against the King. Ó Hanlon and Magennis testified on behalf of Kildare, in a deposition taken by the Archbishop of Armagh, Octavian de Palatio.
16th century: Submission & Nine Years War
1537. Dublin Castle implements the Reformation in Ireland, dissolving monasteries and other religious institutions. This includes the ancient convent of St. Moninna at Killeavy, refuge for the women of the O’Hanlon sept. A smaller chapel and sanctuary survives until 1612, when the last Abbess, Alicia O’Hanlon, is removed from the precincts.
1564. Shane O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone, rebels against Elizabeth I. The O’Hanlon chooses to ride with the O’Neill. The Crown responds by seizing, in 1569, most of Orior. It is granted to Thomas Chatterton. He was required to 'subdue the natives' in County Armagh. He failed.
1569. By the Act of Confiscation, Elizabeth I transfers the O'Hanlon territory to the adventurer, Thomas Chatterton.
1573. Elizabeth I gives authority to Chatterton for "seven years to invade, subdue or expel, or bring to mercy the people of Ohrere".
1585 O'Daly writes "The Tribes of Ireland".
1587. The O’Hanlon resubmits to the Tudors, and is knighted Sir Eochaidh O’Hanlon, Baron of Orior. He is re-granted his lands on the condition of 'loyalty'. Oghy O’Hanlon, 'chief and captain of his nation' surrendered his territories in "Upper and Nether Orrye" on 20 September 1587. A new patent was issued on 1 December 1587, whereby O’Hanlon was confirmed in his lands for life, then to his heirs male, failing those, to his brothers. At the same time, Sir Oghie agreed to maintain twelve footmen called kerne and eight horsemen, all well armed, to attend upon the Lord Deputy, or other Governor of Ulster, in all hostings and risings and to maintain them in food and all necessities. Significantly the document also provided for the extinction of the title, The O’Hanlon of Orior. Sir Oghie agreed to pay the Queen £60 per year.
1593–1603, C.E. During the Nine Years' War, Sir Eochaidh moves his allegiance to accommodate the moving siege lines between Ulster and the English Pale. At times he was allied with Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone; at times he was allied with Henry Bagenal of Newry, the Queen's Marshal. A Turlough O’Hanlon fought for the Gaelic army under O’Neill at the Battle of the Yellow Ford (1598), in which Bagenal was killed.
The Nine Year War (1594–1603). After ascending to the throne in 1558, Queen Elizabeth I proclaimed herself head of the Irish Church (the Act of Supremacy), and went about replacing the "Old English" clergy and administrators with newly appointed Englishmen. The deposed "Old English" had fallen out of favour for their acquired local habits of dress, speaking Gaelic, and moderate sympathies with the native Irish. (After all, by the late 16th century it had been four hundred years since their arrival in Ireland with the Anglo-Norman advance.) The new administration was vehemently anti-Gael, but also anti-Catholic. To their horror, this meant the Galls (Gallic descendants of the Normans) suddenly found themselves out of favour too. Discontent led to an uprising of the Northern clans in 1594. It was led by the O'Neills – including some of the Ó Hanlons under Oghy Og, Sir Eocha's son – and the O'Donnells, supported by their new allies the Galls. The rebellion started in Ulster and spread all over Ireland to become the Nine Years' War.
The Galls and the Gaels hoped for help from Catholic Spain but it was slow in coming. In September 1601, after seven years war in Ireland, the Spanish Armada sent 4,000 men to help Hugh O'Neill and Hugh O'Donnell. But the Armada landed at Kinsale in the South, while O'Neill and O'Donnell's strongholds were way up in the North. Against the odds, the Gaels marched South through enemy territory to meet the Spanish, and arrived in a matter of weeks with 12,000 men to lay siege to the English at Kinsale. By December 1601, the combined Spanish and Gael forces had the upper hand, but had been reduced to 10,000 men. Impatient to leave, the Spanish demanded an attack which took place on Christmas Eve 1601. It was disastrous and losing the Battle of Kinsale effectively marked the end of the Nine Years' War. Although the war ended formally only in March 1603 when O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone submitted to the English.
1599 Dymmock's 'Treatise on Ireland' notes that Sir Oghie O'Hanlon, on 28 April 1599, could muster two hundred foot and forty horse for the Earl of Tyrone. His territory reached from Newry to Armagh and was mostly 'without woods'.
17th century: End of the Gaelic Lords
1600, 17 November Sir Eochaidh is, by some accounts, slain at the pass of Carlingford, fighting on the English side, bearing the Royal Standard for the Lord Deputy, Lord Mountjoy. For his loyalty and his services in this war against the Earl of Tyrone, King James I bestowed upon his family seven townlands.
1602, First Census of the Fews. This census was taken in 1602 to record the clanspeople of Turlagh MacHenry O'Neill, chief of the Fews (a Barony in southern Armagh neighbouring Orior). It survives today as the first census taken in Ireland and records five Ó Hanlon clansmen living as tenants:
Many O Hanlon, Shane O Hanlon, Brain O Hanlon, Hugh O Hanlon, Glessny O Hanlon
Turlagh MacHenry O'Neill was a half brother to the mighty Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and had initially cooperated with the English before joining his brother's forces in the Nine Years' War. After his brother's defeat at Kinsale, Turlagh received a pardon in 1602 for himself and all his clanspeople. Since the pardon did not extend to his brother's people, The Census of The Fews was compiled to list who the pardon applied to.
Murder Committed before their rebellion, intrusion on Crown lands, and debts to the Crown excepted from their pardon. [Date destroyed] Lord Deputy's warrant dated 24 June 1602.
1604. Wasted during the Nine Years' War, Orior falls into successive crop failures and famines. Burden with relief of his people, Sir Eochaidh sells seven townlands adjacent to Newry.
1605. For his participation in the Nine Years' War on the side of O'Neill and the Gaelic lords young Oghie Og Ó Hanlon, son of the late Sir Oghy, could reasonably have expected to be charged with treason and hung – or worse. But he surrendered and in return Oghie Og was attainted, then pardoned on 12 February 1605. His family (i.e. his brothers, wife and sons) were able to stay on the family estates. But the pardon included a provision that Oghie Og himself must leave Ireland for exile in Europe. He is said to have done so and to have joined the Catholic armies of France and Spain in their wars against The Netherlands.
1607, Flight of the Earls. On 14 September 1607, the Earls of Tyrone and Donegal (The O'Neill and O'Donnell) fled Ireland with some 90 family and friends. The Flight of The Earls was construed by the English as an admission of guilt, and all those who left were charged with treason in their absence and their lands and livestock "reverted to the Crown".
The Ó Hanlons could count themselves lucky, for in the absence of Oghie Og they knew the British did not consider them a threat, so felt safe enough to stay. They lost Hanlon castle but otherwise kept their lands while all around them their allies lost everything.
1608. Four years later his son and heir, Eochaidh Og, sided with Sir Cahir O’Dochertaigh in the ill-fated 1608 Rebellion. Eochaidh Og was denied succession and exiled to service for the King of Sweden, then fighting the Catholic army of the King of Poland.
1609, Plantation of Ulster. In the Plantation of Ulster most of the remaining Gaelic chieftains had their lands escheated (confiscated) and reassigned to Scottish or English foreigners. Only a few lucky "natives" were awarded land grants. In the "Precinct of Orier" the Ó Hanlons figured prominently: they accounted for 10 of the 39 grants made to "natives".
PLANTATION OF ULSTER – PRECINCT OF ORIER
LAND GRANTS TO NATIVES
1611. The O’Hanlons are ousted from control of Orior, and from their castle at Tanderagee, which is taken over by Oliver St. John.
1641. The O’Hanlons join the 1641 rebellion, under the leadership of Sir Phelim O’Neill. Ardall O’Hanlon was injured fighting with Eoghan Ruadh O’Neill at the Battle of Clones. In County Armagh, the sept regains Tandragee Castle for a few years, until the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell, arrives to put all Ireland down. The remaining O’Hanlon landowners were dispossessed through the Act of Settlement in Ireland (1652).
1662. Hugh O’Hanlon petitions Charles II for a restoration of the O’Hanlon lands in County Armagh, but is denied as much in the Act of Settlement passed in 1662.
1669. Dispossessed but remaining in the southern highlands of their former homeland, the O’Hanlons take to a life of crime against the English colonial administration, its colonists, and their collaborators among the former Gaels, now Irish. These "Tories" or "Raparees" become skilled highwaymen. Loughlin O’Hanlon of Killeavy is sentenced to death for horse theft; sentence later commuted.
1674. Aodh Ruadh "Redmond" O’Hanlon is first recorded as active on the highways of County Armagh. He was proclaimed as an outlaw and a reward of £200 was offered for his capture.
Depiction of Clan Ó Hanlon sept, or Clan members, in popular media
Depiction of the Clan O’Hanlon and its members in popular culture dates to the emergence of early mass media in Great Britain after the Restoration. The Irish people's preservation – and perhaps well-intended enhancement—of Comte Redmond O’Hanlon's life and exploits established an image which mass media vehicles would exploit in future years. This was a trend even as the descendants and relatives of the Comte remained the victims of circumstances established by the system of apartheid created through the Penal Laws after 1690. In 1862, William Carleton's Redmond, Count O’Hanlon, The Irish Raparee, An Historical Tale was published in Dublin and London. The non-fiction work was one a series of novels published by Carleton in the wake of the Celtic revival of the 18th century and its echoes through the 19th century. Not unlike Blaxploitation of the 1970s, it is heavily laden with stereotypes appealing to the mass culture of its day, an industrialized proletarian and emerging bourgeoisie suffering from cultural dislocation and the identity crisis it produced. Works like Carleton's sold because they allegedly offered 'authenticity' in a world remaking itself and increasing cut off from the Irish clan system. In Redmond, Count O’Hanlon, Carleton presents little or no information regarding the Count or his family, except that they were early Jacobites dispossessed for their loyalty to the House of Stuart. Redmond himself is depicted as crafty, yet well-mannered. An Irish Robin Hood or Rob Roy MacGregor coming to the rescue of a fair maiden and her distressed fiancée, as her chastity (and his property) were threatened by a debauched son of the Anglo-Irish colonial elite ruling south Armagh.
Lists of prominent Hanlons and Ó Hanlons, those with an Irish derivation
These may be found at Hanlon and O'Hanlon
The Border Chieftains of Ulster
References
Gaelic-Irish nations and dynasties
Irish clans
Irish royal families
Surnames of Irish origin
Irish-language masculine surnames |
4259236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder%20of%20Imette%20St.%20Guillen | Murder of Imette St. Guillen | Imette Carmella St. Guillen (March 2, 1981 – February 25, 2006) was an American graduate student who was raped and murdered in New York City. She was studying criminal justice at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City. Her murder captured national attention; together with the later murder of Jennifer Moore, it was a catalyst for passage of legislation to require background checks of bouncers in bars and a security plan for nightclubs. Darryl Littlejohn, a bouncer, was convicted of St. Guillen's murder.
Life and murder
Imette St. Guillen was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Seimundo Guillen and Maureen St. Hilaire. Her surname–and that of her elder sister– was a combination of their parents' surnames. Their mother was French Canadian. Their father, Seimundo Guillen, a Venezuelan immigrant, died of AIDS when Imette was nine years old. Her widowed mother later remarried.
St. Guillen graduated from Boston Latin School in 1999 and moved to Washington, D.C. to attend George Washington University. Like her father, St. Guillen studied criminal justice. She graduated magna cum laude in 2003 and enrolled at John Jay College of Criminal Justice to pursue a master's degree. Although originally intending to study forensic psychology, St. Guillen changed her major to criminal justice. Ranked in the top 5% of her class, she was scheduled to graduate in May 2006.
After celebrating her upcoming birthday with her mother and sister in Florida, St. Guillen took a plane back to New York. On February 24, 2006, St. Guillen met with her best friend Claire Higgins to continue celebrating her birthday, a few days away. Out at a nightclub around 3:30 a.m. on February 25, the two women argued over whether to go home. Higgins left; later, in a 3:50 a.m. phone call, St. Guillen assured Higgins that she would soon be leaving for home. She was last seen at 4:00 a.m at a bar named 'The Falls'.
Seventeen hours after St. Guillen spoke with her friend, police in Brooklyn received an anonymous phone call alerting them to a dead woman's body on Fountain Avenue in Spring Creek Park. They soon identified it as St. Guillen. Her body was nude, wrapped in a comforter. Her broken fingernails showed she fought against her attacker. Her hands and feet were tied, a sock had been shoved down her throat, and her head was wrapped in packing tape. Some of her hair had been cut off. An autopsy revealed that she had been beaten and sexually assaulted before being asphyxiated. According to forensic psychologist Dr. Stephanie Stolinsky, the killer "tried to dehumanize her completely. ... Whenever you hide someone's face, it means that you don't want to see them as a human being. You want to pretend that they're just an object".
The murder case of Imette St. Guillen was handled by the Special Victims Squad and Brooklyn North Homicide Squad of the NYPD.
Arrest
Darryl Littlejohn, one of two bouncers at The Falls where St. Guillen was seen the night she was murdered, was charged with first-degree murder, kidnapping, and unlawful imprisonment. DNA that was proven to be Littlejohn's, most likely caused from a nosebleed, was found in blood on the plastic ties used to bind St. Guillen's hands. Littlejohn was asked to escort St. Guillen out of The Falls just before closing, and was later seen talking to the young woman in front of the bar. His basement apartment in Queens and vehicles were searched by police and crime scene investigators. Carpet fibers found in Littlejohn's home were a match to fibers discovered on the adhesive tape wrapping St. Guillen's face. Additional evidence that Littlejohn was in the area at the time, date, and place where St. Guillen was killed and dumped was found using cell phone tower records. These "indicated movement from his home to near the spot in Brooklyn where Ms. St. Guillen's body was found."
Due to the nature of St. Guillen's murder and other high-profile crimes, The Village Voice suggested that the Internal Affairs Bureau (IAB) was devoting more of its time to tracing the cellular phones of detectives. The article discussed efforts to uncover leaks to the media in these cases. A source that communicated with The Village Voice said that police in St. Guillen's murder case had received "punitive 'letters of instruction' in their files and were docked days of pay."
Littlejohn, an ex-convict, had spent more than 12 years in prison for drug possession and robbery charges. He was on parole at the time of his employment at The Falls and, by working late hours at the bar, was violating the curfew of his parole agreement. He was initially held by authorities because of the parole violation, and was later charged with one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder for the death of St. Guillen. During that time, Littlejohn was tried and convicted in the attempted abduction of a Queens woman on October 19, 2005; this abduction attempt was later linked to St. Guillen's case, as the woman called police after seeing the suspected van on TV news reports.
Littlejohn's initial defense attorney was Kevin O'Donnell, but he was dismissed after Littlejohn complained about his work. Littlejohn's second lawyer, Joyce David, was known for her book What You Should Know If You're Accused of a Crime. She filed a 36-page legal brief on her defendant's behalf alleging a "wide-ranging conspiracy" related to Littlejohn and the St. Guillen murder.
According to prosecutors, Littlejohn started his criminal career at age 12, first stealing a 70-year-old woman's purse with the help of a friend. Prosecutors in the 2005 abduction sought court permission to discuss Littlejohn's crimes, and prosecutor Frank DeGaetano said that the crimes "fairly reflect his character." Littlejohn's lawyer wanted discussion of his past banned from the trial.
License for The Falls bar
During the investigation, there were revelations that The Falls bar manager, Daniel Dorrian, had allegedly lied about elements of St. Guillen's disappearance and murder. Jeff Ragsdale, a New York City writer, organized a group of people through Craigslist to start a protest demonstration in front of The Falls bar. The demonstrations lasted a few months, and around June 2006 The Falls bar lost its liquor license. The Pioneer bar was associated with the disappearance of St. Guillen that night, but it is not related to her murder. Nevertheless, the bar suffered negative publicity, and news reports showed images of its facade in coverage of the murder, leading the bar to change its name to the R Bar.
Littlejohn's pre-trial and trial in previous abduction
Littlejohn went on trial in 2007 for the 2005 abduction, which was held before the murder trial for St. Guillen. Observers were concerned that this suggested that St. Guillen's murder case was not strong enough. Prosecution, however, stated that they were prepared to proceed with the murder trial.
In January 2009, Littlejohn was convicted of kidnapping a college student, Shanai Woodard, in October 2005. The victim testified that he had approached her while dressed as a police officer, handcuffed her, and forced her into a vehicle. She escaped. Littlejohn was sentenced to 25 years-to-life in prison.
Trial
Pre-trial hearings began on September 11, 2007. Littlejohn's defense attorney Joyce David challenged the autopsy findings as well as the search warrants giving police the authority to search Littlejohn's van, his apartment, and to investigate his cell phone records.
Opening arguments were given on May 11, 2009. Prosecution headed by Kenneth Taub laid out the case that Littlejohn was a sex fiend. According to the Daily News, Taub said that "He [Littlejohn] did the same thing to two other women three months before" and "Until this case, he got away with it." They briefly described the circumstantial evidence against Littlejohn. Littlejohn wore glasses in the courtroom. Some defense lawyers have described this as the "nerd defense, which is a tactic used to make felons and other criminals appear less menacing to the jury during a trial."
The defense was headed by Joyce David, who said that the case was a "racially charged frame-up by police eager to close a blockbuster case," according to the Daily News. David said, "He's a black man with a long criminal record," and "Who's going to care about him?" David pointed her finger at bartender Daniel Dorrian of The Falls bar and said that "Darryl Littlejohn is being framed to protect Danny Dorrian".
Prosecution's case
Claire Higgins, St. Guillen's best friend, was among the first to take the witness stand. She described the time she had shared with St. Guillen on the night of her disappearance. Daniel Dorrian, manager of the bar where St. Guillen was last seen, indicated during the trial that Littlejohn and St. Guillen had "a screaming match" that night. According to the Daily News, "Dorrian insisted he didn't lie when he initially stonewalled cops about St. Guillen's kidnapping and murder." However, he later admitted telling police that he did not remember St. Guillen being in The Falls bar, having attributed his initial statements to a fear of backlash against his bar. Defense lawyers suggested that Dorrian might have been the real killer and that St. Guillen might have returned to The Falls bar and "hooked up with Dorrian", though NYPD never investigated him as a possible suspect.
Littlejohn's ex-girlfriend, Sandra Smith, testified on May 14, the fourth day of the trial, testifying that after St. Guillen's death, he asked her to lie about using her Chrysler Sebring. Nicholas Petraco, a retired NYPD forensics evidence expert, testified about the presence of fibers from two coats and a jacket at Littlejohn's home in his van, on tape, and on a quilt, though he indicated that fiber analysis is not as good as DNA evidence. A representative of the medical examiner's office testified that Littlejohn's DNA was found on a snow brush found alongside St. Guillen's body, while Littlejohn's mother's hairs were on the quilt. Hairs were also identified as coming from eight other people. Medical examiner Ewelina Bajda said that traces of Littlejohn's blood were found in the locking mechanism of one of the zip-ties found in the Windstar used to bind St. Guillen.
Prosecutors called several witnesses to testify to previous cases in which Littlejohn was alleged to have abducted young women. Woodard, the victim in the 2005 attack, testified about her kidnapping attempt, and the district attorney who prosecuted him testified about the evidence that had led to his conviction, though Justice Gerges warned jurors should not take Woodard's testimony as proof of Littlejohn's "propensity" to commit such crimes. Prosecutors later called a Japanese woman, also a student, who had been raped four months before St. Guillen's death in a manner similar to Woodard's case. David, who objected to both Woodard's and the Japanese woman's testimonies, verbally attacked the second victim's inability to identify Littlejohn in a lineup. While Littlejohn had not been charged in the Japanese student's attack, prosecutors insisted there was "compelling proof" that he was her attacker. Prosecution rested its case on May 28.
Defense
The defense continued to suggest that the DNA-testing of evidence that the city-hired firm, Bode Technology, may have been contaminated in order to frame Littlejohn and to clear bar manager Danny Dorrian. The prosecution criticized the defense's argument that police framed Littlejohn. David in reply said the evidence may suggest her client dumped the body, but it did not prove that Littlejohn killed her. After questioning two detectives about the 25-hour search for evidence in Littlejohn's residence, concluding that none of the more than 50 items confiscated was linked to St. Guillen, and DNA testing had failed to yield a match, the defense rested its case.
Verdict
The jury of six men and six women took less than seven hours to convict Littlejohn of murdering Imette St. Guillen and found him guilty of first degree murder. Before the jurors' verdict, David said to CNN that she believed in the innocence of her client. She repeated that Littlejohn was framed and another man was a likely suspect. Afterward, David said: "We're going to appeal. We're disappointed. I'm hoping this gives the family of the victim some closure. But I think that the wrong man was convicted."
Sentencing
Speaking to St. Guillen's relatives, Judge Abraham G. Gerges said, "I hope that the conclusion of these proceedings today will provide you with some small measure of solace." Judge Gerges directed comments to and about Littlejohn, calling him an unrepentant "predator" who should never taste freedom again. He sentenced him to life without parole. The Judge also paid tribute to St. Guillen, describing her as a 'promising woman who never deserved to die' saying, "If there were truly justice in this world, I would have the power to bring her back to you," addressing Maureen and Alejandra, who cried in the courtroom. He said, "To my great sorrow, that is not possible."
Littlejohn is to serve his sentence consecutively with his previous 25-year-to-life term for kidnapping a Queens woman. David indicated after the sentencing that she would file a notice of appeal and indicated that Littlejohn remained silent. She maintained that he was framed to protect Dorrian.
Civil lawsuits
In 2009 St. Guillen's family settled a confidential suit they brought against The Falls bar in 2007.
In early 2008, St. Guillen's mother brought a civil action against the federal government for US$200 million for their failure to keep track of Littlejohn under his parole. The suit names the Department of Justice, and the U.S. Probation and Pretrial Services Program as defendants. The suit was dismissed in May 2010 by Court of Claims Judge Faviola A. Soto, quoting an NYS Appeals decision that reaffirmed the standard that, "an agency of government is not liable for the negligent performance of a governmental function unless there existed 'a special duty to the injured person, in contrast to a general duty owed to the public.'" In March 2011, the St. Guillen family settled with the Federal government for $130,000. Tracking software for post-release offenders was later named after St. Guillen.
Legacy
Legislation
According to New York's NightLife Association, after St. Guillen's death, crime rates around bars and clubs in New York City had decreased. Her death was one of several high-profile incidents of women murdered after leaving a nightclub. The combined media scrutiny resulted in new and modified laws governing nightclub operations, including their screening of personnel.
Soon after authorities realized that a bouncer may have been the perpetrator, nightclub owners and local politicians met to discuss ways to improve nightlife safety. In February 2007, New York City enacted a law requiring enhanced security and bouncer vetting. New York City club owners also agreed to voluntary guidelines which encourage the use of scanning machines to record the identification of their patrons and also encourage screening patrons for weapons. The guidelines provide for more care in dealing with intoxicated female patrons who are alone. The following month, Boston enacted a similar law, and Boston Mayor Thomas Menino signed an executive order authorizing the cancellation of liquor licenses granted to anyone found to have hired a violent felon.
A joint fundraising effort resulted in establishing the Imette St. Guillen Scholarship for second-year students at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Another scholarship in her name was endowed at Boston Latin School.
Representation in other media
The murder has been fictionalized in the novels Killer Heat by Linda Fairstein and Angel's Tip by Alafair Burke.
St. Guillen's murder is discussed in the Jodi Picoult novel House Rules.
New York band Interpol wrote a song titled "Pioneer to the Falls," which is believed to refer to St. Guillen's murder. The title likely refers to the walk from the Pioneer bar to The Falls bar.
St. Guillen is memorialized by Periel Aschenbrand in "In Memory of Imette", an article in A Memory, A Monologue, A Rant, and A Prayer. This collection of writings edited by Eve Ensler, author of The Vagina Monologues, is read as part of annual V-Day performances that raise funds to stop violence worldwide against women and girls.
The case is featured on HLN's "Forensic Files II" in an episode entitled "Blanket Denial."
See also
Murder of Romona Moore
Nightlife legislation of the United States
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
The Spirit of Imette Foundation
2006 in New York City
2006 murders in the United States
2000s crimes in New York City
2000s trials
2000s in Brooklyn
Crimes in Brooklyn
Deaths by beating in the United States
Deaths by person in New York City
February 2006 crimes in the United States
Female murder victims
Incidents of violence against women
Murder in New York City
Murder trials
Rape in the 2000s
Rape trials in the United States
Rapes in the United States
Violence against women in the United States
Women in New York City |
4259310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakeside%20Apartments%20District%2C%20Oakland%2C%20California | Lakeside Apartments District, Oakland, California | The Lakeside Apartments District neighborhood, also known as The Gold Coast, and simply as The Lakeside, is one of Oakland's historic residential neighborhoods between the Downtown district and Lake Merritt. In the context of a Cultural Heritage Survey, the City of Oakland officially named most of the blocks of the neighborhood "The Lakeside Apartments District," and designated it as a local historic district with architecturally significant historic places, and Areas of Primary Importance (APIs). The greater neighborhood includes the interior blocks officially designated as a local historic district and the 'Gold Coast' peripheral areas along Lakeside Drive, 20th Street, and the west edge of Lake Merritt, areas closer to 14th Street and the Civic Center district, and blocks adjacent to downtown along Harrison Street.
The district is characterized by a predominance of rent-stabilized apartments, mixed-use buildings, and a long history of regional mass transit connections serving its central location. In recent years, mid-rise, mixed-use, market rate, and affordable rental housing has been planned, proposed, approved, constructed, and inhabited. At the present, other developers have proposed market-rate condominium skyscrapers and other high-rise towers which have idled in various stages of the planning process. From 2007 to 2009, the Oakland Planning Commission revised zoning and building height regulations for the neighborhood.
History
The neighborhood was built on what was originally an encinal or Coast Live Oak oak grove on the west shore of the San Antonio Slough, which was later dammed to form Lake Merritt. Prior to the California Mission era, locations around the Slough were fishing and waterfowl hunting grounds for the Ohlone. Later in the Mission era, under the proclaimed authority of his Crown, King Ferdinand VII of Spain deeded the land to Sergeant Luis Maria Peralta in 1820 to become his Rancho San Antonio.
After gold was discovered in 1848 in present-day Coloma to the northeast, Anglo squatters led by lawyer Horace W. Carpentier took control of the East Bay area which was to become downtown Oakland, including land along the San Antonio Slough.
Before Oakland was even incorporated by the State legislature, by 1850, a trio of three ambitious men, to include Carpentier, had leased land from one of Luis' sons, Vincente Peralta. They hired a Swiss engineer, Julius Kellsburger, to prepare a street grid map. They began selling lots, whether through a good faith belief that US sovereignty superseded Mexican claims, or through deliberate fraud perpetrated on Peralta.
The street grid of Kellsburger's map starts at the Oakland Estuary waterfront, and ends at 14th street, the neighborhood's Southeast boundary. The current streets of the neighborhood show up on E.M. Sessions' 1869 map of Oakland, with long sweeping blocks north of 14th Street. That same year, the western terminus of the transcontinental railroad at Seventh and Broadway brought passengers from New York that had been confined to a train for a week, eager for the comforts and amenities of a city. By this time, horse-drawn streetcars brought passengers up Broadway to 14th Street and points beyond. By the 1890s, the neighborhood had become home to large homes on the lake and interior streets.
By the 1920s, apartment buildings and luxury hotels began to sprout up within walking distance from nearby streetcar lines, and Downtown Oakland.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the neighborhood saw continued development of multi-family, mixed-use apartment buildings with the planning and construction of nearby Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) underground rail lines. Starting in 1961, Oakland's "Downtown Property Owner's Association," and the "Central Business District Association" repeatedly advocated for extending Alice Street directly through Snow Park, which was then the grounds of the Snow Museum, past the Schilling Gardens and the Bechtel Building, and down to 20th Street to alleviate traffic congestion that might be caused by the closure of Broadway during construction of the nearby BART line underneath Broadway. The plan met stiff opposition from Oakland's City Council in October 1964, and caused then Mayor Houlihan to remark that "One of the things which has bothered me about Oakland is the presence of these small time feuds. The city could be better advanced by using their (downtown businessman's) energies in more progressive ways." As reported by the Staff of the Oakland Tribune at the time, the City Council in essence told downtown business interests to "quit wasting its time."
In the early 21st century, the area continues to be attractive to developers as AC Transit's bus rapid transit lines are currently being planned for 12th and 11th Streets in the neighboring Civic Center district, and on Broadway downtown.
Historic places and landmarks
The district has an outstanding concentration of club buildings, historic luxury apartments, and a significant cluster of Deco structures, including the terra cotta Charles Jurgens Co. building, the Elks Hall on Alice Street (now the Malonga Casquelord Arts Center), the Hill Castle Apartments on Jackson Street, The Hotel Harrison on Harrison Street, the Scottish Rite Center at the lake's edge on Lakeside Drive, the Alameda County Courthouse in the neighboring Civic Center district, which also features the Civic Center Post Office on 13th Street. The "Ideal Cleaners" shop features a neon sign and period appointments in the Art Deco style. Many of these historic buildings are protected as official city landmarks. During a city Cultural Heritage Survey in the 1980s most of the district was designated as featuring historically significant architectural resources. The Survey was conducted by the city of Oakland's Planning Department and its Landmarks Preservation Advisory Board from 1980 to 1985. Other historic places include the Victorian Camron-Stanford house on the shore of Lake Merritt at 14th Street and Lakeside Drive, the Municipal Boathouse on Lakeside Drive, the Greek revival Scottish Rite Center on Lakeside Drive, the eleven story Bechtel Building at 244 Lakeside, the Alician apartments on Alice Street with its ornate marble entrance, the Regillus condominiums on 19th street, the mission revival Scottish Rite Temple on Madison Street, and the historic Schilling Gardens on 19th Street.
One of the least likely structures to be overlooked—easily visible from a few blocks south of the neighborhood looking up Madison Street, is Tudor Hall. Its distinct architecture resembles the namesake period of the late 15th-early 17th centuries.
The district also features other historic assets in several three to eight story apartment buildings, this height being a character-defining feature of most of the historic district. Some exceptions to this character punctuate the neighborhood, to include Noble Tower on Lakeside Drive, and the Essex Condominiums at 17th and Lakeside, completed in 2001.
Parks and community assets
Lakeside park
The district is adjacent to Lakeside Park, which lies to the east and northeast of the district. Lakeside Park is a public city park ring and green space surrounding Lake Merritt and is often called the Crown Jewel of Oakland's parks. Lakeside park is historically significant as featuring North America's first official wildlife refuge, designated in 1870. The state legislature voted the Lake Merritt Wildlife Refuge into law in 1870, making it the first such refuge on the North American continent. No hunting of any sort was to be allowed and the only fishing was to be by hook and line. Under the name Lake Merritt Wild Duck Refuge, the site became a National Historic Landmark on May 23, 1963. It also features a garden center with several cultivated gardens, and the Municipal Boat House on Lakeside Drive. A large restaurant has opened in the Boat House building, which has undergone extensive renovations, and was re-dedicated by city staff in 2009 in anticipation of its re-opening.
Malonga Casquelourd Center for the Arts
The neighborhood also features the Malonga Casquelourd Center for the Arts on Alice Street, a public community asset owned and administered by the City of Oakland and its Department of Parks and Recreation. Formerly known as the Alice Arts Center, this building was renamed in 2004 in honor of Malonga Casquelourd, a Congolese dancer, choreographer, singer, percussionist, and cultural ambassador of the arts who was killed in 2003 by a drunk driver traveling in the wrong direction on a blind curve on Lakeside Drive in front of the Essex condominium building.
The Alice Arts Center was opened in 1987 under then-Mayor Lionel Wilson. It has a 400-seat theater and fine arts and dance studios where numerous dancers, percussionists, and other musicians study and create music and visual arts. It has become a vibrant center for dance and music, particularly African- and African-American-influenced dance forms from Congolese, Guinean and Afro-Brazilian to jazz and hip-hop. City officials estimate that the center serves 50,000 people a year through classes and performances. The Oakland Ballet has had offices and rehearsals at the center.
The building also features 74 S.R.O. hotel rooms where artists in residence reside. In 2003, then-Mayor Jerry Brown proposed expanding his Oakland School for the Arts, which was at the time housed in the basement and first floor of the Alice Street building, to the entire six-floor center. Numerous hotel rooms were withheld and kept vacant while plans were made to displace the artist tenants from their S.R.O. hotel rooms and studios in the center.
The building also features a prominent ground floor retail space adjacent to its main entrance. Over the years the space was the home to a cafe with poetry readings. From late 2003 until early 2007, the space was home to the "Jahva House" cafe, owned by Oakland musician Dwayne Wiggins of the music group Tony! Toni! Toné!. The cafe relocated there following its move from a Lakeshore Avenue space. The cafe featured Wednesday night poetry slams, a traditional African drum craftsman with a sidewalk workshop, and regular live music performances. At present Oakland's Real Estate Division is seeking a retail tenant for the space.
Oakland main library
The neighborhood is also walking distance to the Main Branch of the Oakland Public Library on 14th Street between Madison and Oak Street.
Oakland Museum of California
The Oakland Museum of California is located at 11th and Oak Streets in the neighboring Civic Center district.
Snow Park
The district is also adjacent to Oakland's Snow Park a , public city park bordered by 19th Street, the Schilling Gardens Parcel, Harrison Street and Lakeside Drive. Snow Park, which is named after Oakland resident Henry Snow, was once the site of the first Oakland Zoo, the Sidney Snow Zoo, named after Henry Snow's son, which opened in 1943. It currently features public restroom facilities, sitting benches, mature shade trees, a grassy, sunlit meadow, and a golf putting green, which many neighborhood and citywide residents, and nearby office workers enjoy.
Schools and colleges
Residents of the neighborhood are zoned to schools in the Oakland Unified School District. Zoned schools include Lincoln Elementary School (K-5), which is the local public elementary school.
Westlake Middle School, and Oakland Technical High School are the respective intermediate and secondary schools.
Laney College is a public community college located at the south end of the Civic Center neighborhood. Cal State East Bay has the Oakland Professional Development and Conference Center at Broadway and 11th Street. Continuing education courses are offered.
Land development
The neighborhood is located between Lake Merritt and Downtown Oakland. In recent years, market-rate housing developers have proposed constructing a variety of residential and residential mixed-use buildings which have been proposed to be anywhere from five to forty-two stories high. Neighborhood residents have voiced their concerns and objections to various proposed developments. Others have pressed developers to include meaningful community benefits to improve proposed projects at "community meetings," and before Oakland's Preliminary Design Review Committee, the City's Planning Commission and City Council.
In recent years Oakland city planning authorities have approved proposed residential mixed use development projects in this neighborhood in part because they are considered by some to be "infill". In other words, they are "filling in" under-utilized "vacant" lots in an urbanized setting. Most all such lots have had daily commercial use such as surface parking for the neighborhood's drive-in workforce by day, and for some of the neighborhood's automobile driving residents and drive-in bar and restaurant patrons by night. One such vacant lot on 14th Street at Madison, directly adjacent to the boundaries of the neighborhood, is used as a preschool playground for several neighborhood children who attend the school, as it is within walking distance for their 'car-free' parents. A developer recently proposed a project for this particular lot which has been tentatively titled "1301 Madison".
Some developers purport that projects proposed for the district's parcels, developed and undeveloped, are substantially exempted from the environmental review provisions of the California Environmental Quality Act(CEQA) because they are considered "infill" parcels. In other words, CEQA has a special provision for streamlined environmental review for infill projects located in urban areas of Oakland. Conversely, some activists have pointed to the applicability of the "Cumulative Impact" provisions of CEQA arguing that the residents of the neighborhood have already been subjected to several consecutive years of construction, dust, pile-driving and general construction noise, and carcinogenic diesel fumes from idling trucks and heavy equipment.
Mid-rise, mixed-use apartment buildings
An unfinished building languished in the neighborhood from 2003 to 2009. Originally planned as "Jackson Courtyard Condominiums," the mixed-use building at 1401 Jackson Street features transit oriented development characteristics such as ground-floor retail shop spaces and a dedicated bicycle parking room at street level. For several years, the incomplete project sat partially finished, shrink-wrapped in white plastic sheeting, reminiscent of a condom, hence its local nickname: "Trojan Tower." In September 2008, the shrink-wrap was removed for the second time from the building. In the summer of 2009, after years of extensive reconstruction work, the building finally received its certificate of occupancy and has been replanned for monthly rental apartments. Its first residents began moving into the building in August 2009, a full six years after the original developer of the project broke ground.
In 2008, "Affordable Housing Associates", a Berkeley, California non-profit completed a seven-story, 76-unit apartment building which has been funded in part with affordable housing entitlement funds and pre-development loans from the California Department of Housing and Community Development and the City of Oakland. It includes studio and one-, two- and three-bedroom units that feature a combination of traditional floor plans as well as two-story lofts with flexible layouts. The building features transit-oriented development characteristics to include multiple ground floor retail shop spaces, a transit information kiosk, and 54 parking spaces for 73 units, a ratio of .74 parking spaces per unit, which departs from Oakland's current 'one to one' parking ratio planning law. This project came under intense scrutiny from neighborhood activists for its architectural design which contrasts with the character of a mosque next door to the project, the Islamic Cultural Center of Northern California, a historic mission-revival building that was originally the Scottish Rite masonic temple.
Proposed condominium skyscrapers
(a.k.a. "222 19th Street"/"19th Street Residential Condominiums Project")
In 2005, a group of land speculators purchased a historic 1920s luxury apartment building at 244 Lakeside Drive on Lake Merritt. The Greenfield land behind the building features the historic Schilling Gardens. The Shilling Gardens is the last remaining portion of a cultivated Japanese garden originally planted in 1886 behind spice magnate August Schilling's Victorian mansion once located on the West shore of Lake Merritt. Today the garden features a shaded grove of several mature Coast Redwood trees, ferns, a sunny lawn area, and hundreds of other cultivated plants laid out into a multi-tiered, brick masonry landscape design, with artistic concrete floral canopy arbors and walking paths. The garden as a whole is considered by the City of Oakland's Register of Historical Resources, and Oakland's Landmarks Preservation Advisory Board, to be a landmark "of highest importance."
After purchasing the parcel, the owners divided the parcel into two pieces, one along Lakeside Drive featuring the apartment building, and another parcel behind the building featuring the gardens. The owners then sought to donate the gardens parcel to the City of Oakland in exchange for Historic Preservation property tax credits. Oakland's Real Estate Services Division and Office of Parks and Recreation Staff entered into discussions with the owners. City staff asserted the parcel would need disability accessibility improvements as per the ADA and its own dedicated bathroom facilities, despite bathroom facilities immediately next door at Snow Park. The city staff also insisted the owners pay $760,000 for the aforementioned upgrades, and an additional $178,000 per year, in perpetuity, for ongoing maintenance.
Subsequently, the negotiations fell apart and Oakland's office of Parks and Recreation Director said she didn't bring the decision before the Oakland City Council because she thought that the department dealing with the owner, Oakland's CEDA Real Estate Services Division, was doing that. The director of Oakland Community and Economic Development Agency, Real Estate Services Division denied any responsibility for the missed opportunity. He said he was presented with "budget restraints" and that, in any case, his role was limited to providing "real estate-related expertise.".
In 2006, the owners, two Santa Clara County residents, and a former San Francisco Building Inspection Commissioner, and pari mutuel racehorse owner, proposed a 42-story high-rise condominium skyscraper for the historic Schilling Gardens parcel. They have tentatively labeled the project "Emerald Views" though the official planning documents on file with the city of Oakland refer to the project as "222 19th Street." This parcel is approximately one half block from the lake's current shoreline, at 222 19th Street between Jackson and Alice Streets. Standing at approximately tall measured from grade to the top of roof spires., the Emerald Views skyscraper would become the tallest building in Oakland If constructed, the project's architect concedes that "the entire site has to be dug up" and the trees completely destroyed, to construct the new tower, due to its size and extent However, the architect claims the developers intend to replant some of the existing shrubs, plants, and ferns in a new garden area that will abut the sides and back of their proposed building.
While any project on the parcel could diminish the neighborhood's tree canopy, the proposed skyscraper's height and bulk could cast a shadow over a significant portion of Lakeside Park in the afternoons, and the remaining areas of Snow Park that currently receive easterly sunlight every morning, since trees currently shade much of Snow Park. Because of its height, the building would also be anticipated to cast a long shadow over Lake Merritt, Lakeside Park, and the bird sanctuary within Lakeside Park to the east of the parcel. To date the developers have only publicly circulated a sunlight and shadow impact rendering for high noon on the summer solstice, the time of the year with the most sun and the least shadow. The other sunlight and shadow study renderings will be published in the project's upcoming draft Environmental Impact Report (EIR) which may also include hydro-geological issues, air and noise pollution, among other potential environmental impacts.
Former San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown previously owned a 20 percent stake in the Schilling Gardens parcel, but sold out his share to the other owners in 2006 and maintains that he fears that an adjacent high-rise will hurt the value of the building he bought into. Speaking about the project to investigative reporter Phil Matier, Brown claimed in 2006 that "I ain't in that deal."
Since 2006, the owners have assembled a real estate development team led by San Francisco resident Michael Joseph O'Donoghue, more commonly known as Joe O'Donoghue, who is credited with dramatically changing the landscape across the bay in San Francisco through his long history of a variety of lobbying activity for development projects on behalf of the San Francisco Residential Builders Association (RBA). The parcel owners have also retained the services of Oakland's "Go-To-Lobbyist"
who resigned from his job as a legislative aide to the current Oakland City Council President Ignacio De La Fuente during a time of controversy over conflicts on interest on zoning matters affecting his personal real property portfolio. This former legislative aide's corporation, "Terra Linda Development Services," is an Oakland-based consulting firm which labels itself as "a land development and entitlement consulting company."
In late 2007, the aforementioned "go to" lobbyist was involved in the founding of the "Oakland Builder's Alliance" which purports to achieve its goals "through the promotion and development of innovative policies, through supporting leaders that promote economic growth in Oakland, and through direct organizing in support of leaders and policies that address the needs of our members and the broad building community of Oakland."
On August 8, 2008, the Oakland CEDA Planning and Zoning Division posted Tree Removal Permit Application notices on the gates to the parcel. The gardens feature a grove of several mature Coast Redwood trees that would be completely destroyed by the buildings bulk and mass. This tree removal application is a 'Development Application' regulated by the City of Oakland, and subject to City Council oversight and appeal.
In early 2007, a developer, proposed the construction of a 37-story market-rate condominium skyscraper at 1439 Alice Street, directly across the street from the Malonga Casquelourd Center for the Arts, and adjacent to the three story 1920s Cliff Apartments. The building would be one of the tallest in Oakland, second only to the Ordway Building in the neighboring Downtown district. The building would be built on a parcel that currently features a combined two story parking garage and retail shop space with an active, longtime retail tenant. The project would maintain the current parking garage facade, with its existing design for the first two levels, with a modern, angular glass tower springing out of the top, and rising to a height of . Though the developer did propose a ground floor wine bar/cold food cafe space for a small portion of the first floor, he proposed an overall reduction in the square footage of the existing ground floor retail space and a substantial square footage for the proposed building resident lobby, and elimination of a current first floor exterior retail space entrance. The developer also proposed a mid-building "wellness center"/"personal services" commercial space. Depending upon a final zoning designation and the planning process however, this commercial space could also be used as medical or professional office or an inclusive, approachable space with a neighborhood-serving retail tenant. Supporters of the Arts Center had concerns that those would move into the building could eventually have a reverse sensitivity to the music and drumming across the street.
Political representation
The entire neighborhood lies within the boundaries of Oakland City Council District 3, represented by Carroll Fife, who defeated incumbent Lynette Gibson McElhaney in the 2020 City Council election.
At the county level, the neighborhood lies within Alameda County Board of Supervisors District 5 and is represented by Supervisor Keith Carson.
At the state level, the neighborhood is in , and .
Retail
Most neighborhood restaurants, shops, and services are locally owned and independently operated and enjoy a good business relationship with neighborhood residents who walk to them. Immediately within the neighborhood are small ground floor retail shop spaces which currently feature six grocery and liquor markets, two laundry and dry-cleaner shops, a fabric shop, a tattoo parlor, a gym, a sidewalk cafe one block from Lake Merritt open into the evenings, a pet shop, a diner, a sandwich shop, and two bars. In the fall of 2008, several new ground floor retail shop spaces will be available for lease at two new mixed-use developments on 14th Street in the neighborhood.
Transportation
Mass transit legacy
In 1871, Oakland's first horse-drawn streetcar line running down Broadway was not three years old when Hiram Tubbs opened his luxurious "Tubbs Hotel" at Fifth Avenue in what was then "Brooklyn," an independent municipality on the east side of the tidal slough which is now lake Merritt. Tubbs, flush with cash from his hemp cordage business and Comstock Lode silver bullion, wanted his hotel to be the on par with the finest in the state. He spared no expense, investing US$110,000 in 1871 dollars for the building and over US$100,000 more on furniture for the rooms.
Hoping to lure passengers from overland trains, Tubbs had rail laid at his own expense, for his own horse-drawn streetcar line, the "Tubbs Line," to carry passengers from the Train Depot at 7th and Broadway eastward to his hotel. The line went up Broadway to 12th Street, and then down 12th Street through what is now the Civic Center neighborhood, out to 13th Avenue. Tubbs' choice of track routing later evolved into the Oakland Brooklyn and Fruitvale Railroad, and eventually, the "A line" of the Key System of electric streetcars which later ran down 12th and 13th Streets. Today, the 12th Street corridor serves articulated AC Transit buses and is currently being planned for a bus rapid transit line.
In the 1960s, on the Broadway corridor, the BART system was planned and constructed, opening for service in 1972 at three stations, each approximately 1/3 mile from the neighborhood.
Rapid transit
Many residents in this neighborhood do not own or drive cars and walk to transit connections such as the Oakland City Center/12th Street, 19th Street, and Lake Merritt BART stations.
Within the neighborhood, AC Transit's 26 line carries passengers to and from the neighborhood along 14th Street, routing directly to nearby BART stations. AC Transit's Uptown Regional Transit Center bus mall on nearby Thomas L. Berkeley Way (20th Street) is now in full farebox service, and features multiple bus shelters with seating, NextBus arrival prediction signs, local and Rapid Bus service to Oakland's streetcar suburbs. These stations host local service, Rapid service, Transbay Express, and All Nighter service. A Translink Add Value Machine is located at AC Transit Headquarters on Franklin Street. The number 1 line running along the neighborhood on 12th Street, between San Leandro and Berkeley, is years into the planning process for the implementation of a full scale bus rapid transit line. The most substantial planning alternative proposed for this system would feature double-articulated buses with five to six doors at boarding platform level, a separated bus-only lane, center median platforms with proof-of-payment ticket machines to speed boarding, and signalization priority to allow bus drivers to change traffic lights in their favor.
Bicycle and pedestrian Facilities
Other residents use bicycle infrastructure in the area such as the neighborhood's class three Arterial Bike Route: 14th Street, 'BikeLink' bicycle lockers at the nearby 12th Street /City Center, 19th Street, and Lake Merritt BART Stations, and numerous city-installed bike racks to which they can lock their bikes. A Bicycle Rental business rents bikes by the hour nearby on the East side of Downtown. Oakland's Bicycle Master Plan, and Oakland's Measure DD park improvement plan for Lake Merritt calls for an automobile lane reduction and re-striping of bike lanes onto two of the district's streets: Lakeside Drive and Madison Street, and on nearby Webster and Franklin Streets, North of 14th Street. The plan also calls for the installation of a separated class one bikeway and multi-use trail immediately around the perimeter of Lake Merritt, and class two bicycle lanes on all arterial streets surrounding the lake, such as Grand Avenue, between Harrison and Macarthur, where a bike lane already exists, and on Lakeshore Boulevard, onto which a bicycle lane has been planned and contracted to be striped.
Taxicabs and carsharing
An officially zoned taxicab stand is located at the Northeast corner of 19th and Harrison Streets, next to Snow Park. Automobile taxis are available, and a local bicycle pedicab service is on-call during daytime and early evening hours.
A locally based car sharing service, City CarShare, has a shared car and shared truck at 14th and Jackson, and one car at the Lakehurst Apartment Hotel at 17th and Jackson. An hourly carsharing provider, Zipcar, has three locations in the neighborhood, two cars at 15th and Jackson, and one at 15th and Harrison. A former Zipcar location at 17th and Harrison was removed in early 2008 for environmental scoping on that corner parcel, which has recently been repaved and re-striped for the resumption of parking lot operations. Nonetheless, the lot is currently fenced in anticipation of proposed development on the parcel.
Private vehicle storage
Due to high demand for parking within the neighborhood, both from a density of residents and from numerous nearby parking "attractors," parts of the streets of the neighborhood have been zoned into Oakland's Area-F Residential Permit Parking (RPP) zone which includes most streets in the neighborhood. This program allows for annual fee-based issuance of one sticker per residence or business from the Parking Enforcement Division of Oakland's Finance and Management Agency. The sticker allows those permit-holders who can find a safe space in the public right-of-way to store a car for three days with exemption from the posted parking restrictions, which are two hours in most areas, reducing cold starts and resulting vehicle emissions.
Violent crime
Crime and census statistics published by Oakland police and government circa 2017–2020 indicate a lowering of violent crime correlated to Oakland's sustained economic revival, hypergentrification in general, and the influx of affluent residents to the district in particular.
Nonetheless, property crimes and acts of violence occur periodically, directly within the interior of the neighborhood. The neighborhood lies completely within Oakland's Police Beat 4x, one of 35 across the city. Eleven years ago, in 2009, violent crimes, as reported by the Oakland Police Department, included five burglaries, twelve robberies, and multiple assaults during the summer of 2009.
Oscar Grant murder riots
In the days following BART Police Officer Johannes Mehserle's shooting of Oscar Grant on New Year's Morning 2009, and the ensuing reaction by the Alameda County District Attorney's office, justice activists and community members organized response actions and demonstrations. On January 7, about 200 people marched in protest into Oakland's Central Business District. Some became violent and began rioting. Police lines pushed the rioting east from Downtown along 14th Street and into the neighborhood, where rioters continued rioting on Jackson Street and Madison Street. After helicopter-mounted television cameras broadcast images of rioters smashing the windows at a McDonald's restaurant at 14th and Jackson, the rioting briefly wound down after Mayor Ron Dellums and other Oakland leaders came out to the scene to plead with the crowd for calm. Rioters caused over $200,000 in damage while breaking shop and car windows, burning several cars, to include one on Madison Street, setting trash bins on fire, and throwing bottles at police officers. Police arrested over 100.
See also
Community land trust
Gentrification
Inclusionary zoning
Planned shrinkage
Rent Control
Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
Transit Oriented Development
Transit-proximate development
Urban renewal
References
Further reading
External links
Lakeside Apartment Neighborhood Association
The Downtown Lake Merritt Neighborhood Group Website
The Downtown Lake Merritt Neighborhood Group Listerv
Downtown Lake Merritt Neighborhood Group Blog
Downtown (Oakland) Lake Merritt Neighborhood Group's Facebook page
Neighborhoods in Oakland, California |
4259402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition%20studies | Composition studies | Composition studies (also referred to as composition and rhetoric, rhetoric and composition, writing studies, or simply composition) is the professional field of writing, research, and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States.
In most US and some Canadian colleges and universities, undergraduates take freshman or higher-level composition courses. To support the effective administration of these courses, there are developments of basic and applied research on the acquisition of writing skills, and an understanding of the history of the uses and transformation of writing systems and writing technologies (among many other subareas of research), over 70 American universities offer doctoral study in rhetoric and composition. These programs of study usually include composition pedagogical theory, linguistics, professional and technical communication, qualitative and quantitative research methods, the history of rhetoric, as well as the influence of different writing conventions and genres on writers' composing processes more generally.
Composition scholars also publish in the fields of teaching English as a second or foreign language (TESOL) or second language writing, writing centers, and new literacies.
Basic writing
Many historians of Composition Studies argue that the matter of who exactly should be defined as a "basic writer" and what counts as "basic writing" is complex. The definition of "basic" has been disputed when framed around issues of writing proficiency in "Standard English," increasingly racially/ethnically diverse college demographics, which both resulted from post-secondary desegregation mandates. For example, the term "basic writing" has been attributed to the SEEK program started by Mina P. Shaughnessy at the City University of New York, which she designed to help incoming college students from open admissions who had not historically been able to attend college. Consistent with then-current educational theories, many of these courses focused on what were at that time believed to be core concepts of formal English, like spelling, usage, and organization, though as the field has advanced these courses are increasingly aligned with the curricula found in mainstream first-year composition. Basic writing coursework has diversified considerably since its beginnings in non-credit-bearing 'pre' college courses, including stretch, studio, and accelerated offerings, although they remain typically understood as precursors to or supplements for mainstream first-year composition.
First-year composition
Most US universities have a required first-year composition course, also referred to as FYC. Although both are typically housed in Departments of English, these courses are not the same as literature courses, which focus on literary analysis and interpretation. While some colleges and universities do incorporate literature and other humanities into their composition courses, it is much more often the case that composition coursework offers intensive instruction in writing non-fiction, expository texts using academic discourse conventions. Writing curricula vary considerably from institution to institution, but it may emphasize many stages of different writing processes (invention or brainstorming, drafting, revision, editing, proofreading), different forms of writing (narration, exposition, description, argumentation, comparison, and contrast), different portions of the written product (introductions, conclusions, thesis statements, presentation and documentation of forms of evidence, inclusion of quotations, etc.), along with different modalities of composing to expand the concept of 'writing'. Pedagogies or approaches to teaching writing are grounded in a range of different traditions and philosophies.
Advanced composition
Some universities require further instruction in writing and offer courses that expand upon the skills developed in first-year composition. Second level or advanced composition may emphasize forms of argumentation and persuasion, digital media, research and source documentation formats, and/or genres of writing across a range of disciplines and genres (see below). For example, the skills required to write business letters or annual reports will differ significantly from those required to write historical or scientific research or personal memoirs.
Graduate studies
Doctoral programs in Composition Studies are available at 94 universities, and Masters programs are available in over 170 universities. Such programs are commonly housed within English Studies or Education programs. However, recently there are an increasing number of departments specifically dedicated to this field of study (e.g. Composition Studies, Writing & Rhetoric, Composition & Linguistics, etc.).
Second-language writing
Second language writing is the practice of teaching English composition to non-native speakers and writers of English. Teaching writing to ESL students does not receive much attention because even in ESL classes teachers focus on speaking, listening, and reading, not just writing. Paul Kei Matsuda in his article "Situating ESL Writing in a Cross-Disciplinary Context" stresses the importance of teaching writing specifically with understanding the needs of ESL students to help them improve their writing. Teaching writing has progressed through several approaches during the history of education in the United States. ESL teachers might need to explore common methods which are the cognitive, social and expressive theories to create an approach that meets the needs of ESL writers and help them to overcome their difficulties.
The first one of these approaches is the cognitive view which says that writing is progressing from one stage to another in a series of single steps. That means "good" writing is a planned process, which includes planning, translating, and reviewing. "Understanding Composing" by Sondra Perl explains in detail this approach. She suggests that the composition of writing occurs as a recursive process. She took this idea from her observation of different writers. She thinks that writers return to backward parts of the process in order to move "forward" with the overall composition. ESL teachers may find this approach helpful at first in teaching beginning ESL students because at this level students do not have large amounts of vocabulary and grammar or knowledge of the style of essays which is the basis of writing English. Al-Buainain Haifa in her article "Student Writing Errors in EFL," points out that, when a researcher asked ESL students by using a survey what they would like to have learned or learned better in their writing classes, they found that the largest percentages expressed specific needs in vocabulary and grammar. Many kinds of grammar make ESL students confused, especially because there are many exceptions. Because writing styles are different in different languages, ESL students need time to master them. Therefore, ESL teachers should find an effective way to teach ESL students vocabulary, grammar, and style because the writing of English requires them. The cognitive approach can meet these needs because it emphasizes the steps, organization, and process of writing.
Another approach is the social view which shows the importance of teaching writing by making students learn the different languages of discourse communities. This is what David Bartholomae emphasizes in his article "Inventing the University". He uses "Inventing the University" as a phrase that describes the writing process that a student will experience when writing teachers ask them to write about a topic that relates to a discourse community that is new for them. A discourse community can be thought of as members of an academic discipline or a select audience. When ESL students have become good at grammar and style, they face a large problem when they enter their chosen academic field. Bartholomae in this article illustrates that each academic community has a particular language or vocabulary. The problem is that any academic field has its own language, even jargon, that differs from one to another. This problem is faced not only by ESL students, but all American students will struggle with this when they begin the first year of their academic life. The social approach can be used by ESL teachers as a second step but they should make sure that their students master the basics of English writing such as grammar and style.
Moreover, the expressive view which is represented in Donald Murray's article "Teach Writing as a Process Not Product", allows for wittier creating and freer movement. It suggests three elements for "good" writing which are integrity, originality, and spontaneity. However, it is difficult to evaluate them in a paper. Therefore, these standards cannot be relied upon to judge writing. In addition, these elements are not the important elements that help to assess "good" writing. ESL teachers might use this approach but it can only be used for highly advanced ESL students. It is difficult to ask ESL students to write freely if they possess limited vocabulary or grammar. They need examples to help them which they can find in the cognitive approach.
ESL teachers may use these common ways of teaching writing, but they need first to understand their student's difficulties. Learning writing is one of the essential difficulties that ESL students find in studying English, especially since writing is important in an academic community. Some ESL students may need to jump from being a student who does not speak English ever to a student who uses academic language in a short time which may put a large burden on their shoulders. Hence, teaching writing to ESL students is different than teaching native speakers. ESL teachers need to choose an effective way to meet the needs of ESL students. It would be helpful if ESL teachers look at these different ways of teaching writing to see which one addresses ESL students' difficulties in the best way or if a combination of these theories may be better.
Multicultural pedagogies
Basis in composition studies
While multicultural pedagogies are not specifically tied to second-language writing pedagogies, compositionists have often considered how students' cultural knowledge and use of idioms, dialects, and/or languages other than American Edited English (AEA) can enhance their instruction in English composition. For example, Maxine Hairston's "Diversity, Ideology, and Teaching Writing" advocates for students' expressivist writing to be central in a composition course, and believes students "need to write to find out how much they know and to gain confidence in the ability to express themselves effectively" (186). Hairston also believes that teachers can design writing assignments to encourage "cross-cultural awareness" (191). In addition, Beth Daniell's approach in "Narratives of Literacy: Connecting College Composition to Culture" describes how studies in "little narratives [that] almost all examine literacy in particular local settings" championed by scholars who "seldom make theoretical statements that claim to be valid for literate cultures in general or literate cultures in general," which would allow students to engage in cultural critique (403). Aaron Schutz and Anne Ruggles Gere's article for College English, "Service Learning and English Studies," described how Schutz's course, while it was mainly focused in service-learning and local activism, engaged students in collaborative research and writing surrounding campus-wide issues, such as an instance of racial discrimination that occurred in the local student union; this allowed students to engage in cultural awareness as well as a cultural critique (129-39).
Furthermore, In Empowering Education, Ira Shor delineates a pedagogy in which the teacher facilitates discussion of generative themes produced by the students, using the example of his basic writing course with working-class students at "a low-budget college in New York City" several decades ago (10). The Freirean approach for teaching literacy and writing that Shor reviews in Empowering Education demonstrates how the generative words manifested themselves "[through] researching local issues and language in the students' communities. From the many linguistic and sociological items...the educators selected some key concerns—generative themes expressed through generative words" (55). In this framework, teachers and students research these items collaboratively, and once students have presented their research on problems in their community, they may begin to decide how they might analyze and upend power structures or rhetorical situations that contribute to and exacerbate such issues. For Shor's classroom, "[t]he generative themes [that have] emerg[ed]...from student culture have most often related to sex, abortion, drugs, family, education, careers, work, and the economic crisis" (56). Shor believes it is important to allow students to build a basis for problem-posing upon their prior knowledge and experiences to make it multicultural.
Shor also reviews Paolo Freire's literacy project in Brazil as described in Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which enforces the idea that all people are creators of culture through visuals, oral discussion, and creation of word lists that are the basis for which the people begin to use language to express how the dominant culture operates, how their home culture operates, and how these systemic actions impact themselves and the world. In this way, both Freire and Shor believe problem-posing education can be situated in multicultural practices as well as critical literacy practices. Shor insists "subject matter is best introduced as problems related to the student experience, in language familiar to them".
Critical reception
Overall, previous scholars' discussion of multiculturalism in the classroom seems to privilege "cross-cultural interactions" and valuing students' home languages as well as their cultural ideologies. However, in Donald Lazere's Political Literacy in Composition and Rhetoric, Lazere criticizes Hairston, Daniell, Schutz, Gere, and other scholars for their approaches because of their singular focus on localism in lieu of more "global" and critical approaches to the study of culture in the composition classroom (152-153). In addition, Lazere was critical of scholars' tendency to diminish the power of Edited American English (EAE) and misrepresent the power of the students' regional code (116). While Lazere supports Shor's approach to multicultural critical pedagogy, he admits some level of discomfort with applying it in his own classroom especially with respect to how much responsibility and stock Shor places in students (39).
Current approaches
Lazere's critique of previous scholarship related to multiculturalism pedagogies, in Political Literacy in Composition and Rhetoric and elsewhere, has prompted current composition theorists, both in second-language writing and in the field of composition in general, to consider how multicultural pedagogies can embrace globalism as much as localism.
For example, Lisa Eck's "Thinking Globally, Teaching Locally" describes how Eck teaches world literature courses in which students read cultural narratives and problematize them—in the article, she references her use of Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions in her composition classroom. Through her teaching, she is attempting to answer the question of how multicultural pedagogical practices could still be based in research, critical literacy, and problem-posing education. In her approach, she engages students in the kind of literary criticism that is necessary for analyzing and evaluating critical discourse: "I work to make hybrid postcolonial identities familiar, even analogous at times, to what we understand as the process of identity formation for the average postmodern college student....I [also] use the Otherness of the cultures reproduced in foreign texts to estrange the American familiar" (579). The kinds of inquiry students are using to analyze the text are to show how the text is both "not about you" and "about you," and how these processes of identity formation are the kinds of processes necessary to critically evaluate public discourse.
Furthermore, Jennifer S. Wilson's approach to critical pedagogy in second-language writing as she describes it in her article, "Engaging Second Language Writers in Freshman Composition: A Critical Approach," utilizes a perspective that provides opportunities for the types of writing necessary for students to critically analyze and evaluate ideologies entrenched in the dominant discourse, even as they are learning English as their second language. In other words, the four major elements of the course that Wilson describes, especially with respect to the ideas she offers for critical writing assignments, create alternative pathways for students to produce writing that has the potential to disrupt cultural and political ideologies represented in various avenues and niches of the dominant public discourse. For example, in addition to incorporating "local topics," Wilson provides options for students to "investigate language use in certain communities, societies, or cultures" as well as "investigating" the relationships between language and power (8-9). Even more important, she insists that "[c]ritical pedagogy is concerned with minimizing the power differential between student and teacher; in composition classrooms, one way for students to maximize their voices is to publish their work in authentic ways" (9).
Writing across the curriculum
Because academic discourse is not monolithic (in other words, there are curricula that address that the concept of academic discourse can be applied to specific parts of a writing curriculum), many compositionists have created writing across the curriculum (WAC) movement that situates writing-intensive instruction in specific academic discourse communities.
The reading and apprenticeship connections
According to some writing theorists, reading for pleasure provides a more effective way of mastering the art of writing than does a formal study of writing, language, grammar, and vocabulary.The apprenticeship approach provides one variant of the reading connection, arguing that the composition classroom should resemble pottery or piano workshops—minimizing dependence on excessive self-reflection, preoccupation with the audience, and explicit rules. By watching the master, according to Michael Polanyi, an "apprentice unconsciously picks up the rules of the art, including those which are not explicitly known to the master himself." Writing instructors, according to this approach, serve as models and coaches, providing explicit feedback in response to the learner's compositions. Students focus their attention on the task at hand, and not on "an inaccessible and confusing multitude of explicit rules and strategies."
Writing in the disciplines
Many university writing programs include writing in the disciplines (WID) courses, which focus on the genres and writing procedures that occur within specific fields of research.
Writing center
Many colleges and universities have a writing center, which offers supplementary tutorial support for writing specifically in English classes and/or across the curriculum. Many universities not in North America only offer writing instruction via writing centers. The European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing (EATAW), for example, specifically concerns itself with the study and advancement of writing centers in Europe.
Writing centers serve the purpose of writing as a social process that demands engaging both tutors and writers.
Since multimodality has resonated with Composition Studies, many writing centers have developed associated centers to support students' multimodal, multimedia composing. Some models for this work include the digital studio and the multiliteracy center.
See also
Cognitive rhetoric
Comics studies
Communication studies
Composition (language)
Conference on College Composition and Communication
Contrastive rhetoric
Digital rhetoric
English studies
Media theory of composition
National Writing Project
Professional communication
Technical communication
Technical writing
Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy
Writing assessment
Writing center
Writing center assessment
References
Further reading
Bartholomae, David The tidy house: Basic writing in the American curriculum.. Writing on the Margins. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2005. 312–326.
Berlin, James A. Rhetoric and Reality: Writing Instruction in American Colleges, 1900–1985. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1987.
Connors, Robert J. Composition–Rhetoric: Backgrounds, Theory, and Pedagogy. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh P, 1997.
Corbett, Edward P.J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Oxford UP. Several editions; last in 1999.
Crowley, Sharon. Composition in the University: Historical and Polemical Essays. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh P, 1998.
Cushman, Ellen. The Struggle and the Tools: Oral and Literate Strategies in an Inner City Community. SUNY P, 1998.
Faigley, Lester. Fragments of Rationality: Postmodernity and the Subject of Composition. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh P, 1992.
Finer, Siegel, and White-Farnham, Jamie. Writing Program Architecture: Thirty Cases for Reference and Research. U of Utah P, 2017.
Horner, Winifred Bryan, and Lynee Lewis Gaillet, eds. The Present State of Scholarship in the History of Rhetoric: A Twenty-First Century Guide. U of Missouri, 2010.
Miller, Susan. Textual Carnivals: The Politics of Composition. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1991.
Miller, Susan. The Norton Book of Composition Studies. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009.
North, Stephen. The Making of Knowledge in Composition Studies. Upper Montclair, N.J.: Boynton/Cook, 1987.
Perryman-Clark Staci M. "African American Languages, Rhetoric, and Students' Writing: New directions for SRTOL [students' right to their own language]. College Composition and Communication 64.3 (2013): 469–495.
Phelps, Louise Wetherbee. Composition as a Human Science. New York: Oxford UP, 1988.
Royster, Jacqueline Jones. Traces of a Stream: Literacy and Social Change Among African American Women. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000.
Tate, Gary. Teaching Composition: 12 Bibliographical Essays. Fort Worth: TCU P, 1986.
External links
College Composition and Communication (CCC) Online Archive
Composition Studies
Computers and Composition
Conference on College Composition and Communication
European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing (EATAW)
IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication
Rhetoric Society of America
Rhetoric
Composition (language)
Writing
Educational programs |
4259418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ojamajo%20Doremi%20characters | List of Ojamajo Doremi characters | The following is the list of characters from the Japanese magical girl anime television series Ojamajo Doremi.
Ojamajos (Witch Apprentices)
Doremi is the main protagonist of the series. She is a lively and kind girl, who always cares about the people around her. Yet she also longs for love, and can come across as a little confused at times. She is very interested in witches and magical things. At first, she hoped to use magic to give herself the courage to confess to the person she liked, but eventually she learned that this can be achieved even without magic. She often proclaims herself to be "the unluckiest girl in the whole world" when things do not go her way. Her favorite food is steak, but in the series she has almost failed to eat it. Her favorite instrument is the piano, but because of the shadow of her childhood performance failure, she also has a complicated mood about piano.
Doremi's spell is "Pirika Pirilala Popolina Peperuto", while in Magical Stage her spell is .
Her theme color is pink.
Hazuki is a passive, gentle, and smart girl. She is a rich family girl and Doremi's childhood friend. She dared not express her thoughts to her parents because she was afraid of their sadness, even though she had her own opinion. Finally, she overcame this problem. She likes lame jokes and is very afraid of ghosts. She has a talent for playing the violin and composing music. At the end of the story, she decided to go to Karen Girls High School to realize her violin dream.
Hazuki's spell is "Paipai Ponpoi Puwapuwa Puu", while her spell in Magical stage is .
Her theme color is orange.
Aiko is a transfer student from Osaka. She is a tomboy with a vigorous personality, reliable, and good at sports. Her parents are divorced, so she lives with her father. She loves both her parents very much and wishes for them to get back together. Finally, with the efforts of her and the others, her parents regrouped after reflecting on and solving their problems. Her favorite instrument is a harmonica because it was bought for her by her parents before they divorced. Her favorite food is Takoyaki (chocolate chip cookies in the English version).
Aiko's spell is "Pameruku Raruku Laliloli Poppun", while her spell in Magical Stage is .
Her theme color is sky blue.
Pop is Doremi's younger sister. She attends Sonatine Kindergarten for the first half of the series and then moves on to Misora First Elementary School. Pop accidentally discovers Doremi's magical powers in the first season and as such becomes a witch apprentice as well. She acts older than her age and is more responsible than her older sister.
Pop's spell is "Pipito Purito Puritan Peperuto", while her spell in Magical Stage is .
Her theme color is red.
Onpu is a famous Japanese child idol who became a witch apprentice of Majoruka, a rival of Majorika. She is a little headstrong, has a closed heart, and used to abuse forbidden magic to change the minds of others because she has an amulet to protect her from being backlashed. Eventually, however, she becomes kind and selfless by spending time with Doremi and the others, then joining them. She is eager to do well in everything, especially her acting job. She lives with her mother, who used to be an idol herself before an accident traumatized her. Her favorite instrument is a flute, and favorite food is Crêpe.
Onpu's spell is "Pururun Purun Famifami Faa", while her spell in Magical Stage is .
In Japanese, her name Onpu means "musical note".
Her theme color is purple.
Momoko is a Japanese-American transfer student from New York City and was the apprentice of the late Majo Monroe. At the beginning of Motto, she only speaks English and is unfamiliar with Japanese culture, but she can use a translator intercom with her patissiére uniform, with which she can fluently understand and speak Japanese. She becomes friends with Doremi and the others, who teach her how to speak Japanese. She has a straightforward personality. She is proficient in baking, and her dream is to open a pastry shop. Her favorite instrument is a guitar.
Momoko's spell is "Perutan Petton Pararira Pon", while her spell in Magical Stage is .
Her theme color is yellow.
Hana is a witch baby born from a large light blue rose in the Witch Queen's Garden that produces a new baby every 100 years as the successor to the throne. Hana is given to Doremi and the others to be cared for after she stumbles across her. In Sharp, Doremi, Hazuki, Aiko, and Onpu serve as Hana's mothers (especially Doremi). Then in Motto, Momoko joined them also as Hana's mother. Although she is just a baby, she has powerful magic. In Dokkān, Hana transforms herself into a 12-year-old preteen girl so she could attend school with her mothers and takes on the name of . Because of this incident, her crystal ball broke into pieces, which the source of magic used by a witch, so she also became a witch apprentice in this period.
Hana's spell is "Pororin Pyuarin Hanahana Pii", while in the light novel series her spell in Magical Stage is .
Her theme color is white.
Witch World
The Witch World is referred to as the Lunaverse in the 4Kids English dub. In here means witch.
Witches
A witch that owns and unsuccessfully manages the MAHODO. This short-tempered witch dubs herself and lives in the human world. Caught by Doremi, she was cursed and transformed into a magic frog. Majo Rika later gains more witch apprentices, each a bit of a handful for her, thus leading her to call them (especially Doremi) . In reality, she does care for them and thinks of them as her daughters. In the end, she returns to her original form and goes back to the Witch World with Hana and the fairies. Her crystal used to be a lime-green sphere, but after being turned into a witch frog, it became a lilac sphere.
Dela is the Witch World's tax collector. She visits the MAHODO often to collect monthly and overdue payments. Her entrances usually involve coming out of various objects like closets, from behind doors, or even from inside vases and cups. In the dubbed version, she has an accordion playing in the background while she sings her entrance greeting; in the Japanese version, her singing is more mystical and softly sung. She also shows up occasionally bearing deliveries for the girls, like their Witch Apprentice Certificates (Certiwands), or information regarding their tests. Dela rarely gives anything away (even information) without a price.
The Queen of the Witch World, who hides her face behind a veil. She watches over the apprentices as they progress, also using her power to provide Hana with the ability to transform. At the end of Dokkan, she is revealed to be Ms. Yuki, who had been following Doremi's potential and putting her on the path to become a great witch.
The Queen's royal attendant. She also drives the Queen's carriage and is a loyal servant and apprentice.
and
Mota
Motamota
Mota and Motamota are a witch duo that serves as the proctors for the apprentice examinations. While they both speak very slowly, Mota's thin figure is in stark contrast to Motamota's plump body type. During the second season, they took care of two babies named Deki and Dekipaki. They examined the witch apprentices in season 1 and Pop from Sharp onward.
Majo Rika's rival and the main antagonist of Season 1. She first appeared when Majo Rika lost the Maho-do to Dela in a heated card game, who then sold the shop to Majo Ruka. To help her out in the shop, Majo Ruka turned a bat and a rat into her servants. After Majo Rika got her shop back, Majo Ruka retreated to a beach where Onpu happened to discover her in the act of using magic, causing her to turn into a witch frog. She then makes Onpu her witch apprentice. During Sharp and Motto, Majo Rika and Majo Ruka are on mostly good terms. By Dokkan, she returned to her original form.
Majo Don is the head of the Witch World's market exchange.
The head doctor of the Witch World, who manages the health examinations that Hana is required to pass in Ojamajo Doremi Sharp.
Majo Miller is the head of the Witch World's kindergarten.
Majo Monroe is a deceased witch who was Momoko's teacher in America. She befriended Momoko when she was younger, teaching her English and bakery, before making her witch apprentice after being discovered and turned into a magical frog. She eventually died due to illness, leaving Momoko with an earring. She is based on actress Marilyn Monroe.
The head pastry chef of the Witch World, who is Majo Monroe's identical twin sister as they were born from the same rose.
Majo Sloan is the director of the Witch Museum, who used to go on many adventures.
The mayor of a village for magical frogs, who is hiding the fact she became a magical frog herself.
Majo Ran is Majo Heart's foster daughter, who doesn't like to rely on magic.
Generally referred to as the , Majo Tourbillion is the main antagonist of Ojamajo Doremi Dokkaan. Majo Tourbillon was once the queen of the Witch World, who left her throne to marry a human, but in the end the longevity gap between humans and the witch created a gap between her and her grandchildren. This left her with distrust in humans and she became enveloped in sadness, sealing off the two worlds and placing a curse.
Fairies
Lala is Majo Rika's fully-grown fairy.
The personal fairies of Doremi, Hazuki, Aiko, Onpu, Momoko, Hana, and Pop respectively, which they each received after passing their Level 2 Apprentice examinations. They have similar personalities to their owners and can transform into their appearance, generally to substitute for their owners to avoid suspicion, but they are only able to say their names except under certain circumstances. They can also be used to operate certain devices, during which they take a more mature form.
Hehe is Majo Ruka's fully grown fairy and the opposite of Lala, whom she doesn't get along with because she calls Lala "old".
Baba is the personal fairy of the former queen Majo Tourbillon who resides inside of a magical chest. She serves as the main clue about the items needed to awaken Majo Tourbillon from her slumber. She quickly gains a fondness for cola, often demanding it before sharing any information.
Wizards
Oyajide is a thief from the Wizard World and the main antagonist of Ojamajo Doremi Sharp. For his actions, he was trapped inside a notebook PC and forced to help the Ojamajos track down bad cards. Afterwards, Oyajide is forced to work part-time at the Witch World's kindergarten, as punishment for his actions. He has two main forms: one being a suave human form, and the other being a small onion-like creature.
A group of young wizards collectively known as Flat 4, who are tasked with trying to capture Hana during Sharp. They tried to flirt with Doremi, Hazuki, Aiko and Onpu during the mission, and in the end fall in love with the girls (especially Akatsuki with Doremi).
Others
Pao is mysterious white flying elephant who Hana befriends in Dokkan. When Hana uses an accordion that was found around her neck, she can suck up the darkness caused by the thorns that had trapped Majo Tourbillon.
Human World
Misora Elementary School
Teachers
Miss Cooper
Ms. Seki is Doremi's homeroom teacher.
Miss Shannon
Ms. Yuki is the school nurse, who has helped students from all across the world. At the end of Dokkan, she is revealed to be the true identity of the Queen of the Witch World.
Yuka Nishizawa is the homeroom teacher of class 5-2 and 6-2 in Ojamajo Doremi Motto and Ojamajo Doremi Dokkaan respectively.
Principal Hamburg
The school's principal.
Vice Principal Shoople
The strict vice principal.
Ms. Hinako is Pop's homeroom teacher during elementary school.
Class 1 (in 5th and 6th grades)
Former Class 1 (in 3rd and 4th grades)
Takuro Hagiwara (萩原たくろう Hagiwara Takurō) is a boy who plays guitar as his father, Tetsuro Hagiwara, was a member of a rock band Evergreen.
Takeshi Hasebe (長谷部たけし Hasebe Takeshi) is Mutsumi's old friend.
Ichiro Hirano (平野いちろう Hirano Ichirō) is a student in Misora Elementary.
Koji Ito (伊藤こうじ Itō Kōji) is Kotake's good friend.
Hajime Kikuchi (菊池はじめ Kikuchi Hajime) is a boy who loves railways. Hajime was once worried by the fact he does not have a dream for his future.
Hiroko Kine (木根ひろこ Kine Hiroko) is a girl with a strong sense of justice.
Junji Manda (万田じゅんじ Manda Junji) is the younger brother of Manda twins.
Miho Maruyama (丸山みほ Maruyama Miho) is one of Doremi's classmates. Gifted in the visual arts, Miho draws a manga based on a story by Nobuko. Although she often conflicts with Aiko over her close friendship with Nobuko, Aiko helps her overcome her apparent inferiority complex.
Sora Miyamae (宮前空 Miyamae Sora) is a student in Misora Elementary. He built a human-powered airplane called Stay Gold, inspired by the book of the same name.
Dai Morikawa (森川だい Morikawa Dai) is a boy who loves cycling.
Kayoko Nagato (長門かよこ Nagato Kayoko) is a girl who refuses to go to school due to bullying.
Masayoshi Nakajima (中島正義 Nakajima Masayoshi) is a son of a policeman. Masayoshi ran away from his home a few times, but he respects his father deep inside.
Kenji Ogura (小倉けんじ Ogura Kenji) is part of the comedy duo Toyoken with Toyokazu.
Kotaro Okajima (岡島小太郎 Okajima Kotarō) is a boy who practices kendō.
Masato Rinno (林野まさと Rinno Masato) is the smart yet arrogant son of a doctor.
Natsumi Sato (佐藤なつみ Satō Natsumi) is a daughter of a family running the Christian church. She is Nobuaki's good friend, although their families suffer from a persistent conflict.
Keiko Yamamoto (山本けいこ Yamamoto Keiko) is a serious book officer, who later learns to be more flexible.
Former Class 2 (in 3rd and 4th grades)
Itoko Hamada (浜田いとこ Hamada Itoko) / Juliet Kojuro is a girl who is good at taking care of babies.
Tetsuya Kotake (小竹哲也 Kotake Tetsuya) / Todd Washington is a childhood friend of Doremi who often calls her "Dojimi". Around other boys, they see him as a leader. He confesses his feelings to Doremi in the last episode of Dokkan.
Mutsumi Kudo (工藤むつみ Kudō Mutsumi) / Melissa is a girl who loves wrestling.
Nanako Okada (岡田ななこ Okada Nanako) / Autumn Harrison is a girl who refuses to take care of the school's animals because she once lost her beloved dog named Lulu. After the students learn about her past, Hazuki helps her overcome her trauma.
Naomi Okuyama (奥山なおみ Okuyama Naomi) Gia is an athletic girl who is often ridiculed by boys because of her tall stature.
Kaori Shimakura (島倉かおり Shimakura Kaori) / Penny is a school newspaper reporter wearing glasses and who always bears a camera.
Toyokazu Sugiyama (杉山豊和 Sugiyama Toyokazu) / Stewart is wannabe comedian who always makes jokes. He is a member of SOS Trio in the 3rd and 4th grades, as well as Toyoken in the 5th and 6th grades.
Reika Tamaki (玉木麗香 Tamaki Reika) / Josie Huffington is a rich girl with a very big ego. She often quarrels with Doremi and others.
/ Justin Bailey is Hazuki's childhood friend who appears to be quiet and loves playing the trumpet. Although Yada seems quite poor at handling social situations (something that improves as the series progresses), he is a kind-hearted person. This becomes more evident when Shiori has a serious disease, and he practices a new song for her to help her recover more quickly. Surprisingly, he is well aware of his special relationship with Hazuki, which appears to be somewhere between friends and lovers. Hazuki teaches him the "Majorika" chant to help him mount his courage.
/ Belinda Higgins is a girl who likes to fabricate tall tales, but her classmates do not usually mind because they are used to it. She writes a fictitious series about a detective called , whose name is based on her own.
Class 2 (in 5th and 6th grades)
Former Class 1 (in 3rd and 4th grades)
Kenta Iizuka (飯塚けんた Iizuka Kenta) is a boy who attempts to escalate Mount Fuji by bicycle with Kotake and some of the other students.
Sachiko Ijuuin (伊集院さちこ Ijūin Sachiko) is a model student. Because both of her parents are teachers, she always tries to be a good child, though severely restricting herself in the process.
Noriko Kano (加納のり子 Kanō Noriko) is a sober girl who surprises Reika with her breasts.
Yuko Koyama (小山ゆうこ Koyama Yūko) likes to volunteer and can use sign language.
Yoko Manda (万田ようこ Manda Yōko) is the older twin of Junji who likes to make model aircraft.
Aya Matsushita (松下あや Matsushita Aya) is the daughter of a family who runs a sushi restaurant.
Jun Sato (佐藤じゅん Satō Jun) is a boy who becomes a member of SOS Trio in Motto after Sugiyama left to join Toyoken.
Manabu Takagi (高木まなぶ Takagi Manabu): A tall boy who is one of the baseball club members.
Yukari Umeno (梅野ゆかり Umeno Yukari) is the daughter of a family who runs a public inn.
Mint Wada (和田みんと Wada Minto) is a girl who does not get along well with Aiko.
Kazuya Yoshida (吉田かずや Yoshida Kazuya) is an attention seeker who often gets Nishizawa-sensei into trouble. His father runs a taiyaki store.
Former Class 2 (in 3rd and 4th grades)
Kota Amano (天野こうた Amano Kōta) / Keith Lennon is a boy who loves Tokusatsu series, Battle Ranger.
Shino Hanada (花田志乃 Hanada Shino) / Carey Wilson is a foreign-grown girl who often receives culture shocks from living in Japan.
Ryota Hayashi (林りょうた Hayashi Ryōta) / Peter is a boy who loves monster series.
Maki Higuchi (樋口まき Higuchi Maki) / Shannon Marley is a girl who is good at rollerblading and supports her brother.
Kanae Iida (飯田かなえ Iida Kanae) / Haley is the daughter of a family who runs a steak house.
Takao Kimura (木村たかお Kimura Takao) / David is one of Kotake's good friends.
Marina Koizumi (小泉まりな Koizumi Marina) / Amanda is a girl who loves flowers and takes care of them.
Masaharu Miyamoto (宮本まさはる Miyamoto Masaharu) / Scooter is very bright boy and one of the top students in his class. Masaharu never seems to come in "first" at anything, prompting him to run against Tamaki in the class elections, which he subsequently wins.
/ Nicholas Schmorff is a computer geek who idolizes Onpu.
/ Suzie Williams is a girl who appears sparingly throughout the series due to illness.
Yutaka Ota (太田ゆたか Ōta Yutaka) / Oliver is a member of SOS Trio.
Yuji Sagawa (佐川ゆうじ Sagawa Yūji) / Simon is a member of SOS Trio with short stature who has an inferiority complex to Naomi.
Shota Taniyama (谷山将太 Taniyama Shōta) / Phillip Taniyama is a boy who is good at shōgi.
Michiaki Watabe (渡部みちあき Watabe Michiaki) / Mackenzie is a boy who is skilled at magic.
Nobuaki Yamauchi (山内信秋 Yamauchi Nobuaki) / Steven Yamauchi is a son of the Buddhist temple Yamauchi-dera. He is Natsumi's old friend, although their families suffer from a persistent conflict. In Episode 30, Doremi and classmates go to Nobuaki's temple for a sleepover where they listen to scary stories.
Susumu Yanagida (柳田すすむ Yanagida Susumu) / Hanson is a boy who loves agepan.
The main characters' family
Keisuke Harukaze (春風渓介 Harukaze Keisuke) / Mr. Goodwyn (voiced by Dan Green (English)) is Doremi and Pop's father. A fishing writer.
Haruka Harukaze (春風はるか Harukaze Haruka) / Mrs. Goodwyn (voiced by Erica Schroeder) is Doremi and Pop's mother.
Akira Fujiwara (藤原明 Fujiwara Akira) / George Griffith (voiced by Tom Wayland (English)) is Hazuki's father. A film director.
Reiko Fujiwara (藤原麗子 Fujiwara Reiko) / Mrs. Griffith is Hazuki's mother. A lady from a rich family.
Baaya (ばあや), real name Koyuki Ichikawa (市川小雪 Ichikawa Koyuki) / Miss Suki is the Fujiwara family's housekeeper and nanny to Hazuki.
Koji Senoo (妹尾幸治 Senō Kōji) / Mr. Haywood is Aiko's father. A taxi driver.
Atsuko Okamura (岡村あつこ Okamura Atsuko) / Miriam Haywood is Aiko's mother. A caregiver. She remarries Koji at the end of Dokkan and becomes Atsuko Senoo (妹尾あつこ Senō Atsuko).
Tsuyoshi Segawa (瀬川剛 Segawa Tsuyoshi) / Mr. Craft is Onpu's father. A tram driver.
Miho Segawa (瀬川美保 Segawa Miho) / Mrs. Craft is Onpu's mother. A former idol, she is now Onpu's manager.
Kenzo Asuka (飛鳥健三 Asuka Kenzō) is Momoko's father. An architect.
Minori Asuka (飛鳥みのり Asuka Minori) is Momoko's mother. A photographer.
Others
is originally the captain and often premier soccer player at Misora Elementary, he returns in later series as a coach due to an injury. Though often the subject of Doremi's infatuation (unbeknownst to him), he develops a relationship with Maki Takahashi, the soccer team's oft-reserved manager.
is Aiko's childhood friend from Osaka and claimed her fiancé.
(voiced by Taeko Kawata), affectionately known to Doremi as "Non-chan", only appears in episode 12 of Ojamajo Doremi Naisho. A leukemia patient who aspires to be a witchling, she becomes close to Doremi, who helps her fulfill her dream prior to her death.
(voiced by Kumiko Watanabe) is a mysterious girl who only appears in the last episode of Ojamajo Doremi Naisho to visit Doremi. She is later revealed to be her future granddaughter that traveled through time using magic.
References
Lists of anime and manga characters
Characters
Magical girl anime and manga characters |
4259421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada%20Ciganlija | Ada Ciganlija | Ada Ciganlija (, ), colloquially shortened to Ada, is a river island that has artificially been turned into a peninsula, located in the Sava River's course through central Belgrade, Serbia. The name can also refer to the adjoining artificial Lake Sava and its beach. To take advantage of its central location, over the past few decades, it was turned into an immensely popular recreational zone, most notable for its beaches and sports facilities, which, during summer seasons, can have over 100,000 visitors daily and up to 300,000 visitors over the weekend. Owing to this popularity, Ada Ciganlija has been commonly nicknamed "More Beograda" ("Belgrade's Sea"), which was officially accepted as an advertising slogan in 2008, stylised as More BeogrADA.
Location
Ada Ciganlija is located on the southern bank of the Sava River, 4 km away from its mouth, and entirely belongs to Belgrade's municipality of Čukarica. Its eastern tip roughly borders the urban neighborhood of Senjak on the west (across an inlet called Čukarica Bay), and the body of the peninsula borders the neighborhoods of Čukarica and Makiš (both across Lake Sava). Across the river, Ada Ciganlija borders Novi Beograd (specifically residential blocks and the urban neighborhoods of Savski Nasip) and another artificial peninsula called Mala Ciganlija ("Little Ciganlija"). Between Ada Ciganlija and Novi Beograd lies Ada Međica, a wholly insulated river island.
Geography
Formerly an island, Ada Ciganlija is now an elongated peninsula, stretching for 6 km from west to east and 700 m from north to south at its widest, and covering an area of 2.7 km2. The entire Ada Ciganlija ecological complex, which stretches into the municipality of Novi Beograd, covers an area of 8 km2, including the islands of Ada Ciganlija and Ada Međica, waterways between the two Adas and Lake Sava, and some of Makiš itself. Lake Sava, formerly a branch of the Sava, was turned into a lake with two dams, while the remaining section on the northeast was turned into Čukarica Bay. There is another small lake on Ada Ciganlija itself, known as Ada Safari.
Thanks to the combination of factors, Ada Ciganlija is privileged with a microclimate. Situated between a river, an artificial flowing lake, various islands, and a heavily wooded area, air humidity is heightened compared to the rest of the city, helping to nullify Belgrade's high temperatures during summer.
Hydrology
Lake Sava
Lake Sava (Serbian: Савско језеро, Savsko jezero), often also referred to as Ada, was created from the right arm of the Sava with the building of two dams near the northern and southern tips of the island in 1967. The lake is long, has an average width of and is deep. It covers and area of and is above sea level, one of the lowest areas of Belgrade. of its shores on both sides have been transformed into a gravel beach. The water regularly reaches during summer.
Both dams allow water to flow through tubes and pumps. This way, the main body of the lake is connected to the smaller body of water on the southwest, which is itself separated from the river by the third dam. This mini "buffer" lake called Taložnik ("depository") is used as a purifier for the waters of both Lake Sava and city waterworks, which also use this water. Filtered water is constantly being pumped into the lake while on the northeast, the water is pumped out by electrically powered pumps through another dam into Čukarica Bay. In this way, an artificial flow of water through the lake is created. Because the water is also used for drinking, sanitation and environmental protection of the lake are imperative and the lake is under rigorous environmental protection. Weeds are groomed on the lake's bottom to purify the water by bonding phosphorus, nitrogen and dirt. Use of motorboats is strictly prohibited in the lake and dogs are not allowed on the beach.
Wildlife in the lake mostly consists of the fish species which were introduced since the 1950s. The most common fish in the lake are the introduced silver carp and grass carp, but large autochthonous wels catfish, weighing over , can also be found, causing concern among the swimmers so the authorities issued a statement that they are harmless. In March 2019, a long catfish was caught in the lake. Catfish of this size is a rarity and, as required by the law, it was returned in to the lake. Other catfishes of this size were reported by the divers in previous years, but they lay lazily on the bottom of the lake, not swimming to the surface.
There are 20 to 25 fish species in the lake, including the autochthonous carp, northern pike, zander, common bream, asp and European perch, and the imported, and highly invasive brown bullhead, Prussian carp and pumpkinseed. There are also crayfish and crabs, and since the 2010s, the red-eared slider inhabits the lake, too, probably being released in the lake by the owners who kept them as pets.
The freshwater jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbyi was discovered in 2008, garnering much attention for the lake. These anthomedusae begin their life as polyps and develop into jellyfish only if conditions, such as purity and water temperature over 25 °C, are right. However, authorities claim that these harmless and almost invisible jellyfish (they are only to wide, bell is in diameter and have no sting cells) actually have been present in the lake for over 20 years. The first specimens were discovered in 1994 and they can also be found in the Danube. They live only for several days.
Ada Safari
Ada Safari () is a small, irregularly shaped lake on the northern tip of Ada Ciganlija, primarily used for fishing. In the late 1960s, the hole was formed as the sand was dug to construct the permanent embankment which connected Ada Ciganlija to the mainland, turning it into the peninsula by 1974.
It was the last remaining marshy area during the transformation Ada Ciganlija, infested by undergrowth and reeds, until its conversion into a lake in 1994, long, with an area of . It was officially opened in 1995. The water pumps are used to fill the lake, bringing water from the Sava Lake. Rare species of fish were introduced in order to create a fishing resort, which now consists of 300 numbered fishing seats around the lake with an obligatory special permit for fishing. Fish species include common carp, grass carp, crucian carp, wels catfish, Prussian carp, zander and tench, which is rare in Serbia. Fish are mostly released back into the lake as fishermen can keep their catch in case if the fish is lighter than , if they pay extra and if it is not a tench, which is protected by the law.
Some animals roam freely in the area, like rabbits, ducks, geese and swans. A small zoo has been built next to the lake, chiefly containing swamp birds, as well as more exotic animals such as peacocks, pheasants and pygmy goats. There is also a restaurant on the shore and a typical Serbian 18th century house from Šumadija which was deconstructed from the Central Serbia and transferred here. The house was originally built around 1735 in the village of Junkovac, near Topola. There is also a "Magical forest", an area for the kids with reproductions of the fairytale characters: Evil Witch, Cinderella, Wolf and the Three Little Pigs, Little Red Riding Hood, the Scarecrow and the Tin Man, etc. There is a small stream over which the bridge and the cross, both made from timber, have been constructed. Fish are especially prepared for the winter in the process of "winter carp bathing". In the second week of November each year, fish (up to 9 tonnes in total) are taken from the lake to the shore by the professional fishermen. The lake is then emptied and the largest fish specimens are "bathed" in the small bathtubs with the water mixed with the medical, healing ingredients.
In 2022, new city administration headed by mayor Aleksandar Šapić included relocation of the Belgrade Zoo from the Belgrade Fortress in the city's urban plan. In February 2023, Šapić announced relocation of the zoo to Ada Safari. This would also include relocation of the Partizan settlement. The relocation was planned to last several years. Šapić added that the "political decision was made to handle this", and, if everything goes by the plan, the relocation might be finished in three years.
The new zoo will be double in size, from to . In order to ease the access to the zoo on an island, city will push the construction of the pedestrian bridge and revitalize the project of gondola lift from New Belgrade to Košutnjak, via Ada. Public and expert's backlash against the project was massive, especially regarding hastiness, arbitration, irrelevance, legality and selected location. Public speculated that the residents of the newly built affluent K-Distrikt residential complex across the zoo are bothered by the smell, or that some more lucrative structures might be built instead of the zoo on such exceptional location. Additionally, this area of Ada is a floodplain with high level of underground waters, and is an area under sanitary protection.
Šapić then back-pedaled a bit, stating that this is just a "political idea" which is not hastily made, that only now analyses and surveys will be done to check the viability, that nothing will be built instead of the zoo but the fortress will be conserved, and that there is no set time frame for the project.
Čukarica Bay
The arm of the Sava river which separated the island from the mainland was called Čukarica Arm (Чукарички рукавац). Serbian Shipping Society, which was founded in 1890, decided to use the arm as the zimovnik, or winter shelter for ships and boats. Upstream from Čukarica, at the time suburban village of Belgrade, the Society dammed the arm with slanted, shackled, thick triangular piles, called pilotne. Facing the stream, they stopped the ice which would then elevate itself slab by slab until it reaches over the top of the piles and breaks into pieces. The stream would then take smaller pieces next to the docked ships. In the case of complete freezing of the river, the tugboats were deployed, with crew members being armed with axes, grappling hooks and dynamite.
As the Society built and kept zimovnik on its own, without state help, they charged the use of the object. In the arm's central section, on Čukarica bank, the first shipbuilding facility in Serbia was opened. Though the engines had to be acquired abroad, the shipyard was producing smaller and medium-sized steamboats. Known as the Čukarica Shipyard (Čukarička brodarnica), it also repaired all Serbian ships and continuously produced iron-made barges of all kinds and sizes for Serbian and Bulgarian markets.
When Ada was connected to the mainland via the embankments in 1967, northern section of the arm was transformed into the Čukarica Bay (Чукарички залив), though the previous name survived, too. The arm is elongated in the southwest–northeast direction, bounded by the northern tip of Ada Ciganlija, the embankment and the right bank of the Sava (neighborhoods of Careva Ćuprija and southern stretch of Bara Venecija, formerly known as Šest Topola). This is where the Topčiderka river flows into the Sava. Near the connection point with the main flow of the Sava, the bay is today crossed by the Ada Bridge.
The bay is used for the sports and leisure activities as the kayaking clubs were located in it, so as the marina for small boats, while the banks are encircled with the bicycle paths. The bay is long and wide. Surface of the bay itself is , but the area which city administration included in the bay locality includes and additional of aquatorium and of the surrounding land. In March 2018 city announced an urban design competition for the adaptation of the total bay area (). The forested area on the mainland, at the entrance into the bay, administratively belongs to the municipality of Savski Venac and covers .
Since the early 1980s there is a constant ecological problem due to the massive pollution of the bay as a result of the polluted waters of the Topčiderka river. The garbage and highly polluted silt fills the bay and creates shoals. During low-tide, the bay is unusable for the boats in the marina, located in the middle of the bay or for the kayakers of Partizan and Crvena Zvezda who use the bay for practice. The silt is up to thick, smells bad and is poisonous so the swimming in the bay is forbidden.
In 2011 the estimated amount of garbage sludge in the bay was . The sludge cannot simply be dredged and thrown in the Sava further downstream due to the toxicity. The plan to build a treatment plant on the bank near the Belgrade Fair which would detoxicate the sludge and produce fertilizer from it was scrapped due to the high costs. At the time, the silt is being dredged and vegetation cut just enough to make it navigable for the small boats in the marina. The bay was partially dredged in 2016.
The pollution of the bay continued, including two atmospheric precipitation collectors which overspill into the bay, to which the fecal sewage is illegally connected, and the bay was described as the ecological time bomb. In December 2019 the winning project was announced. It includes the transformation of the bay into the artificial whitewater and the proper marina. A project by Aleksandar Nedeljković, named "Flight of the gull" envisions the reconstruction and elevation of all embankments along the bay's banks, turning them into the vertical retaining walls. Pumps for the creation of the whitewater by day, would be used to purify the water by night and prevent the sludge from depositing on the bottom. Proposed name for the marina and sports center is "Whitewater Arena". However, this project, just like some others from the competition (conducting the Topčiderka directly into the main Sava riverbed by the pipes) does not tackle the problem of the already existing sludge deposits or the toxicity of the waste. Also, it was outright labeled as way too expensive, even by its authors (up to €70 million).
An experiment was conducted when the water from the bay and river was pumped into the special pools in the nursery gardens of the state company for the forest management "Srbijašume". The water was treated by various selected plants, in the process called phytoremediation, and the quality of the water improved from the fifth to the second category, but the technology wasn't pursued any further. Instead, in 2019 and 2020, it was applied at the Lake Trešnja, in the suburb of Ripanj, where it proved to be highly successful in reducing pollutants in the water. After several months of bad smell which spread from the bay, the dredging began in November 2020. Until February 2021, the was removed, thus creating a channel to allow the water to flow out of the bay into the river. The dredged sludge is spread along the central section of the Danube's flow, upstream from the Pančevo Bridge.
Instead of revitalization, the bay turned out to be polluted more than ever. By April 2021 the water was classified as the lowest, fifth category. The water was anoxic, full of ammonium-nitrogen and orthophosphates. The red wastewater from the sewage also influenced water's organoleptic qualities – changed color, murkiness, strong smell and visible residues of organic matter, but in May city administration announced it inspected the Topčiderka's watershed, founded the polluting factories and closed them, fixing this problem.
Wildlife
Plants
Ada Ciganlija has a unique ecosystem, creating an oasis in the urban area. Most of the peninsula is forested. The original, thick deciduous forest mainly consists of oaks, elms, birches and willows. In the mid 20th century, further planned forestation of Ada Ciganlija included the planting of Northamerican poplars and green ash. In total, some 450 plant species inhabit Ada, including white poplar, black poplar, white willow, pedunculate oak, narrow-leaved ash, Canadian poplar, European white elm, box elder, American ash. In 2010, total forested area covered , or two thirds of the island. This characteristic of Ada gives its visitors an illusion of being in complete wilderness, aided by the fact that city ambient noise is completely muted by the thick forest.
Most of the forest on the island is protected, including the entire central, northern and western sections. These parts of the peninsula are entirely wild with uncultivated vegetation and very little or no human presence, making it unique compared to other European city islands and peninsulas. Part of the Ada's central forested complex was declared a protected habitat "Fungi of Ada Ciganlija" by the city on 29 November 2013. Apart from the wood fauna characterized for the wet soils, it hosts 250 species of fungi, many of which are listed on Serbian and international lists of rare or endangered species. It is the only known habitat in Serbia of Myriostoma coliforme. Location starts away from the lake. The fungi was discovered on the island in 1993, and in 2022 covered .
Animals
In terms of fauna, besides having numerous amphibians and 94 species of insects, Ada Ciganlija contains several mammal species, considered special due to the setting of the peninsula in an urban area. Foxes, hares and roe deer inhabit the peninsula. However, with environmentalists warning that the island's biocoenosis has been overly affected, a new population of 60 hares and 100 pheasants was introduced into the ecosystem in 2006.
Bird species include more common lapwings, mallards, quails and pheasants. Common woodland and parkland birds during the nesting season include song thrush, great tit, blue tit, long-tailed tit, Eurasian nuthatch, European green woodpecker, great spotted woodpecker, golden oriole, nightingale, blackcap, common chaffinch, hooded crow, European magpie, common wood pigeon, feral pigeon, white wagtail and barn swallow.
Unlike other rivers and wetlands in Belgrade, swans rarely visited the lake, including occasional black swans. Starting in September 2020, swans began to arrive at the lake, until several dozens flocked in total, and remained on Ada. The number of swans in Belgrade had been constantly growing since the 2010s, reaching some 600 birds by the winter of 2021. They are mostly mute swans and are quickly adapted: more and more of them becoming sedentary rather than migratory, accustoming to humans who regularly feed them, becoming popular among the residents, and turning into the mascots of the neighborhoods they inhabit.
Ada is also the wintering ground for some threatened migratory birds, most notably the pygmy cormorant which winters in Belgrade in large numbers. Pygmy cormorant inhabited the Pančevački Rit marshland, just north of Belgrade, in the early 20th century, but after that area was drained and urbanized, they disappeared. Several hundreds of birds in the early 1990s began spending winters on the Malo Ratno Ostrvo, in the Danube. When their number exceeded 1,000, they resettled to three new locations: first at the willow grove on the Sava's bank (Belgrade Fair) and then to the area near the tip of Ada and the neighboring Mala Ciganlija. Their number rose every year to 6,750 in 2007/08, but since then is generally reducing and in 2015 it was 3,850 which is still 5,4% of the European and 2% of the world's pygmy cormorant population. There were concerns that the building of the new Ada Bridge in 2008–12 would disturb the habitat, but the birds endured it well. Their habitat was protected by law in 2008. Any destruction, clearing or pruning of the vegetation is forbidden, so as scaring, disturbing or killing of the birds.
In c. 1900, the last nests of yellow-legged gull in Serbia were spotted on Ada. The nesting couples are spotted again only in 2021, but in the Đerdap Gorge, some to the east.
In April 2022, it was announced that plans are to declare Ada Ciganlija a protected area, as a landscape of outstanding features, by the end of 2022. It will cover .
Settlements
Partizan
The only settlement on Ada Ciganlija is in its northern section, located behind another dam. It is called Partizan, because of the nearby Partizan Rowing Club. First stilt houses were built right after World War II as the summer houses for the army officers. In 1959 the construction of the proper settlement was suggested, and the first houses were built in 1960. Those were small, serial weekend houses with an area of . Most of the original construction was finished from 1964 to 1966. As the nearby Ada Safari wasn't adapted yet and was a marshland, original settlers, who were from the upper classes, were leaving and instead the workers who migrated from the interior of Serbia settled in. During the various works on Ada Ciganlija, workers would use the houses as tool sheds. Additional boost was an influx of refugees from the Yugoslav Wars since 1991.
City authorities planned to relocate the settlement. During the 2006 European floods, city authorities urged them to move to the mainland from the settlement, which was located almost below the dam, as the Sava reached a record height of . The wall of the dam, on the brink of collapse, was hastily strengthened and elevated in an effort to prevent catastrophe, but even in these conditions, the populace refused to relocate, claiming the city to just be using the situation to relocate them.
As their families grew, inhabitants expanded the houses. As of 2016 Partizan had some 1,000 inhabitants in 260 houses covering an area of . By the latest urbanistic plans, the settlement is still to be evacuated as it is built without any permits and is located in the zone of the sanitary protection. In the 2016 plan for the area, city envisioned thermal and outdoor pools, spa center, small hospitality and catering venues, children's playgrounds and outdoor exhibition area.
Announcement of the relocation of the Belgrade Zoo to Ada in February 2023, also included statement of the relocation of the settlement. Despite claims from the city officials that the idea was not made hastily, residents confirmed that already in July 2022 they were approached by the city to move out, but the zoo was not mentioned to them, which they took as a proof that the relocation of the zoo was an ad hoc idea. The residents were reluctant to move and refused compensations offered by the city.
Old Bath
Close to the northern tip, as the northeastern extension of Partizan settlement, there is an Old Bath "Partizan" (Staro Kupatilo). Since 1983 it has been a location of an artistic colony, occupied by the painters and sculptors. In the 1980s the venue organized many artistic exhibitions. After the 2006 floods a project of reconstruction of the embankment to prevent the flooding was introduced. The embankment, which was to prevent 25 Renney water wells from being flooded, passes right through the bath building which was to be demolished so that this gap in the embankment can be filled. The gap, which is considered the weakest section of the entire embankment system on the island is just from the Partizan settlement. Next to the building is the parking for the communal vehicles used for the works on Ada. In 2011, the management ordered the artists to move out. As of 2023, the building still stands and serves as an atelier. One of the artists working there was Ratko Vulanović (1941–2023), author of the sculptural composition at the Ada's entrance, called Stone City, or popularly nicknamed Adahenge.
History
Nomenclature
The etymology of the name could be Celtic in origin, which probably is the most likely scenario. Some believe that it is derived by some form of the word for Romani (cigani, "gypsies"), attested in 1717 as when it was mentioned as a depopulated village after the Austrian takeover of Belgrade.
An Italian work from 1788 mentions it as Isola degli Zingari. The original toponym might have been singalia, from Celtic Singi (cf. Singidunum). During World War II it was renamed "Serbian Ada" (Srpska ada). The first part of Ada Ciganlija's name, ada, means "river island" in Serbian, a word of Turkish origin (meaning "island"), but in landlocked Serbia it specifically denotes river islands, beside the already existing Serbian word for island, ostrvo. A river island can also be referred to as ostrvo (e.g. Veliko Ratno Ostrvo) but never vice versa.
Human history
Antiquity
The remains belonging to the Scordisci, a Celtic tribe which founded Singidunum and Taurunum, the predecessors of Belgrade and Zemun, respectively, were found.
1680s–1914
Area of Ostružnica, near the southern tip of Ada Ciganlija, was a location of the Long Bridge, the first permanent bridge in Belgrade's history. As the opposing, Syrmian side across the Sava was a vast marsh at the time (modern New Belgrade), the bridge didn't stop at the bank but continued for some length above the swamp. Because of that, the people also called it the Bridge above the marsh (Most preko močvare). The bridge was built by the Austrians to help them conquer Belgrade from the Ottomans during the 1688 Siege of Belgrade. According to the records, a seasoned Belgrade master craftsman Đorđević "in only one month, with the help of his 400 workers, built the Long Bridge, using 2,000 tree trunks, 1,100 wooden piles, 15,500 bundles of palings and 12,000 palisade pickets." Right next to it, bit closer to Ada Ciganlija, the Austrians constructed another, classical pontoon bridge, which "leaned on the Long Bridge".
The Romani settlement which existed on Ada in the 17th century was displaced from the island to the Sava's right bank, at the mouth of the Topčiderka, before the Austrian occupation of Belgrade from 1717 to 1739. It is not known whether it happened some time before or during the fighting from 1716 to 1718. One map from the Austrian period shows a Romani settlement with 24 houses at the mouth of Topčiderka. Maps also show that the settlement existed during the next Austrian occupation from 1788 to 1791.
When the Austrian army attacked Belgrade in the 18th century, the Ottomans expelled Serbian population from the city, so they temporarily settled on Ada. When Belgrade was liberated by the Serbian rebels in the First Serbian Uprising, leader of the uprising, Karađorđe, granted the island to Mladen Milovanović, the first city chief. After the collapse of the uprising, Milovanović fled to Hungary, but returned in 1813 and unsuccessfully tried to find the gold which he has dug and hidden somewhere on Ada.
Starting in 1821, the state government decided to organize food trade and to check the quantity and quality of the goods imported to the city. The project included introduction of the excise on the goods (in Serbian called trošarina) and setting of a series of excise check points on the roads leading to the city. One of those check points, which all gradually also became known as trošarina, was located next to Topiderka's mouth into the Sava, across the northern tip of Ada. Built in the 1830s and 1840s, it became known as Gospodarska Mehana. It was also a location of the ferry which transported pigs across the Sava into the Austria. This trošarina also functioned as a customs house. On 25 January 1859, when prince Miloš Obrenović and his son Mihailo Obrenović returned to Serbia, they disembarked here. In this period, Ada became a home to ferrymen and numerous smugglers, who operated both ways. The island was sort of a base where the goods was prepacked either for the customs, or was simply smuggled.
The importance of Ada Ciganlija can be traced back to 1821, when it was declared a protected public domain by then Prince of Serbia, Miloš Obrenović. The first official urban plan for Belgrade was drafted in 1867. It was a work of Emilijan Josimović, the first Serbian trained urbanist. He envisioned Ada as the main sports' center of Belgrade and was to be transformed in the "source of fresh air", a term Josimović used for large forests. Neglected since then, Ada came to the spotlight in 1908 when the Society of the Belgrade's journalists organized the first journalists' ball on the lower tip of Ada. In 1911, the first Serbian feature-length motion picture, The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Vožd Karađorđe was filmed on the island.
World War I
On 28 July 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, thus triggering the World War I, Serbian forces spread over the island to prevent Austrians to use it as the starting point of entering Serbia. Two major battles ensued, on 22–24 September 1914 and in September 1915. In an effort to exploit the withdrawal of the Serbian army from Syrmia in September 1914, Austro-Hungarian Lieutenant field marshal decided to conduct the feint attack on the Sava rivers (Ciganlija and Međica) which was to be followed by the landing operation on the Serbian side of the river, conquering of the neighborhoods of Banovo Brdo and Topčider and then, using the western route, entering downtown Belgrade. Attack began on 22 September when the first group of the Austrians attempted to land on the southern tip of Ada. The location was defended from the blockhouse "He-goat", across the river in the Makiš forest. Under strong fire from the blockhouse, Austrians landed more to the north, in the area which Serbs didn't even defend because it was the plain marsh and it was thought that no one will land there. That way, Austrians successfully landed on the island without much resistance. Major Dobrivoje Mojsilović, acting commander of the Ada's defense, engaged the Austrians in an effort to force them to retreat across the river. Serbian reserve was sent to the battle and major Mojsilović, who was wounded, was replaced by major Svetomir Đukić. After several charges which resulted in hand-to-hand combat, Serbs cornered Austrians on the Ada's northern tip. During that time, behind Serbian back, Austria landed more troops from Međica so the Serbian forces ended being encircled. They managed to break out but by that time they were attacked from the flank by the new Austrian forces. Serbs retreated to the easternmost section of the island and started to dig in. On 23 September Austrians conducted three charges on Serbian positions, coming close to only 30 steps from the trenches, but were backed off. As Austrian army had problems with the invasion of western Serbia and attack on Šabac, General asked from the commander of the forces for the entire Balkans, Oskar Potiorek, to send him two regiments from Lütgendorf. Potiorek not only agreed but he ordered Lütgendorf to reroute all forces to Šabac. On 24 September the Austrians withdrew. Serbs followed them to make sure it is not another ploy, but the withdrawal was complete. Serbs lost 1 officer and 17 soldiers, while the Austrian fatalities included 4 officers and 310 soldiers.
There was a year long shootout between the two armies, with long calm periods in between, before the German army interfered and began non-stop heavy artillery beating of the island in the late September 1915. Hand-to-hand battle ensued and the German fighters pushed the Serbs from the island. Serbian loses were heavy, turning effectively Ada into an open graveyard, earning a moniker "Island of death".
Interbellum
During Interbellum, Ada wasn't the most popular recreational area as the major beach area was across its northern tip, in the Gospodarska Mehana section of the Senjak neighborhood. Still, even then, one of major Serbian writers Branislav Nušić, nicknamed it Vodeni cvet (watery flower) because of its beauty.
In 1920 city decided to arrange the Ada as part of the international design competition concerning the arrangement and expansion of Belgrade. Competition was announced in 1921. One of the submitted works, titled Urbs Magna ("Great City"), proposed construction of the large, multi-functional stadium and transformation of the island into the sports park. First facilities of the swimming and rowing clubs on the island were built after that. The Belgrade's first general urban plan, completed in 1924, envisioned the island as an excursion and leisure area. In 1936 city government adopted a new general urban plan which projected Ada as the "sports island".
By the early 1930s, state rowing championships, and Danube States Rowing Championship have been held at Ada Ciganlija. The 1932 European Rowing Championships was held 2–4 September 1932 at the island. A straight, long track was arranged. Hangars and stands ("water stadium") were built, so as the administrative headquarters of the Belgrade Rowing Club at the mouth of the Topčiderka.
World War II and after
During the German occupation, as the food became scarce and parts of population began to starve, city administration parceled part of the island and awarded the lots to its clerks and other employees to grow vegetables and other food. Occupational administration planned to establish a concentration camp on the island, right after the capitulation of Yugoslavia in April 1941. They decided to push the idea after the attack on Soviet Union in June 1941, but ultimately had to drop the idea of the island camp due to the constant flooding of Ada. Instead, they decided to use the barracks of the 18th Infantry Regiment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in Banjica, creating the Banjica concentration camp in July 1941.
Until 1941, a prison was located on Ada Ciganlija. On the night of 17 July 1946, new Communist authorities executed a number of former politicians on Ada Ciganlija, while military officers were tried as collaborators with the Nazis during World War II, including Chetniks leaders Draža Mihailović and Kosta Mušicki, and ministers in the government of Milan Nedić: Tanasije-Tasa Dinić, Đura Dokić and Velibor Jonić. Despite other plans, Ada was a prison from 1928 to 1954 and was nicknamed the "Little Serbian Alcatraz". It was established on the notion of the king Alexander I of Yugoslavia and the prisoners include Milovan Đilas, Moša Pijade and Borislav Pekić.
In 1947, a public swimming pool was built behind the premises of the "Crvena Zvezda" rowing club. Known as the "Sever pool" (Severov bazen), it became quite popular as it was one of the rare such venues in Belgrade in those days. Many swimmers held preparations for the Olympic games in it. In the 1950s, as part of the Youth work actions, the filling of the bank on the swampy island was organized, which in total employed some 15,000 youth workers.
In 1957 city government decided to put in order the neglected, feral island. The beach was gradually prolonged as the overgrowth and trees were cut and cleared, under the strict control by the experts from the University of Belgrade Forestry Faculty. Works on transforming the island began in 1960. That year, the army constructed a temporary, pontoon bridge to connect the island with the mainland. This prompted opening of numerous beach baths on the island: first was Partizan, followed by Grafičar, Zvezda, Beograd and others, including many unregulated. This marked the end of beach locations on the opposite side of the river, as they all were closed in the next several years. By September 1961 an embankment on the outer side of the island was finished. It is long, wide at the crown and prevented the Sava to flood the island every spring, like it used to do. Already at the time, Ada was the largest and the most visited swimming and excursion site.
The military removed the pontoon bridge in 1966, and transferred it to the Great War Island. This was when the filling of the permanent embankment which was to connect Ada with the mainland began. , engineer and a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts suggested the dual solution for Ada, as both the source of the drinking water and a sports and recreation center. His plan was conducted by 1967 when Ada was connected to the mainland on both the north and south tips, and the Sava Lake and the settling basin Taložnik. In the 1968 season, the first visitors came to the lake. An underground pipeline was built in 1969 which conducted water from the river into the newly formed lake. The water is being purified in the Taložnik, before being conducted further into the lake and to the Belgrade's major water facility in Makiš. The shanty settlement along the mainland bank of the Sava was demolished, and number of barge-houses on the island began to grow.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s the first sporting championships were organized, such as the kayaking championships in 1971, prompting the construction of special facilities. The popularity of Ada was further increased in the 1980s with the music and entertainment show Leto na Adi ("Summer on Ada"), televised live by the Radio Television of Serbia. Also in the 1980s, partial clearing of the wood on the Makiš side began, so as the filling of the beach on that side. In time, a continuous, over long beach around the entire lake was formed. On 21 August 1996, the tall bungee jumping platform became operational. Makiš side was officially declared a swimming area in the season of 2010. In June 2017 construction of two new pipelines which would increase the amount of water transferred from the Taložnik to the water treatment facility in Makiš began. As a result, during the works in the off-season 2018–2019, the lake level was significantly lowered.
Ada Ciganlija is today managed by the municipal government via the Public Enterprise "Ada Ciganlija" (JP "Ada Ciganlija"), which maintains the grounds of the recreational areas and, especially, the beach and Lake Sava. It is responsible for cleanliness, maintenance such as trimming of the underwater algae, public safety (lifeguards), and so on. Even though the island is a public asset, the island itself is not exclusively managed and owned by the city. There are numerous private entities that administer businesses and recreation facilities, such as the golf course. Notably, many famous Serbian sports personalities have invested in the area.
Facilities, activities and tourism
Apart from the sport facilities, a 7 kilometer-long beach of Lake Sava has a closely supervised, fenced-off children's swimming area. Ada Ciganlija features a tall sports observation tower and bleachers on multiple levels which is its most prominent structure as well and one of very few permanent solid structures. One of those structures is the "Jezero" hotel at the entrance.
The northern edge of the island is lined with attached floating barges, or houses on the water owned by many inhabitants of Belgrade as a weekend refuge given the peninsula's exceptionally quiet and green environment. In addition, many city dwellers come to enjoy fishing excursions, picnics and barbecues.
Sport
The island has been conceptualised as Belgrade's focal point for mass sporting activity and recreation. As such, it features a great number of facilities, which get more numerous every year. They include:
American football
Ada Ciganlija has in the past been a host to a number of local and international water sporting events such as competitions in rowing and kayaking. The very first golf course in Serbia has been built on this island in recent years along with a golf club house, a golfing store, golfing school and a practice range. This golf course is also the seat of the first and so far only Serbian golfing association. Also there is a separated cycling and rollerblading path that goes full circle around the lake (approximately 8 km long) and is connected to the path that goes all the way by the Sava river in downtown.
The island is home to the "Rowing Sport Club" and several rowing societies like VK Partizan, VK Crvena Zvezda, and VK Grafičar. A sailing school and club, in addition to all accompanying sailing facilities, can be found on Ada Ciganlija.
Within the complex of the Belgrade Football Association, a monument to (1875–1941 or 1942) was dedicated on 22 May 2021. On 12 May 1896 Buli brought the first football to Serbia, and on 19 May organized the first football match in the state.
Restaurants and nightlife
For decades, Ada Ciganlija was popular among loners and fishermen, including the famous actor Pavle Vujisić. After his death in 1988, it was proposed that the access road to Ada should be named after him, but another street in the new neighborhood of Altina in Zemun was later named after him. Other famous bohemians which dwelled occasionally on Ada after the 1960s were actor Dragan Nikolić, writers Momo Kapor and Zuko Džumhur and opera singers and Milka Stojanović. Nobelist author Ivo Andrić called Ada the "Boka Kotorska of Belgrade" and the "Green jewel of our Pannonian rivers".
Number of splavovi (float barges) began to grow by the late 1970s and the visitors began to include the members of the political and business elite also, including mayor Živorad Kovačević. One of the first barges was "JAT", opened in the late 1970s. It was originally intended only for the employees of the JAT Airways, but soon became a gathering place for the regular clientele, becoming a famous venue in the city. It was derelict by the 2000s, when it was sold to a private owner. Before it was renovated, the barge detached and was taken by the river downstream. The owner took only emergency measures to keep it afloat, but in January 2019 it sank under the heavy snowfall. The barge itself was considered one of the best on the river. "Argument", the first restaurant on splav in Belgrade was opened in 1983. It looked like a "railroad car", without any specificities. In the 1990s it was relocated to the neighborhood of Ušće. At the time, Ada wasn't that well connected to the rest of the city which gave this venues a certain aura of exclusivity. Splav "Sara" was the very first venue in Belgrade with solely electronic music. It was opened only for a year in 1994.
Belgrade has a reputation for offering a vibrant nightlife, and many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city. The most recognizable nightlife features of Belgrade are the splavovi, spread along the banks of the Sava and Danube Rivers. The island has over 70 restaurants, bars and cafés as well as a café-cinema.
Ada Mall
First ideas of building a shopping mall on Čukarica side, across the Ada Ciganlija entrance where the former "Minel Dinamo" company was, appeared in 2007. Construction began in March 2017 and the object was opened on 24 May 2019, under the name of Ada Mall (Ada Mol). It has 5 floors, total floor area of over and atypical, attractive design, compared to the usual box-shaped malls in Belgrade: it has wavy façade with terraces and step-like floors.
Construction itself was already problematic, both financially (connections with the mayor Siniša Mali) and in terms of building process. After a while, investor reached a bedrock and decided to use dynamite. As the mall is embedded into the cliff which is fully urbanized on top, and dynamite explosions were used for almost a year, houses and buildings of the residents cracked in time. The roof tiles were falling off, while window frames separated from the walls. In the end, the residents received no support from either the investor or the city government, as municipal inspector concluded that the cracks on dozen houses are not caused by the explosions below.
As the opening of the facility was hurried, so that it could be opened ceremonially by the politicians, it wasn't fully finished when it was opened. Some sections were empty, dirty and covered in dust, the walls were naked, without panels, floor panels were badly placed, and electric wires were protruding into the corridors. The façade wasn't completely finished either, while some works on the access paths and the building itself have been reported as "slack". In the next several months, streak of bad luck for the object continued. Already in June it was evacuated two times in just couple of days, after it got flooded during the heavy rains. This gave the facility a nickname "Kada Mol" (kada, Serbian for bathtub). In July it was evacuated again because of the faulty alarm system, and in September due to the sabotage of the same system.
Footbridges
The original project of Ada Mol also envisioned a footbridge (pasarela), which would directly connect the mall with the pedestrian section of the Radnička Street. The footbridge hasn't been constructed, but the investor, who estimated the cost of the short pedestrian bridge to €1 million, promised it will be built by the end of 2019. Construction of the footbridge began in May 2020. It is not going to only connect the mall with the bus stop across the Paštrovićeva Street, as originally planned, but will continue from there across the Radnička Street, reaching the entrance area of Ada Ciganlija. Deadline was set for September 2020. The project was described as "not really complicated", yet the deadline was first moved to 1 December 2020, and then to 15 March 2021, before being moved to 30 April 2021.
Though construction works were effectivelly completed in May 2021, it remained closed, and the opening was moved to March 2022, then prolonged to August, late September, November 2022, and then to January 2023, as all necessary permits still weren't issued, and the city still had to officially take over the ownership of the footbridge. After 30 months of delays, the footbridge was opened for pedestrians on 13 February 2023, without ceremony, official takeover by the city, functional connection to the mall itself, and without any of the three elevators working.
The residents petitioned for the footbridge on another location in 2012, a bit further from the present Ada Mol. City began some procedures in 2019. In June 2020, construction was announced. The footbridge will directly connect the neighborhood of Čukarička Padina with hypermarket Tempo Centar, and further with Ada Ciganlija, over the 8-lane Obrenovac Road. Deadline is set for June 2021. In April 2022 the deadline was moved to July, and then to the autumn of 2022. The steel footbridge will be long, and roofed. Construction began in late September 2022, and while majority of works were finished by November, as of February 2023 the bridge was still not in use. It was opened for pedestrian traffic on 25 May 2023.
Landmarks
One of the island's most noted landmarks is the fountain, based on the famous Jet d'Eau (water-jet), situated in Lake Geneva. The Belgrade one is also 140 metres high and it was installed in 1996. The fountain operates during the day all year round, except in case there is frost or a particularly strong wind. It also operates in the evening between spring and autumn and is lit by a set of lights. During the summer months in the later hours, the island stages a special laser light spectacle for those still present at the beach.
This Island also has an artistic sculpture workshop located at the eastern end in the direction of the city. Ada Ciganlija also has a children's theatre featuring scheduled performances, as well as a Robinson Crusoe-themed entertainment feature that stages themed performances.
Transportation
Roads
Although there are land routes leading to the island across the artificial dams, they are seldom used due to poor accessibility to the city's main roads and public transport system. Numerous routes of the city's public transport (GSP Beograd) pass close to the eastern entrance: bus routes 23, 37, 51, 52, 53, 56, 56L, 57, 58, 88, 89, 91, 92, 511, 551 and 552, while tram lines 12 and 13 also pass relatively nearby. Due to the ever-larger number of visitors, GSP Beograd introduced special seasonal bus lines, specifically designated for transport to Ada Ciganlija from distant parts of Belgrade. They have been expanding in recent years: Ada1 (Central Belgrade and Vidikovac), Ada2 (Zemun, Blokovi), Ada3 (Konjarnik), Ada4 (Mirijevo), Ada5 (Bežanijska Kosa, Novi Beograd).
Bridges
Ada Bridge
A new cable-stayed bridge is being built across the Sava, over the eastern tip of the Ada Ciganlija. The bridge is set to be a future landmark due to its height and grandeur. The central abutment is to be 200 meters tall, carrying hundreds of cables suspending the bridge. It will provide a direct land link to the island via the elevators as well as a planned light rail station that will stop mid-bridge to service passengers to and from the island.
Ada Bridge II
When plans were made for the Ada Bridge, one of the proposals was the location on the opposite, upstream tip of Ada Ciganlija, instead of the downstream one, where it was built in the end. It would connect Makiš on the right, and Savski Nasip on the left bank of the Sava. When Ada Bridge was close to be finished, architects suggested this other location as the place where the next Belgrade bridge might or should be built.
New Belgrade-Ada Ciganlija Bridge
In March 2020, it was announced that the construction of the first pedestrian-cyclist bridge in Belgrade will commence in 2021. It will connect New Belgrade with the island of Ada Ciganlija across the Sava, as the continuation of the Omladinskih Brigada street in Block 70. Public, partially underground garage with 300 parking spots will be built at the end of the street. This is the second part of the project city administration alleged is the result of citizens' online voting (first part is relocation of the Old Sava Bridge on dry land, in the Park Ušće to become an "attraction"). Reporters and public distanced from the voting or debunked it as being rigged. City then announced plans for a completely new bridge and in December 2020 announced it will be finished in 2022.
New project includes a two-level parking lot on the New Belgrade's side, in the Block 70. This was one of the reasons for the protests of the local residents, who claimed the bridge will disrupt neighborhood's green zones, create even larger traffic jams, and turn Block 70 into the vast parking lot for Ada visitors. The 2020 petition against the bridge was signed by 8,000 residents. City said the bridge will be built regardless, but moved the beginning of the construction for the late 2023 or early 2024. When the plan was opened for public viewing in December 2022, citizens filed 3,500 complaints. With the announcement of the relocation of the Belgrade Zoo to Ada, mayor Aleksandar Šapić also announced expedition of this project, stating that by the early 2025 the bridge should be finished.
River
There are regular ferry services to take people from Belgrade's river banks onto the island. In 2008, experimental introduction of public transport by boat began, one of whose routes is from Blok 44 (Novi Beograd)-Ada Ciganlija. There is also a small electric road vehicle that tours the island called the "tourist train". There is also an impromptu recreational marina on the island's downstream end. There are plans to expand this marina and make it permanent. Boating in the lake, as well as car traffic on land, is strictly forbidden. There is a large parking lot on the Makiš side of the river.
Gondola lift
In 1922 company "Čavlina and Sladoljev" from Zagreb drafted the project of connecting two banks of the Sava river by the cable car. In 1928, building company "Šumadija" again proposed the construction of the cable car, which they called "air tram" but this project was planned to connect Zemun to Kalemegdan on Belgrade Fortress, via Great War Island. The interval of the cabins was set at 2 minutes and the entire route was supposed to last 5 minutes. The project never realized. Engineer and CEO of the Yugoslav institute for urbanism and dwelling "Juginus", Mirko Radovanac, revived the idea in the 1990s. After conducting extensive surveys (traffic analysis, interviews with the commuters, climatic, geological, urban and other researches), "Juginus" presented the project in 1993. They proposed that the terminuses should be at the Sports Center Košutnjak and Block 44 in the neighborhood of Savski Blokovi in New Belgrade, across the Sava. Stops in between would include the major public transportation roundabout in Banovo Brdo, Makiš and Ada Ciganlija, five in total. They called it the "ideal route". The plan also included construction of commercial areas around the terminuses, which would cover and help with the profitability of the project. Apart from being ecological and an attraction, it was estimated that it would shorten the trip for 45 minutes.
City government included the project into the city's General Urban Plan, which envisioned the construction in phases, the first being a long section Block 44-Ada Ciganlija. It would lay on 8 steel pillars, above the ground and the trip would last for 3 minutes. The cabins were projected to receive not just the commuters, but also the bicycles, skateboards, sledges and skis, as the cableway was planned to work year-round. The complete facility would have of 27 pillars, it would be long which would be travelled in 15 minutes by 2,000 commuters per hour.
Despite the project has been publicly revived by the mayors Dragan Đilas (2008–2013) and Siniša Mali (2013–2018), it remained on hold. The idea was included in the Belgrade's General Regulatory Plan in December 2021, including two phases: New Belgrade-Ada Ciganlija-Makiš, and Makiš-Banovo Brdo-Košutnjak. After announcing relocation of the zoo to Ada, mayor Aleksandar Šapić announced execution of the project, expanding its New Belgrade starting point from the Blokovi neighborhood to Delta City. He announced reactivation of the publicly unknown city project from 2009.
Social aspect
Ever since Ada Ciganlija began gaining popularity, there have been varying views of its importance. During the economic hardship of the 1980s and subsequent wars of the 1990s, it was often regarded as a "necessary evil", as the only resort available to masses of economically disadvantaged people. Use of this recreation area has always been free of charge, leading to it often being overcrowded and regarded as having poor hygiene, because, for decades, Ada had no proper facilities or institutionalised care. That has changed however, and the zone is today properly maintained, and has suitable infrastructure and appropriate commercial and recreational content. It is now possible to play sports that were not even invented when transformation of Ada began and it has become a highly popular gathering place, especially among youth, and a must-see destination for foreign tourists visiting Belgrade.
See also
Sava
Belgrade
Ada Bridge
References
External links
The island's official website (Serbian only)
City of Belgrade's Ada Ciganlija Page (Serbian, English, German and French)
Picture gallery of Ada Ciganlija (Serbian only)
Belgrade Golf Club, school and association (Serbian and English)
Images of the new planned bridge over Ada — Belgrade's Land Development Agency
An interactive map of Ada — detailed (Serbian only)
An address book to help you find your way — detailed (Serbian only)
Ada 360° Virtual tour (Serbian only)
Neighborhoods of Belgrade
Geography of Belgrade
River islands of Serbia
Lakes of Serbia
Tourist attractions in Belgrade
Beaches of Serbia
Čukarica |
4259578 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devdas%20%281935%20film%29 | Devdas (1935 film) | Devdas is a 1935 Bengali film directed by Pramathesh Barua and based on the Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay novel, Devdas. It stars Barua himself as Devdas and Jamuna Barua as Parvati (Paro) and Chandrabati Devi as Chandramukhi. This was Barua's first of three language versions of the story, the second being in Hindi and the third in Assamese. The Bengali film was dubbed into Tamil and released in 1936. K. L. Saigal sang two songs in Tamil for this film.(See Ext. links for a link.)
Sharat Chandra Chatterjee's classic novel Devdas is about two lovers - Debdas and Parbati - who can never unite as mortals because of the class system in the society. Sharat Chandra Chaterjee is believed to be in his teens when he wrote Devdas in 1901. But it was published in 1917. This classic masterpiece sensitively criticizes the feudalistic society that prevailed.
All Indian prints of this Bengali version were destroyed decades ago in a fire that ravaged New Theatre’s studios. Currently, there is only one copy of the film which belongs to the Bangladesh Film Archives, of which almost 40 percent is destroyed.
Plot
The son of Zamindar Narayan Mukherjee, Devdas was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He grew up in the lush village of Taj Sonapur, where he spent his childhood, indulged by his lovely playmate Paro. They grew up sharing a special relationship, in which they existed only to each other. Oblivious of all the differences of status and background, a bond that would never break grew between them. Slowly, it changed to love but it was still unsaid. But the reverie was broken when his family sent Devdas to Calcutta for education. Paro's world crashed knowing that her Devdas would be gone and she lit a diya, for it signified the fast coming back of her loved one. Years passed and Devdas returned. Devdas was besotted by her stunning beauty and longed to have her back. But Zamindar Narayan Mukherjee, Devdas' father, met Paro's mother Sumitra's marriage proposal with condescending arrogance. It caused a rift between the families and even though Devdas tried to convince his father, only antagonism came his way. Finally, he moved away from Paro and wrote a letter to her, asking her to forget him. Only, he didn't realize that he would never be able to forget her ever. And much later, when he reached out to her, it was too late as she was far too humiliated. She scorned him for not standing by her and they parted forever with a heart-broken Paro entering into a chaste marriage with a wealthy, much older man, Zamindar Bhuvan, while a shattered Devdas walked towards anguish, alcoholism & Chandramukhi. Chandramukhi, a stunning tawaif instantly lost her heart to Devdas. A unique bond was formed between both as he could share with her the intense pain of his unfulfilled love for Paro. Meanwhile, Paro, on the other hand, performed her worldly duties sincerely, but inside her heart, she could never forget Devdas for a moment. Strange was the fate of Devdas. Intensely loved by two women, who were never meant to be his. One whom he could never love and one whom he could never stop loving.
Main cast
Pramathesh Barua as Devdas
Chandrabati Devi as Chandramukhi
Jamuna Barua as Parvati / Paro
K. L. Saigal as a guest at Chandramukhi's house
Ahi Sanyal
Nirmal Bannerjee
Manoranjan Bhattacharya
Dinesh Ranjan Das
Krishna Chandra Dey
Amar Mullick
Sailen Pal
Prabhavati Devi
Production
Devdas, based on a popular Bengali novel by Sarat Chandra Chatterjee, revolutionized the entire look of Indian social pictures. Rather than just translate one medium to another, PC Barua uses the novel as just raw material, creating his own structure and transforming what was purely verbal into an essentially visual form. Avoiding stereotypes and melodrama, Barua raises the film to a level of noble tragedy. The film's characters are not heroes and villains but ordinary people conditioned by a rigid and crumbling social system. Even the lead character Devdas has no heroic dimensions to his character. What we see are his weaknesses, his narcissism, his humanity as he is torn by driving passion and inner-conflict.
The film is a complete departure from the then prevalent theatricality in acting, treatment and dialogue. Barua initiates a style of acting that is natural and unaffected. His method is to underplay, to convey emotion through the slightest tremor of the voice and use significant pauses in between the dialogue to maximum effect. This naturalness of tone spills over to the dialogue as well. Rather than dialogue in a florid style as was prevalent then, Barua who had been exposed to European naturalistic trends ensures the dialogue in the film is what one speaks in real life.
A refreshing economy of style is visible throughout the film, whether establishing the love between Devdas and Parvati or conveying his anguish through the piercing sounds of the speeding train that takes him on his final tragic tryst with Parvati. The great physical distance that separates them and Devdas anxiety to redeem a promise is skillfully conveyed through some stunning use of parallel cutting. The sequence of Devdas crying out in delirium, Parvati stumbling and then Devdas falling from his berth in the train was commended for its essential 'Indianness' in conveying fate's domination over individual destiny.
KL Saigal played Devdas in the Hindi version (Barua himself played the role in the Bengali version) and the film took him to cult star status. His songs in the film Balam Aaye Baso Mere Man Mein and Dukh ke Din Ab Beete Nahin became smash hits and set the tone for a glorious filmic career till his death in 1947. Saigal remains the prototype of Devdas till today, no mean feat considering screen giants such as Dilip Kumar, Akkineni Nageswara Rao and Soumitra Chatterjee repeated the role later.
Devdas has been remade a number of times, New Theatres remade it in Tamil in 1937, it was made twice in Telugu in 1953 and 1974 but the most famous subsequent version was the one by Bimal Roy who had photographed this version. The film, made in 1955, starred Dilip Kumar, Suchitra Sen and Vyjayanthimala as Devdas, Parvati and Chandramukhi respectively. The undercurrent of Devdas runs strong in the central character in both of Guru Dutt. Sanjay Leela Bhansali has made a version of the film in 2002 with Shah Rukh Khan, Aishwarya Rai and Madhuri Dixit in the three lead roles.
Box office and ratings
Devdas (1935), produced by New Theatres is an all-time hit. It made Pramathesh Chandra Barua (1903–1951) a star overnight and revolutionalised the concept of cinema as entertainment into cinema of social concern and literature expressed through celluloid. Sarat Chandra Chatterjee, a then-frequent visitor at the New Theatres studio in south Calcutta, told Barua after seeing Devdas, "It appears that I was born to write Devdas because you were born to recreate it in cinema." It was a rare tribute from a writer to the actor-director of a film based on his story. Over time, the character of Devdas became synonymous with the name of PC Barua. Till today, the image of PC Barua the man is inseparable from the image of Devdas, the character he played.
Reviews and critiques
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay (1876–1938) wrote Devdas in 1901 when he was 25. But he could not find a publisher till 1917. Sarat Chandra was sympathetic to the woman - repressed at home and tortured outside. He was partial to those who, for no fault of theirs, incurred the disapproval or displeasure of the family or community. The social and domestic atmosphere in Sarat Chandra's works does not exist any more. But the story interest keeps the reader hooked, irrespective of the plausibility or otherwise of the narrative. His stories were extremely ‘filmogenic’ and therefore, novels like Parineeta (1914), Biraj Bou (1914) and Palli Samaj (1916), appear as topical to the Indian filmmaker as stories written by contemporary writers. Translated in many Indian languages, Devdas continues to be Sarat Chandra Chatterjee's most successful and controversial novel.
The climax of the film was Pramathesh's original contribution to the story because Sarat Chandra had written it differently. Had Devdas the film, ended the way the novel did, the audience might not have understood it. Barua decided that when Parvati would hear that her Devdas was dying under a tree outside her house, she would run out to see him. But as she would rush out, the doors would begin to close on her. This door is a metaphor for the social taboo against a married woman rushing out to see her former lover, crossing the threshold of her marital home. It was unthinkable in those days. "Barua conceptualised this entire scene. It was not there in the novel. When Sarat Babu saw the film, he was so moved that he told Barua that even he had never thought of ending the novel the way Barua had done," informed Jamuna Barua. Sarat Babu went on to tell Pramathesh that this actor's entry into films was solely to give life to Devdas, the character he had created through the written word.
Devdas turned into a folk hero for all time. Pramathesh metamorphosed into a cultural icon of his time since he directed and brought to life the Devdas character. Yet, the story goes that Pramathesh was under severe mental stress during the making of this film because he was still coping with his grief over the death of Kshiti (Amala Devi) who had died before he began to make the film. The script of Devdas was being written while Pramathesh was already shooting Rooprekha. After finishing the casting, Pramathesh discovered that he had not found the Parvati he was looking for. Kanan Devi was approached but she had to decline because she was already under contract with Radha Films. He then chanced upon Jamuna, sister of Sitara and Jaya Gupta of Varanasi, who was chosen to portray Parvati. Sometime during the making of the film, the reel-love story turned into a love story in real life. Pramathesh married Jamuna. As soon as work on Devdas was complete, Jamuna gave birth to their son who, to rhyme with the film that brought the lovers together, was christened Debkumar.
Devdas was released in Chitra Talkies on 26 April 1935. There are several scenes in Devdas that marked the entry of the jump cut to heighten the drama through a new editing strategy. When Devdas vomits blood during his travels, the camera cuts in to show a plate of floral offerings fall off Parvati's hands, far away in her matrimonial home. In a night scene on the train, as soon as Devdas calls out to Paro, the scene cuts once again to show the doors and windows burst open in Parvati's room as Parvati screams out in sleep in the middle of a nightmare. These scenes set out Pramathesh's creative imagination in explaining through the language of cinema the psychological stress his characters were reeling under, as also the telepathic bonding the lovers shared, without reducing these to melodrama or using sentimental dialogue.
According to the late Phani Majumdar, Pramathesh's best performance is in Devdas. He describes, in particular, the scene where Devdas, after his beloved Parvati has been married to another, wanders aimlessly, drinking and shooting down birds at random. A friend of Parvati who spots him from a distance while carrying a pot of water back home, is scared to cross his path. But Devdas merely comes close to the girl and asks her how she is, thus building a scene to an unpredictable anti-climax in a film spilling over with dramatic twists and turns and human tragedy. This is an example of how Pramathesh had gained both command and control over the medium of cinema. As an actor, Pramathesh abhorred melodrama. He kept his face almost deadpan, used minimum body language and left it to his audience to read from his emotions and from the total mise-en-scene.
Barua did not create Devdas - he was Devdas. So powerful was the impact of Pramathesh's portrayal on screen, so close it grew to his private life, that to the Bengali audience, Devdas was synonymous with the actor who played the character. By the time the film was released, Pramathesh became aware that he had contacted tuberculosis, and, drawn inescapably to the bottle like his screen parallel, wasted himself away slowly and surely, to die barely 15 years after he had lived the character of Devdas on screen.
The social relevance of Devdas lies in the fact that it was the first film to place on celluloid the social ramifications of a man of high birth who moves away from his feudal, upper-class roots in rural Bengal to the colonial city of Calcutta during pre-World War II years. It tried to explore the inner pain of this man, torn between the pull he feels towards his village roots and his wish to run away to the city to escape from the tragic reality of a lost love. His wilful manner of moving towards self-destruction could be read as his casual indifference to the village that he once belonged to, a village he now responds to with mixed feelings. Before his death, he tries in vain to run away from an anonymous death in the unfeeling city by coming back to the village in one last desperate attempt to renew his lost ties. The harsh, heartless reality of the city has changed his perspective towards the village. He finally rejects the tempting illusions and fantasies the city once held for him. The city loses Devdas but the village too refuses to accept him even in his ignominious, humiliating death. Only two women - Parvati and Chandramu- khi - who operate like invisible, unwritten ‘guardians of conscience’ in the wreckage his life is reduced to, are left to grieve over his death.
For Parvati, Devdas symbolises the adorable rebel from a feudal family who breaks rules only to come back to them in the end, proving that he is no rebel after all. For Chandramukhi, Devdas represents the generosity that characterises a prince who wills himself to self-destruction through excess. Devdas failed to offer social respectability to the two women in his life. Somewhere down the line, the audience forgot to draw the line between the Devdas they saw on screen and Pramathesh Barua, the real man who was merely playing out a role. Never before or since, has any screen character meshed so completely, so seamlessly and so ideally with the actor who brought the character to life on celluloid.
Stylistically, Pramathesh adopted a refreshing economy throughout the film. "The film was a complete departure from the then-prevalent theatricality in acting, treatment and dialogue. Barua initiated a style of acting which was natural and unaffected; his method was to underplay, to convey emotion through the slightest tremor of the voice and use significant pauses between the dialogue to telling effect. The dialogue too, was simple, everyday speech, without dramatic flamboyance or literary flourish. The slow, soft and cleverly modulated dialogue became a hallmark not only of Barua’s but all of New Theatres’ films."
The Indian movie world was adorned with some excellent productions by Pramathesh Barua. But, his most celebrated work is Devdas. He played the title role in it, where the other stars were Biswanath Bhaduri, Uma Shashi, Kundan Saigal and Chandrabati. Raichand Boral was the music director. The story of Devdas was based on the novel of Sarat Chandra Chattopadhya of the same title. The novelist was so deeply moved by the film that tears rolled down his eyes and he opined that PC Barua’s Devdas was more distinctive than the Devdas of his own novel. Noted film critic Chidananda Das Gupta made a significant remark — "Pramathesh Barua did not merely make Devdas, but also came to be widely known as ‘Devdas’ rather than a Rajkumar (prince) ... His Devdas is a milestone in the film world of the subcontinent".
Awards
Social and cultural impact
Political and social influence
The Directorate of Film Festivals had to borrow a copy of India's first film version of this from the Bangladesh High Commission in order to screen it during the Devdas retrospective here on Delhi on Oct 2002 at Delhi Film Festival.
The film was sent through diplomatic bag by the Bangladesh government and the screening was conducted under strict vigil, no video clips, no photographs, no extracts on television — as the copyright belongs to the Bangladesh Film Archives. The film was screened to a full auditorium. The copyright of the film actually belongs to the New Theatre. The Indian prints of P.C. Barua’s Bengali version of the film, with Barua playing Devdas, were destroyed decades ago in a fire that ravaged New Theatre's studios. Currently, there is only one copy of the film which belongs to the Bangladesh Film Archives. And that too is with almost 40 percent of it destroyed.
This version, which was screened here after a long gap, retained only parts of the classic and had very poor sound quality. P.K Nair, Director, Film Archives, says the Archives traced the presence of the copy in the 1970s and requested the Bangladesh Film Archives to allow India to restore the film and make a copy of it.
But that's not the only missing classic from India's repertoire, says Nair. According to him, the Archives has traced a number of copies of Indian classic of the 1930s and 1940s in countries like Pakistan, Algeria and many more. And these are copies of films which can no longer be found in India. Almost 70 percent of the films made before the 1950s will not be available any more.
See also
Devdas (1936 film) - Barua's Hindi version
Devdas (1937 film) - Barua's Assamese version
List of incomplete or partially lost films
References
External links
Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema
Review
SPICE info
1935 films
Bengali-language Indian films
Devdas films
Indian black-and-white films
Films directed by Pramathesh Barua
Films set in Kolkata
Indian drama films
1935 drama films
1930s Bengali-language films
Films about courtesans in India
Films based on Indian novels
Films scored by Timir Baran
Films scored by R. C. Boral
Films scored by Pankaj Mullick |
4260131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Quran | History of the Quran | History of the Quran is the timeline and origin of the written compilations or manuscripts of the holy book of Islam, based on historical findings. It spans several centuries, and forms an important major part of the early history of Islam.
While there are various proposed etymologies, one is that the word قرآن 'Quran' comes from the Arabic verb قرء 'qaraʾa' 'to read' in the verbal noun pattern فعلان 'fuʿlān', thus resulting in the meaning 'reading'. Others are that it is a name given to the book by God, without any previous etymology, that the word comes from the verb قرن 'qarana' 'to join, to yoke', referring to the gathering together of revelation, and that it comes from قرائن 'qarāʾin', the plural of a word variously translatable as 'evidence', 'yoke', 'union'. Nine out of the ten imams of recitation have it read in their tradition with a hamzah, with only Ibn Kathir's tradition excluding the letter.
According to the Muslim belief and Islamic scholarly accounts, the revelation of the Quran began in 610 CE when the angel Gabriel (believed to have been sent by God) appeared to Muhammad (a trader in the Western Arabian city of Mecca, which had become a sanctuary for pagan deities and an important trading center) in the cave of Hira.,
According to Islamic belief, the revelations started one night during the month of Ramadan in 610 CE, when Muhammad, at the age of forty, received the first visit from the angel Gabriel, reciting to him the first verses of Surah Al-Alaq. Muslims believe that Muhammad continued to have revelations until his death in 632 CE.
According to Islamic tradition, the Quran was first compiled into a comprehensive book by Abu Bakr. As the Islamic Empire began to grow, and differing recitations were heard, the rasm - or consonantal skeleton of the Quran - was compiled for uniformity in recitation under the direction of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE). For this reason, the Quran as it exists today is also known as the Uthmanic codex. According to Francis Edward Peters (1991), what was done to the Quran in the process seems to have been extremely conservative and the content was formed in a mechanical fashion to avoid redactional bias. Arabic orthography continued to develop into the second century, allowing qira'at, or variant oral readings of the rasm, to be documented in Quranic manuscripts.
Gerd R. Puin, a renowned Islamicist scholar at Saarland University, was the head of the Sanaa manuscript restoration project commissioned by the Yemeni government. His findings led Puin to assert that the Quran had undergone a "textual evolution" with textual variations, unconventional ordering of the chapters (surahs), rare styles of orthography, and may include stories that were written before Muhammed began his ministry and which have subsequently been rewritten. The Yemeni government subsequently denied him any further access to the manuscripts.
Non-Muslim people questioned the nature and modes of Muhammad's revelations. The Meccans interpreted the Quranic revelations based on their understanding of 'inspiration'. For them, poetry was closely connected to inspiration from a higher spiritual source. For this reason when Muhammad began preaching and reciting the Quran, the Meccans accused him of being a poet or a "poet possessed".
There are disagreements among scholars as to when the Quran was first compiled. A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the caliph Abu Bakr commanded Zayd ibn Thabit to compile the written Quran, relying upon both textual fragments and the memories of those who had memorized it. Some Shia Muslims believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first to compile the Quran into one written text, a task completed shortly after the death of Muhammad.
Muhammad
The Quran uses the term () to describe Muhammad. The majority of Muslim scholars interpret this word as a reference to an illiterate individual, though some modern scholars instead interpret it as a reference to those who belong to a community without a scripture.
According to the famous Sunni collector of traditions of Muhammad, Muhammad al-Bukhari (who lived about 250 years after Muhammad), Muhammad's wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid described that the first Quranic revelation occurred when the angel Gabriel visited Muhammad and asked him to recite. Muhammad responded ma ana bīqāre'u, which could be translated into a number of ways: 'I do not read' or 'what am I to read/recite?' or 'I will not read/recite'. Gabriel pressed him "until all the strength went out of me; thereupon he released me and said: 'Read!'" This was repeated three times and upon the third, Gabriel released him and said, "Read in the name of the Sustainer who created humankind from a clot! Read! And your Sustainer is the most Beautiful." After this Muhammad continued to have revelations sporadically over a period of twenty-three years, until shortly before his death in 11/632.
Muslims believe that Gabriel brought the word of God to Muhammad verbatim, and the Quran was divinely protected from any alteration or change. The Quran emphasizes that Muhammad was required only to receive the sacred text and that he had no authority to change it. It is also believed that God did not make himself known through the revelations; it was his will that was revealed.
According to tradition, Muhammad described the experience of revelation:
At times, it was also reported that the experience was painful for Muhammad. For example, he had been heard saying, "Never once did I receive a revelation without thinking that my soul had been torn away from me."
After Muhammad would receive revelations, he would later recite it to his Companions, who also memorized it or wrote it down. Before the Quran was commonly available in written form, speaking it from memory prevailed as the mode of teaching it to others. The practice of memorizing the whole Quran is still practised among Muslims. Millions of people have memorized the entire Quran in Arabic. This fact, taken in the context of 7th-century Arabia, was not an extraordinary feat. People of that time had a penchant for recited poetry and had developed their skills in memorization to a remarkable degree. Events and competitions that featured the recitation of elaborate poetry were of great interest.
In Pre-Islamic Arabia, the society during the time of Muhammad was predominantly oral, and for this reason he would recite the Quranic verses to his Companions for them to memorize. Therefore, it is unknown whether the Quran was ever written and collected during the time of Muhammad. While writing was not a common skill during Muhammad's time, Mecca, being a commercial center, had a number of people who could write. Some scholars believe that several scribes including Zayd ibn Thabit and Ubay ibn Ka'b recorded verses of the Quran. This provides an explanation as to how the Quran existed in written form during the life of Muhammad, even if it was not compiled into one text.
Muhammad's cousin, Ibn Abbas, describes the way in which the final version of the Quran was fixed: "the prophet recited the book before Gabriel every year in the month of Ramadan, and in the month in which he died he recited it before him twice." It is believed that toward the end of Muhammad's life a special act of revelation occurred in which a final and complete version of the Quran was created. The term 'recite', which is used here, is referring to the custom where a Quranic scholar recites the entire Quran from beginning to end a number of times before a senior scholar. According to this tradition the act of recital is being performed by Muhammad, with the angel Gabriel playing the role of superior authority.
In one of the hadith Muhammad is recorded as saying: "I leave among you two things of high estimation: the Book of God and my Family." Some scholars argue that this provides evidence that the Quran had been collected and written during this time because it is not correct to call something al-kitab (book) when it is merely in the [people's] memories. The word al-kitab signifies a single and united entity and does not apply to a text which is scattered and not collected. However, Alan Jones has explored the use of this word in the Quran, finding that there is no evidence that it was used in such a "concrete sense" in reference to the Quran and other scriptures, but instead evidence points to an "abstract meaning". He further considers the role of writing among Arabs in the early seventh century and accounts in the Sira of the dictation of parts of the Quran to scribes towards the end of the Medinan period.
Another argument some Shia and Sunni scholars bring up is the importance that Muhammad attached to the Quran. They believe that since Muhammad put so much importance to the Quran he had to have ordered the writing of it during his lifetime. For example, Zayd ibn Thabit reported, "We used to record the Quran from parchments in the presence of the Messenger of God."
Some authors believe that, as long as Muhammad was alive, there was always the expectation of further revelation as well as occasional abrogations. Any formal collection of the material already revealed could not properly be considered a complete text.
Abu Bakr's compilation
According to Sunni scholars, during the life of Muhammad parts of the Quran, though written, were scattered among his companions, much of it as private possession. After the Battle of Yamama in 633, when 70 Muslims who had memorized the Quran were killed, steps began to be taken to collate the body of material. The death of Salim Mawla Abi Hudhayfa was most significant, as he was one of the very few who had been entrusted by Muhammad to teach the Quran. Consequently, upon Umar's insistence, Abu Bakr ordered the collection of the hitherto scattered pieces of the Quran into one copy, assigning Zayd ibn Thabit, Muhammad's main scribe, to gather the written fragments held by different members of the community. Ibn Thabit noted:
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani draws special attention to Zayd's statement, "I found two verses of Sura al-Bara'a with Abu Khuzaima al-Ansari," as demonstrating that Zayd's own writings and memorization were not deemed sufficient. Everything required verification. The compilation was kept by the Caliph Abu Bakr, after his death by his successor, Caliph Umar, who on his deathbed gave them to Hafsa bint Umar, his daughter and one of Muhammad's widows.
Uthman ibn Affan and the canonization
According to Islamic tradition, the process of canonization ended under the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 23/644–35/655), about twenty years after the death of Muhammad in 650 CE, though the date is not exact because it was not recorded by early Arab annalists.
The Qur'anic canon is the form of the Quran as recited and written in which it is religiously binding for the Muslim community. This canonical corpus is closed and fixed in the sense that nothing in the Quran can be changed or modified.
By the time of Uthman's caliphate, there was a perceived need for clarification of Qur'an reading. The Caliphate had grown considerably, expanding into Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Iran, bringing into Islam's fold many new converts from various cultures with varying degrees of isolation.
It is believed that the general Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman reported this problem to the caliph and asked him to establish a unified text. According to the history of al-Tabari, during the expedition there were 10,000 Kufan warriors, 6,000 in Azerbaijan and 4,000 at Rayy. A large number of soldiers disagreeing about the correct way of reciting the Quran may have caused Hudhayfah to promote a unified text. An example of the confusion at this time is seen during a campaign in Tabaristan, where one of the soldiers asked Hudhayfah, "How did the Messenger of God pray?" Hudhayfah told him the soldier prayed before fighting.
It is believed upon Hudhayfah's request Uthman obtained the sheets of the Quran from Ḥafṣa and appointed a commission consisting of Zayd and three prominent Meccans, and instructed them to copy the sheets into several volumes based on the dialect of Quraysh, the main tribe of Mecca.
When the task was finished Uthman kept one copy in Medina and sent others to Kufa, Baṣra, Damascus, and, according to some accounts, Mecca, and ordered that all other variant copies of the Quran be destroyed. This was done everywhere except in Kufa, where some scholars argue that Ibn Masʿūd and his followers refused.
The above quoted hadith refers to the manuscripts of the Quran compiled during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr, which were inherited by Caliph Umar's daughter Hafsa, a wife of Muhammad, and then returned to her, as promised. Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson note that "Zuhrī—the earliest known scholar to emphasize the importance of Ḥafṣah's codex for the collection of the caliph ʿUthmān's recension—also serves as the authority for the accounts of the destruction of Ḥafṣah's scrolls (ṣuḥuf)." After her death, he reported that Hafsa's brother inherited the manuscripts and allowed Uthman or according to some versions, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan to destroy them.
It is generally accepted that the Uthmanic text comprises all 114 suras in the order known today.
Beliefs of some Shia Muslim scholars about the origins of the Quran may differ in some respects from Sunni beliefs. According to influential Marja' Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, Uthman's collection of the Quran was metaphorical, not physical. He did not collect the verses and suras in one volume, but in the sense that he united the Muslims on the reading of one authoritative recension. al-Khoei also argues that the one reading on which Uthman united the Muslims was the one in circulation among most Muslims, and that it reached them through uninterrupted transmission from Muhammad.
This is one of the most contested issues and an area where many non-Muslim and Muslim scholars often clash.
Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali, the fourth Rashidun caliph () and the first Shia Imam, is widely believed to have compiled his own transcript of the Quran. In particular, there are reports that Ali and some other companions of Muhammad collected the verses of the Quran during the lifetime of the prophet, while other reports emphasize that Ali prepared his codex immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. This latter group of reports may have been fabricated to imply consensus about the caliphate of Abu Bakr, that is, the preoccupation of Ali with his codex in these reports is intended to justify his widely-rumored absence in the Saqifa meeting where Abu Bakr was elected caliph after Muhammad died.
In his codex, Ali may have arranged the verses in the order by which they were revealed to Muhammad, though this claim has been questioned by some. The codex of Ali may have also included additional information on the abrogated verses of the Quran. By some Shia accounts, Ali offered his codex for official use after the death of Muhammad but was turned down by some of the companions. Alternatively, Ali may have offered his codex for official use to Uthman during his caliphate but the caliph rejected it in favor of other variants available to him. As for its fate, it is believed in Twelver Shia that the codex of Ali has been handed down from every Imam to his successor, as part of the esoteric knowledge available to the Twelve Imams. In Twelver belief, the codex is now in the possession of their last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is hidden from the public by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.
Differences with the Uthmanid codex
Some Sunni reports allege that the official Uthmanid codex of the Quran is incomplete, as detailed in by the Sunni exegete Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam (), among others. Supporting Ali's right to the caliphate after Muhammad, Shia polemists readily cited such reports to charge that explicit references to Ali had been removed by senior companions for political reasons. Yet the accusation that some words and verses were altered or omitted in the Uthmanid codex also appears in the Shia tradition. Among others, such reports can be found in by the ninth-century Shia exegete Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari, though he has been widely accused of connections to the Ghulat (). As the faithful recension of the Quran, the codex of Ali is thus said to have been longer than the official one, with explicit references to Ali. This view was apparently popular among Shia scholars before the Buyid dynasty (). By contrast, any difference between the two codices is rejected by Sunnis because Ali did not impose his recension during his caliphate, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali deliberately remained silent about this divisive matter. Fearing persecution for themselves and their followers, later Twelver Imams may have also adopted religious dissimulation () about this issue.
Alternatively, the recension of Ali may have matched the Uthmanic codex, save for the ordering of its content, but it was rejected for political reasons as it also included the partisan commentary of Ali, who is often counted among the foremost exegetes of the Quran. The implication that the Uthmanid codex is faithful has been the prevalent Shia view ever since the Buyids period. Some Shia scholars have thus questioned the authenticity of those traditions that allege textual differences with the Uthmanid codex, tracing them to the Ghulat, or to early Sunni traditions, while Sunnis have in turn blamed Shias for originating the falsification claims and accused them of espousing such views, often indiscriminately. Other Shia scholars have reinterpreted the traditions that may suggest the alteration of the Quran. For instance, a tradition ascribed to Ali suggests that a fourth of the Quran is about the House of Muhammad, or the Ahl al-Bayt, while another fourth is about their enemies. The Uthmanic codex certainly does not meet this description but the inconsistency can be explained by another Shia tradition, which states that the verses of the Quran about the virtuous are primarily directed at the Ahl al-Bayt, while those verses about the evildoers are directed first at their enemies.
Academic scholarship
The origin of the Quran has been a subject of sustained academic research. There have also been a number of proposals for refinement of the traditional view and even its fundamental re-evaluation.
Until around the 1970s, non-Muslim scholars did accept its Islamic origin story. Ernest Renan famously declared that "Islam was born, not amid the mystery which cradles the origins of other religions, but rather in the full light of history"—an empire ruling in the name of the religion of Islam and whose expansion was fuelled by religious fervor, and which presided over the compilation, editing, approving and distributing of the holy book of that religion (the Quran).
But in the 1970s historians began to question Islamic "literary sources"—tafsir or commentaries on the Quran, hadith, or accounts of what the Islamic prophet Muhammad approved of or did not, and sira, biography of the prophet—upon which the traditional account of the Quran were based. They employed a "source-critical" approach to this literature, including as evidence relevant archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, and contemporary non-Arabic literature, that they argued provided "hard facts" and an ability to crosscheck.
By 2008, Fred Donner was summarizing the state of the field in the following terms:
In 1999, Cook and Crone argued that "there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century." Partial Quranic manuscripts such as the Sanaa manuscript and the Birmingham Quran manuscript, which have been carbon-dated back to the early seventh century, were discovered later. However, Marijn van Putten, who has published work on idiosyncratic orthography common to all early manuscripts of the Uthmanic text type has stated and claims to have demonstrated with examples that due to a number of these same idiosyncratic spellings present in the Birmingham fragment (Mingana 1572a + Arabe 328c), it is "clearly a descendant of the Uthmanic text type" and that it is "impossible" that it is a pre-Uthmanic copy, despite its early radiocarbon dating.
Author, journalist and scholar Toby Lester notes the Quran "assumes a familiarity with language, stories, and events that seem to have been lost even to the earliest of Muslim exegetes". Cook and Christopher Rose note the Quran contains obscure words and phrases, "mystery letters," or Muqattaʿat—groups of between one and four letters that do not form words and begin about one quarter of surahs of the Quran, and the Sabians religious group unknown to historians. Cook argue that "someone must once have known" what these mean, and that their meaning was forgotten now suggests the Quran may have been "off the scene for several decades".
There is no mention of the "Quran" nor "Islam", nor "rightly guided caliphs", nor any of the famous futūḥ battles by Christian Byzantines in their historical records describing the Arab invaders advance, leaders or religion; the lack of any surviving documents by those Arabs who "lived through the establishment of the Caliphate"; the fact that coins of the region and era did not use Islamic iconography until sometime after 685 CE.
According to tradition, the Quran was composed in the early 7th century CE, but according to historian Tom Holland, "only in the 690's did a Caliph finally get around to inscribing the Prophet's name on a public monument; only decades after that did the first tentative references to him start to appear in private inscriptions". The historian Stephen Shoemaker holds that the Quran did not reach its final compilation until the reign of Abd al-Malik (685-705 CE).
Regarding the collection and editing of the Quran into a book (Mus'haf), historian Michael Cook writes that while there is "more or less" common ground among hadith, traditions that Muhammad did not do it but that this task was completed by the end of the reign of Caliph Uthman. Otherwise hadith do not agree:
The accounts of non-Muslim conquered peoples also conflict with the accounts of traditional Islamic literature. Examining 7th century Byzantine Christian sources commentary on the Arab "immigrants" (Mhaggraye) who were invading and settling in formerly Byzantine territory at that time, historian Abdul-Massih Saadi found the Christians never mentioned the terms "Quran" nor "Islam" nor that the immigrants were of a new religion. They referred to the immigrants in ethnic terms – "among them (Arabs) there are many Christians". The Christians used secular or political, not religious terms (kings, princes, rulers) to refer to the Arab leaders. Muhammad was "the first king of the Mhaggraye", also guide, teacher, leader or great ruler. They did however mention the religion of the Arabs. The immigrants' religion was described as monotheist "in accordance with the Old Law (Old Testament)". When the Emir of the immigrants and Patriarch of the local Christians did have a religious colloquium there was much discussion of the scriptures but no mention of the Quran, "a possible indication that the Quran was not yet in circulation." The Christians reported the Emir was accompanied by "learned Jews", that the immigrants "accepted the Torah just as the Jews and Samaritans", though none of the sources described the immigrants as Jews.
Wansbrough's students Crone and Cook co-authored a book called Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (1977). Neither Crone nor Cook today, however, hold all of the views presented in their work. Crone has since stated that it is "difficult to doubt" that Muhammad uttered "all or most" of the Qur'an. She says this can be said with "reasonable assurance".
Support for the traditional Islamic narrative
Not all scholars question the sacred history of the Quran. Emran El-Badawi writes, "the opening chapters of Fred Donner's Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing claims to refute the theoretical and methodological flaws of the skeptical school and instead dates the composition of the Quran, as a closed canon, to an Arabian context of early believers preceding[...] the first civil war in 656."
The datings in 2015 of the Birmingham Quran manuscript lead Joseph E. B. Lumbard, a convert to Islam and associate professor of Quranic studies at the College of Islamic Studies at Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Qatar, to comment:
However, on the Birmingham manuscript, David Thomas pointed out that the radiocarbon testing found the death date of the animal whose skin made up the Quran, not the date when the Quran was written. Since blank parchment was often stored for years after being produced, he said the Quran could have been written as late as 650–655, during the Quranic codification under Uthman. Later, Marijn van Putten, who has published work on idiosyncratic orthography common to all early manuscripts of the Uthmanic text, stated that it can not be a pre-Uthmanic copy, despite its early radiocarbon dating.
In dating of the text, the Dome of the Rock inscriptions, which have been known for over a century, are significant. The inner face of the octagon include the declaration of faith and verses describing the powers of God. Next Muhammad is introduced, with a blessing that, though uncited in the Quran, was already in use in 694. Then Christians are preached about the prophet-hood and mortality of Jesus, followed by the claim that God is sufficient unto himself. At the end, people are commanded to bend to his will and punishment is threatened otherwise.
The absence of contemporaneous corroborating material from the very first century of Islam has raised numerous questions as to the authenticity of the account provided by later traditionalist sources. All that is preserved from this time period are a few commemorative building inscriptions and assorted coins. However, some scholars deny such a belittlement of key sources from the era. Besides the Dome of the Rock inscriptions, there are also brief Quranic passages on coins issued from the time of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (697-750). These passages include the shahadah, verses 112:1-3 or -4 complete except for the initial basmallah and the introductory word "say", and part of 9:33, but with some variations: "He sent him with the guidance and the Religion of Truth, that He may cause it to prevail over all religion..." Similar to the contemporary inscriptions at the Dome of the Rock these portions are clearly intended to declare the primacy of the new religion of Islam over Christianity, in particular.
Skeptical scholars, nonetheless, point out that the earliest account of Muhammad's life by Ibn Ishaq was written about a century after Muhammad died and all later narratives by Islamic biographers contain far more details and embellishments about events which are entirely lacking in Ibn Ishaq's text.
In a 2008 online article titled "What do we actually know about Mohammed?", Patricia Crone casts doubt onto skeptical theories of the origins of the Qur'an:
Fred Donner has argued for an early date for the collection of the Quran, based on his reading of the text itself. He points out that if the Quran had been collected over the tumultuous early centuries of Islam, with their vast conquests and expansion and bloody incidents between rivals for the caliphate, there would have been some evidence of this history in the text. However, there is nothing in the Quran that does not reflect what is known of the earliest Muslim community.
In 1972, during the restoration of the Great Mosque of San'a in Yemen, labourers stumbled upon a "paper grave" containing tens of thousands of fragments of parchment on which verses of the Quran were written. Some of these fragments were believed to be the oldest Quranic texts yet found.
The latest in origin of the Quran is the discovery of parchments of Quranic text by the University of Birmingham in 2015, the parchment material has been radiocarbon dated to the period between 568 and 645 with 95.4% accuracy. The test was carried out in a laboratory at the University of Oxford. The result places the parchment close to the time of Muhammad, who is generally thought to have lived between 570 and 632. Researchers conclude that the parchment is among the earliest written textual evidence of the Quran in existence. François Déroche of the Collège de France, however, expressed reservations about the reliability of the radiocarbon dates proposed for the Birmingham leaves, noting instances elsewhere in which radiocarbon dating had proved inaccurate in testing Qurans with an explicit endowment date. Mustafa Shah, Senior Lecturer in Islamic Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies, has suggested that the grammatical marks and verse separators in the Birmingham leaves are inconsistent with the proposed early radiocarbon dates.
Textual criticism
In the 1970s, what has been described as a "wave of sceptical scholars" challenged a great deal of the received wisdom in Islamic studies. They argued that the Islamic historical tradition had been greatly corrupted in transmission. They tried to correct or reconstruct the early history of Islam from other, presumably more reliable, sources such as coins, inscriptions, and non-Islamic sources. The oldest of this group was John Wansbrough (1928–2002). Wansbrough's works were widely noted, but perhaps not widely read. In 1972 a cache of ancient Qur'ans in a mosque in Sana'a, Yemen was discovered – commonly known as the Sana'a manuscripts. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin and his research team, who investigated these Quran fragments for many years, made approximately 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. Keith Small, in Textual Criticism and Qur'ān Manuscripts, has concluded that it is not possible to develop a reliable critical text of the Quran based on the sources currently available. The Corpus Coranicum project is an ongoing effort to develop a critical edition of the Quran.
Differences and similarities with the Bible
Skeptical scholars account for the many similarities between the Quran and the Jewish and Hebrew Scriptures by saying that Muhammad was teaching what he believed to be a universal history, as he had heard it from the Jews and Christians he had encountered in Arabia and on his travels – as well as his exposure to the Hanif tradition by way of his paternal-grandfather, Abdul Muttalib. These scholars also disagree with the Islamic belief that the whole of the Quran is addressed by God to humankind. They note that there are numerous passages where God is directly addressed, or mentioned in the third person, or where the narrator swears by various entities, including God. The Quranic account, however, differs significantly regarding the crucifixion and death of Jesus.
Similarities with apocryphal legends
Aside from the Bible, Quran relies on several apocryphal sources, like the Protoevangelium of James, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, and several infancy gospels. Several narratives rely on Jewish Midrash Tanhuma legends, like the narrative of Cain learning to bury the body of Abel in Surah 5:31.
Varying codices and the start of the canonization
Before Uthman established the canon of the Quran, there may have been different versions or codices in complete state, though none has yet been discovered. Such codices as may exist never gained general approval and were viewed by Muslims as individuals' personal copies. With respect to partial codices, there is opinion that "the search for variants in the partial versions extant before the Caliph Uthman's alleged recension in the 640s has not yielded any differences of great significance". The two most influential codices at this time are ʿAbdullah ibn Masʿud's and Ubayy ibn Kaʿb's. Al-Qurazi recounted seeing the mushafs used by Ibn Mas'ud, Ubayy, and Zaid b. Thabit and finding no differences between them.
ʿAbdullah ibn Masʿud's codex
The most influential of the allegedly varying codices was that of ʿAbdullah ibn Masʿud, an early convert who became a personal servant to Muhammad. It is reported that he learned around seventy suras directly from Muhammad, who appointed him as one of the first teachers of Quranic recitation. Later he was appointed to an administrative post in Kufa by the caliph ʿUmar, where he became a leading authority on the Quran and Sunnah. Some sources suggest that Ibn Masʿud refused to destroy his copy of the Quran or to stop teaching it when the ʿUthmanic codex was made official.
There are two points on which Ibn Masʿud's version is alleged to differ from the ʿUthmanic text: the order of the suras and some variants in the readings. Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami lists three reports concerning the omission of three suras, (Al-Fatiha and Al-Mu'awwidhatayn, the two short suras with which the Quran ends (Suras 113 and 114)), he then states that "early scholars such as al-Nawawi and Ibn Hazm denounced these reports as lies fathered upon Ibn Mas'ud." Most of the other differences involve only altered vowels with the same consonantal text, which caused variations in recitation. Ramon Harvey notes that Ibn Masʿūd's reading continued in use, and was even taught as the dominant reading in Kufa for at least a century after his death, in a paper discussing how some of his distinctive readings continued to play a role in Hanafi fiqh.
Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex
The second most influential codex was that of Ubay ibn Ka'b, a Medinan Muslim who served as a secretary for Muhammad. It is believed that he may have been more prominent as a Quranic specialist than Ibn Masʿud during Muḥammad's lifetime. There are reports that he was responsible for memorizing certain important revelations on legal matters, which from time to time Muhammad asked him to recite. In a few hadiths, Ubay is seen in a variety of roles. For instance, the "sheets" of Ubay are sometimes mentioned in some instances instead of those of Ḥafsa, and sometimes he is also mentioned in some hadiths instead of Zayd, dictating the Quran to scribes.
His version of the Quran is said to have included two short suras not in the Uthmanic or Ibn Masʿud texts: Sūrat al-Khal, with three verses, and Sūrat al-Ḥafd, with six. Professor Sean Anthony has discussed the textual history of these two surahs in detail and noted that their presence in mushafs modelled after Ubayy's (and to a lesser extent, certain other companions) is "robustly represented in our earliest and best sources". While we lack material evidence in the form of manuscripts, he notes that many of the Muslim sources make direct material observations of the surahs in such mushafs. The order of suras in Ubayy's codex is said to have differed from that of Uthman's and Ibn Masʿud's as well, although these are structural differences rather than textual variations. The surah order of the lower text of the early seventh century Ṣanʽā’ 1 palimpsest is known to have similarities with that reported of Ubayy (and to a lesser extent, that of Ibn Mas'ud).
The first sura, entitled al-Khal ("separation"), is translated as: "O Allah, we seek your help and ask your forgiveness, and we praise you and we do not disbelieve in you. We separate from and leave him who sins against you."
The second sura, entitled al-Hafd ("haste"), is translated as: "O Allah, we worship You and to You we pray and prostrate and to You we run and hasten to serve You. We hope for Your mercy and we fear Your punishment. Your punishment will certainly reach the disbelievers." These two pieces are said to constitute qunut (that is, supplications which Muhammad sometimes made in morning prayer or in witr prayer after recitation of suras from the Quran). They are in fact identical to some parts of qunut reported in the collections of hadiths. (See Nawawi, al-adhkar, Cairo, 1955, pp. 57–58.)
The single additional so-called aya is translated: "If the son of Adam were given a valley full of riches, he would wish a second one; and if he were given two valleys full of riches, he would surely ask for a third. Nothing will fill the belly of the son of Adam except dust, and Allah is forgiving to him who is repentant." This text is known to be a hadith from Muhammad. (Bukhari, VIII, No. 444-47.) According to Ibn 'Abbas (No. 445) and 'Ubay (No. 446) this text was at times thought to be part of the Quran. However, Ubay himself clarifies that after sura 102: "I had been revealed, [the sahaba] did not consider the above to be part of the Quran." (Bukhari, VIII, No. 446.)
This explanation of Ubay also makes it very clear that the companions of Mohammad did not differ at all about what was part of the Quran and what was not part of the Quran when the revelation had ceased. It is also important to note that the hadith appeared in the mushaf of Ubay because it was for his own personal use; that is, in his private notebook, where he did not always distinguish between Quranic material and hadith, since the notebook was not meant for public use and he himself knew well what to make of his own notes. All companions of Mohammad are said to have had their own copies of the Quran, with notes, for personal use.
The Islamic reports of these copies of the Quran of the companions of Mohammad only tell of various differences according to reports that reached them (e.g., the hadith in Bukhari, VIII, No. 446, that Ubay at some early stage held this sentence to be part of the Quran). However, the tangible manuscripts of these copies of the Quran have not survived but were destroyed, having been considered obsolete.
Early manuscripts to the final canonical text
After Uthman had the other codices destroyed there were still variations in the reading and the text of this Quran. However, scholars deny the possibility of great changes of the text arguing that addition, suppression or alteration would have led to controversy 'of which there is little trace'. They further state that even though Uthman became unpopular among Muslims, he was not charged with alteration or mutilation of the Quran in general.
During the manuscript age, the Quran was the most copied Arabic text. It was believed that copying the Quran would bring blessings on the scribe and the owner.
The Arabic script as we know it today was unknown in Muhammad's time (as Arabic writing styles have progressed through time) and the Quran was preserved through memorization and written references on different materials. As Arab society started to evolve into using writing more regularly, writing skills evolved accordingly. Early Quranic Arabic was written in a rasm which lacked precision because distinguishing between consonants was impossible due to the absence of diacritical marks (a'jam). Vowelling marks (tashkil) to indicate prolongation or vowels were absent as well. Due to this there were endless possibilities for the mispronunciation of the word. The Arabic script as we know it today, the scripta plena, which has pointed texts and is fully vowelled was not perfected until the middle of the 9th century.
Umayyad Period (44/661–132/750) – Hijazi script
The earliest known manuscripts of the Quran are collectively called the Hijazi script, and are mostly associated with the Umayyad period.
Most of the fundamental reform to the manuscripts of the Quran took place under Abd al-Malik, the fifth Umayyad caliph (65/685–86/705). Under Abd al-Malik's reign, Abu'l Aswad al-Du'ali (died 688) founded the Arabic grammar and invented the system of placing large coloured dots to indicate the tashkil. The Umayyad governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi later enforced this system.
During this time the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem in 72/691–92 was done, which was complete with Quranic inscriptions. The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock in fact represent the earliest known dated passages from the Quran. In these inscriptions, many letters are already provided with diacritical points.
The earliest codices of the Quran found in the Umayyad period were most likely made in single volumes, which can be determined from the large fragments that have survived. Also during this time, the format of the codex went from being vertical to horizontal in the 8th century. It is believed this change to horizontal formats and thick/heavy-looking scripts may have been done to show the superiority of the Quran and to distinguish the Islamic tradition from the Jewish and Christian ones, who used vertical formats for their scriptures.
During this time, there was a diversity of styles in which the Quran was written. One characteristic seen in most of these manuscripts is the elongated shafts of the free-standing alif and the right-sided tail (foot) of the isolated alif. Also, these manuscripts do not have headings of chapters (suras). Instead, a blank space is left at the end of one sura and at the beginning of another.
Abbasid Period (132/750–640/1258)
Early Abbasid Style
Unlike the manuscripts from the Umayyad Dynasty, many of the early Abbasid manuscripts were copied in a number of volumes. This is evident from the large scripts used and the smaller number of lines per page. Early Quranic manuscripts provide evidence for the history of the Quranic text and their formal features tell us something about the way art and its deeper meaning were perceived in the classical age of Islam. Both its script and layout turned out to be constructed according to elaborate geometrical and proportional rules.
The main characteristic of these scripts was their writing style. The letters in most of these manuscripts are heavy-looking, relatively short and horizontally elongated. The slanted isolated form of the alif that was present in the Umayyad period completely disappeared and was replaced by a straight shaft with a pronounced right-sided foot, set at a considerable distance from the following letter. Also, unlike the Hijazi scripts, these are often richly illuminated in gold and other colours. Another difference is that sura headings are clearly marked and enclosed in rectangular panels with marginal vignettes or palmettes protruding into the outer margins. These Qurans of the early Abbasid period were also bound in wooden boards, structured like a box enclosed on all sides with a movable upper cover that was fastened to the rest of the structure with leather thongs.
New Abbasid Style
The New Abbasid Style (NS) began at the end of the 9th century C.E. and was used for copying the Quran until the 12th centuries, and maybe even as late as the 13th century. Unlike manuscripts copied in Early Abbasid scripts, NS manuscripts had vertical formats.
During this time, Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (died 786) devised a tashkil system to replace that of Abu al-Aswad. His system has been universally used since the early 11th century, and includes six diacritical marks: fatha (a), damma (u), kasra (i), sukun (vowel-less), shadda (double consonant), madda (vowel prolongation; applied to the alif).
Another central figure during this time was Abu Bakr b. Mujāhid (died 324/936). His goal was to restrict the number of reliable readings and accept only those based on a fairly uniform consonantal text. He chose seven well-known Quran teachers of the 2nd/8th century and declared that their readings all had divine authority, which the others lacked. He based this on the popular ḥadith in which Muhammad says the Quran was revealed to him in "seven aḥruf". During this time there was strong Quranic traditions in Kufa, Baṣra, Medina, Damascus, and Mecca. Due to this, Ibn Mujāhid selected one reading each for Medina, Mecca, Baṣra, and Damascus—those of Nafi‘ (died 169/785), Ibn Kathir (died 120/737), Abu ʿAmr (died 154/770), and IbnʿAmir (died 118/736), respectively—and three for Kūfa, those of ʿAsim (died 127/744), Ḥamza (died 156/772), and al-Kisaʾi (died 189/804). His attempt to limit the number of canonical readings to seven was not acceptable to all, and there was strong support for alternative readings in most of the five cities. In the present day the most common reading that is in general use is that of 'Aasim al-Kufi through Hafs.
The 11th-century eastern Quranic manuscript contains the 20th juz' (section) of a Quran that originally consisted of 30 parts. The arrangement into 30 parts corresponds to the number of days in the month of Ramadan, during which the Muslim is obliged to fast and to read through the whole of the Quran. Other sections or fragments of this magnificent manuscript lie scattered in various collections all over the world. A Turkish note ascribes the Quran to the hand of the Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and thus demonstrates the high significance of this manuscript. The text is written in Eastern Kufic, a monumental script that was developed in Iran in the late 10th century. The writing and the illumination of the manuscript bear witness to the great artistic skills of the calligrapher and the illustrator. The manuscript is at the Bavarian State Library in Munich, Germany. Out of seven complete or nearly complete semi-Kufic Qurans from before the end of the eleventh century, four contain a verse count. Although a small sample, it does suggest that the use of a verse count was a prevalent and quite deeply rooted practice in semi-Kufic Qurans between ca. 950 and ca. 1100.
Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (died 940), an accomplished calligrapher from Baghdad, was also a prominent figure at this time. He became vizir to three Abbasid caliphs and is credited with developing the first script to obey strict proportional rules. Ibn Muqla's system was used in the development and standardization of the Quranic script, and his calligraphic work became the standard way of writing the Quran. However it was later perfected by Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022), the master calligrapher who continued Muqla's tradition. Muqla's system became one of the most popular styles for transcribing Arabic manuscripts in general, being favoured for its legibility. The eleventh century Quran is one of the earliest dated manuscripts in this style.
This "new style" is defined by breaks and angular forms and by extreme contrasts between the thick and thin strokes. The script was initially used in administrative and legal documents, but then it replaced earlier Quranic scripts. It is possible that it was easier to read than the early 'Abbasid scripts, which differ greatly from current writing. Economic factors may also have played a part because while the "new style" was being introduced, paper was also beginning to spread throughout the Muslim world, and the decrease in the price of books triggered by the introduction of this new material seems to have led to an increase in its demand. The "new style" was the last script to spread throughout the Muslim world before the introduction of printing. It remained in use until the 13th century, at which point it was restricted to titles only.
1924 Cairo edition
The influential standard Quran of Cairo ("1342 Cairo text" using the Islamic calendar) is the Quran that was used throughout almost all the Muslim world until the Saudi Quran of 1985. The Egyptian edition is based on the "Ḥafṣ" version ("qira'at") based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. It uses a set of additional symbols and an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and for minute details, not identical to any older system. The Cairo edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran with the exception of those used in all North Africa (excluding Egypt) where the Warsh version is used.
A committee of leading professors from Al-Azhar University had started work on the project in 1907 but it was not until 10 July 1924 that the "Cairo Qur’an" was first published by Amiri Press under the patronage of Fuad I of Egypt, as such, it is sometimes known as the "royal (amīriyya) edition." The goal of the government of the newly formed Kingdom of Egypt was not to delegitimize the other qir’at, but to eliminate that, which the colophon labels as errors, found in Qur’anic texts used in state schools. To do this they chose to preserve one of the fourteen Qira'at “readings”, namely that of Hafs (d. 180/796), student of ‘Asim. Its publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur’an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur’an has a single, unambiguous reading", i.e. that of the 1924 Cairo version. Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, King Faruq.
Reasons given for the overwhelming popularity of Hafs and Asim range from the fact that it is easy to recite, to the simple statement that "God has chosen it". Ingrid Mattson credits mass-produced printing press mushafs with increasing the availability of the written Quran but also diminishing the diversity of qira'at. Written text has become canonical and oral recitation has lost much of its previous equality.
Muslim disagreement over whether to include the Basmala within the Quranic text, reached consensus following the 1924 Edition, which included it as the first verse (āyah) of Quran chapter 1 but otherwise included it as an unnumbered line of text preceding the other 112 chapters, with the exclusion of Quran chapter 9. The Cairo Quran adopted the Kufan tradition of separating and numbering verses, and thus standardized a different verse numbering to Flügel's 1834 edition. It adopted the chronological order of chapters attributed to Ibn Abbās, which became widely accepted following 1924. A large number of pre-1924 Qurans were destroyed by dumping them in the river Nile.
Prominent committee members included Islamic scholar, Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Husayni al-Haddad, Egypt's senior Qur'an Reader (Shaykh al-Maqâri). Noteworthy Western scholars/academics working in Egypt during the era include Bergsträsser and Jeffery. Methodological differences aside, speculation alludes to a spirit of cooperation. Bergsträsser was certainly impressed with the work.
Completeness
Islamic sources
According to Islamic sources before Caliph Uthman's standardization, after which variants were burned, the Quran may have contained either 116 chapters (Ubayy Ibn Ka'ab's codex) or 111 chapters (Ibn Ma'sud's codex).
Islamic view: Sunni and Shia
Most Muslims believe that Quran, as it is presented today, is complete and untouched, supported by their faith in Quranic verses such as "We [Allah] have, without doubt, sent down the Reminder [the Quran]; and We will assuredly guard it [from corruption]".
However, some Sunni literature contains reports that suggest that some of the revelations had already been lost before the collection of the Quran initiated by Abu Bakr. In one report, 'Umar was once looking for the text of a specific verse of the Quran on stoning as a punishment for adultery, which he remembered. Later, he discovered that the only person who had any record of that verse had been killed in the battle of Yamama and as a result the verse was lost. Some of the Companions recalled that same verse, one person being 'A'isha, Muhammad's youngest wife. She is believed to have said that a sheet on which two verses, including the one on stoning, were under her bedding and that after Muhammad died, a domestic animal got into the room and ate the sheet. Experts on hadith literature have rejected this hadith, as all routes of transmission either contain narrators charged with dishonesty in disclosing sources or simply conflict with the majority version of the report, which all have authentic routes of transmission but omit the part about the piece of paper being eaten.
Certain Shia scholars state that Ali's predecessors wilfully excluded all references to the right of Ali to be the caliph after Muhammad died. Some Shias questioned the integrity of the Uthmanic codex, stating that two surahs, "al-Nurayn" (The Two Lights) and "al-Walayah" (the Guardianship), which dealt with the virtues of Muhammad's family, were removed.
Al-Khoei addresses this issue and argues for the authenticity and completeness of the Quran on the basis that it was compiled during the lifetime of Muhammad. His argument is based on hadiths and on critically analysing the situation during and after the life of Muhammad. He states that the collection of the Quran by Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman occurred significantly after the caliphate was decided, and so if Ali's rule had been mentioned, there would have been no need for the Muslims to gather to appoint someone. The fact that none of the Companions mentioned this supposed alteration, either at the beginning of the caliphate or after Ali became caliph, is regarded as proof that this alteration did not occur.
Al-Khoei also argues that by the time 'Uthman became caliph, Islam had spread to such an extent that it was impossible for anyone to remove anything from the Quran. Uthman could have altered the text but he would have been unable to convince all those who had memorized the Quran to go along with his alterations. Any such alteration also would have been mentioned by Uthman's political opponents and assassins yet none accused him of this. Finally, he argues that if Uthman had altered the Quran, Ali would have restored it to its original state upon the death of Uthman, especially if verses of his rule had been removed. Instead Ali is seen promoting the Quran during his reign, which is evidence that there was no alteration.
Manuscripts
In the 20th century, the Sanaa manuscript was discovered. It has been radiocarbon dated to the range 578-669 CE with 95% confidence. The manuscript is a palimpsest with quranic verses in both upper and lower texts. The upper text has exactly the same verses and the same order of suras and verses as the standard Quran. The order of the suras in the lower text of the Sana'a codex is different from the order in the standard Quran. In addition, the lower text exhibits extensive variations from the counterpart text in the standard Quran; such that the lower text represents the only surviving early quranic manuscript that does not conform to the 'Uthmanic tradition. The majority of these variations add words and phrases, so as to emphasize or clarify the standard quranic reading. Some scholars have proposed parallels for these variations in reports of variants in 'companion codices' that were kept by individual companions to the Prophet outside of the mainstream tradition of 'Uthman; but these correspondences are much the minority. François Déroche proposes, on palaeographic grounds, a date for the lower text in the second half of the first century AH (hence 672 - 722 CE) and summarises the character of the Sana'a Palimpsest, "The scriptio inferior of the Codex Ṣanʿāʾ I has been transcribed in a milieu which adhered to a text of the Qurʾan different from the ʿUthmanic tradition as well as from the Qurʾanic codices of Ibn Masʿūd and Ubayy".
See also
Christian influences on the Islamic world
Corpus Coranicum
Early Quranic manuscripts
Biblical and Quranic narratives
Prophets and messengers in Islam
Quranic timeline
Qisas Al-Anbiya
Criticism of the Quran
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Dated Muslim Texts From 1-72 AH / 622-691 AD: Documentary Evidence For Early Islam Islamic Awareness
Corpus Coranicum: comprehensive website on early Quran manuscripts by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Several early Qur'ans: information, zoomable images British Library website
Quran
Quran
Literary criticism
Quran |
4260666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Jacobs%20%28pianist%29 | Paul Jacobs (pianist) | Paul Jacobs (June 22, 1930 – September 25, 1983) was an American pianist. He was best known for his performances of twentieth-century music but also gained wide recognition for his work with early keyboards, performing frequently with Baroque ensembles.
Biography
Education
Paul Jacobs was born in New York City and attended PS 95 and DeWitt Clinton High School in the Bronx and studied at the Juilliard School, where his teacher was Ernest Hutcheson. He became a soloist with Robert Craft's Chamber Arts Society and played with the Composer's Forum. He made his official New York debut in 1951. Reviewing that concert, Ross Parmenter described him in The New York Times as 'a young man of individual tastes with an experimental approach to the keyboard that he already has mastered.'
Europe in the 1950s
He moved to France after his graduation in 1951. There he began his long association with Pierre Boulez, playing frequently in his Domaine musical concerts, which introduced many of the key works of the early twentieth-century to post-war Paris. At a single concert in 1954, which must have lasted close to five hours and also included works by Stravinsky, Debussy and Varèse, Jacobs contributed chamber music by Berg, Webern and Bartók and gave the première of a new work by Michel Philippot. In a 1958 Domaine concert he played a work written for him by the 21-year-old Richard Rodney Bennett, his Cycle 2 for Paul Jacobs.
He acted as rehearsal pianist for the incidental music which Boulez wrote for Jean-Louis Barrault's production of the Oresteia in 1955. Jacobs later said that meeting Boulez had put an end to his own composing ambitions: 'I just gave it up. I wouldn't have dared show anything of mine to Boulez.'
During his time in Europe he appeared as soloist with the Orchestre National de Paris and the Cologne Orchestra and made many radio broadcasts. He played for the International Society for Contemporary Music in Italy and at the International Vacation Courses for new music at Darmstadt. For the 1957 course, Wolfgang Steinecke invited him to give the European première of Stockhausen's Klavierstück XI, a key work in the development of 'controlled chance' and this may have been at the composer's suggestion.
Like many musicians with a commitment to new music, his existence was frugal. For broadcasts he would be paid as little as $5, which went up to $25 when he played the premiere of the Henze Piano Concerto 'because of the special difficulty of the piece'. He lived in a hotel 'with a window facing a wall so that I had to go outside to see what the weather was. There was room only for a bed and a piano and a little alcohol burner to make stew on.' Around this time he became a close friend of the French painter , whom he described as an important influence.
New York 1960-83
Tired of trying to live on $500 a year, he returned to New York in 1960 with the assistance of Aaron Copland who arranged for some teaching work at Tanglewood. In November and December 1961 he gave a pair of Town Hall recitals, mixing Boulez and Copland, Stockhausen and Debussy. The New York Times described them as 'just about overwhelming ... make no mistake, Mr Jacobs is a virtuoso even in the traditional sense'. He made his recital debut as a harpsichordist at Carnegie Hall in February 1966 with a programme which included Bach, Haydn, and de Falla's Harpsichord Concerto.
During the 1960s and 1970s he continued to give solo recitals and played frequently for the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center. He performed with the Fromm Fellowship Players at Tanglewood, Gunther Schuller's Contemporary Innovations and Arthur Weisberg's Contemporary Chamber Ensemble. He taught at Tanglewood and at the Mannes and Manhattan music schools in New York. For the last fifteen years of his life he was Associate Professor of Music at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York.
Jacobs was the New York Philharmonic's official pianist (from 1961) and harpsichordist (from 1974) until his death. He held the post during the tenure of three music directors. He can be heard as soloist in Bernstein's recording of Messiaen's Trois petites liturgies and both Boulez's and Mehta's recordings of Stravinsky's Petrushka. He is the pianist in the NYPO recording of Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue (conducted by Mehta) used by Woody Allen in the opening of his film Manhattan.
He had a long collaboration with the American composer Elliott Carter, recording most of Carter's solo piano music and ensemble works with keyboard, including the Double Concerto for Harpsichord and Piano, With Two Chamber Orchestras, the Cello Sonata and the Sonata for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord. He was one of the four American pianists who commissioned Carter's large-scale solo piano work Night Fantasies (1978–80), the others being Charles Rosen, Gilbert Kalish and Ursula Oppens (with whom Jacobs often performed two-piano works). It was Jacobs who organised the consortium after he and Oppens realised that Carter's previous reluctance to accept a commission for a new solo piano work from one pianist might have been born out of a desire not to offend others. He gave the New York premiere of the work in November 1981. All of Jacobs's Carter recordings were re-issued by Nonesuch in 2009 as part of a Carter retrospective set.
He also gave first performances of music by George Crumb, Berio, Henze, Messiaen and Sessions and commissioned Frederic Rzewski's Four North American Ballads in 1979. Aaron Copland called him 'more than a pianist. He brings to his piano a passion for the contemporary and a breadth of musical and general culture such as is rare.'
Death
He died of an AIDS-related illness in 1983, one of the first prominent artists to succumb to the disease. At his funeral on September 27, 1983, Elliott Carter delivered a eulogy, recalling his friendship and collaboration with Jacobs dating back to the mid-1950s. A memorial concert held at New York's Symphony Space on February 24, 1984 was attended by some of America's most eminent composers and interpreters. The music ranged from Josquin to two new compositions dedicated to Jacobs (by William Bolcom and David Schiff). Pierre Boulez wrote in the programme: 'twentieth-century music owes him thanks for all the talent he generously put at its disposal.'
Bolcom included a lament for Jacobs as the slow movement of his 1983 Violin Concerto and dedicated his Pulitzer Prize-winning 12 New Etudes to him. He had begun to compose them for Jacobs in 1977 and completed them after his death. Jacobs was also one of the friends and colleagues commemorated by John Corigliano in his Symphony No. 1.
Repertoire and style
Although Jacobs was associated with some of the most challenging music of the modernist tradition, his colleague Gilbert Kalish stressed that 'far from being an "intellectual performer", Paul was the most intuitive and spontaneous kind of musician. Few who heard him play will ever forget the splashing brilliance of his runs, the glitter of his attacks, his aristocratic sense of rhythm and phrasing ... I have never seen anyone play the piano with such feline grace and alertness.'
Of his commitment to contemporary music, Jacobs himself said this: 'I feel absolutely perplexed at times why performers don't feel at home with the music of their own century. The music that hit me first when I was an adolescent was the music of the beginning of the century, all the way up through Stravinsky, even in his later years. It just doesn't pose any stylistic problems, it's as easy to speak as if you were reading the newspaper, I just know what to do with it.'
Perhaps the composer with whom he is now most closely associated is Debussy, most of whose major piano works he recorded, including the Préludes, Etudes, Images and Estampes. His was one of the first recordings of Debussy's three 1894 Images, which had only recently been published. Writing of a reissue of one of these recordings in 2002, the Gramophone commented: 'Hearing Paul Jacobs ... is a sharp and salutary reminder of a novel‚ vigorous and superbly uncluttered view of Debussy ... one which stresses the composer’s revolutionary fervour. The power and focus of these performances remain astonishing with opalescent mists and hazes burnt away to reveal a corruscating wit and vitality. There is absolutely nothing here of the decadent and lethargic man of popular imagination. Throughout‚ Jacobs' commitment to every note of Debussy’s phantasmagoric visions is total. All his recordings should be reissued.'
Discography
Early recordings
Jacobs began his recording career in Europe in the 1950s. One of his first records (in 1953) was of Beethoven's Second Piano Concerto with the Paris Radio Symphony Orchestra conducted by René Leibowitz, coupled with Leibowitz's own realisation of Beethoven's Piano Concerto in E flat major of 1784, written when Beethoven was 14 and of which only the piano part survives. In Paris in 1956 he gave the first complete performance in a single concert of all of Schoenberg's piano music, going on to record it for the Véga label. He also acted as producer on recordings conducted by René Leibowitz, including the first LP recording of Schoenberg's Gurrelieder. He was the harpsichord soloist in the 1968 Columbia recording of the Carter Double Concerto with Charles Rosen (piano) and the English Chamber Orchestra, conducted by Frederick Prausnitz, and played on the 1970 CRI recording of Morton Feldman's The Viola in My Life.
Nonesuch LPs
His reputation as a recording artist rests largely on a series of LPs he made for the American Nonesuch label, for most of which he wrote a wide-ranging accompanying essay. Beginning in 1968 and 1973 with chamber and concertante works by Carter, from 1976 onwards he concentrated on the solo and duet repertoire. Most have remained available over the years thanks to CD reissues by Nonesuch and, later, by Warner. The small American label Arbiter has also done much to keep Jacobs' recorded legacy before the public. In 2008 Arbiter released a two-CD set of the Stravinsky two piano / four-hand repertoire (with Ursula Oppens), coupled with some previously unpublished live recordings by Jacobs. They have also reissued his recordings of the piano music of Busoni, whom Jacobs considered 'the great underrated master of the twentieth century'.
The list of the Nonesuch LPs is in chronological order, with CD reissues under each entry.
Carter: Chamber Music
Sonata for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord (with Harvey Sollberger, flute; Charles Kuskin, oboe; Fred Sherry, cello)
Sonata for Cello and Piano (with Joel Krosnick, cello)
Recorded August 1968, Rutgers Presbyterian Church, New York, under the supervision of the composer
Nonesuch LP H-71234; published 1969
Reissued on CD with the Harpsichord Concerto (next) on Elektra Nonesuch CD, 9 79183-2, published 1992
Also included in Elliott Carter: A Nonesuch Retrospective, 4-CD set, Nonesuch 7559-79922-1, published 2009
Carter: Harpsichord Concerto
Double Concerto for Harpsichord and Piano with Two Chamber Orchestras
Jacobs, harpsichord; Gilbert Kalish, piano; The Contemporary Chamber Ensemble; Arthur Weisberg, conducting
Recorded September 1973
Nonesuch LP H-71314; published 1975
Reissued with the two chamber sonatas from Nonesuch LP H-71234 (previous) on Elektra Nonesuch CD, 9 79183-2, published 1992
Also included in Elliott Carter: A Nonesuch Retrospective, 4-CD set, Nonesuch 7559-79922-1, published 2009
Schoenberg: Complete Piano Music
Three piano pieces, Op. 11
Six little piano pieces, Op. 19
Piano pieces, Opp. 33a, 33b
Five piano pieces, Op. 23
Suite for piano, Op. 25
Nonesuch LP H-71309, published 1975
Reissued on Nonesuch CD, 9 71309-2; Warner Apex CD,
Debussy: Etudes
Etudes for piano, Book I
Etudes for piano, Book II
Recorded June 1975, Rutgers Presbyterian Church, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71322; published 1976
Reissued 1987 on Nonesuch CD, 9 79161-2, coupled with a live recording of Debussy's En blanc et noir (with Gilbert Kalish), Ojai Festival, California, 5 June 1982
Twentieth-century Piano Etudes
Bartók: Three Etudes, Op. 18
Busoni: Six Polyphonic Etudes
Messiaen: Quatre études de rythme
Stravinsky: Four Etudes, Op. 7
Recorded April 26–28, 1976, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71334; published 1976
Included on Arbiter 2-CD set, arbiter 124
Debussy: Preludes
Preludes for piano, Book I
Preludes for piano, Book II
Nonesuch LP HB-73031, published 1978
Reissued on Nonesuch CD, 9 73031-2; Warner Ultima CD 79474
Stravinsky: Music for Two Pianos and Piano, Four Hands
(with Ursula Oppens)
Concerto per due pianoforti soli
Sonata for two pianos
Zvietotchnoy valse (for piano, 4 hands)
Three easy pieces (for piano, 4 hands)
Five easy pieces (for piano, 4 hands)
Etude for pianola (performed on 2 pianos)
Recorded June 13–15, 1977, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71347; published 1978
Included on arbiter 155, a 2-CD set, which also includes previously unpublished concert recordings 1972-81
Ravel: Works for Piano, Four and Six Hands
Sites auriculaires (with Gilbert Kalish)
Frontispice (with Gilbert Kalish and Teresa Sterne)
coupled with Ravel vocal and chamber works played by other artists
Nonesuch LP H-71355; published 1978
Reissued 1987 on Nonesuch CD, 9 71355-2
Busoni: The Six Sonatinas for Piano
Sonatina (1910)
Sonatina seconda (1912)
Sonatina ad usum infantis (1915)
Sonatina in diem nativitatis MCMXVII (1917)
Sonatina brevis. In Signo Joannis Sebastiani Magni (1918)
Kammer-Fantasie über Carmen (Sonatina No. 6) (1920)
Recorded June 1978, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71359; published 1979
Included on Arbiter 2-CD set, arbiter 124
Debussy: Images and Estampes
Images (1894)Images Series I and IIEstampesRecorded April 1978, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71365; published 1979
Reissued on Nonesuch CD, 9 71365; Warner Apex CD,
Organ Chorale Preludes of Bach and Brahms as transcribed for Piano by Busoni
Bach: 10 Organ Chorale Preludes, transcribed Busoni:Komm, Gott, Schöpfer!Wachet auf, ruft uns die StimmeNun komm' der Heiden HeilandNun freut euch, lieben ChristenIch ruf' zu dir, HerrHerr Gott, nun schleuss' den Himmel auf!Durch Adams Fall ist ganz verderbtDurch Adams Fall ist ganz verderbt (second version)In dir ist FreudeJesus Christus, unser Heiland, der von uns den Zorn Gottes wandtBrahms: 6 Organ Chorale Preludes, transcribed Busoni:Herlich thut mich erfreuenSchmücke dich, o liebe SeeleEs ist ein' Ros' entsprungenHerzlich thut mich verlangenHerzlich thut mich verlangen (second version)O Welt, ich muss dich lassenRecorded June 1979, New York
Nonesuch LP H-71375; published 1980
Included on Arbiter 2-CD set, arbiter 124
Blues, Ballads and Rags
William Bolcom: Three Ghost RagsCopland: Four Piano BluesRzewski: Four North American Ballads.
Recorded June 23–24, 1980, at Columbia 30th St. Recording Studios, New York City
Nonesuch LP D-79006; published 1980
Reissued on Nonesuch CD, E2 79006
Virgil Thomson: A Portrait AlbumBugles and birds: a portrait of Pablo PicassoWith fife and drums: a portrait of Mina CurtisAn old song: a portrait of Carrie StettheimerTango lullaby: a portrait of Mlle. Alvarez de ToledoSolitude: a portrait of Lou HarrisonBarcarolle: portrait of Georges HugnetAlternations : a portrait of Maurice GrosserIn a bird cage: a portrait of Lise DeharmeCatalan waltz : a portrait of Ramon SenabreChromatic double harmonies: portrait of Sylvia MarloweAaron Copland: Persistently pastoralSonata no. 4: Guggenheim jeune (for harpsichord)
Coupled with works for violin and brass quintet
Recorded May and June 1981 at Columbia 30th St. Studio and RCA Studio A, New York
Nonesuch LP D-79024; published 1982
Stravinsky: Music for Piano, Four Hands
(with Ursula Oppens)PetrushkaThree Pieces for String QuartetRecorded December 7–8, 1981 at RCA Studio A in New York City
Nonesuch LP D-79038; published 1982
Included on arbiter 155
Carter: Solo Piano MusicNight FantasiesPiano SonataRecorded August 1982, RCA Studio A, New York
Nonesuch LP D-79047; published 1983Piano Sonata only, reissued 1990 on Elektra Nonesuch CD, 9 79248-2
Both works reissued 2009 on Elliott Carter: A Nonesuch Retrospective, 4-CD set, Nonesuch 7559-79922-1
Three polyphonic masterpieces for two pianos
(with Ursula Oppens)
Busoni: Fantasia contrappuntisticaMozart arr Busoni: Fantasy for a Musical Clock K608Beethoven: Große Fuge, Op.134Recorded June 20–24, 1983 at American Academy of Arts and Letters, New York
Nonesuch LP D-79061; published 1984
Live recordings
Paul Jacobs in Recital
Beethoven: Waldstein Sonata, op. 53
Recorded November 22, 1972 at Brooklyn College
Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 7 in D major, op. 10, no. 3
Recorded May 1, 1974 at Brooklyn College
Busoni: Preludio, Fuga e Fuga figurata
Recorded November 22, 1972 at Brooklyn College
Falla: Fantasia BaeticaRecording information not given
Ravel: Menuet sur HaydnRecorded November 22, 1972 at Brooklyn College
Ravel: Valses nobles et sentimentalesRecorded June 28, 1973 at Brooklyn College
Chambonnières: Chaconne in F major (on the Dowd harpsichord)
Recorded in 1978 at Jacobs' home in New York
Arbiter, 2-CDs, arbiter 130; published 2001
References
External links
The Paul Jacobs papers, containing his personal papers and scores, are housed in the Music Division of The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
The New York Times review of the recital in November 1981, at which Jacobs gave the New York premiere of Carter's Night Fantasies''.
1930 births
1983 deaths
Nonesuch Records artists
American classical pianists
American male classical pianists
AIDS-related deaths in New York (state)
Musicians from New York City
Juilliard School alumni
American expatriates in France
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century classical musicians
Jewish classical pianists
20th-century American pianists
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
Classical musicians from New York (state)
20th-century American male musicians
Brooklyn College faculty
American gay musicians |
4261231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.B.C.%20Monkstown | C.B.C. Monkstown | Christian Brothers College, Monkstown Park (or CBC Monkstown Park) is a private fee-paying Catholic school and Independent Junior school, founded in 1856 in Monkstown, Dún Laoghaire, County Dublin, Ireland. The college arrived at Monkstown Park in 1950 from Eblana Avenue in Dún Laoghaire via a short stint on Tivoli Road. As of September 2022, it was in its 73rd academic year of existence at Monkstown Park, the 165th overall.
The intended mission of the college's former patron, the Congregation of the Christian Brothers established in 1802 by Edmund Ignatius Rice, was the education of poor boys in Ireland by providing them with basic levels of literacy. This was the broad aim of the school when it opened its doors in 1856 at Eblana Avenue in what was then known as Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire), a port town south of Dublin City.
As the years went by, the aims of the Christian Brothers got broader and so did those of the Dún Laoghaire school. By the 1920s, the school was preparing boys for the state examinations and sending increasing number of students to third level. The growth in population in Dún Laoghaire, with an increasing Catholic middle class demographic, led to an increase in the demand for the school. To that end, a decision was made to procure Monkstown Park in 1949 and to move the entire secondary department to this location. The school then in effect split, with the secondary department (now known as CBC Monkstown) moving location while the primary school (known as C.B.S. Eblana Avenue) remained at the original site. A private junior school was then opened at the Monkstown College with Eblana Avenue taking secondary students again from 1954.
The ethos of the majority of Christian Brothers schools in Ireland in the early 20th century was a strongly nationalist and Gaelic one. Those schools were known as "CBS" and played Gaelic games. However the Monkstown school, in line with their sister establishment, Christians (CBC Cork), was known as "CBC" and played rugby union as the main team game. Continuing with that differentiation, both schools would be the only 2 of the 96 Christian Brothers schools to abstain from the Free Education Act 1967, which for the first time provided free second-level education for Irish pupils. Both remained in the fee paying sector as of 2017.
The school motto is Certa Bonum Certamen or "fight the good fight" and the school colours are red, black and yellow.
History
On 1 January 1856, the Congregation of Christian Brothers opened a school at Eblana Avenue in Dún Laoghaire, or 'Kingstown' as it was then known. The site was provided by Charles Kennedy, a businessman and head of the local Vincent DePaul.
This was just ten years after the Great Famine, and emigration was rife. The school was called St Michaels Christian Brothers School, and initially educated mainly poor boys from the area. Brother Alphonsus Hoope was appointed as superior of the school. Kingstown during the 19th century was rapidly expanding with the harbour town seeing the addition of the piers and the Dublin and Kingstown Railway opening 20 years before the school.
Hoope arranged for two rooms for teaching, which had to be expanded after three weeks to three due to demand. Within two years, a building housing 400 students was built on the site. Kennedy and the local Vincent DePaul raised funds for the school at a gala dinner at what is now the Royal Marine Hotel Dún Laoghaire. The day-to-day operations of the school was financed from "voluntary subscriptions, solicited and collected by the Brothers". The Brothers residence of the time was located behind the main school building. There were 6 Brothers living on the school grounds, a building separate from the main school block. The school premises was valued in 1859 at £60.
During World War I, a significant number of former pupils of the school went to fight in the war, as part of the 200,000 Irishmen who participated in the war effort. The Dún Laoghaire area suffered over 500 military fatalities during the war, with a significant number of these coming from school. Owing to this, people in Flanders sent a statue to the area to honour the dead. It was felt at the time that the school should take it, as so many of the fatalities were from the school. With the changing political environment at the time however, with the Irish War of Independence underway, this was declined by the school. The statue was instead housed in the Dominican Covent in the town, where it resides still to this day in an oratory purposely designed for it.
The Brothers continued to have a major role in the education system when Ireland gained independence. In 1925 they vacated their premises in the school, moving to the nearby York Road, creating additional space for the school. By this time the school was focusing more on its collegiate department, with increased local competition in the area and a demand for Inter Certificate and Leaving Certificate programmes growing as a new middle class sprang up in Dún Laoghaire. Early pupils at the collegiate wing of the school included Dan O'Herlihy and James Dooge.
The school at Eblana prospered to an extent that it became impossible to accommodate both primary and secondary departments in the 19th century buildings, with the Dún Laoghaire parish hall often used to hold classes. Additionally, the Dún Laoghaire site was an urban one, with no greenspace on the site. This was felt to hinder the college against other local schools who could provide on site sports to their students, facilities which the growing middle class demographic of the area expected. A new site was therefore sought for part of the school.
Move to Monkstown Park
The Brothers sought a site for the new part of the school. Traditions were soon adopted from CBC Cork which had been existence since the early 20th century. In 1949 the Brothers purchased the nearby estate of Monkstown Park, which had been most recently occupied by the Protestant Corrig School. In order to procure the grounds, the Brothers released lands at Rochestown Avenue to Dún Laoghaire Corporation which had previously been used as the schools playing pitches. Many local people wanted a public park to be maintained at the site.
CBC abstained from joining the Free Education Scheme introduced by Donagh O'Malley in 1969. The primary reason for not joining the scheme was the significant capital costs involved in maintaining a school the size of CBC. CBC had always charged higher fees than their equivalent Christian Brothers schools. To this day, it remains as one of the 51 secondary schools (7% of the total) in the country that is fee paying.
In 1987 the school was further extended with a new administration building including new offices, a cafeteria, staff room and technology department. In 1994, the Edmund Rice Oratory, was opened.
50 years at Monkstown Park and school redevelopment
In 2000 the college celebrated its Golden Jubilee at Monkstown Park. The school year began with a ceremonial walk from the old Eblana school site to Monkstown Park. Events included a Jubilee Concert and the opening of a wall with the names of all the pupils from the time in Monkstown from 1950 onwards, attended by the President of Ireland, Mary McAleese.
In 2002 plans for a new school on the site were announced. Considerable controversy was caused in 2005 in the national media when it was announced, as CBC would receive a portion of the costs of funding the building despite being a fee-paying school from the Irish state. Subsequently, the school proceeded with the project with their own finance.
In 2007 the Christian Brothers decided to transfer the trusteeship of the school to the Edmund Rice Schools Trust along with 96 other Christian Brothers schools.
A new 12 classroom building opened in 2014 costing 4.5 million euro. This stands alongside the refurbished original 1840s building, the 1965 Sports Hall and the 1987 Administration Block.
Motto and crest
The college motto is "Certa Bonum Certamen", Latin for "Fight the Good Fight". This is written at the top of the original building which is visible on entry to the grounds. All school announcements used to conclude with the motto.
The college crest contains four elements. The college motto is below a shield containing three characters – a star, a tower and a sword. The star is the guiding star of knowledge. The tower represents the tower on the school grounds and the Christian focus of the school. The sword represents power, courage and chivalry.
Buildings
The college is bordered by several historical sites. Carrickbrennan Churchyard is located to the north of the school on the border of the grounds and Monkstown Castle is adjacent to the school. The college is made up of three buildings interconnected. Charles Haliday's house built in 1843 is incorporated into the main school block. The facade of the building long portico of Corinthians columns remains intact and is a protected structure. The tower opposite the main building is also a protected structure. The administrative block was built in 1987 and also contains several classrooms. The concert hall was built in the early 1960s.
The grounds contain an athletics paddock and three rugby pitches.
Academic and spiritual
Academic performance
The average Leaving Cert score in CBC in 2019 was 461, this compares to the national average of 335.
In 2013 over 70% of CBC students achieved over 400 points in the Leaving Certificate, nationally the number achieving this was 33.7%. In addition (results nationally in brackets); 27% in CBC (3%) got over 550 points, 41% (9.4%) in CBC got over 500 points and 57% got over 450 points (20.1%).
In 2014, one CBC student achieved eight A1 grades, putting him in the top 13 performers in the country
In 2018, one CBC student received 8 H1 results, one of seven students in Ireland to achieve this.
Senior school curriculum
Part of the schools mission statement is striving for "academic excellence". Boys study for both the Junior Cert and later the Irish Leaving Cert. School hours are between 8:45 AM to 4 PM with a half day for sporting activities on Wednesdays at 1 PM. In addition sports activities sometimes take place after 4 PM and optional afternoon and night study is available.
The fourth year (transition year) includes courses in academic subjects, as well as such optional subjects and activities as: Japanese, Sailing, Social work, Tourism, Chess-Boxing and First aid. The Comenius project is also offered which is a project linking CBC with other schools around Europe. Transition Year classes won the Comórtas Scannán TG4 in 2005 and were finalists in 2006, the 2005 group having their film represent Ireland in Italy in 2005.
Aside from the core languages of English and Irish; Latin, Japanese, French and German are taught. In addition to business studies for the junior cert, economics, business and accounting are offered for the leaving cert. Mathematics and applied mathematics are taught. Physics, chemistry and biology are offered as science subjects. Civics, geography, history, technical drawing, art, music, computers and home economics are also offered.
In the 2004 Sunday Times Schools League Table, CBC was listed among the country's top twenty schools, while in the Irish Times tables in 2006, the school was the top all-boys school in Ireland (3rd overall).
Monkstown Park Junior School
The Junior School consists of around 100 boys & Girls. There are 8 full-time teachers and one principal. Extra-curricular subjects are also taught such as Computers, French, Physical Education, Speech and Drama, Singing and Musical Appreciation and Arts and Crafts. There is also a part-time remedial teacher. Tutors are available to take students studying German and Music and the school runs an activity club on Fridays.
As an Independent school, it operates outside the auspices of the Department of Education, which does not control school hours, curriculum and activities.
In 2014 the school became an associate member of the Edmund Rice Schools Trust network. Under new directors, the school was re-established as Monkstown Park Junior School in July 2014.
Spiritual
Although the Christian Brothers have departed the faculty, Religious Education is still taught. It is offered for the Junior and Leaving Certificates (as an optional subject). Religion is also taken for those who do not choose to learn it as an exam subject in the Senior Cycle.
The Edmund Rice Oratory is one of the school's latest additions. A school chaplain is available to the college.
Extracurricular
Aid work
The Zambian Immersion Project is a senior cycle project where pupils fund raise and travel to Zambia and help in charity work. Others complete An Gaisce (Presidents Award) and the Edmund Rice awards which contain significant social work.
The Junior School's 6th class raise money annually for the Chernobyl Children's Project (with their charity Children Helping Children), and culminate their fund raising in a business exhibition at the end of every year. In 2007 they raised €42,000 for the project. In 2008 the school started a new charity: the Edmund Rice's Children's Fund. This encourages a whole school approach.
Drama, college musical and music
CBC has the distinction of being the first school to ever perform in the national Theatre of Ireland, the Abbey Theatre in 1958. Class V performed Patrick Pearse's Íosagán under the directorship of Thomas MacAnna, a future Tony Award winner, who was the drama and elocution teacher in the school at the time. MacAnna also produced the early Gilbert and Sullivan opera performances at the school.
The annual school musical, a collaboration with the nearby girls school Loreto College, Foxrock has been running for 21 years. Each respective transition year pupils participate, providing the student wishes to participate.
A fifth-year drama is also produced.
Writing workshops
In 2015, CBC Transition Year's wrote and published a short story book, Brainstorms edited by writer Roddy Doyle. This was as part of Doyle's Fighting Words programme. Author Kevin Barry wrote the introduction.
Debating
In 2011, CBC became the first school in the history of Leinster Schools' Debating Championships to win both the Individual and Team prizes, thus the school were Leinster's sole representatives at the All Ireland Schools' Debating Championship (Individual: Austin Conlon, Team: Kevin Dooney and Michael Barton). Conlon went on to win the Individual prize at the All Ireland Schools' Debating Championship at University College Cork whilst the Team of Dooney and Barton finished as runners up. Another team from CBC, Stephen Stack and Hugh Guidera, also represented Ireland at the Schools debating competition organised by the Oxford Union at Oxford University.
Rory Conlon and Luke Murray retained the Leinster School's Debating team title in 2012 for the school. Hugh Guidera and Michael Barton reached the Grand Final of the Clifford Chance Durham University Schools' Debating Competition, one of the four "Majors" on the UK Schools Debating circuit and is the largest schools debating competition in the world. This made them the only Irish school to reach one of the UK Majors for this debating season. In addition, Stephen Stack and Michael Barton triumphed at the Trinity College Dublin Schools' Debating Competition.
The school has hosted the Irish Schools Debating team during the World Schools Debating Championships during the COVID-19 pandemic making these virtual events, with CBC students on the Irish team.
In 2023 a CBC student became the first Irish student to win both the Oxford University and Cambridge University schools debating championships, the two largest schools debating competitions in the world.
Rugby
From the beginning, Rugby Union has been the main competitive team sport of the school. Rugby was played at the old Monkstown Park School (Corrig School) who won the Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup in 1889 and 1892. The school's rugby team initially was CBC Dún Laoighaire before the move to the new school in Monkstown. CBC Monkstown won the Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup in 1976 and reached the final in 1984. The school won the League Cup at Junior Level in 1998 and 2004, reaching the final in 1997/98, 2000/01, 2007/08, 2008/09, 2010/2011 and 2011/2012. The Senior Cup team played in the Senior league final in 2001, 2003, and 2008, winning the latter. The Senior Cup team have played in the Vincent Murray Cup on five occasions; they won in 2003, 2005 and 2007 whilst losing the final in 2006 and 2010. CBC also won the Powerade Leinster 'School of the Year' award in 2008.
CBC has produced a number of provincial and international rugby players including Paddy O'Donoghue, Patrick Casey, Joseph Brady and Barry O'Connor. Other rugby figures include the former President of the IRFU, John Lyons and the former international referee Donal Courtney. Past pupils Neil Walsh (Ulster Rugby) and Michael Noone play professionally currently.
In 2008 the school undertook a tour of Argentina and Uruguay playing games against a number of teams including Newman Club, a Christian Brothers school in Buenos Aires. Previous tours include Australia in 2001 and South Africa in 2005.
Rugby Honours
Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup – *1889, *1892, 1976 (Runners Up: 1984(* As Corrig School))
Leinster Schools Rugby Senior League – 2008 (Runners Up: 2002, 2004)
Leinster Schools Vinnie Murray Cup – 2003, 2005, 2007, 2017 (Runners Up: 2006, 2010)
Leinster Schools Senior Thirds League – 1995 (Runners Up: 2008)
Leinster Schools Senior Fourths League – 1991, 1993 (Runners Up: 2006, 2013)
All Ireland Schools Sevens – 1982
Leinster Schools Rugby Junior League – 1998, 2005, 2012 (Runners up: 1997, 2001, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2015)
Powerarde Leinster Rugby School of the Year – 2008
Athletics
The school is also involved in athletics and Cross Country competitions. The school consistently produces medalists at All Ireland, Leinster, East Leinster and Edmund Rice Games level, both individual and at team level. The school has an athletics pavilion with a triple and high jump track, a pole vault track, a discus facility and a hammer net.
Major Team Athletics Honours
All Ireland College of Science Cup (Top Overall school in Ireland) – 1978
Leinster Schools' Athletics Senior Shield Winners (Top Overall School) – 1976, 1977, 1978, 1994
All Ireland President's Shield (Second ranked school in Ireland) – 1955, 2007
Other sports
Other sports taken include golf, swimming, tennis, sailing, orienteering, and squash.
Golf is played in Leopardstown Golf Course and the school enters teams every year at provincial level.
There are two tennis courts, neither of which have nets or chalk outlines, and the school has used Monkstown Tennis Club opposite the school. The school tennis team reached the semifinals of the Leinster Championships in 2009.
Swimming is undertaken at Blue Pool leisure center, Monkstown.
The school uses the facilities at Dún Laoghaire for sailing which is a part of the Transition year programme. The school came third in the Leinster Schools Sailing Championships in 2009.
Cricket
An effort in start a cricket team in Monkstown in the early 1950s proved to be difficult. The efforts to start a cricket team was chronicled on the March 27 edition of RTÉ's Sunday Miscellany as "Cricket in the Borough" by past pupil Louis Brennan. A revival of the sport within the school occurred in 2002 when a team was formed playing 3 games against Mount Anville, King's Hospital and Blackrock College.
Notable alumni
The Past Pupils Union of the Christian Brothers College, Monkstown and Dún Laoghaire has been active since the mid-1950s. The CBC Monkstown PPU hosts several annual events.
Notable past pupils from the Dún Laoghaire and Monkstown schools include:
Arts and entertainment
Ronnie Drew, musician, founded The Dubliners
Dan O'Herlihy, Academy Award for Best Actor nominee at 27th Academy Awards for Robinson Crusoe
James Flynn, Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film nominee at 82nd Academy Awards for The Door
Vincent Dowling, stage and television director
Jonathan Ryan, actor
Danny Ryan, Lead Guitarist with The Thrills
Dave Hingerty, former drummer with The Frames
Bernard Farrell, playwright and television dramatist
Jim Nugent, Irish national radio RTÉ 2fm and RTÉ television presenter (The Colm & Jim-Jim Breakfast Show)
Dermot O'Neill, gardener and broadcaster
Tómas Mac Anna (teacher), Tony Award winning Abbey Theatre director
John Keogh Singer and Pianist with The Greenbeats and Full Circle
Robbie Brennan former drummer with The Chosen Few, Skid Row, Thin Lizzie, Stepaside
Religion and humanitarianism
Kevin Doran, Bishop of Elphin
John O'Shea, founder and CEO of international humanitarian organization GOAL
Fr. Shay Cullen, founder of the Preda Foundation
Sport
Patrick Casey, former Irish rugby international
Paddy O'Donoghue, former Irish International, former Treasurer of the IRFU
Peter McKenna, former Irish Rugby International
Michael Noone – former Leicester Tigers number 8
Donal Courtney, former International Rugby Board referee
John Feehan, former Leinster player and current CEO of the Six Nations Championship, the British and Irish Lions and the Pro12
Brian Kavanagh, CEO of Horse Racing Ireland
Michael Fitzsimons, 8 time (joint record) All-Ireland Senior Football Championship winner for the Dublin GAA Gaelic football team
Andy Keogh, Republic of Ireland soccer international
Peter Farrell, captain of Everton F.C. (1948–1957) and won a total of 35 caps for Ireland for the FAI XI and IFA XI in soccer
James Furlong, English Premier League player with Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.
Jordan Devlin, better known as JD McDonagh, professional wrestler with the WWE
Politics, legal and diplomats
Seán Barrett, Fine Gael Teachta Dála (TD), Ceann Comhairle (Chairman) of Dáil Éireann (the lower house of the Irish parliament) and former cabinet minister
Professor James Dooge, former minister for foreign affairs, chairman of Seanad Éireann, noted scientist and chairman of the Dooge Committee (Single European Act)
James B. Lynch, Fianna Fáil member of the Dáil and Senator.
Seamus Costello, assassinated Republican Socialist who founded the Irish National Liberation Army
Niall McCarthy, former Judge of the Irish Supreme Court
Cahir Davitt, former President of the High Court
Michael Quinn, High Court Judge of Ireland
Business
Peter Bellew, CEO of Malaysian Airlines
John Feehan, former Leinster player and current CEO of the Six Nations Championship, the British and Irish Lions and the Pro14
Brian Kavanagh, CEO of Horse Racing Ireland
Frank McCabe, former Vice President of Intel Corporation and Managing Director of Intel Ireland's operations
Academia and journalistic
Tim Pat Coogan, former editor of the Irish Press and historian
Shane Kenny, journalist and broadcaster
John Ryan, publisher, editor of Magill, war correspondent
Mark Brennock, former Chief Political Correspondent of The Irish Times
Emmet Malone, soccer correspondent with The Irish Times
Hugh Cahill, RTÉ Sport rugby commentator
Stephen Kinsella, Economist
Professor Ronan Fanning, Professor Emeritus of Modern History at University College Dublin
In popular culture
CBC has been referenced in the popular satire of "South Dublin culture", the book series Ross O'Carroll Kelly. In Ross O'Carroll-Kelly's Guide to (South) Dublin: How To Get By On, Like, €10,000 A Day, the school is given a section in the book which slates the school's rugby performances but notes the success of debating in the school and the popularity of Irish names. Past pupil Rory Nolan plays the character in the stage production.
The school is also referenced in Sarah Webb's "Shoestring Club" book released in 2012.
See also
CBS Eblana
References
External links
CBC Past Pupils Website
Junior School Website
Secondary schools in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown
Congregation of Christian Brothers secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland
Educational institutions established in 1856
Private schools in the Republic of Ireland
1856 establishments in Ireland
Monkstown, Dublin |
4261347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanau%20people | Melanau people | Melanau or A-Likou (meaning River people in Mukah dialect) is an ethnic group indigenous to Sarawak, Malaysia. They are among the earliest settlers<ref>'The Report: Sarawak 2008 Oxford Business Group, 2008</ref> of Sarawak. They speak in the Melanau language, which is a part of the North Bornean branch of Malayo-Polynesian languages.
Origins
In the 19th century, the Melanaus settled in scattered communities along the main tributaries of the Rajang River in Central Sarawak. They like to be known as Melanau or A-Likou. For most Melanau, the word ' dayak' is inappropriate for them as it was a word used by the westerners for the inhabitant of Borneo because Melanau people already have their own identity and culture as A-Likou (Melanau). Melanau or problematic Kajang-speaking tribes such as the Sekapan, the Rajang, the Tanjung, and the Kanowit gradually moved and assimilated into Dayak migrations settling in the Rajang. The Melanau people were regarded as a sub-group of the purported Klemantan people.
Today the Punan (or Punan Bah) people are also closely linked to the last riverine dwelling Melanau communities previously inhabiting the middle and upper Rejang tributaries. The Kajang language is kept relatively alive by the isolated Sekapan communities Kapit division of Sarawak.
The Melanau are considered among the earliest settlers in Sarawak. The name Melanau was not used by the Melanau to refer to themselves until recently. They call themselves a-likou meaning 'people of the river'. Legend has it that the name Melanau was given by the Malays of Brunei to the inhabitants of the coastal swamp flats and riverbanks of central Sarawak which might signify "coast-dweller".
This legend cannot be considered as a viable origin of the name since the name Malano has been used to refer to the region in historical records of writings and maps of Western, Chinese, and Javanese sources even before the establishment of Brunei Kingdom and arrival of Malays to Borneo from Sumatra.
Eda Green, writing in 1909, referred to "... the Milanes, whose girls are as fair as any Europeans and the belles of Borneo."
History
Throughout history, places where the Melanaus traditional areas were described as either their local places such as Mukah, Igan, etc., or by the wider state or region name Malano.
Prehistory
Before the Melanaus are known today as the ethnic name, the origins are vague as written records were not a common norm among the natives of Borneo. However, the linguistic evidence survived till today and ancient culture are preserved up till 19th century. The shared ancient culture of hanging coffin & burial poles (Kelidieng or Jerunei or Lejeng) between Melanaus and some orang ulu tribes such as Punan Bah, Kejaman, Sekapan etc is a proof of the historical origin of the Melanau people. Not only that, the linguistic fondness to these tribes also is another clue of the bigger ethnic lost family link. The culture of Jerunei is found in areas of Melanaus such as Mukah, Dalat etc and in Punan areas of Tatau, Belaga etc and as far as East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan. Evidence of ancient Melanau burial site are known to the archeological society in Niah, Sekaloh This group of ancient people (split and broken today to smaller groups of Melanau, Kejaman, Sekapan, Punan Bah etc) are one of the earliest and original people to settle in the island of Borneo. However, due intense direct influence from the Bruneian Malay Kingdom since 13th century, the culture and lifestyle of the coastal dwelling Melanaus today are highly similar to Malays on the exterior.
7th century
The earliest existence of a polity at the mouth of the Rejang river is Kin-li-fo-che (shortened as Kin-fo) in Chinese records of I Ching which was already known in the 7th century. This Malanau empire covers North Borneo (Sabah), Sarawak, and Brunei. JL Moens mentioned Fo-che-pou-lo to be in the same location. On Mercator map of 1587 also locates the chief ports on the west coast of Borneo (Brunei) Malano and Puchavarao (Fo-che-pou-lo).
12th-13th century
Zhao Rukuo or Chau Ju Kua wrote Zhu Fan Zhi, a collection of descriptions of countries and various products from outside China, and it is considered an important source of information on the people, customs and in particular the traded commodities of many countries in South East Asia and around the Indian Ocean during the Song Dynasty which he finished around 1225. One of the nations is Sha Hua Kung which is similar to Sawaku, a name used to describe Sarawak by Majapahit in Kakawin Negarakertagama.
"..again in a south-easterly direction (from this country?) there are certain islands inhabited by savage robbers called Ma-lo-nu.. "
Furthermore, the translator/author Friedrich Hirth & W.W. Rockhill also suggest this is referring to either Borneo or Sumatra. There is a need for further study regarding this description. Zhao had not travelled outside of China, thus many entries of Zhu Fan Zhi took information from an older work from 1178, Lingwai Daida by another geographer, Zhou Qufei.
Among the earliest historical records of Melanau is from the Chinese records, Dade Nanhai Zhi between the 12th to 13th centuries. It mentions the places under the Fu Ni kingdom that covers Melanau areas of Igan, Tutong & Bintulu;“Xiao Dong Yang's territory under the power of Fu Ni state includes Ma Li Lu (Manila), Ma Ye (Luzon), Mei Kun, Pu Duan (Panay), Su Lu (Sulu), Sha Hu Zhong (Marudu), Ya Chen (Igan), Odjuton (Tutong) and Wen Du Ling (Bintulu)."The Maragtas Code, a document purported to be based on written and oral sources of which no copy has survived in the Philippines, tells the History of Panay from the first inhabitants and the Bornean immigrants. It tells about the migration of ten datus from Borneo to Panay due to the strangling and oppressive rule of Datu Makatunao. Haven, they found in Madiaas which were inhabited by the Negritos in whom Datu Puti bought the island in what is the Panay island in the Philippines today It is believed that Makatunao described is Raja Tugau, a well-known king figure in Melanau oral literature and also in Bruneian literature of Syair Awang Semaun. The quality of the evil king persisted and the document is dated in 1225 according to Prof. Henry Otley Beyer but such dates are contested by other scholars in the field of history Until today, people of Panay celebrate Ati-Atihan, a festival tracing back its historical footprint to these 10 datus.
14th century
Malano was also, one of the vassal states under Majapahit kingdom as described by Mpu Prapanca in Kakawin Negarakertagama (pupuh 14) in 1365;"Kadandangan, Landa Samadang dan Tirem tak terlupakan, Sedu, Barune (ng), Kalka, Saludung, Solot dan juga Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, ikut juga Tanjung Kutei, Malano tetap yang terpenting di pulau Tanjungpura."Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession. This window of opportunity gives local kingdoms to flourish.
Syair Awang Semaun which tells the establishment of the Brunei Kingdom is an epic poem passed down from generations. There are many versions of the manuscripts of at least 6 believed to be written into a manuscript in the 19th century. The poem mentions the conquest of 14 brothers establishing a kingdom. Their territorial expansion begins with conquering the Melanau areas which were under the power of Tugau and his allies covering from Sambas to Hulu Sungai Brunei.
17th century
A Dutch report by Blommart in 1609 mentioned that the kingdoms that changed hands under the Johor empire which was previously under the Brunei empire:“Teyen on the river Lauwe, Sadong in Borneo Proper (the eastern boundary of Sarawak,) Mampawa and Borneo were the best places for trade. At Sambas, tidings were received that the people Calca, Seribas, and Melanuge had fallen away from Borneo, and placed themselves under the power of the king of Johore. These were places of large trade, where much gold, benzoar, pearl, and other rare articles were found.”It is estimated that around 1730, under Sultan Kamaluddin of Brunei regained control over the countries from Sarawak Proper from Sambas including the Melanau areas.
19th century
When James Brooke was granted the title Rajah of Sarawak in 1841, the territories of Melanau people from the Rejang river to Bintulu was still under the Brunei kingdom. When a long conflict between the Pangiran Dipa and Pangeran Matusin in Mukah was reaching its peak, it resulted led to a crisis point for James Brooke. Events like blockage of sago supply from Melanau regions to the factories in Kuching and the killing of Charles Fox and Henry Steele became a point for Sir James Brooke to obtain from Sultan Abdul Momin the permission to interfere in 1857. Furthermore, the pirate activities in the Melanau areas carried out by the Sakarang and Saribas were diminishing the livelihood of the Melanaus as well as other local communities In Spencer St James account of the piratical activities;
"It is evident, from the remains of the deserted towns and villages that we saw in their districts, that the population was formerly much greater than we found it during our expeditions to protect their industrious people. We heard of almost monthly attacks on one or other of their villages, and a few weeks passed without the Milanows having to add many to the list of their murdered relatives."
Finally, in 1861, the Sultan gave a lease to James Brooke the territories between Samarahan river to Tanjung Kidurong.
Since the 14th century, the Melanaus have never been united under their racial political entity and controlled by Brunei for about 500 years and the White Rajahs for about 100 years. This contributed to the disparity in the language differences among the Melanau people who were widespread along the coastline of Northwest Borneo. Yet the Melanau language has retained much of its authenticity making it separable from the Malay language despite heavy influence from the Malay language itself.
Divisions
Grouping-wise, the Melanaus can be classified into the following;
Melanau Matu-Daro
Melanau Bruit
Melanau Seduan
Melanau Dalat
Melanau Oya
Melanau Igan
Melanau Mukah
Melanau Belawai-Rajang
Melanau Balingian
Melanau Miri
Melanau Bintulu
Melanau Segan
The largest group is the Matu-Daro. Each group has its characteristic dialect, but they all share the same cultural and linguistic background. An exception is the Melanau Bintulu dialect, which can hardly be understood by speakers of other dialects and is thought by many linguists to hardly fit into the Melanau language grouping. This tribe is also known as "Vaie" whose language is very similar to Punan Lovuk Pandan and Punan Bah. Their early establishment were from Lavang and Segan riverine areas.
The Melanau languages have been divided into the following five groups
Central, consists of dialects ranging from Mukah-Oya, Dalat, Balingian, Bruit, Igan, Segalang, Segahan, Siteng and Prehan.
Matu-Daro
Kanowit-Sungai Tanjong
Sibu, consists of dialects from Seduan and Banyok.
Seru (extinct)
Kapit
Another Melanau group worth mentioning and including is the Melanau Igan. They live in kampungs by the Igan River, e.g. Kampung Skrang, Kampung Tengah, Kampung Hilir, that border the Mukah - (Matu-Daro) district. The main language is Melanau. However, some speak a local Malay dialect. This group of Melanau is probably all Muslim. They have mainly adopted Malay culture while preserving some aspects of Melanau culture. It is believed that this group was originally Malays who settled in the area. However, intermarriage with Melanaus over many generations produced new generations who considered themselves Melanau.
Similar to the Igan Melanaus ancestral beginnings, many Melanaus who had migrated to different areas in Sarawak experienced the same transformation. A group of Matu Melanaus settled in the Bintawa area in Kuching after World War 2. However, their offspring, even though mostly Melanaus by blood, normally do not speak the language and are considered Malays. However, as a point of interest, the new secondary school built in Bintawa, Kuching in 2007 is named SMK Matu Baru. Many areas in Greater Kuching, notably in the neighbourhoods of Petra Jaya, Lundu, Samarahan and Santubong do have a significant Melanau population. In addition, Sibu, Miri and Bintulu are also places or towns where there is a significant Melanau population.
However, the 'Bin' which means "son of" and 'Binti' which means "daughter of" as given in all their names (be they are Muslim, Christian, or "Likou") had probably confused the census workers (read the following paragraph). One of the reasons the Muslim Melanau 'migrated' to become Malay is that during the registration of birth of the newborns, they are automatically being assumed as Malay if the parents don't inform the registration officer of their racial preference.
Population
According to the statistics from the state’s statistics department, in 2014, there are 132,600 who consider themselves Melanau, making it the fifth-largest ethnic group in Sarawak (after Iban, Chinese, Malays, and Bidayuh).
Even though a minority in Sarawak, Melanau forms a large part of Sarawak's political sphere, 5 out of 6 of Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sarawak is of Melanau ethnicity including the current Yang di-Pertua Tun Pehin Abdul Taib Mahmud and 2 out of 6 of Chief Ministers of Sarawak are ethnic Melanau.
The population dynamics of the Melanau people are as follows:
Culture, religion and economy
The Melanau were traditionally fishermen as well as padi and sago farmers. The Melanaus from Paloh were described by Spencer St John are salt producers in the 19th century. Some were skilled boat builders. They used to live in tall stilt and longhouses, but nowadays, they live in Malaysian kampung-style houses (individual & separated houses). Because of religious similarity, the majority of Melanaus live socially and culturally like the rest of the Malays in Malaysia.
The Melanau are one of the rare ethnic groups in Malaysia to have a population that remains more or less constant in numbers. This is because the Muslim Melanaus that have migrated to bigger towns in Sarawak have "automatically" become "Malays", especially during the National Census Operation as their names (and many times the language the elders use with their children at homes) are indistinguishable from those of the local Sarawak Malays. This has helped the Malay population of Sarawak to have significantly increased in the census.
Most Melanaus have a 'Bin' (son of) and 'Binti' (daughter of) in their names similar to the Malays and it is also likely that the Christian Melanaus too were designated as Malays in the census.
The 2010 Malaysian Population Census showed the Melanaus population in Sarawak, Malaysia was about 123,410. They make up the 5th largest ethnic group in Sarawak, after the Ibans, Chinese, Malays, and Bidayuh. The continuous inter-marriage between the Melanau and other races in Malaysia has also caused the disappearance of the Melanau identity. Data from some private research estimated that the actual Melanau population (in Malaysia and outside Malaysia) is much higher.
Being migrants in the early days, Melanaus are found almost everywhere in Sarawak. Sadly, though their children know their roots, many of them cannot speak or even understand their Melanau language. Intentionally or unintentionally, many of them have registered themselves as other races, mostly as Malays. In some cases, their parents, both Melanaus, prefer to speak Malay or English to their children. This language trend is mainly found in the towns and cities in Sarawak. There has been little effort done to preserve the Melanau dialects and to teach the current Melanau generation continuous usage of their dialects.
The gradual disappearance of the Melanau cultures and dialects is further aggravated by the absence of qualified Melanau staff members handling the documentation on the Melanau culture and history in the 'Majlis Adat Istiadat' department in Sarawak. This department is involved in the preservation and documentation of the cultures and histories of the various ethnic groups in Sarawak. The Melanau are slowly being absorbed into other cultural groups. The Melanau Kaul festival will only serve as a reminder of the Melanau Pagan ritual.
Religion
While originally animists, the majority of the Melanaus are now Muslim, although some of them, especially among the Melanau Mukah, and Dalat are Christian. Nonetheless, many still celebrate traditional rites such as the annual Kaul Festival. Despite their different beliefs and religions, the Melanaus, like other East Malaysians (Sabah and Sarawak) are very tolerant of each other and are proud of their tolerance. One can still come across a Melanau family with different children in the family embracing Christianity and Islam while their parents still have strong animist beliefs.
Food
The Melanaus have unique food such as jungle ferns, umai, fresh fish products, and siet, (edible sago palm weevil larva). There is a variety of sago-based dishes such as the , sago balls, and the famous tebaloi, also known as sago and coconut biscuits.
Melanau calendar
The Melanau have their own calendar which begins in March. The New Year is celebrated during the Kaul Festival.
Notable Melanau people
In popular culture
The film, Sumpahan Jerunei'' (Curse of the Jerunei), a local horror film which was released in 2023 and revolves around burial ritual of the Melanau nobility back in the 13th century. The movie was filmed in many areas in Sarawak, including Mukah, Siburan and Santubong.
References
External links
Ethnic groups in Sarawak
Austronesian peoples |
4261414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional%20Irish%20Republican%20Army%20arms%20importation | Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation | Provisional Irish Republican Army arms importation in forms of both firearms and explosives began in the early 1970s during the Troubles. With these weapons it conducted an armed campaign against the British state in Northern Ireland.
North American arms
United States
To continue and escalate its armed campaign, the IRA needed to be better equipped, which meant securing modern small arms. In previous campaigns weapons had been secured before hostilities commenced via raids on British Army and even Irish Army weapons depots. In the 1969–1971 period this was no longer feasible. By 1972, the IRA had large quantities of modern small arms, particularly Armalite rifles, manufactured and purchased in the United States. The AR-18 rifle in particular was found to be particularly well suited for urban guerilla warfare as its small size and folding stock made it easy to conceal. Moreover, it was capable of rapid fire and fired a high velocity round which provided high stopping power.
The primary IRA's gunrunner in the United States was George Harrison, an IRA veteran who resided in New York since 1938. Harrison had set up a gunrunning network in America since the 1950s when he supplied arms in the 1956–1962 Border campaign. He bought guns for the IRA from a Corsican arms dealer named George de Meo, who had connections in organised crime. Joe Cahill acted as the contact between NORAID and Harrison, and almost all of the smuggled guns went through the network run by the latter. In 1971, the RUC had already seized 700 modern weapons from the IRA, along with two tonnes of high explosive and 157,000 rounds of ammunition, most of which were manufactured in the United States.
Harrison spent an estimated US$1 million in the 1970s purchasing over 2,500 guns for the IRA. According to Brendan Hughes, a key figure in the Belfast Brigade, the IRA smuggled small arms from the United States by sea on Queen Elizabeth 2 from New York via Southampton, through Irish members of her crew, until the network was largely shut down by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the early 1980s after almost a decade of effort. These Queen Elizabeth 2 shipments included Armalite rifles, and were driven from Southampton to Belfast in small consignments.
In the late 1970s, another IRA member, Gabriel Megahey, was sent to the United States to acquire more arms and he was able to procure more Armalite AR-15 rifles, plus a number of Heckler & Koch rifles and other weapons. Again, the purchase of these weapons was funded by Irish American republicans. A batch of M60 machine guns stolen from a U.S. National Guard armory was imported in 1977.
Since the conflict began in 1969, the United States Department of Justice began cracking down on the IRA arms trafficking network in America. By 1975, the Justice Department started to significantly weaken the Harrison network by prosecuting dozens of IRA arms trafficking cases, and as early as 1973, the IRA already found more lucrative sources of funding and weapons from foreign states, including Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. The prosecutions of IRA gunrunners in America were so great that according to Belfast author Jack Holland, "Harrison was not aware of any major shipments of arms that had successfully reached the IRA from the U.S. since the late 1970s; that is, before his network's destruction [in 1981]." U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill told Northern Ireland Secretary of State Roy Mason in mid-October 1977 that "[t]he flow of guns and money had been greatly reduced." The United States Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency in 1976 noted the role of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) in prosecuting IRA gunrunners:
Since September 1971, ATF has been involved in investigating Irish Republican Army (IRA) gunrunning activities in the United States. Numerous successful prosecutions of IRA "gunrunners" violating the Gun Control Act have resulted. Most notable and significant to date was the recent conviction in Baltimore, Maryland, of five IRA "gunrunners" charged with 23 violation counts of the 1968 Gun Control Act including using fictitious names, counterfeiting federal firearms licenses and illegally transporting firearms and explosive devices across state lines. Seized from the defendants were 70 of the 158 illegally purchased Colt AR-15, .223 caliber, semi-automatic rifles destined for the IRA in Northern Ireland.
On March 1, 1981, Claire Sterling wrote for The New York Times Magazine:
The I.R.A has come a long way since its early days of dependance upon the United States. Fund raising is mostly done at home nowadays, by means of protection rackets, brothels, massage parlors and bank stickups. And the incoming hardware is largely Soviet-made. It took only a few years to make the transformation with the help of the international terror network.
In 1980, De Meo was arrested and convicted of smuggling arms to the IRA. He was sentenced to ten years in prison. However, in a secret meeting at a hotel on Manhattan's East Side in August, FBI agents agreed to a deal with De Meo's lawyer that his sentence would be reduced to five years if he can surrender the IRA's primary gunrunner. At that time, the FBI had no idea who was the prime leader of the IRA arms support network in America. In 1981, Meo notified the FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force about Harrison's attempt to smuggle a large cache of arms into Ireland from his home in New York. Subsequently, in June, Harrison, Michael Flannery and three other Irish gunrunners were arrested by the FBI as part of a sting operation but acquitted at their trial in 1982. The men were charged with attempting to smuggle a consignment of arms to Ireland which included a flamethrower and a 20mm anti-tank rifle. Their acquittal was widely attributed to the unconventional efforts of Harrison's personal attorney, Frank Durkan; the men did not deny their activities but claimed that they believed the operation had been sanctioned by the Central Intelligence Agency.
Despite the men's acquittal, the arrest of Harrison halted nearly all of the guns being smuggled out of the country. Holland wrote that "there can be no doubt that with the arrest of Harrison, his gunrunning career ended and the IRA's most vital source of weapons was blocked", which was already in decline in the late 1970s; by 1980, the IRA was already importing a large number of weapons from mainland Europe and the Middle East. Irish journalist Ed Moloney in his book A Secret History of the IRA noted that:
After the destruction of the Harrison network, arms supplies to the IRA from the United States were infrequent and erratic. "There was very little stuff coming in," recalled one veteran. All too often weapons, sometime purchased over the counter in gun shops, would make their way to Ireland in twos and threes, only to be intercepted or captured by the authorities, who would then be able to trace them back and arrest and charge the sympathizers responsible. The IRA was never again able to construct a network in the United States as productive as Harrison's.
Megahey was arrested by the FBI in 1982 after a successful sting operation, where he was trying to purchase surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) for the IRA, and sentenced to seven years in prison. Another devastating blow to any major IRA gunrunning attempt came in September 1984, when the FBI warned the Republic of Ireland that a major IRA arms shipment was underway from the United States, and that the weaponry would be transferred to an Irish fishing trawler in the Atlantic. Subsequently, Irish authorities discovered that the arms ship was a vessel named Marita Ann, allegedly after a tip-off from Sean O'Callaghan, the Garda Síochána informer within the IRA. Three Irish Naval Service ships confronted the vessel off the coast of County Kerry, and prevented its escape by firing warning shots. A team of naval personnel and Garda officers boarded the ship, arresting the crew of five and confiscating seven tons of military equipment, as well as medications, training manuals, and communications equipment. The weapons had allegedly been donated by the South Boston Winter Hill Irish Mob.
Andrew J. Wilson in his book Irish America and the Ulster Conflict 1968-1995 wrote that:
The most effective measures taken by US law enforcement agencies, however, were against IRA gunrunning . . . The convictions secured by US law enforcement agencies against the gunrunning network in the mid-1980s caused serious problems for the IRA. After the seizure of the Marita Ann, the Provos began to concentrate their arms procurement ventures in Europe and the Middle East. Although the IRA continued to ship some weapons from America, US authorities successfully undermined the transatlantic arms network.
Canada
In August 1969, some 150 Irish Canadians in Toronto announced that they intended to send money which could be used to buy guns, if necessary, to the Catholic women and children of the Bogside in Derry. The British Foreign Commonwealth Office (FCO) noted in the early 1970s that "the IRA has also looked to Irish communities elsewhere to obtain cash for its terror campaign of the past four years", and noted the presence of fundraising groups in Canada and Australia, and an attempt to establish connections in New Zealand.
Canadian authorities at first did nothing about the IRA fundraising in the country because collecting cash was considered a nonviolent pursuit that was not a threat to Canada. However, Britain told them the money raised in Canada was allegedly used to purchase weapons, including Canadian-made detonators being deployed for IRA bombing. Canadian IRA supporters smuggled detonators from Canadian mining operations for use in the indiscriminate bombings that wracked Northern Ireland for years. As a result, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) was charged with trying to intercept arms from flowing into Ireland from Canada.
In 1974, seven Irish Canadian residents were arrested by the RCMP for smuggling weapons to the IRA after "raids in St. Catharines, Tavistock and Toronto and at the U.S. border at Windsor". Philip Kent, one of those arrested, was discovered in his car for having "fifteen FN rifles and a .50 calibre machine gun". In February 1982, three Canadian republicans and Edward "Ted" Howell (a close ally of Gerry Adams) and Dessie Ellis from Dublin were arrested for trying to enter the U.S. illegally from Canada and "with a cache of money and a shopping list" of weapons for the IRA.
In 1993, Irish security forces uncovered an IRA bomb factory at Kilcock, County Kildare, discovering that parts of the detonating cord came from Canada. In 1994, a Canadian was arrested in Spain for attempting to deliver weapons to the IRA.
Libyan/Middle Eastern arms
Libya
Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi supplied a crucial number of arms to the IRA, as part of a strategy at this time of opposing United States interests in the Middle East by sponsoring paramilitary activity against it and its allies in Western Europe.
The first Libyan arms shipment to the IRA took place in 1972–1973, following visits by Joe Cahill to Libya. In early 1973, the Irish Government received intelligence that the vessel Claudia was carrying a consignment of weapons, and placed the ship under surveillance on 27 March. On 28 March, three Irish Navy patrol vessels intercepted the Claudia in Irish territorial waters near Helvick Head, County Waterford, seizing five tonnes of Libyan small arms and ammunition found on board. The weaponry seized included 250 Soviet-made small arms, 240 rifles, anti-tank mines and other explosives. Cahill himself was also found and arrested on board the vessel. It is estimated that three other shipments of weaponry of a similar size and nature succeeded in getting through to the IRA in the same time period. Ed Moloney reports that the early Libyan arms shipments provided the IRA with its first RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenade launchers, and that Gaddafi also gave three to five million US dollars at this time to the organisation to finance its activities. However contact with the Libyan government was broken off in 1976.
Contact with Libya was opened again in the aftermath of the 1981 Irish Hunger Strike, which was said to have impressed Gaddafi, just as the FBI successfully disrupted the IRA gunrunning operation in America that same year. In the 1980s, the IRA received further larger quantities of weaponry and explosives from the Libyan Government, reportedly enough to equip least two professional infantry battalions. Four shipments of guns, ammunition and explosives were made between 1985 and 1986, providing large quantities of modern weaponry to the IRA, including heavy machine guns, over 1,000 rifles, several hundred handguns, rocket-propelled grenades, flamethrowers, surface-to-air missiles, and Semtex explosive – an odourless explosive, invisible to X-ray, and many times more powerful than fertiliser-based bombs. From late 1986 onwards, virtually every bomb constructed by the Provisional IRA, and splinter groups such as the Real IRA, contained Semtex from a Libyan shipment unloaded at an Irish pier in 1986.
These shipments were partly in retaliation for the British Government's support for the US Air Force's (USAF) bombing attacks on Tripoli and Benghazi in 1986, which in turn were in retaliation for the 1986 bombing of the La Belle discotheque in Berlin. The USAF planes involved in the bombings had taken off from British bases on 14 April 1986, and Libya reportedly suffered 60 casualties in the attack. This second major Libyan contribution to the IRA came in 1986–1987.
There were four shipments which were not intercepted, in a huge intelligence failure of both Irish and British agencies, described as 'calamitous' by journalist Brendan O'Brien. The arm supplies from Libya developed as follows:
The trawler Casamara took on 10 tonnes of weapons in September 1985 off the Maltese island of Gozo. These weapons were landed off the Clogga Strand near Arklow by inflatable boats some weeks later. The shipment contained 500 crates of AK-47s, pistols, hand grenades, ammunition and seven RPG-7s.
Casamara (renamed Kula at this time), left Maltese waters on 6 October 1985 carrying a cache of DShK heavy machine guns.
In July 1986, there was a shipment of 14 tonnes, including, according to the authorities, two SAM-7s.
In October 1986, another shipment of 80 tonnes which included one tonne of Semtex, reportedly 10 SAM-7 missiles, more RPG-7s, AK-47s and hundreds of thousands of rounds of ammunition arrived aboard the oil-rig replenishment vessel Villa.
In total, the arms shipments included:
9mm Browning, Taurus, Glock and Beretta handguns
AK-47 Kalashnikov and AKM assault rifles
MP5 submachine guns
RPG-7 anti-tank rocket launcher
Soviet made DShK heavy machine guns
FN MAG machine guns
Military flamethrowers
Semtex plastic explosive
Strela 2 man portable SAMs
It is also estimated that the Libyan government gave the IRA the equivalent of £2 million along with the 1980s shipments. However, in 1992, Libya admitted to British officials that it gave the IRA over $12.5 million in cash (the equivalent of roughly $40 million in 2021).
On 1 November 1987, during transit to Ireland, one-third of the total Libyan arms consignment being carried aboard the MV Eksund was intercepted by the French Navy while the ship was in the Bay of Biscay, along with five crew members, among them Gabriel Cleary. The vessel was found to contain 120 tonnes of weapons, including HMGs, 36 RPGs, 1000 detonators, 20 SAMs, Semtex, 82mm mortars, 106mm cannons and 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition. Also, reportedly of tank shells were found, which could be adapted into explosive devices. Despite the seizure of the Eksund arms, the IRA was by then equipped with a quantity and quality of weaponry and explosives never available to it at any other phase of its history. Furthermore, according to Brendan O'Brien there was actually an 'over-supply', especially regarding the 600 AK-47s still in the hands of the IRA by 1992.
The Garda Síochána (the Police Service of the Republic of Ireland) uncovered numerous arms destined for the IRA in 1988. These included several hundred AK-47s, Russian DSHK HMGs, FN MAG machine guns and Semtex.
By 1996, Jane's Intelligence Review reported that "it is believed that the bulk of the material presently in IRA arsenals was shipped from Libya in the mid-1980s with the aid of a skipper, Adrian Hopkins, hired for the purpose by the IRA."
Compensation claims
On 31 October 2009, a cross-party delegation of Northern Irish politicians travelled to the Libyan capital Tripoli for the first face to face meeting with Libyan government ministers to discuss compensation claims for victims of IRA violence. Sinn Féin president Gerry Adams criticized this move, saying that there must be “no hierarchy of victims”. He pointed out the same should go out to the victims injured and families of those killed by British security forces themselves and acting in collusion with loyalist paramilitaries.
Palestine Liberation Organization
There was contact between the IRA and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and specifically the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, starting from the mid-1970s which included the training of IRA volunteers. At one stage, the PLO offered weapons and training to the IRA, but it declined on the grounds that it was impossible to smuggle arms out of the Levant region in general and Palestine specifically without alerting Israeli intelligence. Tim Pat Coogan wrote that assistance from the PLO largely dried up in the mid-1980s after the PLO had forged stronger links with the Republic of Ireland.
Mainland European arms
In the 1970s, some guns were purchased by Dáithí Ó Conaill in Czechoslovakia. On 16 October 1971, at Schiphol Airport, Dutch authorities seized the IRA arms shipment including modern submachine guns, rifles, and bazookas imported from the Czech arms manufacturer Omnipol.
In the 1980s, Belgian FN FNC rifles were acquired via the Netherlands and AG-3 and AK4 rifles from Norway and Sweden were also secretly obtained. IRA supporters in the Netherlands assisted in the arms smuggling operations and provided safe houses for IRA operatives to lie low. On 26 January 1986, the Irish Garda uncovered the biggest ever IRA arms cache near the border in counties Roscommon and Sligo, including 95 rifles made in Russia, West Germany, East Germany, and Romania, as well as 21,560 rounds of ammunition, pistols, and other accessories worth £1 million on the black market. Bomb-making equipment discovered in Amsterdam in the mid-1980s was intended to be used in the IRA campaign in the UK.
In May 1987, three Heckler & Koch automatic rifles, a Belgian FN rifle, two FNC rifles, a Luger pistol, and a SPAS-12 shotgun were discovered following the Loughgall ambush; the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) linked these guns to seven murders and 12 attempted murders in Northern Ireland. Former MI6 agent Tony Divall said that around August 1987, a Swiss arms dealer based in Zurich was trying to charter a 350-ton Panamanian vessel on behalf of the IRA. He named the Swiss dealer's bank in Lugano, his account number, and the bank official he used for the arms deal. The dealer denied any knowledge, saying "Whoever your contact is must be a mad dog."
Last arms deals
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the Provisional IRA South Armagh Brigade smuggled in a number of Barrett M82 and Barrett M90 .50 BMG rifles from the United States. These weapons were used by two South Armagh sniper teams to conduct a sniping campaign against British Army patrols operating in the area. The last British soldier killed in Northern Ireland during The Troubles, Stephen Restorick, was shot dead by a sniper in South Armagh in February 1997. Soon after, in April 1997, the leader of one of the sniper squads, Michael Caraher, and other IRA volunteers were arrested and a Barrett rifle seized. A bolt-action .50 BMG rifle stamped with the word 'Tejas' (Spanish for Texas) on the butt manufactured by a former Barrett gunsmith based in Texas. was also recovered in Belfast in August 1993; British security forces believed it had been used in attacks in preceding months and dubbed it the "Tejas Rifle." Earlier, in August 1986 Gardaí had intercepted an arms consignment in the Central Sorting Office in Dublin that included a Barret M82 and ammunition, posted from Chicago.
Despite its ceasefires of 1994 and 1997 the IRA continued to buy arms. It needed a new source of weapons, since the Libyan pipeline had been closed and smuggling from the United States became far more difficult due to its transatlantic gunrunning network in the country being disrupted by American authorities in the early 1980s. In May 1996, the Federal Security Service (FSB), Russia's internal security service, publicly accused Estonia of arms smuggling, and claimed that the IRA had contacted representatives of Estonia's volunteer defence force, Kaitseliit, and some non-government groups to buy weapons. However the Russian report did not say when the contacts had taken place. In July 1999, three men, Anthony Smyth, Conor Claxton, and Martin Mullan, along with an accomplice, Siobhan Browne, were arrested by the American FBI and ATF agencies and accused of buying 44 handguns from arms dealers in Florida in the United States and posting 15 of the weapons to Ireland and the United Kingdom. Later estimates put the number of guns sent to Ireland at more than 100 pistols and machine pistols. All three men were cleared of conspiracy to aid terrorists and to commit murder. They were later sentenced on the less serious smuggling charge. The IRA leadership denied knowledge of the arms buys.
In April 2002 it was reported in media outlets that the IRA had bought at least twenty Russian AN-94 assault rifles in Moscow in late 2001. Russian security services were said to have detected the deal and passed details to British military intelligence in London.
Timeline: The IRA's importation of weapons
In 1969 the IRA received its first cache of weapons from the Harrison network with 70 small arms comprising M1 carbines, M3 "grease gun" submachine guns, some handguns, and 60,000 rounds of ammunition.
In 1970, the IRA receives weapons from Basque organisation ETA. This includes around 50 revolvers.
In May 1970, Irish politicians Charles Haughey, Neil Blaney, and John Kelly, Irish Army Captain James Kelly, and Belgian businessman Albert Luykx were acquitted during the Arms Crisis of smuggling weapons to the IRA during the beginning of the conflict.
In 1971, the IRA receives its first consignments of Armalite rifles. They include around 100 AR-15 and AR-180 rifles, on the Queen Elizabeth 2 (New York to Southampton).
Later that year Gardaí recover six suitcases full of 5.56×45mm ammunition at Dublin Port arriving on a ship from the US.
Again in 1971, IRA leader Dáithí Ó Conaill arranges for weapons to be bought off Czechoslovakian arms company Omnipol in Prague. The arms are seized at Schiphol Airport, The Netherlands.
In 1972 Colonel Gaddafi sends his first arms shipments to Ireland, a small shipment of around ten weapons and some explosives.
Once again in 1972, the IRA buy RPG-7 rocket launchers from unknown sources in Europe.
The IRA receives another batch of M16 and AR-15 rifles from the Harrison network.
In 1973 the IRA receives another consignment of arms from Libya but the arms are intercepted on board the Claudia by members of the Gardaí. Leading IRA man Joe Cahill and others arrested. The shipment consisted of 250 AK-47 rifles and other materiel.
In 1974, the FBI foil an IRA attempt to buy 100 M16 rifles.
In 1974, seven Irish Canadians are arrested by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) for smuggling weapons to the IRA after "raids in St. Catharines, Tavistock and Toronto and at the U.S. border at Windsor". Philip Kent, one of those arrested, is discovered in his car for having "fifteen FN rifles and a .50 calibre machine gun".
In 1977 the PLO (Al-Fatah) sends arms to the IRA. They are intercepted at Antwerp. An IRA man is arrested by Gardaí. The arms are believed to have come from Lebanon.
In 1977, six M60 machine guns and around 100 M16 rifles are stolen from a US Army base and shipped to Ireland.
Between 1973 and 1978, 500,000 rounds of 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition stolen from a US Marine base are successfully sent to the IRA.
1979 The Gardaí seize a cargo of more than 150 guns and 60,000 rounds of ammunition. including two M60 machine guns, 15 M16 rifles, a number of M14 rifles, and an AK-47 sent from the US.
In 1982 US customs discover a truck at the docks of Newark, New Jersey. Four members of an IRA cell are arrested. The shipment contained 50 firearms and frequency switches for detonating bombs, to counter British Army jamming of most IRA signals for detonating bombs.
Later that year, three Canadian IRA supporters and Edward "Ted" Howell (a close ally of Gerry Adams) and Dessie Ellis from Dublin are arrested for entering the US from Canada, during a plot to acquire 200 cases of ammunition for the IRA.
In 1983 the FBI foils an IRA attempt to buy explosives.
In 1984 An IRA arms shipment is seized on the fishing boat Marita Ann by the Irish Navy. Men jailed in the US and Ireland. Seven tons of arms, ammunition and explosives procured by the Winter Hill Gang in Boston, US.
In 1985 The FBI foils another IRA bid to buy small arms in Colorado. An Irishman is deported.
In 1986, 40 firearms, including: 13 FN FAL rifles, an AK-47, two hand grenades, drums of nitrobenzene, 70,000 rounds of ammunition are seized in the Netherlands by Dutch police. IRA members Gerry Kelly and Brendan McFarlane were arrested.
Irish police seize ten AG-3 rifles in 1986, part of a batch of 100 stolen from a Norwegian Reserve base near Oslo by a criminal gang and sold to the IRA.>
The IRA attempt to buy Redeye SAMs, M60 machine guns, M16 rifles, MP5 submachine guns and 11 bullet-proof vests, but are caught in an FBI sting operation.
Between 1985–87 four shipments of arms and explosives successfully landed in Ireland by boat skipper Adrian Hopkins, totalling around 150 tons. The fifth, on Eksund, is intercepted by French Customs. Libya had sent a total of 300 tons of weaponry including 150 tons of Romanian AKMs, SA-7s, Semtex-H, RPG-7 rocket launchers, Taurus pistols, and other materiel.
In 1988 a total 380 gallons of nitrobenzene from the Netherlands are seized by Gardaí in a truck.
In 1988 US Customs foil bid to buy rifles from a gun dealer in Alabama. Two men who attempted to buy high-powered rifles are jailed.
Detonators for bombs and parts for an anti-aircraft missile system are seized, and a number of IRA members and a NASA scientist are arrested by FBI after a long covert spying operation that began in 1982. A group of IRA supporters are jailed in Boston in 1990 for trying to smuggle a home-made missile system to Ireland.
1988–90 FBI foils plot to acquire FIM-92 Stinger missiles on black market in Miami. Several arrests are made.
Late 1980s and early 1990s: The IRA manage to obtain half a dozen Barrett rifles and other .50 cal sniper rifles, all destined for the South Armagh Sniper teams.
In 1994, a Canadian was arrested in Spain for attempting to deliver weapons to the IRA.
Decommissioning of arms
Following the announcement of its cessation of violence and commitment to exclusively peaceful means, the Provisional IRA decommissioned its arms in July–September 2005. Among the weaponry estimated, (by Jane's Information Group), to have been destroyed as part of this process were:
1,000 rifles
2 tonnes of Semtex
20–30 heavy machine guns
7 surface-to-air missiles
7 flame throwers
1,200 detonators
11 rocket-propelled grenade launchers
90 handguns
100+ grenades
The panel overseeing the decommissioning of IRA weaponry and weapons stockpiles, the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning (IICD) headed by General de Chastelain oversaw the decommissioning process. The decommissioning process has taken place using estimates of IRA weaponry submitted by the British and Irish Governments. de Chastelain said he had seen rifles, particularly AK-47s, machine guns, ground-to-air missiles, explosives, explosive material, mortars, flame throwers, handguns, timer units and ballistic caps, and some weaponry that was "very old", including a Bren machine gun.
The IICD's final report was issued on 26 September 2005 and the panel stated to the press:
We have observed and verified events to put beyond use very large quantities of arms which we believe include all the arms in the IRA's possession… Our new inventory is consistent with these estimates. We are satisfied that the arms decommissioning represents the totality of the IRA's arsenal.
and while it could not report on the quantity or types of weapons destroyed it said:
The experience of seeing this with our own eyes, on a minute-to-minute basis, provided us with evidence so clear and of its nature so incontrovertible that at the end of the process [IRA weapon decommissioning] it demonstrated to us – and would have demonstrated to anyone who might have been with us – that beyond any shadow of doubt, the arms of the IRA have now been decommissioned.
Irish Taoiseach (Prime Minister) Bertie Ahern also stated at the time:
The weapons of the IRA are gone, and are gone in a manner which has been verified and witnessed.
However, despite the conclusion of the IICD agreeing with the figures provided by the British security forces, unnamed sources in MI5 and the PSNI have reported to the press that not all IRA arms were destroyed during the process, a claim which so far remains unsubstantiated. These reports have since been scotched by the group overseeing the activities of paramilitaries in Northern Ireland – the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC). In its latest report, dated April 2006, the IMC points out that it has no reason to disbelieve the IRA or information to suspect that the group has not fully decommissioned. Rather, it indicated that any weaponry that had not been handed in had been retained by individuals outside the IRA's control. Excerpt from the IMC's 10th report:
Indeed, our present assessment is that such of the arms as were reported to us as having been retained, would have been withheld under local control despite the instructions of the leadership. We note that, as reported by the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning (IICD), the leadership claimed only to have decommissioned all the arms "under its control". The relevant points are that the amount of un-surrendered material was not significant in comparison to what was decommissioned and that these reports do not cast doubt on the declared intention of the IRA leadership to eschew terrorism and to follow the political path. We will continue to monitor the position.
See also
List of weapons used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army
Florida Four
Colm Murphy
Gerry McGeough
Whitey Bulger
Martin Ferris
Patrick Nee
Howth gun-running
SS Libau
References
Arms trafficking
International maritime incidents
Provisional Irish Republican Army weapons |
4262066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pevensey%20Castle | Pevensey Castle | Pevensey Castle is a medieval castle and former Roman Saxon Shore fort at Pevensey in the English county of East Sussex. The site is a scheduled monument in the care of English Heritage and is open to visitors. Built around 290 AD and known to the Romans as Anderitum, the fort appears to have been the base for a fleet called the Classis Anderidaensis. The reasons for its construction are unclear; long thought to have been part of a Roman defensive system to guard the British and Gallic coasts against Saxon pirates, it has more recently been suggested that Anderitum and the other Saxon Shore forts were built by a usurper in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to prevent Rome from reimposing its control over Britain.
Anderitum fell into ruin following the end of the Roman occupation but was reoccupied in 1066 by the Normans, for whom it became a key strategic bulwark. A stone keep and fortification was built within the Roman walls and faced several sieges. Although its garrison was twice starved into surrender, it was never successfully stormed. The castle was occupied more or less continuously until the 16th century, apart from a possible break in the early 13th century when it was slighted during the First Barons' War. It had been abandoned again by the late 16th century and remained a crumbling, partly overgrown ruin until it was acquired by the state in 1925.
Pevensey Castle was reoccupied between 1940 and 1945, during the Second World War, when it was garrisoned by units from the Home Guard, the British and Canadian armies and the United States Army Air Corps. Machine-gun posts were built into the Roman and medieval walls to control the flat land around Pevensey and guard against the threat of a German invasion. They were left in place after the war and can still be seen today. Pevensey is one of many Norman castles built around the south of England.
Location and dimensions
Pevensey Castle was constructed by the Romans on a spur of sand and clay that stands about above sea level. In Roman times this spur was a peninsula that projected into a tidal lagoon and marshes, making it a strong natural defensive position. A harbour is thought to have been situated near the south wall of the castle, sheltered by a long spit of shingle where the village of Pevensey Bay stands now. A small river, Pevensey Haven, runs along the north side of the peninsula and would originally have discharged into the lagoon, but is now largely silted up.
Since Roman times, silting and land reclamation in the Pevensey Levels have pushed the coastline out by about , leaving the castle landlocked. The land between the castle and the sea is now a flat marshland drained by a network of ditches and sewers or field drains. The modern village of Pevensey is situated mostly to the east of the castle, at the end of the ancient peninsula. Castle Road (the B2191) curves around the Roman north wall and connects Pevensey to the nearby village of Westham. A public footpath crosses the interior of the castle, linking the two villages. An area of reclaimed land, formerly part of the Pevensey tidal lagoon but now marshland and fields crossed by the Eastbourne to Hastings railway line, is situated immediately to the south of the castle.
The castle occupies an area of about . It has an oval plan on a north-east/south-west alignment, measuring by . Not only is it the largest of the nine Saxon Shore forts, but its walls and towers are the largest of any surviving Roman fort of the period. Its shape is unique among Saxon Shore forts and was presumably determined by the contours of the peninsula on which it stands.
Architecture
Curtain wall and towers
The castle's curtain wall is built on a massive scale, with ramparts and projecting towers still standing up to high (and probably about high when built) and thick at the base. The north, east and west sections of the curtain wall have survived mostly intact, with the exception of one fallen segment of the north wall; the south wall, which would have adjoined sea or marsh, has almost entirely disappeared. It is faced with ironstone and sandstone, though most of the original facing stones have been robbed out over the centuries; the structure visible now consists mostly of the rubble and sandstone core, bound together with mortar. Bonding courses of tiles run horizontally through the wall. An impression of its original appearance can be gleaned from an area in the north wall which has been excavated down to the still-intact foundations, revealing how it was once faced on both sides with small blocks of stone. The wall originally had a stepped appearance with at least two levels of steps on the interior face, though there is no surviving indication of how the garrison reached the top. At the top of the wall the remains of medieval crenellations can still be seen, which probably replaced Roman originals.
The D-shaped towers along the curtain wall are similar to those of several other Saxon Shore forts, although their placement is somewhat unusual. Because the fort was partly surrounded by marshes and water, which provided natural defences, the Romans economised by only building towers on the more vulnerable north-eastern and far western sectors. The towers were probably used to mount artillery weapons such as catapults and heavy crossbows. Ten towers still survive, though there may originally have been more before the loss of the south wall.
Gates
The Roman fort had two principal entrances, one on the east side and the other on the west, guarded by clusters of towers. The west gate covered the landward access via the causeway that linked Pevensey to the mainland. A ditch bisected the causeway, which led up to a rectangular gatehouse with a single arch around wide, with a D-shaped tower on each end from which archers could fire along the archway. The main entrance of the Saxon Shore fort at Portchester, built around the same period, had a very similar plan. Nothing now remains of the Roman gatehouse, which was replaced in the medieval period, while only a few stones are left of the medieval gatehouse.
The east gate, wide, still stands; although what is visible now is principally medieval and 19th-century, the Roman original probably did not look much different. A postern gate was set into the north wall next to a section that has now collapsed. It was originally constructed in the form of a narrow curved passageway. Another postern gate may have been set into the collapsed south wall. These suggest that there may have been routes into the fort from across the marshes or access from a harbour, of which no trace remains.
Interior
The interior of the fort was artificially raised by the Romans, using earth dug from the foundation ditch, to bring it up to the level of the projecting step on the back of the wall. No evidence of significant buildings within the fort has been found by excavators. A number of Roman hearths are situated at regular intervals in the centre of the fort's interior, suggesting that they may have been the site of wooden barrack blocks. The buildings are conjectured to have been largely timber-framed wattle and daub structures which have left little trace.
Inner bailey
The Normans divided the interior of the old Roman fort into two fortified enclosures, referred to as the inner and outer baileys. The inner bailey of the castle was, in effect, a castle within a castle, consisting of a walled fortification with a tower at each corner, surrounded by a moat and with a keep of unusual design at its eastern extremity, adjoining the old Roman curtain wall. The present stone fortifications of the inner bailey date mainly from the 13th and 14th centuries. They replaced the original wood and earth fortifications of the Norman inner bailey, which occupied a much larger area of the Roman fort's interior. Traces of the Norman bailey's ditch and earthen rampart, which stretched right across the interior of the fort, can still be seen today. The inner bailey protected the castle's most important domestic buildings, while the outer bailey was used for buildings of lesser importance such as a granary for the manor of Pevensey.
The inner bailey's moat—which is fed by a spring—was probably over wide when first dug. The moat protected a mid-13th-century curtain wall, which is still largely intact, that divides the inner and outer baileys. A wooden bridge around long linked the inner and outer baileys, though the cost of maintaining it prompted its replacement in 1405 with a stone causeway and drawbridge pit that can still be seen today. The principal entrance to the inner bailey was through the early-13th-century gatehouse at the end of the entrance bridge, which had two D-shaped towers flanking a vaulted entrance passage. The towers were built on three levels with arrow slits in each level and basements below, which have survived intact. One of the basements can be reached via a spiral staircase; the other can only be accessed through a hole in the tower's floor and may have been used as a prison cell or oubliette. The gatehouse towers were built with open backs, which were probably closed by a wooden wall.
Three other towers still stand on the east, north and south sides of the inner bailey's curtain wall. Built in the mid-13th century, they each had three floors which were accessed through separate entrances on each level. Lighting was provided by arrow-slits, and the upper room in each tower, which was the only one to have a fireplace, was probably used as a lodging area. A latrine was also provided. Only the north tower is known to have been completed; however, its vaulted basement was mostly destroyed around 1317 when the roof and floors of the tower collapsed into it. It is not clear whether the south and east towers were ever completed. An estimate written in 1317 reveals that the towers were thatched, lacking castellations and a proper lead roof, but it is not known whether the work itemised in the estimate was ever carried out. The interiors of the towers were substantially modified in 1940.
The interior of the inner bailey is now a broad, grassy area dominated by the stump of the keep at its eastern edge, which survives only up to its first floor. Despite the massive nature of the ruins, they preserve little of the original design apart from its unique ground plan. It consisted of a rectangular block measuring about by internally with seven projecting towers, a design found in no other medieval castle. Nothing remains of the interior and the uniqueness of its design makes it difficult to reconstruct its internal layout. Surviving 14th-century documents record that it contained a kitchen and a chapel, and had an iron door at its main entrance which was approached up a wooden stair. Like most Norman keeps, the entrance was situated on the first floor; the ground floor lacks any openings and it appears to have been constructed as a solid mass of masonry filled with clay. The near-total destruction of everything above the first floor means that the keep's original height is unknown, but it may have stood to a height of about or so. The unusual design of the keep may have been influenced by Roman architecture.
The keep underwent at least two redesigns in the first half of the 14th century, possibly prompted by damage inflicted in earlier sieges. One of the redesigns involved constructing an adjoining square tower which some have suggested could have been used to mount a catapult; large stone balls, used as catapult ammunition, can still be seen in the inner bailey today. The building was recorded to be dilapidated for much of the 14th century despite repeated repairs, and had fallen into ruin by the 16th century. It was subjected to systematic stone-robbing for centuries; as early as 1591, it was recorded that all the best stones had been "imbeselled and carried away" and that one family had removed no fewer than 677 cartloads of ashlar facing-stone from the keep's walls. A late-18th-century engraving shows the remains of the building in a state of collapse and it had completely collapsed by the 1880s. The ruins were largely buried under a great heap of earth and clay that had been deposited sometime in the late medieval or early modern periods, which was not removed until the 1920s. The reason for the construction of this mound over the ruined keep is unclear, but it may have been related to the brief Elizabethan use of the castle as a gun position.
A number of other buildings once stood in the inner bailey, though only traces now remain. The interior of the curtain wall was lined with timber-framed domestic buildings such as the great hall, which appears to have been totally rebuilt by Edward I in 1301–02 and possibly on other occasions. The arrangement of these buildings is not known but remains of the fireplaces can still be seen built into the curtain wall. Due to the relatively small space available in the inner bailey, the buildings would have been very narrow. The stone foundations of a small chapel are also visible in the inner bailey. The chapel was first documented in the 13th century and was rebuilt in 1302, either on the existing stone foundations or in the outer bailey in a new location. The castle's water supply was provided by a well situated beside the chapel. It has never been fully dug out, but investigations have revealed that it is lined with stone to a depth of around and with wood beyond that.
History
Roman fort
Pevensey Castle was established as one of the nine Late Roman forts on the British side of the Saxon Shore (Latin: Litus Saxonicum). The fort is named as Anderitum, apparently meaning "great ford", in the Notitia Dignitatum, a list of Roman "dignities" (i.e. public offices) as of the 5th century. (An alternative spelling of Anderida or Anderita has also been proposed, but is disfavoured.)
The fort was long thought to have been built in the mid-4th century but it has been dated to around 290, based on the dating of wooden piles which were found underpinning the Roman walls in an excavation carried out in 1994. Other Saxon Shore forts were built or reconstructed around this time as part of a systematic programme of improvements to the coastal defences of Roman Britain. The construction of the Saxon Shore forts has been linked to the raids that Saxon and Jute pirates (from what is now northern Germany and mainland Denmark) were mounting against communities along the North Sea and English Channel. An alternative explanation is that Anderitum was built to defend Roman Britain from Rome itself. Carausius, a Roman general who commanded the Classis Britannica (the Roman fleet based in the English Channel), revolted against Rome in 286 and declared himself emperor of Britain and northern Gaul. He was assassinated in 293 by his treasurer, Allectus, who was himself killed in 296 when the Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus invaded Britain to overthrow the usurper.
Coins of both Carausius and Allectus have been discovered buried in the foundations of the fort's walls. A later coin of 330–335 was found under a tower in the 1930s, suggesting that the fort may have undergone a major repair or reconstruction around that time. The usurpers had inherited an existing system of coastal defence—the earlier Saxon Shore forts—and may have decided to augment it with the construction of Pevensey Castle and its close contemporary, Portus Adurni (Portchester Castle).
Anderitum appears to have been a particularly important link in the Saxon Shore forts, which extended from Hampshire to Norfolk and may have been connected by intermediate watchtowers. The Notitia Dignitatum mentions a fleet that was presumably based there, the Classis Anderidaensis. It would probably have acted in coordination with naval units based on the other side of the Channel to intercept pirate ships passing through the Channel. Like the other Saxon Shore forts, Anderitum's position at a strategic harbour would have enabled the Romans to control access to the shoreline and prevent invaders from penetrating inland. It was linked by a road built in the late Roman period, probably at the same time as the fort.
Construction
It is not known how long it took for Anderitum to be constructed, but it has been estimated that it took around 160,000 man-days to complete, equivalent to 285 men spending two years building it or 115 men over five years. At least four gangs of builders appear to have worked on the surviving sections of walls; each gang was given a stretch of about at a time to build but executed the work in significantly different styles, for instance using differing numbers of tiled bonding-courses or ironstone facing in particular places. This may simply indicate varying levels of availability of construction materials at the time each segment was built, leading the gangs to use whatever supplies were available at that moment. The amount of construction material required was very large, equating to about of stone and mortar. It is not known how it was transported to the site, but that volume of material would have needed some 600 boat loads or 49,000 wagon loads, requiring 250 wagons pulled by 1,500–2,000 oxen to move it from the quarries to Pevensey. Given the scale of the requirements for land transportation, it seems more likely that the raw materials were instead moved by sea, though even this would have been a significant operation; it has been estimated that 18 vessels would have been needed for a continuous supply operation carried out over a season of 280 days.
The curtain wall was not all built at once but was constructed in segments, as can be seen from vertical breaks in the stonework which mark where sections met. The wall is built on top of complex foundations constructed from rubble and timber set into a ditch deep. Oak piles were driven into the trench and packed with flint and clay, above which a horizontal framework of oak beams was set with more flint and clay. The foundation was finally covered over with cement before the walls were built on top. Some of the timbers have survived, allowing archaeologists to date the fort through dendochronology. Other dating evidence was discredited in the 1970s. An excavation in 1906–08 found shattered tiles stamped HON AUG ANDRIA, which were used to attribute Pevensey Castle's construction to the reign of the early-5th-century emperor Honorius. However, the use of thermoluminescence dating revealed that the tiles had been made around the time of the excavation. It is suspected that Charles Dawson, who has been blamed for the Piltdown Man hoax, was the author of the forged tiles.
Garrison
Anderitum is recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum as the base of the praepositus numeri Abulcorum—an infantry unit or numerus of the limitanei or border forces. It also mentions army and naval units bearing the fort's name in connection with the Vicus Julius, in the Roman army in Gaul and stationed at Lutetia (modern Paris). This suggests that by the time the Notitia was written, the original garrison had been moved to Gaul and replaced with the numerus Abulcorum. The Abulci are mentioned in connection with the field army in Gaul and in the suppression of the rebellion of Magnentius in Pannonia Secunda in 351. It is not known whether their name is a geographical or functional one but their description by Zosimus suggests that they were an elite body of troops, who served both in the field army and, probably in the form of a single detachment, at Anderitum. They may have been foederati, troops raised from allied barbarian tribes and put under the command of a Roman prefect, or perhaps even a single band of warriors with their own leader. Similar numeri were recorded in the Notitia Dignitata as being stationed in other Saxon Shore forts.
Abandonment and post-Roman use
Unlike at many other Roman forts, no civilian settlement or vicus appears to have been established outside the walls of Pevensey Castle; this was probably because the fort was at the end of a peninsula with limited room for additional construction. When the Roman army retreated from Britain in 410, civilians appear to have moved into the abandoned fort, perhaps for protection against Saxon raiders, and its name continued to be used well into the Saxon period. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in 477 a Saxon raid drove local people into the forest of Andreadsleag (which from another reference seems to have stretched over from the mouth of the River Lympne to Hampshire). Although the history of the fort at this time is unrecorded, archaeological evidence indicates that its inhabitants had wide-ranging trade links that enabled them to import wares from as far afield as Macedonia and Syria. They may have exported timber and iron from the Sussex Weald to pay for such costly goods.
In 491, the Chronicle records that the Saxons Aelle and Cissa "besieged Andredadsceaster and slew all the inhabitants; there was not even one Briton left there." It is uncertain whether habitation of the fort continued after this event, which is now thought to have happened around 471 rather than the date recorded by the Chronicle (due to a dating error by Gildas, on whose work the Chronicle draws). The fort appears to have been resettled by about the mid-6th century by a Saxon community which left evidence of its occupation in the shape of pottery, glass and other items. By the late Anglo-Saxon period, Pevensey had become a well-established fishing port and producer of salt. Whereas the modern village of Pevensey is situated entirely outside the walls, the 11th-century village appears to have been situated within the Roman walls. At the time of the Norman Conquest it had a population of 52 burgesses with a harbour and saltworks outside the walls. A civilian settlement within the castle walls evidently persisted for some considerable time after the Conquest, as a licence of 1250 refers to the Roman fortress as the "outer wall of the town".
Norman period and after
Anderitum had fallen into ruin by the time of the Norman Conquest of England but it still remained a formidable fortification in a very strategic location, offering a natural anchorage near one of the narrowest points of the English Channel. By this time the locality was known as Pevensey, meaning "River of [a man named] Pefen" (deriving from the Anglo-Saxon personal name Pefen plus eã, "river", presumably a reference to the now largely silted-up Pevensey Haven).
When William the Conqueror launched his invasion of England by landing at Pevensey Bay on 28 September 1066, his army sheltered for the night in a temporary fortification situated within the old Roman fort. The Normans dug a ditch across the causeway linking the fort with the mainland and made repairs to the Roman walls to strengthen them. The army left for Hastings the following day, en route to the Battle of Hastings. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts William's army constructing a castle at "Hestengaceastra", a Latinised rendition of the Saxon placename Haestingaceaster. As placenames with the suffix—ceastre were almost always associated with Roman forts (compare Manchester, Lancaster, Doncaster etc.) and no Roman fort is known to have existed at the modern site of Hastings, it has been suggested that the name actually refers to Anderitum—in which case the depiction in the Tapestry may show the construction of the temporary Norman castle within the Roman fortress walls.
William's choice of Pevensey as a defensive location may not have been entirely due to practical military reasons. It also had political connotations, implying that the Normans were on a level with the Romans. He followed a similar pattern elsewhere in England, building the Tower of London alongside the still-extant Roman city wall and constructing Colchester Castle on top of the ruins of the Temple of Claudius.
Following William's victory at Hastings, the county of Sussex came to be seen by the new regime as being of essential military value. It was both a frontier zone and an essential link between England and Normandy. The existing tenurial arrangements in the county were swept away and replaced by five subdivisions, or rapes, each of which was given to one of William's most important followers. Each rape was associated with a major castle, Pevensey being one of them. In 1067 William left England for Normandy via Pevensey. He also appears to have used the site to distribute lands to his Norman followers, with Pevensey Castle and the surrounding Rape of Penvensey being gifted to his half-brother Robert, Count of Mortain.
William's temporary fortification within the Roman walls was expanded to create a permanent Norman castle at Pevensey, probably during Robert's tenure sometime in the 1070s. The Roman walls were further repaired and two enclosures or baileys were created, divided by a ditch and a palisade constructed from timber. Robert also founded a small borough outside the Roman walls which was recorded as having 110 burgesses and a mint by the time the Domesday Book was compiled in 1086. This may have been the original site of the modern village of Pevensey, but it is equally possible that Robert's borough may have been the foundation site of the village of Westham to the west of the castle, whose layout has many similarities to that of other Norman new towns.
The Norman castle's defences were put to the test for the first time in the Rebellion of 1088, when Norman barons allied with Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy rebelled against the new king William Rufus. The barons, who were also supported by William the Conqueror's half-brothers Robert of Mortain and Bishop Odo of Bayeux, defended Pevensey Castle against an army led personally by William Rufus. Although the castle's defences were strong enough to resist assaults from land and sea, its defenders were forced to surrender when they ran out of food after six weeks. Robert was allowed to keep the castle but his son William, Count of Mortain was stripped of it, along with his other English estates, after rebelling against Henry I in the early 12th century.
Henry re-granted Pevensey Castle to Gilbert I de l'Aigle but continued to use it for his own purposes, as happened in 1101 when he spent the summer at Pevensey to deter a threatened invasion by Duke Robert of Normandy. Pevensey was confiscated again by the Crown under King Stephen, with Gilbert's family also losing the rest of their possessions. It was subsequently re-granted to Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke, who switched his allegiance to Stephen's cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda, in 1141. Although Gilbert changed his loyalty back to Stephen the following year, he was taken hostage by the king in 1147 after a revolt by Gilbert's uncle, Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester. A promise to surrender the Clare family's castles secured Gilbert's release but as soon as he was freed, he too rebelled. In response, Stephen undertook the second siege of Pevensey Castle with a land and sea blockade. The castle once again proved impervious to direct assault but the garrison was eventually starved out.
Later medieval use
Gilbert's disloyalty led to the Crown seizing the castle again and taking on the burden of repairing and maintaining it. The expenditure was recorded in still-surviving Treasury accounts which provide a valuable insight into the development of the castle during the later medieval period. In the 1180s the defences appear to have been a combination of stone walls (the old Roman structure) with Norman modifications, plus earthworks and timber palisades. They were maintained in part by some of the local manors, which were under a feudal obligation called heckage that required them to repair and keep up sections of the palisades.
Pevensey Castle appears to have acquired its first major new stone buildings in the 1190s. Their construction may be indicated by a series of substantial payments for works at the castle during the reign of Richard I. The keep and gatehouse may have been constructed under Richard, though mentions from 1130 of "the Tower of Pevensey" suggest that there may have been an earlier stone building on the site, or that the keep was constructed at this earlier date. Whenever it was built, it was probably destroyed by about 1216 when Richard's successor John fought off an invasion led by Prince Louis of France. The French invasion during the First Barons' War forced John to order the slighting of Pevensey Castle, as he did not have enough men to garrison it and could not afford it to fall into French hands.
A subsequent rebuilding saw the timber palisades of the inner bailey replaced by stone walls and towers. Exactly when this happened is unclear, but it may have been under Peter of Savoy, the Earl of Richmond, who was granted the castle by Henry III in 1246. There is no record of the rebuilding but in 1254 Peter ended the feudal requirement to maintain the palisades and replaced it with cash payments. This probably reflected the replacement of the palisades with the stone walls and towers visible today. The castle faced a lengthy siege only a decade later during the Second Barons' War from the rebel baron Simon de Montfort, following Henry's defeat in the Battle of Lewes. Defeated members of the royalist army fled to Pevensey, pursued by de Montford's forces, but the garrison refused an invitation to surrender and endured over a year of besiegement. Their adversaries were unable to stop supplies reaching the castle despite digging a ditch to cut it off from the mainland; its garrison raided the surrounding countryside and sought to obtain fresh supplies of men and weapons by sea in December 1264. The costly and ineffective siege was eventually lifted in July 1265. We know the name of at least one of the defenders of the castle from Savoyard archives held in Turin, that of Nantelme de Cholay, a vassal of Peter of Savoy as Seigneur de Faucigny from what is now Choulex near Geneva. We know that Cholay had allies with him since the source quotes also his “sociorum” which we can translate as allies or associates. The siege caused significant damage to the castle, with the Roman wall toppled on the south side. The parish churches at Pevensey and Westham also suffered damage, which the attackers may have caused in using them as siege castles (temporary fortresses and artillery platforms).
Peter continued to control Pevensey Castle after de Montford's defeat and death at the Battle of Evesham in August 1265. It became Crown property after Peter's death, when Henry III's queen Eleanor of Provence acquired the castle. It remained with the Crown for another century under the control of several queens consort, including Edward II's wife Isabella and Edward III's wife Philippa, who were responsible for appointing the castle's Constables. By this time, the silting of Pevensey Bay was evidently having an effect on the garrison's ability to resupply via the sea. Accounts from 1288 indicate that seaborne access was becoming increasingly difficult, causing problems in unloading goods. However, it continued to play a significant role in the defence of the south coast against French raids and was occupied through much of the 14th century by a garrison consisting of between twenty and thirty men. These usually comprised ten men-at-arms, twenty archers and a watchman, who were supplied with provisions and armour. The Duke of Lancaster, John of Gaunt, refused to garrison it in 1377 five years after he took possession of the castle, asserting that he was wealthy enough to rebuild it if a French attack destroyed it. His actions attracted public hostility which culminated during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 when a mob attacked the castle, burnt its court rolls and abused the steward.
The castle underwent repeated repair work during the 14th century, though poor maintenance and corruption appears to have caused its fabric to deteriorate rapidly. The main buildings of the inner bailey were totally reconstructed in 1301 but were reported to be in a ruinous condition only five years later. The castle's constable, Roger de Levelande, was accused of illicitly asset-stripping the castle by breaking up and selling the wooden bridge that connected it to the mainland. Some "wardens" were also accused of burning the timbers of a disused barn. It was estimated that the resulting damage and the ongoing structural deterioration to the curtain wall would cost over £1,000 to repair. Around 1325, the keep was partly demolished and rebuilt. It is possible that by this time the Roman curtain wall was in such a poor state that it was no longer considered part of the castle defences. Various late-13th- and early-14th-century records describe how sections of the wall had fallen down or been destroyed in sieges. The collapse of the wall on the north-west side is thought to have occurred by no later than the middle of the 13th century, and this event may have made the outer bailey indefensible thereafter.
Pevensey Castle was besieged again for the fourth and last time in its history in 1399. By this time it was controlled by Sir John Pelham, one of Gaunt's retainers, who had been appointed to the Constableship in 1394. Pelham supported Gaunt's son, Henry Bolingbroke—the later Henry IV—in his rebellion against Richard II. The king's forces besieged the castle, trapping Pelham and the garrison inside. In a letter sent to Bolingbroke, Pelham wrote:
The siege failed, Bolingbroke was crowned and the new king granted the Castle and Honour of Pevensey to Pelham as a reward for his loyalty. The Lancastrian kings subsequently used the castle as a prison for high-ranking nobles. Its inmates included King James I of Scotland, who was captured while en route to France in 1405, and Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York, who was held at Pevensey after becoming involved in a plot against Henry IV. On his death, Edward bestowed £20 in his will to Thomas Playsted, apparently one of his jailers, "for the kindness he showed me when I was in ward at Pevensey." Henry IV's second wife Joan of Navarre was imprisoned by Joan's stepson Henry V on charges of plotting to kill him through witchcraft; she was held at Pevensey between December 1419 and March 1420 before being moved to Leeds Castle and eventually released in 1422. When the Tudor dynasty took over the castle was abandoned, and by 1573 it was recorded to be in ruins.
Usage in the modern period
Elizabeth I ordered the castle's remains to be "utterlye raysed", but her order was not enforced and it remained standing. In 1587, the castle was reoccupied—though not rebuilt—to serve as a gun position against the threat of a Spanish invasion. A U-shaped earth emplacement was built in the outer bailey, facing south over the collapsed section of the Roman wall. Two iron demi-culverin cannons were installed and were in place at the time of the Spanish Armada in 1588, although the Armada failed and they were never used in anger. One of the guns, marked with a Tudor rose and the initials E.R. (Elizabeth Regina), has been preserved and can be seen in the inner bailey of the castle mounted on a replica carriage. Although the cannon was recorded at the time as being only "of small value" it is now one of only a few cast-iron cannons to have survived from the Elizabethan period. It was almost certainly manufactured locally in the Sussex Weald.
Pevensey Castle remained abandoned and crumbling from the end of the 16th century to the first quarter of the 20th. It was nearly demolished during the period of the English Commonwealth in the 17th century when Oliver Cromwell's Parliamentary Commissioners sold it for £40 to a builder, John Warr of Westminster, who planned to quarry it for its stones. Very little work took place, however, and the Crown reacquired the castle in 1660. It was restored to the possession of the Pelham family, until in 1730 the Duke of Newcastle resigned it to Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington. It was subsequently acquired by the House of Cavendish. In 1925 its last private owner, the 9th Duke of Devonshire, gave the castle to the state as a historic monument and it underwent repairs and some reconstruction under the supervision of the Ministry of Works.
It acquired a fresh military significance in 1940 when Pevensey's exposed shoreline and flat hinterland became a possible target area for a German invasion after the fall of France. It was reoccupied by the military for the first time in over 400 years, with British and Canadian troops garrisoning it from May 1940, and Americans later. The towers of the inner bailey were converted into troop accommodation by lining the walls with bricks and laying wooden floors. New perimeter defences were constructed; machine-gun posts were built into the walls, disguised to look like part of the original structure, and an anti-tank blockhouse was built in the entrance of the Roman west gate. The main and postern gates of the inner bailey were blocked by concrete and brick walls, and anti-tank cubes were installed along the areas where the Roman curtain wall had collapsed. The main concern was that an invader could have captured the castle and used its interior as a strongpoint. It was intended that the new defensive measures at the castle would make it "100% tank-proof" and that an enemy would not be able to approach within of it. The United States Army Air Corps also used it as a radio direction centre from early 1944.
In 1945 the castle was returned to civilian control. The blockhouse and obstructions were demolished but it was decided to leave the machine-gun posts in place to illustrate the most recent chapter in the castle's history. The castle is now managed by English Heritage and is open to the public.
Archaeological investigations
Pevensey Castle has been the subject of a number of excavations and archaeological investigations over the past 300 years. The first recorded excavation on the site took place in 1710, when the vicar of Pevensey sought to dig a channel from the castle's moat, within the outer bailey, to convey water to the village. The project necessitated digging under the Roman curtain wall. This revealed how the wall had been constructed, resting on a foundation of rubble-packed oak piles and beams which were described as exhibiting "no symptoms of decay, and even the leaves of some brushwood which had been thrown in were found equally well preserved."
The Sussex Archaeological Society, now the oldest archaeological society in England, was founded within the castle's walls on 9 July 1846. Six years later, two antiquarians, Mark Antony Lower and Charles Roach Smith, were granted permission by the Duke of Devonshire to carry out an excavation of the castle with the support of sponsors and the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, which provided free transport. The excavations concentrated on the Roman west gate and north postern, with some small trial trenches dug elsewhere on the site. They began in August 1852 and continued until November, unearthing several 4th-century Roman coins, numerous stone catapult balls and the foundations of the chapel in the inner bailey. The castle well was also discovered around the same time by the castle's custodian.
Further excavations were carried out by Louis Salzmann between 1906 and 1908, concentrating on the north-west sector of the Roman fort, the east gate and the north postern. Harry Sands undertook the clearing of debris around the medieval castle keep in 1906 and more extensive excavations in 1910. Further clearing work took place under the supervision of the Ministry of Works in 1926 following the acquisition of the castle by the state. In 1936 Frank Cottrill carried out an eight-month excavation in the area of the outer bailey. B. W. Pearce excavated outside the Roman west gate in 1938 and cleared the moat of debris the following year. The Second World War ended any further work, and it was not until 1964 that limited exploration by Stuart Rigold took place outside the south-east postern of the inner bailey. In 1993–95, a team from the University of Reading led by Professor Michael Fulford carried out a series of excavations in the area of the keep and on the Roman fortress's east side. The excavations found dating evidence which indicated the Roman fort was built in the 290s, including a coin from the reign of Allectus, four decades earlier than the previously accepted date range for the fort's construction. In 2019 a geophysical survey of the outer bailey was carried out.
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Official page: English Heritage
Roman-Britain.co.uk
Battles involving the Normans
Castles in East Sussex
English Heritage sites in East Sussex
Norman conquest of England
Ruins in East Sussex
Roman auxiliary forts in England
Castle |
4262391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arumuka%20Navalar | Arumuka Navalar | Arumuka Navalar (; 18 December 1822 – 5 December 1879) was a Sri Lankan Shaivite Tamil language scholar, polemicist, and a religious reformer who was central in reviving native Hindu Tamil traditions in Sri Lanka and India.
Navalar's birth name was Nallur Arumuga Pillai. He was born in a Tamil literary family, and became one of the Jaffna Tamils notable for reviving, reforming and reasserting the Hindu Shaivism tradition during the colonial era. As an assistant working for Peter Percival – a Methodist Christian missionary, he helped translate the King James Bible into the Tamil language.he established Hindu schools and published a press in order to publish reading materials for Hindu children to educate them on Hindu religion and also practice and rituals of Hindu religion. With his knowledge of Christian theological premises, Navalar became influential in creating a period of intense religious rivalry with Christian missionaries, defending Tamils and their historic religious culture in India and Sri Lanka, preventing large-scale conversions to Christianity.
He was one of the first natives to use the modern printing press to preserve the Tamil literary tradition. He defended Hindu Shaivism, calling it samaya (Observance, Religion) of "True Being" (sat, soul), and he used the same techniques to counter Christianity that Christian missionaries used against Hinduism. As part of his religious revivalism, in a manner similar to Christian mission schools, he built schools that taught secular and Hindu religious subjects. He is credited with finding and publishing original palm leaf manuscripts. He also attempted to reform Hindu Shaivism and customary practices in Sri Lanka, such as by showing Shaiva Agamas (scriptures) prohibit animal sacrifice and violence of any form.
Biography
Navalar was born in 1822 as Nallur Arumuga Pillai to a Hindu family in Sri Lanka. His family belonged to the Vellalar caste, which constitutes about 50% of the Tamil Hindus on the island nation. The Vellalars were related to farming. Historically, the Vellalars had been a part of the elites who owned lands, were literati, patrons of temples and monasteries. At the time of Navalar's birth, they were a part of the socio-political leadership in Jaffna peninsula, a strip of land (40 by 15 miles) separated from South India by the Palk Strait. Navalar grew up in a literati Tamil Shaiva family.
Navalar's home was in the town of Nallur on the Jaffna peninsula. The principal town Jaffna and the peninsula (as well as the East of Sri Lanka) were predominantly Tamil Saiva in culture distinct from that of the Sinhalese Buddhists elsewhere. It was closely linked to the Saiva culture of South India. It was also home to the Jaffna Kingdom that had patronised this culture before it was defeated by the Portuguese colonials in 1621 CE. Nallur was also the capital of the defeated kingdom.
Arumugam's father Kandharpillai was a Tamil poet and provided a foundation in Tamil literature to Arumuga Navalar. His mother Sivakami was known for her devotion to supreme Saiva deity Lord Siva. Arumugam studied the Indian classical language, Sanskrit as well as Tamil grammar. Arumugam studied English in a Christian mission run school as a day student. After his studies, he was asked to stay on at the Jaffna Central College to teach English and Tamil. The missionary school principal, Peter Percival employed him to assist in the translation of the King James Bible and other Christian literature into Tamil to further their missionary reach and objectives.
Navalar immersed himself in the study of the Bible as well as the Vedas, Agamas and Puranas. When he started his studies, he wondered whether Shaiva Hinduism or Christianity was the right path. After his studies, he became convinced that the Shaiva religious tradition in the Vedas and Agamas was the right path, and that the Christian path wasn't. Arumugam Navalar felt that Hindu Saivites needed a clearer understanding of their own ancient literature and religion. He continued to help the Christian missionaries but resolved to challenge the theological ideas of these missionaries, as well as launch reforms and spread the original ideas of Shaivism. Navalar left his job under Peter Percival that he had with the Wesleyan Mission, although Percival offered him a higher salary to stay on. He decided not to marry and relinquished his patrimony and did not get any money from his four employed brothers. From then until the end of his life, he and his projects were supported by those who believed in his cause.
Through his weekly sermons at Hindu temples, he also attempted to reform local Tamils of all practices that did not find sanction in the Hindu Vedas and Agamas. The lecture series and its circuit continued regularly for several years and produced a Saiva revival, helping informed piety grow among many Jaffna Saivas. This was a direct tactical response to confront what he called the "mockery" of the Hindus by Christian missionaries. During this period, he continued to assist Percival to complete the translation of the Bible, as well as his study of the primary texts of both Christianity and Hinduism. When there was a conflict as to Percival's version and another competing translation, Arumugam traveled to Madras to defend Percival's version. In 1848 he founded his own school and finally parted company with Percival. Navalar believed that the Christian missionaries should be viewed as a gift from Shiva to help awaken his community to discover their own dharma path (puram) from "which they had departed" and away from the path of the "barbaric Europeans" (purappuram), states Hudson.
Background information
Tamil people are natives in Tamil Nadu and in Sri Lanka. Tamilakam (ancient Tamil country) had followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The Hinduism, Tamil and Sanskrit has been spread by priests, traders to Southeast Asia. By the 12th century CE, the Tamils had an extensive network of temples, religious literature and pilgrimage sites dedicated to Shaivism and Vaishnavism Of these, the Shaiva samayam (religious tradition) was most influential in the Jaffna region. They held the Vedas and Agamas to be the bedrock of their beliefs. Navalar was born and raised in this background.
The 18th and 19th century Tamils in India and Sri Lanka found themselves in the midst of intrusive Christian missionary activity and their polemics against Hinduism. According to D. Dennis Hudson, Tamil Saivas opposed Christian missions from the earliest days, based on indirect literary evidence. Printing press was not available to the Hindus in colonial era South Asia, and the Shaiva community used their oral tradition and handwritten notes for anti-missionary literature. Once Hindus gained access to printing presses, they mass-produced religious literature to condemn Christian propaganda in Jaffna and Chennai (then Madras) in the same way that Christian missionaries had used mass-produced literature to attack Hinduism. Arumuga Navalar was one of the first Tamils who became adept at this information war, and to undertake as his life's career the intellectual and institutional response of Saivism to Christianity in Sri Lanka and India.
The 19th century Protestant missionaries from England and America in Jaffna believed that Hindu Shaivism was "evil" and in the struggle God and the Devil, they began to use publications such as The Morning Star to reveal the "falsity" of Hindu Shaivism and highlight texts such as the Skanda Purana in their schools for children. This angered the Shaiva community, who began their own efforts to counter the methods of the Christians.
Response to Protestant propaganda
In September 1842 two hundred Hindu men gathered at a Siva temple monastery. The group decided to open up a school to study Vedas and Agamas. The group also decided to start a press with the help of resident Eurasian Burghers. Arumugam Navalar who was part of the organisation wrote about the meeting in The Morning Star in a sympathetic tone.
While Arumugam Navalar was still working under Peter Percival and translating the Bible, he published a seminal letter in The Morning Star under a pseudonym in September 1841. It was a comparative study of Christianity and Hindu Saivism and targeted the weakness in the argument Christian missionaries had used against local Hindu Saiva practices. The missionaries had attacked the idol worship and temple rituals of the local Hindu Saivas as "devilish" and of "no value". Navalar, an avid reader of the Bible as he worked to translate it into Tamil, stated that Christianity and Jesus himself were rooted in the temple rituals of the ancient Israelites and that the reverence to the icons of Christianity such as the cross was akin to Shaiva's reverence for the icons of Hinduism such as the lingam. If Christians find their churches, rites and symbols as pedagogically useful, why shouldn't Shaiva Hindus have the same human rights and religious choices, argued Navalar. His letter admonished the missionaries for misrepresenting their own religion and concluded that in effect there was no difference between Christianity and Hindu Saivism as far as idol worship and temple rituals were concerned.
Circuit preaching
Using the preaching methods popularised by the Methodist preachers, he became a circuit preacher. His first secession was on 31 December 1847 at Vaitheeswaran Temple in Vannarpannai. It was a weekly event known as Prasangams on every Friday evening. In these secession he read from sacred texts and then preached in a manner that lay people understood. He was helped by his friend Karttikeya Aiyar of Nallur and his students from his school. The sermon topics were mostly ethical, liturgical, and theological and included the evils of adultery, drunkenness, the value of non-killing, the conduct of women, the worship of the linga, the four initiations, the importance of giving alms, of protecting cows, and the unity of God.
Emphasis on Agamas
In his weekly sermons, he attacked Christians and criticized the benighted practices of local Hindus. He specifically reprimanded the trustees and priests of the Nallur Kandaswami Temple in his home town because they had built the temple not according to the Agamas a century ago as well as used priests who were not initiated in the Agamas. He also opposed their worship of Vel or the weapon representing the main deity as it did not have Agamic sanction.
Reformed school system
The school he founded was called Saivaprakasa Vidyasala or School of Lord Siva's splendor. The school did not follow the traditional Tamil teaching system, in which each student worked on his own pace and the teacher pupil ratio was extremely low. Although this system produced stellar experts in subject matter but took too much labour and was inefficient compared to the western system used by the Missionaries. He developed his teaching methods based on the exposure he had with the Missionaries. He developed the curriculum to be able to teach 20 students at a time and included secular subject matters and English. He also wrote the basic instruction materials for different grades in Saivism. Most of his teachers were friends and acquaintances who were volunteers. This school system was duplicated later in Chidambaram in India in 1865 and it still exits. But the school system he founded in Sri Lanka was replicated and over 100 primary and secondary schools were built based on his teaching methods. This school system produced numerous students who had clearer understanding of their religion, textual foundations, rituals and theology.
Navalar title
As an owner of a pioneering new school with the a need for original publications in Tamil prose to teach subjects for all grades, Arumugar Navalar felt a need for a printing press. He and his colleague Sadasiva Pillai went to Madras, India in 1849 to purchase a printing press. On the way they stopped at Thiruvaduthurai Adheenam in Tanjavur, India, an important Saiva monastery. He was asked by the head of the monastery to preach. After listening to his preaching and understanding his unusual mastery of the knowledge of Agamas, the head of the monastery conferred on him the title Navalar (learned). This honorary degree from a prestigious Saiva monastery enhanced his position amongst Saivas and he was known as the Navalar since then.
Literary contributions
While in India he published two texts, one was an educational tool (teachers guide) Cüdãmani Nikantu, a sixteenth-century lexicon of simple verses and Soundarya Lahari, a Sanskrit poem in praise of the Primeval Mother Goddess Parvati, geared towards devotion. These were the first effort at editing and printing Tamil works for Hindu Saiva students and devotees. His press was set up in a building that was donated by a merchant of Vannarpannai. It was named the Vidyaanubalana yantra sala (Preservation of Knowledge Press). The initial publications included Bala Patam (Lessons for Children) in 1850 and 1851. They were graded readers, simple in style, similar in organisation to those used in the Protestant schools. This was followed up by a third volume in 1860 and 1865. It consisted of thirty-nine advanced essays in clear prose, discussing subjects such as God, Saul, The Worship of God, Crimes against the Lord, Grace, Killing, Eating meat, Drinking liquor, Stealing, Adultery, Lying, Envy, Anger, and Gambling. These editions were in use in 2007.
Other notable texts published included The Prohibition of Killing, Manual of worship of Shiva temple and The Essence of the Saiva Religion. His first major literary publication appeared in 1851, the 272-page prose version of Sekkilar's Periya Puranam, a retelling of the 12th-century hagiography of the Nayanars or Saivite saints. In 1853 he published Nakkirar's Tirumurukarrupatai, with its own commentary. It was a devotional poem to Sri Murugan. This was followed by local missionaries attacking Sri Murugan as an "immoral deity" for marrying two women. As a response Navalar published Radiant Wisdom explaining how the chronicles embody differing levels of meaning and that numerous characters in the Christian Bible, like King David, who were being claimed as examples of good conduct by the missionaries, were being depicted as having multiple wives and sexual partners themselves. He also published literature of controversial nature, in a manner similar to how Christian missionaries were, in what Navalar called as "mocking" the Hindus. He along with Centinatha Aiyar, published examples of indecent language from the Bible and published it as Disgusting Things in the Bible (Bibiliya Kutsita). In 1852, he along with Ci. Vinayakamurtti Cettiyar of Nallur, printed the Kummi Song on Wisdom of Muttukumara Kavirajar. The local Christians called for the one-sided censorship of such criticism and to shut down these printing presses.
The seminal work that was geared towards stemming the tide of conversions was printed in 1854. It was a training manual for the use of Saivas in their opposition to the missionaries, titled "Saiva dusana parihara" (The Abolition of the Abuse of Saivism).
A Methodist missionary, who had worked in Jaffna, described the manual thirteen years after it had appeared as:
This manual was widely used in Sri Lanka and India; it was reprinted at least twice in the 19th century, and eight times by 1956.
Legacy
According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions scholar, Navalar's legacy began in Jaffna, but spread more broadly to Sri Lanka as well as Southern India. Navalar active efforts to set up two centres of reform made him influential in the Tamil community. He started two schools, two printing presses and campaigned against Christian missionary activity in colonial-era Jaffna and Madras Presidency. He produced approximately ninety-seven Tamil publications, twenty-three were his own creations, eleven were commentaries, and forty were his editions of those works of grammar, literature, liturgy, and theology that were not previously available in print. With this recovery, editing, and publishing of ancient works, Navalar laid the foundations for the recovery of lost Tamil classics that other Tamil scholars such as U. V. Swaminatha Iyer and C.W. Thamotharampillai continued. He was the first person to deploy the prose style in the Tamil language and according to Tamil scholar Kamil Zvelebil in style it bridged the medieval to the modern.
Navalar established the world's first Hindu school adapted to the modern needs that succeeded and flourished. While the school he established in Chidamharam in 1865 has survived to this day, similar schools seem to have spread only to two nearby towns. In Sri Lanka, eventually more than one hundred and fifty primary and secondary schools emerged from his work. Many of the students of these schools were successful in defending the Hindu Saiva culture not only against Christian missionary activities but also against neo-Hindu sects. His reforms and contributions were added to by scholars such as V. Kalyanasundaram (1883–1953), and Maraimalai Adigal (1876–1950), who developed their own schools of theology within the Hindu Saiva heritage. Although it is difficult to quantify as to how many Hindus may have converted to Protestant Christianity without his intervention but according to Bishop Sabapathy Kulendran, the low rate of conversion compared to the initial promise was due to Navalar's activities.
Arumuka Navalar who identified himself with an idealised past, worked within the traditions of Hindu Saiva culture and adhered to the Hindu Saiva doctrine. He was an unapologetic defender of Hindu Shaivism. Although he never cared much for his caste identity, as he considered all living beings as equal, his efforts led to the consolidation of traditional privileges of Hindu Saiva Vellala (farmers, landlords) and Karaiyar (warriors). Although Navalar did not show much interest in Tamil politics and kept his focus on defending the Hindu Shaiva faith in Sri Lanka and South India, his aggressive preaching of a Hindu Saiva cultural heritage contributed to the growth Tamil nationalism. The Tamil nationalist movement had an element that "Hindu Saiva Siddhanta preceded all others as the original Tamil religion", states Dennis Hudson. Navalar's insistence on the Agamas as the criteria of Hindu Saiva worship, moreover, gave momentum to the tendency among Tamils everywhere to attempt to subsume local deities under the Agamic pantheon and to abandon animal sacrifice altogether.
Navalar and his followers have been accused by some such as Sivathamby of focusing on the religious literature "in their anxiety", and "openly keeping away" from the secular Tamil literature, as they opposed the Christian missionaries. According to David Shulman, however, Navalar was among the pioneers who first located and printed the predominantly non-religious Tamil Sangam literature in 1851 (Thirumurukaattuppadai, one of the Ten Idylls) and the earliest paper editions of a palm-leaf manuscript on the ancient Tamil grammar text, Tolkappiyam. According to Kamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature scholar, Navalar was one of the key persons who identified, edited and published the secular and religious classical Tamil literature before 1879. He also inspired his fellow Tamils to publish Hindu texts and their translations.
His critics state that Navalar was an example of a "hegemonic caste" and his hidden agenda was to promote his own caste. Arumuga Navalar found support from the Brahmins and his own literati caste of Vellalas in the Tamil community, according to Wilson, because he accepted and recognized their caste-based status. His supporters state that Navalar had no such hidden agenda, and his active efforts to reform attest to Navalar's commitment to end social vices such as alcoholism, violence against animals and others. According to Peter Schalk, Navalar has also been accused of despising the Vaishnava and Jaina community.
Navalar's legacy has provoked negative reactions and criticism from the political left of South Asia. Navalar, states Schalk, was a theologian who used indirect "metonymic language" with "coded words" that metaphorically supported the traditional caste system privileges within the colonial era administration. His supporters, in contrast, interpret the same "coded words" differently and view him as an "organic intellectual" committed to religious growth through reforms and one committed to the human rights and freedom struggle of the Tamil people.
References
Cited literature
Further reading
External links
Arumuka Navalar, a contemporary Christian Missionary perspective
Arumuka Navalar, a Hindu perspective
1822 births
1879 deaths
Alumni of Jaffna Central College
19th-century Hindu religious leaders
Sri Lankan Hindu revivalists
Sri Lankan Tamil revivalists
Shaivite religious leaders
Hindu missionaries
Hindu revivalists
Missionary linguists
Sri Lankan missionaries
19th-century translators
Translators of the Bible into Tamil
Tamil-language writers
Sri Lankan translators
Sri Lankan Hindus
Hindu apologists |
4262628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Chelsea%20F.C.%20records%20and%20statistics | List of Chelsea F.C. records and statistics | Chelsea Football Club are an English professional association football club based in Fulham, London. The club was established in 1905 and plays its home games at Stamford Bridge.
Domestically, Chelsea have won six top-flight titles, eight FA Cups and five League Cups. In international competitions, they have won two UEFA Champions League titles, two UEFA Europa Leagues, two UEFA Cup Winners' Cups, two UEFA Super Cups and one FIFA Club World Cup. They are the first English club to win three main UEFA club competitions and are the only London club to win the UEFA Champions League. The club's record appearance maker is Ron Harris, who made 795 appearances between 1961 and 1980. Frank Lampard is Chelsea's record goalscorer, scoring 211 goals in total.
Honours
The first major trophy won by Chelsea came in 1955, when the team became national champions after winning the 1954–55 First Division title. In the 2009–10 season, Chelsea won their first and only double after winning both the Premier League and the FA Cup. Upon winning the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League, Chelsea became the fourth club in history to have won the "European Treble" of European Cup/UEFA Champions League, European Cup Winners' Cup/UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, and UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League. Their most recent success came in February 2022, when they won their first FIFA Club World Cup title.
Players
Appearances
Most appearances in all competitions: 795, Ron Harris (1961–1980)
Most league appearances: 655, Ron Harris (1961–1980)
Most FA Cup appearances: 64, Ron Harris (1961–1980)
Most League Cup appearances: 48, John Hollins (1963–1975 and 1983–1984) and Ron Harris (1961–1980)
Most appearances in UEFA competitions: 124, John Terry (1998–2015)
Most consecutive appearances: 167, John Hollins, 14 August 1971 – 25 September 1974
Most consecutive league appearances: 164, Frank Lampard, 13 October 2001 – 26 December 2005
Most appearances in a single season: 64, Juan Mata, Oscar and Fernando Torres, 2012–13
Most international caps while a Chelsea player: Frank Lampard, 104 for England
First Chelsea player to play for England: George Hilsdon, 16 February 1907
First Chelsea player to play for England at a World Cup: Roy Bentley, 1950 World Cup, 25 June 1950
First foreign (non-UK) player: Nils Middelboe (Denmark), 15 November 1913
Youngest player: Ian Hamilton, 16 years 138 days, vs. Tottenham Hotspur, First Division, 18 March 1967
Oldest player: Mark Schwarzer, 41 years and 218 days, vs. Cardiff City, Premier League, 11 May 2014
First substitute: John Boyle, who replaced George Graham vs. Fulham, First Division, 28 August 1965
Most appearances
Competitive matches only.
1 The "Other" column includes appearances in Charity/Community Shield, Football League play-offs, Full Members' Cup, UEFA Super Cup, and FIFA Club World Cup.
Goalscorers
Most goals in all competitions: 211, Frank Lampard (2001–2014)
Most goals in a season: 43, Jimmy Greaves (First Division, 1960–61)
Most goals in one match: 6, George Hilsdon v. Worksop Town, FA Cup, first round, 11 January 1908
Most goals in one final: 3, David Speedie v. Manchester City, Full Members' Cup final, 23 March 1986
Most league goals: 164, Bobby Tambling (1959–1970)
Most league goals in a season: 41, Jimmy Greaves, (First Division, 1960–61)
Most times top goalscorer: 8, Roy Bentley
Most league goals in one match:
5, George Hilsdon v. Glossop, Second Division, 1 September 1906
5, Jimmy Greaves v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, First Division, 30 August 1958
5, Jimmy Greaves v. Preston North End, First Division, 19 December 1959
5, Jimmy Greaves v. West Bromwich Albion, First Division, 3 December 1960
5, Bobby Tambling v. Aston Villa, First Division, 17 September 1966
5, Gordon Durie v. Walsall, Second Division, 4 February 1989
Most Premier League/First Division goals: 147, Frank Lampard (2001–2014)
Most Premier League goals in a season: 29, Didier Drogba (2009–10)
Most Premier League goals in one match:
4, Gianluca Vialli v. Barnsley, Premier League, 24 August 1997
4, Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink v. Coventry City, Premier League, 21 October 2000
4, Frank Lampard v. Derby County, Premier League, 12 March 2008
4, Frank Lampard v. Aston Villa, Premier League, 27 March 2010
Most FA Cup goals: 26, Frank Lampard (2001–2014)
Most FA Cup goals in a season: 8, Peter Osgood, (1969–70)
Most FA Cup goals in one match: 6, George Hilsdon v. Worksop Town, FA Cup, first round, 11 January 1908
Most FA Cup Final goals: 4, Didier Drogba (2004–2012, 2014–15)
Most League Cup goals: 25, Kerry Dixon (1983–1992)
Most League Cup goals in a season: 8, Kerry Dixon, (1984–85)
Most League Cup goals in one match: 4, Kerry Dixon v. Gillingham, League Cup, first round (first leg), 13 September 1983
Most League Cup Final goals: 4, Didier Drogba (2004–2012, 2014–15)
Most Cup Final goals: 9, Didier Drogba (2004–2012, 2014–15)
Most European goals: 36, Didier Drogba (2004–2012, 2014–15)
Most European goals in a season: 11, Olivier Giroud (2018–19 UEFA Europa League)
Most European goals in one match: 5, Peter Osgood v. Jeunesse Hautcharage, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, first round (second leg), 29 September 1971
Most hat-tricks: 13, Jimmy Greaves, (1957–1961)
Most international goals while a Chelsea player: Didier Drogba, 45 for Ivory Coast
Oldest goalscorer: Dick Spence, 38 years 282 days v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, First Division, 26 April 1947
Youngest goalscorer: Ian Hamilton, 16 years 138 days v. Tottenham Hotspur, First Division, 18 March 1967
Fastest goalscorer: 12 seconds, Keith Weller v. Middlesbrough, League Cup, 7 October 1970
Most different goalscorers in a season: 21 (during the 2021–22 season)
Overall scorers
Competitive matches only. Appearances in parentheses.
1 The "Other" column includes goals in Charity/Community Shield, Football League play-offs, Full Members' Cup, UEFA Super Cup, and FIFA Club World Cup.
Award winners
Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year
The following players have won the Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year award while playing for Chelsea:
Gianfranco Zola – 1996–97
Frank Lampard – 2004–05
Eden Hazard – 2014–15
N'Golo Kanté – 2016–17
PFA Players' Player of the Year
The following players have won the PFA Players' Player of the Year award while playing for Chelsea:
John Terry – 2004–05
Eden Hazard – 2014–15
N'Golo Kanté – 2016–17
PFA Young Player of the Year
The following players have won the PFA Young Player of the Year award while playing for Chelsea:
Scott Parker – 2003–04
Eden Hazard – 2013–14
Premier League Player of the Season
The following players have won the Premier League Player of the Season award while playing for Chelsea:
Frank Lampard – 2004–05
Eden Hazard – 2014–15
N'Golo Kanté – 2016–17
Premier League Playmaker of the Season
The following players have won the Premier League Playmaker of the Season award while playing for Chelsea:
Eden Hazard – 2018–19
Premier League Golden Boot
The following players have won the Premier League Golden Boot award while playing for Chelsea:
Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink – 2000–01
Didier Drogba – 2006–07
Nicolas Anelka – 2008–09
Didier Drogba – 2009–10
Premier League Golden Glove
The following goalkeepers have won the Premier League Golden Glove award while playing for Chelsea:
Petr Čech – 2004–05
Petr Čech – 2009–10
Petr Čech – 2013–14
Thibaut Courtois – 2016–17
Transfers
Where the report mentions an initial fee potentially rising to a higher figure depending on contractual clauses being satisfied in the future, only the initial fee is listed in the tables.
Highest transfer fees paid
Highest transfer fees received
Managerial records
First full-time manager: John Tait Robertson, from August 1905 to November 1906
First foreign (non-UK) manager: Ruud Gullit (Netherlands), from 10 May 1996 to 12 February 1998
Longest-serving manager: David Calderhead – (1 August 1907 to 8 May 1933)
Most successful manager: José Mourinho (won eight trophies in two spells as manager, 2004–2007 and 2013–2015)
Highest winning percentage (minimum 10 games managed): Guus Hiddink (first spell), 74%
Lowest winning percentage (minimum 10 games managed): Frank Lampard (second spell), 9%
Club records
Attendances
Highest home attendance (estimate): 100,000, against Dynamo Moscow, 13 November 1945
Highest home attendance (official): 82,905, against Arsenal, First Division, 12 October 1935
Highest home attendance (Second Division): 67,000, against Manchester United, 13 April 1906
Highest home attendance (FA Cup): 77,952, against Swindon Town, 13 March 1911
Highest home attendance (League Cup): 43,330, against Tottenham Hotspur, 22 December 1971
Highest home attendance (Europe): 59,541, against Milan, 16 February 1966
Highest season home aggregate: 1,014,352 (1954–55 season)
Highest league home average: 48,302 (1954–55 season)
Highest attendance for any match: 105,826, against Real Madrid, Michigan Stadium, United States, 30 July 2016
Highest away attendance: 98,436, against Barcelona, UEFA Champions League Round of 16 second leg, 7 March 2006
Lowest home attendance: 2,000, against Leeds United, Premier League, 5 December 2020
Highest average attendance in English football: 1907–08, 1909–10, 1911–12, 1912–13, 1913–14, 1919–20, 1921–22, 1923–24, 1925–26, 1954–55
Source:
Firsts
First match: Chelsea v. Stockport County, Second Division, 2 September 1905
First win: Chelsea v. Liverpool, friendly match, 4 September 1905
First competitive goalscorer: John Robertson, v. Blackpool, Second Division, 9 September 1905
First FA Cup match: Chelsea v. First Grenadier Guards, first qualifying round, 7 October 1905
First FA Cup match (proper): Chelsea v. Lincoln City, first round, 12 January 1907
First League Cup match: Chelsea v. Millwall, first round, 10 October 1960
First European match: Chelsea v. BK Frem, Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, 30 September 1958
First Cup Winners' Cup match: Chelsea v. Aris, first round, 16 September 1970
First UEFA Champions League match: Chelsea v. Skonto Riga, third qualifying round, 11 August 1999
First UEFA Champions League match (proper): Chelsea v. Milan, first group stage, 15 September 1999
First FA Cup winners at the new Wembley Stadium: Chelsea v. Manchester United, 2007 FA Cup Final, 19 May 2007
First domestic double: Chelsea v. Portsmouth, 2010 FA Cup Final, 15 May 2010 (also winning the 2009–10 Premier League)
The first team to score 100 Premier League goals in a season: 2009–10 Premier League season
The first English team to qualify for the UEFA European Cup, winning the 1954–55 First Division (Chelsea were not allowed to participate by the Football Association)
The first London based team to win the UEFA Champions League: 2011–12 season
The first UEFA Champions League title holders to get knocked out in the group stage the following year: 2012–13 season
The first English team to win all three major UEFA competitions
The first UEFA Champions League title holders to win the UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League the following year: 2012–13 season
The first team in history of the European competitions to be holders of the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League at the same time (winning the 2013 UEFA Europa League Final on 15 May 2013, and still being holders of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League until 25 May 2013)
The first team to go 18 successive UEFA Europa League matches without defeat since the competition was rebranded in 2009–10
The first team in Premier League history to have two different hat-trick scorers in a single campaign aged 21 or under
The first top-flight team in history to win 30 games in a 38-game season: 2016–17 Premier League season
The first team to win 15 away matches in a Premier League season: 2004–05 season
The first team to win 18 home matches in a Premier League season: 2004–05 season
The first team to win against every other team at least once in a Premier League season: 2005–06 season
Results
Wins
Record win: 13–0 v. Jeunesse Hautcharage, 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, 29 September 1971
Record league win: 8–0 v. Wigan Athletic, Premier League, 9 May 2010 and 8–0 v. Aston Villa, Premier League, 23 December 2012
Record FA Cup win: 9–1 v. Worksop Town, first round, 11 January 1908
Record League Cup win: 7–0 v. Doncaster Rovers, third round, 16 November 1960
Record European win: 13–0 v. Jeunesse Hautcharage, 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, 29 September 1971
Record European win (away): 0–8 v. Jeunesse Hautcharage, 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, 15 September 1971
Record Champions League win (home): 6–0 v. Maribor on 21 October 2014 and v. Qarabağ on 12 September 2017
Record Champions League win (away): 0–5 v. Galatasaray on 20 October 1999 and v. Schalke 04 on 25 November 2014
Most consecutive league wins: 13, 1 October 2016 – 31 December 2016
Longest sequence without a league win: 21, 3 November 1987 – 2 April 1988
Most league wins in a season: 30 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2016–17
Fewest league wins in a season: 5 in 42 matches, First Division, 1978–79
Draws
Highest scoring draw: 5–5
Bolton Wanderers v. Chelsea, 30 October 1937, First Division
Chelsea v. West Ham United, 17 December 1966, First Division
Most league draws in a season: 18 in 42 matches, First Division, 1922–23
Longest sequence of league draws: 6, 20 August 1969 – 13 September 1969
Unbeaten
Longest sequence of unbeaten matches:
21, 10 June 2004 – 11 September 2004
23, 23 January 2007 – 13 April 2007
23, 4 April 2009 – 23 September 2009
23, 4 May 2014 – 6 December 2014
Longest sequence of unbeaten league matches: 40, 23 October 2004 – 29 October 2005
Longest sequence of unbeaten home matches in Premier League: 86, 20 March 2004 – 26 October 2008
Losses
Record defeat: 1–8 v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, First Division, 26 September 1953
Record Premier League defeat: 0–6 v. Manchester City, 10 February 2019
Record FA Cup defeat:
1–7 v. Crystal Palace, third qualifying round, 18 November 1905
0–6 v. Sheffield Wednesday, second round replay, 5 February 1913
Record League Cup defeat: 2–6 v. Stoke City, third round replay, 22 October 1974
Record European defeat: 0–5 v. Barcelona, Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, semi-final replay, 25 May 1966
Record Champions League defeat: 1–5 (after extra time) v. Barcelona, quarter-final second leg, 18 April 2000
Longest sequence of league defeats: 7, 1 November 1952 – 20 December 1952
Most league defeats in a season: 27 in 42 matches, First Division, 1978–79
Fewest league defeats in a season: 1 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2004–05
Goals
Most goals scored in one match: 13 v. Jeunesse Hautcharage, 1971–72 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, 29 September 1971
Most goals conceded in one match: 8 v. Wolverhampton Wanderers, First Division, 26 September 1953
Most league goals scored in one season: 103 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2009–10
Fewest league goals scored in one season: 31 in 42 matches, First Division, 1923–24
Most league goals conceded in one season: 100 in 42 matches, First Division, 1960–61
Fewest league goals conceded in one season: 15 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2004–05
Fewest league goals conceded at home in one season: 6 in 19 matches, Premier League, 2004–05
Fewest league goals conceded away in one season: 9 in 19 matches, Premier League, 2004–05
Most goal scorers in a single game (league): 7 v. Aston Villa, Premier League, 23 December 2012
Points
Most points earned in a season (3 for a win): 99 in 46 matches, Second Division, 1988–89
Fewest points earned in a season (3 for a win): 42 in 40 matches, First Division, 1987–88
Most points earned in a season (2 for a win): 57 in 38 matches, Second Division, 1906–07
Fewest points earned in a season (2 for a win): 20 in 42 matches, First Division, 1978–79
Clean sheets
Most clean sheets in one season: 34 in 59 matches, 2004–05
Fewest clean sheets in one season: 2 in 47 matches, 1960–61
Most league clean sheets in one season: 25 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2004–05
Fewest league clean sheets in one season: 1 in 42 matches, First Division, 1960–61
Longest run without a clean sheet: 31 games, November 1960 – August 1961
Most consecutive league clean sheets during a season: 10, 18 December 2004 – 12 February 2005
Most clean sheets by an individual goalkeeper: 228, Petr Čech (2004–2015)
Most clean sheets by an individual goalkeeper in one season: 28, Petr Čech, 2004–05
Most Premier League clean sheets by an individual goalkeeper in one season: 24, Petr Čech, 2004–05
Most consecutive clean sheets by an individual goalkeeper: 9, William Foulke, 1905–06
Most overall clean sheets in Premier League: 162, Petr Čech (2004–2015)
Penalties
Most penalties saved: 9, Reg Matthews
Most penalties scored by a single player: 49, Frank Lampard
National/European records
Fewest goals conceded in a league season: 15 in 38 matches, Premier League, 2004–05 (English top flight record)
Fewest goals conceded away in a league season: 9 in 18 matches, Premier League, 2004–05 (English top flight record)
Most consecutive clean sheets at the start of a season: 6, 14 August 2005 – 17 September 2005 (English top flight record)
Longest sequence of unbeaten home league matches: 86, 21 February 2004 – 26 October 2008 (English record)
Most clean sheets in a season: 25, 2004–05 (Premier League record)
Most goals scored at home in a league season: 68, 2009–10 (Premier League record)
Most consecutive league away wins: 11, 5 April 2008 – 22 December 2008 (Premier League joint record)
Most home wins in a league season: 18, 2005–06 (Premier League joint record)
Fewest home draws in a league season: 0, 2016–17 (Premier League joint record)
Most consecutive wins from start of a season: 9, 2005–06 (Premier League record)
Most days spent in first place in a season: 274 days, 2014–15 (Premier League record)
Fewest goals conceded for a team winning the Champions League: 4 in 13 games, 2020–21 (European record)
Highest aggregate scoreline in European competition: 21–0, v Jeunesse Hautcharage, 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, 29 September 1971 (joint record)
Fewest goals conceded in a Champions League group stage campaign: 1, 2005–06 (joint record)
Most Champions League games played in the knockout phase by an English club: 77 matches
Most Champions League round of 16 appearances by an English club: 17 appearances
Most Champions League round of 16 aggregate wins by an English club: 11 wins
Most Champions League quarter-final aggregate wins by an English club: 8 wins
Most Champions League semi-finals appearances by an English club: 8 appearances
Most consecutive Europa League matches without defeat: 18 matches
Only team to score at least 4 goals in a Europa League final
Longest unbeaten run in the FA Cup: 29 matches (excluding penalty shoot-outs)
See also
Chelsea F.C. in international football
List of Chelsea F.C. managers
References
General
Specific
Chelsea
Records and Statistics |
4262724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Frank | Jane Frank | Jane Schenthal Frank (born Jane Babette Schenthal) (July 25, 1918 – May 31, 1986) was an American multidisciplinary artist, known as a painter, sculptor, mixed media artist, illustrator, and textile artist. Her landscape-like, mixed-media abstract paintings are included in public collections, including those of the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the Baltimore Museum of Art, and the Smithsonian American Art Museum. She studied with artists, Hans Hofmann and Norman Carlberg.
Work
Jane Frank was a pupil of the painter, Hans Hofmann. She can be categorized stylistically as an abstract expressionist, but one who draws primary inspiration from the natural world, particularly landscape — landscape "as metaphor", she once explained. Her later painting refers more explicitly to aerial landscapes, while her sculpture tends toward minimalism. Chronologically and stylistically, Jane Frank's work straddles both the modern and the contemporary (even postmodern) periods. She referred to her works generally as "inscapes".
The early years
Training in commercial art
Jane Frank (when she was still Jane Schenthal) attended the progressive Park School and received her initial artistic training at the Maryland Institute of Arts and Sciences (now known as the Maryland Institute College of Art), earning in 1935 a diploma in commercial art and fashion illustration. She then acquired further training in New York City at what is now the Parsons School of Design (then called the New York School of Fine and Applied Art), from which she graduated in 1939. In New York, she also studied at the New Theatre School. Her schooling complete, she began working in advertising design and acting in summer stock theatre. From the sources, it is unclear whether she worked in these fields while still in New York, or only after returning to Baltimore. We do know, however, that she began painting seriously in 1940.
Becoming a painter
In a letter to Thomas Yoseloff, she wrote (quoted in Yoseloff's Retrospective, 1975, p. 34) that "prior to 1940 my background had been entirely in commercial art" and that when she began painting seriously, she had to "put behind me everything I had so carefully learned in the schools". She began a study of the history of painting and "went through a progression of spatial conceptions" from cave painting through the Renaissance, then concentrating on Cézanne, Picasso, and De Kooning. "I was also much concerned with texture, and heavy paint", she adds.
Marriage and family - and children's books
After returning to Baltimore, she married Herman Benjamin Frank in 1941. According to the biography in "Baltimore County Women, 1930-1975" listed below, Jane had previously been working as a commercial artist "for department stores and advertising agencies", but she "gave up her career in commercial art for marriage and a family" (p. 16). After marrying, she signed her works consistently as "Jane Frank", apparently never including a maiden name or middle initial. Her husband, a builder, constructed their home, including a studio for his wife. With the initial demands of a new marriage and family presumably beginning to relax a bit, Jane Frank returned seriously to painting in 1947 (according to Stanton, p. 9).
In the following decade, while raising a family and rapidly developing as a serious painter, the young mother also illustrated three children's books. Monica Mink (1948), featured along with Jane Frank's illustrations, a whimsical text by the artist herself, entirely in verse, relating a tale in which (according to the review published by the National Council of Teachers of English) "In rhyme the obstreperous Monica Mink 'who wouldn't listen and didn't think' is finally taught that 'all Mother Minks know best'." . Thomas Yoseloff's The Further Adventures of Till Eulenspiegel (1957, New York City), featured Jane Frank's block prints, which already show a penchant for collage-like textural juxtapositions and strong diagonal composition. Jane Frank's 1986 obituary in the Baltimore Sun mentions that she published a third children's book, entitled Eadie the Pink Elephant, with both text and pictures by the artist, and this is confirmed in an excerpt from Publishers Weekly available online .
Health catastrophes and recovery
Art history professor emerita, Phoebe B. Stanton of Johns Hopkins University mentioned that twice in the 20 years after 1947, Jane Frank suffered from illnesses which "interrupted the work for long periods". The first of these catastrophes was a serious car accident in 1952, requiring multiple major surgeries and extensive convalescence, and the second was a "serious and potentially life-threatening illness" soon after her 1958 solo show at the Baltimore Museum of Art. The latter illness was so severe, according to Stanton, that it interrupted Jane Frank's painting work for about two years.
The latter 1950s to late 1960s
Encountering Hans Hofmann, and discovering a "sculptural landscape"
Health problems notwithstanding, the latter 1950s proved decisively fruitful for Jane Frank as a serious artist. Having fairly well recovered from her injuries in the traumatic 1952 accident, she studied for a period in 1956 with the great abstract expressionist painter Hans Hofmann in Provincetown, Massachusetts, and this mentoring gave her a jolt of inspiration and encouragement. She soon had solo exhibitions at the Baltimore Museum of Art (1958), the Corcoran Gallery of Art (1962), the Bodley Gallery in New York (1963) and Goucher College (1963), among others.
She also, in 1962 (1961 according to some sources), won a Rinehart Fellowship, enabling her to study with Norman Carlberg at the Rinehart School of Sculpture at Maryland Institute College of Art. This might seem a sudden and late detour away from painterly pursuits, but it is a logical step: the canvases in the 1962 Corcoran show, such as "Crags and Crevices" and "Rockscape II", already feature passages that are sculpturally "built up" with thick mounds of gesso (or "spackle", as Stanton tends to call it).
Jane Frank's preoccupation with space was evident even before her paintings became overtly "sculptural" in their use of mixed media. Of the paintings in the 1962 Corcoran Gallery show, she tells Phoebe Stanton: "I was trying to pit mass against void and make it look as though there were passages that went way back - that's why 'crevice' is in so many of the titles" (Stanton, p. 15). Indeed, "Crags and Crevices" (70"x 50", oil and spackle on canvas), completed in 1961, dominated the show.
Combining diverse materials and techniques
Soon after the month-long Corcoran Gallery solo exhibition, Jane Frank began to apply not just spackle but a variety of other materials - sea-weathered or broken glass, charred driftwood, pebbles, what appears to be crushed graphite or silica, and even glued-on patches of separately painted and encrusted canvas (canvas collage) - to her jagged, abstract expressionist paintings. "I wanted work that was painterly but with an actual three-dimensional space", she later wrote (Yoseloff 1975, pp. 37–39). Jane Frank's first solo show at New York City's Bodley Gallery (1963), as well as her 1965 solo show at Baltimore's International Gallery, featured many of these radically dense and variegated mixed media paintings.
"Apertured", multiple-canvas paintings
Later she began making irregular holes in the canvases ("apertures", as she called them: the earliest example is "Winter Windows", 1966–1967), disclosing deeper layers of painted canvas underneath (so-called "double canvases" - and sometimes triple canvases), with painted-on "false shadows", etc. - increasingly invoking the third dimension, creating tactile, sculptural effects while remaining within the convention of the framed, rectangular oil painting. The apertures also suggest a view into some sort of psychological interior, as though the second canvas - seen only partially, through the hole in the forward canvas - were some half-concealed secret, perhaps even another whole painting that we will never see.
Stanton (p. 24) also notes that Jane Frank worked out a method - unspecified - of stiffening the apertures' often jagged edges so that they held their shape and flatness. These creations are a type of "shaped canvas", though very different from the shaped canvases of Frank Stella and others more commonly associated with this term.
In much of her output before the late 1960s, Frank seems less interested in color than in tonality and texture, often employing the grayscale to create a sense of depth or motion from light to dark, this frequently moving in a diagonal (as in "Winter's End", 1958), and otherwise employing one basic hue (as with the earthy reds in "Plum Point", 1964). However, the later, "windowed" paintings show a sharper interest in vivid color relationships: indeed, Yoseloff (p. 20) notes that with the later paintings "she has gone to bolder colors". This is especially true, as he notes, in the "aerial" paintings, of which an early and monumental example is "Aerial View no. 1" (1968, 60 inches by 84 inches, collection of the Turner Auditorium complex at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University). This was one of the artist's favorites, according to Baltimore County Women [see below].
Standing apart
While these highly complex and laborious constructions (she often called them "three-dimensional paintings") moved her well beyond the vocabulary of the improvisatory, so-called "action painting" usually associated with American abstract expressionism, they also had virtually nothing to do with the pop art and minimalism which were then the rage of the 1960s New York art scene. Furthermore, they bore little resemblance to the serene "color field" paintings of Morris Louis, Helen Frankenthaler, or Mark Rothko. Whether brooding or exuberant, the (as it were) geologically deposited, erupted, eroded, and gouged canvases of Jane Frank stand apart from all else. Perhaps this style could be called "geomorphic abstraction" - though no such term can be found as a stylistic category in art history books.
This standoffish aesthetic position, her chosen departure from the career-making New York City scene, and the fact that her overall output was not very large (by some standards at least), were factors that limited her career and her contemporary impact on the course of American art. Yet perhaps, as time goes on, present-day art lovers who get to know these pieces will agree with Professor Stanton that they are powerful and beautiful creations, worthy of contemplation and admiration on their intrinsic merits - regardless of what was supposedly fashionable in 1960-something:
{| border=0 style="background: white" align=center
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|{{cquote|..."Winter Windows" is perhaps sublime in Burke's use of the word for a kind of beauty which produces sensations of awe and helplessness.... Part of the power of these pictures is the result of their controlled design, for balance, color, texture, have been managed so economically that the least change would throw the whole out of key.}}
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|– Dr. Phoebe Stanton [The Sculptural Landscape of Jane Frank, p. 29]
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After 1967: sculptures, and further development of the "apertured" paintings
Sculpture: depths and shadows, reflections and refractions
In the late 1960s, Jane Frank turned her energies toward the creation of free-standing sculpture, i.e., sculptures properly speaking, as opposed to "sculptural paintings" or mixed media works on canvas.
The sculptures, with their clean lines and surfaces, often in sleek lucite or aluminium, completely dispense with the earthy, gritty qualities of those "sculptural landscape" canvases. Busch (1974) quotes Frank as saying: "I begin [working] from a drawing or cardboard mockup. I give my welding and aluminium pieces to a machinist with whom I work quite closely".
There were more solo exhibitions, at venues including New York City's Bodley Gallery again in 1967, Morgan State University (1967), Goucher College (for the second time) in 1968, London's Alwin Gallery in 1971, the Galerie de l'Université, Paris (1972), the Philadelphia Art Alliance (1975), and a major retrospective at Towson State College (now Towson University) in 1975. She also won the Sculpture Prize at the 1983 Maryland Artists Exhibition (source: Watson-Jones).
Aerial landscape paintings
Even after 1967, when Jane Frank began making sculptures, grappling with new media such as plastics and metals, she maintained her ever-evolving production of mixed media paintings on canvas, virtually until the end of her life. Continuing her exploration of the possibilities of multiple-canvas, "apertured" paintings, she began to create her "Aerial Series" pieces, which came more and more explicitly to suggest landscapes seen from above. Especially noteworthy and striking are the "Night Landings" paintings, such as "Night Landings: Sambura" (1970), with the city grid glinting below like a dark jewel in a deep, nocturnal blue river valley. The 1975 Yoseloff retrospective catalogue listed below is very illuminating on these latter developments, and the color plates (which include images of some of the sculptures) are of higher quality than those in the Stanton book.
Several sources note that Jane Frank also designed rugs and tapestries; a color photograph showing detail from one of these textile works is reproduced in the Ann Avery book listed below.
Jane Frank died on Saturday, May 31, 1986. In some sources, her place of residence is listed as Owings Mills, Maryland, which is a near suburb of Baltimore. The 1986 Watson-Jones book's entry on Jane Frank states her address as "1300 Woods Hole Road, Towson, Maryland 21204". Towson is another near suburb of Baltimore.
Discussion of Jane Frank's work
Phoebe Stanton writes that "landscape" is for Jane Frank a way of conveying ideas which (to Stanton) recall Heidegger's definition of poetry, which included "the recreation of the experience of standing 'in the presence of the gods and to be exposed to the essential proximity of things' ". According to the jacket notes of the Stanton book, Pictures on Exhibit magazine commented in a similar vein, saying that these landscapes are "to a compellingly strong degree, poetic evocations of communion with Nature's basic essentials". We are in direct contact with the primal forces, exposed and profoundly alone.
These works are at once sensually compelling and incorporeal — "out-of-body", so to speak. And as Julia M. Busch points out, even the sculptures avoid reference to anything recognizably, bodily human. Stating that Frank's sculptures are "environmental", Busch goes on to define this term in a way that points to their "beyond-human" quality:
"Environmental sculpture is never made to work at exactly human scale, but is sufficiently larger or smaller than the scale to avoid confusion with the human image in the eyes of the viewer."
Also, the canvases of the 1960s, for all their landscape-like qualities, usually avoid anything that can be read as a horizon or a sky: we literally don't know which way is up; for as Stanton (p. 12) points out, Jane Frank - starting with "Winter's End" (1958) - avoids horizontal orientation in favor of strong diagonals. Furthermore, in this painting, as in many others of the next decade, the scale is undecidable. Stanton, again speaking of "Winter's End", writes:
"One is given no indication of the size of the scene; the way through which winter passes could be either a mountain gorge or a minute water course".
Plenty of cues are there that this is some sort of landscape, and Frank herself avows it:
"The beginning of my efforts to make my own statement, I would trace to my first visit to the Phillips Gallery.... Landscape was a natural metaphor, and so it is still for me today, in my three-dimensional double canvases".
Summing up the ambiguous position of Jane Frank's work on canvas with respect to both landscape art and pure abstraction, a reviewer for The Art Gallery magazine wrote of her 1971 solo show at London's Alwin Gallery: "Her richly textured canvases evoke a world of crags and forests, rivers and plains, in terms which are entirely non-representational."
The catalogue of the 1963 Bodley Gallery show contains a long essay by the artist, and the following three quoted passages capture many of the concerns described here:
(1) On constructing her metaphorical landscape vocabulary: "I prefer to create my own landscapes or vocabulary of shapes and patterns. However, it is rock and mineral substances, their veins and surfaces, projections and infinite hollows, which spark my particular fantasy - also beach wood, well worn with time, that is to be found on the water's edge. Issues of space have always been one of my prime concerns, and these substances seem to relate most closely to this concern. These then are the metaphor..."
(2) On the quality of interiority in her works: "It is also an attempt to penetrate the surface of an object, presenting not only the outside but what occurs within - the essence or core."
(3) On the essential aloneness of her vision: "The artist must create his own space, of his own time and personal vision. The result is not a unique image for the sake of 'newness', but rather for the sake of the artist, who must be concerned with it daily. These days are spent quite alone."
These pieces of the late 1950s and 1960s never lapse into the complaisantly decorative: there is a certain deliberate instability, often even violence, that prevents that. This quality comes through in another remark from Dr. Stanton's book. She's speaking of "Crags and Crevices", but it fits many of the works: "Nothing in the painting is still, for the big forms seem to hover in mid-air, colliding as they fall. There are provocative and startling contrasts between passages of thin, transparent paint and thick impasto, filled with striatures left by the palette knife."
Even 1968's "Aerial View No. 1", despite the spatial hint of the title, is far from literal. Certain features of structure and color render a literal interpretation of this image as an aerial landscape difficult or even impossible. The attempt at interpretation is both invited and repulsed. But by about 1970, with the "Night Landings" paintings, there was a definite shift away from the previous decade's stubbornly refractive attitude. The "Night Landings" offer a much more definite sense of scale and viewpoint, especially with the aid of the titles. "Night Landings: Nairobi" is not disorienting in the least: we know where we are; we know we're in a plane, we know the plane is landing, and we even know roughly what time it is: we are looking down, and we see vividly the city named in the title, with the surrounding land and water.
Furthermore, the fact that we see a city down there means that - at least implicitly - there are people in this painting.
Yoseloff, in his 1975 "Retrospective" book, enthuses:
"Perhaps the ultimate achievement in the direction in which Mrs. Frank has been tending is her series of "night landings".... Now, more than ever, the viewer is deeply involved, and he can feel himself carried downward into the landscape that is the canvas before him"
A staunch modernist might scoff that with the "Night Landings" of 1970 Jane Frank's art begins to "go gentle into that good night" (perhaps even lapsing into "postmodernism"). But if these more literal aerial landscapes - created in 1970 and after - lose some of the tension that gives the earlier paintings their distinctive power, they nevertheless address, with an intensely intimate delight, a perspective on reality which we must remember was still quite young in 1970, at least as a painterly subject. In "Aerial Perception" (1985), author Margret Dreikausen sees Jane Frank's aerial landscapes as sharing the spirit of the work of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe, Susan Crile, and others, in creating images which "reflect contemporary interest in reality", experienced from a historically new vantage point. Dreikausen insists that this art "does not merely show landscape from the air" but incorporates the "earthbound vision" into "remembered images from both spaces". Dreikausen also sees Frank's aerial paintings as consisting of two basic types: the "day scenes" (such as "Ledge of Light") and the "night landings" (such as "Night Landing: Sambura"). The day scenes show a fascination with the play of actual shadows and false, painted ones, "inviting the viewer more closely to inspect the textures on the canvas and its 'reality' ". In the night landings, by contrast, the city is the focus, nestled in the canvas's aperture, like a precious jewel in a dark velvet box, with its "enticing twinkling lights", suggesting "the anticipation of the unknown, mysterious city.... The use of beads and glitter, partially covered with paint, conveys a sense of personal landscape".
The 1999 Benezit book's entry on Jane Frank takes it as a given that her works on the canvas may be summarized as semi-abstract aerial views: "Sa peinture, abstraite, fait cependant reference a un paysagisme aerien, comme vu d'avion." ("Her paintings, though abstract, nevertheless make reference to aerial landscapes, as viewed from an airplane.")
Collections
Jane Frank's paintings and mixed media works on canvas are in the collections of the Corcoran Gallery of Art ("Amber Ambience", 1964), the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art ("Winter's End", 1958), the Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art at Cornell University ("Red Painting", 1966), the Arkansas Arts Center in Little Rock ("Web Of Rock", 1960), and the Evansville Museum ("Quarry III", 1963). Her works are in many other public, academic, corporate, and private collections.
Her sculptures can be found in public collections including at Towson State University.
References
Books
American Association of University Women, (Towson, Maryland, Branch), "Baltimore County Women, 1930-1975", (Baltimore: The Sunpapers, 1976) [Please note: the 1981 Ann Avery book listed below mentions this book and credits George Rogers with the editorship, either of the book or perhaps only of the Jane Frank article - it is not clear. The book is a collection of profiles of forty Baltimore County women "who distinguished themselves" in diverse fields (including opera singer Rosa Ponselle and golfer Carol Mann), compiled as part of a project celebrating the 1976 United States Bicentennial. The full-page Jane Frank article includes a photo of the artist in her studio.]
Avery, Ann (ed.), "American Artists of Renown, 1981-1982" [includes one color plate image of a Jane Frank work, along with a bio] (Wilson Publishing Co.: Gilmer, Texas, 1981) ;
Benezit, E. (ed.), "Dictionnaire critique et documentaire des peintres, sculpteurs, desinateurs, et graveurs de tous les temps et tous les pays" ["Critical and Documentary Dictionary of Painters, Sculptors, Draftsmen, and Engravers of All Times and All Countries"], (Gründ, Paris, 1999) [Please note: in 2006, an English language edition of the Benezit Dictionary of Artists became available for the first time.] [see Benezit Dictionary of Artists]
Busch, Julia M., "A Decade of Sculpture: the New Media in the 1960s" [contains three color and two b&w images of Jane Frank's sculptures, as well as some discussion of the work and several quotations from the artist] (The Art Alliance Press: Philadelphia; Associated University Presses: London, 1974)
Chiarmonte, Paula, "Women Artists in the United States: a Selective Bibliography and Resource Guide on the Fine and Decorative Arts" (G. K. Hall & Co., Boston, 1990) [entry on Jane Frank is on page 606].
Creps, Bob ; and Howard Creps; Biographical encyclopedia of American painters, sculptors & engravers of the U.S. : Colonial to 2002 (Land O'Lakes, Florida : Dealer's Choice Books, 2002) [in two volumes: Jane Frank bio on p. 475 of first volume]
Davenport, Ray, "Davenport's Art Reference and Price Guide, Gold Edition" (Ventura, California, 2005) ;
Dreikausen, Margret, "Aerial Perception: The Earth as Seen from Aircraft and Spacecraft and Its Influence on Contemporary Art" (Associated University Presses: Cranbury, NJ; London, England; Mississauga, Ontario: 1985) [includes color plate images of two of Jane Frank's aerial paintings].
Dunbier, Lonnie Pierson (Ed.), "The Artists Bluebook: 34,000 North American Artists to March 2005" (Scottsdale, Arizona, 2005) [Please note: Worldcat lists Roger Dunbier as the editor of this work, whereas the Askart.com website - which publishes the book - names Lonnie Pierson Dunbier (presumably married to Mr. Dunbier) as editor.]
Frank, Jane. Jane Frank (pub. New York, N.Y. : Bodley Gallery, 1963) [catalogue for solo exhibition, with dates given as Oct. 22 - Nov. 9]. [Also available in MICA library vertical file; see 'External links' for access help. Additionally, Worldcat has another listing for a book, in the holdings of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, by "Jane Frank" and entitled Jane Frank; there is no mention of the Bodley Gallery, but under "Details," Worldcat has "Contents: Sculptural paintings : Jane Frank". Presumably this is the same 1963 catalogue; or perhaps it is the catalogue of Jane Frank's 1967 show at the Bodley (.
Frank, Jane; Arthur Mayer; Alwin Gallery. The Sculptural Landscape of Jane Frank [catalogue for exhibition at Alwin Gallery, 56 Brook Street, London, Jan. 5-29, 1971.] Here is a link to the catalogue record of the copy at the National Art Library, Victoria and Albert Museum, London: . The book is also available in the MICA library vertical file on Jane Frank; see 'External links' for access help. This catalogue (confusingly taking the same title as the Stanton book) amounts nearly to a full monograph on the artist, with many images of the artist and the work, lists of exhibitions and other career summary material, and an extensive critical essay by Arthur Mayer. The Victoria and Albert Museum library description reads: "Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Alwin Gallery, London, 5 Jan. - 29 Jan. 1971. Text By Arthur Mayer."
Frank, Jane, "Monica Mink" (Vanguard Press, New York City, 1948) [children's book authored and illustrated by Jane Frank]
International Gallery. Jane Frank: sculptural paintings (Baltimore : International Gallery, 1965) [solo exhibition catalogue] (Also available in the "Jane Frank" vertical file at the MICA library)
Jacques Cattell Press, ed., "Who's Who in American Art", 1980 (New York City : R.R. Bowker, 1980) [Jane frank entry pp. 240–241]
Jacques Cattell Press, ed., "Who's Who in American Art", 1984 (New York City ; London : R.R. Bowker, 1984) [Jane frank entry p. 303]
Meissner, Gunter, "Allgemeines Kunstlerlexikon: Die Bildenen Kuntsler aller Zeiten und Volker" ["Complete Dictionary of Artists of all Times and All Peoples"] (Pub. Saur: Munich, Leipzig, 2005) [34-line Jane Frank entry on page 46, vol. 44]
Opitz, Glenn B., ed., "Mantle Fielding's Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers" (Poughkeepsie, NY : Apollo, 1983)
Opitz, Glenn B., ed., "Dictionary of American Sculptors" (Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, 1984)
Yoseloff, Thomas, "The Further Adventures of Till Eulenspiegel" [children's book with block print illustrations by Jane Frank] (New York City : Thomas Yoseloff 1957) [Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 57-6892]
Yoseloff, Thomas, "Jane Frank: A Retrospective Exhibition" [This exhibition catalogue amounts to another full monograph on the artist, with very high quality color and b&w plates, extensive textual discussion and quotation of the artist, and much specific and detailed information on Jane Frank's life, career, and individual artworks: 51 pp.] (A. S. Barnes: New York City and London, 1975)
Other readings (articles, etc.)
Lisa Roney. "Contemporary American Women Sculptors" [review of book: Watson-Jones, Virginia. Contemporary American Women Sculptors. Oryx Press, 1986.] Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 8, No. 1, 54. Spring - Summer, 1987. Roney notes that the volume celebrates a rich variety of creations, including "works that amuse (Viola Frey, b. 1932), threaten (Joan Danzinger, b. 1934), or maintain an abstract cool (Jane Frank, b. 1918)" [p. 54]. Link to JSTOR record of the review here.
Footnotes
External links
Smithsonian American Art Museum: Jane Frank(the museum's page on Jane Frank)
Access to Smithsonian Institution artist file folder on Jane Frank (Simply type 'jane frank' into search box and click; on next page, click the name again for more detail): "Folder(s) may include exhibition announcements, newspaper and/or magazine clippings, press releases, brochures, reviews, invitations, illustrations, resumes, artist's statements, exhibition catalogs."
Maryland Institute College of Art, Decker Library, vertical file listings. In a special archive, MICA maintains approximately 400 vertical files on "people affiliated with MICA such as alumni, faculty, visiting artists, and staff and administrators, as well as local art institutions and MICA-related items of history." Listed here is a file on Jane Frank. The web page includes information on how to access file contents. This vertical file includes essential materials such as Jane Frank's 1986 obituary in the Baltimore Sun and the catalogue of her 1963 exhibition at the Bodley Gallery in New York, as well as the catalogue of her 1971 solo exhibition at London's Alwin Gallery.
French art criticism archive page (at www.archivcriticart.org), listing an art review in the French journal Les lettres françaises'' for 27 September 1972, in the section called "In the Galleries" ("Dans les galeries")
1918 births
1986 deaths
Abstract expressionist artists
American women painters
American contemporary painters
Contemporary sculptors
20th-century American sculptors
Mixed-media artists
Jewish American artists
Jewish painters
Jewish sculptors
Landscape artists
Painters from Maryland
Parsons School of Design alumni
Artists from Baltimore
Postmodern artists
American women sculptors
20th-century American painters
20th-century American women artists
Sculptors from Maryland
Park School of Baltimore alumni
20th-century American Jews |
4262860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicente%20Aranda | Vicente Aranda | Vicente Aranda Ezquerra (; 9 November 1926 – 26 May 2015) was a Spanish film director, screenwriter and producer.
Due to his refined and personal style, he was one of the most renowned Spanish filmmakers. He started as a founding member of the Barcelona School of Film and became known for bringing contemporary Spanish novels to life on the big screen. Aranda was also noted for exploring difficult social issues and variations on the theme of desire while using the codes of melodrama.
Love as uncontrollable passion, eroticism and cruelty are constant themes in his filmography. The frank examination of sexuality is one of the trademarks of his work, as seen in his most internationally successful film: Amantes (1990) (Lovers).
Early life
Vicente Aranda Ezquerra was born in Barcelona on 9 November 1926. He was the youngest son in a large and impoverished family who had emigrated from Aragón to Barcelona twenty years before he was born. He barely knew his father, an itinerant photographer, who died when the child was only seven years old. The Spanish Civil War, in which his family took the side of the losing Republicans, marked his childhood. Thinking that the war was going to be more bearable in a small town than in Barcelona, the family moved early in the war to Peñalba, his mother's native village. The dire situation there, close to the front at Aragon, forced them to return to Barcelona in 1938.
After the war ended, Aranda spent a lot of time in the local movie theatre, much against the wishes of his mother, who took to smelling him on his return for traces of the disinfectant that was sprayed in cinemas of the time. He never finished his formal studies. At age thirteen, he began to work in order to help support his family. He had a number of different jobs in his home town, trying a multitude of trades before following his brother Palmiro to Venezuela in 1952. He emigrated for economical and political reasons. In Venezuela, Aranda worked as a cargo technician for an American shipping business. Later he directed programs at NCR. After seven years, he returned to Spain in 1959.
Wealthy and married upon his return, he intended to become a novelist, but found that he lacked enough talent as a writer. He fell in with the cultural elite of Catalonia and was encouraged to try his hand at filmmaking. He was not allowed to enroll at the School of Cinema in Madrid because he had not graduated from high school. In Barcelona and completely self-taught, Aranda found a way to direct his first feature film.
Nearly 40 years old when he started directing, Aranda did not gain international success until his 60s. He had a long and prolific career, making 27 films in more than 40 years as a director.
Vicente Aranda married twice. His first wife, Luisa, a name he used repeatedly for the female leads in his films, committed suicide years after they divorced. They did not have children. Aranda's second wife, Teresa Font, was thirty years his junior. She was the editor of his movies since the mid-1980s; they had two daughters together, but separated a few years before Aranda's death.
Film career and later life
Early films (1964–1974)
Aranda made his directorial debut with the low-budget Brillante Porvenir (1964) (Promising Future), co-directing with screenwriter Román Gubern to avoid problems with the directors guild of Spain. Loosely inspired by the American novel, The Great Gatsby, the film used the aesthetic of the neorealism in a story of a young man from the provinces who tries to make it into the Catalan middle class. Brillante Porvenir, cut by censors, was received coldly by public and critics. This failure made Aranda turned to an experimental form of film making for his next project.
The director's second film, Fata Morgana (1965), an unusual work in Spanish Cinema, is an experimental film, based on a script written with Gonzalo Suárez. The film took inspiration for its graphic visual style from television commercials and comic strips. Ignored upon release, Fata Morgana would eventually be recognized for inspiring the particular kitsch aesthetic of La Escuela de Barcelona (the Barcelona School of Film), an avant-garde movement which sought creative innovation in Spanish films.
In the following years, Aranda's work played between pushing the artistic envelope and using a virtual style drawn from mass media. In these films, Aranda tackled established film genres with an eye on revising and modernizing them.
Since his first features were not widely seen, Aranda produced a commercially oriented film with fantastic and erotic overtones: Las Crueles (1969) (The Exquisite Cadaver). In it, a mysterious woman elaborates a scheme to avenge the death of her girlfriend by a callous publisher. This filmed was plagued with a series of problems: it was long in the making; Aranda suffered an accident during the shooting, which forced him to work from a stretcher, and finally he had a legal battle with the producers. It would take Aranda many years to recover ownership of this film. The experience made him found his own production company: Morgana Film, which produced his next six features.
In La Novia Ensangrentada (1972) (The Blood Spattered Bride), a loose adaptation of Carmilla, a lesbian vampire recruits a young bride to help her seek revenge against all men. A genre film for the cultural elite, it evaded censors by virtue of its incomprehensibility. By Aranda's own admission, he sacrificed conventional coherence for the cinematographic and phenomenological possibilities of each action. The film was distributed internationally in the United States, France and Italy.
Aranda started to use the codes of melodrama with Clara es el Precio (1974) (Clara is the Price), an offbeat mix of melodrama, parody and surreal comedy. He cast Amparo Muñoz, Spain's future Miss Universe, as a naive housewife adrift in a world without taboo. She pursues a career as a pornographic film actress in order to fund a business project for her impotent husband.
This was made during El Destape, a period in Spanish Cinema that had a proliferation of nudity in film under the new social liberties during the political period following the fall of Franco's regime. The Clara film's effort to shock was also its purpose. Like the Surrealists, Aranda's ability to shock was itself a political statement. "We had lived in a state of consensus and this is fatal for cinema", he complained, "We have become our own censors and all we want to do is forget, be silent, not speak."
Cambio de Sexo (1976)
Following the fall of Franco's regime, social censorship was lifted. Under the new permissiveness, Aranda shot more daring films such as Cambio de Sexo (1976) (Sex Change), skillfully tackling the subject of transsexuality, and using it as an embodiment of the contemporary political transition. This film marks a switch in Aranda's filmography.
He began to use a more realistic style rather than the stylish aesthetics prominent in his early films. Cambio de Sexo also marks the beginning of his long collaboration with Victoria Abril, who became his favorite actress. Over the next three decades, director and star worked together in a dozen films that would include major artistic triumphs for both. Cambio de Sexo dramatizes the development of the destape – the period in the late 1970s and early 1980s Spain characterized by a much more open portrayal of sex in the press, literature and film.
Cambio de Sexo recounts the story of a young effeminate boy, played by Victoria Abril, who lives in the outskirts of Barcelona and escapes to the city to explore his desire to become a woman. The character of the young man is an embodiment of the changes in Spain, with political extremes of uncompromising orthodoxy and unrestrained anarchy. Cambio de Sexo lured audiences with its controversial theme, and it was released to critical acclaim.
La Muchacha de las Bragas de Oro (1980)
Sexuality and the past, key themes in Aranda's work, are at the center of La Muchacha de las Bragas de Oro (1980) (Girl with the Golden Panties). This was an adaptation of a popular novel by his fellow Catalan Juan Marsé, in which Aranda displayed a more mature style. A Falangist character is writing his memoirs and shapes his past to the new democratic realities. His world of lies falls apart when he is confronted by his carefree niece, who playfully starts a game of seduction.
Always interested in literature, over the next fifteen years, Aranda became Spain's foremost adapter of popular contemporary novels into film. His films have been adapted from short narratives to novels, as well as biographies. His choices usually were guided by the centrality of an erotically defined female character, and a contemporary story emphasizing the force of the milieu on the shaping of actions.
For Aranda, adapting a literary work did not involve complications of faithfulness, or lack of the same, to the original text. For him the novel was a raw material with which to create new forms: " As for adaptations, I feel very comfortable doing them. I don't have a problem with authorship. I don't think I am more of an author if I write a screenplay of something I've read on the newspapers or seen on the street that if I take a novel and make a movie based on its contents".
Asesinato en el Comité Central (1982)
After democracy was installed in Spain, Aranda made a film politically charged with the aftereffects of Franco's regime: Asesinato en el Comité Central (1982) (Murder in the Central Committee). In this thriller, a power cut interrupts the proceedings of the Communist Congress. When the lights come back on, the leader is found dead, murdered. The film was based on one of a series of novels by Manuel Vázquez Montalbán that featured a hard-boiled detective called Pepe Carvalho. The intrigue runs a poor second to Aranda's commentary on the Spanish transition to democracy. " The truth is that I cannot think of another film that deals with this fascinating period', he stated, there is a kind of collective amnesia about the time".
Much of the film's action is filtered through headlines and television reports in imitation of the way in which the Spanish public lived the transition. The televised funeral of the Communist leader is a sly montage of mourners at the funeral of Franco. La Pasionaria (the legendary Spanish Communist leader who lived in exile in the Soviet Union during much of the dictatorship) is portrayed as a senile old dear who sits next to the victim but does not realize he is dead. Like La Muchacha de las Bragas de Oro, this was a film about extremist coming together in a democracy, in this case in order to solve a crime. Whodunnit ? it does not matter. As the interior minister exclaims: "In the same way that we've had to forget everything, you should do the same."
This was Aranda's first work to be shot in Madrid instead of his native Barcelona. The film was not successful commercially.
Fanny Pelopaja (1984)
Aranda adapted the popular Catalan author Andreu Martín's noir detective novel, Prótesis. He changed the male protagonist into a female and titled his film, Fanny Pelopaja (1984). The film depicts a violent love-hate relationship between a delinquent woman and a corrupt police officer, with whom she wants to get even.
Co-financed by French producers, the film was made in Barcelona with Spanish supporting cast and crew, and with two French actors in the lead. Dissatisfied with the French dubbing of the film, done without his oversight, Aranda tried to stop the premiere of the film in France. It was released under the title, Á coups de crosse. As a result of this dispute, Aranda sold the film's shares in Morgana Films, the production company he had created. Fanny Pelopaja failed to find an audience when first released, but now has become one of Aranda's best regarded works.
El Crimen del Capitán Sánchez (1984)
Needing to make some money, Aranda accepted a job to take part in La Huella del Crimen (The Trace of the Crime), a television series consisting of six episodes depicting infamous crimes in Spain. He was one of several renowned Spanish film directors: Pedro Olea, Angelino Fons, Ricardo Franco, Juan Antonio Bardem, Pedro Costa and Vicente Aranda, who were each invited to direct an episode.
Aranda's chapter, El Crimen del Capitán Sánchez (1984) (Captain Sánchez's Crime), was considered the best episode of the series. Made in 16 mm and with a very low budget, the one-hour film tells a story in which incest, jealousy and death mix in Spain at the beginning of the 20th century. The title character is a military officer, who supports his poor family and pays his gambling debts by plotting an elaborate trap to swindle money from those who fall for the charms of his pretty eldest daughter.
Tiempo de Silencio (1986)
Aranda's career began to soar when he made Tiempo de Silencio (1986) (Time of Silence), an adaptation of the famed Luis Martín Santos novel of the same name. The film had a major cast headed by Imanol Arias, Victoria Abril and Francisco Rabal. Set in the 1940s in the early days of Franco's regime, the plot tells of an ambitious doctor who is accused of killing a woman. But he had tried to save her life after a botched abortion, which was then illegal. The story moves from the sordid lives of the poor in shanty dwellings to the hypocrisy of the middle classes under Franco's regime. Aranda used themes of sexuality to explore political and historical issues. Though the film was criticized by some for his simplifying the narrative complexity of the Martín Santos novel, Time of Silence was generally well received by audiences.
El Lute (1987)
Aranda took a deconstructive approach to the manipulation of popular myth in his two-part biopic: El Lute: camina o revienta (1987) (El Lute, Run for Your Life), and El Lute II, mañana seré libre (1988) (El Lute Tomorrow I'll be Free), based on two volumes of memoirs by the legendary criminal Eleuterio Sánchez, who had escaped from prison several times. El Lute: camina o revienta (1987) (El Lute, Run for Your Life) concerns the early life of Sanchez, known as El Lute, who claimed to have been forced into delinquency in the 1960s by poverty and lack of education. After an early nomadic period of his life, El Lute moves to Madrid's slums outskirts. He became involved in a robbery and murder; was convicted and, at age 23, lucky to gain a commutation of his death sentence to 30 years in prison. His escapes from jail turned him into a popular folk hero and public enemy number one for the Franco police.
Aranda's hybrid combination of period drama, thriller and social realism reveals how the criminal career and media profile of this petty thief were manipulated and exploited by the authorities as a diversionary tactic at a time of political unrest. El Lute: camina o revienta (1987) (El Lute, Run for Your Life) was one of Aranda's most successful adaptations. It was the highest-grossing Spanish film in 1987.
El Lute II, mañana seré libre (1988)
In the second part: El Lute II, mañana seré libre (1988) (El Lute: Tomorrow I'll be Free), El Lute as a fugitive became reunited with his siblings. He tries to start a new life, but fails to fit in as a normal member of society. Following his escape from prison, El Lute becomes the focus of an obsessive pursuit by the Francoist authorities. He was the object of massive popular interest by the press and public in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Compared to Aranda's strongly realistic and political tone in the first installment, in El Lute II, mañana seré libre, he took a more fictionalized, folkloric approach, adopting a more pronounced thriller style. Featuring violence and eroticism, the film delivered a resounding critique of the Franco regime and its brutal treatment of the Spanish merchero and gitano populations.
Si te dicen que caí (1989)
Aranda made his most sexually explicit film with Si te dicen que caí (1989) (If They Tell You I Fell), adapted from the novel of the same name by Juan Marsé. With a labyrinthine structure in which imaginary facts and real events are blended in a crosswords style, the main part of the story is set in the old quarter of 1940s Barcelona during the early years of Francoist repression. The plot features a young man who, trying to survive in the aftermath of the Civil War, is hired to perform sexual acts with a prostitute; they are to be viewed by a rich falangist rendered crippled during the war. With a large cast, including Victoria Abril playing three different characters, the film was daring and ambitious in its scope.
Los Jinetes del Alba (1990)
At the request of Pilar Miró, then director of TVE, Aranda took on Los Jinetes del Alba (1990) (Riders of the Dawn) an adaptation of the novel by Jesús Fernández Santos about the Spanish Civil War and the anarchist movement.
Made as a five-part TV miniseries, it features a young woman ambitious to own the resort where she works in a small town in Asturias. When she finally achieves her goal, there is little to rejoice about. Aranda's favorite topics: cruelty, violence and sex pervade this story framed by the tumultuous life of Spain in the 1930s, the uprising in Asturias in 1934, and the Spanish Civil War. This is one Aranda's most paradigmatic works.
Amantes (1991)
In the 1990s, Aranda continued to make films that were commercial hits at home and were shown at film festivals worldwide. With Amantes (1991) (Lovers), he finally achieved wide international exposure and critical acclaim. This tragic story of forbidden passions and betrayed innocence is a film noir, inspired by real events. In the repressive Spain during the early 1950s, a young man just out of military service is torn between his attraction for the two opposite women who love him: his girlfriend, a naïve maid and his landlady, an attractive, scheming widow.
Originally conceived as a television project, Amantes was made with few actors, a small crew, and with few exterior locations. It is widely considered as the director's most accomplished work, becoming a classic of Spanish Cinema. It marked the beginning of Aranda's most prolific period.
El Amante Bilingüe (1993)
Still exploring the passion of love, Aranda directed El Amante Bilingüe (1993) (The Bilingual Lover), an adaptation of a story by Juan Marsé. Set in Barcelona, this ironic film mixes Catalan linguistic policies, nationalism and eroticism with a pattern of double identity. The central character is a humble man who falls in love with a beautiful rich woman; they marry but his unfaithful wife abandons him later. After being horribly disfigured in an explosion, he gradually adopts a new personal identity in an effort to lure back his spoiled ex-wife.
Intruso (1993)
Some of Vicente Aranda films present real events, things that happen on the street but that have had the appearance of the exceptional occurrences, where passion, toughness, and violence manage to acquire a tone of unreality that is almost literary. In Intruso (1993) (Intruder), Aranda takes the theme of the relationship between love and death through a passionate love to its ultimate conclusion. This film is a psychological thriller with his characteristic visual atmosphere and exacerbated passions. A middle-class woman is torn between her love for her spouse and her ill ex-husband, both of whom were her childhood friends. After ten years of separation, they become entangled in a tragic story.
La Pasión Turca (1994)
Aranda's films feature a woman as the protagonist and the center around which the story turns. La Pasión Turca (1994) (Turkish Passion), an adaptation of a novel by Antonio Gala, explores female sexual desire. A bored housewife from a well-to-do family, decides to risk everything by leaving her husband to return to a lover met while on holiday in Turkey. Her pursuit of sexual pleasure leads her to an obsessive dependence, degradation, and total collapse of her self esteem. La Pasión Turca became one of Spain's highest-grossing films of the 1990s.
Libertarias (1996)
Aranda returned to the Spanish Civil War in Libertarias (1996) (Libertarians), an epic drama with an ensemble cast that reconstructs the role played by anarchist women during the Spanish Civil War. It is set in Barcelona at the start of the war, where a young naive nun flees her convent and seeks refuge in a brothel. There she and the prostitutes are recruited to the anarchist cause. Together, a group of six women (Mujeres Libres or Free Women) face the perils of war but their idealistic dreams are brutally crushed.
La Mirada del Otro (1998)
La Mirada del Otro (1998) (The Naked Eye), based on a novel by Fernando G. Delgado, is an erotic psychodrama. Aranda features a woman in her 30s embarks on a quest for sexual pleasure which only brings her loneliness. In this case, the public and critics felt that the plot was sordid to the extent that it overwhelmed the credibility of the characters; it did not do well.
Celos (1999)
Aranda returned to familiar territory with Celos (1999) (Jealousy), his third work in a trilogy exploring the love triangle, together with his earlier Amantes and Intruso. He created a story about destructive passions that lead to tragedy. A truck driver is tormented by jealousy about the man who was the former boyfriend of his beautiful fiancée. The driver tris to find the man and learn more about their previous relationship.
"Jealousy is at the center of stories of passion", Aranda explained. "To suffer with relish, there is nothing better than uncertainty. A good story demands that audiences share the same doubts than the main characters in the story: whether there is or is not a betrayal. There is always some else lurking and we also know that crime is among us even if it exists albeit only at the bottom of our hearts".
Juana la Loca (2001)
In the early 21st century, Aranda started to explore period pieces, initiating a trilogy of historic costume dramas with Juana La Loca (2001) (Mad Love), a reinterpretation of the tragic fate of the 15th-century Spanish queen, Joanna of Castile. At a time when royal marriages were made to secure political alliances, she fell madly in love with her husband and suffered from his infidelity. A commercial and critical hit in Spain, the film was the nation's official entry at the 2001 Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film. It became Aranda's biggest box-office movie.
Carmen (2003)
Desire and betrayal, themes that have been recurrent in Aranda's career, are central to the plot of Carmen (2003), a film based on Prosper Mérimée's 1845 novella about jealousy and passion. (This had also inspired the opera of the same name composed by Georges Bizet. Set in Andalusia in 1830, a military officer is seduced by a striking gypsy girl who works in a cigarette factory. His love for her brings his downfall. The film was made with high production values and it was another success with audiences for the veteran director.
Tirant lo Blanc (2006)
Aranda completed his costume drama trilogy with Tirant lo Blanc (2006) (The Maidens' Conspiracy), an adaptation of a seminal Catalan chivalry novel, written in the 15th century by Joanot Martorell. The plot follows the adventures of Tirante, a knight from humble origins in the Byzantine Empire, who gains the favor of the ailing Emperor by his triumphs in fighting the incursion into Constantinople by the Turks. Tirante later seduces the royal family's only surviving child, a young, fanciful, and impressionable princess.
This is Aranda's most expensive work and was made with a large budget. The film has both humor and drama, is lavish, risqué, and skillfully composed, but it was considered to be superficial and unsatisfying. Tirant lo Blanc did not enjoy the success of the director's two previous films.
Canciones de Amor en Lolita's club (2007)
Aranda has created a niche in adapting novels by Juan Marsé for film. With La Muchacha de las Bragas de Oro (1980); Si te dicen que caí (1989), El Amante Bilingüe (1993), and Canciones de Amor en Lolita's club (2007) (Lolita's Club), the director has a track record of four adaptations from Marsé's contemporary novels.
Canciones de amor en Lolita's Club (2007) is an erotic thriller, in which sex and brutality are mixed in a story of very different twin brothers. One is a coldhearted, violent police officer; the other is a helpless romantic suffering from a mental handicap. The two brothers become involved with a prostitute who works in the bordello for which the film is named. Released in November 2007, the film was widely considered a disappointment and quickly disappeared from the Spanish screens.
Luna Caliente (2009)
Aranda's last film, Luna Caliente (2009) (Hot Moon), tells the story of a poet who briefly returns to his home town, gets entangled in a web of sex and violence. He rapes the young daughter of his host. The script is based on a novel by Argentine Mempo Giardinelli, which places the action during the last military coup in Argentina.
Aranda set the story in Spain of the 1970s during the process of Burgos, under which some of the last death sentences in Spain during Franco's regime were executed. Luna Caliente premiered in October 2009 at the Valladolid International Film Festival, but it failed to find an audience.
Filmography
Notes
References
Alvarez, Rosa & Frias, Belen. Vicente Aranda: El Cine Como Pasión. Huelva, XX Festival de Cine Iberoamericano de Huelva, 1994,
Benavent, Francisco María. Cine Español de los Noventa. Ediciones Mensajero, 2000,
Cánovás, Joaquín (ed.), Varios Autores: Miradas sobre el cine de Vicente Aranda. Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 2000,
Colmena, Enrique. Vicente Aranda. Cátedra, Madrid, 1986,
D'Lugo, Marvin. Guide to the Cinema of Spain. Greenwood Press, 1997.
Guarner, José Luis. El Inquietante Cine de Vicente Aranda. Imagfic, D.L.1985
Majarín, Sara. Una vida de cine: Pasión, Utopía, Historia: Lecciones de Vicente Aranda. Editorial Zumaque S.L., 2013.
Jordan, Barry & Morgan-Tomosunas, Rikki. Contemporary Spanish Cinema, Manchester University Press, 1998,
Mira, Alberto. Historical Dictionary of Spanish Cinema. The Scarecrow Press, 2010,
Perriam, Chris. Stars and Masculinity in Spanish Cinema: From Banderas to Bardem. Oxford University Press, 2003. .
Stone, Rob, Spanish Cinema. Pearson Education, 2002,
Torres, Augusto. Diccionario del cine Español. Espasa Calpe, 1994,
Vera, Pascual. Vicente Aranda. Ediciones J.C, Madrid, 1989,
External links
1926 births
2015 deaths
Film directors from Barcelona
Film directors from Aragon
Film directors from Catalonia
Best Director Goya Award winners
Spanish expatriates in Venezuela
Spanish male screenwriters |
4263231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replisome | Replisome | The replisome is a complex molecular machine that carries out replication of DNA. The replisome first unwinds double stranded DNA into two single strands. For each of the resulting single strands, a new complementary sequence of DNA is synthesized. The total result is formation of two new double stranded DNA sequences that are exact copies of the original double stranded DNA sequence.
In terms of structure, the replisome is composed of two replicative polymerase complexes, one of which synthesizes the leading strand, while the other synthesizes the lagging strand. The replisome is composed of a number of proteins including helicase, RFC, PCNA, gyrase/topoisomerase, SSB/RPA, primase, DNA polymerase III, RNAse H, and ligase.
Overview of prokaryotic DNA replication process
For prokaryotes, each dividing nucleoid (region containing genetic material which is not a nucleus) requires two replisomes for bidirectional replication. The two replisomes continue replication at both forks in the middle of the cell. Finally, as the termination site replicates, the two replisomes separate from the DNA. The replisome remains at a fixed, midcell location in the cell, attached to the membrane, and the template DNA threads through it. DNA is fed through the stationary pair of replisomes located at the cell membrane.
Overview of eukaryotic DNA replication process
For eukaryotes, numerous replication bubbles form at origins of replication throughout the chromosome. As with prokaryotes, two replisomes are required, one at each replication fork located at the terminus of the replication bubble. Because of significant differences in chromosome size, and the associated complexities of highly condensed chromosomes, various aspects of the DNA replication process in eukaryotes, including the terminal phases, are less well-characterised than for prokaryotes.
Challenges of DNA replication
The replisome is a system in which various factors work together to solve the structural and chemical challenges of DNA replication. Chromosome size and structure varies between organisms, but since DNA molecules are the reservoir of genetic information for all forms of life, many replication challenges and solutions are the same for different organisms. As a result, the replication factors that solve these problems are highly conserved in terms of structure, chemistry, functionality, or sequence. General structural and chemical challenges include the following:
Efficient replisome assembly at origins of replication (origin recognition complexes or specific replication origin sequences in some organisms)
Separating the duplex into the leading and lagging template strands (helicases)
Protecting the leading and lagging strands from damage after duplex separation (SSB and RPA factors)
Priming of the leading and lagging template strands (primase or DNA polymerase alpha)
Ensuring processivity (clamp loading factors, ring-shaped clamp proteins, strand binding proteins)
High-fidelity DNA replication (DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase delta, DNA polymerase epsilon. All have intrinsically low error rates because of their structure and chemistry.)
Error correction (replicative polymerase active sites sense errors; 3' to 5' exonuclease domains of replicative polymerases fix errors)
Synchronised polymerisation of leading and lagging strands despite anti-parallel structure (replication fork structure, dimerisation of replicative polymerases)
Primer removal (DNA polymerase I, RNAse H, flap endonucleases such as FEN1, or other DNA repair factors)
Formation of phosphodiester bonds at gaps between Okazaki fragments (ligase)
In general, the challenges of DNA replication involve the structure of the molecules, the chemistry of the molecules, and, from a systems perspective, the underlying relationships between the structure and the chemistry.
Solving the challenges of DNA replication
Many of the structural and chemical problems associated with DNA replication are managed by molecular machinery that is highly conserved across organisms. This section discusses how replisome factors solve the structural and chemical challenges of DNA replication.
Replisome assembly
DNA replication begins at sites called origins of replication. In organisms with small genomes and simple chromosome structure, such as bacteria, there may be only a few origins of replication on each chromosome. Organisms with large genomes and complex chromosome structure, such as humans, may have hundreds, or even thousands, of origins of replication spread across multiple chromosomes.
DNA structure varies with time, space, and sequence, and it is thought that these variations, in addition to their role in gene expression, also play active roles in replisome assembly during DNA synthesis. Replisome assembly at an origin of replication is roughly divided into three phases.
For bacteria:
Formation of pre-replication complex. DnaA binds to the origin recognition complex and separates the duplex. This attracts DnaB helicase and DnaC, which maintain the replication bubble.
Formation of pre-initiation complex. SSB binds to the single strand and then gamma (clamp loading factor) binds to SSB.
Formation of initiation complex. Gamma deposits the sliding clamp (beta) and attracts DNA polymerase III.
For eukaryotes:
Formation of pre-replication complex. MCM factors bind to the origin recognition complex and separate the duplex, forming a replication bubble.
Formation of pre-initiation complex. Replication protein A (RPA) binds to the single stranded DNA and then RFC (clamp loading factor) binds to RPA.
Formation of initiation complex. RFC deposits the sliding clamp (PCNA) and attracts DNA polymerases such as alpha (α), delta (δ), epsilon (ε).
For both bacteria and eukaryotes, the next stage is generally referred to as 'elongation', and it is during this phase that the majority of DNA synthesis occurs.
Separating the duplex
DNA is a duplex formed by two anti-parallel strands. Following Meselson-Stahl, the process of DNA replication is semi-conservative, whereby during replication the original DNA duplex is separated into two daughter strands (referred to as the leading and lagging strand templates). Each daughter strand becomes part of a new DNA duplex. Factors generically referred to as helicases unwind the duplex.
Helicases
Helicase is an enzyme which breaks hydrogen bonds between the base pairs in the middle of the DNA duplex. Its doughnut like structure wraps around DNA and separates the strands ahead of DNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, the Mcm2-7 complex acts as a helicase, though which subunits are required for helicase activity is not entirely clear. This helicase translocates in the same direction as the DNA polymerase (3' to 5' with respect to the template strand). In prokaryotic organisms, the helicases are better identified and include dnaB, which moves 5' to 3' on the strand opposite the DNA polymerase.
Unwinding supercoils and decatenation
As helicase unwinds the double helix, topological changes induced by the rotational motion of the helicase lead to supercoil formation ahead of the helicase (similar to what happens when you twist a piece of thread).
Gyrase and topoisomerases
Gyrase (a form of topoisomerase) relaxes and undoes the supercoiling caused by helicase. It does this by cutting the DNA strands, allowing it to rotate and release the supercoil, and then rejoining the strands. Gyrase is most commonly found upstream of the replication fork, where the supercoils form.
Protecting the leading and lagging strands
Single-stranded DNA is highly unstable and can form hydrogen bonds with itself that are referred to as 'hairpins' (or the single strand can improperly bond to the other single strand). To counteract this instability, single-strand binding proteins (SSB in prokaryotes and Replication protein A in eukaryotes) bind to the exposed bases to prevent improper ligation.
If you consider each strand as a "dynamic, stretchy string", the structural potential for improper ligation should be obvious.
An expanded schematic reveals the underlying chemistry of the problem: the potential for hydrogen bond formation between unrelated base pairs.
Binding proteins stabilise the single strand and protected the strand from damage caused by unlicensed chemical reactions.
The combination of a single strand and its binding proteins serves as a better substrate for replicative polymerases than a naked single strand (binding proteins provide extra thermodynamic driving force for the polymerisation reaction). Strand binding proteins are removed by replicative polymerases.
Priming the leading and lagging strands
From both a structural and chemical perspective, a single strand of DNA by itself (and the associated single strand binding proteins) is not suitable for polymerisation. This is because the chemical reactions catalysed by replicative polymerases require a free 3' OH in order to initiate nucleotide chain elongation. In terms of structure, the conformation of replicative polymerase active sites (which is highly related to the inherent accuracy of replicative polymerases) means these factors cannot start chain elongation without a pre-existing chain of nucleotides, because no known replicative polymerase can start chain elongation de novo.
Priming enzymes, (which are DNA-dependent RNA polymerases), solve this problem by creating an RNA primer on the leading and lagging strands. The leading strand is primed once, and the lagging strand is primed approximately every 1000 (+/- 200) base pairs (one primer for each Okazaki fragment on the lagging strand). Each RNA primer is approximately 10 bases long.
The interface at (A*) contains a free 3' OH that is chemically suitable for the reaction catalysed by replicative polymerases, and the "overhang" configuration is structurally suitable for chain elongation by a replicative polymerase. Thus, replicative polymerases can begin chain elongation at (A*).
Primase
In prokaryotes, the primase creates an RNA primer at the beginning of the newly separated leading and lagging strands.
DNA polymerase alpha
In eukaryotes, DNA polymerase alpha creates an RNA primer at the beginning of the newly separated leading and lagging strands, and, unlike primase, DNA polymerase alpha also synthesizes a short chain of deoxynucleotides after creating the primer.
Ensuring processivity and synchronisation
Processivity refers to both speed and continuity of DNA replication, and high processivity is a requirement for timely replication. High processivity is in part ensured by ring-shaped proteins referred to as 'clamps' that help replicative polymerases stay associated with the leading and lagging strands. There are other variables as well: from a chemical perspective, strand binding proteins stimulate polymerisation and provide extra thermodynamic energy for the reaction. From a systems perspective, the structure and chemistry of many replisome factors (such as the AAA+ ATPase features of the individual clamp loading sub-units, along with the helical conformation they adopt), and the associations between clamp loading factors and other accessory factors, also increases processivity.
To this point, according to research by Kuriyan et al., due to their role in recruiting and binding other factors such as priming enzymes and replicative polymerases, clamp loaders and sliding clamps are at the heart of the replisome machinery. Research has found that clamp loading and sliding clamp factors are absolutely essential to replication, which explains the high degree of structural conservation observed for clamp loading and sliding clamp factors. This architectural and structural conservation is seen in organisms as diverse as bacteria, phages, yeast, and humans. That such a significant degree of structural conservation is observed without sequence homology further underpins the significance of these structural solutions to replication challenges.
Clamp loader
Clamp loader is a generic term that refers to replication factors called gamma (bacteria) or RFC (eukaryotes). The combination of template DNA and primer RNA is referred to as 'A-form DNA' and it is thought that clamp loading replication proteins (helical heteropentamers) want to associate with A-form DNA because of its shape (the structure of the major/minor groove) and chemistry (patterns of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors). Thus, clamp loading proteins associate with the primed region of the strand which causes hydrolysis of ATP and provides energy to open the clamp and attach it to the strand.
Sliding clamp
Sliding clamp is a generic term that refers to ring-shaped replication factors called beta (bacteria) or PCNA (eukaryotes and archaea). Clamp proteins attract and tether replicative polymerases, such as DNA polymerase III, in order to extend the amount of time that a replicative polymerase stays associated with the strand. From a chemical perspective, the clamp has a slightly positive charge at its centre that is a near perfect match for the slightly negative charge of the DNA strand.
In some organisms, the clamp is a dimer, and in other organisms the clamp is a trimer. Regardless, the conserved ring architecture allows the clamp to enclose the strand.
Dimerisation of replicative polymerases
Replicative polymerases form an asymmetric dimer at the replication fork by binding to sub-units of the clamp loading factor. This asymmetric conformation is capable of simultaneously replicating the leading and lagging strands, and the collection of factors that includes the replicative polymerases is generally referred to as a holoenzyme. However, significant challenges remain: the leading and lagging strands are anti-parallel. This means that nucleotide synthesis on the leading strand naturally occurs in the 5' to 3' direction. However, the lagging strand runs in the opposite direction and this presents quite a challenge since no known replicative polymerases can synthesise DNA in the 3' to 5' direction.
The dimerisation of the replicative polymerases solves the problems related to efficient synchronisation of leading and lagging strand synthesis at the replication fork, but the tight spatial-structural coupling of the replicative polymerases, while solving the difficult issue of synchronisation, creates another challenge: dimerisation of the replicative polymerases at the replication fork means that nucleotide synthesis for both strands must take place at the same spatial location, despite the fact that the lagging strand must be synthesised backwards relative to the leading strand. Lagging strand synthesis takes place after the helicase has unwound a sufficient quantity of the lagging strand, and this "sufficient quantity of the lagging strand" is polymerised in discrete nucleotide chains called Okazaki fragments.
Consider the following: the helicase continuously unwinds the parental duplex, but the lagging strand must be polymerised in the opposite direction. This means that, while polymerisation of the leading strand proceeds, polymerisation of the lagging strand only occurs after enough of the lagging strand has been unwound by the helicase. At this point, the lagging strand replicative polymerase associates with the clamp and primer in order to start polymerisation. During lagging strand synthesis, the replicative polymerase sends the lagging strand back toward the replication fork. The replicative polymerase disassociates when it reaches an RNA primer. Helicase continues to unwind the parental duplex, the priming enzyme affixes another primer, and the replicative polymerase reassociates with the clamp and primer when a sufficient quantity of the lagging strand has unwound.
Collectively, leading and lagging strand synthesis is referred to as being 'semidiscontinuous'.
High-fidelity DNA replication
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms use a variety of replicative polymerases, some of which are well-characterised:
DNA polymerase III
DNA polymerase delta
DNA polymerase epsilon
DNA polymerase III
This polymerase synthesizes leading and lagging strand DNA in bacteria.
DNA polymerase delta
This polymerase synthesizes lagging strand DNA in eukaryotes. (Thought to form an asymmetric dimer with DNA polymerase epsilon.)
DNA polymerase epsilon
This polymerase synthesizes leading strand DNA in eukaryotes. (Thought to form an asymmetric dimer with DNA polymerase delta.)
Proof-reading and error correction
Although rare, incorrect base pairing polymerisation does occur during chain elongation. (The structure and chemistry of replicative polymerases mean that errors are unlikely, but they do occur.) Many replicative polymerases contain an "error correction" mechanism in the form of a 3' to 5' exonuclease domain that is capable of removing base pairs from the exposed 3' end of the growing chain. Error correction is possible because base pair errors distort the position of the magnesium ions in the polymerisation sub-unit, and the structural-chemical distortion of the polymerisation unit effectively stalls the polymerisation process by slowing the reaction. Subsequently, the chemical reaction in the exonuclease unit takes over and removes nucleotides from the exposed 3' end of the growing chain. Once an error is removed, the structure and chemistry of the polymerisation unit returns to normal and DNA replication continues. Working collectively in this fashion, the polymerisation active site can be thought of as the "proof-reader", since it senses mismatches, and the exonuclease is the "editor", since it corrects the errors.
Base pair errors distort the polymerase active site for between 4 and 6 nucleotides, which means, depending on the type of mismatch, there are up to six chances for error correction. The error sensing and error correction features, combined with the inherent accuracy that arises from the structure and chemistry of replicative polymerases, contribute to an error rate of approximately 1 base pair mismatch in 108 to 1010 base pairs.
Errors can be classified in three categories: purine-purine mismatches, pyrimidine-pyrimidine mismatches, and pyrimidine-purine mismatches. The chemistry of each mismatch varies, and so does the behaviour of the replicative polymerase with respect to its mismatch sensing activity.
The replication of bacteriophage T4 DNA upon infection of E. coli is a well-studied DNA replication system. During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37°C, the rate of elongation is 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate during replication is 1.7 mutations per 108 base pairs. Thus DNA replication in this system is both very rapid and highly accurate.
Primer removal and nick ligation
There are two problems after leading and lagging strand synthesis: RNA remains in the duplex and there are nicks between each Okazaki fragment in the lagging duplex. These problems are solved by a variety of DNA repair enzymes that vary by organism, including: DNA polymerase I, DNA polymerase beta, RNAse H, ligase, and DNA2. This process is well-characterised in bacteria and much less well-characterised in many eukaryotes.
In general, DNA repair enzymes complete the Okazaki fragments through a variety of means, including: base pair excision and 5' to 3' exonuclease activity that removes the chemically unstable ribonucleotides from the lagging duplex and replaces them with stable deoxynucleotides. This process is referred to as 'maturation of Okazaki fragments', and ligase (see below) completes the final step in the maturation process.
Primer removal and nick ligation can be thought of as DNA repair processes that produce a chemically-stable, error-free duplex. To this point, with respect to the chemistry of an RNA-DNA duplex, in addition to the presence of uracil in the duplex, the presence of ribose (which has a reactive 2' OH) tends to make the duplex much less chemically-stable than a duplex containing only deoxyribose (which has a non-reactive 2' H).
DNA polymerase I
DNA polymerase I is an enzyme that repairs DNA.
RNAse H
RNAse H is an enzyme that removes RNA from an RNA-DNA duplex.
Ligase
After DNA repair factors replace the ribonucleotides of the primer with deoxynucleotides, a single gap remains in the sugar-phosphate backbone between each Okazaki fragment in the lagging duplex. An enzyme called DNA ligase connects the gap in the backbone by forming a phosphodiester bond between each gap that separates the Okazaki fragments. The structural and chemical aspects of this process, generally referred to as 'nick translation', exceed the scope of this article.
Replication stress
Replication stress can result in a stalled replication fork. One type of replicative stress results from DNA damage such as inter-strand cross-links (ICLs). An ICL can block replicative fork progression due to failure of DNA strand separation. In vertebrate cells, replication of an ICL-containing chromatin template triggers recruitment of more than 90 DNA repair and genome maintenance factors. These factors include proteins that perform sequential incisions and homologous recombination.
History
Katherine Lemon and Alan Grossman showed using Bacillus subtilis that replisomes do not move like trains along a track but DNA is actually fed through a stationary pair of replisomes located at the cell membrane. In their experiment, the replisomes in B. subtilis were each tagged with green fluorescent protein, and the location of the complex was monitored in replicating cells using fluorescence microscopy. If the replisomes moved like a train on a track, the polymerase-GFP protein would be found at different positions in each cell. Instead, however, in every replicating cell, replisomes were observed as distinct fluorescent foci located at or near midcell. Cellular DNA stained with a blue fluorescent dye (DAPI) clearly occupied most of the cytoplasmic space.
References
Further reading
External links
Molecular genetics
DNA replication |
4263577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire%20of%20the%20Rising%20Sun | Empire of the Rising Sun | Empire of The Rising Sun (RSN–1995) is a board wargame published originally by Avalon Hill, designed by Bruce Harper with much input by Dave Casper into the naval warfare rules. This is the Pacific War companion game to Advanced Third Reich (A3R), using similar rules, and containing once again a copy of "Ultra" magazine with a synopsis of the game. A previous version, occasionally discussed in the pages of The General magazine, had been in development the late 1970s, but was never published.
Pacific Map
The map (designed by Charlie Kibler) is made up of two 31" × 22" sheets with 1" hexes and depicts the whole of the Pacific Ocean including parts of Australia, India, China, Russia & Japan. As in Europe the United States is represented by an off-map U.S. Box, although the Aleutian Islands (Alaska) and the Hawaiian Islands are shown on the map. The map is on a larger scale than the European war, so air units have range of 3 not 4, armour Zones of Control cost only one extra movement point (not 2) to move through and do not extend into rough terrain, while exploiting armour must keep to a chain of adjacent hexes, rather than one hex apart. The capture of hexes through attrition is much less likely.
Eastern India and the northern parts of Australia (including Darwin and Cairns) are shown on the map. A (black-and-white) extension map for the whole of Australia was published in "Ultra" magazine in the late 1990s. The game includes rules for a successful Japanese player to force the surrender of India or Australia by transferring units into the relevant off-map box and conducting attrition combat. Strategic Redeployment of forces from one theatre to another (it takes a turn to move from one off-map box - the European US box, the Pacific US box, South Africa, Western India, Southern Australia, SouthWest Pacific - to another) can take several seasons.
Much of the eastern map is taken up by ocean, dotted with island groups - a player need not occupy every single island to control the group, provided no enemy units are present. Units can stay unsupplied in a port or on a 1-hex island without being eliminated.
The summer turn is the monsoon, in which attack or movement into rough terrain is forbidden. In normal weather Allied units (apart from Chindits or stealthy Australians) must stop in rough or jungle terrain, but Japanese can move freely through. However, after the Japanese seizure of Malaya and Burma in Winter 1941, land movement will probably play little role in the game, until the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the final turns; the land war in China is usually an ongoing attrition and stalemate.
Naval Warfare
Aircraft Carriers & Naval Aviators
The naval war will take up most of players' time during the game, the explicit idea being that a major Pacific naval battle will take as long to resolve as an armour offensive on the Eastern Front. Players still have generic naval factors as in the European game, but also have separate named aircraft carriers, normally of two (CVL) or three (CV) factors. The former are much easier to sink, and take a year to rebuild (CVs take two years). The US also has some optional four factor carriers (CVB) which did not see service in the actual war. Each carrier factor can base a single Naval Air Squadron (NAS) - one third of the size of an Army Air Factor, but equal for combat strength if fighting "over water" (although, because of the size differential, three losses would need to be inflicted to destroy a single AAF). Naval Air Squadrons may also base at cities, and one squadron and/or 9 naval factors may base on a one-hex island.
Japanese naval air squadrons start the game as "elite", using distinctive black-on-yellow counters and with a +1 Die Roll Modifier for combat. When eliminated, these are replaced with normal air squadrons, but the intense training required by naval aviators means Japan is limited to rebuilding 3 squadrons per turn. Whereas the American Air Training limit increases over time, a major battle (like Midway in reality) can cost Japan more naval air squadrons than she can replace in a year, and by 1944 Japan may well find herself with empty aircraft carriers as was the case at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. When the Americans draw close enough to the Home Islands, Japan may resort to building nine kamikaze air squadrons per turn. Kamikazes, for which the elite black-on-yellow counters are once again used, perform poorly in combat (-2 Die Roll Modifier) but their suicide attacks hit Allied ships at double strength.
Taskforces & Patrols
Naval forces may now be sent out as taskforces, which may not be examined by the other side. A taskforce may "Patrol" by "changing base" to a sea hex, where it remains throughout the enemy player turn. A patrol may attack any enemy land-based air in range (rolling for surprise as appropriate), after which enemy naval interception of the patrol, if attempted, is automatic. The following player turn the patrol (or a successful intercepting force, which may itself remain on patrol in the sea hex) may intercept enemy naval moves or give ground support to an attack (carriers may never give Defensive Air Support to ground units). A patrol might, therefore, lurk near to the target hex of a seaborne invasion, ready to take out enemy land-based air and head off enemy naval forces. Like any naval force, a patrol may not be intercepted on its way home after its mission is completed.
Naval Combat
For naval combat a player may split his taskforce into "combat groups" of at least nine factors each.
Before each combat round each player allocates his naval air squadrons to attack enemy land bases in range or the enemy fleet, while up to half his naval air squadrons may be CAP (combat air patrol - flying in defence of their own combat group). Each player then makes a search roll to see how many enemy combat groups are located (if not located they cannot be attacked that round). The search roll is affected by radar, and will be higher, the more friendly combat groups a player has and the more nearby airbases containing at least one friendly squadron (the number of squadrons in each base is irrelevant, so it is better to build a network of small forces), and the more enemy combat groups which are escorting a supply line, or carrying invasion troops (it therefore makes sense to group these "slow" elements in a single combat group - players also sometimes place a single 9-factor fleet as a decoy in the first combat group to make the fast carriers harder to locate and attack). Although some element of the fog of war is (obviously) lost naval battles are perfectly playable solitaire by making rational deployment choices for each side.
Before located combat groups are attacked, that group's CAP (which have a +1 DRM) may engage as many attackers as they like (so 2 squadrons of CAP might pick off a single attacking squadron to improve their chances). AAF based nearby may also give air cover. As in the European game the combat group then makes a defence roll (surviving CAP added to the defence strength), after which any surviving non-aborted attacking air may now attack the enemy combat group.
Naval Air Squadrons - but not army air factors - may target individual fast carriers, which may themselves make a separate defence roll prior to being attacked. It will be recalled that a fast carrier has 2 or 3 factors - if each factor is "destroyed" or damaged twice by the attack, the ship as a whole is deemed "sunk", while if each factor is either "destroyed" or damaged once, the ship as a whole is deemed to be "damaged" and must leave the combat (attacking NAS must return to the aircraft carrier from which they took off, or be lost if she has been sunk, although those flying CAP may land at any carrier or friendly land base (at the cost of inverting)). Any other result (i.e. at least one carrier factor remaining in pristine condition) is deemed to be repaired at sea and the carrier begins the next round of combat with all factors once again intact.
The difference between the two players' search rolls is the "surprise" result enjoyed by the player with the higher search result for that round of combat. High levels of surprise can be catastrophic, with CAP or defence rolls delayed until after the air attack or disallowed altogether, or all damage being lethal - this is what makes a disaster like the Battle of Midway possible. A second round of air attacks may now ensue, starting with a fresh search roll.
After two rounds of air attack, naval surface combat may commence, with each side adding in a new combat group with each round (once engaged in surface combat, a combat group need no longer be "searched" for!). Surface combat is actually and perhaps unrealistically rare, and not the way to sink fast carriers as they are deemed to be "screened" by any ordinary naval factors in their combat group.
There are some hard-to-remember rule anomalies - army air factors (if they survive counterair) are added to the defence strength of a naval base, but this is not true if they are giving air cover to a naval force - the opposite is true of naval air squadrons flying CAP. Some of these intricate rules were streamlined somewhat in A World At War.
Escort Carriers & Other Units
US Escort carriers (CVE) - generic factors, which do not carry separate naval air squadrons - also appear in the game. They are too slow to take part in naval interceptions, but can be used to provide ground support for attacks (carrier-based air may not intercept enemy Defensive Air Support), or take part in anti-submarine warfare.
Japan may build Island Fortresses (1 per turn), which receive an extra +1 DM if subjected to invasion. The US player receives six single-factor US Marine Divisions, added gradually to the US forcepool throughout the game, which give a countervailing DM benefit in seaborne invasions, but which must be used to take any losses resulting from such combat. The US player also receives Artificial Harbours to increase his naval basing capacity in 1944 and 1945.
Strategic Warfare
Strategic Warfare may feature destruction of BRPs by submarines of both sides. Japanese submarines - which have an initial advantage from their "Long Lance" torpedoes - determine their effectiveness by tracing distance to the eastern map edge from the most easterly Japanese naval base. American submarines grow in power throughout the game, their effectiveness being determined by tracing distance to Japan's oil supply route (from the Dutch East Indies to Japan) from the nearest US naval base. BRP losses from US submarines will be massive by 1944 but are limited to 1/4 of the value of Japan's overseas conquests each turn, but once they pass 15 BRPs per turn Japan begins to suffer from incremental "oil effects", gradually degrading her economy, submarines and surface fleet. Japan is deemed to be subject to "oil effects" in Winter 1941 from the US embargo, but these will probably be lifted once Japan achieves control of the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia).
Submarines may also operate on the map, and may attack damaged surface ships as they leave combat.
Each side may also send surface factors to sea as raiders. The USA may also raid the Japanese oil route, which may also be bombed by Army Air Factors.
The USA may also build strategic bombers. These are more effective than in Europe, as Japanese cities were built from wood, but will not be usable until the final turns of the game - although permissible bombing range increases throughout the game, in practice the USA needs to occupy the Marianas and then Okinawa, or bomb Japan from China if a sea supply route can be traced. In the final turns US strategic bombers may drop two Atomic Bombs, which besides exterminating any Japanese units in the target hex also increase the chances of Japanese surrender (see below).
Each turn the US player receives between 0 and 4 "Magic" points, representing breaking of Japanese codes, and which may be used to affect naval & submarine effectiveness, or which can be used to Strategically Redeploy a 9-factor fleet.
Game Play
Combatants
The game is essentially for two players - the USA and Japan. Britain (including Australia and India, now treated as British Minor Allies, although Australian units can be lent to the USA) has some forces in the Far East, including a few CVLs normally based in India or Ceylon (other CVLs which were based in Europe are also included, for use if the game is combined with Advanced Third Reich). The Dutch, Filipinos and Thais (Japanese Associated Minor) have tiny forces. Counters are also included for pro-Japanese Indian and Chinese separatists, who may enter through play of variants. China and the USSR also play a role, but there is no diplomacy per se during the Pacific War.
Nationalist China (white counters), the weakest of the great powers, has a theoretical base of 40 BRPs - 20 in practice (allowing a minuscule 10 BRP per turn spending limit) as four out of her five Key Economic Areas (Shanghai, Peking, Canton, Nanking, but not Chiang Kai-Shek's capital at Chungking) are already occupied by Japan prior to the start of the US-Japanese War. This makes China dependent on US BRP grants to rebuild her forces, which given the Japanese occupation of the land supply route through Vietnam and Burma, means that small numbers of BRPs must be flown "over the Hump" (over the Himalayas from Ledo to Kunming - the Allied player normally needs to base some US air factors in India to achieve this - two air factors are needed to carry each BRP). Claire Chennault's Flying Tigers (orange counters) give China her own tiny (two factor) air force.
Communist China (red counters), a minor power, has small forces present. A Chinese Resistance Table reduces the freedom of action of Chinese forces and the degree of cooperation between the two Chinese factions if China is in serious trouble.
Course of the Game
The game starts with a Japanese double-turn across Winter 1941 and Spring 1942. Japan may use this to attack Pearl Harbor, with the location of the six US fast carriers (in Pearl Harbor, out on patrol, or in the US Box) decided by die roll; Japan may also make a second air strike but without the devastating surprise of the first. Japan may also seize Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore (whose fortifications do not protect against landward attack from Malaya), Burma, the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines. During the opening turn Japanese land units may invade undefended beaches and walk inland on the same turn, while Allied ground units are subject to a -1 DM (except the US Marines on Wake Island) and Allied air units are inverted.
During 1942 the forces will be roughly equal, with six or so aircraft carriers on each side - this was the period which in reality saw tense fighting for Midway, the Coral Sea and Guadalcanal. As in Advanced Third Reich the US economic base (counted separately from the "European War" US economy) starts at 150 BRPs, but grows automatically by 20 BRP per turn after entering the war, so by 1944-5 the US economy will have grown to colossal size. American SR and initial deployment capacity are linked to the size of her base, while her forcepool increases in tranches, so by 1944-5 the USA will have achieved overwhelming strength in submarines, surface fleet and air factors. After the end of the war in Europe, the Soviets may invade Manchuria, which Japan has been required to garrison up until this point.
Japanese surrender is governed by a table, similar to the British and Soviet surrender tables in Advanced Third Reich, in which Japan is assessed each turn for loss of oil, destruction of her armed forces (a rules anomaly allows the Japanese air force to escape destruction by sheltering in the Strategic Warfare Box), loss of objectives and atomic attacks. Japan is unlikely to "win" in real terms so game victory is determined by how quickly the Allies achieve Japanese surrender (whether or not requiring atomic attacks or invasion of the home islands) compared to the actual historical timeline.
Scenarios
Besides the introductory scenarios (for Pearl Harbor, and the battles of the Coral Sea, Midway, Leyte Gulf) the game also includes full-map scenarios starting in 1942 and 1944.
The game also provides experimental rules for combining with Advanced Third Reich to simulate the whole global conflict. If there is no separate Chinese player Nationalist China, at war with Japan from the start, would be controlled by the US player, and Communist China by the Soviet player. The Designer's Notes state that ERS, shorter and less strategically complex than A3R, fits into the global war in the same proportion that the Eastern Front fits into the European War.
A US-Japanese tensions table, similar to the US-Axis Tensions table, governs relations between those two powers until they go to war with one another. Japan may seize various territories (e.g. French Indo-China—modern Vietnam—after the Fall of France in 1940, leaving Burma as the only Allied land supply route for BRPs to China), while the USA may deploy her fleet—possibly placed on alert—to Pearl Harbor and subject Japan to an oil embargo prior to the outbreak of hostilities.
Another feature of these rules is the replacement of variants (of which a basic Pacific set is included for old-fashioned players) with rudimentary rules allowing players to "research" changes in, say, bomber, jet fighter, rocket, submarine or torpedo technology, and thus shape the development of her armed forces over the course of the game. These rules were greatly expanded in A World at War.
Reception
Empire of the Rising Sun won the Origins Award for Best Modern-Day Board Game of 1995.
References
External links
Avalon Hill games
Board games introduced in 1995
Origins Award winners
World War II board wargames
World conquest board games |
4263768 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapotec%20languages | Zapotec languages | The Zapotec languages are a group of around 50 closely related indigenous Mesoamerican languages that constitute a main branch of the Oto-Manguean language family and which is spoken by the Zapotec people from the southwestern-central highlands of Mexico. A 2020 census reports nearly half a million speakers, with the majority inhabiting the state of Oaxaca. Zapotec-speaking communities are also found in the neighboring states of Puebla, Veracruz, and Guerrero. Labor migration has also brought a number of native Zapotec speakers to the United States, particularly in California and New Jersey. Most Zapotec-speaking communities are highly bilingual in Spanish.
Name
The name of the language in Zapotec itself varies according to the geographical variant. In Juchitán (Isthmus) it is Diidxazá , in Mitla it is Didxsaj , in Zoogocho it is Diža'xon , in Coatec Zapotec it is Di'zhke''' , in Miahuatec Zapotec it is Dí'zdéh and in Santa Catarina Quioquitani it is Tiits Së , for example. The first part of these expressions has the meaning 'word' (perhaps slightly reduced as appropriate for part of a compound).
Classification
External
Zapotec and the related Chatino languages together form the Zapotecan subgroup of the Oto-Manguean language family. Zapotec languages (along with all Oto-Manguean languages) form part of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area, an area of linguistic convergence developed throughout millennia of interaction between the peoples of Mesoamerica. As a result, languages have acquired characteristics from genetically unrelated languages of the area.
Internal
Geographic range and dialect differentiation
Although commonly described as a language, Zapotec is a fairly extensive, if close-knit, language family. The time depth is comparable to that of the Romance languages. Dialectal divergence between Zapotec-speaking communities is extensive and complicated. Many varieties of Zapotec are mutually unintelligible with one another. There are some radical jumps in intelligibility between geographically close communities, so the varieties do not form a dialect continuum in a strict sense, though neither are there clear-cut divisions between groups of varieties. As a result, the Mexican government officially recognizes sixty Zapotec languages.
Zapotec languages fall into four broad geographic divisions: Zapoteco de la Sierra Norte (Northern Zapotec), Valley Zapotec, Zapoteco de la Sierra Sur (Southern Zapotec), and Isthmus Zapotec. Northern Zapotec languages are spoken in the mountainous region of Oaxaca, in the Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges; Southern Zapotec languages and are spoken in the mountainous region of Oaxaca, in the Southern Sierra Madre mountain ranges; Valley Zapotec languages are spoken in the Valley of Oaxaca, and Isthmus Zapotec languages are spoken in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. However, Valley Zapotec and Isthmus Zapotec group together (as Central Zapotec), and this ignores the Papabuco and Western Zapotec varieties.
Conservative and innovative characteristics
Certain characteristics serve to classify Zapotec varieties in ways that cross-cut the geographical divisions. One of these is the distinction between disyllabic roots and monosyllabic roots. Proto-Zapotec had disyllabic roots; the vowel of the second syllable could be any one of the inventory of vowels. One innovation shared by many varieties of Zapotec is the loss (or partial loss) of the vowel of the second syllable. The word for 'water' illustrates this fact. In conservative varieties, the vowel of the second syllable is retained: in Isthmus Zapotec and in Sierra de Juárez Zapotec, for example.
In innovative varieties, the vowel of the second syllable was lost: in Amatlán Zapotec and Mitla Zapotec, for example. The loss of the vowel often resulted in palatalized consonants, and the loss of often resulted in labialized consonants. Compare the words for 'dog' in conservative varieties (Isthmus , Sierra de Juárez ) and innovative varieties (Amatlán and Mitla ). In this particular word Amatlán does not have a labialized consonant at the end, and the otherwise innovative variety Yatzachi keeps the final vowel: .
Another characteristic that classifies Zapotec varieties is the existence or not of a contrast between alveopalatal fricatives and retroflex fricatives. Innovative varieties have introduced the contrast while conservative varieties have not.
Phylogenetic classification
The most influential classification of Zapotec languages is due to Thomas Smith Stark, who proposed the following overall classification of Zapotec languages.
Overall family tree and Central Zapotec branch
The branch of the family that contains the most languages is Central Zapotec, which includes most of the Zapotec languages of the Valley of Oaxaca and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The following figure shows the classification suggested by Smith Stark (2007).
Northern Zapotec branch
The Northern branch is shown in more detail below, again following Smith Stark (2007)
Mutual intelligibility and regional classification
Based on intelligibility studies, previous classifications, and the needs for literacy development, Merrill (2008) classifies the varieties as follows; several varieties (in brackets) often small and moribund, were not included in the principal list:
Central Zapotec
Isthmus Guevea, Isthmus Zapotec (Juchitán), Lachiguiri, Petapa, Quiavicuzas
Valley Quiatoni–Mitla, Albarradas, Guelavia–Güila–?Chichicapan, San Antonio Ocotlan?–Tilquiapan–Yatzeche (Zagache)–[Zaachila], ? Ayoquezco
Mazaltepec Zapotec? [Tejalapan]
Sierra Norte
Villa Alta Choapan, Rincon, Tabaa, Yatee, Cajonos–Yalalag–Zoogocho–Yatzachi
Ixtlán Yareni–Atepec–Ixtlan–Sierra Juarez, Yavesia, [Aloápam]
Sierra Sur
Miahuatlan Amatlan, Coatecas Altas, Coatlan, Loxicha, San Baltázar Loxicha–[San Vicente], Miahuatlan (Cuixtla), Ozolotepec, [Lapaguía, Xadani]
Yautepec San Agustin Mixtepec, San Juan Mixtepec–San Jose Lachiguiri, Quiegolani, Quioquitani, San Pedro Leapi, Xanaguia, Xanica, [Tlacolulita]
Western Zapotec
Papabuco Texmelucan, Zaniza, [Elotepec]
Solteco Solteco†, Lachixio–San Miguel Mixtepec–[El Alto], [Totomachapan]
Two of the moribund varieties, Asunción Mixtepec and San Bartolo Yautepec (ISO "Yautepec"), are apparently divergent.
Santa Catarina Albarradas Zapotec was not listed, and presumably subsumed under Albarradas Zapotec, but intelligibility is one-way.
Other classifications
Based on forms of the personal pronouns, Operstein (2003) groups the languages as follows:
Proto-Zapotec
Southern Zapotec
Papabuco
(unnamed)
Solteco
Northern Zapotec
Central Zapotec
Valley Zapotec
Isthmus Zapotec
Based on the development of Proto-Zapotec *tty/*ty and *ttz/*tz, Operstein (2012) groups the Zapotec languages as follows.
Proto-Zapotec
Western
Papabuco
Coatec
Core Zapotec
Southern
Central
Northern
Phonetics and phonology
Fortis and lenis
In Zapotec languages, fortis typically corresponds to voicelessness and extra length in obstruents and extra length in sonorants. Lenis corresponds to voicing and less length in obstruents and less length in sonorants. In addition, stressed vowels before lenis consonants may be longer than those before fortis consonants.
Retroflex consonants
Some varieties of Zapotec have a contrast between alveopalatal fricatives and retroflex fricatives. In other varieties this distinction has been lost in favor of only one or the other.
Tone
Zapotec languages are tonal, as are Otomanguean languages generally. Unfortunately, materials on Zapotec languages vary widely in the quality of their tonal description and analysis.
Whistling has been used by Zapotec people to communicate in a way that would not be detected by their colonizers.
Many Northern Zapotec languages, such as Sierra Juárez (Nellis and Nellis 1983, Bickmore and Broadwell 1998, Tejada 2010) show a system of three level tones (L, M, H) plus two contours. Potential aspect and 1st person singular both involve floating high tones. One example is Texmelucan Zapotec, which has four contrasting tones: three contour tones and one level tone, as shown in the figure. These tones are used for "word play" frequently.
A typical system for a Central Zapotec language has two level tones plus contours, but there are complex interactions between tone, stress and phonation type, e.g. San Lucas Quiaviní (Chávez Peón 2010).
Phonation
Zapotec languages all display contrastive phonation type differences in vowels. Minimally they have simple vowels vs. some kind of laryngealization or creakiness; see Quioquitani Zapotec, for example. Others have a contrast between simple, laryngealized and "checked" vowels (which sound like they end in a glottal stop); see Isthmus Zapotec, for example. Others have a contrast between those types and also breathy vowels. The latter varieties include Mitla Zapotec and San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec.
Stress
Varieties that are described as having stress, including Isthmus Zapotec, have it on the penultimate syllable of the root. Prefixes and clitics do not affect it. Many varieties overwhelmingly have monosyllabic roots and stress falls on that syllable.
Grammar
Zapotec languages vary considerably. Some characteristics of Zapotec grammar common to the language family (though not necessarily present in all members) are: an extensive 3rd person pronoun system based on noun classes such as divinity, babies, animals, objects (inanimate), etc.; a distinction in the first person plural ("we") as to inclusive (including the hearer[s]) and exclusive (not including the hearer[s]); a frequent underspecificity of singular/plural distinctions.
Word order
Clausal word order
Zapotec languages are VSO, as in the following example from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec (Broadwell 2001):
Though the most basic order has the verb at the beginning of the sentence, all Zapotec languages have a number of preverbal positions for topical, focal, negative, and/or interrogative elements. The following example from Quiegolani Zapotec (Black 2001) shows a focused element and an adverb before the verb:
The preverbal position for interrogatives is shown in the following example, from San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec (Broadwell 2001). This is an example of wh-movement:
Word order in other phrases
The possessed noun precedes the possessor in Zapotec languages, as appropriate for head-initial languages:
The noun also precedes a modifying phrase that is another way to indicate possessor with nouns that are not inherently possessed.
The preceding example also illustrate that Zapotec languages have prepositional phrases as expected for head-initial languages.
Quantifiers, including numbers and the word for 'one' used as an indefinite article, precede the noun.
Demonstratives, including one that means Aforementioned (in some varieties) and is sometimes translated as a definite article, occur phrase-finally (although they are sometimes written as if they were suffixes).
Descriptive adjectives follow the noun. When they occur they also typically receive the primary stress of the phrase, causing the noun to lose some phonation features. Note the loss of the breathy feature on the word /beʰnː/ in the following example.
Word order variation
Zapotec languages also show the phenomenon known as pied-piping with inversion, which may change the head-initial order of phrases such as NP, PP, and QP.
Verbal morphology
Passive morphology
A few varieties of Zapotec have passive morphology, shown by a prefix on the verb. Compare Texmelucan Zapotec root /o/ 'eat' and its passive stem /dug-o/ 'be eaten', with the prefix /dug-/. In many other cases, the transitive-intransitive verb pairs are appropriately described as causative vs. noncausative verb pairs and not as transitive-passive pairs.
Causative morphology
Most if not all varieties of Zapotec languages have intransitive-transitive verb pairs which may be analyzed as noncausative vs. causative. The derivation may be obvious or not depending on the kinds of sounds that are involved. In the simplest cases, causative is transparently seen to be a prefix, cognate with /s-/ or with /k-/, but it may also require the use of a thematic vowel /u/, as in the following examples from Mitla Zapotec:
Setting aside possible abstract analyses of these facts (which posit an underlying prefix /k-/ that causes the changes seen superficially), we can illustrate the kinds of non-causative vs. causative pairs with the following examples. (Basic intransitive verbs are more common than basic transitive verbs, as in many languages.) The presence of the theme vowel /u-/ should be noted in the causative verbs, and in some cases is the only difference between the two verbs. One example of a double causative is also included here; these are not possible in all varieties.
Aspectual inflection
Verbs in Zapotec languages inflect with prefixes to show grammatical aspect. The three aspects that are found in all varieties are habitual, potential and completive. San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec has seven aspects: habitual, perfective, irrealis (viz., potential), progressive, definite (viz., completive), subjunctive, and neutral.
The shape of the root affects the way in which verbs conjugate. Consonant-initial roots conjugate differently than vowel-initial roots, for example, and causative verbs conjugate differently than simple verbs. Prefix vowels may be lost or merged with the root vowel, epenthetic vowels and consonants may be found, and root vowels may be affected. The following example shows the aspectual inflection of three verbs in Mitla Zapotec.
Noun morphology
There is virtually no true morphology in the Zapotec noun. There is no case marking. Plurality is indicated (if at all) in the noun phrase, either by a number or a general quantifier that may be simply translated as "plural". Possessors are also indicated in the noun phrase either by a nominal or a pronominal element. (In both of these cases, since the plural morpheme and the pronouns may be enclitics, they are often written as if they were prefixes and suffixes, respectively, although they arguably are not true affixes.)
The only clear morphology in most varieties of Zapotec is the derivational prefix /ʂ-/ (or its cognate) that derives an inherently possessed noun from a noun that does not take a possessor. Compare Mitla Zapotec /koʰb/ 'dough', /ʃ-koʰb/ 'dough of'. The derived noun is used when the possessor is indicated, as in /ʃkoʰb ni/ 'his/her dough'.
Variable terminology in the description of Zapotec languages
Many linguists working on Zapotec languages use different terminology for describing what appear to be related or similar phenomena, such as grammatical aspect markers. This is due in part because of the different audiences for which the descriptions have been prepared (professional linguists vs. Zapotec speakers of the language communities, for example). The difference of terminology is particularly true in descriptions of the aspectual systems of the Valley Zapotec languages. The following table shows some correspondences:
Documentation and scholarship
Franciscan and/or Dominican friars published a vocabulary and grammar of Zapotec (Antequera Zapotec) in the 16th century. In the past century, there have been ongoing efforts to produce Zapotec orthographies and to write in Zapotec. The Isthmus Zapotec alphabet in use today was founded in the 1950s, drawing from works going back as far as the 1920s. Until recently the Zapotec languages were only sparsely studied and documented but in recent years Zapotec language has begun to receive serious attention by descriptive linguists (see bibliography).
Use
The viability of Zapotec languages also varies tremendously. Loxicha Zapotec, for example, has over 70,000 speakers. San Felipe Tejalapan Zapotec might have ten, all elderly. San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec reportedly has just one remaining speaker. Historically, government teachers discouraged the use of the language, which has contributed to its diminution in many places. In La Ventosa, Oaxaca, a Zapotec mother of three claims that her children are punished in class if they speak Zapotec. Other areas however, such as the Isthmus, proudly maintain their mother tongue. Contemporary literature in Zapotec has been produced by Irma Pineda, Natalia Toledo and Felipe Lopez, among others.
Zapotec-language programming is available on a number of radio stations: The CDI's radio stations XEGLO, based in Guelatao de Juárez, Oaxaca, and XEQIN-AM, based in San Quintín, Baja California, carry Zapotec-language programming along with other indigenous languages. (Coatecas Altas Zapotec speakers live in the area around San Quintín, Baja California.) in the Isthmus there is one privately owned commercial station, Radio TEKA (1030 AM), and several community-based radio stations, most notably the community-based Radio Totopo (102.5 FM) in Juchitán, Oaxaca, and Radio Atempa in San Blas Atempa.
In California, Los Angeles is home to communities of Yalálag Zapotec and Zoogocho Zapotec language speakers. In 2010, a Zapotec language class was offered at the University of California in San Diego. In 2012, the Natividad Medical Center of Salinas, California, had trained medical interpreters bilingual in Zapotec languages as well as in Spanish; in March 2014, Natividad Medical Foundation launched Indigenous Interpreting+, "a community and medical interpreting business specializing in indigenous languages from Mexico and Central and South America," including Zapotec languages, Mixtec, Trique, and Chatino.
See also
Albarradas Sign Language
Notes
References
Beam de Azcona, Rosemary G. 2004. A Coatlán-Loxicha Zapotec Grammar. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Berkeley.
Black, Cheryl A. 2000. Quiegolani Zapotec Syntax: A Principles and Parameters Account. SIL International and University of Texas at Arlington.
Broadwell, George A. 2001. Optimal order and pied-piping in San Dionicio Zapotec. in Peter Sells, ed. Formal and Empirical Issues in Optimality Theoretic Syntax, pp. 197–123. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Egland, Steven; Doris Bartholomew; and Saul Cruz Ramos. 1983 [1978]. La inteligibilidad interdialectal en México: Resultados de algunos sondeos. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Fernández de Miranda, María Teresa. 1995. El protozapoteco. Edited by Michael J. Piper and Doris A. Bartholomew. Mexico City: El Colegio de México and Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
Marlett, Stephen A., compiler. 2009. Basic vocabulary. In Cheryl A. Black, H. Andrew Black and Stephen A. Marlett (eds.) The Zapotec grammar files.
Martínez, Valerie and Stephen A. Marlett. 2008. Nouns. In Cheryl A. Black, H. Andrew Black and Stephen A. Marlett (eds.) The Zapotec grammar files.
Munro, Pamela, and Felipe H. Lopez, with Olivia V. Méndez [Martínez], Rodrigo Garcia, and Michael R. Galant. 1999. Di'csyonaary X:tèe'n Dìi'zh Sah Sann Lu'uc (San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec Dictionary / Diccionario Zapoteco de San Lucas Quiaviní). Los Angeles: (UCLA) Chicano Studies Research Center Publications.
Smith Stark, Thomas. 2007. Algunos isoglosas zapotecas. Clasificación de las lenguas indígenas de México: Memorias del III Coloquio Internacional del Lingüística Mauricio Swadesh, ed. Christina Buenrostro et al, pp. 69–134. Mexico City: UNAM y Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas.
Stubblefield, Morris and Carol Stubblefield. 1991. Diccionario Zapoteco de Mitla. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano, Mexico.
Selected bibliography
Dictionaries and grammars
Alleman, Vera Mae, compiler. 1952. Vocabulario zapoteco del Rincón. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Bartholomew, Doris A. 1983. Grammatica Zapoteca, in Neil Nellis and Jane Goodner Nellis Diccionario Zapoteco de Juarez Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Mexico.
Black, Cheryl A. 2000. Quiegolani Zapotec Syntax: A Principles and Parameters Account. SIL International and University of Texas at Arlington.
Briggs, Elinor. 1961. Mitla Zapotec grammar. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano and Centro de Investigaciones Antropológicas de México.
Britton, A. Scott, 2003. Zapotec-English/English-Zapotec (Isthmus) Concise Dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books, 2003.
Butler, Inez M. 1980. Gramática zapoteca: Zapoteco de Yatzachi el Bajo. Gramáticas de Lenguas Indígenas de México, 4. Mexico: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Broadwell, George Aaron and Luisa Martinez. 2014. Online dictionary of San Dionisio Ocotepec Zapotec
Butler, Inez M., compiler. 1997. Diccionario Zapoteco de Yatzachi: Yatzachi el bajo, Yatzachi el alto, Oaxaca. Serie de vocabularios y diccionarios indígenas "Mariano Silva y Aceves", 37. Tucson, AZ: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Córdova, Fr. Juan de. 1886 [1578a]. Arte del idioma zapoteco. Morelia: Imprenta del Gobierno.
Córdova, Fr. Juan de. 1987 [1578b]. Vocabulario en lengua çapoteca. México: Ediciones Toledo (INAH).
Junta Colombina de México. 1893. Vocabulario castellano – zapotec. Mexico City : Oficina Tipográfica de la Secretaría de Fomento.
Long C., Rebecca & Sofronio Cruz M., compilers. 1999. Diccionario Zapoteco de San Bartolomé Zoogocho Oaxaca. Coyoacán D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
López, Filemón & Ronaldo Newberg Y. 2005. La conjugación del verbo zapoteco: zapoteco de Yalálag. 2nd ed. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Méndez S., Pedro, compiler, & others. 2004. Diccionario zapoteco; Zapoteco de San Pablo Yaganiza, Oaxaca. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Munro, Pamela, and Felipe H. Lopez, with Olivia V. Méndez [Martínez], Rodrigo Garcia, and Michael R. Galant. 1999. Di'csyonaary X:tèe'n Dìi'zh Sah Sann Lu'uc (San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec Dictionary / Diccionario Zapoteco de San Lucas Quiaviní). Los Angeles: (UCLA) Chicano Studies Research Center Publications.
Nellis, Neil and Jane Goodner Nellis. 1983. Diccionario Zapoteco de Juarez. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Mexico.
Pickett, Velma B. and others. 1959. Vocabulario zapoteco del Istmo : Castellano zapoteco, zapoteco-castellano. Serie de vocabularios indígenas "Mariano Silva y Aceves", 3. Mexico: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. [2nd ed., revised and enlarged (1965); republished (1968, 1971)]. Fifth edition (2007) available on-line.
Pickett, Velma B., Cheryl A. Black and Vicente Marcial C. 2001. Gramática Popular del Zapoteco del Istmo. 2nd edition. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano; Tucson, Arizona.
Ruegsegger, Manis & Jane Ruegsegger. 1955. Vocabulario zapoteco del dialecto de Miahuatlán del Estado de Oaxaca. Mexico City: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano.
Sonnenschein, Aaron Huey. 2005. A descriptive grammar of San Bartolomé Zoogocho Zapotec. Munich: Lincom Europa.
Stubblefield, Morris and Carol Stubblefield. 1991. Diccionario Zapoteco de Mitla. Instituto Lingüístico de Verano, Mexico.
Theses and dissertations
Arellanes, Francisco. 2009. El sistema fonológico y las propriedades fonéticas del zapoteco de San Pablo Güilá. Descripción y análisis formal. Tesis doctoral. Colegio de México.
Avelino, Heriberto. 2004. Topics in Yalálag Zapotec, with particular reference to its phonetic structures. UCLA Ph.D. dissertation.
Chávez-Peón, Mario. 2010. Ph.D. thesis. University of British Columbia.
Esposito, Christina M. 2002. Santa Ana del Valle Zapotec Phonation. M.A. thesis, UCLA.
Foreman, John. 2006. The Morphosyntax of Subjects in Macuiltianguis Zapotec. Ph.D. Dissertation, UCLA.
Galant, Michael R. 1998. Comparative Constructions in Spanish and San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec. Ph.D. Dissertation, UCLA.
Gibbs, William P. 1977. Discourse elements in Sierra de Juarez Zapotec. M.A. thesis. University of Texas at Arlington.
Heise, Jennifer Lynn. 2003. Participant reference and tracking in San Francisco Ozolotepec Zapotec. M.A. thesis. Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics.
Jensen de López, Kristine M. 2002. Baskets and Body-Parts. Ph.D. dissertation, Aarhus University.
Lee, Felicia A. 1999. Antisymmetry and the Syntax of San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec. Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA.
Lillehaugen, Brook Danielle. 2003. The Categorial Status of Body Part Prepositions in Valley Zapotec. M.A. thesis, UCLA.
Lillehaugen, Brook Danielle. 2006. Expressing Location in Tlacolula Valley Zapotec. Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA.
López Cruz, Ausencia. 1997. Morfología verbal del zapoteco de San Pablo Güilá. Tesis de licenciatura, ENAH.
MacLaury, Robert E. 1970. Ayoquesco Zapotec: Ethnography, phonology, and lexicon. MA thesis, University of the Americas.
Méndez [Martínez], Olivia V. 2000. Code-Switching and the Matrix Language Model in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec. M.A. thesis, UCLA.
Pickett, Velma B. 1959. The grammatical hierarchy of Isthmus Zapotec. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan.
Reeck, Roger. 1991. A trilingual dictionary in Zapotec, English and Spanish. MA thesis, Universidad de las Américas-Puebla.
Riggs, David B. 1991. A comparative grammar of English for Zapotec speakers (Gramática comparativa inglés-zapoteco). M.A. thesis. Universidad de las Américas.
Sicoli, Mark A. 1999. A comparison of Spanish loanwords in two Zapotec languages: Contact-induced language change in Lachixío and Juchitán Zapotec. University of Pittsburgh, M.A. Thesis.
Sicoli, Mark A. 2007. Tono: A linguistic ethnography of tone and voice in a Zapotec region. University of Michigan, Ph.D. Dissertation.
Sonnenschein, Aaron Huey. 2004. A Descriptive Grammar of Zoogocho Zapotec on a Typological Basis. University of Southern California Ph.D. dissertation.
Books
de Feria, Pedro. 1567. Doctrina Christiana en lengua castellana y zapoteca.
Galant, Michael René. 2006. Comparative Constructions in Spanish and San Lucas Quiavini Zapotec (LINCOM Studies in Language Typology 15). Lincom Europa: München.
Jiménez Girón, Eustaquio. 1980. Guía gráfico-fonémica para la escritura y lectura del zapoteco. Juchitán, Oaxaca: Vitoria Yan.
Jiménez Jiménez, Enedino & Vicente Marcial Cerqueda. 1997. Neza diidxa': ni gacané binnihuaniisi gu'nda', gucaa ne güi' diidxazá (Vocabulario zapoteco: auxiliar del modelo pedagógico de diálogo cultural y alfabetización). Juchitán, Oaxaca: Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Binnizá.
Liga Bíblica, La [Jones, Ted, et al.]. 1995. Xtiidx Dios Cun Ditsa (El Nuevo Testamento en el zapoteco de San Juan Guelavía y en español). Munro, Pamela, Brook Danielle Lillehaugen and Felipe H. Lopez. In preparation. Cali Chiu? A Course in Valley Zapotec. ms.: UCLA / UNAM.
Texts
Butler, Inez M. 1982. Un relato de la hechicería en los pueblos zapotecos de la sierra en el distrito de Villa Alta. Tlalocan 9: 249–55.
Nellis, Donald G. 1979. The old woman and the town authorities: Cajonos Zapotec. In: Linda K. Jones (ed.) Discourse studies in Mesoamerican languages 2: Texts, 181–208. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.
Olson, Donald. 1970. The earthquake in Ocotlán: Three texts in Zapotec. Tlalocan 6: 229–39.
Persons, David. 1979. Rabbit, coyote, and skunk; When people die: Lachixio Zapotec. In: Linda K. Jones (ed.) Discourse studies in Mesoamerican languages 2: Texts, 211-23. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.
Rendón, Juan José. 1995. El tlacuache y el coyote en zapoteco. In: Juan José Rendón (ed.) Diversificación de las lenguas zapotecas. Mexico City: Instituto Oaxaqueño de las Culturas, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores de Antropología Social.
Speck, Charles H., compiler. 1998. Zapotec oral literature; El folklore de San Lorenzo Texmelucan. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Stubblefield, Morris & Carol Stubblefield. 1969. The story of Läy and Gisaj: a Zapotec sun and moon myth. Tlalocan 6: 46–62.
Stubblefield, Morris & Carol Stubblefield, compilers. 1994. Mitla Zapotec texts. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Recordings
Beam de Azcona, Rosemary. "Southern Zapotec Languages Collection of Rosemary Beam de Azcona" The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America: https://web.archive.org/web/20160507075223/http://www.ailla.utexas.org/search/collection.html?c_id=5. Media: audio, text. Access: 14% restricted.
Lillehaugen, Brook Danielle. "Zapotec Collection of Brook Lillehaugen" The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America: https://web.archive.org/web/20160507135046/http://www.ailla.utexas.org/search/collection.html?c_id=41 Media: audio, text. Access: 100% restricted.
Pérez Báez, Gabriela. "Isthmus Zapotec Collection of Gabriela Pérez Báez " The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America: https://web.archive.org/web/20160507133747/http://www.ailla.utexas.org/search/collection.html?c_id=126 Media: video. Access: 100% restricted.
Additional materials
Relating to phonetics and phonology
Bickmore, Lee S. and George A. Broadwell. 1998. High tone docking in Sierra Juárez Zapotec. International Journal of American Linguistics, 64:37–67.
Jones, Ted E., and Lyle M. Knudson. 1977. "Guelavía Zapotec Phonemes". Studies in Otomanguean Phonology, ed., William R. Merrifield, pp. 163–80. [Dallas/Arlington]: SIL / University of Texas, Arlington.
Marlett, Stephen A. 1987. The syllable structure and aspect morphology of Isthmus Zapotec. International Journal of American Linguistics 53: 398–422.
Merrill, Elizabeth D. 2008. Tilquiapan Zapotec. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 38(1): 107–114.
Pickett, Velma B., María Villalobos Villalobos, and Stephen A. Marlett. 2008. Zapoteco del Istmo (Juchitán). Ilustraciones fonéticas de lenguas amerindias, ed. Stephen A. Marlett. Lima: SIL International y Universidad Ricardo Palma.
Rendón, Juan José. 1970. Notas fonológicas del Zapotec de Tlacochahuaya. Anales de Antropología, vol. 7. Mexico City: UNAM.
Sicoli, Mark A. 2000. "Loanwords and contact-induced phonological change in Lachixío Zapotec." Proceedings of the 25th annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society.'' Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistic Society.
Tejada, Laura (2012). Tone gestures and constraint interaction in Sierra Juarez Zapotec. University of Southern California.
Ward, Michael, Emiliano Zurita Sánchez, and Stephen A. Marlett. 2008. Zapoteco de Santa Catarina Quioquitani. Ilustraciones fonéticas de lenguas amerindias, ed. Stephen A. Marlett. Lima: SIL International y Universidad Ricardo Palma.
Relating to morphology and syntax
Black, Cheryl A.; H. Andrew Black; and Stephen A. Marlett (eds.) The Zapotec Grammar Files.
Broadwell, George A. 2001. "Optimal order and pied-piping in San Dionicio Zapotec." In Peter Sells, ed. Formal and Empirical Issues in Optimality Theoretic Syntax, pp. 197–123. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Broadwell, George A. 2005. The morphology of Zapotec pronominal clitics.in Rosemary Beam de Azcona and Mary Paster, eds. Survey of California and Other Indian Languages, Report 13: Conference on Otomanguean and Oaxacan Languages, pp. 15–35. University of California at Berkeley.
Broadwell, George A. 2015. The historical development of the progressive aspect in Central Zapotec. International Journal of American Linguistics 81:151–185.
Butler, Inez M. 1976. "Reflexive constructions of Yatzachi Zapotec." International Journal of American Linguistics 42: 331–37.
Butler, Inez M. 1976. "Verb classification of Yatzachi Zapotec." SIL Mexico Workpapers 2: 74–84.
Earl, Robert. 1968. "Rincon Zapotec clauses." International Journal of American Linguistics 34: 269–74.
Jones, Ted E., and Ann D. Church. 1985. "Personal pronouns in Guelavía Zapotec". S.I.L.-Mexico Workpapers 7: 1–15.
Lee, Felicia A. In press. "On the Absence of Quantificational Determiners in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec." To appear in L. Matthewson, (ed.) Quantification: Universals and Variation. Elsevier.
Lee, Felicia A. n.d. "Modality and the Structure of Tense in Zapotec." In B. Bruening, (ed.), Proceedings of SCIL 8. Cambridge: MITWPL.
Lee, Felicia A. n.d. "Pseudo-quantification in Possessives." In C. Pye, (ed.), Proceedings of the Mid-America Linguistics Conference. Lawrence: The University of Kansas.
Lee, Felicia A. n.d. "Focus and Judgment Type in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec." In M. Juge and J. Moxley, (eds.), Proceedings of BLS 23. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistic Society.
Lee, Felicia A. n.d. "The Predicational Nature of Clefts: Evidence from Zapotec." In K. Singer, R. Eggert, and G. Anderson, (eds.), Proceedings of CLS 33. Chicago: The Chicago Linguistic Society.
Lee, Felicia A. n.d. "Three Question Markers in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec." To appear in Anthropological Linguistics.
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Lee, Felicia A. 2001. "WH and Focus Are Not the Same Projection." In K. Megerdoomian and L. Bar-El, (eds.), Proceedings of WCCFL 20. Somerville: Cascadilla Press.
Lee, Felicia A. 2001. "Anaphoric R-Expressions: Bound Names as Bound Variables." In M. Hirotani, (ed.), Proceedings of NELS 32. Amherst: GLSA.
Lee, Felicia A. 2002 "Anaphoric R-Expressions as Bound Variables." Proceedings of BLS 28.
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Lillehaugen, Brook Danielle. 2003. "The Acquisition of Body Part Prepositions in Valley Zapotec Languages." Proceedings from the First Conference on Indigenous Languages of Latin America, University of Texas, Austin.
Lillehaugen, Brook Danielle. 2004. "The Syntactic and Semantic Development of Body Part Prepositions in Valley Zapotec Languages," pp. 69 – 92, Proceedings from the sixth Workshop on American Indigenous Languages, Santa Barbara Papers in Linguistics, vol. 14, Jeanie Castillo (ed.).
Munro, Pamela. 2002. "Hierarchical Pronouns in Discourse: Third Person Pronouns in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec Narratives". Southwest Journal of Linguistics 21: 37–66.
Lyman, Larry. 1964. The verb syntagmemes of Choapan Zapotec. Linguistics 7: 16–41.
Marlett, Stephen A. 1993. Zapotec pronoun classification. International Journal of American Linguistics 59: 82–101.
Marlett, Stephen A. 1987. The syllable structure and aspect morphology of Isthmus Zapotec. International Journal of American Linguistics 53: 398–422.
Marlett, Stephen A. & Velma B. Pickett. 1996. El pronombre inaudible en el zapoteco del Istmo. In Zarina Estrada Fernández, Max Figueroa Esteva & Gerardo López Cruz (eds.) III Encuentro de Lingüística en el Noroeste, 119–150. Hermosillo, Sonora: Editorial Unison.
Operstein, Natalie. 2002. "Positional Verbs and Relational Nouns in Zaniza Zapotec," pp. 60–70. Proceedings from the fourth Workshop on American Indigenous Languages, Santa Barbara Papers in Linguistics, vol 11.
Operstein, Natalie. 2016. Valence Changes in Zapotec: Synchrony, diachrony, typology" Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rojas, Rosa Maria. to appear. "La predicación secundaria en el zapoteco de Santa Ana del Valle, Oax." por aparecer en Memorias del Primer Coloquio "Leonardo Manrique", México: INAH.
Rojas, Rosa Maria. 2001. "La formación de palabras desde el punto de vista del contenido en lenguas zapotecas: la modificación y el desarrollo" en Dimensión Antropológica, vol. 21, 2001.
Speck, Charles H. 1994. Texmelucan Zapotec verbs. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session 38: 125–29
Speck, Charles H. 1994. The existential use of positional verbs in Texmelucan Zapotec. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session 38: 75–86.
Speck, Charles H. & Velma B. Pickett. 1976. Some properties of the Texmelucan Zapotec verbs go, come, and arrive. International Journal of American Linguistics 42: 58–64.
Relating to discourse analysis
Benton, Joseph P. 1987. Clause and sentence-level word order and discourse strategy in Chichicapan Zapotec oral narrative discourse. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 72–84.
Benton, Joseph P. 1997. Aspect shift in Chichicapan Zapotec narrative discourse. SIL Mexico Workpapers 12: 34–46.
Hopkins, Mary L. 1995. "Narrative peak in Xanaguía Zapotec." SIL Mexico Workpapers 11: 17–36.
Kreikebaum, Wolfram. 1987. Fronting and related features in Santo Domingo Albarradas Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 33–71.
Long, Rebecca. 1985. Topicalization in Zoogocho Zapotec expository discourse. SIL Mexico Workpapers 7: 61–100.
Lyman, Rosemary. 1977. Participant identification in Choapan Zapotec. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota 21: 115–31.
(de) Martinez, Valerie. 1995. Who’s who in Quiatoni Zapotec narratives. SIL Mexico Workpapers 11: 37–46.
Newberg, Ronald. 1987. Participant accessibility in Yalálag Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 12–25.
Olive, Julie Nan. 1995. Speech verbs in Xanaguía Zapotec narrative. SIL Mexico Workpapers 11: 47–52.
Piper, Michael J. 1995. The functions of ‘lëë’ in Xanica Zapotec narrative discourse with some implications for comparative Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 11: 67–78.
Riggs, David B. 1987. Paragraph analysis for Amatlán Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 1–11.
Sicoli, Mark A. 2010. Shifting voices with participant roles: Voice qualities and speech registers in Mesoamerica. Language in Society 39(4).
Thiessen, Grace. 1987. The functions of the clitic -ha in Western Ixtlán Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 85–100.
Ward, Michael. 1987. A focus particle in Quioquitani Zapotec. SIL Mexico Workpapers 9: 26–32.
General and miscellaneous
Broadwell, George A. 2005. Zapotecan languages. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition. Elsevier.
Butler, Inez M. 1985. "Event prominence in Zoogocho Zapotec narrative discourse." SIL Mexico Workpapers 7: 16–60.
Lopez, Felipe H., and Pamela Munro. 1998. The United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights translated into San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec.
Lopez, Felipe H., and Pamela Munro. 1999. "Zapotec Immigration: The San Lucas Quiaviní Experience". Aztlan. 24, 1: 129–149.
Munro, Pamela. 1996. "Making a Zapotec Dictionary". Dictionaries 17: 131–55.
Munro, Pamela. 2003. Preserving the Language of the Valley Zapotecs: The Orthography Question. Presented at Language and Immigration in France and the United States: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. University of Texas.
Nellis, Jane G. 1947. Sierra Zapotec forms of address, International Journal of American Linguistics 13: 231–32.
Persons, Jan A. 1997. High pitch as a mark of respect in Lachixío Zapotec. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota 41: 59–60.
Robinson, Dow F. 1963. Field notes on Coatlán Zapotec. Hartford, CN: Hartford Seminary Foundation.
External links
SIL on the Zapotecan language family
Analytic languages
Isolating languages
Verb–subject–object languages |
4264427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunak%20people | Bunak people | The Bunak (also known as Bunaq, Buna', Bunake) people are an ethnic group that live in the mountainous region of central Timor, split between the political boundary between West Timor, Indonesia, particularly in Lamaknen District and East Timor. Their language is one of those on Timor which is not an Austronesian language, but rather a Papuan language, belonging to the Trans–New Guinea linguistic family. They are surrounded by groups which speak Malayo-Polynesian languages, like the Atoni and the Tetum.
According to Languages of the World (Voegelin and Voegelin, 1977), there were about 100,000 speakers of the language, split evenly between the two nations.
Settlement area
Today's settlement area of the Bunak people is located in the mountains of central Timor, ranging from the East Timorese town of Maliana in the north to the Timor Sea in the south, where both the Bunak and the Tetun communities often live side by side in coexistence. The Bunak people are isolated linguistically and socially, since the adjacent Kemak people to the north, the Mambai people in the east, the Tetun people in the south and west and the Atoni people speak to the west speak Malayo-Polynesian languages. Bunak is considered as being one of the Papuan languages, even though there are strong influences from the neighboring languages. The other Timorese Papuan languages are spoken in the east of Timor. Because of the language diversity in the region, the Bunak people are able to speak at least one of the Malayo-Polynesian languages fluently (in East Timor, Tetum is the lingua franca), while their surrounding neighbors rarely learn the Bunak language. In the hard-to-reach mountains, the townships of the Bunak people are relatively isolated from their neighboring communities. In East Timor, their area expands to the west of Manufahi District and in West Timor (Indonesia) towards the east of the Belu Regency and Malaka Regency.
The Bunak people of East Timor live mainly in places like Bobonaro and Lolotoe in the town of Bobonaro District, Tilomar Subdistrict and Zumalai in the municipality of Cova Lima District, Cassa in the municipality of Ainaro District, and Betano and Same in the municipality of Manufahi District. In the western border area of Cova Lima District, the Bunak people form a minority among the Tetun people. However, many townships are mixed. Between Fohoren and the coast south of Suai mixed townships of Tetun and Bunak people are found. A total of 55,837 East Timorese speak the Bunak language as their native language.
In the eastern regions of West Timor, the Bunak people in Belu Regency form the majority in Lamaknen and South Lamaknen districts, and a minority in Riahat district in the southeast. Similarly, in the southeast of West Timor, the Tetun people form the majority. Individual Bunak settlements can be found among Tetun villages in the Rai Manuk district of Belu Regency, Kobalima, East Kobalima and East Malaka district of Malaka Regency. The westernmost Bunak settlements are Haroeh (Sanleo Administrative village, East Malaka district) and Welaus (North Lakekun Administrative village, Kobalima district). In the northwest are the isolated Bunak villages of Faturika, Renrua (both in Rai Manuk district) and Babulu (Kobalima district). To the east Bunak townships lie along the road to the Alas and South Alas Administrative village of East Kobalima district at the border with East Timor.
History and expansion
Mythical origins
According to legend, there was once a man named Mau Ipi Guloq who first domesticated the water buffalo. Together with his brother Asa Pharan, he one day caught two sows, which turned into women. His brother, however, claimed both women for himself, which eventually led Mau Ipi Guloq to part with him after a fight. One day a crow disturbed his buffalo, and so Mau Ipi Guloq shot a golden arrow at the bird with a golden blowpipe that he had borrowed from his brother. The crow flew with the arrow and Mau Ipi Guloq followed her into the underworld, where he met her sick ruler. Mau Ipi Guloq offered his help and discovered that his golden arrow was stuck in the ruler. He exchanged it with a bamboo arrow, which he soaked in his betel pouch. The ruler of the underworld was restored to health and gave Mau Ipi Guloq two oranges from a tree in the Underworld that turned into princesses. Asa Pharan asked his brother to exchange one of his wives for one of the princesses. But when he refused, Asan Paran threw Mau Ipi Guloq into a ravine and killed him. However, Mau Ipi Guloq's wives found him and brought him back to life by using an oil from the Underworld. He returned home healthy and brought back to his youth again; his brother also asked for a bath in the oil in order to be young again. Mau Ipi Guloq's wives heated the oil bath so much that Asa Pharan was scalded and died. Mau Ipi Guloq also married his brother's wives and became one of the main ancestors of the Bunak people.
Overview
Just as with any other Timorese ethnic group, there was originally no written tradition. All history and traditions were passed in by word of mouth until the coming of European colonization. Rich traditions do exist among the Timorese, especially the Bunak people. These narrative traditions are recited with repetition, rhyme and alliteration. This helps the performer remember the verses.
In general, it is assumed that Melanesians migrated to Timor around 3000 BC, to be partially displaced by later Proto-Malayo-Polynesian groups from 2500 BC. Some claim that the Fataluku people might have reached Timor from the east only after the Austronesians and that they were repressed or assimilated. There has been speculation of such a scenario even with the Makasae language. In the case of the Bunak people, however, there are only place names of Papuan linguistic origin in the homeland country, thus the Bunak people must have settled here before the Austronesians.
Moreover, as the Bunak people have common non-Austronesian vocabulary with the Fataluku language, Makasae language and Makalero language, the existence of a Proto-Timor-Papuan language, from which all the Papuan languages of Timor originate, had been postulated.
The present area of the Bunak people is the result of different migrations. Due to population growth, the Bunak people were forced to expand again and again to find new arable land. External influences also led to groups having to flee as well as forced resettlement.
Portuguese colonization began on Timor Island in the 16th century, while in the middle of the 18th century the Dutch extended their influence into the area of the Bunak people, so that it was divided into two sections, comprising a Western Dutch and an Eastern Portuguese sphere of interest. However, European rule remained predominantly nominal, with rule exercised by local traditional rulers. It was only in the early 20th century that the two colonial powers succeeded in building up a real colonial administration.
In the Second World War the Japanese occupied Timor from 1942 to 1945, ruling it as a single entity. There was fighting with Australian guerrilla commandos, with the aid of some Portuguese as well as many Timorese.
After the war, the west became part of Indonesia, while the east remained a Portuguese colony until 1975. When the Portuguese departed from Timor, the Indonesians first occupied the border region of East Timor. Nine days after the declaration of the Independence of East Timor, a full invasion followed, and a 24 year long struggle for independence. The civilian population fled the invasion into the wilderness, to only later have to gradually surrender to the invaders; it was not until 1979 that the last of the Bunak people living in the forests were forced to capitulate.
It was not until 1999 that Indonesia withdrew, and after three years of administration by the United Nations in East Timor did East Timir finally regain independence. however, the Bunak people and their homeland continued to be divided by the colonial border.
Since independence, more and more people from rural areas have moved to the capital, Dili, including many of the Bunak people. Many took up residence according to their geographical origin. Bunak speakers live in the west of the city in Comoro, Fatuhada and Bairro Pite, as well as in the city center in Suco Gricenfor, Acadiru Hun, Suco Santa Cruz and Suco Lahane Oriental. In 2006 there was unrest in the county, started mainly by East Timorese from Firaku and Kaladi. Bunak people belonging to the Kaladi were also involved in the conflict. In Dili, for example, there was confrontation between the Bunak people from Bobonaro District and Ermera District and Makasae people from Baucau District and Viqueque District for dominance in the market place.
Heartland
The heartland of the Bunak is located in the middle east of the East Timorese area of Bobonaro and north east of the municipality of Cova Lima District. Here is the only place where place names of Bunak origin are to be found, while in other areas inhabited by the Bunak there are also place names of Austronesian origin. Bunak settlements in bordering territories only have Austronesian place names. This indicates that the original homeland of the Bunak people lies in the center of the territory where the Bunak now cover.
In the Bunak language there are influences from Kemak and somewhat less from Mambai. From this we can conclude that the Bunak also had contact with the Mambai people and Kemak people in the past.
In the northeast, the Bunak people refer to themselves and their language as Gaiq or Gaeq, which is likely to derived from Mgai; the Kemak name for the Bunak people. According to Bunak oral traditions, they formerly belonged to the former kingdom of Likusa (Likosa), which once existed in the region of the Tokodede and Kemak people, which explains the adoption of anAustronesian name of the Bunak people. as well as the strong linguistic influence of the Kemak language on the Bunak language. In Marobo (Atsabe Administrative Post) and Suco Obulo, the Kemak people intermingled with the Bunak people, leading to cultural differences between the Kemak people on this side compared to the neighbouring Kemak people of Atsabe.
Between Maliana, Lamaknen and Maucatar
According to Bunak folk history in the northwest, they originally migrated from the east to the region south of Maliana and the present Indonesian districts of Lamaknen and Raihat. There they mingled peacefully with the local peoples, these being, according to source, the local Tetun or Atoin Meto people. The existing village names of Austronesian origin support these accounts. Legends of the Bunak people from the upper Lamaknen district, however, report that their forefathers had either expelled or killed the Melus (Timor) people when they came into the region. Research so far has not clarified whether the Melus were Tetun, Atoin Meto or another people. Investigations of the Bunak dialects suggest that the Bunak from the northeast and southwest met and settled in Lamaknen district. According to oral tradition, the region around Lamaknen district was an autonomous region of the Wehali Tetun people, bordering on the kingdom of Likusa. This influence can still be seen today as the Lamaknen dialect uses loanwords for ritual formulations from Tetum language.
In 1860 the region around Maucatar became a Dutch enclave, while the surrounding area was claimed by Portugal. The borders of the enclave coincided with the borders of the local Bunak kingdoms. The area now belongs to the Sucos of Holpilat, Taroman, Fatululic, Dato Tolu and Lactos. The territory of the then enclave of Maucatar is still inhabited by a large majority of Bunak. However, there are also Tetun place names. Therefore, it is assumed that the Bunak immigrated to this region and largely replaced the local Tetun, who today form a small minority.
In 1897 there were several battles around Lamaknen District areas between the northeastern kingdom of Lamaquitos (Lamakhitu) and the southern Lakmaras kingdom, which had as coalition partners the Bunak in the southwest. The end of this last traditional conflict between the indigenous kingdoms of the region has meant that the Bunak people in Lamaknen district have since gradually left their fortified villages on high ground and built houses close to water supplies. Spread out over a larger area, the clan members now only come to their clan houses to perform ceremonies.
As a result of the various territorial shifts between the Bunak kingdoms, however, the border between the two colonial powers of Portugal and the Netherlands remained a long-standing issue and was the subject of lengthy negotiations. In Lakmaras District, there were several deaths in the same year in clashes between Dutch and Portuguese troops. The Dutch claim to Maucatar was justified by Lakmaras sovereignty, which created a link to Maucatar. Meanwhile, Lakmaras had become subject to the kingdom of Lamaquitos, and this was part of the Portuguese sphere of power established by the Treaty of Lisbon in 1859. Maucatar would have failed as an Portugal enclave, according to the agreements that were already in place. On the other hand, the state of Tahakay (Tahakai, Tafakay, Takay; now in southern Lamaknen district) belonging to Portugal had subsequently become part of Lamaknen district. Tahakay, however, belonged to the Portuguese sphere of influence, while Lamaknen district belonged to the Dutch. Portugal opposed this loss in the negotiations of 1902, and therefore demanded the entire Dutch territories in the center of Timor. A compromise was reached with The Hague Convention of October 1, 1904: Portugal was to receive Maucatar, in exchange for the Portuguese enclave Noimuti in West Timor, and the border areas of Tahakay, Tamira Ailala and Tamiru Ailala of Lamaknen District. Portugal respected the treaty until 1909, but then there was a dispute over the border crossing on the eastern border of Oecusse District. In 1910, the Netherlands took advantage of the overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in order to regain Lakmaras with the help of European and Javanese troops.
In February 1911, following the 1904 Convention, Portugal tried to occupy Maucatar. However, in June, it faced a superior Dutch armed force from the Ambonese infantry, supported by European soldiers. On June 11, Portuguese troops occupied the territory of Lakmaras, but on July 18, Dutch and Javanese troops regained it. After the Dutch victory, the Portuguese then sought a peaceful agreement. They soon fell into trouble with a rebellion in the Manufahi District, which brought them to the negotiating table. On August 17, 1916, a treaty was signed in The Hague, which largely defined the borders between East and West Timor. On 21 November the agreed areas were exchanged. Noimuti, Maubisse, Tahakay and Taffliroe fell to the Netherlands, and Maucatar to Portugal, causing panic. Before the transfer to the Portuguese, 5,000 locals, mostly Bunaks, destroyed their fields and moved to West Timor. The population in Tamira Ailala would rather have stayed with Portugal, while in Tahakay the Dutch were welcomed.
It was only a few generations ago that Bunak established villages in the lowlands around Maliana, such as Tapo-Memo. Even today these villages still retain ritual relations with their native villages in the highlands.
After the Second World War, Bunak people from Lebos fled from the then Portuguese Timor to Lamaknen district. They were afraid of reprisals after collaborating with the Japanese during the Battle of Timor. The then ruler of Lamaknen, the Loroh (king) Alfonsus Andreas Bere Tallo, welcomed the arrival of the refugees, who founded the village of Lakus (in today's Desa Kewar).
As a result of the civil war between Augustine and UDT, refugees from East Timorese villages came to the border from August 1975 onwards. Among them were many Bunak people. They came from Odomau, Holpilat, Lela, Aitoun, Holsa, Memo and Raifun. At the end of August, the conflict crossed over to the other side of the border. Villages were destroyed, such as Henes in the Desa on the west side of the same name, which has not been rebuilt. The invasion of East Timor by Indonesia, which took place later in the following months, also caused more Bunak people to flee from their villages to escape the invasion. Some crossed the border, others sought shelter in the forests, where some of the people spent up to three years in hiding. Village communities were thus torn apart and resettled in different places until 1999. A similar fate befell the village of Abis in Lamaknen District. Although the inhabitants returned to their village after their escape in 1975, the village was burned down near the East Timor border. In 1999, other refugees also came to Lamaknen district from East Timor after the independence of East Timor and remain there to this day. There was fighting with the locals and in the process fields, huts and streets were destroyed.
Southwest of Cova Lima
Recently, Bunak people migrated to the southwest of Cova Lima District in two independent waves. The earlier group lives in slightly higher areas of Suco Beiseuc (formerly known as Foholulik, 2010: 30% Bunak) and Suco Lalawa (35% Bunak). They came in a large stream of refugees from the community of Bobonaro, when they fled in the Second World War before the arrival of the Japanese army. Guerrilla units of the Allies had operated against the Japanese of Lolotoe and the village of Bobonaro, and the Japanese troops carried out reprisals against the civilian population in Bobonaro in August 1942. This probably cost several tens of thousands of people their lives and drove others to flee.
The second wave are those Bunak people who settled in the lowlands between Suai and the border. They were forcibly resettled from northern Sucos in the Cova Lima District, such as Fatululic and Taroman, by the Indonesian occupation forces. The official reason was a development program for rice cultivation. However, in 1977, many East Timor peoples were forcibly removed from remote areas in order to cut support for Fretilin. The Indonesian army in East Timor set up so-called "Internment Camps", in which hundreds of thousands of civilians were interred.
Malaka and southern Belu
The Bunak of Namfalus village (Desa Rainawe, Kobalima District) originated in the same exodus of Bunak people in South Fohorem before the arrival of Japanese troops in the Second World War. Other Bunak people in this region are the descendants of the 5,000 refugees from Maucatar, who left the former Dutch enclave after the takeover by the Portuguese. The more recent Bunak people joined these villagers when they fled in 1975 and in 1999 when the violence in East Timor broke out.
The resettlement of the Maucatar Bunak people led to controversy with the local Tetun people, causing the Bunak to shift repeatedly. It was only in the 1930s that the administration succeeded in settling the refugees at their present places of residence. The Bunak people in these areas still trace their origin to certain places in Maucatar, such as those from Raakfao (Raakafau, Desa Babulu) in Fatuloro and those from Sukabesikun (Desa Litamali, Kobalima District) in Suco Belecasac. Despite the threat of assimilation to the neighboring Tetun people, they are still able to trace their origins.
Eastern Cova Lima
The Bunak settlements from Suai to Zumalai were also established only recently. The area was previously uninhabited. These relatively recent settlements also have connections to their places of origin. Thus, Beco village has a deep relationship with Teda village, east of Lolotoe, even though the migration was a few generations ago. Their dialect is close to that of the Lolotoe region, even if some of their vocabulary was taken from the southwestern dialect. Other settlements emerged only during the Indonesian occupation when all villages from the north along the southern coastal road around Zumalai were resettled. Their dialect is a Highlands dialect.
Ainaro and Manufahi
Bunak people live among the Mambai people in the south of Ainaro District and in the south-west of Manufahi District. Speakers of the Bunak language in these districts recognize their origin from the north-eastern Bunak region. Through the close contact with the Mambai people, most of the Bunak people are bilingual in Mambai, which is a Malayo-Polynesian language; their language also shows influence from Mambai.
Maununo was a suco that consisted of only three villages during the Indonesian occupation. The population of Maununo is 60% Tetun, 30% Bunak and 10% Mambai. In Suco Cassa the Bunak people form 55% of the population, followed by the Tetun and a small minority of Mambai. Even in Fohoailiku the Bunak people represent the majority. According to oral traditions, the Bunak people of Fahoailiku originated from western Ainaro, which they left due to conflicts with other Bunak groups during the Portuguese colonial period. The linguistic characteristics of the three Bunak groups in Ainaro suggest a common origin.
There are accounts of their origin that are conflicting. While parts of the Bunak stated that they had only entered the region later, others claimed that they were the original inhabitants. However, all Bunak settlements have Australian names, which would indicate an originally Malayo-Polynesian peoples settlement. So are places with names that begin with Mau (Mau Nuno, Mau-Ulo, Maubisse); that is typical of settlement areas inhabited by the Mambai people, Kemak people and Tocodede people. In the heartland of the Bunak people, such naming does not occur. Other places with names that are clearly of Mambai origin, such as Suco Beikala, which means bei "grandparents" and kala "ancestors".
In addition to the three main groups of the Bunak people in Ainaro, there are two other smaller groups, which were moved from the region around Zumalai only during the Indonesian occupation. The first group lives in the villages of Civil (Sivil) and Lailima (both in Suco Cassa). The second group from the east of Suco Casa are two Bunak villages, Leolima and Hutseo (along with its subsequent offspring, Hutseo 2 village) are surrounded by vast Mambai settlements. The inhabitants of these four villages speak the northeast dialect, with the variations typical of Zumalai.
In Manufahi District there are four isolated Bunak villages. The oldest of them is Loti (Lotin) in the southeast of Suco Daisula. The Bunak people emigrated here from Suco Aiasa in 1891, after a conflict with the ruler of Bobonaro. According to oral traditions, the inhabitants of Suco Aiasa had killed the ruler's wife, whereupon Bobonaro requested assistance from the Portuguese in August 1891. After several battles some of the inhabitants of Suco Aiasa fled to Manufahi. They first settled somewhat further north of today's Loti, where they had only contact with Mambai people and Lakalei speakers. This resulted in a unique deviation and even change in meaning in the local Bunak dialect.
After the failed rebellion of Manufahi, a part of the Bunak people of Loti was moved by the Portuguese to the location of today's Loti. Others were settled in two new villages in Suco Betano. One of them is Bemetan as it is known in Mambai language or Il Guzu (meaning "black water") in Bunak language, and the second being Leoai (Leo Ai / Leouai). During the Indonesian occupation, Bunak people who remained in the old Loti was also relocated to the new Loti. These three villages share their own extraordinary dialect.
The fourth Bunak village in Manufahi is Sessurai (Sesurai) in Suco Betano, on the road between Loti and Leoai. According to their traditions, these Bunak people fled from the region around Zumalai to Manufahi during the Portuguese colonial period. Their dialect corresponds to that from Zumalai, but has taken over some words from the Bunak people of Loti.
Culture
Social organization
The social isolation has also been reinforced part of the reputation of Bunak people. They have been described as rough and aggressive by their neighbors. This characterization can also be found in a Bunak legend, in which Kemak people have long ears and the Bunak people have small ears. The metaphorical length of the ears in the Bunak people points to a short-tempered and impatient temperament, while the Kemak people are described as calm and patient.
Although Bunak and Atoin Meto people differ culturally, the social organization and the ecology of both cultures belong in the same context where both the cultures of Atoin Meto and Bunak people benefit from each other. The approach of the Bunak people from a cultural and linguistic point of view is so far that Louis Berthe described it in 1963 as a mixture of Papuans and Austronesian roots.
The smallest social unit in the Bunak society is the clan or the house, which for example, in the upper Lamaknen is called deu. Several clans live together in villages (tas). Each village has its own territory. The clans have a different status. The clans of the nobles are called sisal tul (meaning, bones piece). The name derives from a ritual in which the bones of an animal that was sacrificed belonging to the noble clan. The highest of the nobility houses belong to the clan of the "feminine" chieftain. This man decides in case of problems in the village. The second highest clan represents the "masculine" chieftain who takes care of the village's relations with the outside world. Other clans are the consultants of the village chefs. Despite their extensive power (), the two chiefs are subordinate to the ritual chief. This has a limited power () within the affairs of the clan. Together with one of his sisters, the ritual chief is also the guardian of the holy objects in the clan house. In Lamaknen the siblings are called "the man holding the black basket" () and the "woman holding the black basket" ().
The different clans are connected to each other in the system of the malu ai. The malu clan are in this case in a partnership, the woman and feminine goods such as pigs and clothes, while from the ai baqa, clan receive wives and give masculine goods. This used to include gold, silver and water buffalo, now replaced by money and cattle. On ceremonial occasions, such as funerals or of the clan house repair, goods between are again malu and ai baqa replaced. However, women rarely leave their clan. In the majority of the Bunak family, a matrilineal system prevails for the succession. The man traditionally moves into the clan of the bride (Matrilocality), where the later children also grow up. The husband has to provide as a mane pou ("new man") his children and wife, but is not considered a family member. He also has no claims or rights over his wife and children, even if he had to pay a high bride price. In 1991 this was about US dollars 5,100. If the wife dies first, the widower must leave the village and even his own children, and return to his old home village. This may also be necessary through certain ceremonies. He is not allowed to take any valuable property, therefore he is dependent on the help of his clan and his family. He also does not receive the support from his own children as a clan. When the woman moves into an ai baqa clan, one speaks of the clipping of the woman from her clan. She is admitted to her husband's clan, where the family forms a new line of lineage (dil), establishing a new malu - ai baqa relationship. The children also belong to the clan of the father. Clans can maintain as much as fifteen malu relationships but there can never be more than three to six dil. They maintain their status in the further course of the mother line. The members of the dil lead the name of the maternal clan and keep their property and their sacred objects. In Ainaro, however, the influence of neighboring Mambai people has led to a patrilineal structure. Also here the Mambai and Bunak people share a common legend. Thus, the Bunak people from Mau-Nuno derive from the same mythical ancestral couple and the summit of the mountain from which they are derived has both a Bunak and a Mambai name.
Holy objects are handed down by the men to his uterine nephew. In any case of the marriage type, the father can only pass on to the son the objects which he has acquired in the course of his life. Other holy objects belong to the entire clan. They are generally regarded as sources of life energy. They are kept in the clan houses, where only the guardians reside. Previously, all clan members lived together in single lineage or clan house. Sometimes, the guardians still have a young couple who would help them with the daily work. Every clan house has an altar that can be found both inside and outside the house. In the house is the altar on one of the two piles which carry the first beam (lor bul). Across the street is the fireplace. On the common altar of the village (bosok o op, meaning "altar and height") are aligned to all the clan houses' lor bul. The village altar () represents the vital energy of the inhabitants. It is also called '; meaning "root of women, leaves of men", a metaphor for vitality where leaves move and roots allow plants to absorb water. The longer the roots, the longer the plant lives. Bunak people wishes each other a long life by saying (meaning "Let our roots be long") or (meaning "Let our roots be cool"). Cooling, in conjunction with water, symbolizes fertility; Heat is associated with danger and death. Other altars can be located at water sources, others were only used in the event of war.
Agricultural rites in Lamaknen
According to legend, when the Bunak people reached Lamaknen, they asked their ancestors in heaven for seeds so that they could work the land. On a field altar, Bei Suri; a man who had joined the Bunak people, was sacrificed and burned. Various parts of his body then appeared on the different plantations that the Bunak people had planted. Several traditional prose describes how various crops such as rice; which still the ceremonial food, were provided by parts of the hero's body. However, there are also versions that incorporate the corn into the legend, which today is the main food source of the Bunak people in Lamaknen. But this was only brought to Timor by the Europeans. The rain is also linked to the self-sacrifice of Bei Suri. After his death, he asked people not to cry anymore, and took the form of a bird that predicts the rain.
The researcher Claudine Friedberg explored the rituals of the Bunak people in Abis (Lamaknen) during the 1970s to the early 1980s and described in detail the ceremonies of the Bunak people in this region. However, the place no longer exists and a road now connects the region with the outside world, which previously could only be reached with horses at that time. Agriculture here is entirely dependent on the amount of monsoon that occurs. The reliability of sufficient rainfall is the critical moment of the agricultural calendar during the sowing season. It takes place in Lamaknen before the rain comes between October and December. The fields are prepared by means of slash-and-burn. Then the 'Lord of the Seeds' and the 'Rice Masters' lay down the dates for numerous ceremonies. The 'Lord of the Seeds' belongs to the clan to whom the legend is attributed to the sacrifice of Bei Suri. It is, however, none of the nobility houses. On the other hand, 'Rice Masters' are the guardians of the holy objects of certain, distinguished clans.
Before the sowing, a hunting takes place several days, in which the men usually take wild pigs. In the remaining time of the year, they will no longer hunt like they did. Wild game has become rare with the increase of population growth, so they beat around the countryside to prevent possible damage of their fields by wild animals. The prey is associated with the kukun, "the obscure ones". This refers to the local spirits of the deceased Melus who were once expelled by the Bunak people from the region. The kukun are the masters of heaven and earth (pan o muk gomo) and the masters of the prey. On the contrary, the living are the roman, the "clear ones". For the kukun there are small, inconspicuous altars from only a few stones in the surroundings that are scattered. About these muk kukun ("earth obscure") are the sites where the Bunak people make contact with the kukun spirits. The main altar stands near the village. In the evening of the first day of the hunt, the 'Lord of the Seeds' puts a liana around the wide cairn and binds its ends to two wooden stakes standing a few centimeters apart. The liana symbolizes the circling of the pigs, which can only flee through a narrow gate where the hunters are waiting for them.
On the following day, the Rice Masters sacrifice some betel nuts, some alcohol and feathers of a live chicken, to the muk kukun; which is in the selected hunting area, so that the 'Master of the Land' would surrender the wild pigs. At the same time, the 'Rice Masters' lie down in front of the altar and deceive themselves to sleep, so that the pigs are also to fall into a deep sleep. This makes it easier for the hounds to chase them. The booty of the first hunting day is brought back to the village in the evening, where a woman from the clan of the 'Lord of the Seeds' welcomes with betel just as one welcomes a guest. It is followed by "Welcome to the Smoke of Fire" (hoto boto hoso) ritual. The 'Lord of the Seeds', and the 'Rice Master' recite verses in reference to the seeds that were entrusted by the corpse of Bei Suri. One of the 'Master of the Word' sacrifices a cock with red feathers by killing him. The throat is not cut with a knife as it is usually done, to prevent severing ties with the "seed". The 'Lord of the Word' recites a welcome text and prays to the 'lord of the village altar'. This title refers to the Melus, who had originally erected the altar, and the first Bunak man who took it over. From the appendages of the cock is used predict about the upcoming planting season. The boiled cock is dissected and spread over small baskets of cooked rice. Some of them are offered to the altar and placed on its top. Then they are handed over to the clan of the female chief. Those baskets at the foot of the altar go to the Sabaq Dato, the clan of the "feminine chief" of the Melus. A basket is sacrificed at Bei Suri. This is the 'Lord of the Seeds'. The other baskets are distributed among the hunters.
On the third day of the hunt at night, the 'Lord of the Seeds' and the 'Rice Masters' bring the meat; which according to their belief contains the seeds of the future harvest, to the lataq altar at the edge of the village. This is done in silence, so as not to attract attention in carnivores. On the lataq, birds, insects and other animals are symbolically fed with rice and chicken to keep them away. In the afternoon of the third day, the various clans visit their graves and bring them fruits and special cakes. At the graves they meet with members of the respective malu clans that also bring fruits and cakes. After being presented to the deceased, the gifts are given to the ai baqa clan.
On the fourth day, after the last hunt, one last common ritual is performed. Women from all clans of the village bring in large baskets of cooked rice to the 'Lord of the Seeds' at the lataq altar. This is distributed to the hunters who have injured or killed a pig. It is a kind of compensation, because, contrary to the customary custom, they do not receive any part of the prey from this traditional hunting. The meat is consumed only by the 'Lord of the Seeds' and the rulers within the ritual circle. Exactly at this time the first heavy rain is expected to fall. It is in the experience of ritual leaders that the ritual and rain coincide on the same day and thus marks the success of the harvest. Every three years, the final ritual is even more complex. This period coincides with the three-year rhythm of the slash-and-burn. From the next day, the fields are sown after a piglet and a goat have been slaughtered at the respective field altar. The blood of the piglet is said to be cold and also to cool down the seeds. Coldness is a synonym for fertility for the Bunak people, while combining heat with death, danger, and struggle. The goat is said to carry the souls (melo) of the fallen trees to the hereafter on the top of their horns. Friedberg, however, noted in 1989 after a visit to the region that this ritual was no longer carried out at the field altars. The reason was that there was simply no one to sacrifice. Instead, a common cooling-down ritual of all village villagers was held at the village altar. The ritual for the souls of the trees was omitted, possibly because there was simply no more trees in the fields due to the short frequency of the slash-and-burns.
Seeds are being sown on the fields after it is directly slash-and-burned without being worked on. The digging-stick (nut) has an eight to ten centimeter large metal blade and it also the same tool used for weeding. Irrigated fields did not exist in Abis village, but in other parts of Lamaknen. These irrigation are prepared with the help of water buffaloes and cattle.
As long as the crops are not ripe, there are strict harvest prohibitions from kapitan and those supporting him, (meaning "to hear to see") are monitored. The kapitan himself is subordinate to the 'Master of the Firstfruits' (), also known as the 'Master of the Germs, the Sandalwood and the Beeswax' (). Sandalwood and beeswax were formerly important commodities whose production was under the control of the local rulers who protect the stocks. The Tobe (customary ritual leader with authority over land, forests, and water) of Atoin Meto people in Oecusse District also has a similar function as a resource manager. Kapitan and 'Master of the Firstfruits' came from the same clan, the house Sabaq Dato, at the Bunak people in Abis village.
Mangoes and candlenut are the first to become ripe. The entire harvest of both fruits is collected on the main square of the village. The clans of the male and female chieftains are the first to get their share of the mangoes, which is also larger than that of the others. Only the female chief receives a share of the candlenut. The rest is kept by the kapitan for general use.
Notes
Bibliography
References
Further reading
Louis Berthe, 1972 Bei Gua: Itinéraire des ancêtres, Paris.
Claudine Friedberg, Boiled Woman and Broiled Man: Myths and Agricultural Rituals of the Bunaq of Central Timor, in James J. Fox (Editor) 1980, The Flow of Life. Essays on Eastern Indonesia, Harvard University Press.
https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07TM1KZFZ
External links
ICRA International: article on endangered ethnicities in East Timor (in French)
Ethnologue page
Ethnic groups in East Timor
Ethnic groups in Indonesia |
4264582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastellaun | Kastellaun | Kastellaun is a town in the Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis (district) in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is the seat of the like-named Verbandsgemeinde, a kind of collective municipality.
Geography
Location
The town lies in the eastern Hunsrück roughly equidistant from the Moselle, the Rhine and the Nahe. The town centre lies between a depression in the north and the plateau of the Hunsrück, over which runs Bundesstraße 327, the so-called Hunsrückhöhenstraße (“Hunsrück Heights Road”, a scenic road across the Hunsrück built originally as a military road on Hermann Göring’s orders).
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Kastellaun amounts to 755 mm, which falls into the middle third of the precipitation chart for all Germany. At 53% of the German Weather Service's weather stations, lower figures recorded. The driest month is April. The most rainfall comes in June. In that month, precipitation is 1.4 times what it is in April. Precipitation varies only slightly and is spread very evenly throughout the year. Only at 1% of the weather stations are lower seasonal swings recorded.
History
Kestilun was first mentioned in writing in 1226. castle was built by the Counts of Sponheim and belonged until 1417 to the County of Sponheim.
In 1301, the castle and the town became home to Simon II, Count of Sponheim-Kreuznach and his wife Elisabeth. Count Simon granted Kastellaun town rights in 1305 and also secured market rights on 8 November 1309 from Emperor Henry VII, who was the brother of Baldwin of Luxembourg, Archbishop of Trier. In 1321, the castle and the town found themselves under siege from Baldwin, who in 1325 also built another castle at Buch, Burg Balduinseck, to counter Kastellaun's challenges to his authority. In 1340, Count Walram of Sponheim left Kastellaun and went to Bad Kreuznach.
In 1437, the Counts of Sponheim died out, and the inheritance fell with the Amt of Kastellaun to Stephen, Count Palatine of Simmern-Zweibrücken and the Lord of Baden, who ruled it jointly. Frederick I acquired the Principality of Simmern and a share of the County of Sponheim from the Veldenz legacy, which he ruled, after the last Count of Veldenz had died, from Kastellaun. He was therefore the actual founder of the Palatinate-Simmern line. Frederick I and his brother Louis divided their father's holdings between them once again in 1459. Louis got the Duchy of Zweibrücken and Frederick resided in Simmern. The Palatinate-Simmern share of the County of Sponheim passed in 1560 to the Count Palatine Zweibrücken and in 1569 to Palatinate-Birkenfeld under Zweibrücken hegemony.
Living at the castle until 1594 were various bailiffs (Amtmänner) who represented the joint lords’ (the County of Veldenz, the Margraviate of Baden, Palatinate-Simmern and Palatinate-Zweibrücken) interests. Margrave Edward Fortunatus was driven out of Baden-Baden in 1594 and sought refuge at the castle, thereby making it a residence once again. In the course of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the town was occupied by Spaniards, Swedes, Lorrains, Hessians and Frenchmen. Great Plague epidemics raged.
The Sponheim lordship began to come to an end in 1687 as many parts of the Rhine's left bank were being occupied by King Louis XIV's troops in the Nine Years' War (known in Germany as the Pfälzischer Erbfolgekrieg, or War of the Palatine Succession). The main result of the occupation for Kastellaun was the castle's and the town's destruction. In 1776, the joint lordship ended definitively, and the Amt and town of Kastellaun passed to Palatinate-Zweibrücken.
During the French Revolutionary Wars, the region was occupied in 1793 and 1794 by French troops and in 1798 it was assigned to the Department of Rhin-et-Moselle, thereby making it French until the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Then, Kastellaun became part of the Prussian Rhine Province.
In 1820, the castle passed into private ownership. In 1884, the town bought the property and gave the ruin its first renovation.
Since 1946, Kastellaun has been part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate. On 14 September 1969, it was granted town rights once again.
The castle hill and the ruins underwent renovation and restoration once again between 1990 and 1993. In 1999, the first castle house was rebuilt, followed by a second in 2005. On 9 September 2007, a documentation centre was dedicated as the “House of Regional History”.
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 22 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Kastellaun's mayor is Christian Keimer.
Coat of arms
The town's arms might be described thus: Sable a fess countercompony gules and argent, in chief two crowns in fess Or.
The arms recall those formerly borne by the Counts of Sponheim, which featured a “chequy” pattern. The two crowns are said to symbolize two of the counts who held sway here. These arms appear on the town seal as early as the 15th century.
In the 1920s, Otto Hupp showed a somewhat different coat of arms for Kastellaun in the Coffee Hag albums, with azure (blue) as the field tincture instead of sable (black), and with 14 squares of alternating tinctures on the fess (horizontal stripe) instead of 12. The composition of charges, however, was otherwise the same as in the arms borne now.
Town partnerships
Kastellaun fosters partnerships with the following places:
Prémery, Nièvre, France
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate’s Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Castle Kastellaun ruin (monumental zone) – ruin of the wedge-shaped complex founded in the early 14th century and destroyed in 1689 with upper and lower castle; lodging building with, in places, three-floor-high west wall and the west half of the adjoining rectangular tower, both with arch friezes; rectangular building attested by digs; keep; on the site of the lower castle the Catholic Church
Evangelical church, Kirchplatz 4 – triple nave, earlier half of the 14th century; tower possibly from the earlier half of the 14th century; quire, 15th century
Catholic Church of the Holy Cross (Kirche zum Hl. Kreuz), Schloßstraße 17 – Gothic Revival basilica, 1899–1902, architect Eduard Endler, Cologne
Town fortifications – Parts of walls from the former trapezoidal town fortifications, possibly from the earlier half of the 14th century; preserved, a stretch of wall along the backs of the houses on Burgweg and west of the Evangelical church; at Burgweg 6 a reconstructed gate; parts of a wall in the back parts of Eifelstraße 13 and 15, beside those reconstructed wall with parapet walk; remnants of a tower and a gateway arch near Marktstraße 14; parallel to Marktstraße and below the Evangelical church parts of the moat on the north side
Bahnhofstraße 17 – two-winged Renaissance Revival building, about 1900
Bahnhofstraße 23 – villa, pyramidal roof, about 1920
Bahnhofstraße 38 – stately building with hipped roof with Expressionist portal, marked 1922
Bahnhofstraße 54 – detached house, partly timber-frame, marked 1921
Bopparder Straße 11 – building with hipped roof, marked 1808
Bucher Straße 10 – former parish church (Pfarrkirche Hl. Kreuz); aisleless church, 1728; graveyard: graveyard cross, 1858; two grave crosses, 18th century, three basalt grave crosses, 19th century; five cast-iron grave crosses, Rheinböllen Ironworks, late 19th century; whole complex of buildings
Burgweg 8 – former Catholic school; Late Classicist slate quarrystone building, shortly before 1845
Burgweg 10 – timber-frame house, partly solid, plastered, 18th century, timber-frame addition
Kirchstraße 13/15 – timber-frame house, half-hipped roof, 17th century
Kirchstraße 17 – broadly seated half-hipped roof, partly timber-frame, plastered, about 1700
Beside Marktstraße 14 – town wall gateway arch, marked 1747; town wall tower
Marktstraße 14 – two-winged, three-floor timber-frame house, partly solid and slated, marked 1755, expansion/alterations in the 19th century
Marktstraße 16 – timber-frame house, plastered, rich stucco, caryatids, about 1890
Marktstraße 17 – former hotel “Zum Schwanen”; timber-frame house, partly solid, hipped mansard roof, possibly from the 17th century
Marktstraße 22 – former Scharfensteiner Hof; three-floor timber-frame house, partly solid and slated, hipped mansard roof, marked 1724
Schloßstraße 5a – timber-frame house, partly solid, mansard roof, possibly from the early 18th century
Schloßstraße 7 – timber-frame house, partly solid, plastered, mansard roof, early 19th century
Schloßstraße 10 – former Catholic rectory; building with hipped mansard roof, 18th century
Schloßstraße 11 – former financial office of the Margraves of Baden and the Dukes of Palatine Zweibrücken; today a Catholic rectory, two-winged timber-frame house, partly solid and slated, about 1700
Schloßstraße 15 – former tithe barn; one-floor building with hipped mansard roof, 18th century
Schloßstraße 19 – former Badish Amt winery; building with hipped mansard roof, marked 1670
Jewish graveyard, Hasselbacher Straße (monumental zone) – founded about 1879, 37 grave steles from 1885 to 1933
warriors’ memorial 1870/1871, Am Pfingstwald – sandstone obelisk
Sport and leisure
On the town's southeastern outskirts is found an indoor swimming pool with an integrated medical rehabilitation centre, and a sport and fitness area. Right nearby is a miniature golf course.
The Kyrill Path was established in May 2008, after the Kyrill storm laid waste to woodlands in 2007. Along the 800 m-long path leading through 1.5 ha of woodland devastated by the storm, the visitor can get an idea of the destruction wrought by the Kyrill storm and also learn something about the regeneration of new forest. Ten information stations deal in detail with geology, pedology, root development, climate, weather, life in dead wood, the bark beetle’s voraciousness, natural and artificial forest rejuvenation, mechanized wood harvesting and modern forestry.
Near the Kyrill Path, a ropes course and a barefoot path were opened in May 2008.
Along Kastellaun’s southern outskirts, along the old Hunsrückbahn (railway) right-of-way, runs the Schinderhannes-Radweg (cycle path). This begins in Simmern and leads by Kastellaun on the way to Emmelshausen.
Near Kastellaun lies the former Pydna Missile Base, where each year, an open-air electronic music festival called Nature One is held.
Among the many clubs, there is the Kastellaun Gymnastics Club (Turnverein Kastellaun), part of the widely known Kastellaun-Simmern Handball Playing Association (Handballspielgemeinschaft Kastellaun-Simmern).
Economy and infrastructure
Education
Located in Kastellaun are one primary school, an Integrierte Gesamtschule (IGS; a comprehensive school that combines Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium streams) with a gymnasial upper level, the Theodor Heuss School for the Mentally Handicapped/School for the Physically Handicapped and the Kastellaun Free Waldorf School.
Other institutions
The Julius-Reuß-Wohnheim is an institution geared to help people with disabilities. It is among the so-called Schmiedelanstalten (roughly “Swamp Institutions” – named for the wetland area where they were originally found; Julius Reuß was their founder) and is located in a residential neighbourhood between the town centre and the industrial park. It collaborates with the other institutions in town dedicated to care of the handicapped, namely the Theodor Heuss Schools mentioned above along with their special kindergarten for children with mental disabilities, the workshop and the daytime assistance centre at the Rhein-Mosel-Werkstätten (“Rhine-Moselle Workshops”) and the home of the club Betreutes Wohnen Hunsrück e.V. (“Hunsrück Assisted Living”) for those with physical illnesses.
Tourism
The town takes it upon itself to promote tourism. On offer are guided tours through the Old Town and to the castle ruins. The most important buildings and sites and historical events from the castle's and the town's history are described and explained on these tours by expert guides. The small, traditional Bell Leisure Park lies right nearby.
Kastellaun lies on the Deutsche Alleenstraße (Germany's longest themed holiday road, featuring many Alleen – tree-lined avenues).
Bundeswehr post
Kastellaun has been home since 20 March 1964 to a Bundeswehr barracks, which houses Command Support Battalion (Führungsunterstützungsbataillon) 282.
Famous people
Notable people born in the town
Philipp Christoph Reichsritter von Sötern (1567–1652), Archbishop and Elector of Trier
Eberhard Kieser (b. 2. December 1583 in Kastellaun; d. November 1631 in Frankfurt) German engraver and publisher
Arnold Constantin Peter Franz von Lasaulx (b. 14 June 1839; d. 25 January 1886) German mineralogist and petrographer
Heinrich Friedrich Zimmer (1851–1910), Celticist and Indologist; first German professor of Celtic studies
Albrecht Koschorke (b. 1958), literary critic at the University of Konstanz
Other notable people associated with the town
Simon II, Count of Sponheim-Kreuznach (c. 1270-1336)
Heinrich Barenbroch (about 1525–1587), Evangelical minister and reformer of the city of Essen
Edward Fortunatus (1565–1600), Regent of the Margraviate of Baden-Baden, died at Castle Kastellaun
Friedrich Back (1801–1879), Evangelical minister, superintendent and Heimatforscher.
Friedrich Hachenberg (1915–1992), forester, from 1951 to 1968 led the Kastellaun forestry office and published several books and papers about the forests around the town
Karl-August von Dahl (b. 1942), Evangelical minister, in the 1980s one of the organizers and one of the most important minds of the movement for peace and against the stationing of US nuclear missiles in the Hunsrück
Jutta Renate von Dahl (b. 1943), Evangelical minister, in 1988 the first awarded the Aachen Peace Prize (Aachener Friedenspreis) for her involvement in the peace movement
Christian W. Schenk (b. 1951), German-Romanian lyricist, essayist, translator and publisher, lives in Kastellaun
Further reading
Kastellaun in der Geschichte. Herausgegeben von der Familienstiftung Pies-Archiv, der Integrierten Gesamtschule Kastellaun und der Stadt Kastellaun in Verbindung mit dem Forschungszentrum Vorderhunsrück
Band 1: Christof Pies (Red.): Gemeinsame Erinnerung. Jüdische Überlebende des Nationalsozialismus begegnen Bürgern und Schülern ihrer Heimatstadt. Projektwoche der Gesamtschule Kastellaun „Judentum und Nationalsozialismus“. Staatliche Integrierte Gesamtschule Kastellaun und Stadt Kastellaun, Kastellaun 1989, 220 S.
Band 2: Eike Pies: Bürgerbücher der Stadt und des Amtes Kastellaun. (1568–1798). Pies, Sprockhövel 1991, 675 S.,
Band 3: Bernd König et al.: Das Wahrzeichen Kastellauns, seine Burg. Pies und Stadt Kastellaun, Dommershausen und Kastellaun 1994, 207 S., oder
Band 4: Josef Peil (Zusammenstellung) et al.: Streiflichter. Zeugnisse aus dem Leben der Stadt Kastellaun und ihrer Bewohner. Pies und Stadt Kastellaun, Dommershausen und Kastellaun 1996, 292 S.,
Band 5: Friedrich Hachenberg: Wald um Kastellaun. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Stadtwaldes. Abschließend bearbeitet durch Franz-Josef Boeder. Pies und Stadt Kastellaun, Dommershausen und Kastellaun 1998, 183 S.,
Band 6: Michael Frauenberger: Bürgerbücher für das Amt Kastellaun (1568–1798). Band 2: Die lutherischen Pfarreien Alterkülz (mit Michelbach und teilweise Neuerkirch), Bell (mit Hasselbach, Hundheim, Krastel, Leideneck, Spesenroth, Völkenroth und Wohnroth), Gödenroth (mit Heyweiler), Roth (mit Hollnich) und Uhler ab 1701. Pies, Dommershausen 1999, 739 (XIX) S.,
Band 7: Eric Beres: Auswanderung aus dem Hunsrück 1815 - 1871. Strukturen, Ursachen und Folgen am Beispiel der ehemaligen Bürgermeisterei Kastellaun. [Veränderte Magisterarbeit.] Pies und Stadt Kastellaun, Dommershausen und Kastellaun 2001, 178 S.,
Band 8: Christof Pies (Red.), Rolf Claus et al.: Augenblicke – von Kestilun nach Kastellaun. Pies, Sprockhövel 2008, 243 S.,
Hubert Leifeld, Karl Peter Wiemer (Red.): Kastellaun. Burg und Stadt im vorderen Hunsrück. Rheinische Kunststätten (Heft 461). Rheinischer Verein für Denkmalpflege und Landschaftsschutz. Neusser Druckerei und Verlag, Neuss 2001, 39 S.,
Autorenkollektiv: 25 Jahre Garnisonsstadt Kastellaun. Informationsschrift für Gäste und Soldaten''. Mönch, Koblenz, Bonn und Waldesch 1989, 84 S.
References
External links
Official webpage
Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis |
4264648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinb%C3%B6llen | Rheinböllen | Rheinböllen is a town in the Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis (district) in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It belongs to the Verbandsgemeinde Simmern-Rheinböllen, whose seat is in Simmern. It was the seat of the former Verbandsgemeinde Rheinböllen.
Geography
Location
Rheinböllen lies some 10 km as the crow flies southwest of the Middle Rhine at Bacharach in the southeast Hunsrück. The town is found in the transitional zone between (to the east) the Binger Wald (Bingen Forest) and (to the south) the Soonwald, a heavily wooded section of the west-central Hunsrück that since 2005 has belonged to the Naturpark Soonwald-Nahe.
Constituent communities
Rheinböllen has two outlying Stadtteile: Kleinweidelbach and Rheinböllerhütte.
Climate
Yearly precipitation in Rheinböllen amounts to 695 mm. This falls into the middle third of the precipitation chart for all Germany. Only at 39% of the German Weather Service's weather stations are lower figures recorded. The driest month is February. The most rainfall comes in June. In that month, precipitation is 1.6 times what it is in February. Precipitation varies only slightly. Only at 2% of the weather stations are lower seasonal swings recorded.
Name
The prefix Rhein— suggests some kind of historical dependence on Bacharach, to whose Vogtei Rheinböllen may well once have belonged, before it passed to the Counts Palatine. The past teacher and local historian Junges traced Bollen to an old word meaning "hill" or "height", leading to the interpretation of the name as meaning “Rhine Heights" (an apt description of the location, up on the Hunsrück). Through the ages, the name for Rheinböllen has taken many spellings: Rinbul, Rinbulle, Rynbuhel, Reynbullen, Rymbul, Rymbulen, Rynbule, Rinbelle, Bollen, Bullen, Rinbulde, Rheinbullen.
History
The Rheinböllen region was settled as early as the Stone Age. Shortly after 1900, workmen digging near the railway station found a sharpened, polished stone axe, the earliest evidence of human habitation in what is now the town. Archaeological finds in the area of the Altdorf ("Old Village", a triangle formed by the streets Simmerner Straße, Poststraße and Bahnhofstraße) point to Celtic beginnings. The Romans later drove a road through the settlement.
Street names used today, such as Wehr ("Defence") and Hinterster Graben ("Hindmost Moat") bear witness to a girding wall that once stood around the village. Rheinböllen was secured with two wall moats. An illustration from 1620 shows palisades on the wall, which itself had a defensive tower built into it.
Rheinböllen was the main centre in the so-called "Old Court" (Altes Gericht), the ancient core of Comital-Palatine lordship on the Hundisrück. Ellern, Erbach (in part), Dichtelbach and Kleinweidelbach, too, might also have been part of it. This "Old Court" likely had arisen by 1142, when Hermann von Stahleck was awarded the County Palatine by his brother-in-law, King Conrad III. The places within this landholding all lay in the archdeaconry of the Mainz Cathedral Provost's office, and thereby likely in the Nahegau. In the east, it bordered on Saint Peter's Parish, Bacharach, to which Rheinböllen definitely belonged, at least ecclesiastically.
After Hermann von Stahleck's death, Emperor Barbarossa transferred the County Palatine in 1156 to his stepbrother Konrad, who also held rights to estates in the Nahegau, to which Rheinböllen also almost certainly belonged.
The oldest known document about the town is a lease, dated 1 May 1309, concluded by Johann von dem Stein, serving as the Burgrave at Böckelheim, and the Schultheiß of Rheinböllen. The Burgrave held two fields in the Bischofsfeld as a Palatine fief, and transferred them to the municipality.
Rheinböllen was apparently a town once before. In 1316, the settlement was recorded as being an oppidum, the Latin word used in Roman times for any centre resembling a town, and in historical records made as late as the 13th and 14th centuries, it was still appearing in this meaning, describing mediaeval towns.
Emperor Louis the Bavarian and his elder brother Rudolf shared between themselves ownership of the Rhenish Palatinate. To curry the Rhenish princes' favour, Louis pledged, right after his regency began in 1314, the Altes Gericht together with Castle Fürstenberg and the settlements of Diebach and Manubach to Archbishop of Mainz Peter. Two years thereafter, Louis transferred half the village to Archbishop of Trier Baldwin, and another four years later to King John of Bohemia, Baldwin's nephew, whereupon the other half of the village was now given to the Archbishop. The settlement was a main centre in the County Palatine – and was likely at that time said to be a town – until 1359, through a pledge of 1,800 Florentine guilders, Simmern became part of the holding and was later raised to seat of the Amt.
As early as the 12th century, Rheinböllen supposedly had a marketplace within its walls. There is evidence that Rudolf II, Count Palatine of the Rhine granted market rights between 1314 and 1347. Markets have been part of Rheinböllen ever since. Livestock markets were still being held at the outbreak of the Second World War on the "Sauwasen" (the plot of land where the primary school now stands), and each year, there is still a craft market on Kermis Tuesday.
Rheinböllen's landholders changed often in the 14th and 15th centuries. Under the 1338 Palatine Partition among Rudolf II, Rupert the Younger and Rupert the Elder, the lordship over Rheinböllen changed once again: the two Ruperts – their name was "Ruprecht" in German – became the new lords. In the same year, King Louis forwent all claims to, among other things, the "half" of Rheinböllen, referring the pledgeholders, John of Bohemia and Archbishop Baldwin, to Count Palatine Rudolf and the two Ruperts. In 1352, Rupert I, Elector Palatine enfeoffed the Electorate of Trier with half of Rheinböllen.
The court at Rheinböllen existed already by 1359 and was held on the plot of land where the Catholic church now stands. On the neighbouring "Henkersbitz" (Henker is German for "hangman") stood the gallows. In 1886, when excavation was being done for the church that was to be built there, workers unearthed, among other things, bones and skulls – all that was left of those hanged on the "Henkersbitz".
About 1400, the Counts Palatine had enfeoffed several knightly families with parts of their Rheinböllen holdings, namely the families Knebel von Katzenelnbogen, von Crampurg, von Leyen, Futtersack von Steeg, Breitscheit von Richenstein and Hune von Bacharach. Even a family called the Knights of Rymbulle (Rheinböllen) crop up in documents from 1361 to 1389, although it is unknown whether or in what way they were linked with the town. Squire Dietrich von Rymbulle was also the fiefholder of the Sponheim Castle Kastellaun.
Two centuries later, Rheinböllen belonged to the Electorate of the Palatinate and had 48 hearths (for which, read "households"). At that time in history, about 1600, many Palatinate lordships owned meadows within town limits: Anthonius Kratz von Scharfenstein, Antonius Waldbott zu Bassenheim, Friedrich Hundt von Seilen, Christoph von Stein, Hans Henrich von Schmidtburg zu Gemünden, Michel von Kallenfels, Hans Knebel von Katzenelnbogen, Hans Christoph von Grorode, the family von Koppenstein and Hans Caspar von Sponheim.
At the end of the Middle Ages, Rheinböllen was a postal station on the route between Innsbruck and Mechelen, nowadays in Austria and Belgium respectively. An 18th-century geographical description explains that the road coming from Bacharach went through the market town. The reader furthermore learns something about the Palatinate woodlands, the iron-ore mining in the Ledenwald (forest) and the Guldenbach (brook), which has this name only from Rheinböllen on down, being called the Volkenbach farther upstream.
By the late 17th century at the latest, Rheinböllen was a Schultheißerei together with Dichtelbach and Erbach. In the 18th century, Electorate of the Palatinate posted the local tollkeeper who collected the road tolls.
In 1794, Emperor Napoleon annexed the Rhine's left bank, which would remain French for two decades. The Bürgermeisterei ("Mayoralty") of Rheinböllen thereby became the Mairie (also "Mayoralty") of Rheinböllen. The brewer and innkeeper Johann Jakob Mades served as maire (mayor). In 1804, the French emperor visited the Hunsrück in person, and young citizens from Rheinböllen, Dichtelbach, Ellern, Mörschbach and Kleinweidelbach had to ride out to meet him.
When allied troops crossed the Rhine on New Year's Night 1813–1814 near Kaub, France's hegemony in the region fell, and the Rhineland became Prussian. On the day that followed, New Year's Day 1814, Prince William, Field Marshal Blücher and Field Marshal Gneisenau rested at the Evangelical rectory for a few hours.
After the Congress of Vienna, the earlier Mairies of Argenthal and Rheinböllen, along with Liebshausen, were merged to form the Prussian Amt of Rheinböllen. Friedrich Mades, Johann Jakob Mades's son, became the mayor and served in that capacity until his death in 1851 – 35 years all together.
Less than a century later, the village lived the blackest day in its history. On 16 March 1945, the Second World War was in its death throes, at least in Europe. On this morning, a handful of SS men rather ill-advisedly decided to try to hold off the American advance on Rheinböllen, and to that end, destroyed an American tank. By way of response, the remaining tanks, supported by artillery, let loose a furious barrage on Rheinböllen. Some 25 properties did not survive the onslaught and were utterly destroyed. All that was left standing of the Evangelical church was the surrounding wall. The Catholic church's tower, too, was struck, but somehow managed to stay standing. Amazingly, only one citizen was killed, but thirty families were left homeless on this day.
After the war, Rheinböllen's skyline changed lastingly owing to steady growth. In rapid succession, one building zone after another sprang up, and the population rose sharply. In 1946, the year when Rheinböllen became part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate, there were 1,283 inhabitants. By 1985, this had risen threefold (3,661). The figure is now just under 4,000.
On 1 January 1969, one section of the municipality of Daxweiler with 70 inhabitants was transferred to Rheinböllen. On 17 March 1974, the hitherto self-administering municipality of Kleinweidelbach with 113 inhabitants was amalgamated with Rheinböllen. On 5 September 2009, Rheinböllen was raised to town by the Rhineland-Palatinate state government.
Former Jewish presence
Until the time of the "Thousand-Year Reich", Rheinböllen was among the places in the Simmern district that had considerable Jewish populations. The earliest trace of Jewish settlement in the town goes back to the mid 19th century. In 1842, seventeen "Israelite" (so the document styles them) children were attending the Catholic school. The oldest gravestone that can be deciphered at the Jewish graveyard on the road to Bacharach gives 11 September 1867 as Gottlieb Rauner's date of death. About 1900, there were eight Jewish families in town, all of whom earned livelihoods in retail business or trade. Older people in Rheinböllen can still remember names such as Hessel, Michels, Süßmann, Keller, Grünewald and Kann. The only Jewish institution in the municipality was a small synagogue on Bacharacher Straße. It is preserved. The memorial plaque there tells of the time in the town's history that was brought to an abrupt end by the Nazis.
Population development
What follows is a table of the town's population figures for selected years since the early 19th century (each time at 31 December):
Politics
Town council
The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected by proportional representation at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.
The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:
Mayor
Rheinböllen's mayor is Bernadette Jourdant (formerly Oberthür), and her deputies are Bernd Raab, Siegmund Kappel and Erich Rott.
Coat of arms
The German blazon reads: In Schwarz ein wachsender goldener, rotgezungter und -bewehrter ¾ Löwe.
The town's arms might in English heraldic language be described thus: Sable, issuant from base a lion rampant Or armed and langued gules.
Rheinböllen was the main centre in the so-called "Old Court" (Altes Gericht), the old Comital-Palatine holding on the Hunsrück. The lion "issuant from base" (a lion rampant is usually centred in the field with his whole body showing) is a "diminutive" of the Palatine Lion first borne by the House of Wittelsbach after they were enfeoffed with the County Palatine of the Rhine in 1214.
The arms have been borne since 18 May 1966.
Culture and sightseeing
Buildings
The following are listed buildings or sites in Rhineland-Palatinate's Directory of Cultural Monuments:
Rheinböllen (main centre)
Evangelical church, Bacharacher Straße 10 – Baroque aisleless church, 1764/1765, extension 1845/1846, tower substructure possibly mediaeval; balustrade wall around the church, 18th century; at the head of the quire the Utsch-Puricelli family tomb with Carl Puricelli's Classicist tomb; monumental zone with possible former rectory and school (Marktstraße 13)
Saint Erasmus's Catholic Parish Church (Pfarrkirche St. Erasmus), Kirchgasse 4 – Gothic Revival hall church, brick, 1870–1872; monumental zone with Catholic rectory (Kirchgasse 5) and former school (Kirchgasse 3)
(Before) Am Markt 1 – fountain, Classicist sandstone pylon, cast-iron basin, 1840
Am Markt 1 – old town hall; Gothic Revival brick building, 1873
Bacharacher Straße 8 – possible former rectory; timber-frame house, partly solid or slated, 1730–1733
Bacharacher Straße 11, former orphanage, Puricelli’sche Stiftung (monumental zone) – group of buildings enclosed by a wall: gate marked 18??; former orphanage, Gothic Revival quarrystone building, 1862–1864; Chapel of the Immaculate Conception, three-naved quarrystone building, 1887/1888, rich Gothic Revival décor; former hospital, quarrystone building; timber-frame administration building, garden (see also below)
Kirchgasse – cross, 18th century
Kirchgasse 3 – former school; great timber-frame house, partly solid or slated, 1780
Liebshausener Straße, graveyard – quarrystone chapel, 19th century; Gothic Revival Puricelli tomb, Utsch tomb, about 1860; tomb for ?, about 1844; block with vase and cloth; Illades tomb, about 1851; Smirdainiskow tomb, cast-iron, Rheinböllen Ironworks, latter half of the 19th century; fountain basin, cast-iron, Rheinböllen Ironworks, latter half of the 19th century
Simmerner Straße/corner of Poststraße – Puricelli tomb chapel; Gothic Revival brick building, marked 1891
Wehrstraße 8 – wellhouse, brick building; cast-iron hand pump, Rheinböllen Ironworks, latter half of the 19th century
Hochsteinchen lookout tower, south of town on the "Hochsteinchen" – iron construction, 1893
Jewish graveyard, Auf dem Rockenberg (monumental zone) – founded in 1845, some 20 gravestones from 1852 to 1935
Kleinweidelbach
Kleinweidelbach 7, bakehouse and community centre – quarrystone building, 18th century
Rheinböllerhütte
Rheinböllen Ironworks (monumental zone) – formerly the most important ironworks in the Soonwald, known from the 9th century, foundry witnessed from 1598, in late 18th century taken over by the Brothers Puricelli; group of buildings from the 1830s/1840s and 1880s/1890s (new management house, old storage hall, gatehouse/magazine, so-called casino, houses, former gardener's house and bridge) as well as the family Puricelli's Saint Mary's and Saint Michael's Crypt Chapel (see next entry)
Teves-Straße – family Puricelli's crypt chapel (Gruftkkapelle St. Maria und St. Michael der Familie Puricelli); quarrystone aisleless church, 1857, expansion with triconch apses and crossing tower, 1906, architect Eduard Endler, Cologne
Teves-Straße 6–8 – house, latter half of the 19th century
Teves-Straße 20 – gatehouse/magazine; one-floor quarrystone building with clocktower, about 1830/1840; bridge, about 1840
Teves-Straße 21 – Late Classicist two-winged building, 1860
Teves-Straße 24 – so-called casino; former plastered house, hewn-stone building with knee wall, latter half of the 19th century
Teves-Straße 30 – former gardener's house; one-floor building with hipped mansard roof, timber framing plastered, 18th or 19th century; quarrystone barn, partly timber-frame, half-hipped roof, 19th century; bridge, mid 19th century
At the Kulturhaus in Rheinböllen (KiR, "Culture House in Rheinböllen"), there are regular cultural festivities. Rheinböllen also has a waterpark and a 500-hectare game farm.
Puricelli Foundation
The Puricelli’sche Stiftung (Puricelli Foundation) was built between 1864 and 1891 and today stands under monumental protection, and is also protected by the Hague Convention. The Puricelli Foundation was formerly an orphanage with a lovely Gothic Revival chapel. The endowment came from Mr. and Mrs. Puricelli.
The Foundation's goal is to maintain its institution and building, which in great part are under monumental protection and worthy of being considered monuments and stand as cultural icons far beyond their home region (especially the chapel with its fixtures and paraments), and, for public and social purposes, especially accommodating and caring for the elderly, those who need care and the handicapped, to put itself at their disposal, as well as to present the whole complex's importance to art history and cultural history with its equipment and furnishings.
On 1 November 2006, the Franziskanerbrüder, Betriebs u. Beschäftigungs gGmbh (“Franciscan Brothers, Operation and Activity Not-for-Profit Corporation”) took over sponsorship of the nursing home in Rheinböllen. The institution serves as a home for those with physical illnesses. Its name is Puricelli-Stift Rheinböllen.
Regular events
In Rheinböllen, regular events such as Christmas markets and a kermis (church consecration festival) are held. The biggest disco event in Rheinböllen is the XMAS-DANCE-PARTY (so called even in German) staged by JuKu e.V. (Jugend- und Kulturverein – "Youth and Culture Club"). This event is always held shortly before Christmas at the Kulturhaus in Rheinböllen and each year has about 1,000 guests.
Economy and infrastructure
Rheinböllen has its own interchange on the Autobahn A 61 and is 15 km by road from Bacharach on the Rhine, and also roughly 50 km from both Mainz and Koblenz.
Rheinböllen munitions depot
The Bundeswehr munitions depot, which lies south of town at the foot of the Hochsteinchen, has an area of 130 ha and 120 attendants. It has a siding on the Hunsrückquerbahn (railway). On 1 April 2004, the complex was downgraded from main munitions depot to depot/storage facility. Within the framework of the Bundeswehr's structural reform, the depot is to be fully shut down in 2011.
Famous people
Sons and daughters of the town
(1732–1795), hereditary forester to the Elector of Mainz; said to be the Jäger aus Kurpfalz ("Hunter from the Palatinate"), the subject of a well-known folksong.
Famous people associated with the town
Leonhard Goffiné (1648–1719), Premonstratensian Canon and religious folk writer; was pastor in Rheinböllen in the 17th century
Eduard Puricelli (1826–1893), entrepreneur and member of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation.
References
External links
Verbandsgemeinde of Rheinböllen
Rhein-Hunsrück-Kreis |
4264789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20McAleer | Jimmy McAleer | James Robert "Loafer" McAleer (July 10, 1864April 29, 1931) was an American center fielder, manager, and stockholder in Major League Baseball who assisted in establishing the American League. He spent most of his 13-season playing career with the Cleveland Spiders, and went on to manage the Cleveland Blues, St. Louis Browns, and Washington Senators. Shortly before his retirement, he became a major shareholder in the Boston Red Sox.
His career ended abruptly. During his brief tenure as co-owner of the Red Sox, McAleer quarreled with longtime friend and colleague Ban Johnson, president of the American League. In the wake of this disagreement, he sold off his shares in the Red Sox and broke off his relationship with Major League Baseball.
McAleer's rift with Johnson, along with his sudden retirement, damaged his professional reputation, and he received little recognition for his contributions to baseball. Today, he is most often remembered for initiating the customary request that the President of the United States throw out the first ball of the season.
Early years
McAleer was born in Youngstown, Ohio, an industrial center located near the border of western Pennsylvania. His father, Owen McAleer, died at a young age, leaving McAleer's mother, Mary, to support three children. The family lived on the city's west side, where the McAleer children were raised to value the concept of formal education. McAleer attended local public schools and graduated from Rayen High School. In later years, all three of the McAleer brothers moved on to successful careers, and the oldest, Owen McAleer, Jr., served for a time as mayor of Los Angeles.
A "strapping six-foot 175-pound outfielder," McAleer won early recognition for his physical speed. He became involved with a Youngstown minor league baseball club in 1882, remaining with the team until 1884. In 1885, McAleer joined another minor league organization in Charleston, South Carolina; and in 1887, he played for a team based in Memphis, Tennessee. His skill as a center fielder was recognized in 1888, while he was playing for a club in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Although his primary focus was organized sports, McAleer was also drawn to the field of entertainment. During one season of his minor league career, he became part-owner of the DeHaven Comedy Company, a theatrical road troupe that was organized in Youngstown. His interest in show business remained a constant, and in later years McAleer developed a strong friendship with Broadway composer and performer George M. Cohan.
Playing career
On April 24, 1889, McAleer broke into the Major Leagues in Cleveland, Ohio, where he established a reputation as a graceful outfielder. In 1891, when Patsy Tebeau became manager of the Cleveland Spiders, the club became known for its aggressive tactics. Tebeau encouraged players to block and hold runners, while he himself openly challenged and harassed officials. In 1896, the Cleveland manager was jailed for attacking an umpire who "decided it was too dark to continue a game". On June 27, 1896, McAleer was among several Cleveland players to be fined by a Louisville (Kentucky) judge for their role in the incident. Later that year, the club's notoriety prompted other National League teams to propose a boycott of Cleveland, "until the Spiders mended their ways." McAleer's periodic displays of temper were in keeping with this rowdy environment. During an August 18, 1891 game with the Cincinnati Reds, Reds player Arlie Latham tripped McAleer as he rounded third base; McAleer responded by chasing Latham around the field, while brandishing his bat.
At the same time, McAleer proved a strong performer. A later newspaper account described him as an outstanding outfielder who was "blessed with excellent speed". The article noted that McAleer's skills as a sprinter helped him steal 51 bases in one year and 41 in another. According to some accounts, he was "the first centerfielder to take his eyes off a fly ball, run to the spot where it fell to earth, and catch it". Less proficient as a hitter, McAleer accumulated a lifetime batting average of .253. During his career, the league's batting (pitchers removed) average for players with the same home field was .284. On April 24, 1894, he assisted in Cleveland's 1–0 victory over Cincinnati with a single in the ninth that drove home Buck Ewing, who had doubled. Along with teammates Cy Young, Jesse Burkett, John Clarkson, and Charles Zimmer, McAleer also participated in the Spiders' victory over the Baltimore Orioles in the 1895 Temple Cup, a post-season series between first and second-place teams of the National League. The Spiders placed second to the Orioles at the close of both the 1895 and 1896 seasons. McAleer's performance came in spite of a serious injury he received during a game held in Philadelphia on August 24, 1895, when he collided with a fence. Furthermore, he balanced his achievements in sports with a foray into politics in his hometown of Youngstown. During the summer of 1895, McAleer was promoted in the local media as a mayoral candidate, first as a Republican, and then as an independent.
In 1898, when the Spiders' owners purchased the St. Louis Browns franchise, McAleer opted to stay in Cleveland, taking a brief hiatus from baseball until the Cleveland Blues franchise joined the newly formed American League (AL). During his two-year absence, the Spiders lost many of their more experienced players. In 1899, the team won 20 games and lost 134, which is still percentage-wise the worst season record in Major League history. As baseball historian Bill James noted, the Spiders were forced to cancel home games due to poor attendance and "turned the last two months of the season into a long road trip". After a full year out of baseball in 1899, McAleer was back in a Cleveland uniform in 1900, in a new league, as player-manager of the Cleveland Lake Shores of the fledgling American League, then a minor league. McAleer's subsequent career as a major league manager (1901–11) overlapped with his playing career (1882–1907). Although he did not play professionally between 1903 and 1906, McAleer played in his last Major League game on July 8, 1907.
Managing career
Cleveland Lake Shores/Blues
In 1900, McAleer became player-manager of the Cleveland Lake Shores (a predecessor of the Cleveland Indians) and continued with the franchise in 1901, when the American League became a major league and the club was renamed as the Blues, a name borrowed from a team that had participated in the National League during the 1870s and 1880s. The Blues made their major league debut on April 24, 1901, with an 8–2 loss to the Chicago White Sox. Two other league games were canceled due to inclement weather, and the contest between the Blues and White Sox served as the inaugural game of the AL.
In July of that year, McAleer presided over the Blues' upset 6–1 loss to the Detroit Tigers. Although the Tigers' manager, Tommy Burns, agreed to forfeit the game for fear that the umpire, Joe Cantillon, would be injured by an angry crowd, McAleer agreed to play the Tigers using a reserve umpire. The Blues eventually closed the season with a 54–82 record, placing seventh in the eight-team American League.
McAleer, however, contributed little to this outcome. In 1901, he played in only three games with the Blues. The AL, established in 1900 by Ban Johnson, former president of the Western League, was by this time in direct competition with the well-established National League (NL). McAleer, a close friend of Johnson and his associate, Charles Comiskey, played a significant role in the new league's development, recruiting scores of experienced players from the NL.
St. Louis Browns
As manager of the Browns, McAleer lured players such as Hall of Famers Jesse Burkett and Bobby Wallace. In 1902, the Browns took second place in the league, with a record of 78 wins and 58 losses. Between 1903 and 1907, however, the team never ranked higher than fifth or sixth place in the AL. Then, in 1908, the club rebounded, finishing just games out of first place, with a record of 83 wins and 69 losses, landing at fourth in the AL. The Browns ended the 1909 season, however, with a record of 61–89, earning seventh place. McAleer was fired at the close of the season. Browns owner Robert L. Hedges, a Cincinnati carriage maker, replaced the "affable" McAleer with the "crustier" Jack O'Connor, who was expelled from the league in 1910 for seeking to influence the outcome of the annual batting championship.
Washington Senators
On September 22, 1909, McAleer became the manager of the Washington Senators (popularly known as the "Nationals"), a team that had ceased to be competitive since the death of star hitter Ed Delahanty six years earlier. The team fared little better under McAleer's management, finishing with a lackluster 66–85 record (seventh place) at the close of the 1910 season. The high point of the season was a game in which McAleer initiated what became a baseball tradition. On April 14, 1910, he asked visiting President William Howard Taft to throw out the first ball of a season opener. President Taft, an ardent fan of the game, readily agreed. Baseball historians Donald Dewey and Nicholas Acocella noted that the game "almost put an end to the career" of U.S. Vice President James S. Sherman, who "took a foul ball off the bat of Frank Baker directly in the head". This contest also featured a one-hit performance by pitcher Walter Johnson, who led the Senators to a 3–0 victory over the Philadelphia Athletics.
Managerial record
Executive career
Boston Red Sox
Toward the close of the 1911 season, McAleer announced his resignation as manager of the Senators. In 1912, he became a major stockholder in the Boston Red Sox, purchasing a half-interest in the team. That year, the Red Sox "cruised to the pennant with 105 victories".
By the time the Red Sox entered the sixth game of the 1912 World Series, the team had secured a 3–1 lead over the New York Giants. (The second game of the Series ended in a tie.) Then, McAleer pressured the team's manager, Jake Stahl, to hand the ball to unseasoned pitcher Buck O'Brien for the "clincher". McAleer's recommendation was apparently part of a strategy to ensure that the seventh game of the Series would be played at Boston's new Fenway Park. Although the Red Sox's loss to the Giants (at 5–2) guaranteed that the Series would conclude in Boston, the incident created conflict between McAleer and Stahl. Subsequent press releases suggesting that Stahl would replace McAleer as club president exacerbated these tensions.
In the seventh game of the Series, the Red Sox opened Fenway Park with a 7–6 victory over the Giants. The team suffered a public relations fiasco, however, when a Red Sox shareholder sold seats at the stadium that had been reserved for the club's most ardent fans, the "Royal Rooters". Finding themselves without seats, the Royal Rooters, led by Boston Mayor John "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald, marched around the stadium in protest. A riot ensued, and in the aftermath of the disturbance, only 17,000 Boston residents showed up for the final game. Nevertheless, the Red Sox emerged as victors, with a final score of 4–3 and one tied game.
Following the Series victory over the Giants, McAleer returned to his hometown to celebrate the event. A brass band met him at Youngstown's train depot, and a parade and fireworks display were held in his honor. The Youngstown Daily Vindicator reported: "As the auto bearing Mr. McAleer turned into West Federal Street, hundreds of sticks of red fire were burning at Central Square, while the quiet atmosphere was occasionally punctured by the explosion of a bomb".
Downfall
McAleer's tenure as part-owner of the Red Sox came to a swift end. On July 15, 1913, McAleer became involved in a dispute with the AL president, Ban Johnson, when McAleer forced the resignation of Red Sox manager Jake Stahl, one of Johnson's closest friends. While McAleer claimed that he released Stahl because of a foot injury preventing Stahl from serving as a player-manager, rumors suggested that the two men had strong personal differences. Following a bitter quarrel with Johnson, McAleer sold his holdings in the Red Sox. His feud with Johnson turned out to be a lifelong affair, despite efforts taken by their mutual friend, Charles Comiskey, to smooth over the rift. While McAleer never publicly discussed the disagreement that spurred his retirement, he supposedly relayed his version of events to Frank B. Ward, a sports reporter with The Youngstown Daily Vindicator, with the understanding that the details remain confidential until McAleer's death.
Although other sources tell a different story, Ward wrote that McAleer termed his "break" with Johnson as the result of a "betrayal" of trust. McAleer indicated that his controlling interest in the Red Sox entitled him to make all major decisions regarding the organization, Ward wrote. This view of McAleer's powers, however, was not shared by the club's manager, Stahl, the article added. To further complicate matters, Stahl's father-in-law, a Chicago-based banker, was reportedly a shareholder in the Red Sox. After one particularly heated exchange between Stahl and McAleer at the close of the 1912 season, Stahl went to Chicago to confer with Johnson. The article indicated that, after this meeting, Johnson sent McAleer a "sternly worded" letter, which may have been designed to preserve his relationship with Stahl and Stahl's father-in-law. According to the article, Johnson later confided to McAleer that he owed Stahl's father-in-law money and therefore felt obliged to take Stahl's side in the dispute. McAleer, however, took the admonition from Johnson as a betrayal of their friendship, refused to accept Johnson's explanations, and promptly retired, Ward wrote. This version of events is largely corroborated by the early research of baseball historian David Fleitz.
Baseball historians Dewey and Acocella, however, described a markedly different scenario in which Johnson secretly sold off McAleer's shares while McAleer was away on a 1913 world tour with Comiskey, New York Giants manager John McGraw, and members of the Red Sox team. According to this account, McAleer's conflict with Stahl was followed up by his involvement in a feud between two pairs of players – Tris Speaker and Joe "Smoky Joe" Wood, on one side, and Heinie Wagner and Bill Carrigan, on the other. The conflict had a "religious dimension" and was described in the press as "pitting Masons against members of the Knights of Columbus". McAleer evidently supported Wagner and Carrigan, the Catholic players in the dispute. These back-to-back incidents involving individuals associated with the Red Sox team "reinforced Johnson's belief that the club president was the source of all the trouble", Dewey and Acocella wrote. In his recent book, The Irish in Baseball, David Fleitz observed that McAleer's abrupt dismissal was typical of Johnson, "who had a history of ending relationships when they no longer benefited him personally".
Personal life
Relatively little is known about McAleer's private life. Research suggests that he was married three times, with his first marriage (to Hannah McAleer) taking place in the early 20th century. At some point, he married the former Anna Durbin, a native of Trenton, New Jersey. The couple had no children. According to her obituary, Anna McAleer was her husband's "constant companion" during his "active career as a baseball magnate". When the couple settled in Youngstown in 1913, she participated in charity work and joined the Altar and Rosary Society at St. Columba's Church, where she attended religious services. In 1930, Anna McAleer died suddenly at an apartment the couple shared on the north side of Youngstown. James McAleer, who discovered his wife's body after returning from a walk, was "overcome". McAleer had recently been released from a local hospital following an appendicectomy; he was quickly readmitted following his wife's death.
A few months later, McAleer married a Youngstown woman, Georgianna Rudge, a graduate of the Juilliard School of Music who was almost 23 years her husband's junior. Ultimately, Georgianna McAleer survived her husband by more than five decades. By the time of James McAleer's second marriage, his health was in decline. He was hospitalized within a few months of the wedding.
Final years
McAleer returned to Youngstown, where he spent his last years. Active in the community, McAleer served on the city's original draft board, which had been authorized under Ohio Governor James M. Cox during World War I. In retirement, the former baseball manager maintained friendships with celebrities including George M. Cohan and King Alfonso XIII of Spain. McAleer became acquainted with the Spanish monarch during a European tour with the Red Sox in the winter of 1912–13.
His final years were marked by poor health. Several weeks before his death, McAleer was admitted to a local hospital, where his health reportedly improved. This account, however, differs from that of baseball historian David Fleitz, who suggested that McAleer had been diagnosed with cancer in the early 1930s. In any event, McAleer died suddenly on April 29, 1931, shortly after being released from the hospital. He was 66 years old. After private funeral services at Orr's funeral home, McAleer's remains were interred at Oak Hill Cemetery, on Youngstown's near south side. Apart from his widow, he left behind two brothers, J.C. McAleer of Austintown, Ohio, and Owen McAleer of Los Angeles. Other survivors included two nephews, Captain Charlies McAleer, an officer in the U.S. Army, and James McAleer of Los Angeles.
Rumors persist that McAleer's death was the result of a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. While his name is included on some lists of Major League Baseball players who committed suicide, contemporary newspaper accounts indicated that McAleer died of natural causes.
Legacy
McAleer's hometown newspaper, The Youngstown Daily Vindicator, eulogized the ex-Major Leaguer in the following terms: "Forceful and resourceful, but always retiring when there was talk of his share in the development of baseball, James R. McAleer died within a matter of weeks after the passing of Byron Bancroft Johnson, his chief partner in the forming of the American League, and the man with whom he 'broke', which break brought about his retirement".
The article praised McAleer for assisting the careers of other baseball figures. In 1905, during his tenure as manager of the St. Louis Browns, McAleer helped future Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans secure a position with the American League, writing a personal letter to Johnson on Evans' behalf. Meanwhile, McAleer served as a contact for another Youngstown resident, John "Bonesetter" Reese, the Welsh-born "baseball doctor" who worked with players such as Cy Young, Ty Cobb, Rogers Hornsby, Walter Johnson, and John McGraw.
McAleer's contributions to the game failed to win him a place in the Baseball Hall of Fame, however. In 1936, during the first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame, he received just one vote in the balloting for 19th-century figures. Nevertheless, McAleer received an unofficial endorsement from Hall of Fame second baseman Nap Lajoie, who described McAleer as "one of the best ever". McAleer's obituary in The New York Times suggested that he was "one of the fastest outfielders the major leagues ever produced". In 2003, Bill James described McAleer as "the best defensive outfielder of the 1890s". More recently, baseball historian David Fleitz observed, "this brilliant defensive outfielder was a smart, clever, and ambitious man who helped to create two of the original eight franchises of the American League".
See also
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders
List of Major League Baseball player-managers
Notes
References
Casway, Jerrold (2004). Ed Delahanty in the Emerald Age of Baseball. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. .
Dewey, Donald; Acocella, Nicholas (2005). Total Ballclubs: The Ultimate Book of Baseball Teams. Toronto: SPORT Media Publishing, Inc. .
Fleitz, David L. (2009). The Irish in Baseball: An Early History. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company.
James, Bill (2001). Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: The Free Press. .
James, Bill (2003). The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. New York: Free Press.
Neft, David S.; Cohen, Richard M.; Neft, Michael L. (2003). The Sports encyclopedia: Baseball. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. .
Nemec, David; Wisnia, Saul (2000). 100 Years of Major League Baseball: American and National Leagues 1901–2000. Lincolnwood, Illinois: Publications International, Ltd.
Okrent, Daniel; Wulf, Steve (1989). Baseball Anecdotes. New York: Oxford University Press. .
Strickland, David L. (1984). Child of Moriah: A Biography of John D. Bonesetter Reese, 1855–1931. Youngstown: David L. Strickland.
Walton, Ed (1980). Red Sox Triumphs and Tragedies. New York: Stein and Day. ,
Further reading
Sports Illustrated Player Page
External links
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4265145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20procurement%20in%20the%20United%20States | Government procurement in the United States | In the United States, the processes of government procurement enable federal, state and local government bodies in the country to acquire goods, services (including construction), and interests in real property.
In fiscal year 2019, the US Federal Government spent $597bn on contracts. The market for state, local, and education (SLED) contracts is thought to be worth $1.5 trillion. Supplies are purchased from both domestic and overseas suppliers. Contracts for federal government procurement usually involve appropriated funds spent on supplies, services, and interests in real property by and for the use of the Federal Government through purchase or lease, whether the supplies, services, or interests are already in existence or must be created, developed, demonstrated, and evaluated. Federal Government contracting has the same legal elements as contracting between private parties: a lawful purpose, competent contracting parties, an offer, an acceptance that complies with the terms of the offer, mutuality of obligation, and consideration. However, federal procurement is much more heavily regulated, subject to volumes of statutes dealing with federal contracts and the federal contracting process, mostly in Titles 10 (Armed Forces), 31 (Money and Finance), 40 (Protection of the Environment), and 41 (Public Contracts) within the United States Code.
Value of government procurement
In fiscal year 2019, the US Federal Government spent $597bn on contracts. The Obama administration measured spend at over $500bn in 2008, double the spend level of 2001. Other estimates suggest spend was $442bn in fiscal year 2015 and $461bn in 2016. Federal Procurement Reports provide contract data which may be used for geographical, market, and socio-economic analysis, as well as for measuring and assessing the impact of acquisition policy and management improvements.
In Fiscal Year 2010, the top five departments by dollars obligated were:
Department of Defense ($365.9 bn)
Department of Energy ($25.7 bn)
Health and Human Services ($19.0 bn)
General Services Administration ($17.6 bn)
NASA ($16.0 bn).
The Top 100 Contractors Report for Fiscal Year 2009 lists contracts totalling $294.6 billion, the top five comprising aerospace and defense contractors:
Lockheed Martin ($38.5 bn)
Boeing ($22.0 bn)
Northrop Grumman ($19.7 bn)
General Dynamics ($16.4 bn)
Raytheon ($16.1 bn)
In the same period, small business contracts totalled $96.8 billion.
Law
The Federal Government's authority to enter into contracts derives from the U.S. Constitution, which defines its powers. The Federal Government acts through legislation, treaties, implementing regulations, and the exercise of those authorities. The Federal Government's power to contract is not set forth expressly and specifically in the U.S. Constitution, but Article 6 appears to assume the continued vitality of "Engagements" entered into under the preceding Articles of Confederation. Moreover, the power to contract was and is regarded at law as necessarily incidental to the Federal Government's execution of its other powers. An early Supreme Court case, the United States v. Thomas Tingey, recognized that the United States Government has a right to enter into a contract. It is an incident to the general right of sovereignty, and the United States may, within the sphere of the constitutional powers confided to it and through the instrumentality of the proper department to which those powers are confided, enter into contracts not prohibited by law and appropriate to the just exercise of those powers. Scores of statutes now also expressly authorize departments and agencies to enter into contracts. The U.S. Congress passes legislation that defines the process and additional legislation that provides the funds.
Contract law
Private parties entering into a contract with one another (i.e., commercial contracts) have more freedom to establish a broad range of contract terms by mutual consent compared to a private party entering into a contract with the Federal Government. Each private party represents its own interests and can obligate itself in any lawful manner. Federal Government contracts allow for the creation of contract terms by mutual consent of the parties, but many areas addressed by mutual consent in commercial contracts are controlled by law in federal contracting and legally require use of prescribed provisions and clauses. In commercial contracting, where one or both parties may be represented by agents whose authority is controlled by the law of agency, the agent is usually allowed to form a contract only with reference to accepted notions of commercial reasonableness and perhaps a few unique statutes which apply. In federal government contracting, the specific regulatory authority is required for the Government's agent to enter into the contract, and that agent's bargaining authority is strictly controlled by statutes and regulations reflecting national policy choices and prudential limitations on the right of federal employees to obligate federal funds. By contrast, in commercial contracting, the law allows each side to rely on the other's authority to make a binding contract on mutually agreeable terms. Executive branch agencies enter into the contracts and expend the funds to achieve their Congressionally defined missions. When disputes arise, administrative processes within the agencies may resolve them, or the contractor can appeal to the courts.
The procurement process for executive branch agencies (as distinguished from legislative or judicial bodies) is governed primarily by the Armed Services Procurement Act and the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act. To address the many rules imposed by Congress and the courts, a body of administrative law has been developed through the Federal Acquisition Regulation. This 53-part regulation defines the procurement process, including special preference programs, and includes the specific language of many clauses mandated for inclusion within Government contracts. Most agencies also have supplemental regulatory coverage contained in what are known as FAR Supplements. These supplements appear within the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) volumes of the respective agencies. For example, the Department of Defense (DOD) FAR Supplement can be found at 10 CFR.
Government contracts are governed by federal common law, a body of law which is separate and distinct from the bodies of law applying to most businesses—the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) and the general law of contracts. The UCC applies to contracts for the purchase and sale of goods, and to contracts granting a security interest in property other than land. The UCC is a body of law passed by the U.S. state legislatures and is generally uniform among the states. The general law of contracts, which applies when the UCC does not, is mostly common law, and is also similar across the states, whose courts look to each other's decisions when there is no in-state precedent.
Contracts directly between the Government and its contractors ("prime contracts") are governed by federal common law. Contracts between the prime contractor and its subcontractors are governed by the contract law of the respective states. Differences between those legal frameworks can put pressure on a prime contractor.
United States Constitution
The authority to purchase is not one of the explicitly enumerated powers given to the Federal Government by Section 8 of Article One of the United States Constitution, but courts found that power implicit in the constitutional power to make laws that are necessary and proper for executing its specifically granted powers, such as the powers to establish post offices, post roads, banks, an army, a navy, or militias.
Statutes
Behind any federal government acquisition is legislation that permits it and provided money for it. These are normally covered in authorization and appropriation legislation. Generally, this legislation does not affect the acquisition process itself, although the appropriation process has been used to amend procurement laws, notably with the Federal Acquisition Reform Act (FARA) and the Federal Acquisitions Streamlining Act (FASA). Other relevant laws include the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, the Armed Services Procurement Act (ASPA) and the Antideficiency Act.
Antideficiency Act
U.S. Federal fiscal law is about Congressional oversight of the Executive Branch, not principally toward getting the mission accomplished nor getting a good deal for the Government. Fiscal law frequently prevents government agencies from signing agreements that commercial entities would sign. Therefore, fiscal law can constrain a federal agency from the quickest, easiest, or cheapest way to accomplish its mission. This constitutionally mandated oversight of the use of public funds is associated with the principle of checks and balances. A good working relationship and robust communication between the Executive and Legislative branches is the key to avoiding problems in this area.
The power within fiscal law comes from the Antideficiency Act (ADA), which provides that no one can obligate the Government to make payments for which money has not already been appropriated. The ADA also prohibits the Government from receiving gratuitous services without explicit statutory authority. In particular, an ADA violation occurs when a Federal agency uses appropriated funds for a different purpose than is specified in the appropriations act which provided the funds to the agency. The ADA is directly connected to several other fiscal laws, namely the Purpose Act and the Bona Fide Needs Rule.
Money appropriated for one purpose cannot be used for a different purpose, according to the Purpose Act (). The annual DoD appropriations acts include approximately 100 different appropriations (known as "colors of money"), and by this rule operations and maintenance (O&M) funds may not be used to buy weapons. Even an expenditure within the apparent scope of one appropriation may not be permissible if there is a more specific appropriation or the agency has made a previous funds election contrary to the proposed use of funds. For example, O&M fund can be used for purchasing repair parts, but if the parts are required to effect a major service life extension that is no longer repair but replacement – procurement funds must be used if the total cost is more than $250,000 (otherwise known as the Other Procurement threshold, for example, Other Procurement Army (OPA) threshold) or another procurement appropriation is available such as the armored vehicle or weapons appropriation.
An Antideficiency Act violation can also occur when a contract uses funds in a period that falls outside of the time period the funds are authorized for use under what is known as the Bona Fide Needs rule (31 USC 1502), which provides: "The balance of a fixed-term appropriation is available only for payment of expenses properly incurred during the period of availability or to complete contracts properly made within that period."
The Bona Fide Need Rule is a fundamental principle of appropriations law addressing the availability as to the time of an agency's appropriation. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994); 64 Comp. Gen. 410, 414-15 (1985). The rule establishes that an appropriation is available for obligation only to fulfill a genuine or bona fide need of the period of availability for which it was made. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994). It applies to all Federal Government activities carried out with appropriated funds, including contract, grant, and cooperative agreement transactions. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 78-79 (1994). An agency's compliance with the bona fide need rule is measured at the time the agency incurs an obligation and depends on the purpose of the transaction and the nature of the obligation being entered into. 61 Comp. Gen. 184, 186 (1981) (bona fide need determination depends upon the facts and circumstances of the particular case). In the grant context, the obligation occurs at the time of the award. 31 Comp. Gen. 608 (1952). See also 31 U.S.C. Sec. 1501(a)(5)(B). Simply put, this rule states that the Executive Branch may only use current funds for current needs – they cannot buy items that benefit future year appropriation periods (i.e., 1 October through 30 September) without a specific exemption. The net result of this rule is funds expire after the end date for which Congress has specified their availability. For example, a single-year fund expires on 1 October of the year following their appropriation (i.e., FY07 appropriations. (for example, 1 October 2006 through 30 September 2007) expire on 1 October 2007).
For example, operations and maintenance funds generally cannot be used to purchase supplies after 30 September of the year they are appropriated within with several exceptions – 1) the severable services exemption under 10 USC 2410 and Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-34, Instructions on Budget Execution, 2) Authorized stockage level exceptions and 3) long lead time exception. (see https://web.archive.org/web/20041027004108/https://www.safaq.hq.af.mil/contracting/affars/fiscal-law/bona-fide-need.doc ) The Government Accounting Office (GAO) Principles of Federal Appropriations Law (otherwise known as the GAO Redbook at http://www.gao.gov/legal.htm ) has a detailed discussion of these fiscal law rules which directly impact on the ability of a Federal agency to contract with the private sector.
Procurement Integrity Act
The Procurement Integrity Act (PIA), introduced after a three-year FBI investigation launched in 1986 known as "Operation Ill Wind", applies to persons who engage in federal source selections and includes prohibitions on gifts being given to source selection personnel, restrictions on the dissemination of procurement sensitive information and post Government employment restrictions. The Act applies to federal and contractor employees. Non-compliance may result in criminal or civil penalties, cancellation of the procurement, rescinding contracts, suspension or debarment. The Act is implemented at FAR 3.104.
Identical bids
President Kennedy's Executive Order 10936 of 24 April 1961 required federal agencies to investigate and report on identical bids received in connection with the procurement of goods or services. It was revoked by President Reagan in 1983 by Executive Order 12430.
Kennedy's order reflected concern that "the prevalence of identical bidding [was] harmful to the effective functioning of a system of competitive bids" and that "identical bidding [might] constitute evidence of the existence of conspiracies to monopolize or restrain trade or commerce". Reagan's order argued that the requirement had "proved ineffective" and "consume[d] resources that could be employed in a more effective manner to prevent antitrust violations".
FASA
Federal Acquisition Streamlining Act of 1994 (FASA) Pub. L. No. 103-355, 108 Stat. 3243
10 U.S.C. § 2323 has language similar to FASA for the Department of Defense (DoD), NASA and the Coast Guard. In this legislation, Congress extended the affirmative action authority granted DoD by 10 U.S.C. § 2323 to all agencies of the Federal Government. See 15 U.S.C. § 644 note. Regulations to implement that authority were delayed because of the decision in Adarand Constructors v. Peña, 515 U.S. 200 (1995). See 60 Fed. Reg. 48,258 (September 18, 1995). See 61 Fed. Reg. 26,042 (May 23, 1996) (proposed reforms to affirmative action in Federal procurement) form the basis for the regulations to implement this provision of FASA. See 62 Fed. Reg. 25,648 (May 9, 1997) for Government response to comments on the proposal, and 62 Fed. Reg. 25,786 (May 9, 1997) (proposed rules), 63 Fed. Reg. 35,719 (June 30, 1998) (interim rules), and 63 Fed. Reg. 36,120 (July 1, 1998) (interim rules), Federal Acquisition Regulation, Reform of Affirmative Action in Federal Procurement addressing the General Services Administration (GSA), NASA, and DoD.
Federal Acquisition Regulation
The procurement process is subject to legislation and regulation separate from the authorization and appropriation process. These regulations are included in the Code of Federal Regulations ("CFR"), the omnibus listing of Government regulations, as Title 48. Chapter 1 of Title 48 is commonly called the Federal Acquisition Regulation ("FAR"). The remaining chapters of Title 48 are supplements to the FAR for specific agencies.
The process for promulgating regulations including the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) includes publication of proposed rules in the Federal Register and receipt of comments from the public before issuing the regulation. Courts treat the FAR as having the "force and effect of law", and Contracting Officers do not have the authority to deviate from it. Supplements to the FAR have been issued following the same process, and have the same force and effect.
The FAR and its supplements permit a substantial variation from the purchases of paperclips to battleships. The Contracting Officer and the contractor must seek to achieve their sometimes conflicting goals while following the requirements of the regulations. As with any complex document (in book form, Title 48 of the CFR requires several shelves), the FAR and its supplements can be interpreted differently by different people.
Overseas suppliers
Under the WTO Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) and also some free trade agreements, the United States has undertaken to ensure procurements covered by the GPA are opened up to overseas suppliers "in a manner consistent with ... international obligations". Some agreements allow overseas suppliers to access government procurement markets and provide for reciprocal rights for US suppliers to access foreign government contracting opportunities. President Donald Trump's Executive Order 13788 (18 April 2017) provided for a review of such agreements so as to identify whether any could be considered to undermine US interests.
Trade-in or sales authority
40 USC 181(c) provides that "In acquiring personal property, any executive agency, under regulations to be prescribed by the Administrator, subject to regulations prescribed by the Administrator for Federal Procurement Policy pursuant to the Office of Federal Procurement Policy Act, may exchange or sell similar items and may apply the exchange allowance or proceeds of sale in such cases in whole or in part payment for the property acquired". The Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 gives agencies general authority to sell federal personal property and use the proceeds to replace similar property during the same fiscal year or the next one, like a used car trade-in.
The Miscellaneous Receipts Act mandates that funds received by the US Government must be deposited in the miscellaneous receipts account at the US Treasury unless a specific exemption was authorized by Congress. The Miscellaneous Receipts Act prevents the Executive Branch from financing itself except as specifically authorized by Congress. 40 USC 181(c) thus is necessary to ensure a command that essentially trades or sells items, frequently information technology (IT) equipment, can retain the receipts from the trade-in or sale and apply them to the acquisition of replacement items.
Acquisition process
Generally, federal acquisitions begin with identification of a requirement by a specific Federal activity. A basic idea of what is needed and the problem statement are prepared and the requiring activity meets with an acquisition command having a Contracting Officer with an appropriate warrant issued by a specific acquisition activity. A contracting agency has the discretion to determine its own needs and the best method to accommodate them.
Military acquisitions
Procurements by military agencies have several unique aspects to their acquisition process compared to procurement by non-military agencies. The overall process is guided by the Adaptive Acquisition Framework which can be used for acquiring products, services, and software on anything from an "Urgent Needs" basis to a Middle Tier of Acquisition to a Major Capability Acquisition. These procurement needs may are filled by acquisition programs, one of which is a Program of Record.
Urgent needs
The GAO raised concerns in 2011 regarding urgent needs' complex and uncoordinated acquisition processes, noting that
G-job
During World War II, some tasks in government contracts were given directly to a workers, because the tasks involved military secrets and supervisors were not permitted to know the secrets. If a supervisor asked the worker what he or she were doing, they would reply "it's government work," or it's a "G-job."
Some workers took advantage of military secrecy by doing personal work while on the job and falsely claiming they were doing a G-job.
After the war, "G-job" became slang for doing personal work while on the job and using their employer's equipment and materials.
Programs of Record
A Program of Record is a procurement program which is "a directed, funded effort that provides a new, improved, or continuing materiel, weapon, or information system or service capability in response to an approved need". A Program of Record requires certain documentation (eg. Acquisition Program Baseline (APB), acquisition strategies, Selected Acquisition Reports (SAR), etc.) and is recorded in the Future Year's Defense Program (FYDP) or can be updated from the previous year's FYDP. Prime government contractors bid to secure contracts to fulfill these Programs of Record. The term "Program of Record" originates from these programs being recorded in the budget as "line item record[s]", hence the name. However, not all procurement programs are programs of record. For example, acquisition programs made on an "Urgent Needs" basis are not considered Programs of Record as they lack some of the required documentation. Such programs can be converted into programs of record later on if that documentation is completed and the program adheres to the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System, among other requirements.
The roadmap for the fulfilment of a Program of Record is split into five periods:
Materiel Solutions Analysis (MSA)
Technology Maturation and Risk Reduction (TMRR)
Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD)
Production and Deployment (P&D): this includes start of Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP), Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E), transition to Full Rate Production/Full Deployment, and achievement of Initial Operational Capability (IOC)
Operations and Sustainment (O&S): this includes achievement of Full Operational Capability (FOC) and continues out to the product's end-of-life and disposal
Key points along the roadmap include three major Milestones and four major Decision Points.
Milestones:
Milestone A: typical requirements include having a draft Capability Development Document (CDD), completed the Analysis of Alternatives study, justified the affordability and feasibility of the program, identified the necessary technologies, established the scope of the program, estimated program cost, proposed an acquisition strategy, developed a test strategy for assessing the acquired product/service
Milestone B: allows a program to enter the Engineering & Manufacturing Development phase. Includes approval of the Acquisition Program Baseline (APB)
Milestone C: allows a program to award contracts, begin Production and Deployment phase, and enter Low-Rate Initial Product (LRIP)
Decision Points:
Materiel Development Decision (MDD): the "entry point" in the major capability acquisition process; requires an Initial Capabilities Document (ICD) or equivalent, as well as a having developed the study guidance and study plan for an Analysis of Alternatives (AOA) study
CDD Validation: affirms the capability requirements being sought in the product or service being acquired
Development RFP (Request for Proposal) Release Decision Point: ensures that the acquisition program planned is affordable and achievable before releasing the RFP to the industry
Full Rate Production/Full Deployment Decision: allows a program to begin full rate production of a product or full deployment of the product to units
Contracting Officers
Each Contracting Officer (CO) has a specific warrant which states the conditions under which they are permitted to engage in Federal contracting as an agent of the Government. The authority of a Contracting Officer to contract on behalf of the Government is set forth in a public document (a certificate of appointment, formerly called a "warrant") which a person dealing with the Contracting Officer can review. The CO does not have authority to act outside this warrant or to deviate from the laws and regulations controlling Federal Government contracts. The private contracting party is held to know the limitations of the CO's authority, even if the CO does not. This makes contracting with the United States a more structured and restricted process than a commercial one.
Unless specifically prohibited by another provision of law, an agency's authority to contract is vested in the agency head, for example, the Secretary of the Air Force or the Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Agency heads delegate their authority to Contracting Officers, who either hold their authority by virtue of their position or must be appointed in accordance with procedures set forth in the Federal Acquisition Regulation. Only Contracting Officers may sign Government contracts on behalf of the Government. A Contracting Officer has only the authority delegated pursuant to law and agency procedures.
Unlike in commercial contracting, there is no doctrine of apparent authority applicable to the Government. Any action taken by a Contracting Officer which exceeds their actual delegated authority is not binding on the Government, even if both the Contracting Officer and the contractor desire the action and the action benefits the Government. The contractor is presumed to know the scope of the Contracting Officer's authority and cannot rely on any action of Contracting Officers when it exceeds their authority.
Contracting Officers are assisted in their duties by Contracting Officer Representatives (CORs) and Contracting Officer Technical Representatives (COTRs), who usually do not have the authority of a Contracting Officer.
Planning
The Contracting Officer and internal departments/end users ideally undertake a planning exercise in advance of procurement commencing. Acquisition planning is described in FAR Part 7, Acquisition Planning, and in agency supplements to the FAR, for example, Defense FAR Supplement (DFARS) 207, Acquisition Planning and the US Army's supplementary regulation, AFARS Part 7, Acquisition Planning.
Acquisition planning is frequently dependent on the circumstances. For example, during World War II, quantity was the key. As in the Civil War, the U.S. achieved victory due in large part to the industrial base in the northern states. A war of attrition requires massive quantities of material, but not necessarily of great quality. During the Cold War, quality was key. The United States may not have had as many pieces of equipment as their opposition, but that equipment could be more effective, efficient, or lethal, and offset the opposition's numerical advantage. Today, the military needs equipment that works where it is needed, is dependable, has a high degree of maintainability, has long-term reliability, is agile and versatile, and aims to avoid equipment choices which might result in political debate and partisan politics.
As part of the acquisition planning process, the Government must address its buying power leverage. Many Government acquisition commands write acquisitions solely based on haphazard acquisition strategies which are primarily directed toward avoiding bid protests. Thus, it is necessary to emphasize competition and understand the acquisition from the view point of the contractor; Government acquisition commands should ask what is to be achieved and whether or not the program is really in the best interest of the Government, specifying needs in a manner designed to achieve full and open competition and including restrictive requirements "only to the extent that they are necessary to satisfy the agency's legitimate needs".
Many federal acquisitions are rushed due to poor time management. In these cases, the tendency is to issue a sole-source contract to known vendors even though FAR Part 6 specifically forbids sole-source contracting when it is due to a lack of advanced planning. There is also a high-cost premium that is added to the cost of an acquisition when a buyer wants a supplier/vendor to rush to execute a contract or push their contract to the head of all other work the contractor/vendor is executing. It is often said that "if you want it bad, you get it bad". Accordingly, poor acquisition planning generally produces poor and unjustifiable acquisition outcomes. Thus, it is critical to understand the time and resources required to properly plan and execute a federal acquisition: generally, the acquisition of moderate to complex requirements requires at least 120 days.
Where contracting officers recognise that acquisition documents have not been well formulated or are not suitable for ensuring fair and impartial competition, they have "broad discretion" to take appropriate corrective action. In some cases, the appropriate action will be to withdraw a solicitation and re-issue an amended one. In its review decision on an issue raised by Northrop Grumman Information Technology in 2011, the GAO notes that, allowing agencies "broad discretion", choices made by awarding agencies about the appropriate corrective action will generally be recognised, as long as they are appropriate to the concern being addressed. If there is found to be no impropriety in the agency's award decision or any impropriety is found not to have been prejudicial to the companies submitting bids, the GAO is more likely to question the corrective action. If the corrective action taken goes beyond the GAO's actual recommendations this will not in itself prevent the corrective action being accepted.
Preparing a proposal
Frequently, contractor proposals in response to a Request for Proposals (RFP) include an exact copy of the RFP's statement of work. An offeror's response usually indicates their approach to performing the statement of work, their approach to managing the program or project, and examples of past performance on projects similar in size, scope, and complexity.
Responsible bidders and responsive bids
Potential vendors responding to RFPs may be characterised as "responsible" and/or "responsive". A "responsible bidder" is one who is qualified or capable of meeting the requirements set out by the government in its bid solicitation or RFP. Kate Manuel notes that the concept of responsibility on the part of a bidder "has been the federal government’s policy since its earliest days". James F. Nagle, in his History of Government Contracting, describes how Robert Morris made contract awards to the lowest-priced qualified responsible bidder in contracting for the U.S. Army during the Revolutionary War.
A "responsive bidder" is one who submits a "responsive bid", one which, if accepted by the government as submitted, will obligate the contractor to perform the exact thing being called for in the solicitation. FAR 14.301 states:
To be considered for award, a bid must comply in all material respects with the invitation for bids. Such compliance enables bidders to stand on an equal footing and maintain the integrity of the sealed bidding system. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has observed that "responsiveness is determined at the time of bid opening from the face of the bid documents", and that "unless something on the face of the bid, or specifically a part of it, limits, reduces or modifies the bidder's obligation to perform in accordance with the terms of the solicitation, the bid is responsive". Furthermore, "the required commitment to the terms of the invitation need not be made in the exact manner specified by the solicitation; all that is necessary is that the bidder, in some fashion, commit itself to the solicitation's material requirements". In general, failure of a bidder to include completed standard representations and certifications does not render the bid nonresponsive because it does not affect the bidder's material obligations.
Evaluation
Evaluator scoring penalizes proposals that contain "fluff" or generic information that does not directly pertain to the specifics of the solicitation, i.e. the Government's need, source selection factors and work statement or performance specification. The proposing business is responsible for ensuring that it submits a well-written proposal with sufficient information logically arranged to demonstrate compliance with stated agency requirements and allow meaningful agency review: the agency is not required to piece together information to find compliance if this has not been presented to the agency in a coherent way. Charts and other infographics can help a proposal: examples include a six-line chart of the most compelling credentials of contractor's key personnel, or including a picture of a uniformed security guard on the pages describing contractor's uniforms. Professional proposal writers often have graphic design experience.
A proposal can be too long, causing the Government's source selection authority to skim over it. The Government source selection team may not wish to spend much time on the acquisition source selection. Also, it is possible for vendors to put too much information into proposals which do not go to the heart of the acquisition, particularly information not related to the source selection criteria as well as the work statement.
For simple acquisitions, Government source selection authorities have responded favorably to proposals which emphasize experience with the specific requirement that the Government is seeking to source and information on how a product or service will meet the needs of the Government as stated in the source selection factors and the work statement.
Contractors must also be aware of whether or not price is more important than non-price factors. Where price is more important than non-price factors, then the lowest-priced technically acceptable (LPTA) proposal in view of the source selection factors and work statement requirements will be selected. FAR 15.101-2(a) identifies LPTA as "appropriate ... when the government 'expects' it can achieve the best value from selecting the proposal that is technically acceptable and offers the lowest evaluated price". Where the solicitation indicates that the requirement is a best value acquisition, then a contractor must draft their proposal to emphasize how their proposed technical solution will meet each and every requirement and source selection factor.
For more complex acquisitions, source selection authorities will be interested in how the contractor will produce service or non-service deliverables. Thus, staffing plans, methodology to produce, past experience, ISO certifications, and other information which shows that risks to the Government acquisition have been identified and mitigated should be rated higher than other proposals which do not show such information. However, it is important that the proposal first and foremost address the solicitation's work statement or technical specifications and source selection factors.
Contractors must also be aware of the contract clauses in the contract to include requirements for specific standards which do not directly relate to the deliverables in question to include small business or minority set-aside requirements, Davis-Bacon (essentially local union labor rates must be used), specific accounting standards, specific certifications, etc.
A variety of factors can affect the contracting process and the contract clauses that are used in a Federal acquisition, including:
Cost: A number of cost thresholds exist which trigger increasing degrees of complexity in the acquisition process. These thresholds include the micro-purchase threshold, the simplified acquisition threshold, and the commercial items threshold. The micro-purchase threshold, as of August 2007, is generally $3,000, with some exception. No competition or publication requirements are mandated for micro-purchases; generally, the Government Commercial Purchase Card (GCPC) can be used for these purchases under FAR Part 13. From $3,000 to $100,000, agencies may make use of Simplified Acquisition Procedures under FAR Part 13. Blanket purchase agreements, basic ordering agreements, or other contracts may be awarded under simplified procedures, which allow supplies or services to be ordered at a predetermined fair and reasonable price. The simplified acquisition threshold can be increased in situations specified in FAR Part 13, including overseas contingency operations (for example, military operations) and during nuclear/biological/radiological disasters up to the limits described in FAR Part 2, Definitions. FAR Part 13 simplified acquisition procedures can be used up to $5,000,000 ($11M under specified exceptions) under a test program in which Congress continues to reauthorize for acquisition of commercial items under FAR Subpart 13.5, Test Program for Certain Commercial Items. Items must qualify as a commercial item under the definition of FAR Part 2 and be supported by market research as specified in FAR Part 10.
Type of acquisition (FAR Part 16, Types of Contracts): There are two main types of contracts – fixed price and cost reimbursement. In deciding which type to use, a Contracting Officer's identification of risk is key. A very well known requirement, such as for commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) items (in which no R&D would be needed and there are no high risk aspects) would be best acquired using a fixed-price contract, in which a price is fixed and includes the contractor's profit; all risk of cost overrun is transferred to the contractor. A higher risk, more unknown requirement is more suited for cost reimbursement type contracts, in which the contractor is reimbursed for all costs, and is paid a fee above that amount. In this arrangement, cost overrun risk is placed mainly upon the Government.
Buying patterns: If an agency has a continuing need for a requirement over a period of time, a vehicle that permits multiple orders may be advantageous. For example, a blanket purchasing agreement (BPA) or a basic ordering agreement (BOA) as described in FAR Part 13 may be used, which allow for repeated purchases at predetermined fair and reasonable prices. Above the simplified acquisition threshold, an indefinite-delivery, indefinite-quantity (IDIQ) contract may be executed, as described in FAR Part 16.5.
Availability of existing contract vehicles: Agencies may use existing BPAs or BOAs, provided that the use is within the general scope of the contract. For example, an agency can make use of Federal Supply Schedules as described in FAR Subpart 8.4. Schedules offered by the General Services Administration (GSA) provide a number of pre-competed contract vehicles that give an immediate ability to obtain goods or services without going through the full contracting process.
Mandatory Sources: FAR Part 8 discusses the mandatory use of certain sources for acquiring some types of supplies and services. These sources include the Federal Prison Industries, various vendors who hire blind and disabled persons, and Federal Supply Schedules. Certain items cannot be purchased by most agencies, such as passenger motor vehicles; all passenger motor vehicles must be purchased by GSA, unless a waiver is obtained. This is due in part to Congressional restrictions on the use of appropriated funds to purchase vehicles and the special authority that GSA has as the Federal Government's motor pool manager.
Small Businesses and Socioeconomic Issues: contracting with small businesses and firms affected by certain socioeconomic factors require a highly complex subset of Government regulation which is described by FAR Parts 19 and 26.
Other requirements often apply to acquisitions depending upon the circumstances. These can include those listed in FAR Part 36, Construction and Architect-Engineer Contracts; FAR Part 41, Acquisition of Utility Services; and FAR Part 37, Service Contracting. Outside of a specified exception, acquisitions having a cost above the simplified acquisition threshold or the special authority under FAR Subpart 13.5 must be performed using the process specified under FAR Part 14, Sealed Bidding, or FAR Part 15, Contracting by Negotiation.
Workload of the Government contracting office and requiring activity. Contract vehicle selection (primarily indefinite duration, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) versus stand alone "C" contracts), market research, competition, use of performance incentives (or not), earned valued management system (EVMS) use, length of contract, number of options periods, simplification of source selection strategy and evaluation factors, inattention to fine acquisition details such as with regard to technical data rights, bundling of contract requirements into larger contract vehicles, and other decisions having a direct impact on acquisition outcomes including cost are frequently driven by workload of contracting and requiring activities. Bundling of requirements to reduce contracting actions in particular reduce contracting workload but necessarily create increased risks and other undesirable impacts to include reduction of potential vendors who directly accomplish the work in question (thereby increasing subcontracting and decreasing specific experience with particular categories of work by prime contractors). Overbundling also reduces competition by reducing the number of vendors willing to take responsibility as a prime integrator over areas that are not in their core business. At some point, bundling reduces vendor base to so called prime integrators who do little to none of the work in house.
An acquisition plan may have numerous elements as listed in FAR 7.105; depending upon the estimated cost of the acquisition, these elements include:
Statement of need and background
Applicable conditions
Cost
Life cycle costs if applicable
Capability or performance
Delivery or performance requirements
Tradeoffs – expected consequences of tradeoffs among cost, capability and schedule
Milestone chart depicting acquisition objectives
Plan of action
Potential sources
Competition plan – whether full and open competition used, and if not, justification
Source selection procedures
Acquisition considerations
Potential Government furnished information, equipment or services
Security and/or force protection considerations
Budgeting and funding
Product or service description
Logistics considerations
Environmental considerations
Contract administration issues
Participants in acquisition plan preparation (including source selection committee)
During the planning of an acquisition, several key aspects of the effort are decided, including:
The degree of competition required under FAR Part 6, Competition Requirements (i.e., full and open competition, full and open competition after exclusion of sources, or other than full and open competition, also called "sole-source")
Publication requirements for the acquisition (FAR Part 5, Publicizing Contract Actions)
Preparation of the SOW/PWS – a document that specifies the "who, what, when, where, how" of the contract; it must be specific enough for the contractor to adequately price the requirement and to be enforceable in court. Measurable outcomes must be stated clearly.
Required amount and type of funding for the proposed acquisition
Contract line item number (CLIN) structure: this is generally in Section B of an issued contract that is constructed in the Uniform Contract Format. The CLIN Schedule is what the offeror prices in their offer/proposal. It is often advantageous to construct a CLIN Schedule that matches an outline of the work statement. Failure to properly structure the CLIN structure to the contents of a work statement can lead to an inability to determine how much a contractor should be paid or penalized if performance issues arise.
Source selection criteria (SSC): Source selection criteria "1) Represent the key areas of importance and emphasis to be considered in the source selection decision; and (2) Support meaningful comparison and discrimination between and among competing proposals." (FAR 15.304, Evaluation factors and significant subfactors).
Independent Government cost estimate
Market research: Market research is a critical part of knowledge-based acquisitions. Information-driven and informed decision-making requires complete information to execute successful acquisitions. FAR Part 10, Market Research, gives guidance on the process of market research and its role in Federal acquisitions. Effective market research assists the Government in understanding industry terminology, and the basic concepts of the desired service or equipment item, identifying potential contractors who can provide the item. and determining the correct scope of the requirement to best fit the vendor base. Lack of adequate market research often results in contracts that fail to achieve the customer's expectations.
Acquisition Risks: Risk in contracting falls into three categories – schedule risk, performance risk and cost risk. Risks to the acquisition, including negative past experiences, must be identified and mitigation measures and risk allocation between the Government and a potential vendor determined.
Government provided equipment, resources, support or information: Often, the Government must provide for equipment, logistics support, information, and many other items vital to performance of a contract. If there is proprietary information in the potential Government furnished information (GFI), then measures must be taken to avoid violation of applicable regulations.
Stripped Down Components
1. Work statement: Deliverable list with performance and objective specifications if not a service contract (no brand names except as an example)
Measurable outcome deliverables in a service contract
Construction or architecture & engineering (A&E) (FAR Part 36)
Schedule / milestones (included in work statement)
2. CLINS matched tightly with work statement structure/outline
3. Source selection criteria
Risk
Contracting is all about risk allocation and minimizing risk to include cost, schedule and performance. The more vague the contract work statement, the more risk that the Government assumes.
Risk from Program Manager, Contracting and Investor's Perspective:
Risk. A measure of the inability to achieve program objectives within defined cost and schedule constraints. Risk is associated with all aspects of the program, for example, threat, technology, design processes, Work breakdown structure (WBS) elements, etc. It has two components, the probability of failing to achieve a particular outcome, and the consequences of failing to achieve that outcome.
Risk from a lawyer's standpoint:
Does this contract adequately describe all essential work / expectations, is there a schedule and is it enforceable? What are our remedies, if any?
Requiring activities and frequently contracting officers want to get an acquisition on contract as quickly as possible; sometimes too quickly. Thus, contracting officers and acquisition attorneys will frequently have to carefully review the overall acquisition to identify risks to cost, schedule and performance and recommend mitigation measures to decrease these risk areas.
Risk from an investor's perspective:
What is my expected payoff? The larger the expected payoff, the larger the associated risk, and vice versa. An investor who is a shareholder in a contracting company will seek to carefully balance the expected payoff with the associated risk, and he is incentivized to seek a large payoff, as long as the risk is acceptable. This perspective is unique in the sense that risk represents both opportunity and danger to the investor, while it only represents danger to the Program Manager and the Lawyer.
In other words, there is a misalignment in the perception of risk between the Program Manager, the Lawyer, and the Investor. It is ultimately the Investor who owns the contracting company, and this misalignment will have an effect on the Investor's behavior and the stock's performance.
Requirement overbundling
Cost, schedule and performance risk can be increased by over-bundling of a requirement into a single acquisition exercise. Over-bundling dries up the possible vendor base that might otherwise compete for a requirement. Thus, it is critical that an evaluation of the potential vendors who might compete for the overall work statement / deliverables be accomplished. This analysis will frequently require splitting up a requirement into different components. The bundling of a requirement also has a detrimental effect on the SSCs and CLIN structure, making it difficult to use in source selection, price evaluation and contract administration. Northern Missouri congressman Sam Graves introduced draft legislation in 2014 intended to address some of the shortcomings of excessively bundled contracts.
Overbundled requirements frequently suffer from very vague requirements and work statements, particularly in service contracts. In service contracts, the CLIN structure is priced on a per person per hour basis rather than on the service work deliverables themselves. Government or contractor ability to prepare cost or price estimates for vague work statements is severely limited; accordingly, the Government will negotiate a labor rate, number of people and individual qualifications for the requirement given that is the only feasible way to get an idea of cost. However, use of per person/per hour pricing for services is a poor contracting practice given the Government retains virtually all performance, cost and schedule risk given the contractor has fully performed under the CLIN statement when they provide the qualified body, rather than providing the needed service. One could argue that a CLIN statement which overbundles work in even a well written work statement and prices the work on a per person/per hour basis with limits on the numbers of person and types of qualifications the contractor can use is in contradiction to the work statement given the means the Government has asked the contractor to price the contract bears no relationship to the actual work itself and the Government is directing the contractor on how to execute the requirement – thus interfering with contractor performance and a sign of an employee-employer relationship rather than an independent contracting relationship. Also, the CLIN structure which prices on a per person basis or per hour basis generally pays for such persons on an annual basis rather than merely for the service on an a la carte or as-needed basis, therefore driving up costs in many cases. Pricing on a per person or per hour basis is a sign that a contract likely also qualifies as a personal services contract under FAR Part 37 – technically violating at least the spirit, if not the letter, of the Classification Act and FAR Part 37 except in specific circumstances and with specific determinations and findings.
Use of prime integrators in overbundled contracts sometimes has led to poor results in a number of major systems acquisitions. For example, what would happen if say the US Navy went too far in allowing contractors to make choices that make economic sense in the specific acquisition but add cost to the overall Navy? Example is a prime integrator who gets a good deal on a specific radar system that is not used in any other ship system – makes this specific buy cheaper but overall this costs the Navy a great deal of money given a lack of interoperability that drives a need to stand up training schools, supply system, work force increase, etc.
Over-bundling makes it easy for contracting, but many times, especially for complex acquisitions, does not deliver the results expected by the customer or war fighter for complex acquisitions, especially acquisitions that the acquisition command in question has little experience with or has substantial turn over of personnel during the life of the acquisition.
Small business acquisitions have mandatory restrictions on over-bundling. However, non-small business acquisitions are not subject to the same rules.
Example of how over-bundling causes big problems (permutations and evaluation of total price in source selection): Lets say a requiring activity wants to get polling services. Acquisition planning reveals there are five polls in ten different regions. However, it turns out that the Government will only be ordering one of the five polls in any real numbers and that particular poll is much more expensive in actual cost than the other four. If a weighting scheme is not applied to this bundled requirement, a vendor can make the four lightly ordered polls very cheap in their offer and the high volume poll very expensive, based on their knowledge of the ordering patterns of the Government in past acquisitions. Thus, on its face, the overall price of a bid when each poll is added together to arrive at a total price (used in source selection) would look attractive but in practice, the Government will burn through its budget very quickly given the vast majority of the actually ordered polls are extremely expensive (even though the actual cost of the most frequently ordered poll is far less than what was in the offer). To avoid the headache of a weighting scheme, all five polls should be broken apart and contracted for separately so they can be judged on their merits. This is an example of what is frequently done on major indefinite duration, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts and explains why some acquisitions are appallingly expensive and require additional funding to achieve the requiring activity's objectives.
Statement of work
The statement of work (SOW) is a formal document submitted along with the request for proposal (RFP) to a vendor that defines the work to be performed, the location of the work, the deliverable schedule, applicable performance standards, any special requirements (e.g., security clearances, travel, and special knowledge), and the period of performance.
Source selection
Source selection refers to the process for evaluating contractor proposals or quotes submitted in response to a request for proposals (RFP) or request for quotes (RFQ) based on the contract solicitation. Source selection is driven by what instructions to offerors clause is included in the contract solicitation (e.g., FAR 52.212-2 with the tailored language spelling out what the source selection criteria are, weighting, etc.).
After the requiring activity has written their SOW/PWS, figured out source selection approach, then selected factors and subfactors, then figured out weighting of non cost/price factors, then understood consequences of the above, they write a source selection plan (SSP). A SSP gives instructions to a source selection committee on how to evaluate each proposal. Courts will defer to the source selection committee's business judgment, so facts must be included to base a decision on; the source selection committee must not be arbitrary or lack facts in the record for their findings.
Ultimately, risk evaluation is where a source selection team wants to be. That is what is used to determine weakness, significant weakness and deficiencies, which are briefed to unsuccessful offerors. Making the connection between risk evaluation/source selection criteria/factors and offeror proposals is what source selection is all about
The process used for source selection can be selected from FAR Parts 13, Simplified Acquisition, 14, Sealed Bidding or 15, Contracting by Negotiation.
Contractors competing for a Government requirement have an opportunity to request clarification or amendment of a work statement or solicitation. The request for clarification must be done relatively early in the acquisition process, preferably as close to the publication of a solicitation, RFQ, RFP or other publication. Frequently, contracting officers will agree to such clarifications if a contractor's request is well reasoned.
Key principles for source selection:
Tell them what basis you are going to award it on (award criteria) (tell them)
Award it based on what you said you would award it based on (do what you said you would do)
Document what you did. (Tell them that you did what you said you would do in the first place) More is better as long as it makes sense.
If discussions are held, read the bid protests on discussions first to make sure you understand how to do it.
Formulation of a Competitive Range, defined at FAR 15.306(c)(1) as comprising "all of the most highly rated proposals", a tool which may enable uncompetitive proposals to be eliminated from further consideration.
FAR 15.209 states that if the Government intends to make award after exchanges with offerers after receipt of proposals, due notice of the intention to "conduct discussions with offerors whose proposals have been determined to be within the competitive range" must be provided. Notification procedures at 15.503(a) and debriefing procedures at FAR 15.305(c)(4) to FAR 15.306(c) must be followed in respect of offers excluded from the competitive range. If a competitive range is used, COs must send pre-award notifications to offerors thus excluded. An agency entering into discussions must provide "meaningful discussions".
If FAR Part 15 is used, there must be a proposal evaluation under FAR 15.305 to include a "fair and reasonable" price determination under FAR 15.305(a)(1), a past performance evaluation under FAR 15.305(a)(2) and a technical evaluation under FAR 15.305(a)(3).
For each factor rating, identify each offeror's key strengths, uncertainties and deficiencies of the proposal and then explain how the strengths, uncertainties and deficiencies resulted in that rating. Focus specifically on the factors and subfactors specifically stated in the solicitation/instructions to offerors. Do not use unstated source selection criteria to select the winning offer.
Discuss those discriminators that make one offeror better than another based on the selection criteria. Be as detailed and focused upon discriminators as the source selection results allow. If something was not a discriminator then say so and also state why it was not. If the strength had no bearing on the offeror's rating, state so.
Adequately address the impact of past performance on the decision; remember, no past performance is rated NEUTRAL!!
A drafter of the source selection decision document must show the source selection authority's thought process and reasons behind the comparative analysis. Use a declaration of thinking/intent on the part of the source selection authority (SSA). For example: I selected; I thought; I determined; I reviewed; etc.
Source selections cannot compare the offers against each other, only against the award criteria.
Spend some time on the summary to make it correct as it is very important. It is meant to very quickly put in words the best of the key discriminators used by the SSA to reach their decision.
Don't focus the discussion on only one offeror. The Source Selection Decision Document (SSDD) compares assessments of the successful offeror against the others. If there are a large number of offerors, the detailed discussion may be limited to the most highly rated offerors. Some light discussion of lower rated offerors is needed when a competitive range is not established.
Don't use ratings with contradicting supporting language, such as a "not detailed" rated "excellent." Examine ratings closely as they relate to your technical discussions. Ensure they are consistent (i.e., avoid having a weakness discussed in one proposal evaluation and not another proposal having the same weakness).
Don't identify or list weaknesses without discussing them and their importance to the thought process.
Don't treat a neutral performance confidence assessment favorably or unfavorably. (Don't disqualify an offeror for having a neutral rating.) No past performance must be rated as neutral under FAR Part 13 and FAR Subpart 15.3.
Ensure that, when documenting an award decision in the SSDD, SSA's are focusing on the underlying advantages and disadvantages of the proposals rather than merely the ratings themselves. HoveCo, B-298697: http://www.gao.gov/decisions/bidpro/298697.pdf
Agency regulations frequently provide guidance on source selection: see for example, AFARS 5115.308 Source selection decision:
Consistency: what is bad for one proposal is bad for all; find an adverse comment, then look at of the proposals of the other bidders and see if the same problem exists in there and was not written up in the evaluation for those proposals. What is good for one proposal is good for all proposals (See above)
Take a hard look at definitions in instructions given to source selection committee – look at the words in them; start with the worst definition, i.e., unacceptable, look at the words in it, then see if those words show up in evaluations that are rated higher than that definition in the rating worksheets.
Compare SOW and delivery schedules on solicitation (for example, RFP/RFQ) to what is in proposals word for word to see if everything was addressed. State if something is missing to justify lower ratings; talk about everything that applies for each award criteria to "pile on" good comments for proposals you like; then show that more good was said about the ones you liked, and less good was said about the ones you don't.
Source selection criteria
Source selection criteria (SSC) can be simple or complex depending on the subject of the acquisition. If FAR Part 15 is used, then a concept called best value can be used; best value simply is an idea that the lowest bidder is not necessarily the winner of a competition – rather, an evaluation of the overall offer based on specified SSCs is accomplished and a source selection decision is accomplished (see below) based on those specified SSCs using a fact-based business judgement of the acquiring activity.
SSCs can vary widely in complexity depending on the acquisition process used, for example, FAR Part 13, Simplified Acquisition, or FAR Part 15, Negotiated Procurement. For example, under FAR Part 15, there is a range of source selection models including:
Lowest Price (LP) that is Technically Acceptable (TA) based on statement of work (SOW) (LPTA) (use this for VERY SIMPLE BUYS – for example, pencils)
LPTA with Past Performance (partial tradeoff) (more complicated)
Full Tradeoff based on LP, TA, past performance and stated criteria including SOW (VERY COMPLICATED BUYS) (sometimes known as best value)
Do not have to select lowest price
Can select higher priced proposal that provides better solution to objectives
A Business Judgment-based decision with rational basis
If FAR Part 13, simplified acquisition is used, then a contracting officer can select from a range of processes including Government Purchase Card (GPC) for purchases under the micro-purchase threshold (see definition section of FAR for current value (for example, in U.S., it is currently $2,500), simplified acquisition threshold (see FAR definition section, currently up to $150,000 within the U.S. with certain exceptions), or up to $6.5M for commercial items/services. Under FAR Part 13, contracting officers are not required to use FAR Part 15 processes or follow the publication requirements of FAR Part 5, however they MUST create their own processes to follow.
Vendor past performance is generally included as a source selection criteria. It is important to include a requirement for "recent and relevant" past performance.
Inadequate SSCs renders the best work statement and CLIN worthless.
Metrics/performance measures
A metric is a meaningful measurement taken over a period of time that communicates vital information about a process or activity, leading to fact-based decisions.
Focus on where things go bad – not resource effective to measure everything. Instead, select the critical few metrics for mission essential processes, process that have historically experienced chronic problems or process choke points and monitor them.
Characteristics of a good metric:
Meaningful to the customer
Simple, understandable, logical and repeatable
Shows a trend
Clearly defined
Data that's economical to collect
Timely
Drives appropriate action (this is most important feature of a good metric)
Shows how organizational goals and objectives are being met through tasks and processes
Contract management
Contract administration
Contract administration tasks can include:
payments (prompt payment essential) – frequently Wide Area Workflow (WAWF) is used.
modifications and adjustments, typically done using a changes clause
requests for equitable adjustments, which can be processed under FAR 49.002(c)) (these are essentially modifications under the applicable contract changes clause e.g., FAR 52.212-4 clause)
terminations for cause or convenience; for commercial items, there are terminations clause in the FAR 52.212-4 clause.
handling bid protests, ratifications and contract claims.
See the DCMA Handbook for more information on contract administration.
Requests for Equitable Adjustments
Requests for Equitable Adjustments (REAs) are modifications of the contract that were not done formally or properly. REAs are frequently based on the changes clause. They typically occur when new work is added or a change in current work is ordered, perhaps by the contracting officer, without the required documentation. Changed circumstances and equity are possible justifications for a contractor to ask for a REA. Contractors can ask for delay damages arising from contract changes in REAs.
The burden of showing evidence of increased costs lies with the contractor. Special rules exist for entitlement to whether or not contractor is entitled to profit in addition to the actual costs they incurred, especially in the cases of leased equipment that was held over due to delays on the part of the Government or the Government's failure to properly integrate other contractors who then interfered with our contractor's work. Cases out there that say the Government can reduce profit if risk was reduced due to the change.
Can use the settlement procedures in FAR Part 49, per FAR 49.002(c) but be advised that this section is really written for terminations – you have to adapt the settlement procedures, probably for terminations for convenience, to the REA.
The Government should make sure there is a release of claims (ROC) clause in the REA's contract modification – FAR / DFARS do not have a sample ROC clause. In the context of FAR Part 12 commercial items, the changes clause requires bilateral agreement.
A substantial number of federal cases deal with REAs:
"It is black letter law that every contract with the Government contains an implied obligation that neither party will do anything to prevent, hinder, or delay performance." Sterling Millwrights, Inc. v. United States, 26 Cl.Ct. 49, 67 (1992) (citing Lewis-Nicholson, Inc. v. United States, 213 Ct.Cl. 192, 550 F.2d 26, 32 (1977)).
When Government actions delay contractor performance and increase costs, "the contractor has a claim for damages". (Lewis-Nicholson, 550 F.2d at 26).
"A constructive change generally arises where the Government, without more, expressly or impliedly orders the contractor to perform work that is not specified in the contract documents." Lathan, 20 Cl.Ct. at 128 (citing Chris Berg, Inc. v. United States, 197 Ct.Cl. 503, 525, 455 F.2d 1037, 1050 (1972)).
Contractors may recover excess costs through an equitable adjustment, however, it "bears the burden of proving liability, causation, and resultant injury." Ralph L. Jones, 33 Fed.Cl. at 331 (citing Wunderlich Contracting Co. v. United States, 173 Ct.Cl. 180, 199, 351 F.2d 956 (1965); Electronic & Missile Facilities, Inc. v. United States, 189 Ct.Cl. 237, 253, 416 F.2d 1345 (1969)).
The standard of meeting this burden is high. Before an equitable adjustment will be granted, contractors must demonstrate: (1) increased costs arose from conditions materially different from what the contract documents indicated and that such conditions were reasonably unforeseeable based on all information available to the contractor; and (2) the changes in the requirements caused the increased costs in question. Johns-Manville Corp. v. United States, 12 Cl.Ct. 1, 33 (1987).
A contractor must distinguish for the court those delays for which the Government is responsible as opposed to its own; the contractor's standard for proving damages does not require "absolute exactness or mathematical precision." Ralph L. Jones, 33 Fed.Cl. at 336 (quoting Electronic & Missile, 189 Ct.Cl. at 257).
The court "needs only enough evidence to make a fair and reasonable estimate." Id. (citing Miller Elevator, 30 Fed.Cl. at 702; Electronic & Missile, 189 Ct.Cl. at 257).
Modifications
Two types of scope determinations in contracts. One is scope of the original contract – meaning, do we have to pay anything for this modification. The second one is whether or not the modification or change is within the scope of the original competition. The first issue comes up when a contractor demands more money (i.e., demand for more money in a CDA claim or REA); the second issue comes up when the Government wishes to modify the contract and the contractor agrees, but another contractor objects to the failure to recompete the contract.
Modifications are governed by the changes clause in the contract. However, the question of competitive scope must be determined first to determine if there will be a Competition in Contracting Act (CICA) violation first. As a collateral issue, the question of whether or not the modification is a good deal must be evaluated because any modification is inherently a sole source award to the incumbent contractor. Thus, there is no price competition for the modification. If the acquisition was done under FAR Part 12, Commercial Items, the Government has no ability to demand cost and pricing information from the Contractor to evaluate whether or not the contractor is ripping off the Government with inflated or padded charges.
With regard to competitive scope determinations, the GAO in American Air Filter Co., 57 Comp. Gen 567 (B-188408), 78–1, para 443, at 573, stated:
"The impact of any modification is in our view to be determined by examining whether the alteration is within the scope of the competition which was initially conducted. Ordinarily, a modification falls within the scope of the procurement provided that it is of a nature which potential offerors would have reasonably anticipated under the changes clause.
To determine what potential offerors would have reasonably expected, consideration should be given to the procurement format used, the history of the present and related past procurements, and the nature of the supplies or services sought. A variety of factors may be pertinent, including: whether the requirement was appropriate initially for an advertised or negotiated procurement; whether a standard off the shelf or similar item is sought; or whether, for example, the contract is one for research and development, suggesting that broad changes might be expected because the Government's requirement are at best only indefinite."
GAO issued a decision on 31 Jan 06 in DOR Biodefense Inc. and Emergent BioSolutions, B-296358.3 and B-296358.4 regarding whether a modification is within the scope of the original competition under the Competition In Contracting Act (CICA). Modifications outside the scope of the original competition must be competed or justified as sole source actions. Scope analysis is not mechanical, but requires an integrated assessment of multiple factors, including contract type, specification or statement of work, cost and performance period. Whether the modification requires competition also depends upon whether the original solicitation adequately advised offerors of the potential for that type of change, and thus whether the modification would have changed the field of competition. In Biodefense, the Army issued a single award ten year indefinite quantity contract for development and certification of vaccines for biological defense. The challenged modification was exercise of an optional CLIN for development of a type of vaccine not expressly listed in the solicitation's option that extended the performance period for the option by 8 years at a significant increase in cost. The GAO determined that this modification was, nevertheless, within the overall scope of the original competition based on the broad developmental purpose of the contract and the solicitation's express notice to offerors that additional vaccine types could be added after award and that changes in regulation may affect performance period and costs. The discussion of actions taken by the Army in the original solicitation to put competitors on notice of the potential for post-award modifications provides good practice insight.
See DOR Biodefense, Inc.; Emergent BioSolutions: http://www.gao.gov/decisions/bidpro/2963583.pdf
See DCMA's Contract Administration Handbook for more information: https://web.archive.org/web/20070807083159/http://guidebook.dcma.mil/15/instructions.htm
Claims
Contract Disputes Act
Contract claims are handled under the disputes clause in commercial items contracts or another clause in different types of contracts. The clause simply refers to another clause, the contract dispute clause. That clause invokes the Contract Disputes Act (CDA) and specific procedures that must be followed.
The Government seeks to avoid treating requests for additional money or changes to the contract as a claim, for several reasons. For starters, the Government has to pay interest from the date of receipt to the date of payment. Second, if the amount is over a specified amount, then the claim must be certified (see the FAR and CDA). Certification is essentially a company swearing under pain of 18 USC false claims act penalties that they are not falsifying the claim.
Instead of dealing with it as a claim, the Government should deal with it as a REA; the contractor will have to decide what is more advantageous to it – a REA or CDA claim.
Cancellation of contract
Contractors are understandably quite upset when an awarded contract is cancelled before contract performance can begin. There is some authority for a contractor to recover bid preparation costs in very limited circumstances. Even so, a contracting agency need only establish a reasonable basis to support a decision to cancel an RFQ; in this regard, so long as there is a reasonable basis for doing so, an agency may cancel an RFQ no matter when the information precipitating the cancellation first arises, even if it is not until quotations have been submitted and evaluated. Quality Tech., Inc., B-292883.2, Jan. 21, 2004, 2004 CPD para. 29 at 2–3; Datatrak Consulting, Inc., B-292502 et al., September 26, 2003, 2003 CPD para. 169 at 5. It is well established that an agency's lack of funding for a procurement provides a reasonable basis for cancellation, as agencies cannot award contracts which exceed available funds. First Enter., B-221502.3, Mar. 24, 1986, 86-1 CPD para. 290 at 3. Procurement authorities are presumed to act in good faith and in order for GAO to conclude otherwise, the record must show that procuring officials intended to injure the protester. Cycad Corp., B‑255870, April 12, 1994, 94-1 CPD para. 253 at 5. A protester's mere inference of bad faith is insufficient.
Terminations
The Government may terminate a contract for cause (commercial items), for default (T4D) or for convenience (T4C). Terminations for commercial items (FAR Part 12) contracts are governed by FAR 52.212-4(l) and (m), not the T4C or T4D clauses of FAR 52.249-x. FAR Part 49 prescribes T4D and T4C clauses in FAR Part 52 for non-commercial items (FAR Part 12) related contracts. In particular, T4D is covered by FAR Subpart 49.4, Terminations for Default. T4C is covered by several sections of FAR Part 49.
Termination for default reviews can be done a variety of ways, however, one method is to start with what is the ACTUAL deliverable on the contract, not the one that the customer thought they had. Carefully track what the contractor's actual performance is against the specific language in the contract. If there has been verbal changes by the Government without going through the contracting officer (which should never happen), is there something that indicates the contractor consented to those changes? In writing? For example, the DFARS 252.212-4 clause section that deals with modifications states that mutual consent is required for all modifications. In this review, use the language from the contract and then see if you have adequate evidence from the Government documenting the actual performance. Ask if the Government COR has signed any receiving reports e.g., DD Form 250s accepting performance (so they can get paid). Is there anything in the record that shows the Government placed the contractor on notice of their default or non conforming deliveries?
FAR Part 49 should be read that to get information on terminations including notice to cure and show cause notices. The more the Government tries to give the contractor chances to remedy their default, the more the Government bolsters its case that T4D is appropriate.
The various courts that review T4Ds have a high standard of review for T4Ds, so the Government should consider making sure the T4D is well supported and the Government has had little or no role in the contractors non-conforming performance as well as ensuring there is a clearly defined deliverable, several chances to cure and nothing in the record that indicates the Government failed to do something that was condition precedent to performance or the Government interfered with contract performance or failed to provide required cooperation/support. (For example, failure to provide security escorts or access to a work site thus causing delays on the part of Contractor performance).
The key point for T4Ds is that it is the only way that a Government agency can use prior year single year appropriated funds, such as O&M or many types of procurement funds, for reprocurement of the item in question. Accordingly, it is very important the Agency get the acquisition right up front because bad work statements and poor contract administration destroy the Government's ability to T4D, thus keep their prior year funds to get a replacement contractor.
Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA) has a Terminations Handbook which is very useful in dealing with terminations for convenience issues.
Real options analysis
One approach to analysing government procurement of large systems such as weapons systems is to use real options analysis. Such procurements can be done in single annual lots ("single-year procurements" or SYPs), or, with Congressional approval, multi-year procurement (MYP) contracts. Multi-year contracts generally lower the risk for the contractor, and thus the unit price paid by the Government. One way to look at this situation is that a multi-year contract contains a real option for the contractor to escape the uncertainty associated with a sequence of single-year contract negotiations (analogous to a put option). Real options analysis can give an estimate of the value to the contractor of transferring revenue risk to the Government as a function of the contract's size and the volatility of the contract's value, even though the option is not actively traded. The negotiated price is also influenced by the attitudes towards risk of the negotiating parties.
Wartime contracting
Allegations of waste and corruption in government procurement during wartime have led to special oversight measures being put in place. During World War II this function was provided by the bipartisan Truman Committee established in 1941. After allegations of contract fraud and waste were made regarding expenditure during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan was established, modelled on the Truman Committee.
Contractor voice
One organization which provides a contractor perspective is the Coalition for Government Procurement (CGP), a non-profit association of commercial contractors. The CGP is based in Washington, D.C. and is registered under the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995.
See also
Conjoint analysis – useful in determining essential elements of an acquisition from a customer's perspective.
Cost-plus contract
Economic conversion
Federal Information Technology Acquisition Reform Act
Governmentwide acquisition contracts
Contract adjustment board
Defense Acquisition University
Defense Contract Audit Agency, responsible for audits of many defense contractors
Defense Contract Management Agency, responsible for contract administration of US Department of Defense contracts.
NASA SEWP, an example of an acquisition contract that expanded from its original narrow focus to serve the entire Government
No-bid contract
Small and medium enterprise
Top 100 US Federal Contractors
United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
References
Further reading
Vol. I –
Vol. II –
External links
Acquisition.gov- official US Federal Government website of the Integrated Acquisition Environment, functioning under the auspices of OMB's Office of Federal Procurement Policy and the Chief Acquisition Officers Council
Business.gov provides information that explains how to become a federal contractor, how to find business opportunities, and the rules and regulations that federal contractors need to follow.
Federal Procurement Data System
Former U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manager Sentenced to Six Years in Prison in Bribery and Kickback Scheme, FBI
Procurement Technical Assistance Centers PTACs provide local assistance for firms marketing products and services to the Federal, state and local governments
Public Contract Law Journal
Government Procurement The official magazine of the National Institute of Governmental Purchasing (NIGP)
U.S. Army Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School's Contract Attorneys Deskbook
United States administrative law |
4265262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%20214 | New York State Route 214 | New York State Route 214 (NY 214) is a long state highway through the Catskill Park sections of Ulster and Greene counties. The route begins at an intersection with NY 28 in the town of Shandaken, just southwest of the hamlet of Phoenicia. The route runs through the narrow mountain pass called Stony Clove Notch before reaching the town of Hunter, where it ends at NY 23A.
NY 214 was part of a tannery road constructed by Colonel William Edwards of Hunter in the late 1840s, opening by 1849. The road was upgraded in 1873 to the Stoney Clove Turnpike, which serviced hotels and resorts in the Catskills. In 1930, the route was designated as NY 214, but the part in Greene County was not state-maintained, instead by the county. From 1946 to 1956, the residents of the hamlet of Lanesville spent time fighting for NY 214 to be reconstructed due to being an unsafe dirt road for their children to attend school using their bus. After two sections were completed by 1952, the last section in Greene County was a political debate for four years over the New York State Department of Public Works delaying the project for a multitude of reasons. Construction of the final section finally commenced on July 16, 1956.
In 1994, it was proposed that NY 214 become part of a scenic byway and in 2013, the state of New York approved a bill creating the Mountain Cloves Scenic Byway, which is a byway with multiple branches serving the Catskill Mountains.
Route description
NY 214 begins at an intersection with NY 28 in the town of Shandaken as the latter runs along the Esopus Creek. NY 214 gains the moniker of Main Street, climbing downhill into the hamlet of Phoenicia, crossing a tributary of Esopus Creek, Stony Clove Creek, into the center of the community. A block after the water crossing, NY 214 turns northwest off Main Street, becoming a two-lane commercial street, bypassing the downtown section of Phoenicia, now paralleling the waterway. NY 214 soon leaves Phoenicia, bending northeast along Stony Clove Creek, crossing northeast along the sides of the nearby mountains, reaching the hamlet of Chichester, where it becomes a two-lane residential road in the middle of the notch.
NY 214 continues northeast out of Chichester, crossing through the town of Shandaken, remaining a two-lane roadway. A short distance northeast of Chichester, the route crosses out of Ulster County and into Greene County. NY 214 continues northeast through the town of Hunter. Reaching the hamlet of Lanesville, the route becomes a rural mountainside road through various mountains of the Catskill High Peaks. For a short distance along the route east of Lanesville, the route bends eastward rather than northeast, reaching the hamlet of Edgewood, which consists of a few homes and a junction with Notch Hill Road. At this junction, NY 214 turns northward between Plateau and Hunter mountains, becoming a two-lane woods road.
NY 214 passes a small pond of Stony Clove Notch, continuing north and turning northeast near Higgins Road. After the northeastern turn, the route junctions with the southern terminus of County Route 83 (CR 83 or Ski Bowl Road). The route winds out and becomes a flat area through Hunter, reaching a junction with NY 23A in the hamlet of Hunter, just west of Tannersville.
History
Construction and designation
NY 214 dates back to a road constructed in the late 1840s by Colonel William Edwards, a tanner from Hunter. This road was constructed along the clove that marks eastern flank of Hunter Mountain and western of Plateau Mountain in the Catskills so that Edwards to get hemlock tree bark to the tannery from the mountains. The road constructed by Edwards and first used by Amos Connolly by 1849 for the first wagon use was upgraded in 1873 upon state approval of the Stoney Clove Turnpike, which occurred by the New York State Legislature on April 30. The road's design used has been speculated that there was a significant issue with erosion when it comes to the road through Stony Clove Notch, even into the 1940s. Stacked rock walls were commonly used to create abutments and construct banks from the streams below.
In 1881, construction begun on the Stony Clove and Catskill Mountain Railway, a narrow-gauge railway from Phoenicia and the Ulster and Delaware Railroad to the village of Hunter. This new railroad was constructed to serve the Hotel Kaaterskill through the notch. The railroad was completed in 1883 and converted to standard gauge in 1899. An inn was constructed at the station in Edgewood, helping tourists and recreation through the Catskills. The railroad was shut down in April 1936 and in 1940, the tracks were torn up, though the right-of-way remains.
The Notch Road was not originally included in the New York State highway map in 1912. By 1921, it had not been added. However, in 1925, with pressure from New York State Senator Arthur F. Bouton, Notch Road was added to the state highway map in 1925. The dirt road was taken over by the state of New York in the late 1920s and designated as NY 214 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York.
Reconstruction debacles
1946–1951
NY 214 became the subject of controversy for the conditions of the road through Lanesville and Greene County. The members of a committee of parents in Lanesville noted on December 2, 1946 that they would hold their students from going to school starting on January 6, 1947 if the state did not start work on repairing the road for safety. The committee noted that the conditions of NY 214 were dangerous, with the road's pavement not being maintained for use of the school bus and guard rails were not installed to keep cars from going into waterways. The parents remained committed and held about 55 students out of school starting January 2, stating that nothing still had been done to maintain NY 214. Burton Belknap, part of the State Education Department, stated that they intended to make sure they would work with the local parents in order to get the students back in school. The student strike was lifted on January 13 on conditions that the town of Hunter made for repairing the road.
Parents noted that they demanded safer guard rails because the ones that stood were dangerous to poor construction. They also noted several sections with drops that had none whatsoever. Petitioners had sent 700 signatures to the state stating that the road had been neglected for the previous 20 years. However, by May 22, nothing still had been done despite talks, but the state claimed they needed time to get this work done. The parents pointed out a case where a driver ended up in Stony Clove Creek due to lack of guard rail. The state stated that bids on upgrading NY 214 would not go out until July and that the repairs to pavement would be within two weeks. Bids on NY 214 for the regular repairs were accepted in mid-September, with an announcement on September 17 that a bid of $281,418.74 (1947 USD) was provided by Triple Cities Construction of Binghamton to reconstruct a long section of NY 214 from Edgewood to a point north of Stony Clove.
In November 1948 Greene County's Board of Supervisors voted unanimously to support getting funds for the continuation of reconstruction of NY 214. Funding for this project would come from the Federal Aid Secondary Highway Program. The Board had received letters noting that getting the road a contract should be urgent once money is located. On February 22, 1949, the county announced that the amount of $155,000 (1949 USD) was allotted for the construction on NY 214 as a continuation of funds already allotted since 1946. This would cover the rest of the road through the town of Hunter. However, the chairman of the Board, Claude Tompkins and the supervisor for Hunter, G. Richard Ham, both requested an investigation into whether or not this would be enough money to pay for the project. That August, the Lanesville Parents Committee joined other groups in forming the Greene County chapter of the New York Good Roads Association. John Papp, the chairman of the Parents Committee noted that they were focused with the chapter on urging reconstruction of NY 214 By February 1950, Papp had been elected temporary president of the new Greene County chapter.
In February 1950, New York State Senator Arthur H. Wicks announced that the funds for construction of NY 214 would be put into a contract by May 1. The plans were completed and bridge designs were being finished. On May 16, the state announced that the bid would be let on the second section of NY 214. By September, things had gone backwards after an automobile with four children fell off the side of NY 214 due to the roadway caving in. This caused yet another parent strike, refusing to let their kids ride the bus on September 27. Senator Wicks called the capital in Albany to find out what the delay was in construction. The state noted that because NY 214 was not maintained by the state, but by Greene County, that it would require approval by the Federal Bureau of Roads in Washington D.C. The state noted that they cannot do any construction until once approval on the plans was obtained. In response, Wicks arranged to get the contract let advertised on October 12 and that a bid would be accepted by November 15. Residents were continuing to hold students from taking the bus to school and that the road was falling apart in numerous areas and that people would have to drive on the shoulder regularly. However, there were no bidders on the contract, and the New York State Department of Public Works opened more bids on December 13 for the long section of NY 214 at the cost of $214,000.
This second bidding process was met with success, as the John Arborio, Inc. company of Poughkeepsie for a total of $203,242.80 (1951 USD) won the bid in January 1951. The contract would include the construction of the two bridges and reconstruction of NY 214. The new roadway would be wide and paved with gravel and asphalt, replacing the dirt road that went through the notch. This contract would also eliminate curves and grades along NY 214 from Stony Clove Notch to Kaaterskill Junction and be completed by December 1, 1951.
1952–1956
After construction began on the section of NY 214 at its northern end, the issue came up with Greene County and its southern section of road. The state had put the project on its construction program for 1952, however, it required federal approval. The explanation was due to a request for action created by Wicks to the state superintendent of Public Works, B. D. Tallamy. Henry TenHagen, the deputy chief engineer at the state noted that the project was given to the Federal Bureau of Public Roads, who did not approve it due to restrictions on materials required for construction. The Board of Supervisors for Greene County and the town board for Hunter voted for construction the next year. The demand was raised not only due to the incident in 1950 of the car tumbling off the cliffside, but that a section of road had been washed out in a recent storm.
On June 9, the federal government approved that the last section of NY 214 was eligible for federal aid, at the cost of $700,000 (1952 USD), which would be subsidized by half by the government. However, due to the approval being announced late in the fiscal year, there was no ability on part of the state to let a bid contract until the next, as all state money for the year had dried up. The $700,000 project would go to four miles of grading, drainage structures, three bridges and paving of two lanes through Greene County. The federal government announced they would approve construction bidding once the state sent documents noting they acquired rights-of-way for the project. However, by July 30, no progress was made by the state on construction despite federal approval according to J. Ernest Wharton, a United States Congressman from Richmondville.
The debacle over the final section of NY 214 dragged into 1953 and soon 1954, when the residents of Lanesville pressed New York State Governor Thomas E. Dewey to take action on the stalled project. The federal appropriation of aid would expire on June 30, 1955 and the committee noted that the state had been making empty promises since February 1952. They pressured Dewey to take steps to expedite the project, as the Public Works department had been making excuses from federal aid, to engineer shortages, to lack of money, approval by Greene County and that the state must match the amount of the federal government provided. By May, the committee turned their requests to United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower for his support on the highway. Eisenhower referred the letter to the Bureau of Public Roads who noted that while the money was still there, it hinged on documents that were never sent regarding the right-of-way in 1952.
On August 24, the Department of Public Works noted a letter to the parents committee noting that NY 214 had been placed on the 1955 program for construction, like it had three years prior. The state also noted that they would do survey and design during the winter of 1954–1955 and then move the project to the contract stage in 1955. By late December 1954, the district engineer for the state noted that the work would be able to be contracted by April 1. However, plans were not sent to the state until late July 1955 to the main office in Albany. To make things worse, the defeat of a $750 million road bond amendment in November 1955 would potentially delay the work on NY 214 even further. Stating more run-around by the state, John Papp, the chair of the parents committee noted that the letting proposal for a contract was to start December 1, 1955, but defeating the amendment changed plans, even though part of the road was severely damaged in a storm on October 16.
By December 1955, however, the committee was fed up once again with the state and their treatment of the NY 214 reconstruction. They threatened yet another school strike after disappointed results from new Governor Averell Harriman, stating it was their only weapon left in the situation. Papp noted that a letter sent by Bellamy noted that the money was not contingent on the failed amendment. Soon after, the state canceled bids on the project, angering Wicks and New York State Assemblyman William E. Brady from Coxsackie. Angered by the decision, the parents went through with their threat to pull their children once again for a week in January 1956 until Wicks and Brady agreed to talk to the state. However, the state accused Papp in late January of confusing the issues over money for funding of the NY 214 project. The new Superintendent for the Public Works Department, John W. Johnson noted that the defeat of the amendment was the reason for canceling the bids of December 1.
On April 19, a letting for the section of NY 214 was finally held, but no bids were received on the project, requiring a second set to begin on June 7. However, Governor Harriman noted that the cost of the project had gone up to $815,000 instead of the original $700,000 estimated in 1952. The bid was won by Rock Construction Company of Sunset Park on June 25 at the cost of $757,886.60, who noted that official construction began on July 16. By August, trees had been removed and the flooded out would be moved away from the creek to avoid future issues. By early September, the company noted that they were about to pour concrete for one of the new bridges and that construction was progressing at a steady rate.
Scenic byway
In March 1994, the town of Hunter, the Catskill Center for Conservation and Development and the Greene County Planning Department nominated NY 214 along with the Kaaterskill Clove portion of NYS 23A and the clove portion of Platte Clove Rd. to the New York State Scenic Roads Program. In 2011, it was proposed that the Mountain Cloves Scenic Byway would serve a section of NY 214 from State Route 23A to the Greene County line. Eventually, this would connect the Catskill Mountains Scenic Byway with the Mountain Cloves Scenic Byway, with the designation of the former in 2015. On June 20, 2013, a bill passed the New York State Assembly to designate the Mountain Cloves Scenic Byway and sent to Governor Andrew Cuomo to be signed. On July 12, the Governor signed the Mountain Cloves Scenic Byway into law. The southern section of Route 214 was designated part of the Catskill Mountains Scenic Byway in November 2015.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
214
Catskills
Transportation in Ulster County, New York
Transportation in Greene County, New York |
4265347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairspray%20%282007%20film%29 | Hairspray (2007 film) | Hairspray is a 2007 musical romantic comedy film based on the 2002 Broadway musical of the same name, which in turn was based on John Waters's 1988 comedy film of the same name. Produced by Ingenious Media and Zadan/Meron Productions, and adapted from both Waters's 1988 script and Thomas Meehan and Mark O'Donnell's book for the stage musical by screenwriter Leslie Dixon, the film was directed and choreographed by Adam Shankman and has an ensemble cast including John Travolta, Michelle Pfeiffer, Christopher Walken, Amanda Bynes, James Marsden, Queen Latifah, Brittany Snow, Zac Efron, Elijah Kelley, Allison Janney, and Nikki Blonsky in her feature film debut. Set in 1962 Baltimore, Maryland, the film follows the "pleasantly plump" teenager Tracy Turnblad (Blonsky) as she pursues stardom as a dancer on a local television dance show and rallies against racial segregation.
The film began development in 2004, and Dixon reworked Meehan and O'Donnell's first draft of the screenplay to tone down the musical's campiness. In 2005, Shankman agreed to direct the film. Composer/lyricist Marc Shaiman and lyricist Scott Wittman reworked their songs from the Broadway musical for the film's soundtrack, and also wrote four new songs for the film. Principal photography commenced in September 2006 with a budget of $75 million, and ended in December of that year; filming took place on locations in Toronto and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada and on sound-stages at Toronto's Showline Studios. Recording sessions for the film's songs and soundtrack took place in San Diego, California in the United States.
Hairspray premiered on July 10, 2007, at the Mann Village Theater and was released on July 20, 2007, in the United Kingdom and the United States. The film was critically and financially successful, breaking the record for the highest-grossing opening weekend for a movie musical, which the film held until July 2008 when it was surpassed by Mamma Mia! and later High School Musical 3: Senior Year in October. Hairspray went on to become the tenth highest-grossing musical film in US cinema history, behind the film adaptations of Grease, Chicago, and Mamma Mia!, and stands as one of the most critically and commercially successful musical films of the 2000s. Available in a variety of formats, Hairsprays Region 1 home video release took place on November 20, 2007. USA Network purchased the broadcast rights to Hairspray and was scheduled to debut the film on cable television in February 2010, but in the end it did not broadcast that month. Instead the film was pushed back and premiered on USA on July 24, 2010, with sister channel Bravo also showing it multiple times, and in February 2011 aired on ABC for over-the-air broadcasts.
Plot
In May 1962, 16-year-old overweight high school student Tracy Turnblad lives in Baltimore along with her shy best friend Penny Pingleton, and both frequently watch The Corny Collins Show, a local teen dance television show broadcast live on the WYZT station. Several of the dancers on the show, among them lead dancers Amber von Tussle and her boyfriend Link Larkin, attend Tracy and Penny's high school. Amber's mother Velma, the station's manager, ensures that her daughter is prominently featured and, as Corny Collins and the main dancers are white, only allows African-American dancers to appear on the monthly "Negro Day", hosted by local R&B disc jockey "Motormouth" Maybelle Stubbs.
When Corny announces that Brenda, a dancer on the show, will be taking a nine-month leave of absence, Tracy becomes ecstatic, especially when Link announces auditions for a replacement to be held at the WYZT studio the next day. At the audition, Velma rejects her for both being overweight and supporting integration. Given detention for skipping class, Tracy discovers the "Negro Day" kids practicing in the detention room and befriends Motormouth Maybelle's son, Seaweed, who teaches her several dance moves. While leaving detention, she inadvertently meets Link, dreaming of life with him. At a record hop, her new moves garner Corny's attention, and he chooses her to join the cast.
Tracy quickly becomes one of Corny's most popular performers, affecting Amber's chances of winning the show's annual "Miss Teenage Hairspray" pageant the following month and her relationship with Link, who grows fonder of Tracy. When Mr. Pinky enlists her as the spokesgirl for his Hefty Hideaway boutique, she persuades her agoraphobic mother, Edna, to accompany her there as her agent, where both receive makeovers, sharply boosting Edna's confidence.
Tracy introduces Seaweed to Penny, and the two become smitten. Later, Seaweed and his younger sister Little Inez take Tracy, Penny, and Link to a party at Maybelle's store. Amber, upset over losing Link to Tracy, follows her mother's advice and anonymously calls Edna to reveal her daughter's current whereabouts, which causes Edna to rush to the store and attempt to take her home immediately, but Maybelle convinces her to stay and take pride in herself. After Maybelle sadly informs everyone that Velma has cancelled Negro Day, Tracy suggests they march for integration. Link, unwilling to endanger his career, sincerely apologizes to Tracy, upsetting her by explaining that he is scheduled to sing in front of talent scouts at the pageant. Edna returns to her husband Wilbur's shop, but Velma gets there first, and tries to seduce him. Though he remains impervious to Velma's advances, Edna arrives to see Velma forcing him into a compromising position and furiously storms out. After accusing Wilbur of infidelity and changing the locks, Edna, out of hatred for Velma, forbids Tracy to be on the show, but changes her mind reconciling with Wilbur.
The next morning, Tracy sneaks out of the house to join the protest, which is halted by a police roadblock. The protesters engage in a brawl, while Tracy runs to the Pingletons' home, where Penny hides her in a fallout shelter. However, Penny's mother Prudy reports Tracy to the police and ties her daughter to her bed for "harboring a fugitive". Having been bailed out by Wilbur, Seaweed and his friends help Tracy and Penny escape. Link visits Tracy's house to find her, realizing that he loves her. Seaweed and Penny also acknowledge their love during the escape.
With the pageant underway, Velma assigns police officers to guard the WYZT studio to prevent Tracy from entering and rigs the pageant tallies to guarantee Amber's victory. Penny arrives at the pageant with Edna, while Wilbur, Seaweed, and the Negro Day kids help Tracy infiltrate the studio. Link breaks away from Amber to dance with Tracy; later, he pulls Little Inez to the stage to dance in the pageant.
Amber's attempt to re-claim her championship crown fails. Little Inez wins the pageant after a late surge of support, successfully integrating the program. Edna mans a camera to film Velma revealing her rigging scheme to Amber, resulting in Velma's dismissal. The set turns into a celebration as Tracy and Link cement their love by kissing each other.
Cast
Main characters
John Travolta as Edna Turnblad, Tracy's mother and a laundry business owner, who is agoraphobic and ashamed of her obesity. Travolta's casting as Edna continued the tradition of having a man in drag portray the character, going back to the original 1988 film, which featured drag queen Divine as Edna and at Hairspray's Broadway version, which featured Harvey Fierstein as Edna. Executives at New Line Cinema originally expected the part to be filled by an actor accustomed to playing comic roles, tossing around names such as Robin Williams, Steve Martin, and Tom Hanks. However, Travolta was aggressively sought after by producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron for this role because he had starred as Danny Zuko in Grease, the second most successful movie musical to date, beaten only by Mamma Mia!.
Nikki Blonsky as Tracy Turnblad, an optimistic, overweight teenage girl who loves dancing. Tracy's racial acceptance leads her to become an active supporter for the integration of The Corny Collins Show. Hairspray was Blonsky's debut as a professional actress.
Michelle Pfeiffer as Velma Von Tussle, the racist and sizeist manager of station WYZT. Velma is invested in keeping her daughter Amber in the spotlight and The Corny Collins Show segregated. Hairspray was the first film featuring Pfeiffer to be released in five years. Stardust, also featuring Pfeiffer, was shot before Hairspray, but released three weeks afterwards. The peculiarity of Pfeiffer and Travolta appearing onscreen together (Travolta starred in Grease, Pfeiffer in Grease 2) was not lost on the production staff; Travolta requested that Pfeiffer play the part of the villainess.
Amanda Bynes as Penny Lou Pingleton, Tracy's best friend, a sheltered girl who falls in love with Seaweed despite the disapproval of her stern, devoutly religious and racist mother Prudy. A young actress famous for appearances on Nickelodeon TV shows and in feature films, Bynes was one of the few movie stars cast among the teen roles.
Christopher Walken as Wilbur Turnblad, Tracy's father, the easygoing proprietor of the "Hardy-Har Hut" joke shop below the Turnblad family's apartment. John Travolta had asked that Walken be considered for the part, and he eventually beat out Billy Crystal and Jim Broadbent for the role of Wilbur.
Queen Latifah as "Motormouth" Maybelle Stubbs, a Baltimore rhythm and blues radio DJ who hosts "Negro Day" on The Corny Collins Show. Maybelle also runs a record shop on North Avenue. Queen Latifah appeared in the successful Zadan/Meron film musical Chicago, and worked under Adam Shankman's direction in Bringing Down the House. Aretha Franklin had been previously considered for the role.
James Marsden as Corny Collins, the host of The Corny Collins Show; his politically progressive attitudes lead him to fight his show's imposed segregation. Corny Collins is based upon Baltimore TV personality Buddy Deane, who hosted an eponymous local teen dance show in the late 1950s and early 1960s. James Marsden beat out both Joey McIntyre and X-Men co-star Hugh Jackman for the part.
Brittany Snow as Amber Von Tussle, Velma's bratty daughter and the lead female dancer on The Corny Collins Show. Amber becomes Tracy's enemy when she threatens both Amber's chances of winning the "Miss Teenage Hairspray" crown and her relationship with her boyfriend, Link. Snow previously worked with Shankman in The Pacifier. Hayden Panettiere was also considered for the part of Amber, but was decided against in part because of her then-upcoming work with the NBC television series Heroes.
Zac Efron as Link Larkin, Amber's boyfriend and the lead male dancer on The Corny Collins Show. Link is a talented (and mildly narcissistic) singer who becomes more attracted to Tracy. The character is based in part upon Elvis Presley. Efron, a popular teen actor who played Troy Bolton in the Disney Channel TV film High School Musical, was initially thought by Shankman to be "too Disney" for the role; however Shankman's sister, executive producer Jennifer Gibgot, convinced him to cast Efron, believing that the teen star would draw a substantial teen crowd.
Elijah Kelley as Seaweed J. Stubbs, Maybelle's son, a skilled dancer who teaches Tracy some dance moves and falls in love with Penny. Kelley, a relative newcomer to film, overcame other auditioners and several popular R&B stars for the part of Seaweed.
Allison Janney as Prudence "Prudy" Pingleton, Penny's mother, a racist Christian fundamentalist whose strict parenting keeps Penny from experiencing social life. Her husband is serving a prison sentence for an unspecified crime.
Minor roles
Paul Dooley as Harriman F. Spritzer, the owner of the "Ultra Clutch" company and the main sponsor of The Corny Collins Show. Although he prefers to keep The Corny Collins Show segregated, he will follow public opinion if it increases sales.
Jayne Eastwood as Miss Wimsey, Tracy's geography teacher, who gives Tracy the detention note that first leads her to Seaweed.
Jerry Stiller as Mr. Pinky, the owner of a dress shop called Mr. Pinky's Hefty Hideaway, who hires Tracy as his spokesgirl. In the original film, Stiller played Wilbur Turnblad.
Taylor Parks as Little Inez Stubbs, Maybelle's teenage daughter and Seaweed's younger sister, and a skilled dancer. Inez is based in part upon Ruby Bridges, the first black child to attend a formerly all-White school in the state of Louisiana.
George King as Mr. Flak, Amber, Link, and Tracy's history teacher. He gives Tracy detention when Amber frames Tracy for drawing a picture of him with breasts. He gives Link detention as well for coming to Tracy's defense.
Council members
Curtis Holbrook as Brad
Hayley Podschun as Tammy
Phillip Spaeth as Fender
Cassie Silva as Brenda
Nick Baga as Sketch
Sarah Jayne Jensen as Shelley
Jesse Weafer as I.Q.
Kelly Fletcher as Lou Ann
J.P. Ferreri as Joey
Spencer Liff as Mikey
Laura Edwards as Vicky
Tabitha Lupien as Becky
Corey Gorewicz as Bix
Joshua Feldman as Jesse
Becca Sweitzer as Darla
Everett Smith as Paulie
Tiffany Engen as Noreen
Brooke Engen as Doreen
The Dynamites
Nadine Ellis
Arike Rice
Tanee McCall
Cameos
In addition to the principal actors, the film contained several cameo appearances by individuals involved in the history of Hairspray:
Ricki Lake (Tracy Turnblad in the original film) as William Morris Talent Agent #1, (Audio) performs "Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now".
Adam Shankman (choreographer/director of the film) as William Morris Talent Agent #2 (Audio) sings "Tied Up in the Knots of Sin" with Shaiman which is heard when Prudy turns the record player on while she ties Penny up.
Marc Shaiman (co-lyricist/writer of the film) as William Morris Talent Agent #3 (Audio) sings "Tied Up in the Knots of Sin" with Shankman which is heard when Prudy turns the record player on while she ties up Penny.
Scott Wittman (co-lyricist and music writer of the film) as William Morris Talent Agent #4.
John Waters (writer and director of the original film, who also cameoed as Dr. Frederickson in the original film) as the "flasher who lives next door" during "Good Morning Baltimore"
Jamal Sims (Associate choreographer) as one of the Detention Kids
Anne Fletcher (Associate choreographer) as the school nurse
Zach Woodlee (Associate choreographer) as Smoking teacher
Singing cameos
Marissa Jaret Winokur (Original Broadway cast's Tracy) performs "Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now"
Harvey Fierstein (Original Broadway cast's Edna) as brief singing cameo in the end credits "Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now"
Corey Reynolds (Original Broadway cast's Seaweed) as singer of "Trouble on the Line". The song is heard shortly after "Big, Blonde and Beautiful" until Maybelle announces the cancellation of Negro Day.
Arthur Adams (One of the Broadway cast's Seaweed) performs "Boink-Boink" which is heard during "Big, Blonde and Beautiful".
Chester Gregory (One of the Broadway cast's Seaweed) performs "Breakout", which is heard during Tracy's introduction to Seaweed in detention.
Aimee Allen performs "Cooties"
Musical numbers
"Good Morning Baltimore" – Tracy (Nikki Blonsky)
"The Nicest Kids in Town" – Corny and Council Members (James Marsden)
"It Takes Two" – Link (Zac Efron)
"(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs" – Velma and Council Members (Michelle Pfeiffer)
"I Can Hear the Bells" – Tracy (Nikki Blonsky)
"Ladies' Choice" – Link (Zac Efron)
"The Nicest Kids in Town (Reprise)" – Corny, Council Members, Penny, Edna, Wilbur (James Marsden)
"The New Girl in Town" – Amber, Tammy, Shelley, and The Dynamites (Brittany Snow)
"Welcome to the 60's" – Tracy, Edna, The Dynamites, and Hefty Hideaway Employees (Nikki Blonsky & John Travolta)
"Run and Tell That" – Seaweed, Little Inez, and Detention Kids (Elijah Kelley ft. Taylor Parks)
"Big, Blonde and Beautiful" – Motormouth (Queen Latifah)
"Big, Blonde and Beautiful (Reprise)" – Velma and Edna (Michelle Pfeiffer & John Travolta)
"(You're) Timeless to Me" – Wilbur and Edna (Christopher Walken & John Travolta)
"I Know Where I've Been" – Motormouth (Queen Latifah)
"Without Love" – Link, Tracy, Seaweed, Penny, and Detention Kids (Zac Efron, Nikki Blonsky, Elijah Kelley, Amanda Bynes)
"(It's) Hairspray" – Corny and Council Members (James Marsden)
"You Can't Stop the Beat" – Company (Nikki Blonsky, Zac Efron, Amanda Bynes, Elijah Kelley, John Travolta and Queen Latifah)
"Come So Far (Got So Far to Go)" (end credits) – (Queen Latifah, Zac Efron, Nikki Blonsky, and Elijah Kelley)
"Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now" (end credits) – Ricki Lake, Marissa Jaret Winokur, and Nikki Blonsky with Harvey Fierstein
"Cooties" (end credits) – Aimee Allen
Music producer/composer/co-lyricist Marc Shaiman and co-lyricist Scott Wittman were required to alter their Broadway Hairspray song score in various ways in order to work on film, from changing portions of the lyrics in some songs (e.g., "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs", "Big, Blonde, and Beautiful", and "You Can't Stop the Beat") to more or less completely removing other songs from the film altogether.
"Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now", a popular number from the stage musical, features Tracy, Penny, and Amber arguing with their respective mothers. Neither Shankman nor Dixon could come up with a solution for filming "Mama" that did not require a three-way split screen — something they wanted to avoid — and both felt the number did not adequately advance the plot. As a result, "Mama" was reluctantly dropped from the film during pre-production, although it is used by Shaiman as an instrumental number when the Corny Collins kids dance the "Stricken Chicken". A special version of "Mama" was recorded for the film's end credits in May 2007, during the final score recording process, which featured vocals from each of the three women most famous for portraying Tracy Turnblad: Ricki Lake from the 1988 film, Marissa Jaret Winokur from the original Broadway cast, and Nikki Blonsky from the 2007 film. Harvey Fierstein, who portrayed Edna as part of the original Broadway cast, has a brief cameo moment in the end credits version of "Mama" as well.
"It Takes Two", a solo for Link, was moved from its place in the stage musical (on Tracy's first day on The Corny Collins Show) to an earlier Corny Collins scene, although only the coda of the song is used in the final release print, and the song's background music can be heard immediately after the reprise of "The Nicest Kids in Town". "Cooties", a solo for Amber in the stage musical, is present in this film as an instrumental during the Miss Teenage Hairspray dance-off. As with "Mama, I'm a Big Girl Now", a version of "Cooties", performed in a contemporary pop rendition by Aimee Allen, is present during the end credits.
The performance of a vintage dance called The Madison, present in both the 1988 film and the stage musical, was replaced for this version by a newly composed song, "Ladies' Choice". Portions of the Madison dance steps were integrated into the choreography for the musical number "You Can't Stop the Beat", and the song to which the dance is performed on Broadway can be heard during Motormouth Maybelle's platter party in the film, re-titled "Boink-Boink". "The Big Dollhouse", "Velma's Revenge" (a reprise of "Miss Baltimore Crabs"), and the reprise of "Good Morning Baltimore" were the only numbers from the musical not used in the film in any way.
Shaiman and Wittman composed two new songs for the 2007 film: "Ladies' Choice", a solo for Link, and "Come So Far (Got So Far to Go)", a song performed during the end credits by Queen Latifah, Blonsky, Efron, and Kelley. Another "new" song in the 2007 film, "The New Girl in Town", had originally been composed for the Broadway musical, but was deemed unnecessary and discarded from the musical. Director Shankman decided to use the song to both underscore a rise-to-fame montage for Tracy and to showcase Maybelle's "Negro Day", which is never actually seen in either of the earlier incarnations of Hairspray.
One additional Shaiman/Wittman song, a ballad entitled "I Can Wait", was composed for the film as a solo for Tracy, meant to replace the stage musical's reprise of "Good Morning Baltimore". "I Can Wait" was shot for the film (Tracy performs the number while locked in Prudy's basement), but was eventually deleted from the final release print. The audio recording of "I Can Wait" was made available as a special bonus track for customers who pre-ordered the Hairspray soundtrack on iTunes, and the scene itself was included as a special feature on the film's DVD release.
Post-production took place in Los Angeles. Composer/co-lyricist Shaiman continued work on the film's music, employing the Hollywood Symphony Orchestra to record instrumentation for both the songs and the incidental score.
Production
Early development
Following the success of the Broadway musical of the same name, which won eight Tony Awards in 2003, New Line Cinema, who owned the rights to the 1988 John Waters film upon which the stage musical is based, became interested in adapting the stage show as a musical film. Development work began in late 2004, while a similarly film-to-Broadway-to-film project, Mel Brooks' The Producers, was in production.
Craig Zadan and Neil Meron, the executive producers of the Academy Award-winning film adaptation of the Broadway musical Chicago, were hired as the producers for Hairspray, and began discussing possibly casting John Travolta and Billy Crystal (or Jim Broadbent) as Edna and Wilbur Turnblad, respectively. Thomas Meehan and Mark O'Donnell, authors of the book for the stage musical, wrote the first draft of the film's screenplay, but were replaced by Leslie Dixon, screenwriter for family comedies such as Mrs. Doubtfire and Freaky Friday. After a year's deliberation on who should direct the film, Zadan and Meron finally decided to hire Adam Shankman to both direct and choreograph Hairspray. Upon learning he had been hired, Shankman arranged a meeting with John Waters, who advised him "don't do what I did, don't do what the play did. You've gotta do your own thing." Despite this, Shankman still noted "all roads of Hairspray lead back to John Waters."
Tory Gardner and his company Alterian, Inc. were hired to design and create the look of Edna Turnblad on John Travolta. Costume designer Rita Ryack wanted to put Edna into several revealing outfits, so Travolta ended up being encapsulated in prosthetics. He wore silicone prosthetics on his head and neck, and foam latex arms and legs that connected to a spandex and foam body suit.
Adaptation changes
Dixon was primarily hired to tone down much of the campiness inherent in the stage musical. The 2007 film's script is based primarily on the stage musical rather than the 1988 film, so several changes already made to the plot for the stage version remain in this version. These include dropping several characters from the 1988 version (such as Arvin Hodgepile (the role Mr. Spritzer fills), Velma's husband Franklin, Corny's assistant Tammy, the beatniks, et al.), removing the Tilted Acres amusement park from the story, and placing Velma in charge of the station where The Corny Collins Show is filmed.
One notable difference between the stage musical, the original film, and the 2007 film version of Hairspray is that Tracy does not go to jail in the 2007 version (thus eliminating the musical's song "The Big Dollhouse"). In both previous incarnations of Hairspray, Tracy is arrested and taken to jail along with the other protesters. Edna is presented in this version as an insecure introvert, in contrast to the relatively bolder incarnations present in the 1988 film and the stage musical. Among many other elements changed or added to this version are the removal of Motormouth Maybelle's habit of speaking in rhyming jive talk and doubling the number of teens in Corny Collins' Council (from ten on Broadway to twenty in the 2007 film).
Dixon restructured portions of Hairsprays book to allow several of the songs to blend more naturally into the plot, in particular "(You're) Timeless to Me" and "I Know Where I've Been". "(You're) Timeless to Me" becomes the anchor of a newly invented subplot involving Velma's attempt to break up Edna and Wilbur's marriage and keep Tracy off The Corny Collins Show as a result. The song now serves as Wilbur's apology to Edna, in addition to its original purpose in the stage musical as a tongue-in-cheek declaration of Wilbur and Edna's love for each other. Meanwhile, "I Know Where I've Been", instead of being sung by Maybelle to the kids after being let out of jail, now underscores Maybelle's march on WYZT (which takes place in the stage musical at the end of "Big, Blonde, and Beautiful").
The song "Big, Blonde, and Beautiful" was inspired by a line that Tracy delivered in the original film ("Now all of Baltimore will know: I'm big, blonde and beautiful!"), but in the stage version and in this film, Motormouth Maybelle performs the song. A reprise of the song was added to the 2007 film, which is sung by Edna and Velma.
Pre-production and casting
Hairspray was produced on a budget of $75 million. Casting director, David Rubin, introduced an open casting call to cast unknowns in Atlanta, New York City, and Chicago. After auditioning over eleven hundred candidates, Nikki Blonsky a high school student from Great Neck, New York was chosen for the lead role of Tracy. Nikki Blonsky auditioned for the role of Tracy Turnblad in New York City in 2006 at eighteen years old. She had no previous professional experience in acting or in singing. Blonsky had auditioned for the role because it became her dream to play the role of Tracy after seeing the musical on Broadway. Blonsky, working at Cold Stone Creamery at the time, received the news from film director, Adam Shankman, that she had received the part. Relative unknowns Elijah Kelley and Taylor Parks were chosen through similar audition contests to portray siblings Seaweed and Little Inez Stubbs, respectively. John Travolta was finally cast as Edna, with Christopher Walken ultimately assuming the role of Wilbur. Several other stars, including Queen Latifah, James Marsden, Michelle Pfeiffer, and Allison Janney were chosen for the other supporting adult roles of Motormouth Maybelle, Corny Collins, Velma Von Tussle, and Prudy Pingleton, respectively. Teen stars Amanda Bynes, and Zac Efron were cast as Tracy's friends Penny and Link, and Brittany Snow was cast as her rival, Amber Von Tussle. Jerry Stiller, who played Wilbur Turnblad in the original film, appears as plus-sized women's clothes retailer Mr. Pinky in this version.
Since Hairsprays plot focuses heavily on dance, choreography became a heavy focus for Shankman, who hired four assistant choreographers, Jamal Sims, Anne Fletcher, and Zach Woodlee, and put both his acting cast and over a hundred and fifty dancers through two months of rehearsals. The cast recorded the vocal tracks for their songs as coached by Elaine Overholt in the weeks just before principal photography began in September.
Principal photography
Principal photography took place in Toronto, and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada from September 5 – December 8, 2006.
Hairspray is explicitly set in Baltimore, Maryland and the original 1988 film had been shot on location there, but the 2007 film was shot primarily in Toronto because the city was better equipped with the sound stages necessary to film a musical. The opening shots of the descent from the clouds and the newspaper being dropped onto the stoop are the only times that the actual city of Baltimore is shown in the film.
Most of the film was shot at Toronto's Showline Studios. Most of the street scenes were shot at the intersection of Dundas Street West and Roncesvalles Avenue. A PCC streetcar with Toronto Transit Commission livery is seen in the opening sequence. Some of the signs for the 1960s-era stores remain up along the street. Toronto's Lord Lansdowne Public School was used for all of the high school exteriors and some of the interiors, while the old Queen Victoria School in Hamilton was also used for interiors. Scenes at Queen Victoria were shot from November 22 to December 2, and the school was scheduled to be demolished after film production was completed. As of the 2017–2018 school year, there are no plans to close this school.
Thinner than most of the other men who have portrayed Edna, Travolta appeared onscreen in a large fat suit, and required four hours of makeup in order to appear before the cameras. His character's nimble dancing style belies her girth; Shankman based Edna's dancing style on the hippo ballerinas in the Dance of the Hours sequence in Walt Disney's 1940 animated feature, Fantasia. Although early versions of the suit created "a dumpy, Alfred Hitchcock version of Edna," Travolta fought for the ability to give his character curves and a thick Baltimore accent. Designed by Tony Gardner, the fat suit was created using lightweight synthetic materials, consisting of layered pads and silicone, which was used from the chest upwards. The suit provided the additional benefit of covering Travolta's beard, eliminating the problem of his facial hair growing through his makeup midday.
Shankman's inspirations
Shankman included a number of references to films that influenced his work on Hairspray:
The film's opening shot — a bird's eye view of Baltimore that eventually descends from the clouds to ground level — is a combination of the opening shots of West Side Story and The Sound of Music.
Before we see a full shot of Tracy, we see individual shots of her upraised right and left arms. This is reminiscent of our first views of Sadie Thompson (Joan Crawford) in the 1932 film Rain.
Several scenes involving Tracy, such as her ride atop the garbage truck during the "Good Morning Baltimore" number and her new hairstyle during "Welcome to the '60s", are directly inspired by the Barbra Streisand musical film version of Funny Girl.
During "Without Love", Link sings to a photograph of Tracy, which comes to life and sings harmony with him. This is directly inspired from the MGM musical The Broadway Melody of 1938, in which a young Judy Garland swoons over a photo of actor Clark Gable as she sings "You Made Me Love You".
The dress that Penny wears during "You Can't Stop the Beat" is made from her bedroom curtains, which can be seen during "Without Love". This is homage to The Sound of Music, where Maria uses old curtains to make play clothes for the von Trapp children.
Reception
Box office
Hairspray debuted in 3,121 theaters in North America on July 20, 2007, the widest debut of any modern movie musical. The film earned $27.5 million in its opening weekend at #3, behind I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry and Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. This made Hairspray the record-holder for the biggest opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical. This record was later broken by the release of Mamma Mia!, which grossed $27.8 million on its opening weekend. Hairspray is currently the twelfth highest grossing musical in U.S. cinema history, surpassing The Rocky Horror Picture Show ($145 million) and Dreamgirls ($103 million), released seven months prior. Ending its domestic run on October 25, 2007, Hairspray has a total domestic gross of $118.9 million and $202.5 million worldwide. Its biggest overseas markets include the United Kingdom ($25.8 million), Australia ($14.4 million), Japan ($8 million), Italy ($4.6 million), France ($3.9 million) and Spain ($3.8 million). At the time, this made Hairspray the third musical film in history to cross $200 million internationally, behind 1978's hit Grease ($395 million) and 2002's Chicago ($307 million). It is the seventh highest-grossing PG-rated film of 2007, and has grossed more than other higher-budgeted summer releases like Ocean's Thirteen ($117 million) and Evan Almighty ($100 million).
Two weeks after its original release, new "sing-along" prints of Hairspray were shipped to theaters. These prints featured the lyrics to each song printed onscreen as subtitles, encouraging audiences to interact with the film. On January 4, 2008, Hairspray was re-released in New York City and Los Angeles for one week because John Travolta was present for Q&A and autographs.
Critical reception
Hairspray has garnered acclaim from film critics such as Roger Ebert, The New York Times, and The Boston Globe, as well as a smaller number of reviews comparing it unfavorably to the Waters original. The film is one of the top picks on Metacritic, with an average of 81 from 37 critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92% based on 219 reviews, with an average rating of 7.80, making it one of 2007's best-reviewed films. The site's consensus states: "Hairspray is an energetic, wholly entertaining musical romp; a fun Summer movie with plenty of heart. Its contagious songs will make you want to get up and start dancing". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Peter Rainer of The Christian Science Monitor named it the 4th best film of 2007. Lou Lumenick of the New York Post named it the ninth best film of 2007.
Ebert gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4, saying that there was "a lot of craft and slyness lurking beneath the circa-1960s goofiness," also stating that "The point, however, is not the plot but the energy. Without somebody like Nikki Blonsky at the heart of the movie, it might fall flat, but everybody works at her level of happiness..." Ebert also noted that this film is "a little more innocent than Waters would have made it..." Krishna Shenoi, of the Shenoi Chronicle, called the movie "Shankman's masterpiece," saying that it moved away from his previous works into a different direction, making a light comedy that deals with serious issues maturely. Shenoi also said that the film was everything he wanted Grease to be. Lou Lumenick of The New York Post hailed Hairspray as "The best and most entertaining movie adaptation of a stage musical so far this century — and yes, I'm including the Oscar-winning Chicago," calling it "one of the best-cast movies in recent memory..." New York Daily News critic Jack Matthews called the film "A great big sloppy kiss of entertainment for audiences weary of explosions, CGI effects and sequels, sequels, sequels." The Baltimore Sun review offered Michael Sragow's opinion that "in its entirety, Hairspray has the funny tilt that only a director-choreographer like Shankman can give to a movie," pointing out that Shankman skillfully "puts a new-millennial zing behind exact re-creations of delirious period dances like the Mashed Potato." Dana Stevens from Slate called Hairspray "intermittently tasty, if a little too frantically eager to please." Stevens noted that "Despite its wholesomeness, this version stays remarkably true to the spirit of the original, with one size-60 exception: John Travolta as Edna Turnblad," saying "How you feel about Hairspray will depend entirely on your reaction to this performance..."
The New Yorkers David Denby felt the new version of Hairspray was "perfectly pleasant," but compared unfavorably to the Broadway musical, since "[director Adam Shankman and screenwriter Leslie Dixon] have removed the traces of camp humor and Broadway blue that gave the stage show its happily knowing flavor." Denby criticized the dance numbers, calling them "unimaginatively shot," and he considered "the idea of substituting John Travolta for Harvey Fierstein as Tracy's hefty mother... a blandly earnest betrayal." Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com found Hairspray "reasonably entertaining. But do we really need to be entertained reasonably? Waters' original was a crazy sprawl that made perfect sense; this Hairspray toils needlessly to make sense of that craziness, and something gets lost in the translation." Zacharek was also displeased with the way Latifah's performance of "I Know Where I've Been" was incorporated into the movie, saying "The filmmakers may believe they're adding an extra layer of seriousness to the material... [but] the inclusion of this big production number only suggests that the filmmakers fear the audience won't get the movie's message unless it's spelled out for them."
Despite critical and commercial success, Hairspray garnered some criticism upon its release from the LGBT community, particularly Travolta's portrayal of Edna Turnblad, a role played in the original film by drag performer Divine, and in the stage adaptation by Harvey Fierstein. Kevin Naff, a managing editor for a Washington, D.C./Baltimore area gay newspaper named the Washington Blade, called for a boycott of the film, alleging that Scientology, in which Travolta is an adherent, was homophobic, and it supported "cure" workshops for homosexuals. Adam Shankman rebuffed Naff's proposed boycott stating that Travolta was not a homophobe, as he (Shankman), Waters, Shaiman, Wittman, and several other crew and creative staff were homosexual, and Travolta got along well with the entire production. Shankman made it clear "John's personal beliefs did not walk onto my set. I never heard the word 'Scientology'."
Accolades
Home media
Hairspray was released in standard DVD and HD Blu-ray Disc formats in Region 1 on November 20, 2007. The Blu-ray disc is encoded with 7.1 channel DTS-HD Master Audio. The standard DVD was released in two versions: a one-disc release and a two-disc "Shake and Shimmy" edition.
Bonus features on the two-disc release include two audio commentaries, a feature-length production documentary, featurettes on the earlier versions of Hairspray, dance instruction featurettes, deleted scenes including Tracy's deleted song "I Can Wait", a slightly extended ending, and an alternate version of the "Big, Blonde and Beautiful" reprise, and behind-the-scenes looks at the production of each of the film's dance numbers. The Blu-ray release, a two-disc release, includes all of the features from the two-disc DVD, and includes a picture-in-picture behind-the-scenes feature, which runs concurrently with the film. An HD DVD version of the film was originally slated for release in 2008, but was canceled due to New Line Cinema's announcement that it would go Blu-ray exclusive with immediate effect, thus dropping HD DVD support.
Cancelled sequel
Due to Hairsprays financial success, New Line Cinema had asked John Waters to write a sequel to the film. Waters reunited with director/choreographer Adam Shankman for the project, and songwriters Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman were set to compose the film's musical numbers.
The story would have looked at Tracy's entering the late 1960s era of music and the British Invasion, and used the Hippie movement and Vietnam War as backdrops. While no official casting was announced, New Line said that they hoped to "snag much of the original Hairspray cast." John Travolta, however, publicly announced that he would not return because he is "not a big sequel guy".
The sequel was set for a mid-July 2010 release by Warner Bros., which owns New Line Cinema. However, in June 2010, Shankman told British press that Hairspray 2: White Lipstick was no longer in development. Shankman has also said that there will be no sequel. In February 2019, John Waters announced he had written a sequel for HBO, but did not produce it.
See also
Cross-dressing in film and television
Hairspray (musical)
Hairspray (1988 film)
Civil rights movement in popular culture
Civil Rights Movement
Notes
References
External links
2007 films
2000s English-language films
2000s dance films
2000s musical comedy films
2007 romantic comedy films
2000s romantic musical films
2000s teen comedy films
2000s teen romance films
American dance films
American historical musical films
American historical romance films
American musical comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic musical films
American teen comedy films
American teen musical films
American teen romance films
British dance films
British historical musical films
British historical romance films
British musical comedy films
British romantic comedy films
British romantic musical films
British teen comedy films
British teen romance films
Civil rights movement in film
Films about interracial romance
Films about race and ethnicity
Films about television
Films based on musicals based on films
Films directed by Adam Shankman
Films scored by Marc Shaiman
Films set in 1962
Films set in Baltimore
Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario
Films shot in Toronto
Films with screenplays by Leslie Dixon
John Waters
Musical film remakes
New Line Cinema films
2000s American films
2000s British films |
4265531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitophon%20%28dialogue%29 | Clitophon (dialogue) | The Clitophon (, also transliterated as Cleitophon; ) is a 4th-century BC dialogue traditionally ascribed to Plato, though the work's authenticity is debated. It is the shortest dialogue in Plato's traditional corpus. It centers on a discussion between Clitophon and Socrates, with Socrates remaining mostly silent. Most scholarship until recently has been concerned with the authenticity rather than the actual meaning and contents of Clitophon.
The dialogue depicts Clitophon complaining to Socrates that Socrates' speeches are merely exhortative; they create a desire for justice and virtue, but do not instruct how one becomes just or what justice is. Throughout the dialogue Clitophon seems to narrate his changes towards justice and the protreptic from seeing Socrates as a god upon a stage with hopes and beliefs in attaining justice and virtue to thoughts of doubt and disappointment and eventual defiance of Socrates. Clitophon addresses Clitophon's contempt for protreptic, or exhortative, speeches. It showcases the ignorance of Socrates and depicts, as Mark Kremer puts it, the conflict of philosophy of Socrates and Clitophon's irrationality.
Clitophon outside of Clitophon
Not much is known about the historical Clitophon. What is known, outside of Plato, is from his presence in Aristophanes' The Frogs and Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians. Depicted as a student of Euripides by Aristophanes, Clitophon is mentioned in relation to Theramenes, an Athenian politician, in both works. However while these works tell of Theramenes as Clitophon's companion, Bowe mentions Frogs and Athenian Constitution as not accurate reflections of the historical Clitophon, for only Theramenes is referenced in the works and Clitophon's character cannot be decided based solely upon his associations with Theramenes.
As is evident from Plato's Republic and Clitophon, Clitophon was a politician of Athens, active from 411–405 BC, who was an advocate of ancestral law and a companion of Thrasymachus. In the Republic, Clitophon speaks to defend Thrasymachus' position that justice is what is right to the ruling body. Clitophon sticks to this position even when Thrasymachus backs down (340a-340b). This is the only point in which Clitophon speaks in Republic, but it shows his stubbornness and faith in his own opinions. This reluctance to yield is seen in Clitophon as well.
Summary of Clitophon
Opening
Socrates addresses Clitophon and confronts him on the rumor of Clitophon censuring spending time with Socrates while praising time with Thrasymachus (406a1-a4). Clitophon claims that he heard incorrectly and that while he did not praise some things of Socrates, he did praise others (406a5-a7). Socrates agrees to listen to Clitophon's side so that he might learn how to better himself by allowing himself be subject to Clitophon's criticism (407a1-a5).
Clitophon's imitation of Socrates' protreptic speeches
Clitophon starts off by reminding Socrates that he is amazed by what Socrates says and admires his exhortative speeches (407a6-a8). Clitophon continues by giving examples of speeches, which Socrates has given (407a8-b2).
Speech concerning wealth
Socrates states that fathers focus on increasing their wealth while not finding teachers of justice to instruct their sons on how to use their wealth justly (407b2-b6). He is concerned with the traditional education, which emphasizes music, gymnastics and writing, for disharmony stems from the spirit rather than lacking of measure in music (407c1-d2). The fathers respond saying that injustice is a choice rather than a lack of education. Socrates counters this asking why would someone voluntarily do something hateful to the gods. He asserts that if one is willfully unjust, then he would be willing to allow defeat in battle; therefore it is more apt to say that one is involuntarily unjust (407d5-d7). He ends this speech declaring that more care should be given towards this education of justice (407d8-e3).
Clitophon interjects at the end of the first speech to reiterate his admiration of Socrates before continuing onto the second speech (407e3-e4).
Speech concerning knowledge of use
Socrates points out that those who exercise the body are caring only for the part that is ruled, while neglecting the soul, which is what rules (407e5-e8). He goes on to say that if someone does not know how to use a tool, such as a lyre, eyes, ears and body, then that person would not know how to use that of his neighbors (407e8-408a4). Rather than using it incorrectly, it should be left alone (407e8-e9). The same concept pertains to the soul. If one does not know how to use their soul, then they should die or submit themselves to a life of slavery and those who are experts should rule (408a5-b3).
Clitophon concludes the speeches and agrees with the content of Socrates' exhortative works, for they wake people as if they were sleeping, and Clitophon has never spoken against them and never will (408c1-c4).
Questioning of Socrates' companions
Clitophon wishes to learn what is followed by these speeches by comparing justice, as if an art, to improve the soul as medicine improves health (408c4). He asks if the companions of Socrates are now able to pursue virtue further or if they are merely only able to exhort others (408d3-e2). He compares the care of the body and soul to the care of agriculture. One should not care only for the products of agriculture, but also pay heed to that which improves the body more permanently; therefore one should pay heed to the soul and virtue and seek a device able to secure such virtue (408e5-e10). Clitophon asks the companions what art improves the soul; they respond "justice" (409a2-a6) Clitophon is not satisfied, for with justice as an art, like medicine and carpentry, it must have two effects (409a7-b1). Medicine results in more physicians and health; carpentry results in more carpenters and buildings (409b2-b6). With one result being the perpetuation of the art, justice results in just men (409b6-b8). He then asks for the second result of justice (409b8-b4).
The companions give the answers "the beneficial," "the needful," "the useful," "the profitable" (409c1-c3). Clitophon finds these answers inadequate, for they are not unique to justice but are the results of all other arts as well (409c6-c7). Another answer given is "friendships" (409d4-d6) Upon elaboration, the definition of friendship is narrowed to the agreement of knowledge (409e3-e10). Again, this attribute can be given to other arts as well (410a3-a4). Finally Socrates answers that justice is to harm enemies and benefit friends, then later it seems that just men never injure anyone and do only good (410a8-b2).
Clitophon's defiance and final question
Clitophon is frustrated by these responses, or lack thereof, and claims that Socrates is unable to tell him how to attain virtue and justice (410b3-b6). This inability is either from Socrates' ignorance of how to go further than exhorting, or his unwillingness to share such knowledge with Clitophon (410b6-c6). He gives this reason for his association with Thrasymachus and others, searching for definitions and actions toward justice (410c6-c7).
Clitophon asks Socrates one last time about the nature of the body and how to care for it (410c7-d5). If Socrates is able to tell him, then Clitophon will be able to praise Socrates whole-heartedly (410e3-e5). If not, Clitophon asserts that, while Socrates is excellent at creating a desire for virtue, he is an obstacle to those whom he has already inculcated that desire (410e5-e8).
Themes
Protreptic
According to Slings, the use of the protreptic in Clitophon is a parody of protreptic literature, which is designed to cause a change in behavior of the listener. Whether or not Clitophon was paraphrasing, Socrates' speeches lack congruence in content with three unrelated exhortations, taking the pattern of the Platonic trichotomy of values. Clitophon employs this pattern with exhortative motifs seen in other dialogues. The beginning of the dialogue is the accusing protreptic seen in Plato's Apology at 29d9-e3. Slings' example of the accusing protreptic is, "you care about the pseudo-Values x, y, not about true Values p, q." Clitophon's first example of Socrates' speech reflects the motifs of wealth from Plato's Euthydemus; gaining wealth has no use without knowing how to use it (280b8-d7), it is better to leave wisdom than money to your children (282a7-8, 301e1-3), not only one's children but oneself should be educated in wisdom (307c3-4). The last motif of slavery is within the second example of Socrates' speeches in which variants are seen also in Plato's Euthydemus (280e3-281e2) and Alcibiades I (117c6-e5), Xenophon's Memorabilia (4.2.25-29), Aristotle's Protrepticus (62-66). What one cannot handle should be left to others or be left alone. The use of the protreptic and protreptic motifs in Clitophon is to prove that explicit protreptic is not advantageous and instead implicit protreptic ought to be preferred.
Justice
As Slings mentions, justice is a secondary theme in Clitophon; justice is primarily used to show the ignorance of Clitophon. Clitophon depicts the concentric definitions of justice's results with the latter definition expanding upon the former until the definition is closer to the object in search and aporia, confusion or puzzlement, is reached. However, in Clitophon, aporia is reached prematurely before Socrates gives his definition. The first set of definitions of the result of justice are definitions borrowed from Republic I with some differences; Clitophon lacks "the gainful" and places "the beneficial" at the beginning of the list rather than the end. The second definition of "friendship in the cities" is a common concept in 4th century philosophical literature, but Slings counters that friendship cannot be given as a definition of the result of justice, for it is the parallel to justice. In Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, justice and friendship have the same subject and object; therefore they increase correspondingly (1159ab25-26, 1160a7-8). With respect to the third definition, Plato is the first to reject that to be just is to harm enemies and benefit friends. His rejection is due to Socrates' other definition that justice is benefiting everyone; however, this definition is left undeveloped. In the end, these definitions failed to fit into the criteria of an art with two results.
Clitophon's ignorance
Clitophon throughout the dialogue displays his own ignorance, whether intentionally or not. Most important to understanding the dialogue is his ignorance of Socrates' speeches, methodology and his own ignorance.
As Moore points out, Clitophon does not understand Socrates' speeches. He paraphrases them, takes them out of context, and implies there was a much larger audience for the speeches than there actually would have been. There is a misrepresentation and misunderstanding of Socrates' definition of justice and the differing means through which Socrates and Clitophon view virtue and justice as being achieved, by speech and deed, respectively. It is possible that Socrates uses protreptic speeches because he sees being just as being the same as having a desire to be just; therefore justice is achieved through speech. Clitophon holds that deeds and actions need to bring about change and make one just. This clear misunderstanding of justice is an example of how Clitophon misunderstands Socrates' speeches, for Clitophon has already been given the answer for how to achieve justice.
Through not understanding his speeches, Clitophon does not understand Socrates' methods. Clitophon tries to make the protreptic speeches of Socrates effectual while in their nature they are solely meant to encourage and cause people to have a desire for justice. Clitophon misunderstands the Socratic method of elenchus, the cross-examination statements of interlocutors. Clitophon attempts to employ elenchus when he had questioned Socrates' companions, but the portrayal of his method when relating the conversation to Socrates is too one-sided with concern only for his answers and paraphrasing that of the others. This leads Bryan to label Clitophon as a pseudo-dialogue through his use of pseudo-elenchus. Having spoken with Socrates on the topic of justice it is clear that either Clitophon was not a receiver of Socrates' elenchus or he did not realize that he had been given the answer to how to achieve justice. Due to Clitophon's desire to be told what to think, this does not make him a proper interlocutor for elenchus.
The largest obstacle and most important example of Clitophon's ignorance is his ignorance of his ignorance. Slings, in his portrayals of the levels of Clitophon's character, defines Clitophon as an unabashed young man, who is defensive when provoked; this is seen in his hubristic claims to know of Socrates' speeches and methods, and his attack of Socrates. Wishing to gain the knowledge of how to attain justice for political advancement, Clitophon knows that to be told what he wants, he needs to claim aporia. However to actually experience aporia through elenchus, Clitophon needs to acknowledge ignorance and bad qualities. Clitophon remains ignorant to his bad qualities and assumes that he knows much in terms of Socrates' speeches and methodologies. This ignorance holds Clitophon back from gaining the knowledge of justice.
Historical vs. literary Socrates
The character of Socrates in the dialogue causes difficulty in interpreting the dialogue and Socrates' silence. The Socrates within Clitophon is not necessarily equated with the historical Socrates. Within 4th century philosophical texts of the genre logos Sokratikos, the literary character of Socrates was prominent. The double character of Socrates in Clitophon, as Slings points out, labels Clitophon as a literary work rather than a philosophical pamphlet. The reader must detach himself or herself and read Clitophon as a fictional work. Socrates is used as a symbol of the protreptic and this causes the misinterpretations of the dialogue as well as the meaning of Socrates' silence. Socrates' character in the dialogue must be realized in his capacity as a tool of protrepsis and not as an accurate portrayal of the historical Socrates.
Socrates' silence
One of the more puzzling aspects of the dialogue is Socrates' silence. Clitophon seems to be an attack on him and yet there is no rebuttal of Clitophon's remarks. What meaning, if anything, does his silence impart on the dialogue? Hayden Ausland indicates that his silence may be just a characteristic of the protreptic genre. This silence leaves the dialogue open-ended to elicit the reader to think what may have happened and reflect on what was just said. Another belief is that Socrates' silence is a pause in thinking, which continues into his speeches in Republic.
Socrates' silence also may be due to his inability to go further to teach Clitophon. As mentioned, Clitophon is ignorant of his faults and not aware of Socrates' methods at work. Socrates may not be able to do more for him. The gap between Socrates and Clitophon is illuminated and depicts the weakness of speech to not help make Clitophon understand Socrates' teachings.
As another stylistic reason, the silence is a Platonic characteristic to show what Socrates is by showing what he is not. Socrates is put in the light of Clitophon's ignorance and differences between the two are seen. Kremer notes that Clitophon is depicted as the antipoetic foil of Socrates.
Orwin suggests that this silence may be indicative of a legal study, stating that Clitophon may be a counter-Apology, in which Socrates is a defendant, which would not necessitate a response from Socrates. The dialogue begins with Socrates speaking in third person when referring to himself and Clitophon, which can be equated with a legal statement. What follows would then be the defense of Clitophon.
An important note is that Socrates claimed that he would reply, for he had stated that he would listen to Clitophon's complaints and try to learn from them. Along the same thought, Socrates is searching for the truth of people's perceptions of him and his teachings. A characteristic of Platonic dialogues is for Socrates to listen. In Clitophon, he is acting as the audience for Clitophon, who is taking on the role of the frank speaker. Socrates is also setting a precedent for the correct behavior when someone is speaking, something which Clitophon himself does not do well.
Authenticity
Many ancient authors, such as Diogenes Laërtius, who stated that it was taken straight from the hand of Plato, had cited Clitophon. 1491 Ficino translations and the 1513 Aldine Press editions of Plato's works say that Clitophon was not by Plato. These statements derived from Greek manuscripts, which did not clearly state the author of Clitophon. In the 19th century, scholars began to label Clitophon as spurious because it did not fit their subjective interpretation of what qualifies as Platonic works. Attempts to defend the authenticity have sprung up, but among the defenses there is still much disagreement over classifying the work as fragmentary, completed and independent, or related to Republic.
Spurious
The rejection of Clitophon depends on both thematic and philological reasons. Heidel and others believed that the vocabulary used in Clitophon would not have been used by Plato; however, that argument has been defeated by Brünnecke, Kester and Grube. Plato's use of language is too varied and interpretations of style are too subjective to be able to use language as a base from which to deem Clitophon unauthentic.
Another argument is based on the anti-Socratic sentiment. It is difficult at first to answer why Socrates would be criticized by his student and follower. Schleiermacher was one of the first to lead people to characterize Clitophon as spurious; while he acknowledges its listing in the Platonic corpus, he could not reconcile the non-Socratic sensitivity.
If Clitophon is spurious, then who would have written this dialogue? Slings had originally noted that due to the similarity of writing to that of Plato's, it must have been written by a student of Plato. Schleiermacher believed it to have been written by a contemporary school of rhetoric, which wrote this dialogue as an attack against Socrates. It is difficult to attribute a work so similar in style to Plato's to another person. Slings in his later work changed his thesis on the authorship and claimed that it is easier to accept as a work of Plato than to postulate an anonymous author similar to Plato's skill.
Genuine work of Plato
Yxem was the first to question the Aldine editions' of 1513 placement of Clitophon. As already mentioned, there are ancient writers who have cited Clitophon and indicated no suspicions of its authenticity. Grote argued that it safer to accept this work as one of Plato rather than ascribe it to another.
Plato's attack on Antisthenes
Brunnecke, Kester and Souilhe believe this dialogue to be an attack on Antisthenes. Based upon Diogenes Laërtius crediting Antisthenes with three books of protreptic works in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers vi 16, Clitophon may well be a criticism of Antisthenes. The author of Clitophon uses one of Antisthenes' protreptic works and summarizes its content. Throughout Clitophon, Plato disparages the use of protreptic speeches. This could easily be an answer to why Plato seems to be anti-Socratic; he wishes to indirectly denounce Antisthenes via Socrates.
Fragment or draft of Plato
Many think that Clitophon is a fragment or draft written by Plato. Grube believes Clitophon to have been a draft of Plato as a reflection of his dissatisfaction with his earlier methods, a tone seen in the middle period of Plato's works, but was abandoned as is attested to in its lack of revision. Bury believed that, if indeed it was written by Plato, Clitophon would be a fragmentary preface of Republic, a stance held by Shorey and Grote. However, Slings makes note that no ancient author ever indicated that Clitophon was incomplete or unfinished. In Parallel Lives, Plutarch, fully aware of Clitophon, mentions that Plato's life ended before finishing his work (32.2), namely Critias, not Clitophon; this indicates that Clitophon was finished in the opinion of ancient authors.
Finished work of Plato related to Republic
Discussed previously, Grube thought Clitophon was not necessarily a finished work, but one associated with Republic. Thrasyllus of Mendes, Tiberius' astrologer, arranged Clitophon within the Platonic corpus including Republic, Timaeus, and Critias. Grube thought it to be the criticism of Republic I and the rest of the Republic was a response to Clitophon. Annas defends this stance with her belief that the remainder of Republic, being mostly a monologue by Socrates, to be the response to the silence of Socrates. Also, with the views of justice in Republic I, Clitophon is a natural reaction to Republic I, with Clitophon seeking out Thrasymachus. With Clitophon and Socrates at odds within Republic without any explanation, Orwin indicated that Clitophon might be the missing confrontation between Socrates and Clitophon. However, there are difficulties when attempting to understand Clitophon in relation to Republic, for it is unclear where Clitophon should be placed. It is possible that Clitophon was written after Republic and Clitophon only draws definitions from Republic. But regardless of when it was written, it can still be read as an introduction to Republic, and only completed by it.
Independent completed work by Plato
Although there are clear ties to Republic thematically in terms of the discussions on justice, Clitophon has very different themes concerning philosophical methods, resulting in its classification as an independent work in its own right. Above, the identification of Clitophon as a legal study has already been mentioned with no connections to another dialogue. On the other hand, Slings labels Clitophon as a short dialogue according to Müller's standards. Clitophon is used on this view to criticize protrepsis, for the colleagues of Socrates were only able to gain slogans and motifs surrounding justice rather than a full understanding of it. Clitophon is also a warning of how to not read protreptical dialogues and of the dangers of relying on these dialogues to gain insight. Clitophon did not want to think for himself, but rather to be told what to think by Socrates. As a replacement to protreptic speech, Slings proposes that Clitophon champions elenchus as the mode through which to attain virtue and justice by reaching aporia.
See also
The Tragedy of Reason
References
Bibliography
External links
Clitopho translated by George Burges
Free public domain audiobook version of Clitopho translated by George Burges
. Collection includes Clitopho. George Burges, translator (1855).
Dialogues of Plato |
4265846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938%20in%20baseball | 1938 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: New York Yankees over Chicago Cubs (4–0)
All-Star Game, July 6 at Crosley Field: National League, 4-1
Other champions
Amateur World Series: Great Britain
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: West, 5-4
Central American and Caribbean Games: Cuba
Awards and honors
Baseball Hall of Fame
Grover Cleveland Alexander
Alexander Cartwright
Henry Chadwick
Most Valuable Player
Jimmie Foxx, Boston Red Sox, 1B (AL)
Ernie Lombardi, Cincinnati Reds, C (NL)
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Johnny Vander Meer, Cincinnati Reds, P
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Joe McCarthy, New York Yankees
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
Memphis won the first half; Atlanta won the second half.
Memphis beat Atlanta 2 games to 0 games in a contested play-off. At the league's winter meetings it was decided that the Red Sox had won the Negro American League pennant due to Memphis's two wins and the forfeiture of the Black Crackers in game three of the series.
Negro National League final standings
Events
January–May
February 10 – The St. Louis Browns trade Rollie Hemsley to the Cleveland Indians for Ed Cole, Roy Hughes and Billy Sullivan.
March 6 – The Philadelphia Phillies trade Dolph Camilli to the Brooklyn Dodgers for Eddie Morgan and $45,000.
April 3 – Goose Goslin joins the Washington Senators.
April 16 – The St. Louis Cardinals trade Dizzy Dean to the Chicago Cubs for Curt Davis, Clyde Shoun, Tuck Stainback and $185,000.
April 18 – The Boston Red Sox defeat the New York Yankees in the season opener at Fenway Park. Hall of famer Joe Gordon makes his major league debut at second base for the Yankees.
April 19
Heinie Mueller of the Philadelphia Phillies and Ernie Koy of the Brooklyn Dodgers each hit a home run in their first Major League Baseball at-bats, as Brooklyn defeats Philadelphia, 12–5, at the Baker Bowl.
Enos Slaughter goes three-for-five in his major league debut with a double and a strike out.
Fritz Ostermueller holds the New York Yankees to just two hits, as the Boston Red Sox shutout the Yanks, 6-0.
April 24 – Dizzy Dean holds his former team to just four hits, as the Cubs beat the Cardinals, 4-0.
May 5 – The Chicago Cubs defeat the Philadelphia Phillies 21-2 at Wrigley Field.
May 6 – At International League, Newark Bears outfielder Bob Seeds hits four home runs in four successive innings and drives in 12 runs against the Buffalo Bisons. The next day, Seeds slams three more. His seven homers in the two-day barrage account for 17 runs batted in and 30 total bases. In his first 59 games‚ Seeds will clout 28 HR with 95 RBI.
May 14 – The Philadelphia Athletics acquire Dick Siebert from the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for Paul Easterling, Gene Hasson and George Turbeville.
June–July
June 5 – The Chicago White Sox win the first game of a double header with the Philadelphia Athletics, 8-2, to snap a ten-game losing streak.
June 6 – The Cincinnati Reds sent Alex Kampouris to the New York Giants in exchange for Wally Berger.
June 11 – Cincinnati Reds pitcher Johnny Vander Meer tosses a no-hitter against the Boston Bees, leading his team to a 3–0 win.
June 13 – The Philadelphia Phillies sent Bucky Walters to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Spud Davis, Al Hollingsworth and $50,000.
June 15 – Johnny Vander Meer becomes the first, and only to date, pitcher in Major League history to throw two consecutive no-hitters as the Cincinnati Reds blank the Brooklyn Dodgers, 6–0.
June 18
Babe Ruth signs a contract to coach with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Ruth dons a Dodger uniform the next day, entertains observers with a batting demonstration, and works the third-base coaching box for the remainder of the season.
Lefty Mills of the St. Louis Browns pitches a 1–0 shutout over the New York Yankees. It is the second of only two shut outs the Yankees endure all season.
June 26 – Carl Hubbell wins his 200th career game‚ as the New York Giants beat the visiting Chicago Cubs, 5–1, and stretch their National League lead over the second-place Cincinnati Reds to two games. Larry French takes the loss, while newly acquired Bob Seeds‚ up from Newark‚ leads the way with a 470-foot inside-the-park home run.
July 6 – At Crosley Field, home of the Cincinnati Reds, the National League defeats the American League, 4–1, in the All-Star Game.
July 12 – The Pittsburgh Pirates complete a thirteen-game winning streak to pull themselves within half a game of the first place New York Giants.
July 16 – The St. Louis Browns snap a ten-game losing streak with an 8–3 victory over the Boston Red Sox.
July 29 - Jake Powell is interviewed by WGN's Bob Elson. When asked about his work as a police office in Dayton Ohio, Powell brags that he "beats n*****s in the head". Commissioner Landis suspends Powell for the comments.
August–September
August 2 – The Brooklyn Dodgers and the St. Louis Cardinals used a yellow baseball in the first game of a doubleheader as an experiment. The two teams went back to the white ball in the second game as the Dodgers swept the doubleheader 6–2 and 9–3.
August 7 – Mickey Cochrane is replaced as manager of the Detroit Tigers by Del Baker.
August 9 – The Philadelphia A's send Bill Nicholson and $30,000 to the Washington Senators for Dee Miles.
August 10 – The New York Yankees trade Eddie Miller to the Boston Bees for Gil English, Johnny Riddle, cash and four players to be named later. On February 4, , the Yankees receive Joe DiMaggio's brother, Vince to complete the trade.
August 20 – Cleveland Indians catchers Hank Helf and Frank Pytlak break the "all-time altitude mark" by catching baseballs dropped from the 708-foot Cleveland Terminal Tower.
August 22 – Preacher Roe makes his major league debut for the St. Louis Cardinals. He lasts just 2.2 innings and gives up four earned runs. He doesn't pitch in the major leagues again until with the Pittsburgh Pirates.
August 27 – In the second game of a doubleheader, Monte Pearson pitches a no-hitter as the New York Yankees crush the Cleveland Indians, 13–0.
September 9
Lou Boudreau makes his major league debut for the Cleveland Indians in an 11–5 loss to the Detroit Tigers.
The Cincinnati Reds sell Jake Mooty and Jimmy Outlaw to the Brooklyn Dodgers. Five days later (September 14), Commissioner Landis voids the deal, making both players eligible for the draft. Outlaw is drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1938 rule 5 draft on October 5, and traded to the Dodgers for Lew Krausse and cash on December 13. Brooklyn then packages him with Buddy Hassett, and send him to the Boston Bees for Ira Hutchinson and Gene Moore the same day. Mooty isn't drafted until October 3, 1939, by the Chicago Cubs from Syracuse (International).
September 10 – At the Polo Grounds, the New York Giants defeat the Brooklyn Dodgers, 20-2.
September 30 – The Chicago Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals play to a 7–7 tie. The tie breaks the Cubs' ten-game winning streak that sees them go from 3.5 games back of the Pittsburgh Pirates to first place in the National League.
October–December
October 5 – Red Ruffing and the New York Yankees take game one of the 1938 World Series, 3-1, over the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field.
October 6 – The Cubs jump out to a 1–0, then 3–2 lead against the Yankees, however, two run home runs by Frankie Crosetti and Joe DiMaggio in the eighth and ninth inning, respectively, give the Yankees the 6–3 victory.
October 8 – With two outs and no one on base, a two out rally in the fifth inning plates two runs, as the New York Yankees take game three of the World Series, 5-2.
October 9 – The New York Yankees defeat the Chicago Cubs, 8–3, in Game four of the World Series to win a record third consecutive World Championship, and seventh overall, four games to none.
November 1 – National League batting champ Ernie Lombardi of the Cincinnati Reds is named the Most Valuable Player. Chicago Cubs pitcher Bill Lee is the runner-up.
November 2 – Boston Red Sox first baseman Jimmie Foxx is voted Most Valuable Player of the American League for the third time, with New York Yankees catcher Bill Dickey second in the voting.
November 28 – The Chicago White Sox 25-year-old pitching star Monty Stratton has his right leg amputated as a result of a hunting accident. Stratton attempted comeback is chronicled in The Stratton Story, with James Stewart in the title role.
December 6 – The Chicago Cubs trade Frank Demaree, Billy Jurges and Ken O'Dea to the New York Giants for Dick Bartell, Hank Leiber and Gus Mancuso.
December 14 – Major League Baseball teams adopt several resolutions. The National League allows the Cincinnati Reds to play their season opener one day before other teams, as a way of honoring the 100th anniversary of baseball and of the 1869 Red Stockings being the first professional team. In other news, Will Harridge is re-elected as American League president and given a 10-year term. The AL permits the Cleveland Indians and Philadelphia Athletics to play night games. Finally, MLB agree on a standard ball but disagree on increasing rosters from 23 to 25 players. Judge Landis will eventually decide on 25.
December 15 – The Boston Red Sox trade Ben Chapman to the Cleveland Indians for Denny Galehouse and Tommy Irwin, trade Pinky Higgins and Archie McKain to the Detroit Tigers for Elden Auker, Chet Morgan and Jake Wade, and sell Bill Harris' contract to the New York Giants.
December 16 – The Boston Bees trade Ray Mueller to the Pittsburgh Pirates for Johnny Dickshot and Al Todd.
Births
January
January 7 – Fred Whitfield
January 10 – Willie McCovey
January 16 – Ron Herbel
January 18 – Curt Flood
January 23 – Bob Moorhead
February
February 2 – Max Alvis
February 7 – Johnny Werhas
February 13 – Dick Hughes
February 15 – Chuck Estrada
February 18 – Manny Mota
February 19 – Bob Sadowski
February 22 – Steve Barber
March
March 3 – Tetsuya Yoneda
March 5 – Larry Elliot
March 7 – Jimmie Hall
March 15 – Bob Locker
March 16 – Cal Browning
March 23 – Sam Bowens
March 25 – Alan Koch
March 30 – Dave Baldwin
March 31 – John Herrnstein
March 31 – Moose Stubing
April
April 2 – Al Weis
April 4 – A. Bartlett Giamatti
April 5 – Ron Hansen
April 5 – Don Prince
April 8 – Tom Butters
April 11 – Art Quirk
April 16 – Rich Rollins
April 18 – Rogelio Álvarez
April 20 – Jim Dickson
April 22 – John Orsino
May
May 3 – Chris Cannizzaro
May 4 – Howie Koplitz
May 10 – Merritt Ranew
May 12 – Norm Gigon
May 15 – Al McBean
May 27 – Fred Bruckbauer
May 29 – Fay Vincent
May 29 – Dale Willis
May 31 – Ray Washburn
June
June 2 – Lee Gregory
June 2 – Gene Michael
June 4 – Art Mahaffey
June 10 – Johnny Edwards
June 15 – Billy Williams
June 19 – Bob Aspromonte
June 24 – Don Mincher
June 27 – Elmo Plaskett
June 28 – Orlando McFarlane
July
July 1 – Craig Anderson
July 2 – Don Choate
July 2 – Hal Reniff
July 6 – John Boozer
July 6 – Barry Shetrone
July 7 – Bob Lipski
July 8 – Bill Spanswick
July 10 – Mike Brumley
July 11 – Ted Schreiber
July 12 – Ron Fairly
July 13 – Don Pavletich
July 16 – Bob Burda
July 17 – Deron Johnson
July 19 – Gordie Richardson
July 20 – Tony Oliva
July 27 – Harry Wendelstedt
July 29 – Don Wert
August
August 4 – Ray Oyler
August 11 – Vada Pinson
August 16 – Buck Rodgers
August 17 – Dick Lines
August 27 – Joe McCabe
August 28 – Billy Cowan
August 28 – Dick LeMay
September
September 1 – Merlin Nippert
September 8 – George Werley
September 9 – Jay Ward
September 13 – Bob Heffner
September 14 – Frank Carpin
September 15 – Gaylord Perry
September 17 – Bobby Wine
September 20 – Tom Tresh
September 24 – George Banks
September 27 – Alex George
September 29 – Mike McCormick
October
October 2 – Mike de la Hoz
October 3 – Patricia Roy
October 11 – Bill Roman
October 13 – Ron Moeller
October 18 – Bobby Knoop
October 19 – Vic Roznovsky
October 31 – Jim Donohue
November
November 5 – Ed Olivares
November 6 – Mack Jones
November 7 – Jake Gibbs
November 7 – Jim Kaat
November 14 – Johnnie Seale
November 17 – Aubrey Gatewood
November 18 – Bud Zipfel
November 19 – Manny Jiménez
November 19 – Ted Turner
November 20 – Herm Starrette
November 27 – Vern Handrahan
November 27 – José Tartabull
December
December 4 – Billy Bryan
December 5 – Al Moran
December 5 – Chico Ruiz
December 6 – Amado Samuel
December 14 – Ken Hunt
December 17 – Leo Cárdenas
December 18 – Mike White
December 22 – Matty Alou
December 24 – Bobby Henrich
December 25 – Jack Hamilton
Deaths
January
January 1 – Frank Sexton, 65, pitcher for the 1895 Boston Beaneaters of the National League.
January 12 – Dupee Shaw, 78, pitcher who played six seasons. Won 30 games and struck out 451 batters in 1884.
January 16 – Earl Clark, 30, backup outfielder who hit .291 in 293 games for the Boston Braves and St. Louis Browns from 1927 to 1934.
January 16 – Joe Sommer, 79, infielder/outfielder between 1880 and 1890, most prominently for the Baltimore Orioles of the American Association.
January 19 – Bill Everitt, 69, infielder who played from 1895 through 1901 for the Chicago Colts/Orphans and the Washington Senators.
January 20 – Herb Goodall, 67, pitcher for the 1890 Louisville Colonels of the American Association.
January 27 – Larry Battam, 61, third baseman for the 1895 New York Giants of the National League.
January 24 – Jim Mutrie, 86, manager who led New York Metropolitans to the American Association title in 1884, then won pennants in 1888–89 after moving to NY's NL franchise – which he renamed by marveling over his "Giants"; career .611 winning percentage was best of 19th century.
January 28 – Bill Hill, 63, pitcher who played from 1896 to 1899 for five different National League clubs.
January 28 – Pop Rising, 56, outfielder for the 1905 Boston Americans.
January 31 – Charlie Chech, 59, pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Naps and Boston Red Sox between 1905 and 1909.
January 31 – Jim Gray, 75, infielder who played for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys/Burghers/Pirates between 1884 and 1893.
February
February 3 – Mike Donovan, 56, third baseman for the Cleveland Naps in 1904 and the New York Highlanders in 1908.
February 9 – Charlie Daniels, 76, pitcher for the 1884 Boston Reds of the Union Association.
February 16 – Lee Tannehill, 57, infielder for the Chicago White Sox from 1903 to 1912, who is credited as the first player to hit a home run in the original Comiskey Park.
February 21 – George Merritt, 57, outfielder who played from 1903 through 1905 for the Pittsburgh Pirates.
February 22 – Mert Hackett, 78, catcher for five seasons, including the 1883 National League champions, the Boston Beaneaters.
February 26 – Tex Jones, 53, played nine games for the Chicago White Sox in 1911.
March
March 2 – Walter Prince, 76, first baseman who played from 1883 to 1884 for the Louisville Eclipse, Detroit Wolverines and Washington Nationals.
March 4 – Jack Taylor, 64, pitcher for the Chicago Orphans/Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals from 1898 to 1907, who won twenty or more games in four seasons, hurled 187 consecutive complete games between 1901 and 1906, and was a member of the world champion 1907 Cubs.
March 6 – Rube Lutzke, 40, third baseman for the Cleveland Indians from 1923 to 1927, who led the American League in putouts and assists in the 1923 season.
March 7 – Stephen McKeever, 84, co-owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers since 1912 and club president since 1932.
March 13 – Rube Ellis, 52, left fielder who hit .260 in 555 games for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1909 to 1912.
March 18 – Hobe Ferris, 60, lowest ever career on-base percentage; committed first ever error in a World Series game.
March 18 – Milo Netzel, 51, third baseman/left fielder for the 1909 Cleveland Naps of the American League.
March 20 – Bob Fothergill, 40, left fielder for the Tigers, White Sox and Red Sox from 1922 to 1933, whose .325 career average ranks him for 41st place on the Major League all-time list.
March 24 – Joe Dolan, 65, backup infielder for the Colonels, Phillies and Athletics between the 1896 and 1901 seasons.
March 25 – Al Burris, 64, pitcher for the 1894 Philadelphia Phillies.
March 26 – Harry Hempstead, 69, owner of the New York Giants from 1912 to 1919; son-in-law of John T. Brush.
March 29 – Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston, 70, civil engineer and businessman who was the co-owner, with Jacob Ruppert, of the New York Yankees from 1915 to 1923.
March 30 – Dasher Troy, 81, second baseman for five seasons, most notably for the 1884 American Association champs, the New York Metropolitans.
April
April 3 – Charlie Brown, 66, pitcher for the 1897 Cleveland Spiders of the National League.
April 3 – Count Campau, 74, outfielder for three seasons, and one-time manager for the St. Louis Browns in .
April 6 – J. B. Young, 80, pitcher who appeared in one game with the 1892 St. Louis Browns of the National League.
April 11 – Cristóbal Torriente, 44, All-Star Cuban right fielder in the Negro leagues who batted .339 lifetime.
April 17 – Alex Beam, 68, pitcher for the 1889 Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the National League.
April 20 – Tim O'Rourke, 73, backup infielder who played from 1890 through 1894 for the Syracuse Stars, Columbus Solons, Baltimore Orioles, Louisville Colonels and St. Louis Browns.
April 30 – Sun Daly, 73, outfielder for the 1892 Baltimore Orioles, who earned his nickname because he never wore sun glasses.
May
May 11 – Buzz Murphy, 43, outfielder who played from 1918 to 1919 with the Boston Braves and the Washington Senators.
May 21 – Sam Childs, 76, first baseman for the 1883 Columbus Buckeyes of the American Association.
May 21 – Silver King, 70, pitcher who had three 30-win seasons for the 1887–89 St. Louis Browns and another for the 1890 Chicago team in the Players' League, who is regarded as the first sidearm pitcher.
May 22 – Harry Lumley, 57, right fielder and manager who spent his entire career with the Brooklyn Superbas in the National League from 1904 to 1910, while leading the league with 18 triples and nine home runs during his rookie season.
June
June 12 – Josh Reilly, 70, second baseman for the 1896 Chicago Colts of the National League, who later managed in the minor leagues.
June 12 – Buck Thrasher, 48, right fielder who hit .255 in 30 games with the Philadelphia Athletics from 1916 to 1917.
June 20 – Pat Newnam, 57, first baseman who played from 1910 to 1911 for the St. Louis Browns of the American League.
June 25 – Bumpus Jones, 68, pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants from 1892 to 1893, who hurled a no-hitter against the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1892 season.
June 27 – Jerry Donovan, 61, backup catcher for the 1906 Philadelphia Phillies.
July
July 4 – Chief Roseman, 82, outfielder for six different teams between 1882 and 1890, who also managed the St. Louis Browns in his last major league season.
July 9 – George Dickerson, 46, pitcher for the Cleveland Indians in the 1917 season.
July 21 – Carl Spongberg, 54, pitcher for the 1908 Chicago Cubs.
July 27 – Milt Reed, 48, shortstop/second baseman who played between 1911 and 1914 with the Cardinals and Phillies, and for the Brooklyn Tip-Tops of the Federal League in 1915.
July 31 – Bill Carney, 64, right fielder who played briefly for the Chicago Cubs in the 1904 season.
July 31 – Doc Miller, 55, Canadian outfielder who posted a .295 average from 1910 through 1914 for the Chicago Cubs, Boston Doves/Rustlers/Braves, Philadelphia Phillies and Cincinnati Reds, while leading the National League with 192 hits in the 1912 season.
August
August 1 – Al Munro Elias, 67, who along with his brother Walter founded in 1913 the Elias Sports Bureau, official statistician of the National League.
August 1 – Tug Thompson, 81, Canadian outfielder/catcher for the 1882 Cincinnati Red Stockings and the 1884 Indianapolis Hoosiers, and a member of the 1882 American Association Champion team.
August 2 – Jim Curry, 52, second baseman who played in part of three seasons for the Philadelphia Athletics, New York Highlanders and Detroit Tigers.
August 11 – Cliff Hill, 45, pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1917 season.
August 30 – Gene Moore, 52, pitcher who posted a 2-2 record and a 4.76 ERA for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds between 1909 and 1912.
September
September 7 – Lee King, 44, outfielder for the Philadelphia Athletics (1916) and the Boston Braves (1919).
September 19 – Pink Hawley, 72, pitcher who posted a 167-179 record and a 3.96 ERA in 393 games with the Browns, Pirates, Reds, Giants and Brewers from 1892 to 1901.
September 27 – Cy Ferry, 60, pitcher who played from 1904 to 1905 for the Detroit Tigers and Cleveland Naps of the American League.
September 28 – Bill Rollinson, 82, catcher for the 1884 Washington Nationals of the Union Association.
October
October 3 – Morgan Murphy, 71, catcher and noted sign stealer for 11 seasons, from 1890 to 1901.
October 4 – Fred Doe, 74, pitcher who played for the Pittsburgh Burghers and the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League during the 1890 season.
October 16 – Joe Knight, 79, Canadian-born outfielder who finished sixth in the 1890 National League batting race with a .312 average.
October 24 – George Borchers, 69, pitcher for the Chicago White Stockings (1888) and the Louisville Colonels (1895).
October 29 – Tom Daly, 72, catcher/second baseman for five teams of three different leagues, who posted a .278 average in 1568 career games played between 1884 and 1903.
October 29 – Babe Towne, 58, backup catcher for the 1906 Chicago White Sox.
November
November 1 – Charles Weeghman, 64, owner of the Chicago Whales of the "outlaw" Federal League (1914–1915) and Chicago Cubs (1916–1919); builder of what would become Wrigley Field.
November 3 – Milt Scott, 77, first baseman who played between 1882 and 1886 for the Chicago White Stockings, Detroit Wolverines, Pittsburgh Alleghenys and Baltimore Orioles.
November 10 – Chet Spencer, 55, outfielder for the 1906 Boston Beaneaters of the National League.
November 11 – Fred Hartman, 70, third baseman who posted a .278 average and 333 RBI between 1894 and 1902 for the Pirates, Browns, Giants, White Sox and Cardinals.
November 12 – Andy Harrington, 49, pitcher who played for the Cincinnati Reds in the 1913 season.
November 14 – Les Nunamaker, 49, catcher for the Red Sox, Yankees, Browns and Indians from 1911 to 1922, who in 1914 threw out three baserunners attempting to steal in the same inning, to become the only 20th-century catcher to accomplish this feat at major league level.
November 21 – Polly Wolfe, 50, backup outfielder who played in 1912 and 1914 for the Chicago White Sox.
December
December 3 – Guy Hecker, 82, American Association pitcher/first baseman who won the Triple Crown as a pitcher in 1884 and a batting title in 1886 while hurling a no-hitter in 1882; one of two pitchers to hit three home runs in a single game (along Jim Tobin) and the only pitcher in Major League Baseball history to collect six hits in a nine-inning game.
December 7 – Tom Kearns, 79, second baseman/catcher who played between 1880 and 1884 for the Buffalo Bisons and Detroit Wolverines.
December 19 – Art Griggs, 54, first baseman/outfielder for the Browns, Naps, Tip-Tops and Tigers between the 1909 and 1918 seasons.
December 24 – Luke Lutenberg, 74, first baseman for the 1894 Louisville Colonels.
December 24 – Bill Yohe, 60, first baseman who played for the Washington Senators of the American League during the 1909 season. |
4265985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2030%20in%20Pennsylvania | U.S. Route 30 in Pennsylvania | U.S. Route 30 (US 30) is a U.S. Highway that runs east–west across the southern part of Pennsylvania, passing through Pittsburgh and Philadelphia on its way from the West Virginia state line east to the Benjamin Franklin Bridge over the Delaware River into New Jersey.
In Pennsylvania, US 30 runs along or near the transcontinental Lincoln Highway, an auto trail which ran from San Francisco, California, to New York City before the U.S. Routes were designated. The Lincoln Highway turned northeast at Philadelphia, however, using present US 1 and its former alignments to cross the Delaware River into Trenton, New Jersey.
Points of interest along US 30 include the Gettysburg Battlefield, Dutch Wonderland, the Flight 93 National Memorial, Fort Ligonier, Westmoreland Mall, Jennerstown Speedway, Idlewild and Soak Zone, and Independence Mall at the Independence National Historical Park.
Route description
West Virginia to Pittsburgh
US 30 enters Pennsylvania from West Virginia in Beaver County, heading east along two-lane undivided Lincoln Highway. The road passes through rural areas and comes to an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 168 (PA 168) south of the borough of Hookstown, where it briefly becomes a divided highway. US 30 continues as an undivided road, turning northeast and then southeast before it comes to a junction with the western terminus of PA 151. The road heads southeast and crosses PA 18 in the community of Harshaville.
The route passes through Raccoon Creek State Park, where it turns south and crosses Raccoon Creek. The road leaves the state park and curves to the southeast.
US 30 enters Allegheny County and continues east along Lincoln Highway, reaching the community of Clinton. Here, the route turns to the southeast and comes to an interchange with the PA 576 toll road to the southwest of Pittsburgh International Airport, where the route briefly becomes a divided highway. The road continues southeast and reaches the community of Imperial, where it passes under the Montour Trail.
US 30 heads into developed areas, crossing Steubenville Pike, and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the US 22 freeway, where US 30 heads east for a concurrency with US 22 and PA 978 continues southeast. US 22/US 30 run east as a four-lane freeway through suburban areas, coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with Oakdale Road that serves Hankey Farms. Farther east, the freeway has a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with McKee Road that provides access to the borough of Oakdale to the south.
From here, US 22/US 30 turn east-northeast and reach an interchange that connects to Old Steubenville Pike, Bayer Road, and Montour Church Road. The freeway comes to an interchange with I-376, where US 22/US 30 head southeast concurrent with I-376 and PA 60 continues east (south) at-grade along a four-lane divided highway.
I-376/US 22/US 30 head southeast as the four-lane Penn-Lincoln Parkway, reaching an interchange with Ridge Road. The freeway comes to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Campbells Run Road, where it widens to six lanes. The highway curves to the east and meets I-79 at an interchange. Past this interchange, I-376/US 22/US 30 narrows to two lanes eastbound and head into the borough of Rosslyn Farms, turning southeast and coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Rosslyn Road that serves Rosslyn Farms.
The freeway crosses into the borough of Carnegie and reaches a bus-only eastbound exit and westbound entrance connecting to the PRT's West Busway before passing over a Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad line. The highway passes over Chartiers Creek and another Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad line as it leaves Carnegie and comes to the PA 50 interchange. I-376/US 22/US 30 narrows to four lanes, passing under a Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway line and curving northeast into the borough of Green Tree.
The freeway reaches the PA 121 interchange, where it gains a third westbound lane, and heads east, entering the city of Pittsburgh and coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Parkway Center Drive. The highway turns north and reaches a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with US 19, where US 19 joins I-376/US 22/US 30 on the Penn-Lincoln Parkway. Within this interchange, the road has an eastbound runaway truck ramp and passes under a ramp carrying both directions of US 19 Truck.
The freeway widens to six lanes and passes under a Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway line before reaching an interchange with PA 51, where US 19 Truck joins the Penn-Lincoln Parkway from PA 51 and US 19 splits from the Penn-Lincoln Parkway by heading north along with PA 51. Past this interchange, I-376/US 22/US 30/US 19 Truck narrows to four lanes and passes under Mount Washington in the Fort Pitt Tunnel.
After emerging from the Fort Pitt Tunnel, the freeway passes over Norfolk Southern's Mon Line and PA 837, coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance that connects to northbound PA 837. The Penn-Lincoln Parkway heads onto the Fort Pitt Bridge, a double-decker bridge carrying four lanes in each direction, and passes over CSX's Pittsburgh Subdivision railroad line and the Monongahela River as it heads into Downtown Pittsburgh at Point State Park and comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of I-279, where US 19 Truck heads north along I-279 and I-376/US 22/US 30 continue east along the Penn-Lincoln Parkway. The I-279 interchange also includes eastbound exits and westbound entrances with Boulevard of the Allies/Liberty Avenue and Fort Duquesne Boulevard that serve Downtown Pittsburgh.
The four-lane freeway heads east-southeast between Downtown Pittsburgh to the north and the Monongahela River to the south, reaching a partial interchange with Stanwix Street with no eastbound exit. The highway heads under the Smithfield Street Bridge and comes to an interchange with Grant Street, where it widens to six lanes. I-376/US 22/US 30 pass under the Panhandle Bridge carrying PRT's Pittsburgh Light Rail line and then the Liberty Bridge before the lanes split as it reaches a westbound ramp to Second Avenue north of the South Tenth Street Bridge and south of the Duquesne University campus.
Past this, the highway continues east between urban areas to the north and the Monongahela River to the south, with the Three Rivers Heritage Trail in the median. The freeway comes to an interchange connecting to PA 885 and Forbes Avenue north of the Birmingham Bridge, at which point the trail leaves the median of the freeway and the river heads further south from the freeway. I-376/US 22/US 30 head southeast, with the Three Rivers Heritage Trail parallel to the south, and reaches a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with PA 885. The highway turns east away from the trail and passes over the Allegheny Valley Railroad's P&W Subdivision line.
The freeway comes to an interchange with Beechwood Boulevard before it narrows to four lanes and passes under the southern portion of Squirrel Hill in the Squirrel Hill Tunnel. Past the tunnel, I-376/US 22/US 30 head through wooded areas and pass over Ninemile Run in Frick Park. The highway leaves Pittsburgh as it comes to an interchange with Braddock Avenue that serves the boroughs of Edgewood and Swissvale. The freeway continues east through suburban areas in Edgewood, passing under Norfolk Southern's Pittsburgh Line and the PRT's Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway.
I-376/US 22/US 30 turn to the northeast and head through a corner of the borough of Braddock Hills before entering the borough of Wilkinsburg. In Wilkinsburg, the freeway comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of PA 8, where US 30 splits from I-376/US 22 on the Penn-Lincoln Parkway by heading southeast at-grade on Ardmore Boulevard.
Pittsburgh to Breezewood
US 30 follows Ardmore Boulevard, a five-lane divided highway with two eastbound lanes and three westbound lanes, and enters the borough of Forest Hills, running through suburban development as it curves to the south. The road narrows to two westbound lanes before it curves to the southeast. The route turns to the south-southeast and passes through the center of Forest Hills.
US 30 gains a third eastbound lane before it skirts the border between the borough of North Braddock to the west and the borough of Chalfant to the east as it comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with Electric Avenue. Past this interchange, the route becomes four-lane undivided Lincoln Highway and heads south, crossing into the borough of East Pittsburgh. The road crosses over Bessemer Avenue on a bridge before it curves southeast and heads onto the George Westinghouse Bridge, where it passes over Braddock Avenue, a Union Railroad line, Norfolk Southern's Pittsburgh Line, Turtle Creek, and Norfolk Southern's Port Perry Branch.
After passing over Turtle Creek, US 30 leaves East Pittsburgh, turning into a divided highway and passing over East Pittsburgh McKeesport Boulevard. The route comes to an interchange with Greensburg Pike and becomes undivided before it enters the borough of East McKeesport as Greensburg Avenue. Here, the road turns northeast, curving east and intersecting the northern terminus of PA 148. US 30 runs east-southeast as it leaves East McKeesport and continues along Lincoln Highway. Along this stretch, the route briefly becomes a divided highway at intersections with Luehm Avenue and PA 48.
US 30 enters Westmoreland County in the Laurel Highlands region and continues south along four-lane undivided Lincoln Highway, curving southeast and passing through the community of Stewartsville. The road briefly becomes a divided highway at intersections with Leger Road/Carpenter Lane and Center Highway/Robbins Station Road. The route turns to the east and comes to an eastbound exit and entrance with Main Street in the community of Fairmont before it enters the borough of Irwin.
US 30 gains a center left-turn lane before it leaves Irwin and becomes a four-lane divided highway as it comes to the Irwin interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76). Past this interchange, the median turns into a center left-turn lane.
US 30 runs along the southern border of the borough of Adamsburg and becomes a divided highway as it reaches an interchange with Edna Road serving Adamsburg. The road becomes five lanes with a center left-turn lane and passes through the community of Lincoln Heights and running along the southern border of the city of Jeannette.
Past Jeannette, US 30 curves southeast and turns into a four-lane divided highway, coming to an interchange with the PA 66 toll road. After this interchange, the route briefly widens to six lanes before curving east and becoming a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, turning into a four-lane divided highway as it passes south of the Greengate Centre shopping center and comes to a bridge over the Southwest Pennsylvania Railroad's Radebaugh Subdivision line.
US 30 becomes a freeway that bypasses the city of Greensburg to the south and curves southeast, reaching an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with West Pittsburgh Street. The road enters Greensburg and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 136. The route runs along the southwest border of the borough of Southwest Greensburg and reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 119/PA 819/PA 66 Bus.
Past this interchange, US 30 passes over the Southwest Pennsylvania Railroad's Greensburg Industrial Track line and the Five Star Trail, at which point it heads through a section of the borough of South Greensburg before it comes to a right-in/right-out interchange with Cedar Street. At this point, the freeway curves northeast, reaching a diamond interchange with Mt. Pleasant Road. The road passes through a section of Greensburg and comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with PA 130. A short distance later, the freeway section ends at westbound exit and eastbound entrance with East Pittsburgh Street to the east of Greensburg.
US 30 heads east as the six-lane, divided Lincoln Highway and reaches an interchange serving the Westmoreland Mall to the south of the road. The road narrows to four lanes and continues east-southeast. Farther east, the route runs through rural areas with some development, passing to the north of Arnold Palmer Regional Airport as it widens to six lanes and comes to an intersection with PA 981 to the south of the borough of Latrobe.
US 30 narrows to four lanes before it reaches a cloverleaf interchange with PA 982 that provides access to Latrobe to the north and the borough of Youngstown to the south. The median of the road widens and the westbound lanes cross the Loyalhanna Creek, at which point the Loyalhanna Creek runs in the median of US 30. The route comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 217. Past this intersection, US 30 winds southeast through a gap in Chestnut Ridge, with the eastbound lanes crossing the Loyalhanna Creek.
At this point, the road heads east as a four-lane divided highway with the Loyalhanna Creek parallel to the south, passing to the north of the Idlewild and Soak Zone amusement park. The median widens again and the route intersects the southern terminus of PA 259 in the community of Millbank. US 30 curves south and turns to the east. The road curves southeast and the median narrows, at which point it heads along the southwest border of the borough of Ligonier as a four-lane divided highway. The route crosses PA 711 and passes to the south of Fort Ligonier.
US 30 leaves Ligonier and narrows to a two-lane undivided road, intersecting the northern terminus of PA 381. The route passes through the community of Laughlintown and runs along the southern border of the borough of Laurel Mountain. Past the borough of Laurel Mountain, the road ascends Laurel Hill and comes to a westbound runaway truck ramp. Further up the hill, the route reaches a westbound truck brake check station and briefly becomes a divided highway through a sharp turn before it comes to another westbound truck brake check station.
At the summit of Laurel Hill, US 30 enters Somerset County and begins to descend the hill along two-lane undivided Lincoln Highway, passing through a section of Laurel Ridge State Park where it crosses the Laurel Highlands Hiking Trail. After descending the hill, the road runs east-southeast. The route enters the borough of Jennerstown and becomes West Pitt Street. US 30 intersects PA 985 and becomes East Pitt Street.
The road leaves Jennerstown and becomes the Lincoln Highway again. The route heads through the community of Jenners Crossroads before it has a junction with PA 601 in the community of Ferrellton. US 30 briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US 219 freeway.
Past this interchange, the route becomes a two-lane undivided road again and winds southeast. The road runs along the southwest border of the borough of Stoystown and passes under Somerset Street before it reaches an interchange with the northern terminus of PA 281.
Past Stoystown, US 30 crosses the Stonycreek River and intersects the southern terminus of PA 403 before it comes to a bridge over CSX's S&C Subdivision railroad line. The route comes to the entrance road to the Flight 93 National Memorial to the south. The road runs through the community of Buckstown and passes north of the borough of Indian Lake before it reaches an intersection with PA 160 in the community of Reels Corner. US 30 continues east-southeast and passes to the north of the Stony Creek Wind Farm before it begins to ascend Allegheny Mountain, winding to the east. Approaching the summit of the mountain, the road comes to an eastbound truck brake check station.
US 30 leaves the Laurel Highlands region as it crosses into Bedford County and reaches the summit of Allegheny Mountain, where it turns north-northeast and begins to descend the mountain. The road makes a hairpin turn to the southeast and winds east, coming to an eastbound truck brake check station as it continues to descend. The route heads east-northeast and enters the borough of Schellsburg, where US 30 becomes Pitt Street and crosses PA 96.
Upon leaving Schellsburg, the road becomes the Lincoln Highway again and passes north of Shawnee State Park, curving southeast and then east. The route passes under the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-70/I-76) before intersecting the eastern terminus of PA 31.
US 30 heads east-northeast a short distance to the south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike and reaches a junction with the eastern terminus of PA 56 before it curves southeast and crosses the Raystown Branch Juniata River in the community of Wolfsburg. The route runs south and comes to an intersection with the western terminus of US 30 Bus., at which point US 30 becomes a four-lane freeway that bypasses the borough of Bedford to the north.
US 30 heads southeast and reaches a cloverleaf interchange with the US 220 freeway. The freeway crosses the Raystown Branch Juniata River and runs to the north of the river, passing over US 220 Bus. The route leaves Bedford and crosses the river again before it comes to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with the eastern terminus of US 30 Bus., where the freeway section ends and US 30 becomes four-lane divided Lincoln Highway.
US 30, the Raystown Branch Juniata River, and the Pennsylvania Turnpike pass southeast through the Bedford Narrows, a gap in Evitts Mountain. Here, US 30 intersects the northern terminus of PA 326 and curves northeast, crossing over the river and under the turnpike. The route becomes a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, curving east. The road turns into a four-lane divided highway and has interchanges with Pennknoll Road, where it passes south of UPMC Bedford hospital, and Lutzville Road. US 30 continues east and southeast and passes east through a gap in Tussey Mountain. The route has an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with the western terminus of US 30 Bus., where it becomes a freeway that bypasses the borough of Everett to the north. The freeway turns north between the mountain the west and Everett to the east before it turns east and passes over PA 26 prior to an interchange with the Bud Shuster Bypass that connects to PA 26. The freeway section of US 30 ends at an intersection with the eastern terminus of US 30 Bus. east of Everett, where US 30 becomes four-lane divided Lincoln Highway. The road curves southeast as it runs north of the Raystown Branch Juniata River. The route crosses the river and winds east, heading into the community of Breezewood, where it passes several businesses and comes to an at-grade intersection with I-70. At this point, I-70 joins US 30 in a wrong-way concurrency on a non–limited access section of Interstate Highway that has two eastbound lanes, three westbound lanes, and a center left-turn lane before the road comes to an interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike, where I-70 splits from US 30 and heads west along with I-76 on the turnpike. From here, US 30 narrows to a two-lane undivided road and crosses the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike before it heads northeast into rural areas and climbs Rays Hill, gaining a second eastbound lane and passing over the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76).
Breezewood to Lancaster
At the summit of Rays Hill, US 30 enters Fulton County and descends the hill as two-lane undivided Lincoln Highway, with the Pennsylvania Turnpike parallel to the north. The route turns east away from the turnpike and comes to an intersection with PA 915, at which point PA 915 heads east for a concurrency with US 30. The road heads into the Buchanan State Forest, with PA 915 splitting to the north. US 30 ascends Sideling Hill and reaches the summit, where it comes to an eastbound truck brake check station. At this point, the road begins to descend Sideling Hill, winding east. Along the descent, the roadway comes to two truck brake check stations and two runaway truck ramps in the eastbound direction. The route leaves the state forest and heads southeast, passing through the community of Saluvia. US 30 curves east-southeast and comes to an intersection with PA 655 in the community of Harrisonville. The road turns southeast in the community of Breezy Point and ascends Scrub Ridge. The route comes to a westbound truck brake check station before it reaches the community of Summit, where it heads south to descend Scrub Ridge. US 30 continues south and briefly becomes a divided highway as it intersects Lincoln Way, where it turns into a two-lane expressway that bypasses the borough of McConnellsburg to the north. The road makes a hairpin turn to the northeast and gains a second westbound lane. The route curves east and comes to a diamond interchange with US 522 that serves McConnellsburg, where it becomes a four-lane divided expressway. Past this interchange, the expressway becomes a three-lane undivided road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane, turning to the south-southeast. US 30 becomes a divided highway and intersects Lincoln Way again, where the expressway section ends. The route becomes a three-lane undivided road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane as it ascends Tuscarora Mountain. The road narrows to two lanes as it continues to climb the mountain and follow a winding alignment.
At the summit of Tuscarora Mountain, US 30 enters Franklin County and curves northeast to descend the mountain. The road comes to an eastbound truck brake check station as it winds northeast and reaches an eastbound runaway truck ramp and gains a westbound truck lane. The route curves to the east-southeast and narrows to two lanes. At the bottom of the mountain, US 30 enters the Cumberland Valley and becomes Lincoln Way West, briefly turning into a divided highway as it reaches an intersection with PA 75. The road becomes undivided again and heads to the south of the community of Fort Loudon. The route continues east-northeast through rural areas in the valley, intersecting the northern terminus of PA 416 and passing through the community of St. Thomas. US 30 gains a center left-turn lane, crossing Back Creek. Farther east, the road has a junction with the northern terminus of PA 995 before it enters the borough of Chambersburg. At this point, the route runs through developed areas and splits into the one-way pair of West Loudon Street eastbound and Lincoln Way West westbound, with West Loudon Street a two-way, two-lane road and Lincoln Way West carrying two lanes of one-way traffic. US 30 crosses the Conococheague Creek and the Chambersburg Rail-Trail, with the eastbound direction shifting to West Queen Street, which carries two lanes of one-way traffic. The route heads into downtown Chambersburg and intersects US 11, which is routed on the one-way pair of Main Street southbound and 2nd Street northbound. Westbound US 30 meets southbound US 11 at Memorial Square, which features a fountain in the middle of the intersection. Upon crossing southbound US 11, US 30 becomes East Queen Street eastbound and Lincoln Way East westbound, crossing under Norfolk Southern's Lurgan Branch railroad line before both directions of US 30 rejoin on Lincoln Way East, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The road runs east and passes south of WellSpan Chambersburg Hospital before it widens to five lanes as it comes to an interchange with I-81 on the eastern border of Chambersburg. Past this interchange, the route heads through the community of Stoufferstown as a four-lane divided highway, soon becoming a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane. US 30 narrows to three lanes as it continues through a mix of rural areas and development, passing south of the community of Fayetteville before it forms a short concurrency with PA 997 upon intersecting that route in the community of Greenwood. The road leaves the Cumberland Valley as it heads into the Michaux State Forest, where it crosses South Mountain. The route passes south of Caledonia State Park and becomes a three-lane road with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane, crossing the Appalachian Trail. US 30 briefly becomes four lanes before it loses the second lane eastbound and intersects PA 233, where it turns into a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane.
US 30 enters Adams County and becomes Chambersburg Road, continuing east through Cashtown Gap in South Mountain. The road becomes three lanes with two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane before it turns back to a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The route intersects the western terminus of PA 234. US 30 continues east with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes before narrowing to a two-lane road. The route curves southeast in the community of Hilltown and gains a center left-turn lane. The road passes through the community of McKnightstown, where it narrows to two lanes. US 30 crosses CSX's Hanover Subdivision railroad line at-grade in the community of Seven Stars. The route heads to the north of Gettysburg Regional Airport and passes through the community of Stremmels before it runs through a section of Gettysburg National Military Park. US 30 enters the borough of Gettysburg and becomes Buford Avenue, passing north of the United Lutheran Seminary as it heads into developed areas and turns east onto Chambersburg Street. The route continues into downtown Gettysburg and meets US 15 Bus./PA 116 at Lincoln Square, a traffic circle. At this point, US 30 heads east concurrent with PA 116 on York Street, with PA 116 splitting to the east and US 30 continuing northeast along York Street. The route leaves Gettysburg upon crossing Rock Creek and becomes York Road, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, with CSX's Hanover Subdivision parallel to the northwest. The road turns into a four-lane divided highway as it comes to an interchange with the US 15 freeway. US 30 continues east-northeast as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane through a mix of rural areas and development, passing through the community of Guldens. The route curves east and briefly gains a second westbound lane before heading through the community of Brush Run. The road narrows to two lanes and crosses the South Branch Conewago Creek, where the name changes to Lincoln Way West. US 30 enters the borough of New Oxford, crossing CSX's Hanover Subdivision at-grade and meeting Carlisle Street/Hanover Street at the New Oxford Town Square, a traffic circle. The route becomes Lincoln Way East before it leaves New Oxford, where it turns into York Road and gains a center left-turn lane. The road crosses PA 94 in the community of Cross Keys and gains a second westbound lane further east before it reaches the borough of Abbottstown. Upon entering Abbottstown, US 30 becomes two-lane West King Street, meeting PA 194 at the Abbottstown Square traffic circle, before it continues along East King Street.
Upon crossing Beaver Creek, US 30 leaves Abbottstown and heads into York County. The route follows Lincoln Highway, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The road curves to the northeast and passes through the community of Farmers, where it bends to the east-northeast. US 30 heads to the north of York Airport before it reaches the community of Thomasville, where it narrows to two lanes and crosses a York Railway line at-grade. The route gains a center left-turn lane and passes through more developed areas. The road widens to a four-lane divided highway and reaches an intersection with the eastern terminus of PA 116. US 30 heads east-northeast as West Market Street, a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, and turns into a four-lane divided highway as it comes to a junction with the northern terminus of PA 616. Past this intersection, US 30 splits from West Market Street at a trumpet interchange by heading north onto a four-lane freeway, with PA 462 continuing east along West Market Street towards the city of York. The freeway passes over a York Railway line and curves northeast, passing under PA 234. The route continues northeast and comes to a diamond interchange with PA 74 in a business area north of the borough of West York, with the West Manchester Town Center shopping center located northwest of the interchange. US 30 widens to six lanes before the freeway section ends, with US 30 becoming a six-lane divided highway with at-grade intersections called Loucks Road that passes development. The road enters the city of York and curves east. The route leaves the city of York and crosses Susquehanna Trail/11th Avenue, where the name changes to Arsenal Road, before it reaches an intersection with I-83 Bus. and the southern terminus of PA 181 north of the borough of North York. US 30 comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with I-83, where it narrows to four lanes, before it passes over Codorus Creek and the York County Heritage Rail Trail and then Norfolk Southern's York Secondary railroad line. The route continues east, turning into an unnamed four-lane freeway and reaching an interchange with Memory Lane that serves the community of East York. The freeway reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 24 south of the York Galleria shopping mall. US 30 continues east-northeast and passes north of the Haines Shoe House as it heads into rural areas, coming to a diamond interchange with Kreutz Creek Road that provides access to PA 462 and the borough of Hallam to the south. The freeway reaches a diamond interchange at Cool Springs Road, which heads south to connect to PA 462 and the borough of Wrightsville.
US 30 crosses the Susquehanna River on the Wright's Ferry Bridge into Lancaster County, where it heads into the borough of Columbia and passes over Norfolk Southern's Port Road Branch railroad line and the Northwest Lancaster County River Trail before coming to an interchange with PA 441 that serves Columbia; the Turkey Hill Experience is located south of this interchange. From here, the freeway heads northeast and curves to the southeast. The route leaves Columbia and turns east, coming to a diamond interchange with Prospect Road. US 30 passes through the borough of Mountville before it reaches a diamond interchange with Stony Battery Road that serves Mountville. The freeway runs east-northeast through suburban development, coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with Centerville Road. The route turns northeast and crosses under PA 23. US 30 curves east as it reaches a diamond interchange with PA 741. The freeway widens to six lanes before it curves northeast and crosses the Little Conestoga Creek. The route comes to an interchange with Harrisburg Pike, at which point it enters the city of Lancaster and narrows to four lanes with an auxiliary lane in each direction, passing southeast of the Park City Center shopping mall that is served by the Harrisburg Pike interchange. US 30 leaves the city limits as it passes over Amtrak's Keystone Corridor and Norfolk Southern's Lititz Secondary railroad lines, reaching an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with PA 72. The route comes to an interchange with the eastern terminus of the PA 283 freeway. At this point, the US 30 freeway widens to six lanes and turns east as it becomes paralleled by a pair of frontage roads called Chester Road eastbound and York Road westbound. The frontage roads serve the interchanges at Fruitville Pike, PA 501, and US 222/PA 272 to the north of Lancaster. Past the US 222/PA 272 interchange, the frontage roads end and US 222 heads east concurrent with US 30 on the freeway before US 222 splits northeast on a freeway at a trumpet interchange. From here, US 30 continues southeast as a four-lane freeway with an auxiliary lane in each direction, coming to a diamond interchange with PA 23 at New Holland Pike. At this point, PA 23 joins US 30 in a wrong-way concurrency, with the freeway crossing the Conestoga River before PA 23 splits to the southwest at a partial cloverleaf interchange. US 30 runs through a section of the city of Lancaster before it meets Greenfield Road at a partial cloverleaf interchange; Greenfield Road provides access to the Discover Lancaster Visitors Center. The freeway curves to the south-southeast, passing over Norfolk Southern's New Holland Secondary and Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad lines before coming to a partial interchange with PA 340 that has no westbound exit. US 30 continues as a four-lane freeway with an eastbound auxiliary lane before the freeway section ends at an interchange with the eastern terminus of PA 462 to the east of Lancaster.
Lancaster to New Jersey
Past the interchange with the eastern terminus of PA 462, US 30 heads east-southeast along Lincoln Highway, a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane, passing through the community of Greenland. The route heads into the Pennsylvania Dutch Country of eastern Lancaster County and is lined with many Amish tourist attractions. The road crosses Mill Creek and heads north of the Tanger Outlets Lancaster outlet mall and south of the Dutch Wonderland amusement park. US 30 passes south of the American Music Theatre and runs between two shopping centers before it reaches an intersection with PA 896. Past this intersection, the route narrows to a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane and heads through agricultural areas with some development, passing through the community of Soudersburg. US 30 crosses the Pequea Creek and runs through the community of Paradise before it comes to a bridge over Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line. From here, the route continues east-southeast a short distance to the north of the Amtrak line. The road closely parallels the railroad tracks as it heads through the community of Kinzers. The Amtrak line diverges to the south east of here. The route splits into a one-way pair, with two lanes in each direction, as it reaches the community of Gap and comes to an intersection with the eastern terminus of PA 772. US 30 continues along the one-way pair, with both directions rejoining at a junction with the northern terminus of PA 41. Past the PA 41 junction, the route is a four-lane divided highway that soon turns into a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, intersecting the southern terminus of PA 897. The road leaves Gap and turns into a three-lane road two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane as it ascends a hill. Farther east, the route becomes three lanes with a center left-turn lane.
US 30 enters Chester County and continues east along Lincoln Highway, passing through the community of Black Horse. The route turns into a four-lane undivided road and comes to an intersection with PA 10 north of the borough of Parkesburg, where it becomes a divided highway. US 30 splits from Lincoln Highway at an eastbound exit and westbound entrance by heading onto a four-lane freeway called the Coatesville Downingtown Bypass, with US 30 Bus. continuing east along Lincoln Highway. The freeway heads east, crossing Buck Run and coming to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Airport Road that provides access to Chester County G. O. Carlson Airport. Following this, the route runs east-northeast through a mix of rural areas and suburban development. US 30 heads into the city of Coatesville and crosses the West Branch Brandywine Creek before it comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 82 that provides access to Coatesville. Past this interchange, the freeway leaves the city limits of Coatesville and passes under PA 340 before reaching an interchange with Reeceville Road. The route curves east-southeast and crosses under PA 340 again before running east and coming to a diamond interchange with PA 340 north of the community of Thorndale. US 30 heads east-northeast and reaches a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 322 that serves the borough of Downingtown. Farther east, the freeway passes over PA 282 and the East Branch Brandywine Creek before it comes to a bridge over the Struble Trail and enters a section of Downingtown, reaching a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with Norwood Road that provides access to PA 282. The route widens to six lanes and heads near suburban development before it comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with PA 113, at which point it leaves the borough limits of Downingtown and narrows back to four lanes. US 30 curves southeast and reaches an interchange with US 30 Bus. Past this interchange, the name of the freeway changes to Exton Bypass. The route turns northeast and runs parallel to Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line to the south of the road. US 30 comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with PA 100 that serves the community of Exton to the north. Following this, the freeway continues east-northeast parallel to the Amtrak line. US 30 comes to an interchange with the US 202 freeway and the eastern terminus of US 30 Bus., at which point the freeway section ends. The Exton Bypass portion of US 30 is designated the Exton Bypass Scenic Byway, a Pennsylvania Scenic Byway.
Past the interchange with US 202 and US 30 Bus., US 30 heads east-northeast along four-lane divided Lincoln Highway and passes south of a park and ride lot, running through the community of Glenloch. The route soon becomes Lancaster Avenue, a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. In the community of Frazer, the road comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 352. Farther east, US 30 widens to five lanes with a center turn lane before it reaches a junction with the eastern terminus of PA 401. The route turns into a four-lane divided highway prior to intersecting the southern terminus of PA 29. Past this intersection, the road crosses under Norfolk Southern's Dale Secondary railroad line and continues east as it runs north of the borough of Malvern, becoming undivided. US 30 briefly gains a center left-turn lane before it becomes a divided highway again as it passes south of Paoli Hospital prior to crossing under Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line to the north of the community of Green Tree. At this point, the route enters an area of suburbs called the Philadelphia Main Line as it heads into the community of Paoli, becoming a four-lane undivided road. In the center of Paoli, the road has a junction with Paoli Pike before it passes south of the Paoli station serving Amtrak's Keystone Corridor and SEPTA's Paoli/Thorndale Line. US 30 gains a center left-turn lane and reaches an intersection with PA 252. Following this intersection, the route runs south of the parallel Amtrak line, passing south of the Daylesford SEPTA station in the community of Daylesford. The road loses the center turn lane and runs further south but still parallel to the railroad tracks, turning northeast. US 30 reaches the community of Berwyn, where it passes south of the Berwyn SEPTA station and curves east and then southeast, gaining a center left-turn lane. The route turns to the northeast and reaches the community of Devon, where it drops the center turn lane and runs south of the Devon SEPTA station before passing to the north of the Devon Horse Show grounds. Past Devon, the road bends to the east-southeast.
Upon intersecting Old Eagle School Road/Sugartown Road, US 30 enters Delaware County and continues east-southeast along four-lane undivided Lancaster Avenue, curving east and running through the downtown area of the community of Wayne. The route passes through the community of St. Davids and turns southeast. East of here, the road becomes a divided highway before turning undivided again. US 30 briefly becomes a divided highway again as it curves east and reaches an interchange with I-476. Past this interchange, the route turns back into an undivided road and crosses under SEPTA's Norristown High Speed Line before coming to an intersection with PA 320 in the community of Villanova. Following this intersection, the road runs through the Villanova University campus, passing south of St. Thomas of Villanova Church, and curves southeast prior to the Ithan Avenue intersection, where it heads to the south of Villanova Stadium and the Finneran Pavilion arena. After passing through the university campus, US 30 runs through the community of Rosemont. Upon intersecting County Line Road, the route enters Montgomery County and heads into the community of Bryn Mawr, passing through the downtown area. The road continues southeast and briefly re-enters Delaware County before heading back into Montgomery County. US 30 passes through the community of Haverford, where it heads north of the Haverford School. The route continues into the community of Ardmore and runs through the community's downtown area, passing south of the Ardmore station serving Amtrak's Keystone Corridor and SEPTA's Paoli/Thorndale Line. Past Ardmore, the road heads through the community of Wynnewood. The route runs southeast before it crosses the East Branch Indian Creek and passes between the St. Charles Borromeo Seminary to the northeast and Lankenau Medical Center to the southwest as a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane prior to reaching an intersection with US 1 (City Avenue).
Upon crossing US 1, US 30 enters the city of Philadelphia in Philadelphia County and continues southeast along two-lane undivided Lancaster Avenue through the Overbrook neighborhood. At the intersection with 62nd Street/Malvern Avenue, the route passes north of the 63rd and Malvern Loop that serves as the terminus of SEPTA's Route 10 trolley line and heads into urban areas of West Philadelphia a short distance to the south of Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line, running north of Overbrook High School after the 59th Street intersection. Farther southeast, a SEPTA trolley track follows the westbound lanes past the 54th Street junction. At the intersection with 52nd Street/Lansdowne Avenue, US 30 heads further south from the Amtrak tracks and SEPTA's Route 10 trolley line begins following the road. The route splits from Lancaster Avenue by turning east onto Girard Avenue, which carries two lanes of traffic and SEPTA's Route 15 trolley line. The road runs east and crosses over Amtrak's Keystone Corridor railroad line at the Belmont Avenue intersection before widening to four lanes. Farther east, US 30 passes over CSX's Harrisburg Subdivision railroad line before it comes to an interchange with I-76 (Schuylkill Expressway) and US 13 to the north of the Philadelphia Zoo, crossing under the Pennsylvania Railroad, Connecting Railway Bridge carrying Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line at this interchange. At this interchange, US 13 heads south along 34th Street and continues east (north) along the Girard Avenue Bridge over the Schuylkill River while US 30 becomes concurrent with I-76 on the six-lane Schuylkill Expressway at this point and the road heads south, with the Philadelphia Zoo to the west and Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, the Schuylkill River Trail, and the Schuylkill River parallel to the east. The freeway turns southeast and runs between Amtrak's Northeast Corridor to the southwest and the river drive, trail, and river to the northeast, with Boathouse Row on the opposite bank of the river. The Schuylkill Expressway comes to an eastbound exit and westbound entrance with Spring Garden Street, which heads east across the Schuylkill River toward the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The freeway continues south, heading east of Amtrak's Penn Coach Yard, and comes to an interchange with the western terminus of I-676.
At this point, US 30 heads east concurrent with I-676 on the six-lane Vine Street Expressway. It immediately crosses the Schuylkill River and then the Schuylkill River Trail and CSX's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line on the river's east bank on the Vine Street Expressway Bridge before coming to an interchange with 23rd Street and 22nd Street and the Benjamin Franklin Parkway that has access to the Philadelphia Museum of Art and the Franklin Institute science museum. From this point, the Vine Street Expressway enters a depressed road cut and passes under several streets and two freeway lids, running along the northern edge of Center City Philadelphia. Vine Street serves as a street-level frontage road to the freeway. Within this alignment, there is an exit for PA 611 (Broad Street). After passing under 10th Street in Chinatown, the last street the depressed alignment passes under, the highway rises up and reaches a split between the Vine Street Expressway, which continues to I-95, and I-676/US 30. At this split, there is also an eastbound exit and westbound entrance for 8th Street. After exiting the Vine Street Expressway, eastbound I-676/US 30 has a brief at-grade portion along southbound 6th Street east of Franklin Square to the Benjamin Franklin Bridge approach, an example of a non–limited access section of Interstate Highway. Westbound I-676/US 30 has a ramp from the bridge to the Vine Street Expressway that intersects 7th Street and 8th Street at-grade. From this point, I-676/US 30 crosses over I-95, Christopher Columbus Boulevard, and then the Delaware River into New Jersey on the seven-lane Benjamin Franklin Bridge, which also carries pedestrians and the PATCO Speedline. This bridge and its approaches are maintained by the Delaware River Port Authority.
History
The path of the Lincoln Highway was first laid out in September 1913; it was defined to run through Canton, Ohio; Beaver; Pittsburgh; Greensburg; Ligonier; Bedford; Chambersburg; Gettysburg; York; Lancaster; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Camden, New Jersey. This bypassed Harrisburg to the south, and thus did not use the older main route across the state between Chambersburg and Lancaster. From Pittsburgh to Philadelphia, this incorporated a number of old turnpikes, some of which still collected tolls:
Part of the Harrisburg and Pittsburgh Turnpike, chartered in 1806, broken up in 1814 into separate turnpike companies, of which the following were included:
Greensburg and Pittsburgh Turnpike, Pittsburgh to Greensburg
Somerset and Greensburg Turnpike (renamed the Stoystown and Greensburg Turnpike 1815), Greensburg to Stoystown
Bedford and Somerset Turnpike (renamed the Bedford and Stoystown Turnpike 1815), Stoystown to Bedford
Chambersburg and Bedford Turnpike, Bedford to Chambersburg
Chambersburg Turnpike, Chambersburg to Cashtown
Part of the Gettysburg and Petersburg Turnpike, from Cashtown to Gettysburg
York and Gettysburg Turnpike, Gettysburg to York
Wrightsville Turnpike, York to Wrightsville
Columbia-Wrightsville Bridge, Wrightsville to Columbia
Lancaster and Susquehanna Turnpike, Columbia to Lancaster
Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike, Lancaster to Philadelphia
This original 1913 path of the Lincoln Highway continued east from Philadelphia, crossing the Delaware River to Camden, New Jersey, on the Market Street Ferry. The city of Philadelphia marked the route from the ferry landing west on Market Street through downtown and onto Lancaster Avenue to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike in early 1914. By 1915 Camden was dropped from the route, allowing the highway to cross the Delaware River on a bridge at Trenton, New Jersey (initially the Calhoun Street Bridge, later the Bridge Street Bridge).
In 1924, the entire Lincoln Highway in Pennsylvania was designated Pennsylvania Route 1 (PA 1). In late 1926 the route from West Virginia to Philadelphia (using the new route west of Pittsburgh) was assigned US 30, while the rest of the Lincoln Highway and PA 1 became part of US 1. The PA 1 designation was gone by 1929, but several branches from east to west – PA 101, PA 201, PA 301, PA 401, PA 501 and PA 601 – had been assigned by then. (PA 701 was assigned later as a branch of PA 101.)
Ohio to Downtown Pittsburgh
As defined in 1913, the Lincoln Highway ran east-northeast from Canton, Ohio, to Alliance and east via Salem, crossing into Pennsylvania just east of East Palestine. From there it continued southeasterly to Beaver, crossing the Beaver River there and heading south along its left bank to Rochester and the Ohio River's right bank to Pittsburgh.
By 1915, the highway had been realigned to the route it would follow until the end of 1927. It ran east from Canton, Ohio to Lisbon and then southeast to East Liverpool on the Ohio River. After crossing into Pennsylvania, it turned north away from the river at Smiths Ferry, taking an inland route to Beaver, where it rejoined the Ohio River. It crossed the Beaver River into Rochester, joining the 1913 alignment, and turned south with the Ohio to Pittsburgh.
1915 route
This route entered Pennsylvania along PA Route 68. After crossing Little Beaver Creek, it turned south on Main Street, passing under the Cleveland and Pittsburgh Railroad (PRR) into Glasgow. After passing through that community on Liberty Street, the highway turned north and passed under the railroad again at Smiths Ferry, merging with Smiths Ferry Road. This alignment through Glasgow carried the Lincoln Highway until ca. 1926, when the present PA 68 was built on the north side of the railroad.
The Lincoln Highway left the banks of the Ohio River on Smiths Ferry Road, which includes an old stone bridge over Upper Dry Run. It turned east on Tuscarawas Road through Ohioville, entering Beaver on Fourth Street and turning south on Buffalo Street to reach Third Street (PA Route 68). By 1929 this inland Glasgow-Beaver route was numbered PA Route 168, while the route along the river, never followed by the Lincoln Highway, was PA 68.
Where PA 68 crosses the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad from Beaver into Bridgewater along Third Street and then the Beaver River on the ca. 1963 Rochester-Bridgewater Bridge, the Lincoln Highway instead ran along Bridge Street, just to the north, and crossed the Old Rochester-Bridgewater Bridge into Rochester.
Continuing through Rochester to Pittsburgh, the Lincoln Highway left the Old Rochester-Bridgewater Bridge on Madison Street, turning onto Brighton Avenue, and then crossing the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway (PRR) on New York Avenue. After running alongside the Ohio River on Railroad Avenue, the highway crossed the railroad again in Freedom (about a block north of Third Street), running through Freedom on Third Avenue.
South of downtown Freedom, Third Avenue merges into the Ohio River Boulevard, also known as PA Route 65, which runs along the old Lincoln Highway into Conway. There the old highway went onto First Avenue and State Street, rejoining PA 65 in Baden. Further into Baden, the old highway left PA 65 again, onto State Street, becoming Duss Avenue in Harmony Township. At the Ambridge limits, this becomes PA Route 989, but the old highway turned west at 14th Street and then south on Merchant Street.
Crossing Big Sewickley Creek from Ambridge, Beaver County into Leetsdale, Allegheny County, Merchant Street becomes Beaver Street, a brick road. Beaver Road and Beaver Street continues through Edgeworth, Sewickley, and Osborne, merging back into PA 65 at the border with Haysville. Sewickley officially changed the name of its piece to Lincoln Highway by an ordinance in January 1916, and Osborne, Edgeworth and Leetsdale soon followed suit, but that name is no longer used.
In Glenfield, the highway crossed the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway twice, once near the present overpass and again west of Toms Run Road. The old road next to the Ohio River, Beaver Street, is still a yellow brick road but now used only by local traffic.
The old road left PA 65 again in Emsworth as Beaver Road, becoming Brighton Road in Ben Avon before re-merging with PA 65. It splits yet again, also in Ben Avon, onto Brighton Road, another yellow brick road. In Avalon it is California Avenue, and in Bellevue it is Lincoln Avenue, coincidentally named after Lincoln soon after the U.S. Civil War.
The highway crosses into Pittsburgh on a high concrete arch bridge over Jack's Run, built in 1924 to replace an earlier bridge built for a streetcar line, and returns to the California Avenue name. It crosses Woods Run on a similar 1928 bridge next to a newer bridge built for the Ohio River Boulevard (PA Route 65). Where California Avenue curves away from PA 65, the Lincoln Highway continued next to it on Chateau Street, turning east on Western Avenue and then south on Galveston Avenue onto the 1915 Manchester Bridge to the Point.
During the time that the Lincoln Highway ran through Rochester, the Rochester-Pittsburgh segment was locally maintained. It was often foggy, and a July 1926 Lincoln Highway Association road report states that it was "paved city streets, mostly poor", in stark contrast to the good paving east of Pittsburgh. By 1924, reports recommended following an alternate on the other side of the river between Rochester and Pittsburgh. The route west of Rochester had similar problems; it was a dirt road, despite being a state highway. By 1922 an official detour was recommended via East Palestine, Ohio and Beaver, largely identical to the initial 1913 plan.
1927 route
Work began in the mid-1920s on a new route to the south of the existing route, passing through West Virginia and bypassing the problematic sections on both sides of Rochester; the Lincoln Highway was moved to it December 2, 1927. This new route had already been numbered U.S. 30 in late 1926.
The new Lincoln Highway bypassed the community of Imperial on a bypass built for it. Just southeast of Imperial, the highway turned east on Steubenville Pike, joining what was U.S. Route 22 before the present U.S. 22/U.S. 30 freeway was built ca. 1964. Steubenville Pike runs along the north side of the freeway, crossing to the south side and then merging with it just west of the I-376 interchange. From the late 1940s to 1982, the appropriately-named Penn-Lincoln Drive-In Theater operated on a stretch of the original Lincoln Highway in North Fayette, just east of Imperial. It reopened for one season in 1985 as the Super 30 West Drive-In. The site is now occupied by Penn-Lincoln Shopping Center.
US 22 and US 30 now join I-376 and turn southeast, but the Lincoln Highway (and US 22/30 before the nearby part of what is now I-376 opened in 1953) continued east with PA 60 through Robinson Township. In 1950, the Twin Hi-Way Drive-In Theater opened along the Robinson Township stretch, its name derived from the road's former designation of dual U.S. Route 22/30. Through Crafton, the highway used Steuben Street, Noble Avenue, Dinsmore Avenue, and Crafton Boulevard, now northbound PA 60. In Pittsburgh, the highway ran along Crafton Boulevard, Noblestown Road, and South Main Street, as PA 60 still does. It turned onto Carson Street (now PA Route 837) at the West End Circle, crossing the 1927 Point Bridge into the Point.
Downtown Pittsburgh to North Huntingdon
From 1915 to late 1927, the Lincoln Highway crossed the Allegheny River on the Manchester Bridge to the Point, touching down at the foot of Penn Avenue after meeting the Point Bridge. It made its way through downtown to Bigelow Boulevard (now PA Route 380), using Water Street, Liberty Avenue and Oliver Avenue. It continued to follow present PA 380 onto Craig Street and Baum Boulevard to East Liberty. The highway left East Liberty and Pittsburgh on Penn Avenue, the old Pittsburgh and Greensburg Turnpike, also now part of PA 380, and further east part of PA Route 8. (PA 380 however bypasses the center of East Liberty.)
The Boulevard of the Allies opened east from downtown Pittsburgh in 1923, and in 1924 it was designated as an alternate route. By 1930, this bypass ran along the Boulevard of the Allies, Forbes Avenue, Beeler Street, Wilkins Avenue and Dallas Avenue, rejoining the Lincoln Highway at Penn Avenue, west of Wilkinsburg.
Leaving the Pittsburgh area, the Lincoln Highway turned onto Ardmore Boulevard (now signed as PA 8 north of I-376, and U.S. 30 south of I-376). It then branched away from Ardmore Boulevard along Electric Avenue, turned northeast on Braddock Avenue, then east on Penn Avenue. The Lincoln Highway originally continued onto Airbrake Avenue and then turned south at 11th Street to cross Turtle Creek and the Pennsylvania Railroad main line over a bridge; a 1925 replacement bridge starts at the intersection of Airbrake Avenue, Penn Avenue, Monroeville Avenue, and Greensburg Pike. The Lincoln Highway then followed Greensburg Pike up to current U.S. 30.
In 1932, a bypass of the grades into and out of Turtle Creek, including the George Westinghouse Bridge, was opened. It runs along current U.S. 30 from the interchange with Electric Avenue in Chalfant to the intersection with Greensburg Pike in North Versailles.
The borough of White Oak had named their main street Lincoln Way in an attempt to convince the Lincoln Highway Association to use it, but instead the highway continued along Greensburg Pike through North Versailles.
Later history
The Penn-Lincoln Parkway was built from 1953 to 1962 as a freeway bypass across the Pittsburgh area for both the Lincoln Highway (US 30) and the William Penn Highway (US 22).
In 1953, the portion of present-day US 30 between PA 283 in Lancaster and PA 462 east of Lancaster was built as a freeway alignment of US 230. In 1967, US 30 was shifted to a freeway bypass between Prospect Road east of Columbia and east of Lancaster; the route replaced the US 230 designation between the present-day PA 283 and PA 462 interchanges. PA 462 was designated onto the former alignment of US 30 between those two points. In 1972, US 30 was shifted to a bypass between west of York and Columbia, with PA 462 extended west along the former alignment of US 30.
In 1963, the freeway bypass of US 30 between east of PA 10 and east of Downingtown was completed, with US 30 Bus. designated onto the former alignment of US 30. In December 1995, the US 30 freeway was extended east to bypass Exton, ending at an interchange with the US 202 freeway. As a result, US 30 Bus. was extended east through Exton along the former alignment of US 30 to its current eastern terminus.
From 1997 to 2004, significant construction was completed to the US 30 bypass around Lancaster.
A bypass of the section of US 30 in Gap, in Lancaster County, was first proposed in February 2012. In 2015, a PennDOT project began to build a bypass to the north of Gap for westbound US 30 between the PA 772 and PA 41 intersections to improve traffic flow and safety at the congested intersection of US 30 and PA 41. The bypass, which cost $10 million, was opened on August 4, 2016.
On April 7, 2018, a section of US 30 in East Pittsburgh sank down a hill after a landslide. One apartment building was destroyed, another threatened and ultimately demolished. The damaged road section reopened in late June 2018.
There are plans for improvements to be made to the US 30 freeway bypassing Coatesville and Downingtown in Chester County. The project is split into a western section between PA 10 near Parkesburg and PA 82 in Coatesville and an eastern section between Reeceville Road near Coatesville and US 30 Bus. east of Downingtown. The western section will remain four lanes wide, with construction planned to begin in 2026. The eastern section is planned to be widened to six lanes, with construction beginning as early as 2028. In addition to improvements made to the freeway, interchanges will also be improved. Construction of the western section is projected to cost $355 million while the eastern section is projected to cost $460 million.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
Pennsylvania Highways: US 30
US 30 at AARoads.com
Pennsylvania Roads – US 30
The Roads of Metro Philadelphia: US 30 Expressway (Chester County Section)
The Roads of Metro Philadelphia: Vine Street Expressway (I-676/US 30)
James Lin, The Lincoln Highway: Pennsylvania
Lincoln Highway maps ca. 1926, New York to Pittsburgh
30
Transportation in Beaver County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Pittsburgh
Transportation in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Somerset County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Bedford County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Fulton County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Franklin County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Adams County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in York County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Chester County, Pennsylvania
Radnor Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Philadelphia
U.S. Route 030 in Pennsylvania
Delaware River Port Authority |
4266335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty%20Meter%20Telescope | Thirty Meter Telescope | The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become controversial due to its location on Mauna Kea, on the island of Hawaiʻi. The TMT would become the largest visible-light telescope on Mauna Kea.
Scientists have been considering ELTs since the mid 1980s. In 2000, astronomers considered the possibility of a telescope with a light-gathering mirror larger than 20 meters (65') in diameter, using either small segments that create one large mirror, or a grouping of larger 8-meter (26') mirrors working as one unit. The US National Academy of Sciences recommended a 30-meter (100') telescope be the focus of U.S. interests, seeking to see it built within the decade.
Scientists at the University of California, Santa Cruz and Caltech began development of a design that would eventually become the TMT, consisting of a 492-segment primary mirror with nine times the power of the Keck Observatory. Due to its light-gathering power and the optimal observing conditions which exist atop Mauna Kea, the TMT would enable astronomers to conduct research which is infeasible with current instruments. The TMT is designed for near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed ELTs. The telescope has government-level support from several nations.
Demonstrations attracted press coverage after October 2014, when construction was temporarily halted due to a blockade of the roadway. When construction of the telescope was set to resume, construction was blocked by further protests each time. In 2015, Governor David Ige announced several changes to the management of Mauna Kea, including a requirement that the TMT's site will be the last new site on Mauna Kea to be developed for a telescope. The Board of Land and Natural Resources approved the TMT project, but the Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the building permits in December 2015, ruling that the board had not followed due process. In October 2018, the Court approved the resumption of construction; however, no further construction has occurred due to continued opposition. Several alternative sites for the Thirty Meter Telescope have been proposed. As of July 2023, there were no specific timelines or schedules regarding new start or completion dates.
Background
In 2000, astronomers began considering the potential of telescopes larger than 20 meters (65') in diameter. The technology to build a mirror larger than 8.4 meters (28') does not exist; instead scientists considered two methods: either segmented smaller mirrors as used in the Keck Observatory, or a group of 8-meter (26') mirrors mounted to form a single unit. The US National Academy of Sciences made a suggestion that a 30-meter (100') telescope should be the focus of US astronomy interests and recommended that it be built within the decade.
The University of California, along with Caltech, began development of a 30-meter telescope that same year. The California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) began development, along with the Giant Segmented Mirror Telescope (GSMT), and the Very Large Optical Telescope (VLOT). These studies would eventually become the Thirty Meter Telescope. The TMT would have nine times the collecting area of the older Keck telescope using slightly smaller mirror segments in a vastly larger group. Another telescope of a large diameter in the works is the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) being built in northern Chile.
The telescope is designed for observations from near-ultraviolet to mid-infrared (0.31 to 28 μm wavelengths). In addition, its adaptive optics system will help correct for image blur caused by the atmosphere of the Earth, helping it to reach the potential of such a large mirror. Among existing and planned extremely large telescopes, the TMT will have the highest elevation and will be the second-largest telescope once the ELT is built. Both use segments of small 1.44 metre (4'9") hexagonal mirrors—a design vastly different from the large mirrors of the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) or the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT). Each night, the TMT would collect 90 terabytes of data. The TMT has government-level support from the following countries: Canada, China, Japan and India. The United States is also contributing some funding, but less than the formal partnership.
Proposed locations
In cooperation with AURA, the TMT project completed a multi-year evaluation of six sites:
Roque de los Muchachos Observatory, La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain
Cerro Armazones, Antofagasta Region, Republic of Chile
Cerro Tolanchar, Antofagasta Region, Republic of Chile
Cerro Tolar, Antofagasta Region, Republic of Chile
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, United States (This site was chosen and approval was granted in April 2013)
San Pedro Mártir, Baja California, Mexico
Hanle, Ladakh, India
The TMT Observatory Corporation board of directors narrowed the list to two sites, one in each hemisphere, for further consideration: Cerro Armazones in Chile's Atacama Desert and Mauna Kea on Hawaii Island. On July 21, 2009, the TMT board announced Mauna Kea as the preferred site. The final TMT site selection decision was based on a combination of scientific, financial, and political criteria. Chile is also where the European Southern Observatory is building the ELT. If both next-generation telescopes were in the same hemisphere, there would be many astronomical objects that neither could observe. The telescope was given approval by the state Board of Land and Natural Resources in April 2013.
There has been opposition to the building of the telescope, based on potential disruption to the fragile alpine environment of Mauna Kea due to construction, traffic, and noise, which is a concern for the habitat of several species, and because Mauna Kea is a sacred site for the Native Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources conditionally approved the Mauna Kea site for the TMT in February 2011. The approval has been challenged; however, the Board officially approved the site following a hearing on February 12, 2013.
Opposition in the Canary Islands
Because of the ongoing protests that re-erupted in July 2019, the TMT project officials requested a building permit for a second site choice, the Spanish island of La Palma in the Canary Islands. Rafael Rebolo, the director of the Canary Islands Astrophysics Institute, confirmed that he had received a letter requesting a building permit for the site as a backup in case the Hawaii site cannot be constructed. Some astronomers argue however that La Palma is not an adequate site to build the telescope due to the island’s comparatively low elevation, which would enable water vapor to frequently interfere with observations due to water vapor’s tendency to absorb light at midinfrared wavelengths. Such atmospheric interference could impact observing times for research into exoplanets, galactic formation, and cosmology. Other astronomers argue that construction of the telescope in La Palma would disrupt projected international collaboration between the United States and other involved countries such as Japan, Canada, and France.
Environmentalists such as Ben Magec and the environmental advocacy organization Ecologistas en Acción in the Canary Islands are gearing up to fight against its construction there as well. According to EEA spokesperson Pablo Bautista, the projected TMT construction area in the Canary Islands exists inside a protected conservation refuge which hosts at least three archeological sites of the indigenous Guanche people, who lived on the islands for thousands of years before Spanish colonization. On July 29, 2021, Judge Roi López Encinas of the High Court of Justice of the Canary Islands, revoked the 2017 concession of public lands by local authorities for the TMT construction. Encinas ruled that the land concessions were invalid as they were not covered by an international treaty on scientific research and that the TMT International Observatory consortium did not express concrete intent to build on the La Palma site as opposed to the site in Mauna Kea.
On July 19, 2022, The National Science Foundation announced it will carry out a new environmental survey of the possible impacts of the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope at proposed building sites at both Mauna Kea and at the Canary Islands. Continued funding for the telescope will not be considered prior to the results of the environmental survey, updates on the project's technical readiness, and comments from the public.
Partnerships and funding
The Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation has committed US$200 million for construction. Caltech and the University of California have committed an additional US$50 million each. Japan, which has its own large telescope at Mauna Kea, the 8.3-metre Subaru, is also a partner.
In 2008, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) joined TMT as a collaborator institution. The following year, the telescope cost was estimated to be $970 million to $1.4 billion. That same year, the National Astronomical Observatories of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (NAOC) joined TMT as an observer. The observer status is the first step in becoming a full partner in the construction of the TMT and participating in the engineering development and scientific use of the observatory.
In June 2010, Governor Linda Lingle and University of Hawaii-Hilo Chancellor Rose Tseng attended a banquet at the Great Hall of the People at Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China, sponsored by the China Diplomatic Friendship Association and the Chinese Chamber of Commerce. The banquet included special guest Lu Yong Xiang, vice chairman of the Chinese People’s National Congress and head of the Chinese National Academy of Sciences who had visited Mauna Kea as part of China's intention to become a collaborative partner with the TMT. The governor gave a presentation on the two competing site locations, Mauna Kea and Cerro Armazones, Chile. Speaking at a Chinese Academy of Science conference in 1995, Lu Yong Xiang stated that by 2010, the academy would become one of the leading international scientific institutions, with new research results in such fields as Moon exploration, evolution of the universe and of life, space micro-gravity, particle physics, and astrophysics.
In 2010, a consortium of Indian Astronomy Research Institutes (IIA, IUCAA and ARIES) joined TMT as an observer, subject to approval of funding from the Indian government. Two years later, India and China became partners with representatives on the TMT board. Both countries agreed to share the telescope construction costs, expected to top $1 billion. India became a full member of the TMT consortium in 2014. In 2019 the India-based company Larsen & Toubro (L&T) were awarded the contract to build the segment support assembly (SSA), which “are complex optomechanical sub-assemblies on which each hexagonal mirror of the 30-metre primary mirror, the heart of the telescope, is mounted”.
The IndiaTMT Optics Fabricating Facility (ITOFF) will be constructed at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics campus in the city of Hosakote, near Bengaluru. India will supply 80 of the 492 mirror segments for the TMT. A.N. Ramaprakash, the associate programme director of India-TMT, stated; "All sensors, actuators and SSAs for the whole telescope are being developed and manufactured in India, which will be put together in building the heart of TMT", also adding; "Since it is for the first time that India is involved in such a technically demanding astronomy project, it is also an opportunity to put to test the abilities of Indian scientists and industries, alike."
The continued financial commitment from the Canadian government had been in doubt due to economic pressures. In April 2015, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Canada would commit $243.5 million over a period of 10 years. The telescope's unique enclosure was designed by Dynamic Structures Ltd. in British Columbia. In a 2019 online petition, a group of Canadian academics called on succeeding Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau together with Industry Minister Navdeep Bains and Science Minister Kirsty Duncan to divest Canadian funding from the project. The Canadian astronomy community has named TMT its top facility priority for the decade ahead.
Design
The TMT would be housed in a general-purpose observatory capable of investigating a broad range of astrophysical problems. The total diameter of the dome will be with the total dome height at (comparable in height to an eighteen-storey building). The total area of the structure is projected to be within a complex.
Telescope
The centerpiece of the TMT Observatory is to be a Ritchey-Chrétien telescope with a diameter primary mirror. This mirror is to be segmented and consist of 492 smaller (1.4 metre; 4'6"), individual hexagonal mirrors. The shape of each segment, as well as its position relative to neighboring segments, will be controlled actively.
A secondary mirror is to produce an unobstructed field-of-view of 20 arcminutes in diameter with a focal ratio of 15. A 3.5 × 2.5 metre (12' x 8') flat tertiary mirror is to direct the light path to science instruments mounted on large Nasmyth platforms. The telescope is to have an alt-azimuth mount. Target acquisition and system configuration capabilities need to be achieved within 5 minutes, or ten minutes if relocating to a newer device. To achieve these time limitations the TMT will use a software architecture linked by a service based communications system. The moving mass of the telescope, optics, and instruments will be 1430 tonnes. The design of the facility descends from the Keck Observatory.
Adaptive optics
Integral to the observatory is a Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics (MCAO) system. This MCAO system will measure atmospheric turbulence by observing a combination of natural (real) stars and artificial laser guide stars. Based on these measurements, a pair of deformable mirrors will be adjusted many times per second to correct optical wave-front distortions caused by the intervening turbulence.
This system will produce diffraction-limited images over a 30-arc-second diameter field-of-view, which means that the core of the point spread function will have a size of 0.015 arc-second at a wavelength of 2.2 micrometers, almost ten times better than the Hubble Space Telescope.
Scientific instrumentation
Early-light capabilities
Three instruments are planned to be available for scientific observations:
Wide Field Optical Spectrometer (WFOS) provides a seeing limit that goes down to the ultraviolet with optical (0.3–1.0 μm wavelength) imaging and spectroscopy capable of 40-square arc-minute field-of-view. The TMT will use precision cut focal plane masks and enable long-slit observations of individual objects as well as short-slit observations of hundreds of different objects at the same time. The spectrometer will use natural (uncorrected) seeing images.
Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (IRIS) mounted on the observatory MCAO system, capable of diffraction-limited imaging and integral-field spectroscopy at near-infrared wavelengths (0.8–2.5 μm). Principal investigators are James Larkin of UCLA and Anna Moore of Caltech. Project scientist is Shelley Wright of UC San Diego.
Infrared Multi-object Spectrometer (IRMS) allowing close to diffraction-limited imaging and slit spectroscopy over a 2 arc-minute diameter field-of-view at near-infrared wavelengths (0.8–2.5 μm).
Approval process and protests
In 2008, the TMT corporation selected two semi-finalists for further study, Mauna Kea and Cerro Amazones. In July 2009, Mauna Kea was selected. Once TMT selected Mauna Kea, the project began a regulatory and community process for approval. Mauna Kea is ranked as one of the best sites on Earth for telescope viewing and is home to 13 other telescopes built at the summit of the mountain, within the Mauna Kea Observatories grounds. Telescopes generate money for the big island, with millions of dollars in jobs and subsidies gained by the state. The TMT would be one of the most expensive telescopes ever created.
However, the proposed construction of the TMT on Mauna Kea sparked protests and demonstrations across the state of Hawaii. Mauna Kea is the most sacred mountain in Hawaiian culture as well as conservation land held in trust by the state of Hawaii.
Initial approval, permit and contested case hearing
In 2010 Governor Linda Lingle of the State of Hawaii signed off on an environmental study after 14 community meetings. The BLNR held hearings on December 2 and December 3, 2010, on the application for a permit.
On February 25, 2011, the board granted the permits after multiple public hearings. This approval had conditions, in particular, that a hearing about contesting the approval be heard. A contested case hearing was held in August 2011, which led to a judgment by the hearing officer for approval in November 2012. The telescope was given approval by the state Board of Land and Natural Resources in April 2013. This process was challenged in court with a lower court ruling in May 2014. The Intermediate Court of Appeals of the State of Hawaii declined to hear an appeal regarding the permit until the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources first issued a decision from the contested case hearing that could then be appealed to the court.
First blockade, construction halts, State Supreme Court invalidates permit
The dedication and ground-breaking ceremony was held, but interrupted by protesters on October 7, 2014. The project became the focal point of escalating political conflict, police arrests and continued litigation over the proper use of conservation lands. Native Hawaiian cultural practice and religious rights became central to the opposition, with concerns over the lack of meaningful dialogue during the permitting process. In late March 2015, demonstrators again halted the construction crews. On April 2, 2015, about 300 protesters gathered on Mauna Kea, some of them trying to block the access road to the summit; 23 arrests were made. Once the access road to the summit was cleared by the police, about 40 to 50 protesters began following the heavily laden and slow-moving construction trucks to the summit construction site.
On April 7, 2015, the construction was halted for one week at the request of Hawaii state governor David Ige, after the protest on Mauna Kea continued. Project manager Gary Sanders stated that TMT agreed to the one-week stop for continued dialogue; Kealoha Pisciotta, president of Mauna Kea Anaina Hou, one of the organizations that have challenged the TMT in court, viewed the development as positive but said opposition to the project would continue. On April 8, 2015, Governor Ige announced that the project was being temporarily postponed until at least April 20, 2015. Construction was set to begin again on June 24, though hundreds of protesters gathered on that day, blocking access to the construction site for the TMT. Some protesters camped on the access road to the site, while others rolled large rocks onto the road. The actions resulted in 11 arrests.
The TMT company chairman stated: "T.M.T. will follow the process set forth by the state." A revised permit was approved on September 28, 2017, by the Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources.
On December 2, 2015, the Hawaii State Supreme Court ruled the 2011 permit from the State of Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources (BLNR) was invalid ruling that due process was not followed when the Board approved the permit before the contested case hearing. The high court stated: "BLNR put the cart before the horse when it approved the permit before the contested case hearing," and "Once the permit was granted, Appellants were denied the most basic element of procedural due process – an opportunity to be heard at a meaningful time and in a meaningful manner. Our Constitution demands more".
BLNR hearings, Court validates revised permit
In March 2017, the BLNR hearing officer, retired judge Riki May Amano, finished six months of hearings in Hilo, Hawaii, taking 44 days of testimony from 71 witnesses.
On July 26, 2017, Amano filed her recommendation that the Land Board grant the construction permit.
On September 28, 2017, the BLNR, acting on Amano's report, approved, by a vote of 5-2, a Conservation District Use Permit (CDUP) for the TMT. Numerous conditions, including the removal of three existing telescopes and an assertion that the TMT is to be the last telescope on the mountain, were attached to the permit.
On October 30, 2018, the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled 4-1, that the revised permit was acceptable, allowing construction to proceed. On July 10, 2019, Hawaii Gov. David Ige and the Thirty Meter Telescope International Observatory jointly announced that construction would begin the week of July 15, 2019.
Renewed blockade shuts down all observatories
On July 15, 2019, renewed protests blocked the access road, again preventing construction from commencing. On July 17, 38 protestors were arrested, all of whom were kupuna (elders) as the blockage of the access road continued. The blockade lasted 4 weeks and shut down all 12 observatories on Mauna Kea, the longest shut down in the 50-year history of the observatories. The full shut down ended when state officials brokered a deal that included building a new road around the campsite of the demonstrations and providing a complete list of vehicles accessing the road to show they are not associated with the TMT. The protests have become the latest fight for indigenous rights and become a field-defining moment for astronomy. While there is both Native Hawaiian and non native Hawaiian support for the TMT, a substantial percentage of native Hawaiians oppose the construction and see the proposal itself as a continued disregard to their basic rights.
The 50 years of protests against the use of Mauna Kea has drawn into question the ethics of conducting research with telescopes on the mountain. The controversy is about more than the construction and is about generations of conflict between Native Hawaiians, the U.S. Government and private interests. The American Astronomical Society stated through their Press Officer, Rick Fienberg; "The Hawaiian people have numerous legitimate grievances concerning the way they’ve been treated over the centuries. These grievances have simmered for many years, and when astronomers announced their intention to build a new giant telescope on Maunakea, things boiled over". On July 18, 2019, an online petition titled "Impeach Governor David Ige" was posted to Change.org. The petition has gathered over 25,000 signatures. The governor and others in his administration received death threats over the construction of the telescope.
Current status
On December 19, 2019, Hawaii Governor David Ige announced that the state would reduce its law enforcement personnel on Mauna Kea. At the same time, the TMT project stated it was not prepared to start construction anytime soon.
Early in 2020, TMT and the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT) jointly presented their science and technical readiness to the U.S. National Academies Astro2020 panel. Chile is the site for GMT in the south and Mauna Kea is being considered as the primary site for TMT in the north. The panel will produce a series of recommendations for implementing a strategy and vision for the coming decade of U.S. Astronomy & Astrophysics frontier research and prioritize projects for future funding.
In July 2020, TMT confirmed it would not resume construction on TMT until 2021, at the earliest. TMT continues to assess a number of factors impacting its timeline and schedule. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in TMT’s partnership working from home around the world and it continues to present a public health threat as well as travel and logistical challenges. The project is currently focused on doing the work it can safely do in its partner countries.
On August 13, 2020, the Speaker of the Hawaii House of Representatives, Scott Saiki announced that the National Science Foundation (NSF) has initiated an informal outreach process to engage stakeholders interested in the Thirty Meter Telescope project. After listening to and considering the stakeholders’ viewpoints, NSF will decide whether to initiate a formal federal environmental review process for TMT.
As of June 20, 2022, no further construction has been announced or initiated. Continued progress on instrument design, mirror casting & polishing, and other critical operational technicalities have been worked through or are currently being worked on. In July of 2023 a new state appointed oversight board assumed management over the Mauna Kea site. While there are no specific timelines or schedules regarding new start or completion dates, activist Noe Noe Wong-Wilson is quoted by Astronomy Magazine as saying, "It’s still early in the life of the new authority, but there’s actually a pathway forward." This is the start of a five year transition to a permanent Maunakea Stewardship Oversight Authority which will have control of the site from July 2028 and will include representatives from Native Hawaiian communities as well as astronomers.
See also
European Extremely Large Telescope
Very Large Telescope
Giant Magellan Telescope
List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
References
External links
Mauna Kea page at the Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources
INSIGHTS ON PBS HAWAII Should the Thirty Meter Telescope Be Built? (air-date video; April 30, 2015)
Astronomical observatories in Hawaii
Telescopes
Telescopes under construction |
4266341 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotho-Tswana%20peoples | Sotho-Tswana peoples | The Sotho-Tswana, also known as the Sotho or Basotho, although the term is now closely associated with the Southern Sotho peoples are a meta-ethnicity of Southern Africa. They are a large and diverse group of people who speak Sotho-Tswana languages. The group is predominantly found in Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, and the western part of Zambia. Smaller groups can also be found in Namibia and Zimbabwe.
The Sotho-Tswana people would have diversified into their current arrangement during the course of the 2nd millennium, but they retain a number of linguistic and cultural characteristics that distinguish them from other Bantu-speakers of southern Africa. These are features such as totemism/diboko a pre-emptive right of men to marry their maternal cousins, and an architectural style characterized by a round hut with a conical thatch roof supported by wooden pillars on the outside. Other major distinguishing features included their dress of skin cloaks and a preference for dense and close settlements, as well as a tradition of large-scale building in stone.
The group mainly consists of four clusters: the Southern Sotho (Sotho), the Northern Sotho (which consists of the Bapedi, the Balobedu and others), the Lozi, the Tswana and the Kgalakgadi. A fifth cluster is sometimes referred to as the Eastern Sotho and consists of the Pulana, Kgolokwe, Pai, and others. The Sotho-Tswana are said to contain some Khoe-San ancestry with levels varing from >20%.
Ethnonym
The Sotho-Tswana ethnic group derives its name from the people who belong to the various Sotho and Tswana clans that live in southern Africa. Historically, all members of the group were referred to as Sothos; the name is now exclusively applied to speakers of Southern Sotho who live mainly in Lesotho and the Free State province in South Africa, while Northern Sotho is reserved for Sotho speakers that inhabit north-eastern South Africa, predominantly in Limpopo.
Sotho Ethnonym
Swazi origin
The term Basotho may have originated as a derogatory term used by the Swazi to refer to the Pedi in the 1400s. The Swazi called the Bapedi "Abashuntu" because they wore breechcloths made of animal skins tied in knots to cover their private parts. The word "Abashuntu" comes from the verb "uku shunta," which means "to make a knot."
Despite the derogatory origins of the term, the Pedi adopted it with pride. They saw it as a sign of their independence and freedom from Swazi rule. Other Sotho-speaking groups who also wore breechcloths adopted the term as well, and it eventually came to be used to refer to all Sotho people.
Skin color origin
The Basotho name is thought to be derived from the word "sootho", "brown" , which means the ones with dark/brown melanin. "Ba sootho" directly translates to "They are brown".
The use of the word has always been part of the vocabulary of the Sotho-Tswana nation. The word became ascribed to a specific people due to regional conflicts: different Bantu clans split from their ancestor clans and took the name of their leader as their identity, but naturally, in essence, every Batho/Bantu people is a Mosotho.
The term Basotho is now used as a term of pride and unity for the Sotho people. It is a reminder of their shared history and culture and their determination to resist oppression.
Tswana Ethnonym
The ethnonym Batswana is thought to be an anantonym that comes from the meaning of the Sotho-Tswana word "tswa", which means "to come out of". The name would be derived from the word "Ba ba tswang" eventually shortened to the word Batswana meaning "The Separatists" or alternatively "the people who cannot hold together". One of the chief characteristics of the Sotho-Tswana clans is their tendency to break up and hive off.
History
Early history
The Sotho-Tswana are a cultural and ethnic group whose ancestors arrived in Botswana and South Africa around 200–500 AD, during the last Bantu migration, they are descended from a group that moved southward from the Great Lakes region in a separate movement from the other Southern Bantu groups, proceeding along the western part of present-day Zimbabwe. By the 15th century, the Sotho-Tswana people had begun to disperse throughout the southern Transvaal highveld. Over the next few centuries, the Sotho-Tswana people continued to disperse and form new chiefdoms.
Unlike the Nguni people, who predominantly settled in coastal areas, the Sotho-Tswana found their home in the highlands of South Africa, specifically in the region known as the Highveld. This region is situated between the coastal lowlands to the east and south and the Kalahari Desert to the west.
The Sotho-Tswana predominantly inhabited the highlands and steppes, resulting in a relatively lower population density than the Nguni. They were also less reliant on agriculture, instead practicing a mixed economy of farming, herding, and hunting.
Difeqane
The 19th century marked a significant period of change for the Sotho-Tswana territories due to the expansion of the Nguni people, known as the Mfecane. This expansion prompted local groups to consolidate and form the first states within the region. Notable among these emerging states were the Basotho, Bapedi, and Tswana. One group of Basotho, known as the Kololo, migrated extensively to the north and established their own state in what is now Zambia. During their rule, the language of the conquerors, Lozi, gained prominence in Zambia.
Modern history
Throughout the 19th century and into the middle of the 20th century, various African groups gradually migrated into the Sotho-Tswana territories, establishing settlements and states. Notable among these were the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The British Empire later laid claim to these territories, resulting in conflicts with local populations. Eventually, the British defeated the indigenous African groups, and the areas under their control were divided among different territories. South Africa, Bechuanaland (now known as Botswana), Barotseland (now in Zambia), and Basutoland (now Lesotho) emerged as distinct geopolitical entities.
This complex historical process shaped the cultural and political landscape of the Sotho-Tswana territories, contributing to the formation of diverse states and the interaction between various ethnic groups.
Subdivisions
Southern Sotho
The term Basotho can be used to refer to the following:
Citizen of Lesotho, regardless of linguistic or ethnic origin
Any member of the Sotho-Tswana clans that trace their origin to Kgosi Mogale
Members of the Sotho-Tswana clans that came together under the leadership of Moshoeshoe during the Difaqane.
The Sotho-Tswana clans that stay in the Free State and Lesotho speak a standardised dialect of the Sotho-Tswana language called Sesotho and sometimes referred to as the Southern Sotho
Tswana
The term Tswana can be used to refer to one of the following:
All the Tswana clans residing either in Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe or South Africa
Any member of the Sotho-Tswana clans that trace their origins to Kgosi Mokgatle
Citizen of Botswana, regardless of linguistic or ethnic origin
Members of the eight major Sotho-Tswana clans as defined in the Chieftainship Act of Botswana
Members of the Sotho-Tswana clans that reside in Botswana, South Africa, speak a standardized dialect of the Sotho-Tswana called Setswana, sometimes also referred to as the Western Sotho.
Any Sotho-Tswana clan that inhabits the Kalahari Desert basin and its eastern and south-western peripheries, unless they are the Kgalagari people, who are a different Sotho-Tswana group of tribes.
Northern Sotho
The term Northern Sotho can be used to refer to the following:
The Bapedi
The Lobedu
Eastern Sotho
The term Eastern Sotho can be used to refer to the following:
The Pulana
The Pai
Lozi
The term Lozi can be used to refer to the following:
The Lozi
Culture
Totemism
In Sotho-Tswana society, each member has a totem, which is usually an animal. Totems are inherited from the father and thus pass like an English surname. The totem animal had traditionally had a status of veneration and avoidance; in particular, it was important not to eat one's totem. In modern Sotho-Tswana society, this is not as strictly observed.
Each morafe or sechaba had its own totem. When naming a clan, the name of the founder or the animal they venerate could be used. An example is the Bahurutshe, named after the founder Mohurutshe; alternatively, they can also be called Batshweneng after the tshwene (baboon), which they venerate; similarly, Batlhako after the founder; or Batloung after the totem. For some clans, the name of the founder and their totem are the same, like the Bakwena and Bataung, where the founders were named Kwena (crocodile) and Tau (lion), respectively.
Sotho-Tswana Clans and Rank
Clan Structure
An important distinction that needs to be made when discussing Sotho-Tswana clans is to distinguish between the different clans and the various sub-clans below them. This means distinguishing between clans that share the same totem, like the crocodile, but are distinct, such as the Bapo, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, and Bafokeng of Phokeng. In distinguishing between subclans, an example is the Bakgatla, who separated into Bakgatla ba Kgafela and Bakgatla ba ga Mmakau over who should lead the clan. One faction defied the usual tradition of male leaders and acknowledged the female, Mmakau, as their kgosi. Those who supported Kgafela then broke away. Further offshoots from the Bakgatla are the Bakgatla ba Mmanaana, Bakgatla ba Mmakau, and Bakgatla ba Motsha, who all have the kgabo as their totem. The Bakgatla ba Mmakau would later give rise to Bapedi, BaKholokoe, Batlokwa, BaPhuti and Basia clans If a dispute were to arise between any of the offshoot clans, like the Basia and Baphiti, then the Mmakau chief would be tasked with resolving it as their senior.
Clan Seniority
The question of rank and seniority is one that is very important to the Sotho-Tswana. It determines a lot, from family relationships, to village matters to relationships between clans and between the different tribal groups. In a family situation, the issue of rank determines when a son will undergo initiation, or receive an inheritance. A further distinction is also made between the senior wife and the junior wife if a man is in a polygamous marriage.
As the Sotho-Tswana lived in large villages, seniority and rank also played a part here. The chief's homestead is situated at the center of the village, and thereafter the other citizens are grouped according to rank, with the most junior members living the furthest from the village center. Inter and intra-clan relationships have been a question that has occupied the Sotho-Tswana since the split that occurred between the followers of Mohurutshe and Kwena. While it is generally accepted that the Hurutshe are the senior clan, some of the other clans have disputed this, mainly the Bafokeng, Barolong, and Bakgatla. The claims of the Barolong and Bakgatla have mainly been dismissed; for example, some subclans of Bakgatla, like the Bakgatla ba GaMmakau, acknowledge the Bahurutshe as senior, while the BaKagatla ba ga Kgafela do not. In the case of the Barolong, the Batlhaping, who are an offshoot of the Barolong, acknowledge the Bahurutshe to be senior to the Barolong, while the Barolong do not. The Bafokeng maintain that their split from the core Sotho-Tswana body predated the split between Mohurutshe and Kwena, and therefore they are equal in status to the Bahurutshe, if not senior.
These disputes over seniority and rank were driven by the quest for benefits and independence, a senior kgosi could demand a payment of tribute from a junior chief, and they could also summon a junior chief or member of his clan to kgotla for a hearing. If a dispute arose between two junior chiefs, the most senior chief closest to them would be invited to resolve it. Another important factor was that a senior chief or members of his clan could not be summoned to the Kgotla by a junior kgosi or clan member. An additional factor in this question of rank and seniority is that it was determined by birth and could not be changed; this means a chief born of minor status could not change his standing relative to the other chiefs. This was mainly to discourage the split up of clans into further sub-clans and the buildup of clans through conquest and warfare.
Notable people
Politics
Moshoeshoe I, Founder of the Basotho nation
Moshoeshoe II, Paramount Chief of Lesotho
King Letsie – Reigning King of the Basotho
Queen 'Masenate Mohato Seeiso – the queen consort of Lesotho
Pakalitha Mosisili – Former Prime Minister of Lesotho
Ace Magashule – Secretary General of the African National Congress, Former Premier of the Free State
Tom Thabane – Former Prime Minister of Lesotho
Ntsu Mokhehle – Former Prime Minister of Lesotho
Leabua Jonathan – Former Prime Minister of Lesotho
Mosiuoa Lekota – South African anti-apartheid activist, Member of Parliament. And the current President of the COPE
Hlaudi Motsoeneng – South African radio personality and broadcasting executive
Kgalema Motlanthe – 3rd President of South Africa
Lesetja Kganyago – Governor of the South African Reserve Bank.
Edward Lekganyane – the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) leader
Engenas Lekganyane -the founder of Zion Christian Church (ZCC)
Sefako Makgatho – second President of the African National Congress, born in Ga-Mphahlele village
Malegapuru William Makgoba – Doctor
Thabo Makgoba – South African Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town
David Makhura – premier of Gauteng Province
Julius Malema – political leader. Former leader of the ANC Youth League. Commander in Chief of the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF)
Mampuru II – King of the Pedi (1879 – 1883)
Richard Maponya – South African businessmen and founder and first president of the National African Federated Chamber of Commerce (NAFCOC). Born in Lenyeye, Tzaneen.
Cassel Mathale – third premier of Limpopo province
Lebo Mathosa – Musician
Kenneth Meshoe – politician
Peter Mokaba – former politician. Former leader of the ANC Youth League
Lydia Mokgokoloshi – actress
Sello Moloto – former premier of Limpopo province
Trott Moloto – Former South Africa National Soccer Coach
Mathole Motshekga- Politician
Aaron Motsoaledi – Minister of Health, South Africa and nephew of Elias Motsoaledi
Caroline Motsoaledi – South African political activist and wife of Elias Motsoaledi
Elias Motsoaledi – South African anti-apartheid activist and one of the eight men sentenced to life imprisonment at the Rivonia Trial
Es'kia Mphahlele – writer, educationist, artist, and activist.
Letlapa Mphahlele – former President of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).
Gift Ngoepe – the first black South African, and the sixth South African to sign a professional baseball contract when he signed in October 2008
Lilian Ngoyi – anti-apartheid activist.
Maite Nkoana-Mashabane – Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform, South Africa
Ngoako Ramatlhodi – first premier of Limpopo province
Gwen Ramokgopa – Deputy Minister of Health, former MEC of Health in Gauteng Province
Mamphela Ramphele – Former Director at World Bank. Former principal of the University of Cape Town.
Sello Rasethaba – businessman
Thabo Sefolosha – American basketball player. His father Patrick Sefolosha was a musician from South Africa.
King Matsebe Sekhukhune – son of King Sekwati. He fought two wars: first successfully in 1876 against the SAR and their Swazi allies, then unsuccessfully against the British and Swazi in 1879 during the Sekukuni Wars.
Entertainment
Joshua Pulumo Mohapeloa – Music composer
Lira – South African singer
Mpho Koaho – Canadian-born actor of Sotho ancestry
Terry Pheto – South African actress
Sankomota – Lesotho Jazz band
Kamo Mphela – South African dancer
Fana Mokoena – South African actor and Member of Parliament for Economic Freedom Fighters
Kabelo Mabalane – South African musician and 1/3 of Kwaito group Tkzee
Presley Chweneyagae – South African actor. He starred in the film Tsotsi, which won the Academy Award for Foreign Language Film
Khuli Chana – South African hip hop artist
Caiphus Semenya – musician
Caster Semenya – athlete, Olympic Games medal winner
Judith Sephuma – Musician
King Monada – famous artist.
Master KG – famous artist and composer of the popular song Jerusalema.
Katlego Danke – South African actress
Connie Ferguson – Botswana born South African actress
Shona Ferguson – Botswana born South African businessman, actor, film producer and co-founder of Ferguson Films
DJ Fresh – Botswana born South African radio personality
Goapele – American singer with Setswana ancestry
Thebe Kgositsile – American rapper, father is Keorapetse Kgositsile
Mpule Kwelagobe – Former Miss Universe
Kagiso Lediga – South African stand-up comedian, actor and director
Gail Nkoane Mabalane – South African actress, model, media socialite, businesswoman and singer
Kabelo Mabalane – South African kwaito musician, songwriter and actor. He was a member of the kwaito trio TKZee
Maps Maponyane – South African television presenter, actor, fashion designer, speaker, model, voice over artist, philanthropist and entrepreneur
Bonang Matheba – South African media personality
Tim Modise – South African journalist, TV and radio presenter
Tumi Morake – South African comedian, actress, TV personality, and writer. Current presenter of "Dirage" on Motsweding Fm
Cassper Nyovest – aka Refiloe Maele Phoolo, South African hip hop artist
Hip Hop Pantsula – South African artist
Manaka Ranaka – South African actress
Dolly Rathebe – musician and actress
Rapulana Seiphemo – South African actor
Tuks Senganga – aka Tumelo Kepadisa, Setswana rapper
Boity Thulo – South African actress
Redi Tlhabi – Journalist, producer, author and radio presenter
Emma Wareus – Former Miss World First Princess
Zeus – aka Game Goabaone Bantsi, Botswana born Setswana rapper
Sport
Khotso Mokoena – Athlete (Long jump)
Pitso Mosimane – South African football former player and coach – current manager of Al Ahly in the Egyptian Premier League
Molefi Ntseki – Former football coach for Bafana Bafana
Steve Lekoelea – Former football player for Orlando Pirates
Aaron Mokoena – Former football player for Jomo Cosmos, Blackburn Rovers, and Portsmouth FC
Thabo Mooki – Former football player for Kaizer Chiefs and Bafana Bafana
Abia Nale – Former football player for Kaizer Chiefs
Lebohang Mokoena – Football player for Moroka Swallows
Jacob Lekgetho – Former football player for Moroka Swallows
Vincent Pule – Football player for Orlando Pirates
Ben Motshwari – Football player for Orlando Pirates
Lehlohonolo Seema – Retired footballer, Coach of Chippa United
Lebohang Maboe – Football player for Mamelodi Sundowns
Reneilwe Letsholonyane – South African footballer
Itumeleng Khune – South African footballer
Victor Mpitsang – South African cricketer, fast bowler who has played for South Africa, currently cricket National Convenor of Selectors
Lucky Lekgwathi – Former South African footballer
Dikgang Mabalane – South African football player
Marks Maponyane – retired South African football player
Amantle Montsho – Former world 800 metres champion
Kaizer Motaung – Former South African footballer and chairman of Kaizer Chiefs
Kaizer Motaung Junior – Former South African footballer
Katlego Mphela – South African footballer
Kagiso Rabada – South African cricketer, debut for South Africa in November 2014 and by July 2018 he had topped both the ICC ODI bowler rankings and the ICC Test bowler rankings aged 22
Jimmy Tau – Former South African footballer
Percy Tau – South African footballer
Baboloki Thebe – Commonwealth 800 metres silver medalist. 4x4 Commonwealth gold medalist
Politics, royalty, activism, business and economics
Frances Baard – Organiser of the African National Congress (ANC) Women's League and Trade Unionist
Bathoen I – Former Kgosi (paramount chief) of the Ngwaketse
Manne Dipico – first premier of Northern Cape province, South Africa
Winkie Direko – former premier of Free State and former chancellor of University of Free State
Unity Dow – Botswana former High Court judge, author, activist, Minister
John Taolo Gaetsewe – Trade unionist, member of the ANC and General Secretary of SACTU, Robben Island prisoner, banned person
Khama III – King of Botswana
Ian Khama – Fourth President of Botswana
Seretse Khama – First President of Botswana
Moses Kotane – South African politician and activist
David Magang – Botswana lawyer, businessman and politician
Supra Mahumapelo – South African politician
Mmusi Maimane – South African politician
Toto Makgolokwe – Paramount chief (kgosi) of the Batlharo tribe of South Africa
Lucas Mangope – Former President of Bophuthatswana
Quett Masire – Second President of Botswana
Mokgweetsi Masisi – President of Botswana
Joe Matthews – South African politician
Naledi Pandor (née Matthews) – South African politician and minister
Festus Mogae – Third President of Botswana
Mogoeng Mogoeng – Chief Justice, South Africa
Job Mokgoro – South African politician and academic
Yvonne Mokgoro – Former South African Constitutional Court Justice
Brian Molefe – South African businessman, appointed CEO of Transnet in February 2011, and CEO of Eskom in April 2015
Popo Molefe – first premier of North West province, South Africa
Dipuo Peters – South Africa politician, former Minister of Transport and Minister of Energy from 2009 to 2013
Edna Molewa – South African politician
Leruo Molotlegi – King of the Royal Bafokeng Nation
Ruth Mompati – South African political activist
James Moroka – one of the ANC Presidents (1949 to 1952)
Dikgang Moseneke – South African judge and former Deputy Chief Justice of South Africa
Nthato Motlana – Prominent South African businessman, physician and anti-apartheid activist
Bridgette Motsepe – South African businesswoman
Patrice Motsepe – South African billionaire mining businessman
Tshepo Motsepe – First Lady of South Africa as the wife of Cyril Ramaphosa, the President of South Africa
Sebele I – Former Chief (Kgosi) of the Kwena – a major Tswana tribe (morafe) in modern-day Botswana
Molefi Sefularo – South African politician
Abram Onkgopotse Tiro – South African student activist and black consciousness militant
See also
Tswana people
Sotho people
Pedi people
Barotseland
Lozi people
References
http://www.namibian.org/travel/namibia/population/tswana.htm
http://mphebathomuseum.org.za/?q=node/42 |
4266441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937%20in%20baseball | 1937 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: New York Yankees over New York Giants (4-1)
All-Star Game, July 7 at Griffith Stadium: American League, 8-3
Other champions
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: East, 7-2
Awards and honors
Baseball Hall of Fame
Morgan Bulkeley
Ban Johnson
Nap Lajoie
Connie Mack
John McGraw
Tris Speaker
George Wright
Cy Young
MLB Most Valuable Player Award
American League: Charlie Gehringer, Detroit Tigers, 2B
National League: Joe Medwick, St. Louis Cardinals, OF
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Johnny Allen Cleveland Indians
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Bill McKechnie Boston Braves
Statistical leaders
1American League Triple Crown Pitching Winner
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro league baseball final standings
Negro American League final standings
Kansas City awarded first-half championship, but Chicago American Giants had better record and disputed it.
No second half of the season was recorded and Kansas City was awarded the Pennant.
Detroit and St. Louis both serve as charter members of the League but also disband their teams after the season ends
Negro National League final standings
Events
January–June
January 5 - The New York Giants release shortstop Travis Jackson, who had played fifteen seasons with the team.
January 6- The New York Giants acquire infielder Tommy Thevenow from the Cincinnati Reds. Thevenow never plays a game for the Giants due to a trade months later to the Boston Bees for shortstop Billy Urbanski, who opts to retire instead (incidentally, his last plate appearance as a player was against the Giants).
January 17 – The St. Louis Browns trade Ivy Andrews, Lyn Lary and Moose Solters to the Cleveland Indians for Oral Hildebrand, Bill Knickerbocker and Joe Vosmik.
January 19 - Cy Young, Tris Speaker, and Nap Lajoie are elected to the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, set to open in the next two years.
January 27 - A flood strikes the city of Cincinnati that causes Mill Creek to overflow its banks. The flood affects Crosley Field by submerging parts of it under twenty feet of water.
February 4 - The Philadelphia Athletics sign free agent Ace Parker, a future member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
February 17 - The New York Yankees purchase the contract of first baseman Babe Dahlgren from the Boston Red Sox. Dahlgren would later be best remembered for replacing Lou Gehrig at first base, ending the iron man's consecutive playing streak.
March 20 - The Homestead Grays acquire Josh Gibson and Judy Johnson from the Pittsburgh Crawfords in exchange for Lloyd Bassett and Henry Spearman, along with $2,500 in cash. Johnson and Gibson would go on to become two of the top attractions in the Negro leagues and would be among the first Negro league players inducted in the Baseball Hall of Fame.
April 4 – The Washington Senators purchase Al Simmons and his contract from the Detroit Tigers for $15,000.
April 19 – On Opening Day, the Philadelphia Phillies sweep the Boston Bees in a double header, and the Philadelphia Athletics defeat the Washington Senators, 4-3, in the only games on the schedule.
Vince DiMaggio makes his MLB debut, going 1-for-4 for the Philadelphia Phillies in a 2-1 loss to the Boston Bees.
April 20 – In the Boston Red Sox's 11-5 victory over the Philadelphia A's, Bobby Doerr makes his major league debut at second base, going three-for-five with a run scored.
Gee Walker becomes the first player to hit for a cycle on opening day when he accomplishes the feat for the Detroit Tigers in their 4-3 win over the Cleveland Indians.
April 22- Johnny Vander Meer makes his MLB debut not as a pitcher, but as a pitch runner for the Cincinnati Reds in their 14-11 loss to the St. Louis Cardinals.
April 25 - Cliff Melton of the New York Giants becomes the first rookie pitcher to strike out at least ten batters in his major league debut, having thirteen. It wasn't enough however, as the Giants dropped the game to the Boston Braves 3-1. The record would stand until 1954.
May 3 – The New York Giants play an entire nine inning game with the Boston Bees without a single chance for their outfielders. The Bees outfield only had three chances themselves. Boston wins the game by a final score of 3-1.
May 6 - Fans watching the Dodgers at Ebbets Field and the Giants at the Polo Grounds are treated to the sight of the Hindenburg as the zeppelin flew over both stadiums. Hours later, the Zeppelin explodes on a landing strip in Lakehurst, New Jersey, killing all 36 people on board.
May 7- Spud Chandler makes his MLB debut for the New York Yankees, appearing as a relief pitcher in the Yankees 12-6 loss to the Detroit Tigers.
May 9 – In the Cincinnati Reds' 21-10 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies, Reds catcher Ernie Lombardi ties the modern Major League record with six hits in six consecutive times at bat. Pitcher Peaches Davis gives up ten hits, but pitches a complete game for the Reds.
May 10 – Monte Pearson pitches a one hitter in the 6–0 New York Yankees victory over the Chicago White Sox at Comiskey Park. Joe DiMaggio hits his first two home runs of the season while George Selkirk connects his fifth homer. The only hit for Chicago is a one-out, first-inning single by Larry Rosenthal, who is erased on a double play. Pearson faces 28 batters, one more than the complete game minimum, striking out four and walking two.
May 19 – In a pitchers' duel between St. Louis Cardinals' Dizzy Dean and New York Giants' Carl Hubbell, Dean is called for a balk in the sixth inning, resulting in a run for the Giants. Enraged, Dean begins throwing at New York batters, hitting Johnny McCarthy and inciting a bench-clearing brawl. Dean is fined $50.
May 25 – Detroit Tigers player/manager Mickey Cochrane hits a third-inning home run to tie the ballgame with the New York Yankees, 1-1. In his next at-bat, Yankees pitcher Bump Hadley strikes Cochrane on the left side of the head with a fastball, ending his playing career. Del Baker assumes managerial duties, as Cochrane does not return to the helm until . The Yankees win the game, 4-3.
May 27 – The New York Giants' Mel Ott's ninth-inning home run helps Carl Hubbell win a record 24th straight game in a 3-2 win over the Cincinnati Reds at Crosley Field.
June 1 – Bill Dietrich pitches a no-hitter in an 8-0 Chicago White Sox victory over the St. Louis Browns.
June 4 - Gus Suhr of the Pittsburgh Pirates establishes a National League Record when he plays in his 822nd game. The streak ends the next day when he removes himself from the line-up to attend the funeral of his mother.
June 8 – The Chicago White Sox defeat the New York Yankees 5-4, completing a ten-game winning streak, and moving into a first place tie with the Yankees.
June 11 – The Boston Red Sox trade brothers Rick and Wes Ferrell, along with Mel Almada, to the Washington Senators for Ben Chapman and Bobo Newsom.
June 12 – The Pittsburgh Pirates sell Waite Hoyt's contract to the Brooklyn Dodgers.
June 15 – The New York Giants obtain Wally Berger from the Boston Bees for Frank Gabler and $35,000.
June 25 - Augie Galan becomes the first player in the history of the National League to hit a home run from each side of the plate in the same game. The homers come at the expense of opposing pitchers Freddie Fitsimmons and Ralph Birkofer of the Brooklyn Dodgers as the Chicago Cubs win 11-2.
July–September
July 7 – The American League defeats the National League, 8-3, in the All-Star Game, held at Griffith Stadium, home of the Washington Senators.
July 9 - The Detroit Tigers claim Charlie Gelbert off waivers from the Cincinnati Reds.
July 15 – Philadelphia Athletics pitcher George Caster holds the Chicago White Sox to just four hits as the Athletics beat the White Sox 2-1, snapping a fifteen-game losing streak.
July 25 – Washington Senators leadoff hitter Mel Almada ties a major league record by scoring five runs in the second game of a double header with the St. Louis Browns. He scored four runs in the first game, giving him nine for the day.
August 3 – St. Louis Cardinals catcher Mickey Owen pulls off an unassisted double play in the 5-2 victory over the Boston Bees at Sportsman's Park.
August 8 – John Whitehead and the Chicago White Sox shut out the Boston Red Sox 13-0 in the second game of a double header to end Boston's twelve-game winning streak (excluding one tie on August 1).
August 14 – The Detroit Tigers score 34 runs in a double header with the St. Louis Browns.
August 17 - The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the Cincinnati Reds 8-6 in a lengthy game that went nine innings but ended two minutes after midnight, making it the first game in major league history to end after midnight.
August 27 - Dodgers pitcher Fred Frankhouse pitches seven innings of no-hit ball versus Cincinnati. However, the game is called on account of rain. While recognized as a no-hitter at the time, it becomes one of many no hitters struck from the record books in 1991 when MLB redefines a no-hitter as being a game in which a pitcher goes nine or more innings without giving up a hit.
September 2 - Boze Berger, Mike Kreevich, and Dixie Walker each homer, with Berger hitting two, as the Chicago White Sox defeat the Boston Red Sox 4-0, with all four White Sox runs coming via the home run.
September 11 – The St. Louis Browns win the second game of a double header with the Cleveland Indians, 8-3, to snap a twelve-game losing streak.
September 22 – The St. Louis Browns lose 4-1 to the New York Yankees for their 100th loss of the season.
September 29 – After scoring fifteen runs in the first game of a double header, the New York Yankees manage just one hit off Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Eddie Smith in the second game, losing 3-0. It is only the second time all season the Yankees are shut out (May 8).
September 30 – The Boston Bees sweep a double header from the Dodgers to bring Brooklyn's losing streak to fourteen games.
October–December
October 3 – On the final day of the season, the Cincinnati Reds are swept in a double header by the Pittsburgh Pirates to end the season with a fourteen-game losing streak.
The Detroit Tigers release outfielder Goose Goslin.
October 4 – The Brooklyn Dodgers trade Jim Bucher, Johnny Cooney, Roy Henshaw and Joe Stripp to the St. Louis Cardinals for Leo Durocher.
The Cincinnati Reds release Kiki Cuyler.
October 5- The St. Louis Browns draft George McQuinn from the New York Yankees as part of the Rule 5 draft.
October 6 – Having gotten just one hit, the New York Yankees finally get to Carl Hubbell in the sixth inning. Joe DiMaggio's single with the bases loaded drives in two, as the Yankees go on to score seven runs that inning. Lefty Gomez, meanwhile, gives up just one run to carry the Yankees to an 8-1 victory in Game one of the rematch of the 1936 World Series.
October 7 – The Yankees win game two of the 1937 World Series by the same score, 8-1. Red Ruffing is the winning pitcher, and goes two-for-four with a double and three runs batted in.
October 8 – For the third game in a row, Yankees pitching gives up just one run, as Monte Pearson pitches the Yankees to a 5-1 victory in game three.
October 9 – On the brink of elimination, New York Giants bats finally erupt, as they score six runs in the second inning on their way to a 7-3 victory in game four of the World Series.
October 10 – The New York Yankees defeat the New York Giants, 4-2, in Game five of the World Series to win their Major-League-record sixth World Championship, four game to one. The Yankees had been tied with the Philadelphia Athletics and Boston Red Sox for most championships (they each had five). By the time either of those teams won their next Series, the Yankees had far outdistanced them, with 20 wins as of , and 26 wins as of , respectively.
October 15- The New York Yankees release Tony Lazzeri, one of the last members of the famous "Murderers' Row" players on the roster.
October 28 – Tony Lazzeri joins the Chicago Cubs.
November 2 – American League batting champion Charlie Gehringer of the Detroit Tigers is named Most Valuable Player, receiving 78 out of a possible 80 points. Joe DiMaggio of the New York Yankees is a close second four points behind while Gehringer teammate Hank Greenberg, who collected 183 RBI, is a distant third. Gehringer also becomes the third Detroit player in four years to receive MVP honors.
November 9 – St. Louis Cardinals Triple Crown winner Joe Medwick is named National League Most Valuable Player by the Baseball Writers' Association of America.
December 2
The Detroit Tigers trade Marv Owen, Mike Tresh and Gee Walker to the Chicago White Sox for Vern Kennedy, Tony Piet and Dixie Walker.
The St. Louis Browns trade Joe Vosmik to the Boston Red Sox for Red Kress, Buster Mills and Bobo Newsom.
December 6 – The Boston Red Sox acquired the contract of nineteen-year-old Ted Williams.
December 7- The Red Sox begin to complete the deal with San Diego of the Pacific Coast league by sending cash, along with Dom Dallessandro, Al Niemiec to the Padres. The deal is officially considered complete when Boston sends Spence Harris to San Diego.
Births
January
January 8 – Don Dillard
January 10 – Jim O'Toole
January 11 – Jack Curtis
January 12 – Phil Mudrock
January 14 – Sonny Siebert
January 15 – Bob Sadowski
January 16 – Moe Morhardt
January 21 – Bill Graham
February
February 2 – Don Buford
February 7 – Juan Pizarro
February 9 – Clete Boyer
February 12 – Stan Johnson
February 18 – Cananea Reyes
February 21 – Ted Savage
February 27 – Carl Warwick
March
March 8 – Jim Small
March 20 – Kenny Kuhn
March 21 – Dave Thies
March 24 – Dick Egan
March 24 – Bob Tillman
April
April 2 – Dick Radatz
April 4 – Gary Geiger
April 4 – Al Kenders
April 5 – Roger Marquis
April 6 – Phil Regan
April 10 – Fritz Ackley
April 17 – Roberto Peña
April 21 – Bill Haywood
April 21 – Gary Peters
April 23 – Duke Carmel
May
May 7 – Claude Raymond
May 8 – Mike Cuellar
May 8 – Art López
May 10 – Jim Hickman
May 18 – Brooks Robinson
May 20 – Bob Giallombardo
May 22 – George Spriggs
June
June 3 – Phyllis Baker
June 4 – Dolly Vanderlip
June 8 – Joe Grzenda
June 9 – Jake Jacobs
June 10 – Kazuhisa Inao
June 14 – John Weekly
June 19 – Larry Miller
June 22 – Jim O'Rourke
June 22 – Jake Wood
June 23 – Tom Haller
June 24 – Jim Campbell
June 27 – Peggy Cramer
June 28 – Cal Emery
June 28 – Ron Luciano
July
July 1 – Ron Nischwitz
July 2 – Dick Berardino
July 4 – Gordon Seyfried
July 7 – George Smith
July 9 – Gordon Mackenzie
July 9 – Marty Springstead
July 10 – Larry Burright
July 11 – Verle Tiefenthaler
July 16 – Lee Elia
July 23 – Dean Look
July 26 – Pete Ward
July 31 – Fred Van Dusen
August
August 4 – Frank Kostro
August 5 – Bill Pleis
August 5 – Dwight Siebler
August 6 – Cam Carreon
August 6 – Joe Schaffernoth
August 6 – Wayne Schurr
August 9 – Ray Blemker
August 14 – Bert Cueto
August 14 – Joe Horlen
August 17 – Diego Seguí
August 19 – Jim Lehew
August 21 – Jack Damaska
August 22 – Pat Gillick
August 25 – Choo-Choo Coleman
August 28 – Bob Hartman
August 29 – Hal Stowe
August 31 – Tracy Stallard
September
September 2 – Peter Ueberroth
September 5 – Karl Kuehl
September 15 – Charley Smith
September 17 – Orlando Cepeda
September 19 – Chris Short
October
October 1 – Alan Brice
October 10 – Gordie Sundin
October 13 – Lou Clinton
October 19 – Walt Bond
October 20 – Juan Marichal
October 23 – Bob Allen
October 23 – Cecil Butler
October 24 – John Goetz
October 25 – Chuck Schilling
October 31 – Dave Tyriver
November
November 8 – Rex Johnston
November 11 – Dave Hill
November 14 – Jim Brewer
November 15 – Bob Farley
November 15 – Ray Webster
November 21 – Tony Balsamo
November 26 – Bob Lee
November 27 – Bill Short
November 28 – Purnal Goldy
November 28 – Corky Withrow
November 29 – George Thomas
December
December 6 – Freddie Velázquez
December 8 – Jim Pagliaroni
December 12 – Pedro González
December 13 – Ron Taylor
December 22 – Tony Curry
December 22 – Charlie James
December 23 – Tim Harkness
December 24 – Larry Foster
December 27 – Bobby Klaus
December 29 – George Perez
Deaths
January
January 5 – Ben Beville, 59, pitcher/first baseman and an original member of the Boston Americans club during the American League's inaugural season of 1901.
January 9 – Doc Kerr, 54, backup catcher who played from 1914 to 1915 for the Pittsburgh Rebels and Baltimore Terrapins of the Federal League.
January 12 – Joe McCarthy, 55, catcher for the New York Highlanders in 1905 and the St. Louis Cardinals in 1906.
January 14 – Ed Trumbull, 76, outfielder/pitcher for the 1884 Washington Nationals.
January 15 – Charlie Baker, 81, outfielder for the 1884 Chicago/Pittsburgh club of the Union Association.
January 15 – Eddie Foster, 49, third baseman who played with the New York Highlanders, Washington Senators, Boston Red Sox and St. Louis Browns in a span of 13 seasons from 1910 to 1923.
January 18 – Michael H. Sexton, 73, president of the Minor Leagues from 1909 through 1931, during which time the minors expanded to record size and success, peaking with 47 leagues.
January 29 – George Fisher, 81, versatile utility man who played at five different positions for the Cleveland Blues and Wilmington Quicksteps in 1884.
February
February 2 – Frank York, 59, Brooklyn attorney who served as president of the Robins/Dodgers from 1930 to 1932.
February 4 – Harry Wolverton, 63, third baseman for the Chicago Orphans, Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators and Boston Beaneaters from 1898 through 1905, and later a player/manager for the New York Highlanders in 1912.
February 5 – Al Bradley, 80, outfielder for the 1884 Washington Nationals.
February 7 – Charlie Bell, 68, pitcher who played with the Kansas City Cowboys in 1889, and for the Louisville Colonels and Cincinnati Kelly's Killers in 1891.
February 7 – Jim Miller, 56, backup infielder for the New York Giants in 1901.
February 25 – George Darby, 68, pitcher who played with the Cincinnati Reds in 1893.
February 26 – Ernie Lush, 51, backup outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1910.
March
March 1 – Nig Fuller, 58, backup catcher for the Brooklyn Superbas during the 1902 season.
March 1 – Roy Vaughn, 25, pitcher for the 1934 Philadelphia Athletics.
March 7 – Lady Baldwin, 77, pitcher for the Milwaukee Brewers, Detroit Wolverines, Brooklyn Bridegrooms, and Buffalo Bisons during six seasons spanning 1890–1890, who led the National League with 42 wins and 323 strikeouts in 1886, while setting a Major League record for the most wins in a single season by a left-hander, which still stands today.
March 14 – Rudy Kling, 66, shortstop for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1902.
March 19 – Otto Williams, 59, shortstop who played from 1902 through 1904 with the St. Louis Cardinals and Chicago Cubs, and for the Washington Senators in 1906.
March 26 – Jerry Nops, 61, pitcher who played from 1896 to 1900 for the Philadelphia Phillies, Baltimore Orioles and Brooklyn Superbas of the National League, and for the Baltimore Orioles of the American League in 1901.
March 29 – Bill White, 76, first baseman for the 1879 Providence Grays.
April
April 4 – Earl Howard, 40, pitcher for the 1918 St. Louis Cardinals.
April 12 – Ed Morris, 74, pitcher who played from 1884 through 1890 with the Columbus Buckeyes, Pittsburgh Alleghenys and Pittsburgh Burghers.
April 17 – Bill Foxen, 57, pitcher who played from 1908 to 1911 for the Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies.
April 14 – Ned Hanlon, 79, Hall of Fame player and masterful manager known by pioneering strategies such as the hit-and-run, who led the Baltimore Orioles teams which won three consecutive National League pennants from 1894 to 1896, and later guided the Brooklyn teams to league titles in 1899 and 1900, while compiling a World Series title with the 1887 Detroit Wolverines as their player-captain and a career managerial record of 1,313–1,164 (.530).
April 15 – Emmett McCann, 35, shortstop who played from 1920 to 1921 with the Philadelphia Athletics and for the Boston Red Sox in 1926.
April 18 – Hick Carpenter, 81, third baseman for five teams in a span of 12 seasons from 1879 to 1892, and a member of the 1882 American Association champions Cincinnati Red Stockings.
April 19 – Sam Nicholl, 67, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1888 and the Columbus Solons in 1890.
April 25 – George Gilham, 37, backup catcher for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1920 and 1921 seasons.
May
May 8 – Al Yeargin, 35, pitcher for the Boston Braves in the 1922 and 1924 seasons.
May 11 – Nick Scharf, 78, outfielder who played from 1882 to 1883 for the Baltimore Orioles.
May 18 – Doc Leitner, 71, pitcher for the Indianapolis Hoosiers in 1887.
May 21 – Jack McAdams, 50, pitcher who played in 1911 with the St. Louis Cardinals.
May 22 – Hi Jasper, 50, pitcher who played for the Chicago White Sox, St. Louis Cardinals and Cleveland Indians in a span of four seasons from 1914 to 1919.
May 23 – Danny Clark, 43, infielder for the Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox and St. Louis Cardinals in three seasons between 1922 and 1927.
May 27 – Frank Grant, 71, Hall of Fame second baseman widely considered to have been the greatest African-American player of the 19th century.
May 31 – John Reilly, 78, slugging first baseman for the Cincinnati teams during 10 seasons spanning 1880–1891, who hit for the cycle three times and led the American Association for the most home runs in 1884 and 1888.
June
June 9 – Bill Watkins, 79, Canadian manager who guided the Detroit Wolverines to the first professional sports championship for Detroit, Michigan, leading them to the 1887 National League championship en route to defeat the St. Louis Browns in a 15-game World Series.
June 12 – Jim St. Vrain, 54, pitcher for the Chicago Orphans of the National League in the 1902 season.
June 14 – Bert Miller, 61, pitcher for the 1897 Louisville Colonels.
June 15 – Al Krumm, 72, pitcher who played with the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1889.
June 18 – Willie Adams, 46, pitcher who played from 1912 through 1914 with the St. Louis Browns and the Pittsburgh Rebels, and for the Philadelphia Athletics from 1918 to 1919.
June 28 – Pop Joy, 77, first baseman who played for the Washington Nationals of the Union Association in 1884.
June 30 – Pete O'Brien, 70, second baseman who played for the Washington Nationals in 1887 and the Chicago Colts in 1890.
June 30 – Jerry Upp, 53, pitcher for the 1909 Cleveland Naps.
July
July 1 – Russ Hall, 65, shortstop who played for the St. Louis Browns in 1897 and the Cleveland Blues in 1901.
July 2 – Joe Yeager, 61, pitcher/third baseman who played for the Brooklyn Bridegrooms/Superbas, Detroit Tigers, New York Highlanders and St. Louis Browns in parts of 10 seasons spanning 1898–1908, and a member of the Brooklyn clubs that won the National League pennant in 1899 and 1900.
July 15 – Tully Sparks, 62, pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates, Milwaukee Brewers, New York Giants and Boston Americans in a span of 11 seasons from 1897 to 1910.
July 18 – Fred Jacklitsch, 61, catcher who played with five different teams during 13 seasons from 1900 to 1917, seven of them for the Philadelphia Phillies.
July 22 – Sam Woodruff, 60, third baseman for the Cincinnati Reds in the 1904 and 1910 seasons.
July 23 – Phil Saylor, 65, relief pitcher for Philadelphia Phillies in the 1891 season.
July 29 – Pete Fries, 79, pitcher who played from 1883 to 1884 for the Columbus Buckeyes and Indianapolis Hoosiers.
August
August 6 – Bruno Block, 52, catcher who played for the Washington Senators, Chicago White Sox and Chicago Chi-Feds in parts of five seasons spanning 1907–1914.
August 9 – Duff Cooley, 64, outfielder who played for the St. Louis Browns, Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Beaneaters and Detroit Tigers in a span of 13 years from 1893 to 1905.
August 10 – John Keefe, 70, pitcher who played for the Syracuse Stars of the American Association in 1890.
August 19 – Bunk Congalton, 62, Canadian-born right fielder for the Chicago Orphans, Cleveland Naps and Boston Americans in four seasons from 1902 to 1907, who finished fourth in the American League batting race with a .320 average in 1906.
August 21 – George Wright, 90, Hall of Fame pioneer of the sport who starred as a shortstop on the first professional team in 1869, then as captain of the powerhouse Boston teams from 1871 to 1978, and later managed the Providence Grays to the 1879 National League pennant.
August 22 – John Galligan, 72, outfielder for the 1889 Louisville Colonels.
August 29 – Stan Rees, 38, pitcher who played with the Washington Senators in the 1918 season.
August 30 – L. C. Ruch, 75, part-owner of the Philadelphia Phillies from 1913 to 1932 and club president in 1931–1932.
August 31 – Gene Connell, 31, backup catcher for the 1931 Philadelphia Phillies.
September
September 20 – Harry Stovey, 80, outfielder/first baseman and prolific slugger and base-stealer, who became the first player to hit 100 home runs while leading the hitters in homers (five times), hits (4), runs (4), triples (3), total bases (3), slugging (3), stolen bases (2), doubles (1) and RBI (1), in a career that lasted from 1880 to 1893 both in the American Association and the National League.
September 30 – George Shoch, 78, utility-man who played all-positions except catcher for the Washington Nationals, Milwaukee Brewers, Baltimore Orioles and Brooklyn Grooms/Bridegrooms in 11 seasons spanning 1886–1897, and also a player-manager in 11 Minor League seasons between 1885 and 1905 before retiring at age 46.
October
October 1 – Mickey Devine, 45, backup catcher for the Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Red Sox and New York Giants in part of three seasons spanning 1918–1925.
October 9 – Hank Gastright, 72, pitcher for the Columbus Solons, Washington Senators, Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Beaneaters, Brooklyn Grooms and Cincinnati Reds from 1889 to 1896. who posted the best winning-percentage of the National League in the 1893 season.
October 17 – Clyde Hatter, 29, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers in the 1935 and 1937 seasons.
October 18 – Charlie Starr, 59, second baseman for the St. Louis Browns in 1905 and the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1908, as well as with the Boston Doves and the Philadelphia Phillies during the 1909 season.
October 23 – John Singleton, 40, pitcher for the 1922 Philadelphia Phillies.
October 28 – Gus Shallix, 79, who pitched from 1884 to 1885 for the Cincinnati Red Stockings.
October 28 – Jesse Whiting, 58, pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1902, and for the Brooklyn Superbas from 1906 to 1907.
October 31 – Ed Walsh Jr., 32, pitcher and son of Hall of Famer Big Ed Walsh, who played four seasons with the Chicago White Sox before joining the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League in 1933, when his claim to fame was stopping a young Joe DiMaggio's Minor League record 61-game hitting streak.
November
November 1 – Benny Frey, 30, pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds from 1929 to 1936, who committed suicide after being unable to make a comeback following an arm injury.
November 8 – Henry Mullin, 75, Canadian-born outfielder who played with the Washington Nationals and Boston Reds in the 1884 season.
November 10 – Fred Andrus, 87, outfielder/pitcher for the Chicago White Stockings in the 1876 and 1884 seasons.
November 12 – Peek-A-Boo Veach, 75, pitcher and first baseman who played with the Kansas City Cowboys in 1884 and the Louisville Colonels in 1887, and also for the Cleveland Spiders and the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1890.
November 14 – Jack O'Connor, 71, catcher for eight teams in 21 seasons spanning 1887–1910, and just one of 29 ballplayers in Major League Baseball history who have played in four different decades.
November 16 – Dick Burns, 73, pitcher/outfielder for the Detroit Wolverines, Cincinnati Outlaw Reds and St. Louis Maroons from 1883 through 1885, who hurled a no-hitter against the Kansas City Cowboys in the 1884 season.
November 17 – John Hibbard, 72, pitcher for the 1884 Chicago White Stockings.
November 17 – Bill Merritt, 67, catcher who played from 1891 to 1899 for the Chicago Colts, Louisville Colonels, Boston Beaneaters, Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds.
November 19 – Cub Stricker, 78, second baseman for seven different teams during an 11-season career spanning 1882–1893, who compiled 1,106 hits and also managed the St. Louis Browns in 1892.
November 21 – Al Pratt, 90, National Association pitcher/outfielder for the Cleveland Forest Citys from 1889 through 1892, and manager for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the American Association in 1882 and 1883.
November 23 – Welday Walker, 77, utility player for the 1884 Toledo Blue Stockings of the original Northwestern League, who is officially recognized as one of the first African-Americans to play in organized baseball.
November 25 – Ben Conroy, 66, shortstop who played with the Philadelphia Athletics in 1890.
November 26 – Andy Bednar, 29, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1930 and 1931 seasons.
December
December 10 – Joe Battin, 84, slick-fielding second baseman who played 10 seasons for seven different clubs, more prominently with the 1875 St. Louis Brown Stockings, where he combined with shortstop/manager Dickey Pearce to become one of the best double play combinations in the early days of baseball, and later managed the Pittsburgh Alleghenys and the Chicago Browns/Pittsburgh Stogies from 1883 to 1884.
December 12 – Rube Benton, 47, left handed pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants from 1910 through 1925, who led the National League in pitching appearances, starts, batters faced, and hit by pitches in the 1912 season.
December 16 – Frank Boyd, 69, catcher who played briefly for the Cleveland Spiders of the National League in 1893.
December 16 – Charlie Reilly, 70, catcher in parts of eight seasons spanning 1889–1897 for the Columbus Solons, Pittsburgh Pirates, Philadelphia Phillies and Washington Senators, who became the first player to have four hits that included two home runs in his first Major League game, a feat matched by J. P. Arencibia 121 years later.
December 23 – Walt Preston, 69, outfielder and third baseman who played for the Louisville Colonels of the National League during the 1895 season.
Sources |
4266477 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%201998 | MLS Cup 1998 | MLS Cup 1998 was the third edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS) in the United States. It took place on October 25, 1998, at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, with an attendance of 51,350 people. The final was contested by two-time reigning champions D.C. United and the Chicago Fire, the first expansion team to reach the final. Chicago won the match 2–0, with goals scored by Jerzy Podbrożny and Diego Gutiérrez in the first half.
Chicago became the first expansion team to win the MLS Cup and the second to complete a domestic double by winning the U.S. Open Cup. D.C. in turn became the first team to reach three consecutive finals, which would be their last under manager Bruce Arena. The match was broadcast nationally on ABC, where it was watched by an estimated 1 million households.
As the top two finishers in the MLS Cup Playoffs, both D.C. and Chicago qualified for the 1999 CONCACAF Champions' Cup. The clubs faced off once again in the third-place match of the continental tournament, which ended in a 2–2 draw.
Venue
The Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, was announced as the host venue for MLS Cup 1998 on October 25, 1997. It was to be the first time that the MLS Cup would be played in the Western United States. The stadium, primarily used for American football, was the home of the Los Angeles Galaxy until they moved to the Home Depot Center in 2003. The Rose Bowl had also hosted major international soccer events, including the 1984 Summer Olympics gold medal match, the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, and was selected as the venue of the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup Final.
The stadium was converted from college football to soccer use in eight days, with yard lines covered by green paint to decrease their visibility. The Galaxy missed their opportunity to play for the MLS Cup at home after their loss to Chicago in the Western Conference Final. Despite projections that the final would be played in front of a smaller crowd, the attendance of 51,350 surpassed the 1997 final. One day before the final, the first Supporters Summit was hosted in Pasadena between fans and MLS officials to discuss rule changes and the direction of the league. The summit was also where funding for the Supporters' Shield trophy was finalized ahead of its debut in the 1999 season.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States that began play in 1996. The league's third season was contested by 12 teams organized into two conferences, each playing 32 matches during the regular season from April to September. Teams faced opponents from the same conference four times during the regular season and from outside their conference twice. The season was the first to be played during a FIFA World Cup, necessitating a lighter schedule for two weeks in June.
MLS continued to use the modified version of the sport's rules that it adopted for the 1996 season, including a penalty shootout from to decide tied matches (for which the winners earned one point) and a countdown clock that stopped during dead plays. The top four teams from each conference qualified for the playoffs, which were organized into three rounds and played primarily in October. The first two rounds, named the Conference Semifinals and Conference Finals, were home-and-away series organized into a best-of-three format with a hosting advantage for the higher seed. The winners of the Conference Finals advanced to the single-match MLS Cup final, which would be held at a predetermined neutral venue.
MLS Cup 1998 was contested by two-time defending champions D.C. United of the Eastern Conference and the Chicago Fire, an expansion team that finished second in the Western Conference. Chicago was led by Bob Bradley, former assistant to D.C. United head coach Bruce Arena. The two teams met twice during the regular season, resulting in 3–1 and 4–1 victories for D.C. United.
Chicago Fire
The Chicago Fire and Miami Fusion were the first expansion teams in MLS history, entering during the 1998 season and split between the Western and Eastern conferences, respectively. The two teams participated in the expansion draft, where Chicago selected two players from the Los Angeles Galaxy who were later traded back in exchange for goalkeeper Jorge Campos and midfielder Chris Armas. The league allocated several international players to the Fire, including the Polish trio of midfielder Peter Nowak, striker Jerzy Podbrożny, and forward Roman Kosecki, who formed the "Eastern Bloc" alongside Czech midfielder Luboš Kubík.
The team won their first two games, against the Miami Fusion and Tampa Bay Mutiny, but fell into a five-match losing streak that lasted until early May. The losing streak was worsened by a scoring drought, as the Fire went 272 minutes without a goal until scoring four during a match against the Colorado Rapids that ended in a shootout defeat. Chicago's offensive pair of Nowak and Kosecki were also frequent targets of fouls, picking up injuries and suspensions during a loss to D.C. United in early May that elicited complaints from manager Bob Bradley over missed calls from the referee.
The Fire broke their losing streak with a victory over the Tampa Bay Mutiny, which marked the beginning of an 11-match winning streak that set a new MLS record. The streak included consistent scoring from Nowak, who was named Player of the Month in May, and several shutouts from goalkeeper Zach Thornton, who would be competing for the starting position with Campos. By the end of May, the team had risen to second place in the Western Conference standings behind the Los Angeles Galaxy, who they defeated twice. Chicago were unable to surpass the Galaxy in the standings, but were able to open a 18-point lead over the third-place Dallas Burn by defeating them three times in a three-week period by early July.
The winning streak ended with a loss to the Columbus Crew in July, which was followed by five consecutive defeats that were mostly played away from home. Chicago were without several key players who picked up injuries, including Nowak with a sprained knee that sidelined him for seven matches. The team remained in second place and eight points ahead of third-place Colorado by early August, and entered September on a four-match winning streak with help from rookie striker Josh Wolff as a substitute. Chicago ultimately finished the regular season in second place with a 20–12 record, behind league-leading Los Angeles. For the team's performance in the regular season, four players were named to the MLS Best XI, Bob Bradley earned Coach of the Year, Thornton won Goalkeeper of the Year, and Kubík was named Defender of the Year.
Chicago entered the playoffs without goalkeeper Jorge Campos, who had returned to UNAM Pumas in Mexico, and faced Colorado in the Conference Semifinals. The first leg, played at Soldier Field, was tied 1–1 at the end of regulation time with a penalty kick from Kubík in the 50th minute and a Rapids equalizer by Waldir Sáenz in the 79th minute. The match was decided in a shootout that was won 3–2 by the Fire after a conversion by Jesse Marsch in the sixth round. Chicago finished a two-game sweep of the series with a 1–0 victory at Mile High Stadium in Denver during the second leg, taking the lead with another Kubík penalty kick and several saves by Thornton to keep the shutout.
The Fire then played against the Galaxy in the Western Conference Final, which began with a 1–0 Chicago victory at the Rose Bowl that was decided by a late header scored by Jesse Marsch off a free kick. The second leg was played in front of 32,744 fans at Chicago's Soldier Field, setting a new league playoff record, and resulted in another series sweep as the Fire advanced to the MLS Cup final. The team took the lead in the 31st minute through a goal by Nowak, who finished a rebound off goalkeeper Kevin Hartman, but Danny Pena equalized six minutes later for the Galaxy. The match remained tied 1–1 and went to a shootout, where Zach Thornton made three saves to allow Jerzy Podbrożny to win it 2–1 for Chicago in the fifth round.
D.C. United
D.C. lost six members of their cup-winning roster in the 1997–98 offseason, including striker Raúl Díaz Arce and midfielder Ben Iroha to comply with salary cap limitations and three players picked by Miami in the expansion draft. The team responded by signing college players Carey Talley and Ben Olsen, as well as veteran defender Geoff Aunger and forward A. J. Wood. Defender Eddie Pope was also absent for the first weeks of the season after undergoing surgery to remove a cyst in his foot. United later acquired forward Roy Lassiter, a former Golden Boot winner, in a trade with Tampa Bay for Roy Wegerle.
United opened their third season on the road to Miami, winning 2–0 but losing Jaime Moreno to a red card suspension. The team won their next two matches to extend a winning streak that began in the 1997 playoffs, but lost in their fourth match against the Columbus Crew. D.C. would then lose only two of their next nine matches as they took first place in the Eastern Conference, despite losing several starting players to injuries and suspensions for yellow card accumulation. Starting defender Eddie Pope, who had recovered from his injury, and midfielder Jeff Agoos were called up to the U.S. national team for the 1998 World Cup, departing from the team in mid-May and missing six matches.
Without Pope and Agoos, manager Bruce Arena used several lineups with reserve players and different formations, but the team ended their home winning streak in June by losing to the Dallas Burn in a shootout after a 4–4 draw. During a three-match stretch in June, D.C. conceded 10 goals in the shootout loss against Dallas, a 4–3 shootout win against Columbus and a 3–1 loss to Colorado. United remained atop the Eastern Conference, with only four points above second place, and regained Agoos and Pope in July at the start of a nine-match winning streak that lasted two months. The team also hosted the 1998 CONCACAF Champions' Cup and became the first U.S. team to win the continental tournament.
D.C. provided eight players and Arena for the 1998 MLS All-Star Game, which was contested by teams of American and international players from MLS. United also became the earliest team in MLS history to clinch a playoff berth, doing so on August 7 by winning 1–0 in Dallas. Following the end of the streak, the team lost Agoos, Pope, and playmaker Marco Etcheverry to injuries but won three of its remaining four matches. United finished the regular season with a 24–8 record and 58 points, 13 ahead of the second-place Columbus. D.C. and Los Angeles set a league record with their 24 wins, but the Galaxy's fewer shootouts allowed them to clinch first in the overall standings. Etcheverry earned the league's Most Valuable Player Award for his 19 assists and 10 goals, while Ben Olsen was named Rookie of the Year.
United faced the Miami Fusion in the Eastern Conference Semifinals but remained without Agoos, Pope, Etcheverry, and forward Tony Sanneh, who was injured in the regular season finale. Arena also swapped out starting goalkeeper and league shutout leader Scott Garlick for backup Tom Presthus, who had a stronger record in shootouts. D.C. won 2–1 at home in the first leg of the series with a pair of goals in the first half from Roy Lassiter and Jamie Moreno while successfully suppressing the Miami offense. The second leg in Miami ended scoreless in regulation time after Lassiter was ejected in the third minute and several shots hit the crossbar. United won 2–2 in the shootout to advance, with two saves from Presthus to allow Agoos to score the winning penalty in the fifth round.
The Eastern Conference Final paired D.C. United against the Columbus Crew, who had defeated the MetroStars to set up a rematch of the previous year's conference final. United hosted the Crew in the first leg and won 2–0 with a pair of second-half goals from Sanneh and Etcheverry to complement a strong defensive performance that shut out league scoring leaders Stern John and Brian McBride. The second leg marked the end of D.C.'s 13-match playoff winning streak after the team lost 4–2 to the home side on the narrow pitch at Ohio Stadium in Columbus. The result was blamed on a poor defending that allowed the Crew to build a 3–0 lead in under 50 minutes that was later cut to one goal by Sanneh and Lassiter before a final goal for Columbus in the 81st minute. United clinched its third consecutive MLS Cup appearance through a 3–0 in the third leg, played again at home in Washington, D.C. The home team dominated possession and struck first with an Agoos goal in the 11th minute and followed up with a brace by Lassiter that culminated in converting an intercepted backpass in the 79th minute.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). Playoffs were in best-of-three format with penalty shootout if scores were tied.
Broadcasting
The MLS Cup final was broadcast in the United States on ABC with English commentary and Spanish via secondary audio programming. For the third consecutive year, the ABC broadcast was led by play-by-play announcer Phil Schoen and color commentator Ty Keough, who were joined by field reporters Seamus Malin and Bill McDermott. The quartet had worked together on the network's World Cup broadcasts. The television broadcast drew a 1.2 national rating and reached an estimated 1 million households, a 33 percent decrease from previous finals.
The match was also broadcast by local radio affiliates in multiple languages. In Chicago, WZCH carried the English broadcast, WRZA carried Spanish commentary, and WKTA had the match in Polish. The Spanish broadcast was aired on WACA in Washington, D.C., and the surrounding area.
Match
Summary
The MLS Cup final was played on a warm and sunny afternoon at the Rose Bowl, unlike the rainy weather in the first two cups, in front of 51,350 spectators. Chicago played in their red home kit, while D.C. was assigned their white away kit. United, as two-time defending champions, entered the final as favorites and used an attack-oriented style. The Fire relied on stronger defending and counterattacks, including from recovered winger Roman Kosecki as a surprise starter, and had five more days to rest after clinching the Western Conference title.
D.C. kicked off the match at 12:30 p.m. and went on an immediate attack that resulted in a shot by Jaime Moreno that flew over the crossbar within 15 seconds. Their attacks continued, earning them a corner kick in the third minute that was deflected away by Chicago goalkeeper Zach Thornton. A rebound shot by Tony Sanneh was blocked and fell to Marco Etcheverry, who tripped in the box after a challenge by Luboš Kubík, but no penalty was called by referee Kevin Terry. Chicago's first scoring chance came in the sixth minute as Piotr Nowak delivered a low cross into the box that was deflected towards goal by Chris Armas, only to be cleared off the line by defender Jeff Agoos.
After a header by Sanneh nearly broke the deadlock for United in the tenth minute, the Fire's "Eastern Bloc" took control of the midfield and pushed for their own chances. Jerzy Podbrożny's shot in the 14th minute was saved by Tom Presthus, while an effort by Ante Razov hit the post four minutes later. Chicago scored the match's first goal in the 29th minute following a build-up from their half and several one-touch passes, culminating in a give-and-go pass from Razov to Nowak in the penalty area. Nowak drew out Presthus and passed sideways to an unmarked Podbrożny for a tap-in from .
United looked to quickly score an equalizer and earned set-piece chances, but the resulting headers from Roy Lassiter and Jaime Moreno went off target. With one minute remaining in the first half, the Fire pushed up on a counterattack through the center midfield to score their second goal of the match. Podbrożny drew in several defenders near the center circle and poked the ball to Razov, who laid it off for Armas to pass it forwards to Nowak. After a run up the left wing, Nowak cut in towards the center of the penalty area and shot between several players, including Diego Gutiérrez, who deflected the ball into the goal. United protested the goal, arguing that the deflection had been off Gutiérrez's arm and Razov had been in an offside position while blocking the sight of Presthus, but Terry's decision was unchanged.
Chicago entered the second half with momentum from their two goals and dropped to a more defensive position while being outshot 13–4 by D.C., including six shots on target. Zach Thornton ultimately made eight saves to record a shutout, including a pair of headers from Roy Lassiter in the 48th and 76th minutes. Another Lassiter header in the 56th minute struck defender Francis Okaroh's hand, but a penalty was not awarded due to his unintentional positioning. Armas was assigned to tightly mark Marco Etcheverry, preventing him from creating plays for United and limiting the league MVP's involvement in attacks. D.C. pushed further forward as time ran out, but were stifled by the Fire defense as the team lost by a score of 2–0. Manager Bruce Arena congratulated Chicago on their performance but criticized the officiating of the match, including the no-call penalties and the offside positions during the second goal. Nowak was named the MLS Cup's most valuable player for his two assists.
Details
Statistics
Post-match
The Fire became the first expansion team to win a U.S. major league championship and were the second to reach a final after the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League in 1968. They were preceded in soccer by the Philadelphia Atoms, an expansion team in the North American Soccer League which won the league championship in 1973. The Fire also became the first Chicago-area sports team besides the Chicago Bulls to win a league championship in over a decade, and the second soccer champions from the area, following the Chicago Sting. The Sting, who won the 1981 and 1984 North American Soccer League championships, included Frank Klopas, a veteran forward who had joined the Fire.
The team returned to Chicago and were honored with a small celebration with 1,200 fans at the Daley Center, which included a meeting with Mayor Richard M. Daley. The Alan Rothenberg Trophy was then displayed at Chicago City Hall for a week. Five days after winning the MLS Cup, Chicago completed their double by defeating the Columbus Crew in the 1998 U.S. Open Cup Final. They were the second MLS team to complete a double with the Open Cup, following D.C. United in 1996.
A month after the MLS Cup final, D.C. played in the 1998 Copa Interamericana, where they won against South American champions Vasco da Gama of Brazil over two legs played in the United States. Head coach Bruce Arena left United after the tournament to manage the U.S. national team, with Chicago manager Bob Bradley assisting him during the MLS offseason. Arena was replaced at D.C. by Thomas Rongen, who led the team to a victory at MLS Cup 1999 over Los Angeles. Chicago had qualified for the 1999 playoffs, but were eliminated in the Western Conference Semifinals by the Dallas Burn.
As MLS Cup finalists, Chicago and D.C. qualified for the 1999 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, which was hosted at Sam Boyd Stadium near Las Vegas. The two teams were eliminated in the semifinals and met in the third-place match, where they drew 2–2 while using reserve players; a penalty shootout were not played due to the doubleheader schedule, so the third-place position was shared.
References
1998
Sports competitions in Pasadena, California
MLS Cup 1998
MLS Cup 1998
1998 in sports in California
October 1998 sports events in the United States
20th century in Pasadena, California |
4266546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%201999 | MLS Cup 1999 | MLS Cup 1999 was the fourth edition of the MLS Cup, the championship soccer match of Major League Soccer (MLS), the top-level soccer league of the United States. It took place on November 21, 1999, at Foxboro Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, and was contested by D.C. United and the Los Angeles Galaxy in a rematch of the inaugural 1996 final that had been played at the same venue. Both teams finished atop their respective conferences during the regular season under new head coaches and advanced through the first two rounds of the playoffs.
United won 2–0 with first-half goals from Jaime Moreno and Ben Olsen for their third MLS Cup victory in four years. Galaxy defender Robin Fraser left the match with a broken collarbone during the opening minutes and goalkeeper Kevin Hartman collided with John Maessner at the end of the half. Olsen was named the most valuable player of the match for his winning goal, which was scored off a misplayed backpass.
The final was played in front of 44,910 spectators—a record for the MLS Cup. It was also the first MLS match to be played with a standard game clock and without a tiebreaker shootout following a rule change approved by the league days earlier. The Galaxy blamed their performance on decisions by referee Tim Weyland and the quality of the pitch at Foxboro Stadium, which had a narrowed width and was damaged by an earlier National Football League game.
Both finalists qualified for the 2000 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, which was hosted in Southern California. The tournament's semifinals featured a rematch of the MLS Cup final and was decided in a penalty shootout that the Galaxy won. The Galaxy went on to win the tournament, becoming the second MLS team to do so.
Venue
The 1999 final was played at Foxboro Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, where the inaugural final had been contested in 1996. MLS announced the stadium as the host venue on October 23, 1998, and the match was scheduled three weeks later than previous editions to avoid conflicting with baseball's World Series. The scheduled date of November 14 was later moved back to November 21. The match was originally planned to be hosted at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, but issues with the Tampa Bay Mutiny's lease at the stadium led to MLS revoking their hosting rights. Foxboro was selected ahead of bids from Washington, D.C., and San Jose, California, as well as an unsubmitted speculative bid from Chicago.
The match was played six days after a home game for the New England Patriots of the National Football League, necessitating the retention of the stadium's bleacher sections. As a result, the field was narrowed from to , and had visible dirt patches and yard lines. Approximately 30,000 tickets were sold before the finalists were confirmed.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States that began playing in 1996. Twelve teams contested the league's fourth season; teams were organized into two conferences, each playing 32 matches during the regular season from March to September. Teams faced opponents from the same conference four times during the regular season, and from outside their conference twice. Before the season began, MLS reduced the number of permitted international players from five to four as a cost-saving measure.
The top four teams from each conference qualified for the playoffs, which were organized into three rounds and played primarily in October. The first two rounds, named the Conference Semifinals and Conference Finals, were home-and-away series organized into a best-of-three format with a hosting advantage for the higher-seeded team. The winners of the Conference Finals advanced to the single-match MLS Cup final, which would be held at a predetermined neutral venue.
MLS Cup 1999 was contested by two-time champions D.C. United and the Los Angeles Galaxy, both of which had played in the inaugural 1996 final, which ended in a 3–2 overtime victory for United. The 1996 final had also been played at Foxboro Stadium, and the 1999 match was the fourth consecutive MLS Cup appearance for United. The 1999 final was the first to be contested by the regular season winners of both conferences. During the regular season, the Galaxy and United met twice, each winning on the road.
Los Angeles Galaxy
Since their MLS Cup 1996 appearance, the Los Angeles Galaxy had qualified for the playoffs twice but were eliminated in earlier rounds. During the 1998 regular season, the team finished atop the league standings with a 24–8 record, which included a run of nine consecutive wins and a record 85 goals. The Galaxy earned two shootout wins at the start of the 1999 season but then lost three consecutive matches where they scored only three goals in total. The club dismissed Zambrano on April 21 and replaced him with Sigi Schmid, who had managed UCLA Bruins for 19 years and the men's national under-20 team for two years. Under Schmid, the Galaxy won a playoff berth by early September and rose to first in the West alongside the Colorado Rapids. The team finished the season with a 20–12 record and 54 points, and became the first MLS team to allow an average of less than one goal per match during the regular season with 29 goals in 32 matches. Schmid was named Coach of the Year, Hartman earned Goalkeeper of the Year, and Robin Fraser won Defender of the Year for their regular season performances.
In the Western Conference Semifinals, the Galaxy faced the Rapids, who had finished fourth in the conference and failed to score in their last five consecutive matches. The Galaxy hosted the first leg and led with an eighth-minute strike from defender Ezra Hendrickson, but had midfielder Simon Elliott sent off with a red card ten minutes later. The team extended their lead from a penalty scored in the 52nd minute by Greg Vanney and a strike five minutes later by Mathis that Colorado goalkeeper Ian Feuer deflected into the net for a 3–0 victory. The Galaxy defeated the Rapids 2–0 at Mile High Stadium in Denver, scoring twice in the final 15 minutes through midfielders Danny Pena and Joe Franchino, to complete a two-match sweep in the series.
The Galaxy advanced to play the Western Conference Final against the Dallas Burn, who had finished second in the conference and eliminated defending champions Chicago. The Galaxy won the first leg, which was played at the Rose Bowl, 2–1 with a goal from Ezra Hendrickson that was scored with 40 seconds remaining in the match. The Galaxy twice took the lead during the second leg at the Cotton Bowl through a brace from Carlos Hermosillo but Dallas equalized to force a tie-breaking shootout. Dallas won 4–3 in the shootout, forcing a deciding third leg at the Rose Bowl. The Galaxy clinched their place in their second MLS Cup final with a 3–1 win, having taken advantage of the Burn's weakened defense in their starting lineup due to an injury and suspension. Greg Vanney scored from a penalty in the second minute, which was followed by goals from Hermosillo and Mauricio Cienfuegos to extend the lead; Jason Kreis scored a late consolation goal for Dallas.
D.C. United
D.C. United had played in the first three MLS Cup finals, winning in 1996 and 1997 against the Galaxy and Colorado Rapids, respectively. Following their loss in the 1998 final to the Chicago Fire, manager Bruce Arena left the team to join the U.S. men's national team and was replaced by New England head coach Thomas Rongen. During the early part of their season, United played without several injured starting players and reserves, forcing the starting lineup to change several times. The team also lost several players to national team call-ups during the Copa América, but was able to take first place in the Eastern Conference.
The team lost six starting players to national teams at the FIFA Confederations Cup in July. Rongen turned to a lineup of reserves, including an inexperienced four-man defense, minor-league players, and new acquisitions to secure a playoff berth in late August. The team also clinched first in the Eastern Conference in mid-September, having amassed a 15-point lead over the second-place Columbus Crew. During the regular season, United won 17 of their 20 matches against opponents in the Eastern Conference and finished atop the league with 57 points.
United played Miami Fusion, who had a 13–9 record in the regular season, in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. United won 2–0 in the first leg, which they hosted at RFK Stadium; forward Jaime Moreno scored in the 34th and 88th minutes. The second leg in Florida ended 0–0 after regulation time and was decided in a shootout that United won 3–2. Goalkeeper Tom Presthus, having stopped four goals in regulation time, made four saves during the six-round shootout.
In a repeat of the previous two Eastern Conference Finals, United played the Columbus Crew, who had defeated the Tampa Bay Mutiny. United took a lead in the series at RFK Stadium in the first leg, winning 2–1 with a strike from Moreno in the 15th minute and a volley from Ben Olsen in the 72nd minute. The second leg in Columbus ended in a 5–1 victory for the hosts, giving United their worst playoff defeat and forcing a third match in the series. Roy Lassiter scored early for United in the sixth minute but the Crew responded with first-half goals from Ansil Elcock and Jeff Cunningham, and a hat-trick from Stern John in the second half. United recovered in the third leg to win 4–0 and extended their unbeaten streak at home in the playoffs to 12 matches. Moreno scored in the 17th minute and was joined by a brace from Roy Lassiter on both sides of half-time, the latter coming from a bicycle kick in the penalty area. Marco Etcheverry, who had provided three assists on the earlier goals, scored a free kick from with four minutes remaining to clinch a MLS Cup final berth for United.
Summary of results
Regular season
Playoffs
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). Playoffs were in best-of-three format with penalty shootout (SO) if scores were tied.
Broadcasting and entertainment
The MLS Cup final was broadcast in the United States by ABC with English commentary, and Spanish commentary was available via secondary audio programming. The ABC broadcast was led by play-by-play announcer Phil Schoen and color commentator Ty Keough, who were joined by studio host Rob Stone. MLS players John Harkes and Alexi Lalas joined the pre-game and half-time broadcasts as co-hosts. ABC deployed 18 cameras for the match and added field microphones to capture crowd noise. The television broadcast on ABC drew a 1.0 national rating, a 17 percent decline from 1998, partially due to competition from National Football League games. Pop singer Christina Aguilera sang the U.S. national anthem before the match and performed in the half-time show.
Match
Match rules
The MLS Board of Governors, composed of team owners and their representatives, met in Boston before the MLS Cup to revise the league's match rules. Several of the league's experimental rules were eliminated in an effort to match international standards set by the International Football Association Board in the Laws of the Game and to appeal to hardcore fans. The countdown clock that was tracked via the stadium scoreboard was replaced with a normal match clock that was kept by the referee on the field; injury time was added at the end of each half, as displayed by the fourth official. Tiebreaker shootouts were replaced with two periods of sudden-death golden goal overtime that would be followed by a standard penalty shootout if the score remained tied. Although the shootout change was planned to take effect at the start of the 2000 season, after consulting with coaches Schmid and Rongen, league commissioner Don Garber announced the revised clock and tiebreaker would be used at MLS Cup 1999.
Summary
The MLS Cup final was played on November 21 in front of 44,910 spectators at Foxboro Stadium, setting a new attendance record for the MLS Cup and any soccer match played in Massachusetts. Approximately 5,000 D.C. United fans, including the club's two largest supporters groups Barra Brava and Screaming Eagles, traveled to the match. The match began at 1:30 p.m. Eastern Time under sunny skies with a temperature of , unlike the cold and rainy conditions of the 1996 final. The field was described as "badly scarred" due to a National Football League game at the stadium earlier in the week, which also caused the pitch to be narrowed to .
United took early control of the match and challenged the Galaxy defense on several plays. In the seventh minute, Galaxy defender Robin Fraser fell after being pushed from behind by Roy Lassiter on a play while challenging for the ball. Fraser left the match with a broken left collarbone and was replaced by Steve Jolley. Schmid adjusted Galaxy's defense into a three-man formation with Paul Caligiuri positioned as sweeper. Fraser later said he had been wearing a shoulder brace that restricted movement of his arm for most of the season, which prevented him from breaking the fall. Referee Tim Weyland did not award a foul for the play, for which Schmid and Galaxy players later criticized him.
United then attempted to take advantage of the weakened Galaxy defense as both teams pushed aggressively for an opening goal, trading several chances. United took the lead in the 19th minute on a long throw-in from Marco Etcheverry that was misplayed by Jolley and fell to Lassiter, whose shot was saved by Kevin Hartman. Caligiuri failed to clear the ball, and Jaime Moreno converted from point-blank range. The Galaxy responded with a promising scoring opportunity off a corner kick taken by Greg Vanney in the 32nd minute. Danny Pena's header hit the goalpost and John Maessner deflected it toward the goal but the ball was cleared away by Richie Williams. The Galaxy protested to Weyland that the ball had crossed the line and struck Williams' hand but no foul was given.
The Galaxy and United traded more scoring chances as the first half ended; play stopped in the 43rd minute after Maessner, who was clearing the ball, kneed Harman in the head. Hartman returned to the match and stopped a volley from United defender Jeff Agoos at the beginning of stoppage time, which Weyland set at four minutes. The Galaxy immediately responded with a counterattack led by Jones, who was clipped in the penalty area by Maessner though Weyland did not award a penalty. In the third minute of stoppage time, Hartman misplayed a backpass from Jolley while under pressure from Lassiter and Moreno. Ben Olsen intercepted Hartman's pass to Caligiuri and scored from just outside the six-yard box to give United a 2–0 lead at half-time.
United looked to extend their lead in the second half but were unable to convert an early chance in the 47th minute as Lassiter headed a cross from Agoos wide of the goal. A breakaway chance in the 58th minute for Jones was thwarted by Carlos Llamosa, who tackled away a loose ball in the United penalty area. Galaxy attackers Mauricio Cienfuegos and Carlos Hermosillo were kept in check by United, particularly by defensive midfielder Richie Williams. Jones was left to attack on his own. Pena gave Galaxy two chances to score but Agoos blocked his first shot and the second went wide of the goal.
With 20 minutes left to play, the teams traded back-to-back chances that were not finished. In the 71st minute, Olsen received a chipped pass from Etcheverry and shot towards the goal but hit the side netting. A minute later, a volley by Clint Mathis in the penalty area was struck wide of the goal. Williams then attempted a volley in the 76th minute that struck the post after beating Hartman's outstretched arm. In the match's last major action, Caligiuri attempted a drive from inside the box but his shot went wide of the goal. With six minutes remaining, Olsen was named the MLS Cup most valuable player (MVP). United goalkeeper Tom Presthus made one save during the match, on one of the Galaxy's two shots on goal.
Details
Post-match
After winning three titles in four seasons, D.C. United were hailed as the first MLS dynasty despite the league's attempts to encourage parity among teams. Commissioner Don Garber stated he thought it was "terrific to have a dominant team" when asked whether United's performance would hurt the league but added he would "love some balance". United's players celebrated with cigars and champagne in the locker room following the near-collapse of the stage that had been set up for the trophy ceremony. Olsen became the first MLS Cup MVP to have been developed as part of the Project-40 program. On November 23, United were honored with a ten-block parade along Pennsylvania Avenue in Downtown Washington, D.C., which was attended by thousands of fans. United went on to miss the playoffs for three consecutive seasons but would win another MLS Cup in 2004 by defeating the Kansas City Wiz.
After the match, Hartman attributed his miscue on the second goal to the poor condition of the pitch, which United defender Jeff Agoos also criticized. Galaxy coach Sigi Schmid, along with Jones and Hermosillo, were fined for criticizing referee Tim Weyland's calls; Schmid was also suspended for the first match of the 2000 season. Schmid highlighted the lack of calls after Fraser's injury and two potential penalties in the first half, along with fouls throughout the match. The Galaxy reached the MLS Cup final in 2001, losing to the San Jose Earthquakes, and won their first title in 2002 against New England at Gillette Stadium, which had replaced Foxboro Stadium. , the Los Angeles Galaxy holds the record for the most MLS Cup titles, winning their fifth in 2014 to overtake United's record.
As MLS Cup finalists, D.C. United and the Los Angeles Galaxy qualified as the U.S. representatives for the 2000 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, which was hosted in Southern California in January 2001. The two teams met in the semifinals, where the Galaxy defeated United in a penalty shootout following a 1–1 draw. The Galaxy won the tournament, becoming the second US club to win a CONCACAF competition and the last until Seattle Sounders FC in 2022. They earned a place in the 2001 FIFA Club World Championship, which was set to be played in Spain but was later cancelled amid a financing scandal.
References
1999 in sports in Massachusetts
D.C. United matches
July 1999 sports events in the United States
LA Galaxy matches
1999
Soccer in Massachusetts
Sports competitions in Foxborough, Massachusetts |
4266592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jarrod%20Saltalamacchia | Jarrod Saltalamacchia | Jarrod Scott Saltalamacchia (; born May 2, 1985) is an American former professional baseball catcher. Between 2007 and 2018, he played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Atlanta Braves, Texas Rangers, Boston Red Sox, Miami Marlins, Arizona Diamondbacks, Detroit Tigers, and Toronto Blue Jays.
Raised in West Palm Beach, Florida, Saltalamacchia attended Royal Palm Beach High School. His performance on the institution's baseball team drew the attention of scouts, and the Braves selected him in the first round of the 2003 MLB Draft. He spent four years in the Braves' farm system, but in 2007, injuries to both of Atlanta's regular catchers forced them to call him up to the major leagues. Saltalamacchia was prevented from becoming a regular catcher for the Braves by the presence of Brian McCann, and so he became the centerpiece of a trading deadline deal with the Rangers in 2007. Shortly after becoming the team's starting catcher in 2009, a bout of thoracic outlet syndrome forced Saltalamacchia to undergo season-ending rib removal surgery, and lingering issues from the surgery caused him to suffer from the "yips" in 2010.
The Rangers traded Saltalamacchia to the Red Sox in 2010, and he continued to suffer from health issues that limited his play. Under the mentorship of Jason Varitek, however, Saltalamacchia began to improve, and he succeeded Varitek as the team's starting catcher in 2012. While Saltalamacchia had a breakout season in 2013, he was benched for the final stretch of the 2013 World Series after a missed play caused the Red Sox to lose Game 3. The following year, he signed with the Marlins as a free agent, but his production declined, and he was released from the team in May 2015.
Saltalamacchia batted just .171 with the Tigers in 2016. Most of his time with Toronto and Detroit over the next two seasons was spent with their Triple-A affiliates, where he helped mentor pitching and catching prospects like Grayson Greiner. Saltalamacchia announced his retirement from baseball in January 2019, citing a desire to spend more time with his family. Since then, he has served as a baseball coach for The King's Academy in Florida and has filled in as a sports analyst for the New England Sports Network.
Early life
Saltalamacchia was born on May 2, 1985, in West Palm Beach, Florida. He attended Royal Palm Beach High School, where he caught for his friend and future Major League Baseball (MLB) teammate Kason Gabbard. In 2000, Saltalamacchia and Gabbard helped take Royal Palm Beach to a state championship title. His father wanted Saltalamacchia to play gridiron football, but he was singularly focused on baseball. By his junior year, he was drawing interest from MLB scouts.
Professional career
Draft and minor leagues
The Atlanta Braves selected Saltalamacchia in the supplemental first round, 36th overall, of the 2003 MLB Draft. On June 3, 2003, he agreed to a contract with the team for a signing bonus of $950,000, and he spent his first season of professional baseball with the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League (GCL) Braves. At the time, he had committed to play college baseball for the Florida State Seminoles, but college coach Mike Martin told him, "If you go first round, take your money and go." In 46 games, Saltalamacchia batted .239 with two home runs and 14 runs batted in (RBIs) in 134 at-bats. After helping take the team to a GCL championship title, Saltalamacchia was promoted to the Class A Rome Braves for the 2004 season. In 91 games there, Saltalamacchia batted .272, recording 10 home runs and 51 RBIs in 323 at-bats.
2005 proved to be a breakout year for Saltalamacchia, who was named the Myrtle Beach Pelicans' Most Valuable Player, as well as the top prospect in the Class A-Advanced Carolina League, by batting .314, hitting 19 home runs, and setting a club single-season record with 81 RBIs. After the conclusion of the regular Minor League Baseball season, Saltalamacchia was one of two Pelicans selected to play for the Phoenix Desert Dogs of the Arizona Fall League, alongside outfielder Josh Burrus. In an additional 21 fall league games, Saltalamacchia batted .288, adding one home run and eight RBIs to his season totals.
Entering the 2006 season as one of Atlanta's top prospects, Saltalamacchia was assigned to the Double-A Mississippi Braves. He had what Braves manager Bobby Cox referred to as "an off year" in Mississippi: despite flashes of strong batting in July and August, his overall average for the year was only .230, with nine home runs and 39 RBIs. He stayed in Mississippi to begin the 2007 season, with the anticipation that he would be promoted to the Triple-A Richmond Braves at some point in the year. Saltalamacchia also made another Arizona Fall League appearance in 2006, going 13-for-23 in six games with the Peoria Javelinas.
Atlanta Braves (2007)
With both starting catcher Brian McCann and backup Brayan Peña injured during a game against the Philadelphia Phillies, Saltalamacchia was called up to Atlanta on May 2, 2007, his 22nd birthday. He made his MLB debut that same night, getting on base twice with a walk and a hit by pitch. Four days later, Saltalamacchia recorded both his first major league hit and RBI in a 6–4 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers. The latter hit, which came off of a pitch from Saltalamacchia's childhood friend Chad Billingsley, helped bring home Andruw Jones to give the Braves the lead. His first home run came on May 27, with a solo shot off of the Phillies' Cole Hamels. Exactly one month later, while filling in at first base to make room for McCann behind the plate, Saltalamacchia recorded his first multi-home run game, with third- and fifth-inning solo shots against Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals. In 47 major league games with Atlanta, Saltalamacchia batted .284 with four home runs and 12 RBIs in 141 at-bats.
Texas Rangers (2007–10)
Despite his strong performance in the minors, Saltalamacchia was essentially blocked from becoming an Atlanta staple by McCann, who received his second consecutive All-Star selection in 2007. This made Saltalamacchia an attractive piece for the MLB trading deadline. On July 31, 2007, Saltalamacchia was the centerpiece of a five-prospect deal with the Texas Rangers in exchange for Mark Teixeira. Alongside Saltalamacchia, Neftalí Feliz, Elvis Andrus, Matt Harrison, and Beau Jones were sent to Texas in order for Atlanta to receive Teixeira. Shortly after joining the team, Saltalamacchia contributed two home runs and seven RBIs in the Rangers' 30–3 rout of the Baltimore Orioles. It was the first time that a team had scored 30 or more runs in a game since the Chicago Colts defeated the Louisville Colonels on June 29, 1897. Saltalamacchia played in 46 games for the Rangers in 2007, batting .251 with 21 RBIs in 167 at-bats. Additionally, his seven home runs set a new single-season record for Texas catchers.
After battling with Gerald Laird for the starting catcher job in spring training, Saltalamacchia was optioned to the Triple-A Oklahoma City RedHawks for the start of the 2008 season. His time in the minors was limited, however, as he was called up on April 25 to replace Adam Melhuse, who was released from his contract after breaking a bone in the back of his hand during a game against the Detroit Tigers. Saltalamacchia played in 61 games that season, batting .253 with three home runs and 26 RBIs. One of those home runs was Saltalamacchia's first career grand slam, which helped lift the Rangers to a 13–9 victory over the Cleveland Indians on May 23, 2008. Laird recalled later that Saltalamacchia struggled with the pressure placed on him both by himself and by the Rangers, and that "[s]ometimes you could see he wasn't being himself". His season came to an end on September 1, when an injured elbow forced the Rangers to shut him down. After the regular season ended, Saltalamacchia spent time with the Leones del Escogido of the Dominican Winter League, batting .364 with nine home runs and 21 RBIs in 20 games before returning home.
The Rangers traded Laird to the Tigers after the 2008 season, leaving the starting catcher role open for 2009. Saltalamacchia earned the position out of spring training after Taylor Teagarden showed poor pitch blocking and stamina and Max Ramírez suffered an injury. His time at the position was hindered, however, by tingling and numbness in Saltalamacchia's throwing arm and hand that got increasingly worse as the season went on. The symptoms worsened to the point that Saltalamacchia had to leave a game in the fourth inning, and he was placed on the 15-day disabled list on August 15. The symptoms were ultimately traced back to a car accident that Saltalamacchia had survived in June: the collision caused Saltalamacchia's top rib to pinch a nerve, a condition known as thoracic outlet syndrome, and he required surgery to remove the bone. Saltalamacchia was limited to only 84 games during the 2009 season, during which he batted .233 with nine home runs and 34 RBIs. He attempted to play once more in the Dominican Winter Leagues but had to be shut down after experiencing shoulder discomfort.
Saltalamacchia opened the 2010 MLB season with the fourth opening day walk-off win in Rangers history, driving in David Murphy with an RBI single to defeat the Toronto Blue Jays 5–4. The back pain and shoulder inflammation that had bothered him during spring training, however, had returned in full by the second game of the season, and Saltalamacchia was placed on the 15-day disabled list on April 8 with upper back stiffness. After returning from the injury, Saltalamacchia showed difficulties both batting and catching, and he was sent to the Triple-A Oklahoma City RedHawks to isolate and remedy the mechanical issues with his play. Saltalamacchia also struggled mentally, with a bout of the "yips" preventing him from making accurate throws back to the pitcher. He was frustrated with his inability to make what should be a simple throw, saying that it was "the only thing keeping [him] from being back in the big leagues". Saltalamacchia spent most of his time with the Rangers organization that season in Oklahoma City, where he batted .244 in 238 at-bats, with 11 home runs and 33 RBIs in 63 games.
Boston Red Sox (2010–13)
On July 31, 2010, the Rangers traded Saltalamacchia to the Boston Red Sox in exchange for prospects Román Méndez and Chris McGuinness, $350,000 in cash, and a player to be named later. After the trade was finalized, he was assigned to the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox as one of multiple potential replacements for the veteran Jason Varitek. When Kevin Cash was placed on the disabled list with a hamstring injury on August 11, Saltalamacchia was called up to start behind the plate, with regular catcher Víctor Martínez filling in for Cash at first base. His stint was short-lived, as Saltalamacchia was placed on the 15-day disabled list on August 19 after a sore leg turned out to be infected. He had only 13 at-bats after returning from the infection before going down with a torn ligament in his left thumb. The ligament required surgery and 4–6 weeks of recovery, and Saltalamacchia was shut down for the season on September 28, 2010. He appeared in only 10 games for the Red Sox that season, going 3-for-19 in the process, but manager Terry Francona said that he was "kind of excited about" the limited action that Saltalamacchia did see.
After Martínez signed with the Detroit Tigers as a free agent during the 2010–11 offseason, Saltalamacchia inherited the starting catcher position for Boston. The Red Sox had a slow start to the season, and troubles with both Saltalamacchia's swing and the performance of his batterymates led to rumors that Varitek would gain more time behind the plate. As the season progressed, Saltalamacchia became more comfortable catching for Boston. He took the general advice on how to call a game from pitching coach Bob McClure, while Varitek taught Saltalamacchia how to handle the individual personalities of members of the Red Sox' starting rotation like Josh Beckett, John Lackey, and Jon Lester. This comfort appeared to translate to Saltalamacchia's batting as well: by the start of August, he had already set career highs in runs, doubles, triples, home runs, RBIs, walks, slugging percentage, and on-base plus slugging (OPS). Saltalamacchia played in 103 games for Boston in 2011, closing out the season with a .235 batting average, a .450 slugging percentage, a .288 on-base percentage (OBP), 16 home runs, 56 RBIs, and 52 runs scored in 358 at-bats.
On January 15, 2012, Saltalamacchia avoided contract arbitration when the Red Sox signed him to a new one-year, $2.5 million deal. With Varitek's offseason retirement, Saltalamacchia became the de facto leader of Boston's "Wolf Pack" of catchers, a group that also included Kelly Shoppach, Ryan Lavarnway, and Luis Exposito. The veteran Shoppach joined Saltalamacchia as a mentor for the team, both with the younger catchers and with the Red Sox pitching staff. While Saltalamacchia served as the everyday catcher for Boston, Shoppach would frequently get the nod against left-handed pitchers, against whom Saltalamacchia was less effective. After the first half of the season saw Saltalamacchia make an All-Star case with 15 home runs and a .537 slugging percentage, he seemed to collapse in August, finishing the year with 139 strikeouts in 405 at-bats. In 121 games for the Red Sox in 2012, Saltalamacchia batted .273, with 65 RBIs and 58 runs scored. He put up middling offensive numbers for the season, with a .288 OBP and 1.2 Wins Above Replacement, but his 25 home runs were one short of the single-season franchise record among catchers, which was set by Carlton Fisk in both 1973 and 1977. His troubles were more defensive: only 18.4 percent of attempted runners were caught stealing by Saltalamacchia, down from 30.8 percent the previous year, and he struggled to call games: Red Sox pitchers in 2012 had a combined 4.84 earned run average (ERA) with Saltalamacchia behind the plate, compared to 4.51 with other catchers.
The offseason signing of veteran catcher David Ross placed Saltalamacchia in competition with Lavarnway for the remaining position behind the plate. Boston general manager Ben Cherington ultimately optioned Lavarnway to Triple-A, keeping Ross and Saltalamacchia as his major league catching staff for the 2013 season. The season turned out to be the most offensively impressive of Saltalamacchia's career, as he set new career highs with a .273 batting average, a .338 OBP, a .466 slugging percentage, 68 runs scored, 40 doubles, 65 RBIs, and 43 walks. Saltalamacchia also helped take the Red Sox to the postseason for the first time since he joined the team, both through his own offensive performance and by helping to coach the Red Sox' young pitching staff. After aiding the Red Sox in their playoff run, Saltalamacchia recorded a walk-off RBI single in Game 2 of the 2013 American League Championship Series, bringing home Jonny Gomes to take the game 6–5. Saltalamacchia's success did not continue into the 2013 World Series, as a wild throw to third base in Game 3 was called as "obstruction", allowing Allen Craig of the St. Louis Cardinals to take a run and win the game 5–4. He was benched for the remainder of the series, which the Red Sox won in six games, and Boston did not tender Jarrod Saltalamacchia a qualifying offer for the following season, leaving him a free agent.
Miami Marlins (2014–15)
After passing a physical exam, Saltalamacchia finalized a three-year, $21 million contract with the Miami Marlins, his hometown team, on December 9, 2013. The deal subsequently pushed Jeff Mathis to the backup role and Rob Brantly to the minors. The Marlins had been interested in signing Saltalamacchia to serve as a veteran starter who could carry the team while they waited for a promising catching prospect to emerge.
After a hot streak to start the 2014 MLB season which saw Saltalamacchia record four home runs and seven RBIs in 11 games, he fell into a slump, going a career-high 0-for-26 before recording a hit against the San Francisco Giants on May 16. Amidst another 0-for-11 slump, Saltalamacchia was placed on the concussion list on June 1, with the Marlins electing not to disclose how he suffered the injury. While the catcher continued to disappoint in hit production, carrying a .220 average into the start of August, he managed to raise his on-base percentage to .329 by drawing 43 walks in that same time frame. In 114 games for the Marlins in 2014, Saltalamacchia batted .220, with 11 home runs and 44 RBIs in 373 at-bats. Despite striking out 143 times, he also recorded 55 walks in 435 plate appearances.
Saltalamacchia's difficulties continued into the 2015 season. He went 2-for-29 with 12 strikeouts, and his .289 on-base plus slugging was the lowest among MLB catchers by the time that he went on paternity leave in April. On April 27, Saltalamacchia was designated for assignment as the rookies moved J. T. Realmuto into the starting catcher role, with Jhonatan Solano acting as his backup. Although several teams expressed interest in claiming Saltalamacchia off of waivers, they were reluctant to inherit the remainder of his Marlins contract. On May 5, the Marlins released Saltalamacchia, an agreement that required them to pay the remaining $15 million on his initial $21 million contract.
Arizona Diamondbacks (2015)
Two days after his release from the Marlins, Saltalamacchia signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks, a deal that would allow him to gain more at-bats in Triple-A before joining the rest of the team. He was meant to serve as the backup catcher for Tuffy Gosewisch, but after Gosewisch suffered a season-ending knee injury at the end of May, Saltalamacchia became the Diamondbacks' everyday catcher. While he adjusted to the role, he split time with new backup Jordan Pacheco. As the season progressed, the Diamondbacks settled into a three-catcher workload, with Saltalamacchia splitting time behind the plate with Oscar Hernández and Welington Castillo. At the end of the 2015 season, Saltalamacchia, who batted .251 in 70 games with eight home runs and 23 RBIs, became a free agent.
First stint with the Detroit Tigers (2016)
On December 6, 2015, Saltalamacchia signed a one-year contract with the Detroit Tigers. As the Marlins still owed him $8 million from the remainder of that contract, Detroit was allowed to sign Saltalamacchia for the minimum amount. Detroit was primarily interested in Saltalamacchia's switch-hitting abilities, as they were in need of more left-handed batters; defensively, he would serve as the backup catcher for other new acquisition James McCann. When McCann suffered a sprained ankle at the start of the season, Saltalamacchia received regular starting time, and he hit his 100th career home run on April 13, 2016, with a go-ahead grand slam in a 7–3 defeat of the Pittsburgh Pirates. After a strong offensive start which led Tigers manager Brad Ausmus to platoon his two catchers equally, Saltalamacchia fell into a slump as the season progressed, and the Tigers made no attempt to re-sign their backup catcher at the conclusion of the season. Although his offensive performance was middling, batting only .171 with 12 home runs and 38 RBIs in 92 games, Saltalamacchia's primary contribution to the Tigers was his clubhouse presence. He acted as a mentor to young pitchers Michael Fulmer and Matthew Boyd, serving also as Boyd's personal catcher.
Toronto Blue Jays (2017)
The Toronto Blue Jays signed Saltalamacchia to a minor league contract on February 6, 2017, with an invitation to spring training. He was ultimately named to the Blue Jays' opening day roster as a backup catcher for Russell Martin, and he got his first start of the season on April 7, catching for Francisco Liriano. After Saltalamacchia demonstrated difficulties at the plate, going 1-for-25 with 16 strikeouts in 10 games, the Jays recalled Luke Maile from the minors as his replacement. Saltalamacchia was released from the Blue Jays on May 3 but signed a new minor league contract two weeks later and was assigned to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons. Saltalamacchia's offensive difficulties continued in the minor leagues, and after he batted .162 in 33 games, the Bisons released him on June 30, 2017. Saltalamacchia revealed later that his struggles at the plate were due in large part to the fact that his wife was undergoing health issues at home. As a result, his "mind wasn't there" during games. He spent the remainder of the season serving as a fill-in color commentator for the New England Sports Network (NESN).
Second stint with the Detroit Tigers (2018)
Leading into the 2018 MLB season, Saltalamacchia was contemplating leaving MLB for Nippon Professional Baseball in Japan, or for one of the independent baseball leagues in the United States. On March 9, 2018, however, Saltalamacchia signed a minor league contract with the Tigers, with the understanding that he would primarily play for the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens and serve as "insurance" in case one of the major league catchers suffered an injury. He took on the unofficial role of clubhouse teacher with the Mud Hens, helping both the Tigers' pitching prospects and fellow Triple-A catcher Grayson Greiner develop their skills in preparation for an MLB promotion. Greiner and Saltalamacchia had a particular rapport with each other, referring to the other catcher as "Dad" or "Son", respectively. In 67 games with Toledo, Saltalamacchia batted .174, with five home runs and 28 RBIs in 218 at-bats. After Toledo was eliminated from the International League playoffs on September 8, Saltalamacchia was one of three Triple-A players added to the Tigers' expanded roster. He played in five major league games that season, going 0-for-7 with one walk and four strikeouts.
Retirement
Saltalamacchia announced his retirement from baseball on January 28, 2019, after 12 years in Major League Baseball. He told reporter Ken Rosenthal of The Athletic that it was time to "hang up [his] gear and start the next chapter of [his] life", which involved spending more time with his family. Saltalamacchia finished his career with a .232 average, 110 home runs, and 381 RBIs.
After his retirement, Saltalamacchia was hired to coach the baseball team of The King's Academy in West Palm Beach. He took over the position from his former Rangers teammate Brad Wilkerson, who left the school to pursue other baseball opportunities. In addition to coaching The King's Academy, Saltalamacchia was hired by NESN to serve as a substitute sports commentator when the network's regular analysts were unavailable. In 2022, he joined the coaching staff of the Bourne Braves, a collegiate summer baseball team in the Cape Cod Baseball League.
Personal life
Saltalamacchia married his wife Ashley on July 12, 2005. She was a gym teacher at Royal Palm Beach High School during his time as a student, but claims they did not begin dating until 2004, the year after he graduated. They have four daughters. He and his family are Christians, and he listed his strong faith as one of the reasons he decided to coach baseball at The King's Academy. The family lives in Wellington, Florida.
Fourteen letters long, Saltalamacchia had the longest last name in MLB history. The previous recordholder was Ossee Schreckengost, who played for the Red Sox in 1901. He was surpassed by Simeon Woods Richardson in 2022 with sixteen characters (including a space). Most of Saltalamacchia's teammates refer to him by the nickname "Salty".
Politically, Saltalamacchia has expressed several conservative beliefs. Although scheduling conflicts with the Marlins prevented Saltalamacchia from joining his World Series champion teammates on a celebratory visit to the White House, the catcher told reporters that he would have declined to attend regardless, as he did not support then-President Barack Obama. In 2016, Saltalamacchia expressed his disagreement with gridiron football player Colin Kaepernick's decision to take the knee during the playing of the U.S. national anthem prior to games. He referred to Kaepernick's kneeling as "pretty disgusting", and said that the football player "needs to go back to the history books and realize what the flag represents and what a lot of people have sacrificed for it". Later that season, Saltalamacchia wore a pair of cleats emblazoned with the American flag, with a sheriff's badge imprinted on one heel. The cleats were worn to show his support for the Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office and were auctioned off at a department charity event that November.
References
External links
Jarrod Saltalamacchia
1985 births
American people of Italian descent
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
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Atlanta Braves players
Boston Red Sox announcers
Boston Red Sox players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Cape Cod Baseball League coaches
Detroit Tigers players
Frisco RoughRiders players
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Living people
Major League Baseball catchers
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Toros del Este players |
4266671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%202000 | MLS Cup 2000 | MLS Cup 2000 was the fifth edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS), which took place on October 15, 2000, at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C. It was contested by the Kansas City Wizards and Chicago Fire to decide the champion of the 2000 MLS season.
Kansas City became the first Western Conference team to win the MLS Cup, with the lone goal of the match scored in the 11th minute by Miklos Molnar. It was also the first MLS Cup to not feature a team from the Eastern Conference club, due to the three-division system used from 2000 to 2001. The match was watched by 39,159 spectators and broadcast nationally on ABC with commentary by Jack Edwards and Ty Keough.
Venue
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in Washington, D.C., the home of D.C. United, was chosen to host MLS Cup 2000. It previously hosted MLS Cup 1997, during which United won their second league championship, the 1994 FIFA World Cup, and the 1996 Olympics men's soccer tournament. The 2000 final was the first MLS Cup to not feature D.C. United, as the team failed to qualify for the playoffs.
At the time of the match in October 2000, seating capacity of the stadium was 56,454 spectators. RFK Stadium was officially announced as the host on February 23, 2000. The other bidder, Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida, had been favored by the league and was unable to resolve a scheduling conflict with a college football team until too late in the selection process.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer, a professional club soccer league based in the United States. The 2000 season was the fifth in the league's history and was contested by twelve teams organized into three divisions (later renamed conferences), each with four teams. The 32-match regular season, which ran for 26 weeks from March to September, was arranged to have each team play opponents within their division four times and six teams outside of their division twice; the regular season also had a set of four home-and-away matches for two out-of-division teams, determined by standings from the opposite conference in the 1999 season. Prior to the season, MLS eliminated the previously-used countdown clock and shootout tiebreakers in favor of international rules. Referees would manage time on a count-up clock with stoppage time and tied matches would be allowed following two periods of five-minute golden goal overtime.
The MLS Cup Playoffs ran from mid-September to October and was contested by the winners of the three divisions and five wild card teams with the most points regardless of division, who were then seeded based on overall standings. The playoffs were organized into three rounds, the first two being a home-and-away series organized into a best-of-three format. Teams were awarded three points for a win and one point for a draw, and the first team to earn five points would advance. The MLS Cup final remained a single match at a predetermined venue.
MLS Cup 2000 was contested by the Kansas City Wizards of the Western Division and the Chicago Fire of the Central Division. Both teams finished atop their respective divisions with 57 points, but the Wizards clinched the Supporters' Shield on the goal difference tiebreaker by two goals. The Fire, who won the MLS Cup in 1998, were the top-scoring team during the 2000 season, while the Wizards conceded the fewest goals. Kansas City and Chicago met twice during the regular season, trading wins at home; the Wizards won 4–3 on March 25 and the Fire won 3–2 on June 4. MLS Cup 2000 was the first edition of the league's championship to not feature D.C. United, whose stadium was used for the match.
Kansas City Wizards
The Kansas City Wizards (originally the "Wiz") qualified for the playoffs in their first two seasons, finishing atop the Western Conference in 1997, but had never appeared in the MLS Cup final. The Wizards then finished with a 12–20 record in 1998 and failed to qualify for the playoffs under head coach Ron Newman, who was fired after a 0–7 start the following year. Newman was replaced by Bob Gansler, who finished the 1999 season with a 8–24 record, the second-worst in the league, while rebuilding the team's roster. Several members of the inaugural season's team, including forward Vitalis Takawira and defenders Sean Bowers and Scott Uderitz, were waived by the Wizards at the end of the 1999 season, while Alexi Lalas announced his retirement.
Gansler and new general manager Curt Johnson made several key signing in the offseason, beginning with the acquisition of Danish forward Miklos Molnar from Sevilla F.C. in January 2000. The Wizards traded defender Scott Vermillion to the Colorado Rapids in exchange for defenders Peter Vermes and Matt McKeon, who had previously played for the Wiz. The team signed two players they selected in the 2000 MLS SuperDraft: defender Nick Garcia, the second-overall pick, and Kerry Zavagnin, a third-round pick from the A-League. Kansas City finished their preseason with a 3–2–2 record, including two weeks in Bolivia, and saw the return of goalkeeper Tony Meola from an injury that kept him from playing for most of the 1999 season.
The Wizards opened the 2000 season with a 4–3 defeat of the Chicago Fire and went on an eleven-match unbeaten streak, amassing a 10–0–2 record through the end of May. The team's turnaround was credited to an improved defense, conceding only five goals and allowing Meola to earn a league-record shutout streak of 681 minutes, and consistent production from Molnar, who scored nine goals. The streak was broken by Chicago, who won 3–2 at Soldier Field on June 4, but Kansas City remained atop the league standings with an eight-point lead over the Los Angeles Galaxy in the Western Division.
Kansas City went winless in four league matches for most of June, in part due to the absence of Molnar while playing for the Danish national team, but maintained their home shutout streak. The team were also eliminated from the U.S. Open Cup in a penalty shootout by the Chicago Sockers of the USL Premier Development League in the third tier. After a 2–0 defeat of Los Angeles and a scoreless draw with the San Jose Earthquakes, the Wizards where shutout in three consecutive losses before closing out July with a 3–1 victory against the Columbus Crew. Kansas City was represented in the 2000 MLS All-Star Game with five players, including West captain Preki, and manager Bob Gansler.
The Wizards' lead in the Western Division standings narrowed to four points by early August as the team lost 5–1 and drew 1–1 with the Galaxy in back-to-back matches. Kansas City then lost Meola to a national team call-up and forwards Molnar and Mo Johnston to injuries, but were able to win 3–0 in San Jose with a starting lineup of reserve players. Following a 2–1 loss to the Miami Fusion at home, the Wizards began a five-match stretch to close out the season, including four matches played on the road. The team earned draws against the MetroStars and Colorado Rapids, clinching a playoff spot, while four of its forwards were sidelined with injuries. Kansas City clinched the Western Division title with a 1–0 road victory against the New England Revolution, which was followed by the Supporters' Shield through a draw against the Tampa Bay Mutiny with several reserve players. Gansler was named Coach of the Year for his team's improved record, while Tony Meola earned the MLS MVP Award, Goalkeeper of the Year, and Comeback Player of the Year for his league-record 16 shutouts. Peter Vermes was also named Defender of the Year for his role in the Wizards' league-best 29 goals conceded.
In the quarterfinals of the MLS Cup Playoffs, Kansas City faced the eighth-seed Colorado Rapids, who had eliminated them in the first round of the 1997 playoffs. The Wizards opened their playoff run with a 1–0 victory at home through a Molnar goal in the 18th minute, but were held to a scoreless draw at Mile High Stadium in Denver to force a third match in the series. The Rapids had the majority of scoring chances in both matches, but were denied by Meola's goalkeeping and a strong defensive performance from the Wizards. Kansas City advanced to the semifinals with a 3–2 victory at home in the third leg of the series, clinching a 7–1 lead on points. The Wizards took the lead in the 11th minute through a goal from Chris Henderson and followed up with two goals early in the second half from Molnar in the 65th minute and Francisco Gomez in the 69th minute; Paul Bravo scored for the Rapids a minute after Gomez's goal, but the team failed to mount a comeback after Junior Agogo was sent off with a red card.
The Wizards played the semifinals against the fifth-seeded Los Angeles Galaxy, who had eliminated them in the 1996 playoffs and had finished as MLS Cup runners-up in 1999. The first leg at Arrowhead Stadium in Kansas City ended in a scoreless draw as six yellow cards were given to players, including three in overtime. The Wizards lost the second leg at the Rose Bowl in overtime by a 2–1 scoreline, having earned a 1–1 draw in regulation time. Kansas City fell behind in the 16th minute from a shot by Cobi Jones, but midfielder Matt McKeon equalized in the 29th minute; substitute defender Danny Califf, who had returned from the Summer Olympics team, scored a header in the third minute of golden goal overtime to clinch a Galaxy victory. In the deciding third leg at Arrowhead Stadium, the Wizards went ahead in the 22nd minute through a Molnar penalty kick and won 1–0 in regulation time, tying the series at four points apiece. During the sixth minute of the ensuing sudden-death overtime, Molnar scored the team's first golden goal of the season by collecting an errant ball from Danny Califf, who had also conceded the penalty kick in regulation time.
Chicago Fire
The Chicago Fire entered the league as an expansion team in 1998 and won the MLS Cup and U.S. Open Cup in their inaugural season under the direction of head coach Bob Bradley and a core of veteran players from Eastern Europe. Their second season ended in the first round of the playoffs, where they were eliminated by the Dallas Burn, who mounted a comeback in the third match of the series to win 3–2. The Fire were able to retain most of their starting players over the offseason, but released veterans Roman Kosecki and Jerzy Podbrożny to Polish clubs and lost Frank Klopas to retirement. In early February, Chicago acquired midfielder DaMarcus Beasley from Los Angeles and selected defender Carlos Bocanegra with the fourth pick in the MLS SuperDraft to add younger talent to their starting lineup. Bulgarian forward Hristo Stoichkov was signed to a one-year contract the following month to serve as a veteran star for the team; his signing required the trade of Francis Okaroh to Miami for compliance with the league's salary cap.
After a month-long preseason in Florida and Costa Rica, the Fire began their regular season campaign with four consecutive away matches and played without goalkeeper Zach Thornton due to a calf injury. Chicago were defeated in their first two matches, losing 4–2 to Dallas and 4–3 to Kansas City, while captain Peter Nowak and midfielder Chris Armas were sidelined with their own injuries. Backup goalkeeper Greg Sutton was waived by the team after starting in the two losses and replaced by Chris Snitko, acquired in a trade with Kansas City; Snitko's acquisition forced a further trade of forward Junior Agogo to comply with the league's salary cap ahead of the signing of veteran midfielder Mike Sorber from the New England Revolution. The Fire closed out their road tour with a 2–0 victory against the Columbus Crew and a 2–3 loss to D.C. United in overtime.
Chicago returned home to Soldier Field with a 1–0 victory against the Miami Fusion, due in part to Thornton's return from his injury and the debuts of Bocanegra and Sorber for the team. The Fire settled into a stretch of five home fixtures over seven matches, winning four times and improving their record to 6–5–1 to overtake Dallas and Tampa Bay for first place in the Central Division. Stoitchkov was left out of the starting lineup for most of May due to a groin strain and replaced by Ante Razov, who recorded 10 goals in 12 matches to lead MLS in scoring and earned the first hat-trick in club history. Chicago also lost a trio of key players—Razov, Armas, and defender C. J. Brown—to the U.S. national team for the 2000 U.S. Cup for two weeks in June; as a result, the team dipped into second in the Central Division before regaining their lead with a victories against Kansas City and Miami at home.
The Fire stayed atop the Central Division and were five points behind Kansas City in the overall league standings by late June, but conceded late goals to tie Los Angeles and San Jose during a three-match road trip. As the team entered a crowded stretch of league and U.S. Open Cup matches, they lost several players to international call-ups as well as both Stoichkov to a torn groin muscle and defender Luboš Kubík to a sprained knee for a month. Chicago fell behind Tampa Bay in the Central Division standings entering the All-Star break at the end of July after several draws and overtime matches. The Fire defeated Tampa Bay to draw level with them on points atop the Central Division and the two team stayed tied through two more matches in mid-August.
With four of six remaining matches against Central Division rivals, the Fire began an unbeaten streak to clinch the division title and earn a 17–9–6 overall record for the regular season. Following a victory against the Los Angeles Galaxy and tie with Tampa Bay, the latter ending with two injured defenders, Chicago won three consecutive home matches to reach second place in the overall league standings. The Fire finished the regular season with a 3–2 victory in Columbus and tied Kansas City atop the league standings with 57 points, but lost the Supporters' Shield through a tiebreaker. Chicago would enter the playoffs without several injured players as well as Olympic call-ups Josh Wolff and Evan Whitfield, requiring additional lineup changes. Bocanegra won the MLS Rookie of the Year Award, while the midfield trio of Armas, Nowak, and Stoichkov were named to the MLS Best XI for their regular season performances.
In the playoff quarterfinals, Chicago faced the seventh-seeded New England Revolution, the only team they hadn't defeated during the regular season. The first leg, played on damaged turf at Soldier Field after a National Football League game, remained scoreless at half-time but opened with a goal in the 50th minute by Wolde Harris to give the visiting Revolution a lead. The Fire responded with an equalizer four minutes later through an own goal by Mauricio Wright and a second goal in the 73rd minute from Dema Kovalenko to win 2–1. The series was tied at three points apiece after New England won 2–1 in the second leg at Foxboro Stadium, taking the lead through a goal from Eric Wynalda in the 18th minute. A penalty from Stoitchkov was saved in first-half stoppage time, but Kovalenko managed to score an equalizer for Chicago in the 83rd minute; the Revolution responded two minutes later with a header from Wright to force a decisive third match. The Fire hosted the final quarterfinal leg and set an MLS record for largest margin of victory in the playoffs by winning 6–0, scoring four times during the first half. Stoitchkov and Razov each scored twice, the latter earning four assists to set a team record, while Nowak added a first-half stoppage time shot and Sam George finished off the match in the 75th minute with his goal.
The Fire opened their semifinal series against the New York/New Jersey MetroStars with a 3–0 victory at Soldier Field despite missing Nowak to a hamstring injury. Stoitchkov and Kovalenko each scored in the first half, while Razov added an insurance goal late in the second half and Thornton made eight saves to keep a shutout. The MetroStars played the second leg with first-choice goalkeeper Mike Ammann, who had returned from injury, and shutout the Fire 2–0 at Giants Stadium to force a third match in the series. Mark Chung opened the scoring in the 40th minute and Adolfo Valencia added an insurance goal in the 84th minute, while the Fire offense were stifled and unable to create scoring chances until late in the second half. Chicago clinched a series victory and their second MLS Cup berth by defeating the MetroStars 3–2 at Soldier Field. Following goals from Brown and Stoitchkov in the first half-hour of the match, the MetroStars rallied with a pair of goals from Valencia within four minutes to tie the match at 2–2 heading into half-time. The winning goal came in the 88th minute from Razov, who received a long pass from Armas and dribbled around Ammann to break the second-half deadlock.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). Playoffs were in best-of-three format requiring five points to advance and sudden death extra time as a tiebreaker.
Broadcasting
The MLS Cup final was broadcast in the United States on ABC with English commentary and Spanish via secondary audio programming. The English broadcast was led by play-by-play announcer Jack Edwards and color commentator Ty Keough, who were joined by studio hosts Rob Stone and Alexi Lalas. The Spanish broadcast comprised play-by-play announcer Roberto Abramowitz and MetroStars coach Octavio Zambrano as color commentator. The ABC broadcast drew a 1.0 national rating, matching the 1999 final. The local broadcast in the Kansas City area had an estimated 5 percent share of televisions, falling behind concurrent broadcasts of the film Blank Check and a Kansas City Chiefs game that drew 64 percent.
The match was also carried via streaming radio on Internetsoccer.com with English commentary from Dave Johnson and Miami Fusion coach Ray Hudson. Local radio stations in the Chicago area also broadcast the match, including WIND-AM in Spanish and WNVR-AM in Polish.
Match
Summary
The match began with Chicago on the offensive early, with Ante Razov and Hristo Stoitchkov creating several attempts within the first ten minutes. In the 11th minute, however, Wizards midfielder Chris Klein stole the ball from Chicago's Diego Gutiérrez near midfield and stormed down the touch line. Klein's cross from the right wing made contact with Fire midfielder Jesse Marsch who failed to clear the ball, allowing Miklos Molnar to make light contact and roll the ball past keeper Zach Thornton for the only goal of the match. The Fire responded by using its attacking forces to find an equalizer, but failed to break the Wizards defense and goalkeeper Tony Meola, who made ten saves in the final. Meola earned his 5th shutout of the playoffs in addition to 16 clean sheets to his name from the regular season.
Details
References
MLS Cup
MLS Cup
MLS Cup 2000
MLS Cup 2000
Soccer in Washington, D.C.
Sports competitions in Washington, D.C.
October 2000 sports events in the United States
2000 in sports in Washington, D.C. |
4266720 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%202001 | MLS Cup 2001 | MLS Cup 2001 was the sixth edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS), which took place on October 21, 2001, at Columbus Crew Stadium in Columbus, Ohio. It was contested by the San Jose Earthquakes and the Los Angeles Galaxy, a pair of in-state rivals from California, to decide the champion of the 2001 season. San Jose won their first title, defeating Los Angeles 2–1 in overtime with a golden goal scored by Dwayne De Rosario in the 96th minute.
San Jose were appearing in their first MLS Cup, while Los Angeles had lost two previous finals; the two teams finished at the top of the Western Division in regular season play, which was cut short by the September 11 attacks. The Earthquakes, under their first season with manager Frank Yallop, won their quarterfinals series against the Columbus Crew over two legs and defeated the league-leading Miami Fusion after extra time in the third leg of the semifinals. The Galaxy defeated the MetroStars in the quarterfinals and Chicago Fire in the semifinals with a golden goal scored in extra time of the third leg for both series.
It was the first MLS Cup to match two teams from both the same conference and state against each other, and the second MLS Cup to end with a golden goal. Frank Yallop became the first former MLS player to coach a team to an MLS Cup title. Crew Stadium became the first soccer-specific stadium to host the MLS Cup, which had an attendance of 21,626 spectators.
Venue
The match was played at Columbus Crew Stadium in Columbus, Ohio, and was the first MLS Cup to be hosted at a soccer-specific stadium. Lamar Hunt, owner of the Columbus Crew, built the $28.5 million stadium with soccer and concerts as its primary uses. It had a capacity of 22,500 seats (lower than most MLS venues of the time) and close-in seating next to the field. MLS awarded the hosting rights for the 2000 MLS All-Star Game and MLS Cup 2001 to Columbus during the stadium's groundbreaking ceremony on August 14, 1998. The stadium opened on May 15, 1999, and hosted several national team matches in the months before the MLS Cup. The design of Crew Stadium inspired similar soccer-specific stadiums, including the Home Depot Center for the Los Angeles Galaxy and Toyota Park for the Chicago Fire, which began construction in 2001.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer, a professional club soccer league based in the United States. The 2001 season was the sixth in the league's history and was contested by twelve teams organized into three divisions (later renamed conferences). Each team was to play a total of 28 matches in the regular season, which ran from April to September, facing teams within their division four times and outside of their division twice. The shortened schedule, with four fewer matches, and a smaller roster limited to 18 players under a $1.7 million salary cap reflected the league's financial troubles at the time. The MLS Cup Playoffs ran from mid-September to October and was contested by the winners of the three divisions and five wild card teams with the most points regardless of division, who were then seeded based on overall standings. The playoffs were organized into three rounds, the first two being a home-and-away series organized into a best-of-three format with the first team to earn five points advancing, and the single-match MLS Cup final.
MLS Cup 2001 was contested between the San Jose Earthquakes and the Los Angeles Galaxy, both from the Western Division. It was the first MLS Cup with finalists from the same division and the same state. San Jose had never appeared in an MLS Cup final, while Los Angeles lost the 1996 and 1999 finals to D.C. United. The finalists played each other twice during the regular season, both won by the Earthquakes, but two additional matches in the series to be played at the end of the regular season were canceled after the September 11 attacks, which shortened the league's season. Due to several teams having already played an extra match, playoff seeding was determined by points per game and matches began a week later. The Earthquakes and Galaxy also met each other in the quarterfinals of the U.S. Open Cup in July, which Los Angeles won 10–9 in a penalty shootout following a 1–1 draw after extra time.
San Jose Earthquakes
The San Jose Earthquakes, originally named the San Jose Clash until 2000, had historically been among the worst teams in the league and went through four coaching changes in its first six seasons. The Clash finished sixth overall in the inaugural season and qualified for the playoffs, where they were eliminated in the first round by the Galaxy. The team then missed the playoffs in the following five seasons, including four with losing records and finishing last in the league twice and second-to-last three times. The Earthquakes finished last in the league during the 2000 season with only seven wins and declined to renew the contract of head coach Lothar Osiander. Despite rumors that the team would fold, the San Jose Sharks of the National Hockey League took over business operations from the Kraft Sports Group in January 2001.
Former D.C. United assistant coach Frank Yallop was hired as San Jose's head coach days before the 2001 draft, where he began a series of player moves alongside assistant coach Dominic Kinnear. During the first week of Yallop's tenure, the Earthquakes acquired defender Jeff Agoos from D.C. United, Manny Lagos from the Tampa Bay Mutiny, and defender Zak Ibsen from the Los Angeles Galaxy. Yallop also used the league's allocation system to sign U.S. forward Landon Donovan from Bayer Leverkusen in March and Canadian forward Dwayne De Rosario from the Richmond Kickers of the second-division A-League. By the end of their preseason preparations in April, the team had also traded with the MetroStars for defender Ramiro Corrales and signed Danish midfielder Ronnie Ekelund.
The Earthquakes opened their regular season with a 3–2 win in the California Clásico over the Los Angeles Galaxy, but lost their next two matches to Dallas and Miami. The team then went on twelve-match unbeaten streak from late April to early July, winning seven matches and drawing in five, taking a lead in the Western Division standings ahead of Los Angeles. Yallop relied on a strong central core, consisting of Agoos and Troy Dayak in defense alongside Ekelund and Richard Mulrooney in the midfield to support the team's rotating attackers. Six players from the Earthquakes were named to the league's Western Division roster at the 2001 MLS All-Star Game, which was hosted at San Jose's Spartan Stadium.
In the last months of the season, the Earthquakes were defeated in several matches and lost their first-place spot to the Galaxy only to regain it on several occasions. San Jose clinched a playoff spot and second place in the Western Division with 45 points after losing to the Kansas City Wizards prior to the cancellation of the two remaining matches against the Galaxy. The Earthquakes finished the season with the best record and winning percentage in club history, while the defense lead the league with only 30 allowed goals. Frank Yallop was voted the MLS Coach of the Year, while Agoos earned Defender of the Year honors and Dayak was named the Comeback Player of the Year.
San Jose were seeded fifth in the playoffs and faced the fourth-seeded Columbus Crew, who had earned the same number of points but won a head-to-head tiebreaker. The Earthquakes won 3–1 during the first leg in Columbus, with Donovan scoring two goals and Manny Lagos scoring another after having his red card suspension rescinded by the league. San Jose defeated Columbus 3–0 in the second leg and advanced with six points to their first-ever MLS Cup semifinal. The Earthquakes fell 1–0 to the Supporters' Shield-winning Miami Fusion in the first leg of the semifinals, but responded with a 4–0 win at Spartan Stadium to tie the series at three points apiece and force a third match. The third match, played in Fort Lauderdale, remained scoreless into extra time, where Troy Dayak scored a golden goal in the 94th minute to clinch a series victory and San Jose's first appearance at an MLS Cup.
Los Angeles Galaxy
The Los Angeles Galaxy were one of the most successful teams during the early years of MLS, winning the Western Conference three times and appearing in five consecutive playoffs prior to 2001. The team advanced to the MLS Cup final in 1996 and 1999, losing both times to D.C. United. The Galaxy won the 1998 Supporters' Shield and the 2000 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, becoming the second MLS team to win a continental trophy. Sigi Schmid was named the team's head coach early in the 1999 season and took the team to the MLS Cup with an emphasis on defensive play. The team finished the 2000 season as the second-placed team in the Western Conference and were eliminated in the playoff semifinals by the division-leading Kansas City Wizards, who would go on to win the MLS Cup.
The Galaxy traded captain and veteran defender Robin Fraser to the Colorado Rapids before the 2001 season to meet the league's salary cap requirements. The team remained mostly unchanged from the 2000 season, with the addition of veteran defender Alexi Lalas and young forwards Brian Ching and Brian Mullan picked during the SuperDraft. Schmid planned to use a 3–5–2 formation to take advantage of the team's midfield depth, with the ability to switch to a 4–3–3 in certain situations.
Los Angeles lost its opening two matches to San Jose and Kansas City, but a change in several starting positions lead to three consecutive wins and a 4–4 draw with the Tampa Bay Mutiny. The Galaxy used its several wins to reach second in the Western Division standings, passing Kansas City but falling behind the unbeaten San Jose Earthquakes. The cancellation of the 2001 FIFA Club World Championship left a gap in the team's schedule in late July and early August, which was partially replaced with previously-rescheduled league matches. By early September, the Galaxy had begun challenging the Earthquakes for first place in the Western Division, winning seven of nine matches before a scheduled two-match series against San Jose to close out the regular season. After the matches were canceled, Los Angeles was declared the Western Division champion with 47 points and seeded third in the playoffs bracket.
The Galaxy played against the sixth-seeded New York/New Jersey MetroStars in the quarterfinals, coached by former Galaxy manager Octavio Zambrano. The first leg, at the Rose Bowl, ended in a 1–1 draw after a second-half goal by Paul Caligiuri, who was ejected in the second half alongside MetroStars midfielder Gilmar. The second leg, played at Giants Stadium in New Jersey, was one of the first sporting events in the New York City area following the September 11 attacks; the MetroStars defeated the Galaxy by a 4–1 scoreline, coming from behind after conceding an early goal to Los Angeles, and took a three-point lead in the quarterfinals series. Los Angeles hosted the third match of the series at the Rose Bowl and took a 2–0 lead in the first half on two goals by Sasha Victorine. After conceding a third goal in the second half, the MetroStars responded with two goals by Petter Villegas, losing 3–2 to the Galaxy in regular time to tie the series at four points apiece. The tie went into sudden death extra time, which ended after eight minutes when Mauricio Cienfuegos scored the winning golden goal for Los Angeles.
In a rematch of the U.S. Open Cup semifinal, Los Angeles faced the Chicago Fire, winners of the Central Division, in the MLS Cup semifinals. The first leg at Chicago's Soldier Field ended in a 1–1 draw between the two teams after an overtime goal by Cobi Jones was ruled invalid due to a tackle by Brian Mullan. The Galaxy won 1–0 overtime in the second leg on a golden goal from Peter Vagenas. The third and final leg, also hosted at Soldier Field, remained tied at 1–1 after regular time and finished with a golden goal scored by Cienfuegos in the 98th minute of extra time. With their 2–1 victory over Chicago, the Los Angeles Galaxy advanced to their third MLS Cup final in six seasons. The team would also have a chance to be the first American team to win a continental treble, having already won the CONCACAF Champions' Cup in January and being scheduled to play in the U.S. Open Cup final a week after the MLS Cup.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away). Playoffs were in best-of-three format requiring five points to advance and sudden death extra time as a tiebreaker.
Broadcasting
The MLS Cup final was televised in the United States on ABC in English and Spanish. The network moved the start time of the match by one hour from 1:30 p.m. Eastern Time to 12:30 p.m. to accommodate scheduling changes caused by the September 11 attacks. The English commentary crew consisted of Jack Edwards for play-by-play, Ty Keough with color analysis, and other programming hosted by Rob Stone and Dave Dir. The Spanish broadcast was transmitted over secondary audio programming on ABC and was headlined by play-by-play commentator Hammer Londoño and color analyst Hernan Pereyra of Radio Unica. The match was also broadcast in 108 other countries by ESPN International. The ABC broadcast earned a 1.0 Nielsen rating, beating the previous two editions of the cup.
Match
Summary
The match was played only four days after the MLS Cup semifinals, in front of a predominantly neutral crowd of 21,626 at Columbus Crew Stadium with several thousand no-show ticketholders. A group of about 100 Chicago Fire supporters appeared at the match to taunt the Galaxy with chants and drums. The pregame ceremony included an appearance by six members of the New York City Fire Department and New York City Police Department and the national anthem sung by Toya. The match was the first MLS Cup to be refereed by Kevin Stott, who previously served as the fourth official at MLS Cup 2000.
The Earthquakes began the match with the majority of possession, which was used to build up to several attacking chances that were cleared away by Galaxy goalkeeper Kevin Hartman. Los Angeles, however, had a chance of its own in the 14th minute on a cross by Cobi Jones towards Sasha Victorine that was passed on to Mauricio Cienfuegos, whose shot was cleared away by San Jose. The Galaxy opened the scoring in 21st minute on a goal by Luis Hernández, who received a pass from defender Greg Vanney. Los Angeles then missed an opportunity to take a 2–0 lead in the 35th minute after a shot from Cobi Jones was saved by goalkeeper Joe Cannon. The Earthquakes found an equalizing goal shortly before half-time in the 43rd minute on a play started by Ian Russell's run down the right wing. He slipped a pass to Richard Mulrooney, whose cross over the box was volleyed by Landon Donovan into the top-right corner of the goal.
San Jose went on to outshoot Los Angeles 12–3 in the second half and created several chances to score, including a free kick taken by Jeff Agoos that hit the left goalpost. After receiving a yellow card for a challenge on Ian Russell, Galaxy defender Paul Caligiuri was substituted in the 53rd minute—marking the end of his MLS career. Three additional yellow cards were issued in the second half to Danny Califf, Ronnie Ekelund, and Zak Ibsen; Ibsen had only been substituted a minute before drawing the card. Dwayne De Rosario was substituted into the game in the 85th minute for Ronald Cerritos, shortly before the tied match forced a sudden-death overtime. De Rosario scored the winning golden goal in the sixth minute of overtime with a dribble around Califf and a shot from that Hartman managed to touch, but was unable to save. It was the second time in MLS Cup history that the title was decided by a golden goal, following the inaugural edition between D.C. United and the Galaxy.
Details
Post-match
The Earthquakes completed a "worst to first" finish, which was named the greatest turnaround in MLS history. Frank Yallop became the first former MLS player to win the MLS Cup as head coach, as well as the first non-American manager to win the championship. Dwayne De Rosario was named the MLS Cup MVP for his golden goal, despite entering the match in the 85th minute. The Galaxy lost their third final in six years, with the match against San Jose described as the "most difficult" by coach Sigi Schmid. The Galaxy went on to win the 2001 U.S. Open Cup a week later, defeating the New England Revolution 2–1 in overtime. Los Angeles met New England again at MLS Cup 2002, winning 1–0 in overtime for their first MLS Cup title. San Jose won their second MLS Cup in the 2003 final at the Galaxy's newly-constructed soccer-specific stadium, the Home Depot Center in Carson, California, after eliminating the hosts in the playoffs.
San Jose qualified for the 2002 CONCACAF Champions' Cup alongside the finalists from MLS Cup 2000, Chicago and Kansas City, due to the cancellation of the previous Champions' Cup and the transition to the new, expanded cup format. The Earthquakes advanced from the first round against C.D. Olimpia by winning 1–0 at the Miami Orange Bowl and 3–1 at a small stadium in Sacramento. San Jose then faced C.F. Pachuca in the quarterfinals and lost 3–0 in the away leg played in Mexico. The Earthquakes rallied to win 1–0 the following week in the home leg, but were eliminated from the cup with an aggregate score of 1–3.
The Earthquakes and its players were later relocated to Houston after the 2005 season, becoming the Houston Dynamo. The Dynamo won consecutive MLS Cup championships in their first two seasons after relocation, while the Earthquakes returned to the league as an expansion team in the 2008 season. The Galaxy went on to win five MLS Cup titles, including two against the Dynamo in the 2011 and 2012 finals.
References
MLS Cup
MLS Cup
MLS Cup 2001
MLS Cup 2001
Sports competitions in Columbus, Ohio
October 2001 sports events in the United States
2001 in sports in Ohio
21st century in Columbus, Ohio |
4266862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%202004 | MLS Cup 2004 | MLS Cup 2004 was the ninth edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS), which took place on November 14, 2004, at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California. It was contested between D.C. United and the Kansas City Wizards to decide the champion of the 2004 season. The two teams had qualified for the playoffs after seasons with mixed results that ended in top-two finishes in their respective conferences.
D.C. United won the match 3–2, scoring all three of its goals in a seven-minute span during the first half after the Wizards had taken an early lead. Alecko Eskandarian was named the match MVP for scoring the first two goals for D.C., one of which included an alleged handball that was uncalled. The 2004 final featured the first red card in MLS Cup history, awarded for a handball which resulted in a penalty kick for Kansas City's second goal. It was D.C. United's fourth MLS Cup title and their first since 1999, and manager Peter Nowak became the first person to win the MLS Cup as a player and coach.
Venue
The Home Depot Center in Carson, California, the home venue of the Los Angeles Galaxy, was announced by the league as the host of MLS Cup 2004 on June 23, 2004. The 27,000-seat stadium had hosted the previous edition of the MLS Cup and the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup Final in its first year of operation. The 2004 final marked the first time that a stadium had hosted consecutive editions of the MLS Cup, which would be followed by Pizza Hut Park in Frisco, Texas in 2005 and 2006.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States. The 2004 season was the ninth in the league's history and was contested by ten teams in two conferences, divided into the east and west. Each team played a total of 30 matches in the regular season from April to October, facing teams within their conference four times, outside of their conference two times, and playing an additional home game against a non-conference team. The playoffs ran from mid-October to November and was contested by the top four teams in each conference. It was organized into three rounds: a home-and-away series with a winner determined by aggregate score in the Conference Semifinals, a single-match Conference Final, and the MLS Cup final.
MLS Cup 2004 was contested by D.C. United and the Kansas City Wizards. Both teams had previously won the MLS Cup and finished in the top two seeds of their respective conferences in regular season play. D.C. and Kansas City had played each other twice during the regular season, trading 1–0 away wins at their respective homes: the Wizards won at RFK Memorial Stadium in May and D.C. United won at Arrowhead Stadium in July. Kansas City qualified for the playoffs as the top seed in the Western Conference, finishing level with Supporters' Shield winners Columbus Crew on points, while D.C. United rode late-season momentum to finish with a record slightly above .500.
D.C. United
D.C. United won three MLS Cup titles in the first four seasons of the league's existence, only finishing as runners-up in 1998, and established a dynasty under head coaches Bruce Arena and Thomas Rongen. From 2000 to 2002, however, D.C. failed to qualify for the playoffs for three consecutive seasons and Rongen was fired. Ray Hudson lead the team to a playoffs return in 2003, where they lost 4–0 on aggregate to the Chicago Fire in the first round.
In January 2004, D.C. hired recently retired Chicago Fire midfielder Peter Nowak as its fourth head coach in nine seasons. The last remaining player from the club's inaugural season, forward Marco Etcheverry, left the club at the end of the 2003 season. To replace Etcheverry, the club recalled Jaime Moreno from the MetroStars and drafted 14-year-old forward Freddy Adu, who had already agreed in November to sign with them. Nowak implemented an aggressive playstyle that emphasized counterattacks and team-oriented play that took hold late in the season.
The club earned a 5–5–5 record at the beginning of the season, including a 271-minute scoreless streak and a four-match unbeaten streak that was capped with a 6–2 win over the MetroStars. After a four-match winless streak to start the second half of the season, D.C. United found a more consistent rhythm and finished the season with a winning record and a ten-match home unbeaten streak. The club signed Argentine midfielder Christian Gómez in the summer transfer window and paired him with forward Alecko Eskandarian, who lead D.C. in goals scored, to close out the season; rookie goalkeeper Troy Perkins was promoted to the starting lineup and played in place of Nick Rimando before he returned later in the season.
By winning five of their final six regular season matches, D.C. United clinched the second-place seed in the Eastern Conference behind the Columbus Crew. In the Conference Semifinals, D.C. played host to their Atlantic Cup rivals, the New York/New Jersey MetroStars, who they had played in the final week of the season. D.C. United won 2–0 in the first leg at Giants Stadium on second-half goals by Earnie Stewart and Eskandarian. In the second leg of the series at RFK Memorial Stadium, D.C. defeated the MetroStars 2–0, with late goals scored by Moreno and Bryan Namoff, and advanced to the Conference Final on an aggregate score of 4–0.
D.C. United faced the fourth-seeded New England Revolution, who upset the Columbus Crew in the semifinals, in the Conference Final at RFK Memorial Stadium on November 6, 2004. During the match, considered one of the best in MLS history, D.C. took the lead three times and New England responded with three equalizing goals. Eskandarian opened the scoring in the 11th minute on a defensive mistake, but Taylor Twellman leveled the score at 1–1 six minutes later with a volleyed shot from inside the box. Jamie Moreno restored the lead for D.C. in the 21st minute, curling a shot around the left post to beat goalkeeper Matt Reis; New England were awarded a penalty kick after the ball hit the arm of defender Brian Carroll, and Steve Ralston's shot deflected off the post and Nick Rimando before going into the net and tying the match 2–2 at halftime. Gómez scored D.C.'s third goal in the 67th minute, heading a cross from Earnie Stewart, but New England's Pat Noonan responded with a headed goal in the 85th minute that tied the match at the end of regulation time.
Despite several attempts at goal, the match remained tied 3–3 after extra time and would be the first MLS playoff match decided by a penalty shootout. After an opening round in which neither penalty taker scored, five consecutive penalties were scored to give D.C. a 3–2 lead. In the fourth round, the shot by Jay Heaps for New England was saved by Rimando, but the follow-up by Moreno was saved by Reis to prevent the Revolution from being eliminated. New England's Shalrie Joseph scored his penalty to trigger a sudden death round, which saw Brian Carroll score and Clint Dempsey's shot saved by Nick Rimando. The penalty shootout ended in a 4–3 victory for D.C. United, who clinched an appearance in their fifth MLS Cup final.
Kansas City Wizards
The Kansas City Wizards had won the MLS Cup in 2000, defeating the Chicago Fire, in the same season that they had clinched the Supporters' Shield for the best regular season record. The team qualified for the playoffs in six of their first eight seasons, including four consecutive appearances under manager Bob Gansler. The Wizards finished in second place in the Western Conference at the end of the 2003 season, relying on 40-year-old forward Preki as he led the league in scoring and was named the most valuable player. The team advanced past the Colorado Rapids and qualified for the Conference Finals, where they were defeated 3–2 by the San Jose Earthquakes in extra time.
The Wizards began the 2004 season without Preki, who broke his leg during preseason and replaced with Josh Wolff and Davy Arnaud as starting forwards. The season began with only three wins in the first nine matches, but the Wizards found their form in June and went unbeaten in nine despite playing five consecutive away matches. The team saw their unbeaten streak broken at the end of July before the All-Star Game break, remaining in second place behind the Los Angeles Galaxy in the Western Conference standings. Veteran goalkeeper Tony Meola picked up an injury to his achilles tendon during a pre-game warm-up in August and was replaced by backup goalkeeper Bo Oshoniyi, who would start for the rest of the season. The Wizards also lost starting midfielder Chris Klein to a torn ligament in his knee, while Preki returned only for three matches before being sidelined for an additional ankle surgery.
Kansas City returned from the All-Star break by continuing a four-match winless streak, but finished the season with five wins in the final nine matches to clinch the first seed in the Western Conference. The team's success was credited to a league-leading defense, conceding one goal per game on average, and strong performances from reserve and replacement players under Gansler. The Wizards also won their first U.S. Open Cup title in September by defeating the Chicago Fire 1–0 with a golden goal in extra time. The team were tied with the Columbus Crew in the overall standings with 49 points, but lost the Supporters' Shield on the third tiebreaker, goals scored. Two Wizards players, defender Jimmy Conrad and midfielder Kerry Zavagnin, were named to the MLS Best XI, but Gansler finished as runner-up to Columbus's Greg Andrulis for MLS Coach of the Year.
The Wizards began their playoff campaign in the Western Conference Semifinals against the San Jose Earthquakes, the defending MLS Cup champions. The team fell 2–0 in the first leg of the series in San Jose, conceding goals to Dwayne De Rosario and Craig Waibel near halftime, but Oshoniyi saved further chances from the Earthquakes. The Wizards returned to Arrowhead Stadium and earned a 2–0 lead in the second half to tie the series, with a first-half goal from rookie midfielder Khari Stephenson and an own goal scored on a deflection off Earthquakes forward Brian Ching. In the second minute of stoppage time, Kansas City midfielder Jack Jewsbury scored the winning goal to give his team a 3–2 win on aggregate that would clinch a berth in the Western Conference Final. The Wizards then hosted the Los Angeles Galaxy in the Western Conference Final, repeating similar playoff matchups that the Galaxy won in 1996 and 2002 and lost in 2000; the Galaxy, who were hosting the MLS Cup final, was also winless in four regular season matches against the Wizards in 2004. With a strong defensive performance, Kansas City advanced to their second MLS Cup final on a 2–0 win over Los Angeles; both of the team's goals were scored by Davy Arnaud in the 24th and 69th minutes.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away).
Broadcasting and entertainment
The MLS Cup final was televised in the United States on ABC in English, along with a Spanish broadcast using secondary audio programming, both produced by ESPN. English play-by-play commentary was provided by JP Dellacamera with color analysis by Eric Wynalda, reprising their roles in the previous final. Play-by-play commentator Ernesto Motta returned to the Spanish-language broadcast, working alongside color analyst Robert Sierra. The ABC/ESPN broadcast was produced by a team of 85 people and used 20 cameras, including specialized replay and slow-motion cameras. The match was also broadcast in over 175 other countries by ESPN International. Radio coverage of the match was provided by the local teams in English and Radiovisa nationally in Spanish. It was also carried on the American Forces Radio Network internationally. The ABC broadcast earned a Nielsen rating of 0.8 and averaged a local 2.4 rating in the Kansas City metropolitan area—far below the competing Kansas City Chiefs game. The match's halftime show featured San Diego-based alternative rock band Switchfoot and a pyrotechnics display.
Match
Summary
The match kicked off at 12:45 p.m. Pacific Time on November 14, 2004, at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California, in front of a crowd of 25,797 spectators—including several hundred traveling D.C. United supporters. At kickoff, the temperature measured , setting a new record for hottest MLS Cup final. Kansas City took an early lead in the sixth minute after defender José Burciaga Jr. scored on a shot from , following sustained offensive pressure from kickoff.
D.C. United responded with its own offensive pressure and scored three goals within seven minutes to take a 3–1 lead by the 30th minute of play. Alecko Eskandarian scored D.C.'s first two goals, first receiving a pass from Brian Carroll and turning around defender Nick Garcia to score from in the 19th minute. Four minutes later, Eskandarian stole the ball from a Wizards throw-in meant for defender Jimmy Conrad and scored on a left-footed shot from for a 2–1 lead; during the run-up to the goal, Eskandarian used his forearm to block the ball, but it was not called by referee Michael Kennedy despite protests from Kansas City players and coaches. D.C. United extended their lead to 3–1 in the 26th minute after Wizards defender Alex Zotinca scored an own goal by deflecting a cross from Earnie Stewart into the goal with his chest.
D.C. remained ahead by two goals at halftime, but Kansas City began the second half with an offensive push along the wings to narrow the lead. Burciaga Jr. took a corner kick for the Wizards in the 56th minute that was headed towards goal by Conrad, who led the team with four shots, but it was blocked by Eskandarian on the goal line and deflected away by goalkeeper Nick Rimando. The ball returned to Conrad, who took a short, volleyed shot towards the goal that hit the hand of D.C. midfielder Dema Kovalenko. After the referee and an assistant discussed the play, Kansas City were awarded a penalty kick and Kovalenko received the first red card in MLS Cup history for his handball.
The resulting penalty kick was scored in the 58th minute by Josh Wolff, but the Wizards failed to find an equalizing goal with their one-man advantage. Manager Bob Gansler made two substitutions to bring on attacking players, but the team failed to capitalize on chances given to Burciaga in the 81st minute and Matt Taylor in stoppage time. Nowak responded by making several defensive substitutions for D.C., also bringing on Freddy Adu in the 65th minute for Eskandarian, who suffered a leg injury, as the team held onto their lead to win the match 3–2 and clinch an MLS Cup.
Details
Post-match
D.C. United won its fourth MLS Cup championship and its first since 1999, solidifying its place as the most successful sports franchise in Washington, D.C. Peter Nowak became the first person to win the MLS Cup as both a player and as a head coach, as well as the first coach without American or Canadian citizenship to win the title. He was the MLS Cup MVP during the Chicago Fire's 1998 victory against D.C. United and also played in their loss to Kansas City in 2000. Josh Wolff, who scored Kansas City's second goal in the 2004 cup, was a teammate of Nowawk's and played in the 2000 cup. 15-year-old substitute Freddy Adu became the youngest member of an American professional championship team in modern sports history, beating a record set by 18-year-old baseball pitcher Art Houtteman with the Detroit Tigers in 1945.
Eskandarian was named the match's MVP for his two goals, capping a season of redemption after spending his rookie year on the bench. After the match, he stated, "I didn't even know where the ball hit me. It was just what you learn in youth soccer; you keep going until you hear a whistle." In 2011, Eskandarian publicly acknowledged that there was a handball on the play that led to his second goal in a Twitter roast of retiring defender Jimmy Conrad. Wizards head coach Bob Gansler complimented United's defensive performance and lamented his team's defensive errors that lead to the three conceded goals.
Both finalists qualified for the 2005 CONCACAF Champions' Cup and were placed in the quarterfinals, which were played during the MLS preseason in early March. Kansas City tied Deportivo Saprissa in its home leg, but were eliminated by losing 2–1 after extra time the following week in San José, Costa Rica. D.C. played against Harbour View of Jamaica and advanced from the quarterfinals with a 4–2 aggregate score. In the semifinals, they played against Mexican champions UNAM Pumas and drew 1–1 in the home leg, but were eliminated after losing 5–0 in Mexico City.
References
2004
MLS Cup 2004
MLS Cup 2004
Sports competitions in Carson, California
November 2004 sports events in the United States
2004 in sports in California
21st century in Carson, California |
4267006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilma%20af%20Klint | Hilma af Klint | Hilma af Klint (; 26 October 1862 – 21 October 1944) was a Swedish artist and mystic whose paintings are considered among the first abstract works known in Western art history. A considerable body of her work predates the first purely abstract compositions by Kandinsky, Malevich and Mondrian. She belonged to a group called "The Five", comprising a circle of women inspired by Theosophy, who shared a belief in the importance of trying to contact the so-called "High Masters"—often by way of séances. Her paintings, which sometimes resemble diagrams, were a visual representation of complex spiritual ideas.
Early life
Hilma af Klint was the fourth child of Mathilda af Klint (née Sonntag) and Captain Victor af Klint, a Swedish naval commander, and she spent summers with her family at their manor, "Hanmora", on the island of Adelsö in Lake Mälaren. In these idyllic surroundings she came into contact with nature at an early stage in her life, and a deep association with natural forms was to be an inspiration in her work. Later in life, Hilma af Klint lived permanently on Munsö, an island next to Adelsö.
From her family, Hilma af Klint inherited a great interest for mathematics and botany. She showed an early ability in visual art and, after the family moved to Stockholm, she studied at Tekniska skolan (now Konstfack) in Stockholm, where she learned portraiture and landscape painting.
She was admitted to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at the age of twenty. Between 1882 and 1887 she studied mainly drawing, portrait painting, and landscape painting. She graduated with honors, and was allocated a scholarship in the form of a studio in the so-called "Atelier Building" (Ateljébyggnaden), owned by The Academy of Fine Arts between Hamngatan and Kungsträdgården in central Stockholm. This was the main cultural hub in the Swedish capital at that time. The same building also held Blanch's Café and Blanch's Art Gallery, where conflict existed between the conventional art view of the Academy of Fine Arts and the opposition movement of the Art Society (Konstnärsförbundet), inspired by the French plein air painters. Hilma af Klint began working in Stockholm, gaining recognition for her landscapes, botanical drawings, and portraits.
Her conventional painting became the source of her income, but her 'life's work' remained a quite separate practice.
Spiritual and philosophical ideas
In 1880 her younger sister Hermina died, and it was at this time that the spiritual dimension of her life began to develop. Her interest in abstraction and symbolism came from Hilma af Klint's involvement in spiritism, very much in vogue at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. Her experiments in spiritual investigation started in 1879. She became interested in the Theosophy of Madame Blavatsky and the philosophy of Christian Rosencreutz. In 1908 she met Rudolf Steiner, the founder of the Anthroposophical Society, who was visiting Stockholm. Steiner introduced her to his own theories regarding the arts, and would have some influence on her paintings later in life. Several years later, in 1920, she met him again at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland, the headquarters of the Anthroposophical Society. Between 1921 and 1930 she spent long periods at the Goetheanum.
Af Klint's work can be understood in the wider context of the modernist search for new forms in artistic, spiritual, political, and scientific systems at the beginning of the twentieth century. There was a similar interest in spirituality by other artists during this same period, including Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, Kasimir Malevitch, Fidus, and the French Nabis, in which many, like af Klint, were inspired by the Theosophical Movement.
The works of Hilma af Klint are mainly spiritual, and her artistic work is a consequence of this.
She felt the abstract work and the meaning within were so groundbreaking that the world was not ready to see it, and she wished for the work to remain unseen for 20 years after her death.
Work
At the Academy of Fine Arts she met Anna Cassel, the first of the four women with whom she later worked in "The Five" (De Fem), a group of artists who shared her ideas. The other members were Cornelia Cederberg, Sigrid Hedman, and Mathilda Nilsson. "The Five" began their association as members of the Edelweiss Society, which embraced a combination of the Theosophical teachings of Helena Blavatsky and spiritualism. All of The Five were interested in the paranormal and regularly organized spiritistic séances. They opened each meeting with a prayer, followed by a meditation, a Christian sermon, and a review and analysis of a text from the New Testament. This would be followed by a séance. They recorded in a book a completely new system of mystical thought, in the form of messages from higher spirits called The High Masters ("Höga Mästare"). One, Gregor, announced, "All the knowledge that is not of the senses, not of the intellect, not of the heart but is the property that exclusively belongs to the deepest aspect of your being ... the knowledge of your spirit".
Through her work with The Five, Hilma af Klint created experimental automatic drawing as early as 1896, leading her toward an inventive geometric visual language capable of conceptualizing invisible forces both of the inner and outer worlds.
She explored world religions, atoms, and the plant world and wrote extensively about her discoveries. As she became more familiar with this form of expression, Hilma af Klint was assigned by the High Masters to create the paintings for the "Temple" – however she never understood what this "Temple" referred to.
Hilma af Klint felt she was being directed by a force that would literally guide her hand. She wrote in her notebook:
The pictures were painted directly through me, without any preliminary drawings, and with great force. I had no idea what the paintings were supposed to depict; nevertheless I worked swiftly and surely, without changing a single brush stroke.
In 1906, at the age of 44, af Klint painted her first series of abstract paintings.
The works for the Temple were created between 1906 and 1915, carried out in two phases with an interruption between 1908 and 1912. As af Klint discovered her new form of visual expression, she developed a new artistic language. Her painting became more autonomous and more intentional. The spiritual would continue to be the main source of creativity throughout the rest of her life.
The collection for the Temple is 193 paintings, grouped within several sub-series. The major paintings, dated 1907, are extremely large: each painting measures approximately 240 x 320 cm. This series, called The Ten Largest, describes the different phases of life, from early childhood to old age.
Quite apart from their diagrammatic purpose the paintings have a freshness and a modern aesthetic of tentative line and hastily captured image: a segmented circle, a helix bisected and divided into a spectrum of lightly painted colours. The artistic world of Hilma af Klint is impregnated with symbols, letters, and words. The paintings often depict symmetrical dualities, or reciprocities: up and down, in and out, earthly and esoteric, male and female, good and evil. The colour choice throughout is metaphorical: blue stands for the female spirit, yellow for the male one, and pink / red for physical / spiritual love. The Swan and the Dove, names of two series of the Paintings for the Temple, are also symbolic, representing respectively transcendence and love. Understood as gates to other dimensions, her paintings call for interpretation on a narrative, esoteric and artistic level while evoking primordial geometry and humanistic motifs.
When Hilma af Klint had completed the works for the Temple, the spiritual guidance ended. However, she continued to pursue abstract painting, now independent from any external influence. The paintings for the Temple were mostly oil paintings, but she now also used watercolours. Her later paintings are significantly smaller in size. She painted among others a series depicting the stand-points of different religions at various stages in history, as well as representations of the duality between the physical being and its equivalence on an esoteric level. As Hilma af Klint pursued her artistic and esoteric research, it is possible to perceive a certain inspiration from the artistic theories developed by the Anthroposophical Society from 1920 onward.
Through her life, Hilma af Klint would seek to understand the mysteries that she had come in contact with through her work. She produced more than 150 notebooks with her thoughts and studies.
In 1908 af Klint met Rudolf Steiner for the first time. In one of the few remaining letters, she asked Steiner to visit her in Stockholm and see the finished part of the Paintings for the Temple series, 111 paintings in total. Steiner did see the paintings but mostly left unimpressed, stating that her way of working was inappropriate for a theosophist. According to H.P. Blavatsky, mediumship was a faulty practice, leading its adepts on the wrong path of occultism and black magic. However, during their meeting, Steiner stated that af Klint's contemporaries would not be able to accept and understand their paintings, and it would take another 50 years to decipher them. Of all the paintings shown to him, Steiner paid special attention only to the Primordial Chaos Group, noting them as "the best symbolically". After meeting Steiner, af Klint was devastated by his response and, apparently, stopped painting for 4 years. Steiner kept photographs of some of af Klint's artworks, some of them even hand-coloured. Later the same year he met Wassily Kandinsky, who had not yet come to abstract painting. Some art historians assume that Kandinsky could have seen the photographs and perhaps was influenced by them while developing his own abstract path. Later in her life, af Klint made a decision to destroy all her correspondence. She left a collection of more than 1200 paintings and 125 diaries to her nephew, Erik af Klint. Among her last paintings made in 1930s, there are two watercolours predicting the events of World War II, titled The Blitz and The Fight in the Mediterranean.
Despite the popular belief that Hilma af Klint had chosen to never exhibit her abstract works during her lifetime, in recent years art historians such as Julia Voss have uncovered evidence that af Klint did attempt to show her work. Around 1920 in Dornach, Switzerland, af Klint met Dutch eurythmist Peggy Kloppers-Moltzer, who was also a member of The Anthroposophical Society. Later, the artist travelled to Amsterdam, where she and Kloppers discussed a possible exhibition with the editors of art and architecture magazine Wendingen.
Although the Amsterdam talks were not successful, at least one exhibition of af Klint's abstract works took place in London several years later, in 1928 at the World Conference on Spiritual Science in London, for which Kloppers was a member of the organizing committee. Originally, af Klint was excluded, but after Kloppers' insistence, she was added in the list of participants.
In July 1928, she sailed from Stockholm to London, along with some of her large-scale paintings. In her postcard to Anna Cassel (discovered only in 2018) af Klint wrote that she was not alone during this 4-day trip. Despite af Klint not having named her traveling commpanion, Julia Voss suggests that it was most likely Thomasine Andersson, an old friend from De Fem days. Voss also suggests that it is probable that the works were from the Paintings for the Temple series.
In 1944, Hilma af Klint died at 81 in Djursholm, Sweden, after a traffic accident. She had exhibited her work only a handful of times, for the most part at spiritual conferences and gatherings. She is buried at Galärvarvskyrkogården in Stockholm.
Signature style
Hilma Af Klint's later period abstract art (1906–1920) delved into symbolism with a combination of geometry, figuration, scientific research and religious practices. Her studies of organic growth, including shells and flowers, helped her portray life through a spiritual lens.
Her individual or signature style was also marked with impressions from the late 19th and early 20th century scientific discoveries as also influenced by contemporary spiritual movements such as theosophy and anthroposophy too. The idea to transcend the physical world and the constraints of representational art is visible in her abstract paintings.
Her symbolic visual language has an ordered progression that reflects her understanding of grids, circles, spirals and petal-like forms—sometimes diagrammatic, sometimes biomorphic. Her paintings also explored dichotomy of the world.
Spiral forms appear often in her art, as they do in the automatic drawings by De Fem. While every such geometric form, in this case, Spiral suggests growth, progress and evolution, color choices also are metaphorical in nature.
As one of the Proto-Feminist Artists, her style represents the sublime in the art.
Legacy
In her will, Hilma af Klint left all her abstract paintings to her nephew, vice-admiral Erik af Klint of the Royal Swedish Navy. She specified that her work should be kept secret for at least 20 years after her death. When the boxes were opened at the end of the 1960s, very few persons had knowledge of what would be revealed.
In 1970 her paintings were offered as a gift to Moderna Museet i Stockholm, but the donation was declined. Erik af Klint then donated thousands of drawings and paintings to a foundation bearing the artist's name in the 1970s. Thanks to the art historian Åke Fant, her art was introduced to an international audience in the 1980s, when he presented her at a Nordik conference in Helsinki in 1984.
The collection of abstract paintings of Hilma af Klint includes more than 1200 pieces. It is owned and managed by the Hilma af Klint Foundation in Stockholm, Sweden. In 2017, Norwegian architectural firm Snøhetta presented plans for an exhibition centre dedicated to af Klint in Järna, south of Stockholm, with estimated building costs of €6 to 7.5 million. In February 2018, the Foundation signed a long-term agreement of cooperation with the Moderna Museet, thereby confirming the perennity of the Hilma af Klint Room, i.e., a dedicated space at the museum where a dozen works of the artist are shown on a continuous basis.
Cultural references
Hilma af Klint and her work are presented in the 2016 film Personal Shopper, in which the main character, played by Kristen Stewart, researches art inspired by spirits.
The work of Hilma af Klint is cited by Jane Weaver as inspiration for Modern Kosmology.
Af Klint was the subject of a 2019 feature-length documentary by German director , titled Beyond the Visible – Hilma af Klint.
Af Klint's work is presented in the 2020 short film Point and Line to Plane, written and directed by Sofia Bohdanowicz. The short features the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum's 2018 exhibition Hilma Af Klint: Paintings for the Future, which is seen in mid-installation.
(2022) is an English-language Swedish biographical film directed by Lasse Hallström, and starring his daughter Tora Hallström as Hilma.
Exhibitions (posthumous)
The abstract work of Hilma af Klint was shown for the first time at the exhibition "The Spiritual in Art, Abstract Painting 1890–1985" organized by Maurice Tuchman in Los Angeles in 1986. This exhibition was the starting point of her international recognition.
"Hilma Af Klint: Paintings for the Future", the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum's 2019 exhibition, had over 600,000 visitors, the most-visited exhibition in the museum's 60-year history.
Selected exhibitions
The Spiritual in Art: Abstract Painting 1890–1985, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, USA. 23 November 1986 – 8 March 1987. Travelling exhibition : Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, USA. 17 April – 19 July 1987; Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, Netherlands. 1 September – 22 November 1987
Hilma af Klints hemliga bilder, Nordic Art Association, Sveaborg Helsinki, Finland 1988–1989
The Secret Pictures by Hilma af Klint, MoMA PS1, Queens, New York. 15 January – 12 March 1989
Ockult målarinna och abstrakt pionjär, Moderna Museet i Stockholm, Sweden 1989–1991. Travelling exhibition : Göteborgs Konsthall, Gothenburg, Sweden; Lunds Konsthall, Lund, Sweden; Fyns Kunstmuseum, Denmark.
Okkultismus und Abstraktion, Die Malerin Hilma af Klint, Albertina, Vienna, Austria 1991–1992. Travelling exhibition : Kunsthaus Graz, Austria; Modern Museum of Passau, Germany
Målningarna till templet (The paintings to the Temple), Liljevalchs konsthall, Stockholm, Sweden 1999–2000
3 x Abstraction: New Methods of Drawing, The Drawing Center, New York, USA 2005–2006; Santa Monica Museum of Art, USA; Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin, Ireland 2005–2006
An Atom in the Universe, Camden Arts Centre, UK 2006
The Alpine Cathedral and The City-Crown, Josiah McElheny. Moderna Museet i Stockholm, Sweden. 1 December 2007 – 31 March 2008 (represented by 14 paintings)
The Message. The Medium as artist – Das Medium als Künstler Museum in Bochum, Germany. 16 February – 13 April 2008 (represented by 4 paintings)
Traces du Sacré Centre Pompidou, Paris, France. 7 May – 11 August 2008. (represented by 7 paintings)
Hilma af Klint – Une modernité rélévée Centre Culturel Suédois, Paris, France. April – August 2008 (represented by 59 paintings)
Traces du Sacré Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany. 18 September 2008 – 11 January 2009
De geheime schilderijen van Hilma af Klint, Museum voor Moderne Kunst, Arnhem, Netherlands. 7 March 2010 – 30 May 2010
Beyond Colour, See! Colour! – Four exhibitions at the Cultural Center in Järna, South of Stockholm, Sweden. James Turrell, Rudolf Steiner, 14 May – Oktober 2, 2011
Hilma af Klint – a Pioneer of Abstraction was produced by and showed at Moderna Museet i Stockholm, Sweden, from 16 February until 26 May 2013, before touring to Hamburger Bahnhof – Museum für Gegenwart in Berlin, Germany, from 15 June to 6 October; Museo Picasso Málaga, Spain, from 21 October 2013 to 9 February 2014; Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humblebaek, Copenhaguen, Denmark 2014; Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Oslo, Norway 2015; Kumu, Tallinn, Estonia 2015
Works by af Klint was exhibited at the Central Pavilion of the 55th Venice Biennale, Italy. 1 June – 24 November 2013.
Cosa mentale – Imaginaries of Telepathy of the 20th-Century Art, Centre Pompidou, Metz, France. 28 October 2015 – 28 March 2016 (9 paintings)
Painting the Unseen, Serpentine Galleries, London, UK. 3 March – 15 May 2016
The Keeper, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, USA 20 July – 2 October 2016
Beyond the Stars – The Mystical Landscape from Monet to Kandinsky, Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France. 14 March – 25 June 2017 (1 painting)
Jardin infini. De Giverny à l'Amazonie, Centre Pompidou, Metz, France. 18 March – 28 August 2017 (7 paintings)
L'emozione dei COLORI nell'arte, Galleria civica d'arte moderna e contemporanea GAM of Turin, Italy. 14 March – 23 July 2017
As Above, So Below, Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin, Ireland. 13 April – 27 August 2017
Intuition, Palazzo Fortuny in Venice, Italy. 13 May – 26 November 2017
Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art (GIBCA), Göteborgs Konsthall in Gothenburg, Sweden. 9 September – 19 November 2017
Hilma af Klint, Pinacoteca do Estado de São Paulo in São Paulo, Brazil. 3 March – 16 July 2018
Hilma af Klint: Paintings for the Future, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York, USA. 12 October 2018 – 23 April 2019
Hilma af Klint: The Secret Paintings, Art Gallery of New South Wales, 12 June – 19 September 2021
Hilma af Klint: The Secret Paintings, City Gallery Wellington, 4 December 2021 – 27 March 2022
Gallery
See also
Hilma af Klint and Theosophy
Publications
HILMA AF KLINT: Catalogue Raisonné, Bokförlaget Stolpe,Vol. I - VII, December 27, 2022,
The Spiritual in Art, Abstract Painting 1890-1985, publ. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1986. LACMA : pbk
Hilma af Klint, Raster Förlag, Stockholm. Swedish text, about 100 pictures.
Vägen till templet, Rosengårdens Förlag. Swedish text, 30 sketches. Describes the teaching period to become a medium.
Enheten bortom mångfalden, Rosengårdens Förlag. Swedish text, 32 pictures. Two parts, one philosophical and one art-scientific.
I describe the way and meanwhile I am proceeding along it, Rosengårdens Förlag. A short introduction in English with 3 pictures.
3 X Abstraction, Catherine de Zegher and Hendel Teicher (eds.), Yale University Press and The Drawing Center, New York, 2005
Okkultismus und Abstraktion, die Malerin Hilma af Klint, Åke Fant, Albertina, Wien 1992, .
Mod Lyset – Belyj, Goethe, Hilma af Klint, Jeichau, Kandinsky, Martinus, Rosenkrantz, Steiner Gl. Holtegaard & Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum. 2004.
Hilma af Klint, the Greatness of Things, John Hutchinson (ed.), Douglas Hyde Gallery, Dublin 2005. English text, 23 images. .
The Message. Art and Occultism. With an Essay by André Breton. Hrsg. v. Claudia Dichter, Hans Günter Golinski, Michael Krajewski, Susanne Zander. Kunstmuseum Bochum. Walther König: Köln 2007, .
Swedish Women Artists: Sigrid Hjertén, Hilma af Klint, Nathalie Djurberg, Signe Hammarsten-Jansson, Aleksandra Mir, Ulrika Pasch, Books LCC, 2010.
The Legacy of Hilma af Klint: Nine Contemporary Responses (English / German), Ann-Sofi Norin, Daniel Birnbaum, Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2013.
Hilma af Klint. The Art of Seeing the Invisible, by Kurt Belfrage, Louise Almqvist (eds.), 2015
Hilma af Klint – A Pioneer of Abstraction, edited by Iris Müller-Westermann with Jo Widoff, with contributions by David Lomas, Pascal Rousseau and Helmut Zander, exhibition catalogue of Moderna Museet nr. 375, 2013.
Hilma af Klint – Painting the Unseen, edited by Daniel Birnbaum and Emma Enderby, with contributions by Julia Peyton-Jones, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Jennifer Higgie and Julia Voss. Serpentine Galleries / Koenig Books, 2016.
Hilma – en roman om gåtan Hilma af Klint [Hilma – a novel about the enigma Hilma af Klint], Anna Laestadius Larsson, ed. Piratförlaget, 24 May 2017
Hilma af Klint – Seeing is Believing, Kurt Almqvist and Louise Belfrage, König Books, 7 October 2017
Ni vues, Ni connues pp. 42–44, Collectif Georgette Sand, Publisher Hugo Doc collection Les Simone, 5 October 2017
Hilma af Klint: Notes and Methods, with an introduction and commentary by Iris Müller-Westerman, University of Chicago Press, 2018
References
External links
https://instagram.com/the_cult_of_curious?igshid=OGQ5ZDc2ODk2ZA==
Hilma af Klint Foundation
(in Swedish with English subtitles, 22 minutes)
1862 births
1944 deaths
People from Solna Municipality
19th-century Swedish painters
19th-century Christian mystics
20th-century Swedish painters
20th-century Christian mystics
Christian occultists
Abstract painters
Swedish nobility
Swedish Theosophists
Anthroposophists
Modern artists
Drawing mediums
Swedish women painters
Swedish painters
20th-century Swedish women artists
20th-century Swedish artists
19th-century Swedish women artists
19th-century Swedish artists
Road incident deaths in Sweden
Burials at Galärvarvskyrkogården |
4267074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936%20in%20baseball | 1936 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: New York Yankees over New York Giants (4–2)
All-Star Game, July 7 at Braves Field: National League, 4–3
Other champions
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: East, 10–2
Awards and honors
Baseball Hall of Fame
Ty Cobb
Babe Ruth
Honus Wagner
Christy Mathewson
Walter Johnson
Most Valuable Player
American League: Lou Gehrig, New York Yankees, 1B
National League: Carl Hubbell, New York Giants, P
The Sporting News Player of the Year Award
Carl Hubbell, New York Giants, P
The Sporting News Manager of the Year Award
Joe McCarthy, New York Yankees
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
Events
January – April
January 4 – The Philadelphia Athletics trade Doc Cramer and Eric McNair to the Boston Red Sox for Hank Johnson, Al Niemiec and $75,000.
January 6 – New York Giants President Charles A. Stoneham dies of Bright's disease. He was the last surviving member of the trio that purchased the team in 1919. His son, Horace Stoneham, is elected the team's new president. Stoneham‚ 32‚ will remain president for the next 40 years before selling the team in 1976.
January 15 – The Chunichi Dragons of Nagoya‚ Japan‚ are officially formed. Eight days later the Hankyu Braves of Nishinomiya joined them.
January 16 - Days after being released by the Chicago Cubs, Freddie Lindstrom is signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers, the last stop n a career that would eventually lead to the hall of fame.
February 2 – The baseball writers vote for the first players to be named to the new Baseball Hall of Fame. Ty Cobb‚ Babe Ruth‚ Honus Wagner‚ Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson each receive the requisite 75 percent of ballots cast. Active players also are eligible in this first election‚ with Rogers Hornsby finishing 9th‚ Mickey Cochrane 10th‚ Lou Gehrig 15th‚ and Jimmie Foxx 19th. Hal Chase receives 11 votes for 25th place‚ and Shoeless Joe Jackson has two votes to tie for 36th place.
February 5 – Japanese Baseball League, the first professional baseball league in Asia, is founded (as predecessor of Nippon Professional Baseball).
March 17 – Rookie Joe DiMaggio makes his spring debut with the New York Yankees, collecting four hits‚ including a triple, in an 8–7 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals.
March 21 – The Cincinnati Reds trade Jim Bottomley to the St. Louis Browns for Johnny Burnett.
April 14 – Opening day, the New York Yankees are shut out, 1–0, by Bobo Newsom and the Washington Senators.
In St. Louis, the Cardinals' Eddie Morgan becomes the first to hit a pinch-hit home run in his first major league at bat. Morgan connects on the very first pitch he sees in the 7th inning. The Cubs win, 12-7.
April 16 – Johnny Mize makes his major league debut. He strikes out pinch hitting for Daffy Dean in the Cards' 5–3 loss to the Chicago Cubs.
April 26 – In the Brooklyn Dodgers' 10–7 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies, Dodgers shortstop Ben Geraghty reaches base twice on two separate interference calls on Phillies catcher Earl Grace.
April 29
Nagoya defeated Daitokyo 8–5 in the first professional baseball game in Japan.
Hank Greenberg breaks his wrist ending his season.
In St. Louis‚ Roy Parmelee‚ former New York Giants pitcher‚ beats Carl Hubbell, 2–1, in a seventeen inning duel. The game is scoreless until the 12th when the Giants score a run‚ but the Cardinals match it in the bottom of the 12th. Parmelee allows just six hits in 17 innings‚ while Hubbell gives up 11.
May – July
May 3 – Joe DiMaggio makes his major league debut in left field in the New York Yankees' 14–5 victory over the St. Louis Browns. DiMaggio goes three-for-six- with a triple, an RBI and three runs scored.
May 10 – The New York Yankees defeat the Philadelphia Athletics, 7–2. With a loss by the Boston Red Sox to the Washington Senators, the Yankees take over first place in the American League. They remain in first place for the rest of the season, winning the pennant by 19.5 games over the Detroit Tigers.
May 11 – At Baker Bowl in Philadelphia, the Giants' Mel Ott drives in 8 runs in a 13-12 victory over the Phillies.
May 12 – The St. Louis Browns' Pat Malone pitches a six hit shut out against the New York Yankees to end St. Louis' thirteen-game losing streak.
May 21 – Chuck Klein goes home. The outfielder is traded back to philadelphia where he enjoyed his best years, along with pitcher Fabian Kowalik and $50,000. In return, the Cubs get outfielder Ethan Allen and pitcher Curt Davis.
May 24 – The New York Yankees defeat the Philadelphia Athletics 25–2. Second baseman Tony Lazzeri has eleven RBIs in the game via two grand slams and a third home run and a triple. With his last blast, Lazzeri amassed seven home runs in four successive games to set a Major League record.
June 6 – St. Louis Cardinals second baseman Stu Martin ties a major league record with eleven assists in the first game of a doubleheader with the New York Giants.
June 14 – The Washington Senators trade Jake Powell to the New York Yankees for Ben Chapman.
June 24 – In the New York Yankees' 18–11 victory over the Chicago White Sox, Joe DiMaggio has five RBIs with two home runs and two doubles.
July 1 – The Detroit Tigers defeat the Chicago White Sox 21–6. Right fielder Gee Walker has a home run and seven RBIs.
July 5 – The Boston Red Sox sweep a double header from the Philadelphia Athletics, bringing the A's losing streak to twelve games.
July 7 – The National League records its first All-Star Game victory over the American League, 4–3, at Braves Field, home of the Boston Bees.
July 10 – Philadelphia Phillies right-fielder Chuck Klein becomes the fourth player in Major League history to hit four home runs in a game. His final home run came in the top of the tenth inning, leading Philadelphia to a 9–6 win over the Pittsburgh Pirates The feat comes nearly 40 years to the day since it was last accomplished in the National League.
July 18 – The Chicago White Sox and Philadelphia Athletics set an American League record for the most combined runs scored by two teams in Chicago's 21–14 victory. ChiSox outfielder Rip Radcliff ties an AL record with six hits in seven at-bats.
July 19 – Bob Feller makes his major league debut on the mound for the Cleveland Indians.
July 30 – In International League action, Buffalo pitcher Bill Harris tosses his second no-hitter of the season‚ stopping Newark.
August – December
August 16 – The Philadelphia Phillies defeat the Boston Bees 7–0 behind a three hitter by Claude Passeau. The win ends the team's fourteen-game losing streak.
August 23 – Bob Feller makes his first career start, defeating the St. Louis Browns 4–1.
August 28 – The New York Giants defeat the Pittsburgh Pirates 7–2 to bring their winning streak to fifteen games.
September 9 - After sweeping the Cleveland Indians in a double header, the New York Yankees clinch the AL Pennant.
September 16 – Birdie Tebbetts makes his major league debut behind the plate for the Detroit Tigers in a 6–2 victory over the Philadelphia A's.
September 23
Carl Hubbell logs his sixteenth victory in a row to improve his record to 26–6.
The New York Yankees defeat the Philadelphia A's 12–5 for their 100th win of the season.
September 30 – A solo home run by George Selkirk is all the offense the Yankees can muster up against Carl Hubbell in game one of the 1936 World Series, as the New York Giants take game one of the Subway Series, 6–1.
October 2 – A seven run third inning, highlighted by Tony Lazzeri's grand slam, carries the Yankees to an 18–4 victory in game two of the World Series.
October 3 – Frankie Crosetti's eighth inning RBI single carries the Yankees to a 2–1 victory over the Giants in game three of the World Series.
October 4 – The Yankees jump to an early 4–0 lead against Carl Hubbell, and win game four of the World Series, 5–2.
October 5 – Jo-Jo Moore leads off the tenth with a double, and comes around to score, as the New York Giants take game five of the World Series, 5–4.
October 6 – The New York Yankees defeat the New York Giants, 13–5, in Game 6 of the World Series to win their fifth World Championship title, four games to two. During the six games, the Yankees score 43 runs and collect 65 hits.
November 29 – Judge Landis declares Lee Handley and Johnny Peacock of the Cincinnati Reds free agents. They had been covered up on minor league teams by the Reds.
December 4 – The Pittsburgh Pirates trade Ralph Birkofer and Cookie Lavagetto to the Brooklyn Dodgers for Ed Brandt, and sell Johnny Welch's contract to the Chicago White Sox.
December 9 – The Philadelphia A's trade Pinky Higgins to the Boston Red Sox for Billy Werber.
December 10 – In a three team trade, the Washington Senators send Earl Whitehill to the Cleveland Indians, Indians sent Thornton Lee to the Chicago White Sox, and the White Sox send Jack Salveson to the Senators.
Births
January
January 3 – Eddie Einhorn
January 5 – Bud Bloomfield
January 5 – Daryl Robertson
January 6 – Rubén Amaro
January 8 – Chuck Cottier
January 8 – John DeMerit
January 9 – Julio Navarro
January 9 – Ralph Terry
January 20 – Jesse Gonder
January 23 – Don Nottebart
January 24 – Dick Stigman
January 25 – Buddy Pritchard
February
February 5 – Lee Thomas
February 7 – Frank Leja
February 16 – Don Landrum
February 20 – Wynn Hawkins
February 20 – Shigeo Nagashima
February 27 – Evans Killeen
March
March 2 – Jim Brady
March 2 – Don Schwall
March 4 – Bob Johnson
March 5 – Jacke Davis
March 7 – Galen Cisco
March 12 – Ray Barker
March 13 – Don Miles
March 20 – Jim Golden
March 26 – Harry Kalas
March 28 – Jimmie Coker
April
April 1 – Ron Perranoski
April 1 – Ted Sadowski
April 3 – Don Rowe
April 5 – Jimmie Schaffer
April 6 – Wanita Dokish
April 6 – Wayne Graham
April 9 – Hal Jones
April 15 – Leo Posada
April 18 – Larry Foss
April 24 – Glen Hobbie
May
May 4 – John Tsitouris
May 9 – Floyd Robinson
May 14 – Dick Howser
May 21 – Barry Latman
May 25 – Marshall Renfroe
May 30 – Mel Nelson
June
June 1 – Jim McKnight
June 13 – Carl Mathias
June 22 – Jim Bronstad
June 28 – Fred Gladding
June 29 – Harmon Killebrew
June 30 – Al Barks
July
July 1 – Dick Drott
July 5 – Jack Krol
July 7 – Bill Kunkel
July 15 – Gene Leek
July 16 – Eddie Fisher
July 20 – Jim McManus
July 23 – Don Drysdale
July 27 – Don Lock
August
August 6 – Dave Gerard
August 7 – Ron Henry
August 7 – Jerry McNertney
August 7 – Tex Nelson
August 8 – Frank Howard
August 9 – Julián Javier
August 11 – Bill Monbouquette
August 12 – Ellis Burton
August 12 – Tom McAvoy
August 15 – Mary Lou Graham
August 17 – John Buzhardt
August 20 – Cliff Cook
August 28 – Don Denkinger
August 28 – Tony González
September
September 3 – Steve Boros
September 3 – Lee Weyer
September 4 – Jim McAnany
September 5 – Bill Mazeroski
September 7 – Charlie Lindstrom
September 14 – Stan Williams
September 15 – Freddie Burdette
September 17 – Tom Carroll
September 22 – Doug Camilli
September 29 – Hal Trosky
October
October 3 – Jack Lamabe
October 15 – Red Swanson
October 16 – Jack Baldschun
October 26 – Elio Chacón
October 27 – Lee Stange
November
November 3 – Rick Herrscher
November 3 – Earl Robinson
November 12 – Joe Hoerner
November 17 – Gary Bell
November 17 – Larry Koentopp
November 18 – Jay Hook
November 20 – Jay Ritchie
November 22 – Joe Gaines
December
December 3 – Clay Dalrymple
December 3 – Dave Eilers
December 7 – Bo Belinsky
December 10 – Doc Edwards
December 10 – Jack Feller
December 10 – Minoru Murayama
December 13 – J. C. Martin
December 16 – Duane Richards
December 17 – Jerry Adair
December 17 – Rollie Sheldon
December 19 – Jack Kubiszyn
December 20 – Dan Pfister
December 21 – Ralph Lumenti
December 21 – Howie Reed
December 26 – Wayne Causey
Deaths
January
January 6 – Charles Stoneham, 59, owner of the New York Giants since 1919, during which period the team won five National League pennants and three World Series from 1921 to 1922 and 1933.
January 11 – Turkey Gross, 39, shortstop for the 1925 Boston Red Sox.
January 5 – Will Sawyer, 71, pitcher who played with the Cleveland Blues in the 1883 season.
January 24 – Henry Youngman, 70, German infielder for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1890.
January 29 – Joe Delahanty, 60, outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals from 1907 to 1909, and one of five Delahanty brothers who played in the Major Leagues.
February
February 3 – Andy Boswell, 62, pitcher who played for the Washington Senators and New York Giants of the National League during the 1895 season.
February 4 – Frank Jones, 77, shortstop and outfielder for the Detroit Wolverines in 1884.
February 5 – Fred Blank, 61, pitcher who played briefly for the Cincinnati Reds in 1894.
February 7 – Jimmy Dygert, 51, pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics from 1905 to 1910, who pitched a combined no-hitter with Rube Waddell during the 1906 season.
February 9 – Trick McSorley, 83, who played in six different positions for the St. Louis Red Stockings, Toledo Blue Stockings, St. Louis Maroons, and St. Louis Browns in parts of four seasons spanning 1875–1886.
February 15 – Bill Grahame, 52, pitcher who played from 1908 through 1910 for the St. Louis Browns.
February 17 – Tom York, 85, left fielder who played 15 seasons from 1871 to 1885, most prominently for the Providence Grays, and also managed them the entire first season of the team's existence in 1878.
March
March 6 – Watty Lee, 56, outfielder and pitcher who played from 1901 through 1904 for the Washington Senators and Pittsburgh Pirates.
March 7 – Tom Rogers, 44, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns, Philadelphia Athletics and New York Yankees in part of four seasons between 1917 and 1921.
March 17 – Grant Thatcher, 59, pitcher for the Brooklyn Superbas during the 1903 and 1904 baseball seasons.
March 21 – William McLaughlin, 74, shortstop for the 1884 Washington Nationals of the Union Association.
March 24 – Charlie Parsons, 72, pitcher who played with the Boston Beaneaters, New York Metropolitans and Cleveland Spiders during three seasons spanning 1886–1990.
March 25 – Art Hagan, 73, pitcher who played from 1883 to 1884 for the Philadelphia Quakers and Buffalo Bisons.
March 26 – Ed Hawk, 48, pitcher for the 1911 St. Louis Browns of the American League.
March 26 – Dan Costello, 44, backup outfielder who played from 1913 to 1916 for the New York Yankees and the Pittsburgh Pirates.
March 30 – John Kull, 53, pitcher for the 1909 Philadelphia Athletics of the American League.
March 31 – Anton Falch, 75, left fielder and catcher in five games for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Union Association in the 1884 season.
April
April 14 – Dan Lally, 68, outfielder for the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1891 and the St. Louis Browns in 1897.
April 24 – Tacks Latimer, 58, catcher who played from 1898 through for the New York Giants, Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Pirates, Baltimore Orioles and Brooklyn Superbas.
May
May 5 – Bill Anderson, 71, pitcher for the Louisville Colonels in the 1889 season.
May 5 – Lou Sylvester, 81, outfielder who played for the Cincinnati Outlaw Reds, Louisville Colonels, Cincinnati Red Stockings and St. Louis Browns in parts of three seasons spanning 1884–1887.
May 12 – Frank Zinn, 70, catcher for the 1888 Philadelphia Athletics.
May 19 – Sammy Curran, 61, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters during the 1902 season.
May 22 – Kaiser Wilhelm, 62, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Boston Beaneaters, Brooklyn Superbas, and Baltimore Terrapins during seven seasons from 1904 to 1915, and also a player/manager for the 1921 Philadelphia Phillies.
May 23 – Ted Lewis, 63, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters and Boston Americans from 1896 to 1901, who led the National League with a .768 Win–loss % in 1898, and also one of only three Welsh-born ballplayers in Major League history, along with Jimmy Austin and Peter Morris.
June
June 9 – Charlie Bartson, 71, pitcher who played for the Chicago Pirates of the Players' League during the 1890 season.
June 16 – Billy Shindle, 75, third baseman for the Detroit Wolverines, Baltimore Orioles, Philadelphia Athletics and Phillies, and Brooklyn Bridegrooms from 1886–98, also one of the first sluggers in the deadball era.
June 18 – Al Nichols, 84, third baseman for the Brooklyn Atlantics, New York Mutuals and Louisville Grays from 1875 to 1877, who is credited as the first player born in England to reach the major leagues.
June 21 – Ambrose Puttmann, 55, pitcher who played from 1903 through 1906 with the New York Highlanders and the St. Louis Cardinals.
July
July 3 – Bill Niles, 69, third baseman who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1895 season.
July 5 – Phil Wisner, 67, shortstop who played briefly for the Washington Senators of the National League in 1895.
July 7 – Bill Pounds, 58, pitcher for the Cleveland Naps and Brooklyn Superbas in the 1903 season.
July 15 – Ted Goulait, 46, pitcher for the 1912 New York Giants of the National League.
July 17 – Joe Wall, 62, backup catcher in 16 games for the New York Giants and Brooklyn Superbas during the 1901 and 1902 seasons.
August
August 6 – Charlie Girard, 51, pitcher for the 1910 Philadelphia Phillies in 1910.
August 9 – Jim Mahady, 35, second baseman who played briefly with the New York Giants in 1921.
August 9 – Ed Halbriter, 76, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Athletics in the 1882 season.
August 13 – Irv Hach, 63, backup infielder for the Louisville Colonels in 1897.
August 15 – Lew Richie, 52, pitcher who played from 1906 through 1913 with the Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Doves and Chicago Cubs.
August 28 – Youngy Johnson, 63, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1897 and the New York Giants in 1899.
September
September 8 – Bill Yerrick, 62, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters of the National League in the 1895 and 1896 seasons.
September 9 – William Betts, 75, umpire who officiated in the National League from 1894 to 1899 and the American League in 1901 and 1903.
September 11 – Braggo Roth, 44, outfielder for the Chicago White Sox, Cleveland Indians, Philadelphia Athletics, Boston Red Sox, Washington Senators, and New York Yankees from 1914 through 1921, who led the American League in home runs in the 1915 season.
September 16 – Henry Lampe, 63, pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters in 1894 and the Philadelphia Phillies in 1895.
September 19 – Bill Hart, 71, National League pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Athletics, Brooklyn Grooms, Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Browns, and Cleveland Blues in parts of seven seasons spanning 1886–1901.
October
October 4 – Hercules Burnett, 67, center fielder who played for the Louisville Colonels in the 1888 and 1895 seasons.
October 8 – Red Ames, 54, pitcher for the New York Giants, Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals and Philadelphia Phillies from 1903 through 1919, who posted a career record of 183–167 wins with a 2.63 ERA and 1,702 strikeouts, and was a member of the World Champions Giants in 1904 and 1905.
October 16 – Dennis Fitzgerald, 71, English-born shortstop for the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association in 1890.
October 19 – Jumping Jack Jones, 75, pitcher who played for the Detroit Wolverines and Philadelphia Athletics during the 1883 season.
October 20 – George Kelb, 66, pitcher for the 1898 Cleveland Spiders of the National League in 1898.
October 21 – Charlie Mason, outfielder who played with the Philadelphia Centennials, Washington Nationals, and Philadelphia Athletics in part of two seasons between 1875 and 1883.
October 22 – Fred Olmstead, 55, pitcher who played from 1908 through 1911 for the Chicago White Sox.
October 27 – Dave Black, 44, pitcher who played for the Chicago ChiFeds/Whales and Baltimore Terrapins of the Federal League from 1914 to 1915, and the Boston Red Sox in 1923.
October 30 – Jack Morrissey, 60, second baseman for the Cincinnati Reds from 1902 to 1903.
October 31 – Deacon McGuire, 72, catcher for 13 different teams over 26 seasons, who set a record number of seasons for a record number of teams, set career catching marks for defensive games, putouts, assists, caught stealing and stolen bases against, and was the first catcher to collect 300 doubles and hit .300 five times, before becoming a long time coach and manager.
November
November 9 – Bill Stellberger, 71, pitcher for the 1885 Providence Grays.
November 9 – Carl Stimson, 42, pitcher who played with the Boston Red Sox in the 1923 season.
November 27 – Shad Barry, 58, backup catcher and outfielder who played from 1899 through 1908 for seven different National League clubs, most prominently for the Philadelphia Phillies.
November 29 – Ri Jones, 77, infield utility man who played with the Louisville Eclipse in 1883 and the Cincinnati Outlaw Reds in 1884.
December
December 11 – Moose Grimshaw, 61, right fielder who played from 1905 through 1907 for the Boston Americans.
December 21 – Fred Gunkle, 79, catcher and right fielder for the Cleveland Blues in 1879.
December 24 – Ren Deagle, 78, pitcher who played from 1883 to 1884 with the Cincinnati Red Stockings and Louisville Eclipse.
December 26 – Bill Clymer, 63, shortstop for the Philadelphia Athletics during the 1891 season.
December 29 – Bill Prough, 49, pitcher for the 1912 Cincinnati Reds.
December 31 – Doc Casey, 66, third baseman who played from 1898 to 1907 with the Washington Senators, Brooklyn Superbas, Detroit Tigers and Chicago Cubs. |
4267183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity%20in%20Anglo-Saxon%20England | Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England | In the seventh century the pagan Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity () mainly by missionaries sent from Rome. Irish missionaries from Iona, who were proponents of Celtic Christianity, were influential in the conversion of
Northumbria, but after the Synod of Whitby in 664, the Anglo-Saxon church gave its allegiance to the Pope.
Background
Christianity in Roman Britain dates to at least the 3rd century. It was introduced by tradesmen, immigrants, and legionaries. In 314, three bishops from Britain attended the Council of Arles. They were Eborius from the city of Eboracum (York), Restitutus from the city of Londinium (London), and Adelfius (the location of his see is uncertain). The presence of these three bishops indicates that by the early 4th century, the British church was already organised on a regional basis and had a distinct episcopal hierarchy. It is unclear how widely the Romano-British people adopted Christianity. Archaeological evidence from Roman villas indicates that some aristocrats were Christians, but there is little evidence for the existence of urban churches.
Roman rule ended in the 5th century, and Romano-British society collapsed. Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain began during the same period. The Anglo-Saxons were a mix of invaders, migrants, and acculturated indigenous people. Before the withdrawal of the Romans, Germanic militia had been stationed in Britain as foederati. After the departure of the Roman army, the Britons recruited the Anglo-Saxons to defend Britain, but they rebelled against their British hosts in 442. The newcomers eventually conquered England, and their religion, Anglo-Saxon paganism, became dominant. The Britons of Wales and Cornwall, however, continued to practice Christianity.
Kent
At the end of the 6th century the most powerful ruler among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms was Æthelberht of Kent, whose lands extended north to the River Humber. He married a Frankish princess, Bertha of Paris, daughter of Charibert I and his wife Ingoberga. There were strong trade connections between Kent and the Franks. The marriage was agreed to on the condition that she be allowed to practice her religion. She brought her chaplain, Liudhard, with her. A former Roman church was restored for Bertha just outside the City of Canterbury. Dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours, it served as her private chapel.
Gregorian mission
In 595, Pope Gregory I dispatched Augustine, prior of Gregory's own monastery of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. Augustine arrived on the Isle of Thanet in 597 and established his base at the main town of Canterbury. Æthelberht converted to Christianity sometime before 601; other conversions then followed. The following year, he established the Monastery of SS. Peter and Paul. After Augustine's death in 604, the monastery was named after him and eventually became a missionary school.
Through the influence of Æthelberht, his nephew Sæberht of Essex also converted, as did Rædwald of East Anglia, although Rædwald also retained an altar to the old gods. In 601 Pope Gregory sent additional missioners to assist Augustine. Among them was the monk Mellitus. Gregory wrote the Epistola ad Mellitum advising him that local temples be Christianized and asked Augustine to Christianize pagan practices, so far as possible, into dedication ceremonies or feasts of martyrs in order to ease the transition to Christianity. In 604 Augustine consecrated Mellitus as Bishop of the East Saxons. He established his see at London at a church probably founded by Æthelberht, rather than Sæberht. Another of Augustine's associates was Justus for whom Æthelberht built a church near Rochester, Kent.
Upon Augustine's death around 604, he was succeeded as archbishop by Laurence of Canterbury, a member of the original mission.
The North
After the departure of the Romans, the church in Britain continued in isolation from that on the continent and developed some differences in approach. Their version of tradition is often called "Celtic Christianity". It tended to be more monastic-centered than the Roman, which favored a diocesan administration, and differed on the style of tonsure, and dating of Easter. The southern and east coasts were the areas settled first and in greatest numbers by the settlers and so were the earliest to pass from Romano-British to Anglo-Saxon control. The British clergy continued to remain active in the north and west. After meeting with Augustine, around 603, the British bishops refused to recognize him as their archbishop. His successor, Laurence of Canterbury, said Bishop Dagán had refused to either share a roof with the Roman missionaries or to eat with them. There is no indication that the British clergy made any attempts to convert the Anglo-Saxons.
When Æthelfrith of Bernicia seized the neighboring kingdom of Deira, Edwin, son of Ælla of Deira fled into exile. Around 616, at the Battle of Chester, Æthelfrith ordered his forces to attack a body of monks from the Abbey of Bangor-on-Dee, "If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers." Shortly after, Æthelfrith was killed in battle against Edwin, who with the support of Rædwald of East Anglia claimed the throne. Edwin married the Christian Æthelburh of Kent, daughter of Æthelberht, and sister of King Eadbald of Kent. A condition of their marriage was that she be allowed to continue the practice of her religion. When Æthelburh traveled north to Edwin's court, she was accompanied by the missioner Paulinus of York. Edwin eventually became a Christian, as did members of his court. When Edwin was killed in 633 at the Battle of Hatfield Chase, Æthelburh and her children returned to her brother's court in Kent, along with Paulinus. James the Deacon remained behind to serve as a missioner in the kingdom of Lindsey, but Bernicia and Deira reverted to heathenism.
Insular missions
The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, presumably in interactions with Roman Britain. In 431, Pope Celestine I consecrated Palladius a bishop and sent him to Ireland to minister to the "Scots believing in Christ". Monks from Ireland, such as Finnian of Clonard, studied in Britain at the monastery of Cadoc the Wise, at Llancarfan and other places. Later, as monastic institutions were founded in Ireland, monks from Britain, such as Ecgberht of Ripon and Chad of Mercia, went to Ireland. In 563 Columba arrived in Dál Riata from his homeland of Ireland and was granted land on Iona. This became the centre of his evangelising mission to the Picts.
When Æthelfrith of Northumbria was killed in battle against Edwin and Rædwald at the River Idle in 616, his sons fled into exile. Some of that time was spent in the kingdom of Dál Riata, where Oswald of Northumbria became Christian. At the death of Edwin's successors at the hand of Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd, Oswald returned from exile and laid claim to the throne. He defeated the combined forces of Cadwallon and Penda of Mercia at the Battle of Heavenfield. In 634, Oswald, who had spent time in exile at Iona, asked abbot Ségéne mac Fiachnaí to send missioners to Northumbria. At first, a bishop named Cormán was sent, but he alienated many people by his harshness, and returned in failure to Iona reporting that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. Aidan criticised Cormán's methods and was soon sent as his replacement.<ref>[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/52.html Kiefer, James E., "Aidan of Lindisfarne, Missionary", Biographical Sketches of memorable Christians of the past", Society of Archbishop Justus. 29 August 1999]</ref> Oswald gave Aidan the island of Lindisfarne, near the royal court at Bamburgh Castle. Since Oswald was fluent in both one of the and Irish, he often served as interpreter for Aidan. Aidan built churches, monasteries and schools throughout Northumbria. Lindisfarne became an important centre of Insular Christianity under Aidan, Cuthbert, Eadfrith and Eadberht. Cuthbert's tomb became a center for pilgrimage.
Monastic foundations
Around 630 Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald of Kent, founded Folkestone Priory.
William of Malmesbury says Rædwald had a step-son, Sigeberht of East Anglia, who spent some time in exile in Gaul, where he became a Christian. After his step-brother Eorpwald was killed, Sigeberht returned and became ruler of the East Angles. Sigeberht's conversion may have been a factor in his achieving royal power, since at that time Edwin of Northumbria and Eadbald of Kent were Christian. Around 631, Felix of Burgundy arrived in Canterbury and Archbishop Honorius sent him to Sigeberht. Alban Butler says Sigeberht met Felix during his time in Gaul and was behind Felix's coming to Anglo-Saxon England. Felix established his episcopal see at Dommoc and a monastery at Soham Abbey. Although Felix's early training may have been influenced by the Irish tradition of Luxeuil Abbey, his loyalty to Canterbury ensured that the church in East Anglia adhered to Roman norms. Around 633, Sigeberht welcomed from Ireland, Fursey and his brothers Foillan and Ultan and gave them land to establish an abbey at Cnobheresburg. Felix and Fursey effected a number of conversions and established many churches in Sigeberht's kingdom. Around the same time Sigeberht established a monastery at Beodricesworth.
Hilda of Whitby was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria. In 627 Edwin and his household were baptized Christian. When Edwin was killed in the Battle of Hatfield Chase, the widowed Queen Æthelburh, her children, and Hilda returned to Kent, now ruled by Æthelburh's brother, Eadbald of Kent. Æthelburh established Lyminge Abbey, one of the first religious houses to be founded in the new Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It was a double monastery, built on Roman ruins. Æthelburh was the first abbess. It is assumed that Hilda remained with the Queen-Abbess. Nothing further is known of Hild until around 647 when having decided not to join her older sister Hereswith at Chelles Abbey in Gaul, Hild returned north. (Chelles had been founded by Bathild, the Anglo-Saxon queen consort of Clovis II.) Hild settled on a small parcel of land near the mouth of the river Ware, where under the direction of Aidan of Lindisfarne, she took up religious life. In 649, he appointed her abbess of the double monastery of Hartlepool Abbey, previously founded by the Irish recluse Hieu. In 655, in thanksgiving for his victory over Penda of Mercia at the Battle of the Winwæd, King Oswiu brought his year old daughter Ælfflæd to his kinswoman Hilda to be brought up at the abbey. (Hild was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria; Oswiu was the son of Edwin's sister Acha.) Two years later, Oswiu established a double monastery at Streoneshalh, (later known as Whitby), and appointed Hild abbess. Ælfflæd then grew up there. The abbey became the leading royal nunnery of the kingdom of Deira, a centre of learning, and burial-place of the royal family.
Resolving blood feuds
Eormenred of Kent was the son of King Eadbald and grandson of King Æthelberht of Kent. Upon the death of his father, his brother Eorcenberht became king. The description of Eormenred as king may indicate that he ruled jointly with his brother or, alternatively, that as sub-king in a particular area. Upon his death, his two young sons were entrusted to the care of their uncle King Eorcenberht, who was succeeded upon his death by his son Ecgberht. Through the connivance of King Ecgberht's advisor Thunor, the sons of Eormenred were murdered. The king was viewed as having either acquiesced or given the order. In order to quench the family feud which this kinslaying would have provoked, Ecgberht agreed to pay a weregild for the murdered princelings to their sister. (Weregild was an important legal mechanism in early Germanic society; the other common form of legal reparation at this time was blood revenge. The payment was typically made to the family or to the clan.) The legend claims that Domne Eafe was offered (or requested) as much land as her pet hind could run around in a single lap. The result, whether miraculous or by the owner's guidance, was that she gained some eighty sulungs of land on Thanet as weregild, on which to establish the double monastery of St. Mildred's at Minster-in-Thanet. (cf. the story of St. Brigid's miraculous cloak).
A similar situation arose in the North. Eanflæd was the daughter of King Edwin of Northumbria. Her maternal grandfather was King Æthelberht of Kent. She was married to Oswiu, King of Bernicia. In 651, after seven years of peaceful rule, Oswiu declared war on Oswine, King of neighboring Deira. Oswine, who belonged to the rival Deiran royal family, was Oswiu's maternal second cousin.
Oswine refused to engage in battle, instead retreating to Gilling and the home of his friend, Earl Humwald. Humwald betrayed Oswine, delivering him to Oswiu's soldiers by whom Oswine was put to death. In Anglo-Saxon culture, it was assumed that the nearest kinsmen to a murdered person would seek to avenge the death or require some other kind of justice on account of it (such as the payment of weregild). However, Oswine's nearest kinsman was Oswiu's own wife, Eanflæd, also second cousin to Oswine. In compensation for her kinsman's murder, Eanflæd demanded a substantial weregild, which she then used to establish Gilling Abbey. The monastery was staffed in part by the relatives of both of their families, and given the task of offering prayers for both Oswiu's salvation and Oswine's departed soul. By founding the monastery shortly after Oswine's death, Oswiu and Eanflæd avoided the creation of a feud.
Synod of Whitby (664)
By the early 660s, Insular Christianity received from the monks of Iona was standard in the north and west, while the Roman tradition brought by Augustine was the practice in the south. In the Northumbrian court King Oswiu followed the tradition of the missionary monks from Iona, while Queen Eanflæd, who had been brought up in Kent followed the Roman tradition. The result was that one portion of the court would be celebrating Easter, while the other was still observing the Lenten fast.
At that time, Kent, Essex, and East Anglia were following Roman practice. Oswiu's eldest son, Alhfrith, son of Rhiainfellt of Rheged, seems to have supported the Roman position. Cenwalh of Wessex recommended Wilfrid, a Northumbrian churchman who had recently returned from Rome, to Alhfrith as a cleric well-versed in Roman customs and liturgy. Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon, with Eata, abbot of Melrose Abbey and former student of Aidan of Lindisfarne. Wilfrid ejected Abbot Eata, because he would not conform to Roman customs; and Eata returned to Melrose. Cuthbert, the guest-master was also expelled. Wilfrid introduced a form of the Rule of Saint Benedict into Ripon.
In 664, King Oswiu convened a meeting at Hild's monastery to discuss the matter. The Celtic party was led by Abbess Hilda, and bishops Colmán of Lindisfarne and Cedd of Læstingau. (In 653, upon the occasion of the marriage of Oswiu's daughter Alchflaed with Peada of Mercia, Oswiu had sent Cedd to evangelize the Middle Angles of Mercia.) The Roman party was led by Wilfrid and Agilbert.
The meeting did not proceed entirely smoothly due to variety of languages spoken, which probably included Old Irish, Old English, Frankish and Old Welsh, as well as Latin. Bede recounted that Cedd interpreted for both sides. Cedd's facility with the languages, together with his status as a trusted royal emissary, likely made him a key figure in the negotiations. His skills were seen as an eschatological sign of the presence of the Holy Spirit, in contrast to the Biblical account of the Tower of Babel.
Colman appealed to the practice of St. John; Wilfrid to St. Peter. Oswiu decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic rite, saying ""I dare not longer contradict the decrees of him who keeps the doors of the Kingdom of Heaven, lest he should refuse me admission". Some time after the conference Colman resigned the see of Lindisfarne and returned to Ireland.
Anglo-Saxon saints
A number of Anglo-Saxon saints are connected to royalty. King Æthelberht of Kent and his wife Queen Bertha were later regarded as saints for their role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Their granddaughter Eanswith founded Folkestone Priory, in 630 the first monastery in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms for women. Her aunt Æthelburh founded Lyminge Abbey about four miles northwest of Folkestone on the south coast of Kent around 634. In a number of instances, the individual retired from court to take up the religious life. The sisters Mildrith, Mildburh, and Mildgyth, great granddaughters of King Æthelberht and Queen Bertha, and all abbesses at various convents, were revered as saints. Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicated his throne and entered the monastery at Lindisfarne.
In some cases, where the death of a member of royalty appears to be largely politically motivated, it was viewed as martyrdom due to the circumstances. The murdered princes Æthelred and Æthelberht were later commemorated as saints and martyrs. Oswine of Deira was betrayed by a trusted friend to soldiers of his enemy and kinsman Oswiu of Bernicia. Bede described Oswine as "most generous to all men and above all things humble; tall of stature and of graceful bearing, with pleasant manner and engaging address". Likewise, the sons of Arwald of the Isle of Wight were betrayed to Cædwalla of Wessex, but because they were converted and baptized by Abbot Cynibert of Hreutford immediately before being executed, they were considered saints. Edward the Martyr was stabbed to death on a visit to his stepmother Queen Ælfthryth and his stepbrother, the boy Æthelred while dismounting from his horse, although there is no indication that he was particularly noted for virtue.
Royalty could use their affiliation to such cults in order to claim legitimacy against competitors to the throne. A dynasty may have had accrued prestige for having a saint in its family. Promoting a particular cult may have aided a royal family in claiming political dominance over an area, particularly if that area was recently conquered.
Anglo-Saxon mission on the Continent
In 644, the twenty-five year old Ecgberht of Ripon was a student at the monastery of Rath Melsigi when he and many others fell ill of the plague. He vowed that if he recovered, he would become a perpetual pilgrimage from his homeland of Britain and would lead a life of penitential prayer and fasting. He began to organize a mission to the Frisians, but was dissuaded from going by a vision related to him by a monk who had been a disciple of Saint Boisil, prior of Melrose. Ecgberht then recruited others.
Around 677, Wilfrid, bishop of York quarreled with King Ecgfrith of Northumbria and was expelled from his see. Wilfrid went to Rome to appeal Ecgfrith's decision. On the way he stopped in Utrecht at the court of Aldgisl, the rulers of the Frisians, for most of 678. Wilfrid may have been blown off course on his trip from Anglo-Saxon lands to the continent, and ended up in Frisia; or he may have intended to journey via Frisia to avoid Neustria, whose Mayor of the Palace, Ebroin, disliked Wilfrid. While Wilfrid was at Aldgisl's court, Ebroin offered a bushel of gold coins in return for Wilfrid, alive or dead. Aldgisl's hospitality to Wilfrid was in defiance of Frankish domination.
The first missioner was Wihtberht who went to Frisia about 680 and labored for two years with the permission of Aldgisl; but being unsuccessful, Wihtberht returned to Briiain. Willibrord grew up under the influence of Wilfrid, studied under Ecgberht of Ripon, and spent twelve years at the Abbey of Rath Melsigi. Around 690, Ecgberht sent him and eleven companions to Christianise the Frisians. In 695 Willibrord was consecrated in Rome, Bishop of Utrecht. In 698 he established the Abbey of Echternach on the site of a Roman villa donated by the Austrasian noblewoman Irmina of Oeren. Aldgisl's successor Redbad was less supportive than his father, likely because the missionaries were favored by Pepin of Herstal, who sought to expand his territory into Frisia.
In 716, Boniface joined Willibrord in Utrecht. Their efforts were frustrated by the war between Charles Martel and Redbad, King of the Frisians. Willibrord fled to the abbey he had founded in Echternach, while Boniface returned to the Benedictine monastery at Nhutscelle. The following year he traveled to Rome, where he was commissioned by Pope Gregory II as a traveling missionary bishop for Germania.
Benedictine reform
The Benedictine reform was led by Saint Dunstan over the latter half of the 10th century. It sought to revive church piety by replacing secular canons- often under the direct influence of local landowners, and often their relatives- with celibate monks, answerable to the ecclesiastical hierarchy and ultimately to the Pope. This deeply split the newly formed kingdom of England, bringing it to the point of civil war, with the East Anglian nobility (such as Athelstan Half-King, Byrhtnoth) supporting Dunstan and the Wessex aristocracy (Ordgar, Æthelmær the Stout) supporting the secularists. These factions mobilised around King Eadwig (anti-Dunstan) and his brother King Edgar (pro). On the death of Edgar, his son Edward the Martyr was assassinated by the anti-Dunstan faction and their candidate, the young king Æthelred was placed on the throne. However this "most terrible deed since the English came from over the sea" provoked such a revulsion that the secularists climbed down, although Dunstan was effectively retired.
This split fatally weakened the country in the face of renewed Viking attacks.
Church organisation
Under papal authority, the English church was divided into two ecclesiastical provinces, each led by a metropolitan or archbishop. In the south, the Province of Canterbury was led by the archbishop of Canterbury. It was originally to be based at London, but Augustine and his successors remained at Canterbury instead. In the north, the Province of York was led by the archbishop of York. Theoretically, neither archbishop had precedence over the other. In reality, the south was wealthier than the north, and the result was that Canterbury dominated.
In 669, Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury. In 672 he convened the Council of Hertford which was attended by a number of bishops from across the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. This Council was a milestone in the organization of the Anglo-Saxon Church, as the decrees passed by its delegates focused on issues of authority and structure within the church. Afterwards Theodore, visiting the whole of Anglo-Saxon held lands, consecrated new bishops and divided up the vast dioceses which in many cases were coextensive with the kingdoms of the heptarchy.
Initially, the diocese was the only administrative unit in the Anglo-Saxon church. The bishop served the diocese from a cathedral town with the help of a group of priests known as the bishop's familia. These priests would baptise, teach and visit the remoter parts of the diocese. Familiae were placed in other important settlements, and these were called minsters.
In the late 10th century, the Benedictine Reform movement helped to restore monasticism in England after the Viking attacks of the 9th century. The most prominent reformers were Archbishop Dunstan of Canterbury (959–988), Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester (963–984), and Archbishop Oswald of York (971–992). The reform movement was supported by King Edgar (). One result of the reforms was the creation of monastic cathedrals at Canterbury, Worcester, Winchester, and Sherborne. These were staffed by cloistered monks, while other cathedrals were staffed by secular clergy called canons. By 1066, there were over 45 monasteries in England, and monks were chosen as bishops more often than in other parts of western Europe.
Most villages would have had a church by 1042, as the parish system developed as an outgrowth of manorialism. The parish church was a private church built and endowed by the lord of the manor, who retained the right to nominate the parish priest. The priest supported himself by farming his glebe and was also entitled to other support from parishioners. The most important was the tithe, the right to collect one-tenth of all produce from land or animals. Originally, the tithe was a voluntary gift, but the church successfully made it a compulsory tax by the 10th century.
By 1000, there were eighteen dioceses in England: Canterbury, Rochester, London, Winchester, Dorchester, Ramsbury, Sherborne, Selsey, Lichfield, Hereford, Worcester, Crediton, Cornwall, Elmham, Lindsey, Wells, York and Durham. To assist bishops in supervising the parishes and monasteries within their dioceses, the office of archdeacon was created. Once a year, the bishop would summon parish priests to the cathedral for a synod.
Church and state
The church was a wealthy institution—owning 25 to 33 per cent of all land according to the Domesday Book. This meant that bishops and abbots had the same status as secular magnates, and it was vital that kings appointed loyal men to these influential offices.
The king was regarded not only as the head of the church but also "the vicar of Christ among a Christian folk". Kings were able to "govern the church largely unimpeded" by appointing bishops and abbots. Bishops were chosen by the king and tended to be recruited from among royal chaplains or monasteries. The bishop-elect was then presented at a synod where clerical approval was obtained and consecration followed. The appointment of an archbishop was more complicated and required approval from the pope. The Archbishop of Canterbury had to travel to Rome to receive the pallium, his symbol of office. These visits to Rome and the payments that accompanied them (such as Peter's Pence) was a point of contention.
See also
Celtic Christianity
List of Anglo-Saxon saints
List of members of the Gregorian mission
References
Bibliography
Chaney, William A. (1960) Paganism to Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England .
Chaney, William A. (1970). The cult of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: the transition from paganism to Christianity (Manchester University Press)
Higham, N. J. (2006) (Re-)Reading Bede: the "Ecclesiastical History" in Context. London: Routledge ;
Thomas, Charles (1981) Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500, London: Batsford
Yorke, Barbara (2006) The Conversion of Britain'', Harlow: Pearson Education
Further reading
Accessed on 10 May 2009 |
4267238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony%20of%20British%20Columbia%20%281858%E2%80%931866%29 | Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866) | The Colony of British Columbia was a crown colony in British North America from 1858 until 1866 that was founded by Richard Clement Moody, who was selected to 'found a second England on the shores of the Pacific', who was Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia and the first Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia. Prior to the arrival of Moody's Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, the Colony's supreme authority was its Governor James Douglas, who was the Governor of the neighbouring colony of Vancouver Island.
This original colony of British Columbia did not include either the Colony of Vancouver Island, or the regions north of the Nass River and Finlay River, or the regions east of the Rocky Mountains, or any of the coastal islands, but did include the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and from 1863 the Stikine Territory. The colony was in 1866 incorporated with the Colony of Vancouver Island to create the new Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871).
Background
The explorations of James Cook and George Vancouver, and the concessions of Spain in 1794 established British claims over the coastal area north of California. Similar claims were established inland via the explorations of such men as John Finlay, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Simon Fraser, Samuel Black, and David Thompson, and by the subsequent establishment of fur trading posts by the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). However, until 1858, the region which now comprises the mainland of the Province of British Columbia was an unorganised area of British North America comprising two fur trading districts: New Caledonia, north of the Thompson River drainage; and the Columbia District, located south of the Thompson and throughout the basin of the Columbia River.
With the signing of the Treaty of Washington in 1846, which established the US border along the 49th parallel, the HBC moved the headquarters of its western operations from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River (present day Vancouver, Washington) to the newly established Fort Victoria, on the southern tip of Vancouver Island. Vancouver Island and the surrounding Gulf Islands in the Strait of Georgia were organized as a crown colony in 1849. Meanwhile, the mainland continued to function under the de facto administration of the HBC, whose chief executive, James Douglas, was also governor of Vancouver Island. The non-Indigenous mainland population during this time never exceeded about 150 at Fort Victoria, mostly HBC employees and their families.
Governorship of James Douglas
By 1857, Americans and British were beginning to respond to rumors of gold in the Thompson River area. Almost overnight, some ten to twenty thousand men moved into the region around present-day Yale, British Columbia, sparking the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Governor Douglas - who had no legal authority over New Caledonia – stationed a gunboat at the entrance of the Fraser River to exert such authority by collecting licences from prospectors attempting to make their way upstream. To normalize its jurisdiction, and undercut any HBC claims to the resource wealth of the mainland, the district was converted to a Crown colony on 2 August 1858 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and given the name British Columbia. Douglas was offered the governorship of the new colony by the British colonial secretary, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, provided that he sever his employment by the Hudson's Bay Company, that Douglas accepted to do, and received a knighthood.
The numerous immigration into the new colony obliged Douglas to act quickly to define regulations and to create infrastructure. Magistrates and constables were hired, mining regulations drawn up, and town sites surveyed at Yale, Hope and Fort Langley to discourage squatting on crown land. In addition, roads were constructed into the areas of greatest mining exploration around Lillooet and Lytton. The colony, however, was not immediately granted a representative colonial assembly, because of uncertainty as to whether the gold rush would yield a stable, settled population. Douglas, who had conflicted with the assembly on Vancouver Island, was relieved.
The rush indeed was short lived, and the exodus of miners, speculators, and merchants was already underway by the time the Royal Engineers had laid out the colony's new capital at New Westminster. Prospecting continued, however, and additional finds farther inland in the Cariboo region in 1860 signalled an impending second gold rush. Provisioning was already proving to be an acute problem, and with more distant finds it became clear that wagon trains would have to replace pack horses, necessitating new infrastructure.
Throughout his tenure in British Columbia, Douglas feuded with Richard Clement Moody, who was the first Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia, and the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia, whose jurisdiction overlapped with that of Douglas. Moody's offices of Chief Commissioner and Lieutenant-Governor were of 'higher prestige [and] lesser authority' than that of Douglas, whom The British Government had selected Moody to 'out manoeuvre the old Hudson's Bay Factor [Governor Douglas]'.
Foundation by Richard Clement Moody
Selection
When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Secretary of State for the Colonies, requested that the War Office recommend a field officer who was "a man of good judgement possessing a knowledge of mankind" to lead a Corps of 150 (later increased to 172) Royal Engineers who had been selected for their "superior discipline and intelligence". The War Office chose Moody: and Lord Lytton, who described Moody as his "distinguished friend", accepted their nomination, as a consequence of Moody's military record, his success as Governor of the Falkland Islands, and the distinguished record of his father, Colonel Thomas Moody, at the Colonial Office. Moody was charged to establish British order and to transform the new Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west" and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific". Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force": men who possessed "courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world" such as Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal "English gentleman and British Officer" to command the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment. Moody's brother, Colonel Hampden Clement Blamire Moody, had already served with the Royal Engineers in Canada (mainly at Fort Garry), from 1840 to 1848, to such success that he was subsequently granted command of the regiment across the entirety of China.
Richard Clement Moody and his wife Mary Moody (of the Hawks industrial dynasty and of the Boyd merchant banking family) and their four children left England, for British Columbia, in October 1858, and arrived in British Columbia in December 1858, with the 172 Royal Engineers of the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, and his secretary the freemason Robert Burnaby (after whom he subsequently named Burnaby Lake), under his command. The original Columbia Detachment consisted of 150 Royal Engineers, both sappers and officers, before it was increased to 172. Moody had three captains: Robert Mann Parsons, John Marshall Grant, and Henry Reynolds Luard. The contingent included two lieutenants, both of British landed gentry, namely Lieutenant Arthur Reid Lempriere (of Diélament, Jersey) and Lieutenant Henry Spencer Palmer, and Doctor John Vernon Seddall, and Captain William Driscoll Gosset (who was to be Colonial Treasurer and Commissary Officer), and John Sheepshanks (who was to be Chaplain of the Columbia Detachment). Moody was sworn in as the first lieutenant-governor of British Columbia and appointed Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia.
Ned McGowan's War
Moody had hoped to begin immediately the foundation of a capital city, but on his arrival at Fort Langley, he learned of an insurrection, at the settlement of Hill's Bar, by a notorious outlaw, Ned McGowan, and some restive gold miners. Moody repressed the rebellion, which became popularly known as 'Ned McGowan's War', without loss of life. Moody described the incident: The notorious Ned McGowan, of Californian celebrity at the head of a band of Yankee Rowdies defying the law! Every peaceable citizen frightened out of his wits!—Summons & warrants laughed to scorn! A Magistrate seized while on the Bench, & brought to the Rebel's camp, tried, condemned, & heavily fined! A man shot dead shortly before! Such a tale to welcome me at the close of a day of great enjoyment. Moody described the response to his success: 'They gave me a Salute, firing off their loaded Revolvers over my head—Pleasant—Balls whistling over one's head! as a compliment! Suppose a hand had dropped by accident! I stood up, & raised my cap & thanked them in the Queen's name for their loyal reception of me'.
The Foundation of British Columbia
In British Columbia, Moody 'wanted to build a city of beauty in the wilderness' and planned his city as an iconic visual metaphor for British dominance, 'styled and located with the objective of reinforcing the authority of the Crown and of the robe'. Subsequent to the enactment of the Pre-emption Act of 1860, Moody settled the Lower Mainland. He founded the new capital city, New Westminster, at a site of dense forest of Douglas pine that he selected for its strategic excellence including the quality of its port. He, in his letter to his friend Arthur Blackwood of the Colonial Office that is dated 1 February 1859, described the majestic beauty of the site:
"The entrance to the Frazer is very striking--Extending miles to the right & left are low marsh lands (apparently of very rich qualities) & yet fr the Background of Superb Mountains- Swiss in outline, dark in woods, grandly towering into the clouds there is a sublimity that deeply impresses you. Everything is large and magnificent, worthy of the entrance to the Queen of England's dominions on the Pacific mainland. [...] My imagination converted the silent marshes into Cuyp-like pictures of horses and cattle lazily fattening in rich meadows in a glowing sunset. [...] The water of the deep clear Frazer was of a glassy stillness, not a ripple before us, except when a fish rose to the surface or broods of wild ducks fluttered away".
Moody designed the roads and the settlements of New Westminster, and his Royal Engineers, under Captain John Marshall Grant, built an extensive road network, including that which became Kingsway, which connected New Westminster to False Creek; and the North Road between Port Moody and New Westminster; and the Pacific terminus, at Burrard's Inlet, of Port Moody, of the Canadian and Pacific Railway (which subsequently was extended to the mouth of the Inlet and terminates now at Vancouver); and the Cariboo Road; and Stanley Park, which was an important strategic area for invaluable the eventuality of an invasion by America. He named Burnaby Lake after his secretary Robert Burnaby, and he named Port Coquitlam's 400-foot 'Mary Hill' after his wife Mary Hawks. Moody designed the first Coat of arms of British Columbia. Richard Clement Moody established Port Moody, which was subsequently named after him, at the end of the trail that connected New Westminster with Burrard Inlet, to defend New Westminster from potential attack from the United States. Moody also established a town at Hastings which was later incorporated into Vancouver.
The British designated multiple tracts as government reserves. The Pre-emption Act did not specify conditions for the distribution of the land, and, consequently, large areas were bought by speculators. Moody requisitioned 3,750 acres (sc. 1,517 hectares) for himself, and, on this land, he subsequently built for himself, and owned, Mayfield, a model farm near New Westminster. Moody was criticised by journalists for land grabbing, but his requisitions were ordered by the Colonial Office, and Moody throughout his tenure in British Columbia received the approbation of the British authorities in London, and was in British Columbia described as 'the real father of New Westminster'. However, Lord Lytton, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, 'forgot the practicalities of paying for clearing and developing the site and the town' and the effort of Moody's Engineers was continually impeded by insufficient funds, which, together with the continuous opposition of Governor Douglas, whom Sir Thomas Frederick Elliot (1808 - 1880) described as 'like any other fraud', 'made it impossible for [Moody's] design to be fulfilled'.
Throughout his tenure in British Columbia, Moody feuded with Sir James Douglas Governor of Vancouver Island, whose jurisdiction overlapped with his own. Moody's offices of Chief Commissioner and Lieutenant-Governor were of 'higher prestige [and] lesser authority' than that of Douglas, despite Moody's superior social position in the judgement of the Royal Engineers and of the British Government which had selected Moody to 'out manoeuvre the old Hudson's Bay Factor [Governor Douglas]'.
Moody had been selected by Lord Lytton for his qualities of the archetypal 'English gentleman and British Officer', and because his family was 'eminently respectable': he was the son of Colonel Thomas Moody, Kt., who owned land in the islands in which Douglas's father owned less land and from which Douglas's 'a half-breed' mother originated. Governor Douglas's ethnicity was 'an affront to Victorian society', whereas Mary Moody was a member of the Hawks industrial dynasty and of the Boyd merchant banking family. Mary Moody wrote, on 4 August 1859, 'it is not pleasant to serve under a Hudson's Bay Factor', and that the 'Governor and Richard can never get on'. John Robson, who was the editor of the British Columbian, wanted Richard Clement Moody's office to include that of Governor of British Columbia, and to thereby make obsolete Douglas. In letter to the Colonial Office of 27 December 1858, Richard Clement Moody states that he has 'entirely disarmed [Douglas] of all jealously'. Douglas repeatedly insulted the Royal Engineers by attempting to assume their command and refusing to acknowledge their contribution to the nascent colony.
Margaret A. Ormsby, who was the author of the Dictionary of Canadian Biography entry for Moody (2002), unpopularly censures Moody for the abortive development of the New Westminster. However, most significant historians commend Moody's contribution and exonerate Moody from culpability for the abortive development of New Westminster, especially with regard to the perpetual insufficiency of funds and of the personally motivated opposition by Douglas that continually retarded the development of British Columbia. Robert Burnaby observed that Douglas proceeded with 'muddling [Moody's] work and doubling his expenditure' and with employing administrators to 'work a crooked policy against Moody' to 'retard British Columbia and build up... the stronghold of Hudson's Bay interests' and their own 'landed stake'. Therefore, Robert Edgar Cail, Don W. Thomson, Ishiguro, and Scott commended Moody for his contribution, and Scott accused Ormsby of being 'adamant in her dislike of Colonel Moody' despite the majority of evidence, and almost all other biographies of Moody, including that by the Institution of Civil Engineers, and that by the Royal Engineers, and that by the British Columbia Historical Association, commend Moody's achievements in British Columbia.
The Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment was disbanded in July 1863. The Moody family (which now consisted of Moody, and his wife, and seven legitimate children) and the 22 Royal Engineers who wished to return to England, who had 8 wives between them, departed for England. 130 of the original Columbia Detachment decided to remain in British Columbia. Scott contends that the dissolution of the Columbia Detachment, and the consequent departure of Moody, 'doomed' the development of the settlement and the realisation of Lord Lytton's dream. A vast congregation of New Westminster citizens gathered at the dock to bid farewell to Moody as his boat departed for England. Moody wanted to return to British Columbia, but he died before he was able to do so. Moody left his library behind, in New Westminster, to become the public library of New Westminster.
In April 1863, the Councillors of New Westminster decreed that 20 acres should be reserved and named Moody Square after Richard Clement Moody. The area around Moody Square that was completed only in 1889 has also been named Moody Park after Moody. Numerous developments occurred in and around Moody Park, including Century House, which was opened by Princess Margaret on 23 July 1958. In 1984, on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of New Westminster, a monument of Richard Clement Moody, at the entrance of the park, was unveiled by Mayor Tom Baker. For Moody's achievements in the Falkland Islands and in British Columbia, British diplomat David Tatham CMG, who served as Governor of the Falkland Islands, described Moody as an 'Empire builder'. In January 2014, with the support of the Friends of the British Columbia Archives and of the Royal British Columbia Museum Foundation, The Royal British Columbia Museum purchased a photograph album that had belonged to Richard Clement Moody. The album contains over 100 photographs of the early settlement of British Columbia, including some of the earliest known photographs of First Nations peoples.
Governorship of Frederick Seymour
Douglas's successor was Frederick Seymour, who came to the colony with twenty years of colonial experience in Van Diemen's Land, the British West Indies, and British Honduras. The creation of an assembly and Seymour's appointment in April 1864 signalled a new era for the colony, now out of the shadow of Vancouver Island and free of a governor suspicious of sharing power with elected representatives. Douglas's wagon road project was still underway, presenting huge engineering challenges, as it made its way up the narrow Fraser Canyon. Successive loans authorised by Seymour's predecessor, largely for the purpose of completing the road, had put the colony £200,000 in debt; and the Chilcotin War of 1864 cost an additional £18,000 to suppress. Seymour himself made the difficult journey through the Great Canyon of the Homathko and Rainbow Range as a show of force and participation in the hunt for Klatsassin, the Tsilhqot'in war leader, but the armed expedition reached a denouement when Klatsassin surrendered on terms of amnesty in times of war, only to be tried and hanged for murder, as Seymour had not endorsed the terms.
On Seymour's return overland, he made a tour of the Cariboo minefields, and along the Fraser Canyon, which made him increasingly convinced of the colony's future prosperity. On returning to the capital, however, fiscal reality set in as it became clear that British Columbia's indebtedness was getting worse. Even as the colonial administration took drastic measures to augment revenues and improve the road system to attract prospectors and settlers, the economic situation grew increasingly dire, and agitation grew for an amalgamation of the two colonies. Seymour opposed this proposal, but with pressure from various quarters of the colonial government, he eventually relented, recommending that British Columbia be the dominant partner, and (unsuccessfully) that the capital be located at New Westminster. The two colonies were united by an Act of the British Parliament, and proclaimed on 6 August 1866 (see Colony of British Columbia (1866-1871)).
Governors
Sir James Douglas, 1858–1864
Frederick Seymour, 1864–1866
Colonial Assembly
Members 1863–1864
Arthur Nonus Birch, Colonial Secretary and Presiding Member
Henry Pering Pellew Crease, Attorney General
Wymond Ogilvy Hamley, Collector of Customs
Chartres Brew, Magistrate. New Westminster
Peter O'Reilly, Magistrate Cariboo East
E.H. Sanders, Magistrate, Yale
Henry Maynard Ball, Magistrate, Lytton
Philip Henry Nind, Magistrate, Douglas
Joshua Homer, New Westminster District
Robert Thompson Smith, Yale and Lytton District
Henry Holbrook, Douglas and Lillooet District
James Orr, Cariboo East District
Walter Shaw Black, Cariboo West District
Members 1864–1865
Arthur Nonus Birch, Colonial Secretary and Presiding Member
Henry Pering Pellew Crease, Attorney General
Charles William Franks, Treasurer
Wymond Ogilvy Hamley, Collector of Customs
Chartres Brew, Magistrate. New Westminster
Peter O'Reilly, Magistrate Cariboo
Henry Maynard Ball, Magistrate, Lytton
Andrew Charles Elliott, Magistrate, Lillooet
John Carmichael Haynes, Magistrate, Osoyoos and Kootenay
Joshua Homer, New Westminster District
Clement Francis Cornwall, Hope, Yale and Lytton District
Henry Holbrook, Douglas and Lillooet District
George Anthony Walkem, Cariboo East and Quesnel Forks District
Walter Moberly, Cariboo West and Quesnelmouth District
Members 1866
Henry Maynard Ball, Acting Colonial Secretary and Presiding Member
Henry Pering Pellew Crease, Attorney General
Charles William Franks, Treasurer
Joseph Trutch Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works and Surveyor General
Wymond Ogilvy Hamley, Collector of Customs
Chartres Brew, Magistrate. New Westminster
Peter O'Reilly, Magistrate Kootenay
Andrew Charles Elliott, Magistrate, Lillooet
John Carmichael Haynes, Magistrate, Osoyoos and Kootenay
Joshua Homer, New Westminster District
Clement Francis Cornwall, Hope, Yale and Lytton District
Henry Holbrook, Douglas and Lillooet District
George Anthony Walkem, Cariboo East and Quesnel Forks District
Robert Smith, Cariboo West and Quesnelmouth District
Supreme Court
In 1858 the British Government sent over Matthew Baillie Begbie as Chief Justice for the colony. Although trained at Lincoln's Inn he had never practised law, but soon published a Rules of Court and a timetable of sittings. He held the post, under consecutive administrative regimes, until his death in 1894.
See also
Former colonies and territories in Canada
Territorial evolution of Canada after 1867
List of governors of Vancouver Island and British Columbia
Alaska boundary dispute
References
Sources
Further reading
1866 disestablishments in North America
Colony of British Columbia (1858-1866)
British North America
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
States and territories established in 1858
1858 establishments in the British Empire
Former colonies in North America
1866 disestablishments in the British Empire
1858 establishments in North America
States and territories disestablished in 1866 |
4268173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLS%20Cup%202006 | MLS Cup 2006 | MLS Cup 2006 was the 11th edition of the MLS Cup, the championship match of Major League Soccer (MLS), and took place on November 12, 2006. It was contested between the New England Revolution and the Houston Dynamo to decide the champion of the 2006 season. The match was played at Pizza Hut Park in Frisco, Texas, which had hosted the previous cup.
Both teams qualified for the playoffs by placing second in their respective conference during the regular season. New England were appearing in their second consecutive final, while Houston had been formed from the relocated San Jose Earthquakes. The match was tied 1–1 on goals scored 71 seconds apart by Taylor Twellman and Brian Ching in extra time. Houston won 4–3 in the first penalty shootout in MLS Cup history, with Ching scoring the winning penalty kick and Pat Onstad saving the follow-up in the fifth round. Houston and New England would stage a rematch in the following cup, which the Dynamo won in Washington, D.C.
Venue
The match was hosted at Pizza Hut Park in Frisco, Texas, the venue of the previous final between the New England Revolution and Los Angeles Galaxy. The $80 million stadium was opened on August 6, 2005, and serves primarily as the home of FC Dallas. On January 31, 2006, MLS announced that Pizza Hut Park would repeat as the venue for a second consecutive MLS Cup, following a successful bid from FC Dallas; the other bidding finalist was the Home Depot Center in Carson, California, home to the Los Angeles Galaxy. The Home Depot Center was also the only other venue to previously host consecutive MLS Cups, having done so in 2003 and 2004. Pizza Hut Park was considered as a model for Houston's proposed stadium, along with other soccer-specific stadiums built by the league in the 2000s. During the run-up to the match, the MLS Cup trophy toured the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex to promote the league and FC Dallas.
Road to the final
The MLS Cup is the post-season championship of Major League Soccer (MLS), a professional club soccer league based in the United States. The 2006 season was the eleventh in the league's history and was contested by twelve teams in two conferences, divided into the east and west. Each team played a total of 32 matches in the regular season from April to October, facing teams within their conference four times, and teams outside of their conference two times. The playoffs ran from mid-October to November and was contested by the top four teams in each conference. It was organized into three rounds: a home-and-away series with a winner determined by aggregate score in the Conference Semifinals, a single-match Conference Final, and the MLS Cup final.
MLS Cup 2006 was contested by the New England Revolution and the Houston Dynamo, who had both finished second in their respective conferences during the regular season. The two teams finished within two points of each other in regular season standings and had identical home win–loss–draw records. The 2006 final also marked the first time that neither MLS Cup finalist had won their conference or division, as well as the first time that both finalists had qualified despite losing their first playoffs match. New England and Houston played each other twice during the regular season, trading 1–1 draws in May and July.
New England Revolution
The New England Revolution finished as MLS Cup runners-up in 2002 and 2005, losing both championships to the Los Angeles Galaxy in overtime. The Revolution had also qualified for four straight Eastern Conference Finals, losing in 2003 to the Chicago Fire and in 2004 to D.C. United in a penalty shootout in between their MLS Cup appearances. The team finished second overall in league standings at the end of the 2005 regular season, setting new team records for wins and points after going on an eleven-match unbeaten streak. The Revolution were in their sixth season under manager Steve Nicol, who primarily used a 3–5–2 formation, and kept their starting lineup from the previous season. The team added forwards Kyle Brown and Willie Sims in the offseason to provide additional depth.
The Revolution opened their season with only three wins in their first thirteen matches, including a run of five draws in six matches during a winless streak from May to June. The team's struggles were blamed, in part, on injuries and Clint Dempsey's call-up to play in the World Cup that required manager Steve Nicol to use different starting lineups to rotate players. The return of Dempsey and other injured players helped the team to earn three more wins by early July, which helped New England rise from fourth to second in the Eastern Conference standings behind D.C. United.
Despite a six-match winless run in July and August, blamed on long road trips in the schedule, the Revolution remained in second place but fell further behind D.C. in the conference standings. New England finished the season with several home matches on a seven-match unbeaten streak, including five wins, which mirrored the end of the previous season. The team finished the regular season with 48 points, their second-highest record, and clinched the second seed in the Eastern Conference. Dempsey was named to the MLS Best XI, while Matt Reis and Steve Ralston finished as finalists for other league awards.
New England was matched against the third-place Chicago Fire in the Eastern Conference Finals, losing 1–0 in the first leg away from home and conceding an early goal in the second leg to create a 0–2 defect on aggregate. The Revolution rallied in the second leg with goals by Taylor Twellman and Pat Noonan to tie 2–2 on aggregate and force a penalty shootout against the Fire, despite missing midfielders Dempsey and Shalrie Joseph. New England won the shootout 4–2 in four rounds, with two saves by goalkeeper Matt Reis (who also scored) to clinch a fifth consecutive appearance in the Eastern Conference Final. The Revolution mirrored their performance in the 2005 Eastern Conference Final against league winners D.C. United by winning 1–0 on a volleyed goal scored in the fourth minute by Twellman. The win clinched an MLS Cup appearance for New England for the third time in five years.
Houston Dynamo
The Houston Dynamo were formed after owners Anschutz Entertainment Group announced that the San Jose Earthquakes would relocate to Houston for the 2006 season, citing a failure to secure a stadium and local ownership group in the Bay Area. The Earthquakes had won the MLS Cup in 2001 and 2003 and finished the 2005 season as Supporters' Shield winners before being eliminated by the Los Angeles Galaxy in the first round of the playoffs. The team's players, head coach Dominic Kinnear, and technical staff were transferred to Houston, while the Earthquakes name was retained by the league for an expansion team that was announced in 2007.
The team was renamed from Houston 1836 to the Dynamo prior to starting the season after objections from the area's Hispanic communities over its reference to the year 1836, which marked both the city's founding and Texas's independence from Mexico. The Dynamo lost only three of their first eighteen matches, including a ten-match unbeaten streak that lasted from May to late July, and only trailed in-state rivals FC Dallas in the Western Conference standings. Prior to the unbeaten run, Houston were without starting forward Brian Ching, who was called up to the U.S. national team at the World Cup and missed six league matches. He later missed five more matches due to knee surgery in August, leaving the team without their top goalscorer as it lost against several Western Conference rivals.
To mitigate the loss of Ching, the Dynamo signed Scottish striker Paul Dalglish and relied more heavily on attacking midfielder Dwayne De Rosario, who recorded ten goals and five assists by late September. After a four-match winless streak in September, which still left the Dynamo in second place, Houston went unbeaten in their remaining six league matches (with two wins) to secure a playoff berth, with 46 points. The team also made it to the semifinals of the U.S. Open Cup, where they were eliminated by the Los Angeles Galaxy. De Rosario and defensive midfielder Ricardo Clark were named to the MLS Best XI for their regular season performances.
Houston played against third-seeded Chivas USA, themselves a first-time playoff team, in the Western Conference Semifinals and lost 2–1 in the first leg at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California. After conceding twice before halftime, Brian Ching scored for the Dynamo and Dwayne De Rosario took a penalty kick in the 86th minute that was saved by Chivas goalkeeper Brad Guzan, denying an equalizing goal. In the second leg at home, Houston took advantage of a red card shown to Chivas striker Francisco Palencia and pushed for a series-equalizing goal, which came in the 64th minute on a penalty kick scored by Brad Davis. Ching then scored a header in the third minute of stoppage time to give the Dynamo a 2–0 win, clinching the series with an aggregate score of 3–2 without going to extra time.
In the Western Conference Final, the Houston Dynamo hosted the Colorado Rapids, who had defeated conference-leading Dallas as the fourth seed and were appearing in their second consecutive conference final. Colorado took an early lead on a fourth-minute penalty kick scored by Jovan Kirovski that was awarded after a handball by defender Adrian Serioux in the box. The Dynamo responded with two goals in quick succession by Paul Dalglish: a shot in the 10th minute and a 21st-minute header on a cross by Brian Mullan. Mullan added a third goal for Houston in the 71st minute to clinch a 3–1 victory and an MLS Cup appearance for the team in their inaugural season.
Summary of results
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away).
Broadcasting
The MLS Cup final was televised in the United States on ABC in English and Spanish using secondary audio programming, earning a Nielsen rating of 0.8 and an estimated audience of 1.24 million. English play-by-play commentary was provided by Boston-based sportscaster Dave O'Brien and color analysis by Eric Wynalda and former U.S. men's national team coach Bruce Arena. Brandi Chastain provided sideline reporting, while Rob Stone anchored the pre-game and halftime shows. The match was also carried in 96 countries by ESPN International and its associated networks. The MLS Cup pregame show featured Dallas-based choral rock group The Polyphonic Spree, and the halftime show was headlined by Los Angeles alternate rock group Under the Influence of Giants.
Match
Analysis
In 14 previous meetings from 2001 to 2006 between the New England Revolution and the Houston Dynamo and their predecessor, the San Jose Earthquakes, the Revolution had lost nine matches and drew five. Injuries to several of New England's starting players, including Clint Dempsey, Steve Ralston, and Daniel Hernandez led to uncertainty surrounding the team's starting lineup. The 2006 cup was also considered the last chance for the core players of the Revolution team, as several looked to move to European leagues or retire.
Summary
Several thousand Dynamo fans traveled over from Houston to Pizza Hut Park for the match in a caravan of buses and hundreds of cars on Interstate 45 that was organized by "Mattress Mack" Jim McIngvale. The fans settled into various sections of the stadium among a sellout crowd of 22,427. A special silver ball was produced by Adidas for the match, based on a variant of the 2006 FIFA World Cup ball.
Houston began the match with a 4–4–2 formation but switched to match New England's 3–5–2 after losing their share of ball possession late in the first half. Despite this, the Dynamo had a chance to score in the 20th minute by Brad Davis that hit the goalpost. It was followed up by a header by Taylor Twellman that was saved by goalkeeper Pat Onstad five minutes later. The Revolution took control of the game and prompted the Dynamo to make their formation switch while relying more on counterattacks. Before halftime, Houston had another chance in the form of a strike from Dwayne De Rosario that was saved by Matt Reis.
New England bolstered their attack early in the second half by substituting attacking midfielder Khano Smith and forward Clint Dempsey, recovering from an ankle injury. Both teams traded shots after 20 minutes of play, with the Revolution requiring a save from Matt Reis on a rebounded attempt by Brad Davis and Dempsey failing to finish a cross from Pat Noonan. Near the end of regulation time in the 86th minute, Jay Heaps headed a ball into the six-yard box towards Taylor Twellman that was cleared away in front of the goal by Brian Ching.
After remaining scoreless through regulation time, the match went into extra time and remained in a defensive stalemate. The Dynamo dropped their attacking players into the midfield and defense to resist pressure from the Revolution, who continued to earn opportunities to score but left themselves vulnerable to counterattacks. Alejandro Moreno, who was substituted late in the second half for Paul Dalglish, missed a header from a corner kick in the 95th minute; this was followed three minutes later by a header from Clint Dempsey that was cleared off the goal line by Wade Barrett.
The opening goal of the match was scored in the 113th minute by Taylor Twellman, who received a slip pass from Khano Smith and made a one-touch shot from to end New England's 346-minute scoring drought in MLS Cup finals. Twellman and several of his teammates ran across the length of the field to celebrate in front of a section with Revolution fans. Houston responded from kickoff with a forward run and a cross from the right by Brian Mullan to Ching, who headed the ball into the net and tied the match at 1–1 only 71 seconds after Twellman's goal. The match remained tied at the end of extra time, setting up the first penalty shootout in MLS Cup history.
The penalty shootout featured no saves or misses in the first two rounds, with shots scored by Houston's extra time substitutes Kelly Gray and Stuart Holden, and New England's Shalrie Joseph and goalkeeper Matt Reis. Pat Noonan's shot in the third round hit the crossbar, but the score remained level at 3–3 after Twellman converted and Brad Davis's penalty was saved by Matt Reis. Ching, who was later named the MLS Cup MVP, scored the Dynamo's fifth-round penalty to give them a 4–3 lead. Defender Jay Heaps attempted to slot his penalty into the goal, but the shot slowly rolled into the gloves of Pat Onstad to win the match for the Houston Dynamo.
Details
Post-match
The Dynamo's victory in the MLS Cup brought the first professional sports championship to the city since the Houston Comets won the 2000 WNBA Finals. The team was honored with a victory rally outside Houston City Hall that was attended by 600 fans a few days after the match. The title was technically the third MLS Cup for the franchise, which had won two as the San Jose Earthquakes, but the two teams are considered separate entities. The Dynamo were also received by President George W. Bush at the White House in May 2007, becoming the second MLS team to be honored at the White House. The time between the match's two extra time goals, 71 seconds, tied the record for shortest span in MLS Cup history that was set in 2003 by San Jose and Chicago. New England tied Los Angeles's three MLS Cup losses and was compared to similar perennial runners-up like the Buffalo Bills and Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League.
As the winner of the MLS Cup, Houston qualified for the 2007 CONCACAF Champions' Cup, an eight-team tournament to determine the continental club champion; the second MLS berth that was reserved for the MLS Cup runners-up was replaced with one for the winner of the Supporters' Shield. The Dynamo played Costa Rican club Puntarenas F.C. in the quarterfinal and advanced with a 2–1 aggregate score, winning 2–0 in the second leg at their preseason home in College Station. Houston then faced Mexican Clasura champion Pachuca in the semifinals and won the first leg 2–0 after a one-day delay due to a power outage. In the second leg hosted by Pachuca, the Dynamo conceded four goals to tie the series 4–4 and force extra time, where Pachuca scored a winning penalty kick to advance 5–4 on aggregate to the final.
The two clubs would meet again in the following final, playing in the first repeat match-up in MLS Cup history; Houston defeated New England 2–1 in regulation time and defended their title. In the 2008 SuperLiga Final, hosted by New England at Gillette Stadium, the two teams drew 2–2 after extra time and played in a penalty shootout that the Revolution won 6–5 after eight rounds. The Dynamo appeared in two more MLS Cup finals, played in 2011 and 2012, losing both to the Los Angeles Galaxy at the Home Depot Center in Carson, California. New England qualified for their fifth MLS Cup final in 2014, also losing to the Galaxy in Carson. Both teams would go on to win the U.S. Open Cup, with New England defeating FC Dallas in 2007 and Houston defeating the Philadelphia Union in 2018.
References
2006
Houston Dynamo FC matches
New England Revolution matches
Association football penalty shoot-outs
November 2006 sports events in the United States
2006 in sports in Texas
Sports in Frisco, Texas
Soccer in Texas |
4268523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte%20Melkonian | Monte Melkonian | Monte Melkonian (; 25 November 1957 – 12 June 1993) was an Armenian-American revolutionary and left-wing nationalist militant. He was a commander in the Artsakh Defence Army and was killed while fighting against Azerbaijan in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War.
Born in California, Melkonian left the United States and arrived in Iran as a teacher in 1978, amidst the Iranian Revolution. He took part in demonstrations against Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, and subsequently travelled to Lebanon to serve with a Beirut-based Armenian militia fighting in the Lebanese Civil War. Melkonian was active in Bourj Hammoud, and was one of the planners of the Turkish consulate attack in Paris in 1981. He was later arrested and imprisoned in France. He was released in 1989 and acquired a visa to travel to Armenia in 1990.
Prior to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, during which he commanded an estimated 4,000 Armenian troops, Melkonian had no official service record in any country's armed forces. Instead, his military experience came from his activity in ASALA during the Lebanese Civil War. With ASALA, Melkonian fought against various right-wing Lebanese militias around in and around Beirut, and had also taken part in combat against Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War.
Over the course of his military career, Melkonian had adopted a number of alias, including Abu Sindi, Timothy Sean McCormack, and Saro. During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, many of the Armenian soldiers under his command referred to him as Avo (). On 12 June 1993, Melkonian was killed by Azerbaijani soldiers while he was surveying the village of Mərzili with five other Armenian soldiers after a battle. He was buried at Yerablur, a military cemetery in the Armenian capital city of Yerevan, and was posthumously conferred the title of National Hero of Armenia in 1996.
Early life
Youth
Melkonian was born on 25 November 1957, at Visalia Municipal Hospital in Visalia, California, to Charles (1918−2006) and Zabel Melkonian (1920−2012). He was the third of four children born to a self-employed cabinetmaker and an elementary-school teacher. By all accounts, Melkonian was described as an all-American child who joined the Boy Scouts and was a pitcher in Little League baseball. He also played the clarinet. Melkonian's parents rarely talked about their Armenian heritage with their children, often referring to the place of their ancestors as the "Old Country." His interest in his background only sparked at the age of eleven, when his family went on a year-long trip to Europe in 1969.
While taking Spanish language courses in Spain, his teacher had posed him the question of where he was from. Dissatisfied with Melkonian's answer of "California", the teacher rephrased the question by asking "where did your ancestors come from?" His brother Markar Melkonian remarked that "her image of us was not at all like our image of ourselves. She did not view us as the Americans we had always assumed we were." From this moment on, for days and months to come, Markar continues, "Monte pondered [their teacher Señorita] Blanca's question Where are you from?"
In the spring of that year, the family also traveled across Turkey to visit the town of Merzifon, where Melkonian's maternal grandparents were from. Merzifon's population at the time was 23,475 but was almost completely devoid of its once 17,000-strong Armenian population that was wiped out during the Armenian genocide in 1915. They did find one Armenian family of the three that was living in the town, however, Melkonian soon learned that the only reason this was so, was because the head of the family in 1915 had exchanged the safety of his family in return for identifying all the Armenians in the town to Turkish authorities during the genocide. Melkonian would later confide to his wife that "he was never the same after that visit....He saw the place that had been lost."
Education
Upon his return to California, Melkonian returned to his education. In high school, he was exceeding all standards and having a hard time finding new academic challenges. Instead of graduating high school early, as was suggested by his principal, Melkonian found an alternative thanks to his father: a study abroad program in East Asia. At the age of 15, Melkonian traveled to Japan for a new chapter in his young life, namely to study martial arts and the Japanese language. While there, he began teaching English, which helped finance his travels through several Southeast Asian countries. This introduced him to several new cultures, new philosophies, new languages, and in several cases, like his travels through Vietnam (shortly before the Fall of Saigon), new skills that would become immensely valuable in his later life as a soldier. Returning to the United States, he graduated from high school and entered the University of California, Berkeley with Regents Scholarship, majoring in ancient Asian history and Archeology. In 1978 he helped to organize an exhibition of Armenian cultural artifacts at one of the university's libraries. The section of the exhibit dealing with the Armenian genocide was removed by university authorities at the request of the Turkish consul general in San Francisco. The display that was removed was eventually reinstalled following a campus protest movement. Melkonian eventually completed his undergraduate work in under three years. Upon graduating, he was accepted into the archeology graduate program at the University of Oxford. However, Melkonian chose to forgo this opportunity, and instead chose to begin his lifelong struggle for the Armenian Cause.
Departure from the United States
Iranian Revolution
After graduating from U.C. Berkeley in the spring of 1978, Melkonian traveled to Iran, where he taught English and participated in the movement to overthrow the Shah. He helped organize a teachers' strike at his school in Tehran, and was in the vicinity of Jaleh Square when the Shah's troops opened fire on protesters, killing and injuring many. Later, he found his way to Iranian Kurdistan, where Kurdish partisans made a deep impression on him. Years later, in southern Lebanon, he occasionally wore the uniform of the Kurdish peshmerga which he was given in Iranian Kurdistan.
Lebanese Civil War
In the fall of 1978, Melkonian made his way to Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, in time to participate in the defense of the Armenian quarter against the right-wing Phalange forces. While he was living in East Beirut, Melkonian worked underground with individual members of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and the Lebanese Communist Party. Although he never professed an allegiance to the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), he was a member of the Armenian militia that defended positions in and around Bourj Hammoud that were under the command of ARF "group leaders". Melkonian was a permanent member of the militia's bases in Bourj Hammoud, Western Beirut, Antelias, Eastern Beirut and other regions for almost two years, during which time he participated in several street battles against Phalange forces. He also began working behind the lines in Phalangist controlled territory, on behalf of the "Leftist and Arab" Lebanese National Movement. By this time, he was speaking Armenian – a language he had not learned until adulthood (Armenian was the fourth or fifth language Melkonian learned to speak fluently, after Spanish, French and Japanese. In addition, he spoke passable Arabic, Italian and Turkish, as well as some Persian and Kurdish).
ASALA
In the spring of 1980, Melkonian was inducted into the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) and secretly relocated to West Beirut. For the next three years he was an ASALA militant and contributor to the group's journal, Hayastan. During this time several Palestinian militant organizations provided their Armenian comrades with extensive military training. On 31 July 1980 in Athens, Melkonian assassinated the Administrative Attaché of Turkish Embassy in Greece, Galip Ozmen, considered by Melkonian to be a legitimate target for representing a regime that committed the Armenian genocide, occupied northern Cyprus, massacred Kurds in Turkey, among other crimes. After his death, Özmen was also revealed to have been a Turkish intelligence (MIT) spy. Melkonian also shot the passengers in the front and back seats who were obscured by darkly tinted window glass, believing them to be other diplomats. The passengers were later revealed to be Ozmen's wife Sevil and his sixteen-year-old son Kaan, who were wounded but survived, and his fourteen-year-old daughter Neslihan, who later died of her wounds. Melkonian was reportedly unhappy to find out who the other passengers were, and later wrote that he would've spared them if he had a clearer view.
Melkonian carried out armed operations in Rome, Athens and elsewhere, and he helped to plan and train commandos for the "Van Operation" of September 24, 1981, in which four ASALA militants took over the Turkish embassy in Paris and held it for several days. In November 1981, French police arrested and imprisoned a young, suspected criminal carrying a Cypriot passport bearing the name "Dimitri Georgiu." Following the detonation of several bombs in Paris aimed at gaining his release, "Georgiu" was returned to Lebanon where he revealed his identity as Monte Melkonian.
In mid-July 1983, ASALA violently split into two factions, one opposed to the group's despotic leader, whose nom de guerre was Hagop Hagopian, and another supporting him. Although the lines of fissure had been deepening over the course of several years, the shooting of Hagopian's two closest aides at a military camp in Lebanon finally led to the open breach. This impetuous action was perpetrated by one individual who was not closely affiliated with Melkonian. As a result of this action, however, Hagopian took revenge by personally torturing and executing two of Melkonian's dearest comrades, Garlen Ananian and Aram Vartanian.
Imprisonment in France
In the aftermath of this split, Melkonian spent over two years underground, first in Lebanon and later in France. After testifying secretly for the defense in the trial of Armenian militant and accused bank robber Levon Minassian, he was arrested in Paris in November 1985 and sentenced to six years in prison for possession of falsified papers and carrying an illegal handgun.
Melkonian spent over three years in Fresnes and Poissy prisons. He was released in early 1989 and sent from France to South Yemen, where he was reunited with his girlfriend Seda. Together they spent year and a half living underground in various countries of eastern Europe in relative poverty, as one Eastern Bloc regime after another disintegrated.
Arrival in the Armenian SSR
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
On 6 October 1990, Melkonian arrived in what was then still Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. During the first 8 months in Armenia, Melkonian worked in the Armenian Academy of Sciences, where he prepared an archaeological research monograph on Urartian cave tombs, which was posthumously published in 1995.
Finding himself on Armenian soil after many years, he wrote in a letter that he found a lot of confusion among his compatriots. Armenia faced enormous economic, political and environmental problems at every turn, problems that had festered for decades. New political forces bent on dismantling the Soviet Union were taking Armenia in a direction that Melkonian believed was bound to exacerbate the crisis and produce more problems. He believed that "a national blunder was taking place right before his eyes."
Armenia and Azerbaijan
Under these circumstances, it quickly became clear to Melkonian that, for better or for worse, the Soviet Union had no future and the coming years would be perilous ones for the Armenian people. He then focused his energy on Nagorno-Karabakh. "If we lose [Karabakh]," the bulletin of the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Forces quoted him as saying, "we turn the final page of our people's history." He believed that, if Azeri forces succeeded in deporting Armenians from Karabakh, they would advance on Zangezur and other regions of Armenia.
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
On 12 or 14 September 1991, Melkonian travelled to the Shahumian region (north of Karabakh), where he fought for three months in the fall of 1991. There he participated in the capture of Erkej, Manashid and Buzlukh villages.
On February 4, 1992, Melkonian arrived in Martuni as the regional commander. Upon his arrival the changes were immediately felt: civilians started feeling more secure and at peace as Azeri armies were pushed back and were finding it increasingly difficult to shell Martuni's residential areas with GRAD missiles.
In April 1993, Melkonian was one of the chief military strategists who planned and led the operation to fight Azeri fighters and capture the region of Kalbajar of Azerbaijan which lies between Armenia and former NKAO. Armenian forces captured the region in four days of heavy fighting, sustaining far fewer fatalities than the enemy.
Death and legacy
Melkonian was killed in the abandoned village of Merzili in the early afternoon of 12 June 1993 during the Battle of Aghdam. According to Markar Melkonian, Melkonian's older brother and author of his biography, Melkonian died in the waning hours of the evening by enemy fire during an unexpected skirmish that broke out with several Azerbaijani soldiers who had likely gotten lost.
Melkonian was buried with full military honors on 19 June 1993, at Yerablur military cemetery in the outskirts of Yerevan, where his coffin was brought from the Surb Zoravar Church in the city center. Some 50,000 to 100,000 people (some reports put the figure as high as 250,000), including Armenian President Levon Ter-Petrosyan, acting Defense Minister Vazgen Manukyan, Deputy Foreign Minister Gerard Libaridian, government officials, and parliamentarians attended his funeral.
The Karabakh town of Martuni was renamed Monteaberd (or Monteapert; ; literally "Fort Monte") in his honor.
In 1993, the Monte Melkonian Military Academy was established in Yerevan.
In 2021, the village of Shahumyani Trchnafabrika was renamed Monteavan.
In November 2021, a statue of Melkonian was unveiled in Vardenis.
Public image
Melkonian had become a legend in Armenia and Karabakh by the time of his death. Due to his international socialist and Armenian nationalist views, one author described him as a mix between the early 20th century Armenian military commander Andranik and Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara. Thomas de Waal described him as a "professional warrior and an extreme Armenian nationalist" who is "the most celebrated Armenian commander" of the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Raymond Bonner wrote in 1993 that Melkonian had charisma and discipline, which is why he "rapidly became the most highly regarded commander in the Karabakh War." Historian Razmik Panossian wrote that Melkonian was "a charismatic and very capable commander."
Political and moral views
Melkonian was an Armenian nationalist and a revolutionary socialist. Throughout his life he sympathized with Marxism–Leninism, which was also the ideology of ASALA. Vorbach wrote in 1994 that his writings "expose him as an Armenian nationalist and a committed socialist of the Marxist-Leninist variety." According to his brother he "had not always been a communist, but he had never been an ex-communist." Melkonian hoped that the Soviet Union would "reform itself, democratize, and promote personal freedoms" and did not abandon hope in Soviet Armenia until the end of the Soviet era appeared inevitable. Philip Marsden wrote that his career "reveals the profound shift in radical ideology—from revolutionary Marxism to nationalism." Marsden adds that in the 1980s his ideology came into conflict with a growing nationalism: "With ever greater difficulty, he squeezed the Armenian question into the context of left-wing orthodoxy, believing for instance that Armenia's independence from the Soviet Union would be a terrible error." In the 1980s he advocated for the Soviet takeover of Turkey's formerly Armenian populated areas and its unification with Soviet Armenia. Yet he likewise supported the idea that "the most direct way... to attain the right to live in 'Western Armenia' is by participating in the revolutionary struggle in Turkey" and considered the option of Armenian self-determination within a revolutionary Turkish or Kurdish state. In the 1980s, while in a French prison, he called for the creation of a guerilla force in eastern Turkey which would unite Kurdish rebels, left-wing Turks, and Armenian revolutionaries. Vorbach summarized his views on Turkey:
While in Poissy prison, Melkonian drafted a political manifesto for his envisioned "Armenian Patriotic Liberation Movement," in which he outlines seven core principles: 1) revolutionary internationalism, 2) democracy and self-determination, 3) socialism, 4) feminism, 5) environmentalism, 6) anti-imperialism, and 7) peace and disarmament.
By the early 1990s, he saw Karabakh as a "sacred cause". He is quoted as saying, "If we lose Karabakh, we turn the final page of our people's history."
Melkonian was also an internationalist. In an article titled "Imperialism in the New World Order" he declared his support for socialist movements in Palestine, South Africa, Central America and elsewhere. He also espoused environmentalism from an anti-capitalist perspective. According to one author his economic views were influenced by the Beirut-based Armenian Marxist economist Alexander Yenikomshian.
Maile Melkonian, Melkonian's sister, wrote in response to David Rieff's 1997 article in Foreign Affairs that Melkonian was never associated with and was not a supporter of the views of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaks).
Anti-smoking and anti-alcohol stance
Melkonian was said to have led an exemplary life by not smoking and drinking. Melkonian advocated that revolutionary socialists must lead "practical self-disciplined lives" and avoid "self-destructive habits" such as smoking or drinking alcohol: "By severely diminishing a person's self-discipline, these dependencies inhibit a person from becoming a member of the vanguard, and especially a guerrilla or fedaii." When he joined in toasts, he is said to have raised a glass of yogurt. Melkonian is widely known to have forbidden his soldiers consumption of alcohol. He also established a policy of collecting a tax in kind on Martuni wine, in the form of diesel and ammunition for his fighters. Melkonian also burned cultivated fields of cannabis in Karabakh.
Personal life
Melkonian married his long-time girlfriend Seda Kebranian at the Geghard monastery in Armenia in August 1991. They had met in the late 1970s in Lebanon. In a 1993 interview, Melkonian said that they had had no time to start a family. He stated, "We'll settle down when the Armenian people's struggle is over."
As of 2013 Seda, an activist and a lecturer, resided in Anchorage, Alaska with her husband Joel Condon who is a professor of architecture at the University of Alaska Anchorage.
Awards
sources:
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Melkonian, Monte (1990). The Right to Struggle: Selected Writings of Monte Melkonian on the Armenian National Question. San Francisco: Sardarabad Collective
External links
The Monte Melkonian Fund is a non-profit charity established in 1995 and is dedicated in Melkonian's honor.
Gallery of Monte Melkonian on the Melkonian Fund Website include photos of his youth, years spent in Lebanon and Karabakh.
Monte Melkonian Video
, including an interview with his wife
2-part documentary video about Monte, including rare interviews, on Google Video: Part 1 and Part 2
1957 births
1993 deaths
American emigrants to Armenia
American emigrants to Iran
American people of Armenian descent
Armenian colonels
Armenian communists
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4268866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltergate | Saltergate | Saltergate, officially the Recreation Ground, was the historic home of Chesterfield Football Club, and was in use from 1871 until the club's relocation in July 2010, a 139-year history that made it one of the oldest football grounds in England at the time of its closure. From the 1920s onward the name 'Saltergate' became predominant in popular references to the ground.
Tightly surrounded by housing, the football stadium was located near Chesterfield's town centre on the thoroughfare of the same name. The ground underwent only limited additional development after a new main stand was opened in 1936. Although plans to develop the site were explored, the club's fans ultimately voted in favour of pursuing a new ground in a 2003 ballot, with the site confirmed by a 2006 poll.
The final Chesterfield fixture at Saltergate, a Football League Two game against Bournemouth, was held on 8 May 2010. From the 2010–11 season, the team switched to the new b2net Stadium located in the Whittington Moor area of the town. An October 2010 publication from the club, Saltergate Sunset by Stuart Basson, chronicled the story of the ground.
In January 2012, the football club sold the Saltergate site to Barratt Homes. Its demolition to make way for a new housing development began in April and was completed in July 2012.
History
1871-1920
In 1871, Chesterfield Football Club became a distinct entity from the Chesterfield Cricket Club, from which it was formed in the previous decade. Together, they took up the tenancy at the 'New Recreation Ground', Saltergate, located just 100 yards West of their previous home, and the ground was used for both sports for more than two decades. The site hosted its first game of football on 4 November 1871, with Rotherham providing the opposition in a 14-a-side match under Sheffield Rules. 11-a-side football was first played a few weeks later against the Sheffield F.A. team. A wooden pavilion was developed on the eastern side of the ground later in the 1870s but otherwise it remained simply an open field in this era. After the initial Chesterfield Football Club folded in 1881, a number of other local football teams used the pitch until the establishment of a second Chesterfield F.C. in 1884, later known as Chesterfield Town. The first recorded attendance, from Boxing Day 1889, put the crowd at 400 for a game against Sheffield Heeley Reserves. A small, uncovered grandstand with benched seating for around 400 was added early in the 1890s. With the football club steadily progressing toward employing its first semi-professional players, it was also able to take the cricket club's relocation in its stride during 1894, shouldering the full rent thereafter.
League football came to Saltergate in 1899 with Chesterfield Town's election to play in Division Two of the Football League. The club's step up necessitated remedial work on a pitch that sloped markedly from north to south, most notably the removal of a hill in the north west corner, the spoil from which was dumped at the Saltergate end. In addition, the grandstand was enlarged and roofed over, its capacity increasing to around 800 spectators. Fencing was erected on the Compton Street side to obscure the free view from adjacent back gardens (modest coverage later being added on this side). After a decade of financial struggle, other clubs who had invested in their stadia vied for an opening in the league and Chesterfield Town were voted out in 1909. In a bid to return, a running track was constructed around the perimeter, said to offer up to 10,000 fans a decent view, and a white picket fence was constructed around the pitch to replace the previous wire boundary. However, any ambitions proved short-lived. Faced with the abandonment of competitive football after the outbreak of the First World War the club was forced into voluntary liquidation in 1915. A new club with the same name was formed by a local restaurateur to play wartime football at Saltergate using locally based "guests" from Football League clubs. It was shut down by the FA for illegal payments in 1917. The following year saw no senior football in Chesterfield but Saltergate was used for local cup matches.
A fourth club – the present Chesterfield FC – was established in 1919 at the instigation of the local authority. A ground move to the Queen's Park Annexe also formed part of the vision, but did not progress after costings were received for a new stand. Thus the club continued to base itself at Saltergate as league football returned to the town in 1921.
1921-1939
The inter-war years represented Saltergate's main period of development.
When Chesterfield F.C. became founder members of the new Third Division North in 1921, the ground saw a new spurt of improvements. According to club historian Stuart Basson:
"Ground development left the club with a tidy Main Stand that ran some three-quarters of the pitch length and seated 1600, a roofed Popular Side and unovered ends. Terracing was made of cinder embankments, with a few wooden crush barriers walloped into the dirt at random-looking intervals. A wooden hut provided dressing room accommodation at the [northern] end of the stand."
In 1931, at a time of growing ambition for the club, terracing was cut into the cinder banking of the Kop and further earth removal from the Cross Street to Saltergate end was undertaken to level the pitch. In a successful push for promotion to the Second Division in 1931–32, 20,092 fans crammed into the ground to see the home team overtake Lincoln City for the top spot.
In 1936, the club borrowed around £14,000 to fund the erection of a new brick and steel main stand by Scottish architect Archibald Leitch. Demolition of the old wooden stand began at the close of the 1935–36 season, which again saw the club promoted to the Second Division. The official opening of the new stand came in November, with Sheffield United visiting for a league fixture and a new record of 26,519 paying for entry. With the completion of the new stand, all four sides of the ground had taken on an appearance that would still be recognisable at the time of its closure.
1940-1979
After the Second World War, the club faced a pressing need to raise funds to service the debt on the new stand and pay off the bank loan. Further ground development became somewhat limited as a result, though the club was still in a position to buy up several houses around the ground in the late 1940s. A move away from Saltergate was proposed again in 1949, this time to a site near Walton Hospital, but the council rejected the plan. Instead, the club made what was to be its final major investment in the ground prior to the millennium, engaging Leitch and Partners to renew all the ground's cinder terracing with concrete and install their patented crush barriers.
With relegation in 1951, average gates took a heavy knock and the decline continued over the decade as success eluded the club, which finally dropped to the fourth tier of English football for the first time in 1961. However, modest ground improvements still advanced after fundraising efforts by fans which allowed the Kop to be roofed in the same year. Despite acquiring second-hand lights in 1963, boardroom procrastination meant that Saltergate was the second-last league ground in England to install floodlights, with Chesterfield's first home game under lights not being played until the 1967–1968 season.
In 1979, the centre section of the Compton Street Terrace was re-roofed and a wooden television gantry added, the only notable ground work in the decade.
1980 onwards - stay or go?
Financial problems in the early 1980s led the board to again consider a ground move to the Queen's Park Annexe, previously considered in 1920. In the aftermath of the 1985 Bradford City stadium fire and the general upgrading of football ground safety, a number of ground adaptations were undertaken, most significantly the construction of a series of emergency exits from the main stand in the form of flights of steps down to the pitch. Hundreds of seats also had to be removed to provide more gangways. The club was also ordered to install fencing around three sides of the pitch days before the start of the 1985–1986 season.
The additional cost of further works gave added spur to the idea of a move, but the discovery of a covenant on the Annexe that forbade its use for professional sport put paid to the club's favoured relocation site toward the end of the decade, though not the idea of relocation itself. The board persisted in putting forward alternate locations throughout the 1990s.
Talk of relocation dominated the 1994 AGM, with a sizeable group of supporters advocating the redevelopment of Saltergate, rather than its abandonment – including the Crooked Spireite fanzine. An early proposal showed a two tier kop, with smaller seated stands on the remaining three sides.
New plans for the club to leave Saltergate in favour of Wheeldon Mill emerged in October 1995 and were pursued avidly by Chairman Norton Lea in the face of substantial opposition. Though the scheme was blocked in 1998 when the council refused planning permission, subsequent unsuccessful attempts were made to revive the move well into the next decade. Having received a dispensation from the upgrading requirements of the 1989 Taylor Report based on relocation, the club was perpetually left without a plan B.
Thus, in late 2000, more than ten years after Taylor's report, the future of football at Saltergate became mired in crisis with three sides of the ground under threat of closure from the Football Licensing Authority. This was narrowly averted by a further dispensation for two sides of the ground amid turbulent times for the club under the chairmanship of Darren Brown.
Although 2001 saw a hastily organised fans group, the Chesterfield Football Supporters Society, replace Brown in controlling the club (he was later to be jailed for fraud), they faced a myriad of challenges related to ensuring Saltergate's future. It emerged that a debenture had been secured on the ground requiring that £200,000 be raised in just three weeks to fight off the threat of losing the stadium. Even with that met and the club in administration, much additional fundraising was required to deal with Saltergate's worst deficiencies. Thus, the ground saw a number of modest improvements, but remained an aged stadium, lacking many of the modern facilities available to rival clubs who had relocated or redeveloped their existing grounds.
In 2003, members of the Chesterfield Football Supporters Society voted in favour of the club pursuing relocation to Wheeldon Mill. A further vote in 2006 saw more than 90% back a plan to switch to the site of the former Dema Glass factory, near the Chesterfield - Sheffield bypass (Sheffield Road), around from the town centre.
End of an era
The 2009–10 season represented the club's last at Saltergate and its commercial department announced extensive plans to mark the 'End of an Era', including a book, DVD and end of season gala.
For 8 May 2010, the date of the final game, Chesterfield Community Trust organised a number of events to celebrate the history of Saltergate and bid it farewell. A heritage project at The Pomegranate Theatre presented a visual history of the club's time at the ground, including match footage from 1923 and photos dating back to 1900. Former players, including Albert Collins of the 1945 Football League War Cup semi-final side, were also present to share their memories. Afterwards, a brass band led a parade up to the match along Chesterfield High Street, swelling to an estimated 2,000 people on arrival.
Chesterfield F.C.'s final league fixture at Saltergate ended in a dramatic 2–1 win against AFC Bournemouth following an injury time goal from Derek Niven, the club's longest serving player. The goal prompted a brief and good-natured pitch invasion, which later attracted national media attention after footage of a disabled man rolling his wheelchair into the Bournemouth half attracted over 100,000 hits on YouTube.
In the weeks following the game, Saltergate hosted a series of final commemorative events, including an auction of fixtures and memorabilia that raised £20,000 for the club. Two of the crush barriers from Saltergate were also donated by the club to become museum pieces at the National Football Museum in Preston and the Scottish Football Museum in Glasgow. This had been arranged after the disused Compton Street-Cross Street corner terracing was found to include barriers designed and patented in 1906 by Scottish engineer and football ground designer Archibald Leitch, possibly the last-known examples of these once commonplace barriers.
In July 2010, the handover of the new ground was completed and the club departed Saltergate as its administrative base. However, it was announced that the ground would continue in use by the Chesterfield FC Community Trust for its Saturday Morning Club and Summer holiday Soccer Camp 'for the foreseeable future'. This community use was discontinued at the start of 2011.
On 31 May 2011, outline proposals for the development of up to 68 houses at the site were unanimously approved by Chesterfield Borough Council's planning committee. With planning permission obtained, the -acre site was put up for sale by the club in October 2011; meanwhile supporters began a Facebook Group calling for the streets in any future development to be named after former Chesterfield players. The club's development partner, GB Development Solutions, announced in December 2011 that it was close to exchanging contracts on the site and expected to complete the sale the following month. A building trade publication subsequently confirmed the sale of the ground to Barratt Homes for an undisclosed sum.
In January 2012, as the prospect of demolition neared, the club announced that a pair of original 1936 seats from the Saltergate main stand would gain a permanent home at the Football League's Preston headquarters, where they were to be refurbished and located in the reception area.
Demolition of the ground commenced in April 2012. By the end of June 2012, demolition of the structure was almost complete: the pitch had been removed, all four stands demolished and three of the floodlight pylons levelled. Work on rubble removal and levelling of the site was ongoing. In early July 2012, Barratt Homes began publicising details of the development to potential purchasers, stating that the first homes on the site would be available for occupancy in Autumn 2012. The final floodlight pylon – and last remaining Saltergate structure – was levelled on 13 July. Initial construction of the roads and first plots began at the end of July 2012.
In September 2012, Chesterfield Borough Council invited fans to nominate possible names for the road at the new development, from which seven options were subsequently put to the popular vote in an online poll. In December 2012, the winning street name was announced as 'Spire Heights', a play on the club nickname 'Spireites' when pronounced with a local accent.
In the autumn of 2014 Chesterfield Borough Council commissioned local artist Melanie Jackson to design a piece of artwork to mark the site of the football ground. The work, the "Spirit of Saltergate" was developed in consultation with supporters and was installed in March 2015. The artwork consists of a railing depicting the ground and fans as well as a tree guard and a series of bronze inlays linked to multimedia works.
Structure and facilities
At the time of its closure, the four sides of the stadium were: The Main Stand, which was all-seated and contained an area designated as the Family Stand; the Spion Kop – the main terrace – known as the Karen Child Kop from 2008 for sponsorship reasons; the Compton Street Stand, running the full length of the pitch opposite the Main Stand; and the Cross Street End, an open terrace where away fans usually stood.
Main Stand
The covered Main Stand was opened in 1936 and was built at a cost of £14,000. In this era, the stand had two tiers, the bottom level being narrow terracing which did not require a tunnel for the players, who instead emerged through a door. This terracing was taken out of use in the late 20th century.
For the 2009–10 season it accommodated 2000 home supporters plus 450 seats for away fans. The stand was unusual, when viewed from aerial shot, in having a slight bend just to the right of halfway. In its later incarnation, it was also unusual in having its seating area raised above the pitch with a number of stairwells at the front of the stand leading up to the seats. There were also a number of supporting pillars in the stand which gave many seats a restricted view.
In its later years, the badly peeling paint and rusted exterior of the stand frequently attracted the derision of rival supporters.
Given that the design and appearance of the stand were similar to the one at Derby County's now-demolished Baseball Ground (by the same architect), the Saltergate structure was used to depict the Baseball Ground in the 2009 film The Damned United, set in the 1970s.
The Kop (Saltergate End)
The Kop was the main terrace, accessed via turnstiles on Saltergate, the street which gives rise to the ground's popular name. As the area behind the goal, it tended to attract the club's most vocal standing support. For the 2009–10 season, its capacity was approximately 2,000.
As with many Victorian era football facilities, the Saltergate end of the ground spent many years as little more than a sloping mound. In the early 1920s, the construction of Cross Street at the opposite end of the ground led to earth and remnants of the cinder running track being used to build up the banking of the Kop. Terraced steps were cut into the cinder in the summer of 1931. At the turn of the 1950s, this was replaced by concrete terracing, cut to go below pitch level. Metal crush barriers were also fitted, replacing the old wooden ones. The Kop was roofed in 1960/1, at a cost of £10,000, paid for entirely by fundraising by the supporters club.
In December 2000, The Kop was closed for the remainder of the season on orders of the Football Licensing Authority and a major upgrading effort became one of the many summer challenges facing the fans who had taken over the club. Commencing at the start of July, a complete renewal of terracing work was completed in just 7 weeks.
Of the four sides of the ground, the Kop offered the most potential for redevelopment because of a relative abundance of space and was thus the focal point of all plans drawn up to keep the club at its historic home. 2002 architect plans envisaged a mix of seating and standing for a revamped Saltergate end.
In the absence of any such redevelopment, The Kop saw only a change of sponsorship in its closing years, becoming 'The Karen Child Kop' through a £20,000 deal with a local lottery winner.
Fans standing on the Kop for Saltergate's final fixture were experiencing not just their last game at the ground, but also their last opportunity to watch a Chesterfield home game from terracing, the new stadium being all-seater.
Compton Street Stand (Pop Side)
Compton Street, also known as the Popular or Pop Side, had a capacity of around 1,000 at the time of closure – the smallest of the four sides. It was partly covered (to the rear) and had a row of supporting pillars. Originally a terrace constructed in the early 1920s, Compton Street had a lot of work carried out on it during 2002 and was made all seated. The seating area lay about 4 metres from the pitch line. The roof had an unusual wooden television gantry perched on top. Until becoming a seated area, supporters could move freely between Compton Street and the Kop, resulting in the familiar half-time sight of fans flowing from the former to the latter for an improved view of the away goal.
Cross Street End (away)
Away fans were primarily housed in the Cross Street Terrace at one end of the ground, where 1,400 fans could be accommodated. This area was uncovered and open to the elements. This part of the ground also had work done on it in 2002.
At the time of Saltergate's closure, the wall at the back of the terrace was the ground's oldest surviving feature, built by the council in return for the land needed to create Cross Street in 1921. To accommodate the new street, the pitch was moved around 6 metres closer to Saltergate as well as being levelled by more than a metre along its length. However, following this upheaval at the Cross Street End, the away terracing saw little change thereafter, though the original wooden crush barriers made way for metal ones around 1950.
Football ground writer Simon Inglis described the Cross Street End in 1983 as "a low bank of terracing attractively backed by a castellated wall. Behind is a primary school... In the far corner is a group of turnstiles built by supporters in 1939 after [a] record attendance."
Records and statistics
Saltergate's record attendance was 30,561, which was set when Chesterfield hosted Tottenham Hostpur in the FA Cup 5th Round in February 1938. The widely held belief that the record attendance was set against Newcastle United in April 1939 is discredited by the Football League's audited attendance for that game, which stands at 28,268 – though this does represent the grounds's highest league attendance.
According to the record books, a total of 3,159 first team matches were played at Saltergate, 1,827 of them league fixtures.
Cricket and other uses
Saltergate was also home to Chesterfield Cricket Club from 1871 to 1894.
There are records of six cricket matches involving teams called Derbyshire or Chesterfield playing against the All-England Eleven from 1858 to 1872. The first four of these would have been held at Chesterfield Cricket Club's first Recreation Ground site, 100 yards closer to the town; however Chesterfield Cricket Club played a United South of England Eleven in September 1871 and an All-England Eleven in September 1872 after the move to the New Recreation Ground, Saltergate.
Derbyshire County Cricket Club, founded in 1870, staged two first-class matches at Saltergate. The first was a county match versus Lancashire in August 1874, which was drawn after the final day was rained off. The other opponents were the United North of England Eleven in August 1875, which the UNEE won by 90 runs. First-class cricket returned to Chesterfield in 1898 when Derbyshire began playing at the Queen's Park ground which is still in use. This location has also been the home of Chesterfield Cricket Club since its departure from Saltergate.
The stadium was also used on occasion to host rugby matches, concerts and community events.
In the 2009 film The Damned United, Saltergate stood in for Wembley Stadium, Carrow Road, Bloomfield Road and most prominently, Derby County's Baseball Ground (demolished in 2003). The ground was chosen because it had not had any significant modifications since the 1970s, though some repainting work was done by the production team to differentiate the various locations represented. Saltergate's film role earnt the club added income of £50,000 in 2007–08.
References
Defunct football venues in England
Chesterfield F.C.
Football venues in Derbyshire
Defunct cricket grounds in England
Defunct sports venues in Derbyshire
Sports venues completed in 1871
Sports venues demolished in 2012
English Football League venues
Cricket grounds in Derbyshire
Demolished sports venues in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in Chesterfield, Derbyshire |
4269246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster%20in%20My%20Pocket | Monster in My Pocket | Monster in My Pocket is a media franchise developed by American company Morrison Entertainment Group, headed by Joe Morrison and John Weems, two former senior executives at Mattel.
The focus is on monsters and fantastical and legendary creatures from religion, mythology, folklore, fairy tales, literary fantasy, science fiction, cryptids and other anomalous phenomena. Monster in My Pocket produced trading cards, comic books, books, toys, a board game, a video game, and an animated special, along with music, clothing, kites, stickers, and various other items.
Toys
Figures
Monster in My Pocket was best known as a toy-line released by Matchbox in 1990. It consists of small, soft plastic figures representing monsters, and later other tangentially related characters.
In its first run, there were 11 series released. There were over 200 monsters in the collection, most of which were assigned a point value. Among the highest valued monsters were the Tyrannosaurus Rex, Griffin, Great Beast, Behemoth, Hydra, Werewolf (25 points) and among the least being Charon, The Invisible Man, The Witch (5 points). Initially, the high point value was 25, which was elevated to 30 for the second and third series; the fourth, "Super Scary", series introduced the 50-100 point monsters. The toys were initially solid-colored, though later series would gradually add more painted colors, until they became fully colored under the auspices of new toy makers Corinthian Marketing and Vivid Imaginations.
The lines ran into difficulty in the Hindu communities, as the divinities Kālī, Ganesha, Hanuman, and Yama, were all depicted as "monsters", which included a public outcry by the Vishva Hindu Parishad. After the fourth series, which contained Hanuman (who was removed from the UK run) and Yama, was released, they decided to play it safe and provided follow-up series: Super Creepies, 24 comical (punning) aberrations of real insects and arachnids created by "Dr. Zechariah Wolfram" with point values up to 200, 24 Dinosaurs, released in both regular and "Secret Skeleton" format, and 16 Space Aliens that were essentially original. The point values increased even further, up to 500. A second series of dinosaurs is rarer than series 3, and included only four premium figures released with confectionery, numbered #223 to #226. In some markets, such as Argentina, the dinosaurs were released as Dinosaur in My Pocket. Many of these were not released outside of Europe. The Dinosaurs appear to have been released in the U.S. only through premium distribution by Hardee's, and these were not the standard figures that were sold in stores.
They were mainly yellow, green, orange and red but monsters with more than 30 points had more than just one color. Other toys included Super Scary Howlers representing Vampire, The Monster, Swamp Beast, and Werewolf, a Monster Mountain display case with custom labels for series 1, a Monster Pouch fanny pack, Battle Cards featuring The Beast and Witch, and a Haunted House playset, which was never released, although it was shown at Toy Fair 1992.
Board game
A board game was also released by Decipher Limited, which used the action figures as playing pieces. The game involved using the monsters to fight battles in terrains where they had different strengths—New York, Tundra, Volcano, and Swamp.
Monster Wrestlers in My Pocket
The Monster Wrestlers in My Pocket debuted in the United Kingdom in 1994, no longer produced by Matchbox, but by Corinthian Marketing. The first nine, including Tony the Tiger as a coach, were released in Kellogg's Frosties cereal. The numbering was restarted, the high point value was returned to 100, and the coaches and referees, except for the 100 point "Tony the Coach", were the first monsters designated with 0 points. Forty-five figures were released in total, with six variant figures released as premiums in a White Castle fast food promotion. Frosties also did a twelve-monster series of Monster Sports Stars in My Pocket, including "Tony the Referee", which were made of much harder plastic and had no point values. Seventeen Monster Ninja Warriors in My Pocket were produced in 1996 by Vivid Imaginations, some of which came with vehicles and accessories. These also were the first Monster in My Pocket figures with removable weapons. The figures that were not made by Matchbox were painted in full colors and came in only a few variations, rather than previously coming in multiple solid or tri-tone colors.
Relaunches
The line was revived in the United Kingdom in 2003, titled Monster in My Pocket: The Quest, with deluxe figures of the principal monster characters and reissues of the series 1-2 monsters essentially unchanged. The toys were made by Corinthian Marketing. Pyramid Marketing was to have created an animated series, but it was never completed. "Monster in My Pocket" was divorced from the renamed "Monster Quest" on December 22, 2004.
2006 has seen another relaunch of the series, also by Corinthian Marketing. Unlike 2003 series, this one has been completely revamped. Some of the likenesses are closer to earlier source materials, others, such as Kraken, which now looks more humanoid than like a cephalopod, have been further removed. These figures are in full color and have close to the level of detail one often finds in pewter figurines for role-playing games. Kali and Hanuman returned under the names "6-Armed Sorceress" and "Monkeyman", while Mattoon, Illinois, never embracing the connection, was dropped off Mad Gasser's name. Spectre was renamed Grim Reaper. Although the 2006 relaunch was released as a full set of 48 monsters, only 3 - Phantom, Ghost and Grim Watcher were never released to UK markets.
Monster in My Pocket in other media
Trading cards
The earliest Monster in My Pocket items were trading cards painted by Jan Sheets and Jenice Heo. They appeared in 1989, with no credit other than for the Morrison Entertainment Group. The Sheets/Heo art also appears on a great deal of the other material.
Paintings were made for at least the first three series as well as the Dinosaurs, though only the first was released in the U.S. Cromy of Argentina released all of these, including prismatic chase cards of many of the series 2 and 3 characters. These were also released in a sticker album format, including a series 1 only edition in the U.S. from Panini. Both were accompanied by sketch art depicting cartoons of the characters.
Comic books
A comic book series written by Dwayne McDuffie (initially working from a plot by Craig Mitchell, R.L. Stern, and Tim Bogart), and drawn primarily by Gil Kane and Ernie Colón (with Nelson Dewey) was released by Harvey Comics in 1991. It ran for four bi-monthly issues, despite an open ending and promises that sales had justified making it monthly.
In this series, a spell by Warlock intended to shrink the monsters who did not side with him was botched by Ogre, resulting in the shrinkage of all the monsters who were then flung, within boxes with roomy interiors, to Los Angeles, California. The good monsters ended up in the home of ne'er-do-well high school student Jack Miles and his studious younger brother, Tom, in Burbank. The series ended with both sides battling inside a dollhouse bought for a little girl named Theresa, who was scared away by Spring Heeled Jack. They also dealt with Frank Rook, The Exterminator (a parody of The Punisher), and Swamp Beast helped them defeat a Tyrannosaurus Rex who would grow when exposed to any form of radiation, such as smoke detectors and microwave ovens.
Beginning with the second issue, Universal Studios began receiving credit in the indicia for the use of Frankenstein's Monster, Mummy, The Invisible Man, and The Phantom of the Opera, although the characters originated in public domain literature and bore no particular resemblance to their cinematic counterparts at Universal. Marvel Comics reissued the comic stories in newly-formatted annuals, and World Publishing (an imprint of Egmont Publishing) followed by a Monster Wrestlers in My Pocket annual—which had no continuity with the previous series—in 1995, with a cover dated 1996.
Clearly depicted with the evil monsters were Medusa and Spring-Heeled Jack, the two most prominent evil monsters after Warlock, along with Ogre, Cerberus, Minotaur, Windigo, Cyclops, Zombie, Siren, Ymir, Karnak (probably Maahes), Tengu, Bigfoot, Spectre (Grim Reaper), Sebek, Charon, and Ghost, though the evil monsters were most often shown in amorphous crowds. Dr. Jekyll is twice force-fed—first by Warlock, then by The Monster—the potion that makes him into Mr. Hyde, but he turns maverick, not much more willing to support Warlock than Vampire.
The "Sid's Bits" editorial in issue 2 of the comic contains a partial listing of good and evil monsters; included in the evil side is a character identified simply as "The Electronic Monster". There is no known figure in the series bearing that name.
Video game
A video game was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1992 by Konami. It had the same essential concept of the comic book, although it altered the personalities of Hobgoblin and Gremlin, initially the good monsters but now appeared as villains, to the extent that Gremlin was a boss.
Warlock, wanting to have power and rule over all the other monsters, creates a shrinking spell to use as punishment for any who chooses to oppose him. As time goes on, all of the monsters choose to join his side - except for Vampire and The Monster. However, the spell was miscast - causing all of the monsters to shrink in size. Warlock sends out his henchmen, led by Spring Heeled Jack, Bigfoot, Kraken, Gremlin, and Medusa while Vampire and The Monster are watching TV in the Miles home. They must fight their way through the upstairs and kitchen of the home, the street, and the sewer; they emerge in a construction site and an Orientalist garden before fighting Warlock at Monster Mountain, although that is not the end of the game.
Vampire and the Monster's abilities in the game are the same (though 2-player simultaneous action was an option): they can make an attack that can extend slightly beyond their bodies with a bit of a blaze, and they can make a double jump from the height of their jump, something that has since become a common move in many video games.
The remaining good monsters from the comics—Werewolf, Vampiress, Golem, Swamp Beast, The Phantom of the Opera, Jotun Troll, Invisible Man, Dr. Jekyll, and Mummy—made no appearance whatsoever in the game, although Werewolf did appear on the cover. Warlock and Minotaur were the only two monsters from series 2 to appear in the game. In the comic book, however, Medusa declared that by her count, Vampire's side had a majority, though all the other series 1 monsters were included as enemies in the game. Blemmyes appeared prominently on the cover, and the figure was distributed exclusively with the game, though did not appear in the game itself. It came inside the box, next to a smaller piece of styrofoam than NES cartridge boxes normally contained.
The Asian release of this game is titled "Batman & Flash", an unlicensed rom hack of the game where the main playable characters are replaced with Batman and The Flash.
Animated special
In 1992, there was an animated special, Monster in My Pocket: The Big Scream, produced by Hanna-Barbera and directed by Don Lusk from a script by Glen Leopold, where Vampire (now with ample hair in a late 18th-century-style ponytail, voiced by Rob Paulsen) became the leader of the villains, and Invisible Man, now named Dr. Henry Davenport (even though he was called the Invisible Man in the intro and was referred to as such by Vampire, voiced by Paxton Whitehead), was in charge of the heroes. Swamp Beast (voiced by Frank Welker) was a mindless villain among the other changes, such as the formerly white-furred Werewolf (although by the fourth issue it had been changed to brown) becoming the Jamaican "Wolf-Mon" (voiced by Stuart K. Robinson). The other good monsters were Big Ed (The Monster, also voiced by Welker) and Mummy (voiced by Marvin Kaplan), while Medusa (voiced by B. J. Ward) remained among the ranks of the evil monsters. A few others, like Tyrannosaurus Rex and Cyclops, were shown for a second or two during the prologue.
The prologue showed that the Invisible Man and the other good monsters had managed to capture and imprison all of the bad monsters in Monster Mountain, now a prison guarded by the good monsters rather than a meeting place (as it had been in the comic book), and Vampire tried to escape by shrinking himself. But the spell backfired and caused everyone of the monsters, as well as the good monsters, to shrink to one inch high and blows the shrunken mountain to Los Angeles. This time, their human host is Carrie Raven, daughter of Edgar Raven, a famous horror writer. The evil monsters learn they would grow at the sound of screams, while the good monsters grow with laughter. The story was that both factions of monsters were trying to regain their size to resume their evil ways or recapture the evil monsters before they could do serious harm.
This special ran on Halloween of 1992 on ABC, but was not carried in all markets. Early releases of the special on video from Vidmark Entertainment contained a glow-in-the-dark monster: Charun, Thunderdell, or Yama.
Commercial tie-ins
There also an audio cassette of original music along with a cover version of Bobby Pickett's "Monster Mash" titled Monster Rock, produced by Rincon Children's Entertainment for BMG Kidz in 1992. The songs were written by a person with the last name of Byrd, James McDonnell, Peter Pope, Randy Petersen, Robert Irving, and a person with the last name of Quinn. Pope, McDonnell, Petersen, and Irving played the keyboards, George Bell played saxophone, and Barry Scott and Charles Dickens played guitar, with Dickens providing drum programming and engineering. Singers were Jake Vesprille, Michael Hunter, Gigi Young, Barry Scott, Jimmy McDonnell, Mary McDonnell, Rory McDonnell, Peter Hix, Katrina Perkins, and Bob Joyce. "Saturday Night at the Boneyard" was the only song to mention monsters from series 2 or 3. The other songs are "Monster in My Pocket", "Witches Brew", "Monsters", "Can't Do a Thing With My Hair" (Byrd/McDonnell), "Do the Boo", "Full Moon Blues", "Boogie Man Boogie" (Byrd/McDonnell/Pope), "Monster Party" (Petersen/Irving/Quinn), and "Party in Your Pocket" (Pope). John Weems, Joe Morrison, and Ralph King were the executive producers.
In 1994, the monsters received a popularity boost in Mexico; they were part of a promotion from the Sonrics candy company. This promotion consisted of boxes full of candy, a random monster figure, and any of the following: trading cards, mini-comics and mini activity books. Part of this promotion was a collector set modeled after Monster Mountain available by phone order, but oddly the company kept saying by phone there was no such offer.
CGI series
In 2003, Peak Entertainment in the United Kingdom partnered with Mainframe Entertainment to produce a CGI animated series that changed the concept considerably. It dealt with monsters trapped in a "Tapestry of Terror" that was shredded in battle with the now-good Warlock and his evil brother, "Morlock". They looked identical save that where Warlock's hair and clothing were white, Morlock's were black. A few good monsters, including Vampiress and The Monster, side with Warlock and his young apprentice to recapture the monsters, including Vampiress' evil brother, Vampire. One addition to the series, according to its bible, was Mothman, which had previously not been represented. The series was picked up by GMTV in the United Kingdom with Cartoon Network eyed as the broadcast partner in the United States, but was ultimately never produced.
At MIPCOM 2019, France's Cyber Group Studios unveiled plans for a new CG-animated series produced with Morrison Entertainment Group. The series is being developed by Mike Yank and has a projected budget of $9.5 million USD.
More details about individual monsters
There are at least 229 monsters in the series, though information past #184 is very sketchy. 121-144 are the Super Creepies, 145-168 are Dinosaurs, 169-184 are Space Aliens, and beyond that is a large group of additional dinosaurs. In addition, there are 42 Monster Wrestlers in My Pocket, 12 Monster Sports Stars in My Pocket, and 19 Monster Ninja Warriors in My Pocket, not to mention supporting characters and two relaunches. The Charon and the Charun figures sound alike but they are completely different monsters.
The following legendary monsters are part of the Monster in My Pocket series: Except for the Super Scary Series, all of these are included in the Argentine and Mexican sticker books from Cromy with the exception of Bash Tchelik, who is identified in the centerspread of the third issue of the Harvey comic book. Sixteen of these are presumed unreleased as action figures.
Series 1
Baba Yaga
The Beast
Behemoth
Bigfoot
Catoblepas
Cerberus
Charon
Chimera
Coatlicue
Cockatrice
Cyclops
Ghost
Ghoul
Goblin
Great Beast
Gremlin
Griffin
Haniver
Harpy
Hobgoblin
Hunchback
Hydra
The Invisible Man
Jotun Troll (Þrívaldi)
Kali
Karnak
Kraken
Mad scientist
Manticore
Medusa
Mummy
The Monster
Ogre
The Phantom
Red Cap
Roc
Skeleton
Spring-heeled Jack
Tengu
Triton
Tyrannosaurus Rex
Vampire
Vampiress
Wendigo
Werewolf
Winged Panther
Witch
Zombie
Series 2
Ancient Gorgon
Bishop Fish
Bloody Bones
Dragon
Dryad
Ectoplasmic Phantom
Elbow Witch
Ganesha
Gargoyle
Golem
Herne the Hunter
Jabberwocky
Loch Ness Monster
Merrow
Minotaur
Nuckelavee
Sebek
Scorpion man
Spectre
Swamp Beast
Tarasque
Undine
Warlock
Ymir
Series 3
Abominable Snowman
Amphisbaena
Anubis
Blemmyea
Centaur
Jimmy Squarefoot
Leviathan
Orobas
Siren
Series 3 Unreleased
Achelous
Ankou
Banshee
Bash Tchelik
Beast of Gévaudan (Jabalius on Argentine material)
Catarenha (Guardian of the Gold)
Djinn Shapeshifter
Genie
Grendel
Hairy Boggart
The Headless Man
Hieracosphinx
Hodag
Sciapod
Talus
Troll
Series 4
Alu
Astaroth (Baal in likeness)
Boogeyman
Charun
Creature from the Closet
Drude
Dybbuk
Fachen
Ghilan
Grave Watcher
Hanuman
Houngan
Imp
Jenny Greenteeth
Jersey Devil
Lamia
Mad Gasser of Mattoon
Poltergeist
Slaughterford
Thunderdell
Umi Bozu
Wildman of China
Wurdulac
Yama
See also
Cryptozoology
List of species in fantasy fiction
List of legendary creatures
Book of Imaginary Beings
Goetia
The Lesser Key of Solomon
Notes
References
Hill, James. Monster Wrestlers in My Pocket Annual 1996 Manchester: Egmont Publishing Ltd., 1995.
McDuffie, Dwayne, Monster in My Pocket, Harvey Comics, May–November 1991.
Monster in My Pocket Album de Figuritas, De Lunes a Viernes: Cromy Club, 1992.
Monster in My Pocket Sticker Album, London, Panini Publishing Ltd., 1992.
External links
MIMP collecting website
MIMP research site
Official website for 2006 releases:UK
Official website for 2006 relaunch: outside UK (less information)
Free Monster in my Pocket iOS Checklist Application
Monster in My Pocket:RU
Mass media franchises introduced in 1990
Toy franchises
1990s toys
1992 video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Harvey Comics series and characters
ABC Weekend Special
Hanna-Barbera television specials
Keshi
Platformers
Video games based on toys
Video games developed in Japan
Fiction about monsters
Roc (mythology)
The Beast (Revelation)
Beast of Gévaudan
Imps |
4269360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard%20shark | Leopard shark | The leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata) is a species of houndshark, in the family Triakidae. It is found along the Pacific coast of North America, from the U.S. state of Oregon to Mazatlán in Mexico. Typically measuring 1.2–1.5 m (3.9–4.9 ft) long, this slender-bodied shark is immediately identifiable by the striking pattern of black saddle-like markings and large spots over its back, from which it derives its common name. Large schools of leopard sharks are a common sight in bays and estuaries, swimming over sandy or muddy flats or rock-strewn areas near kelp beds and reefs. They are most common near the coast, in water less than 4 m (13 ft) deep.
Active-swimming predators, groups of leopard sharks often follow the tide onto intertidal mudflats to forage for food, mainly clams, spoon worms, crabs, shrimp, bony fish, and fish eggs. Most leopard sharks tend to remain within a particular area rather than undertaking long movements elsewhere, which has led to genetic divergence between populations of sharks living in different regions. This species is aplacental viviparous, meaning that the young hatch inside the uterus and are nourished by yolk. From March to June, the female gives birth to as many as 37 young after a gestation period of 10–12 months. It is relatively slow-growing and takes many years to mature.
Harmless to humans, the leopard shark is caught by commercial and recreational fisheries for food and the aquarium trade. This species is mostly fished in the waters off California where, after a period of population decline in the 1980s, new fishing regulations in the early 1990s reduced harvesting to sustainable levels. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as of Least Concern, while noting that local stocks may easily become overfished because of the shark's slow growth and limited migratory habits.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The first scientific name applied to the leopard shark was Triakis californica, coined by British zoologist John Edward Gray in the 1851 List of the specimens of fish in the collection of the British Museum. However, Gray did not furnish the name with a proper description, rendering it a nomen nudum. In December 1854, American ichthyologist William Orville Ayres gave a lecture describing the species as Mustelus felis, which included the first scientific description of the species. His lecture was reprinted first in The Pacific, a San Francisco newspaper, and then in the journal Proceedings of the California Academy of Natural Sciences. In April 1855, French biologist Charles Frédéric Girard published another description of this species, naming it Triakis semifasciata.
Despite M. felis being the senior synonym, an error in recording the dates of publication resulted in the widespread use of T. semifasciata as the leopard shark's scientific name. As a result of this long-standing error, Triakis semifasciata came to be recognized as the valid name (as a nomen protectum) and Mustelis felis was invalidated (as a nomen oblitum). The specific epithet semifasciata comes from the Latin words semi ("half") and fasciatus ("banded"), describing this shark's dorsal pattern of saddle-like markings. In older literature, this species may be referred to as "tiger shark" or "catshark".
The genus Triakis contains two subgenera, Triakis and Cazon. The leopard shark is placed within the subgenus Triakis along with the banded houndshark (T. (Triakis) scyllium). A 2006 phylogenetic analysis by J. Andrés López and colleagues, based on protein-coding genes, revealed that Triakis and Cazon are in fact not closely related, and additionally that the leopard shark may be the most basal member of its family.
Distribution and habitat
The leopard shark occurs in the Northeastern Pacific Ocean, from the temperate continental waters of Coos Bay, Oregon to the tropical waters of Mazatlán, Mexico, including the Gulf of California. It favors muddy or sandy flats within enclosed bays and estuaries, and may also be encountered near kelp beds and rocky reefs, or along the open coast. Numbers have been known to gather near discharges of warm effluent from power plants. Leopard sharks generally swim close to the bottom and are most abundant from the intertidal zone to a depth of , though they may be found as deep as . Many leopard sharks, particularly in the north, leave their coastal habitats in winter and return in early spring. A study in Tomales Bay in northern California determined that they depart when the water temperature drops below 10–12 °C (50–54 °F); one tagged shark was found to have swum some south.
While a few leopard sharks have been documented traveling hundreds of kilometers, most individuals tend to remain in a localized area for much of their lives. This low level of dispersal has led to genetic divergence across its range. Seven discrete gene pools have been identified along the Californian coast between Humboldt Bay and San Diego. Of these, the Humboldt Bay subpopulation is perhaps the most isolated, with the sharks there maturing at a larger size and producing fewer offspring than those from other areas. By contrast, the area around Los Angeles represents a genetic transitional zone between subpopulations whose boundaries are more diffuse. Off Baja California, the leopard sharks on the Pacific side are probably distinct from those in the northern Gulf of California. Although there is equivocal evidence for natal philopatry (returning to one's birthplace to breed) in this species, proximity to established breeding grounds likely contributes to the structuring of these different subpopulations.
Description
The leopard shark has a moderately stout body, with a short, rounded snout. There are well-developed, triangular flaps of skin in front of the nares. The eyes are large and oval, with a nictitating membrane (a protective third eyelid). The line of the mouth is strongly curved. There are furrows at the corners of the mouth extending onto both jaws, with those on the lower jaw almost long enough to meet at the midline. The tooth rows number 41–55 in the upper jaw and 34–45 in the lower jaw; each tooth has a slightly oblique, smooth-edged cusp in the center and 1–2 small cusplets on either side. These teeth are arranged into a flat, "pavement"-like surface with overlapping ridges.
The large first dorsal fin is positioned about halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins; the second is almost as large as the first and much larger than the anal fin. The pectoral fins are wide and triangular. The lower lobe of the caudal fin is well-developed in adults but less than half the length of the upper lobe, which has a strong ventral notch near the tip. The coloration is unique, consisting of prominent black "saddles" and large black spots running along the back, on a silvery to bronzy gray background. Adult sharks often have more spots and saddles with lighter centers compared to juveniles. The underside is whitish and plain. The average length of a leopard shark is . Rarely males may grow to and females , and there is a record of an exceptional female that measured long. The heaviest known leopard shark weighed .
Biology and ecology
An active species that swims with a strong undulating motion, the leopard shark is commonly spotted cruising in or just beyond the surf zone. It is more active at night than during the day, and sometimes lies still on the bottom. In Tomales Bay (among other similar regions), the leopard shark follows the tide onto mudflats to forage for food, retreating just fast enough to prevent being stranded or trapped as the water recedes. At Santa Catalina Island, resident sharks spend the day together in the shallows and at night, they disperse into deeper water, up to away.
From birth, leopard sharks form large schools, generally segregated by age and sex; these groups may intermingle with grey or brown smoothhounds (Mustelus californicus and M. henlei) and spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias). These schools are apparently nomadic, often appearing suddenly in an area for a few hours before vanishing just as quickly. In captivity, larger sharks have been observed establishing their dominance over smaller individuals via light nips to the pectoral fins. During summer days, large aggregations of mature females assemble in shallow bays and estuaries, dispersing at night. As these females follow the warmest patches of water (allowing them to raise their internal body temperatures by up to 3 °C/5.4 °F), they are speculated to be taking advantage of the heat to speed their own growth and that of their gestating young. The membership of these aggregations is inconstant, with individual females periodically switching between different sites scattered over several kilometers.
Compared to the related grey and brown smoothhounds that share its range, the leopard shark has smaller and more numerous red blood cells, allowing it to process oxygen more efficiently. This may be an adaptation for foraging in deoxygenated estuarine environments. Their eyes contain very few cone cells, likely due to the murky water they inhabit. Small leopard sharks fall prey to larger sharks such as the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) and the broadnose sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus). On one occasion, a sevengill shark was seen ambushing a leopard shark on a tidal mudflat in Humboldt Bay, striking with such momentum that the larger predator momentarily beached itself. Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Phyllobothrium riseri, Lacistorhynchus dollfusi and Paraorygmatobothrium barber, as well as the copepods Echthrogaleus eoleoptratus and Achtheinus oblongatus.
Feeding
The diet of the leopard shark consists of small benthic and littoral animals, most significantly crabs (Cancridae, Grapsidae, and Hippoidea), shrimp, bony fish (including anchovies, herring, topsmelt, croakers, surfperch, gobies, rockfish, sculpins, flatfish, and midshipmen), fish eggs, clams, and the echiurid fat innkeeper worm (Urechis caupo). This opportunistic hunter has also been known to eat ghost shrimp, polychaete worms, and the young of smoothhounds, shovelnose guitarfish (Rhinobatos productus), and bat rays (Myliobatis californicus). Eelgrass (Zostera) and algae may be swallowed incidentally.
The leopard shark captures prey by expanding its buccal cavity to create a suction force, which is facilitated by its labial cartilages swinging forward to form the mouth into a tube. Simultaneously, the shark protrudes its jaws forward to grip the prey between its teeth. As with other sharks, the teeth of the leopard shark are periodically shed and replaced; it takes 9–12 days for a replacement tooth to move into position. Leopard sharks have been caught with stomachs filled with clam siphons, which the sharks seize before the clams can retract and break off with a levering motion of their bodies. On occasion, the shark tears the entire clam body out of its shell this way. Other sharks examined have had stomachs containing whole innkeeper worms with no bite marks, suggesting that the sharks sucked them out of their burrows. Under a hollow bridge support in San Francisco Bay, a group of leopard sharks and spiny dogfish have been observed feeding on a dense school of anchovies by slowly swimming counterclockwise through the clockwise-swimming school, and swallowing any anchovies that accidentally entered their open mouths.
In some places, this species feeds only on a few prey types and little else (e.g. innkeeper worms and cancrid crabs in Tomales Bay, jack silverside (Atherinopsis californiensis) eggs and the crabs Romaleon antennarium and Metacarcinus magister in Humboldt Bay). The predominant prey taken depends on location, time of year, and age. For example, in the Elkhorn Slough at Monterey Bay, cancrid crabs and innkeeper worms are mostly eaten in winter and spring, fish eggs from winter to early summer, bony fish in summer, and grapsid crabs and clams in fall. Young sharks feed mostly on crabs and transition to clam siphons, fish eggs, and innkeeper worms once they reach long. The largest sharks are the ones that consume the most fish.
Life history
The leopard shark is aplacental viviparous, with the developing embryos sustained by a yolk sac until birth. In northern areas, females use bays and sloughs as nursery areas, while to the south they give birth in more open areas. Known breeding grounds along the coast of California include Humboldt Bay, Tomales Bay, Bodega Bay, San Francisco Bay, Elkhorn Slough, Morro Bay, Santa Monica Bay (Los Angeles), Catalina Harbor (Santa Catalina Island), and San Diego Bay.
Females give birth to 1–37 young annually from March and July (most in April or May), with the number of pups increasing with female size. Multiple males may father a litter from a single mother In Humboldt and San Francisco Bays, females drop their pups in beds of eelgrass that provide both shelter and food. In Catalina Harbor, females give birth on flats in of water, their backs and dorsal fins exposed; the pups stay in even shallower water less than deep. Mating occurs in early summer following birth; the only known observation of this in the wild was in 2004 off La Jolla, amongst nine sharks gathered from shore in water deep.
Newborn leopard sharks measure around long. Relatively slow-growing after the first 3–4 years of life, male leopard sharks grow an average of per year, reaching maturity at an age of 7–13 years and a length of , while females grow an average of per year, reaching maturity at an age of 10–15 years and a length of . Individuals of the same age can vary significantly in size and large sharks are especially slow-growing: one specimen was documented to have gained only in length over 12 years. The maximum lifespan of this species is estimated to be 30 years.
Human interactions
Wary and quick to flee, leopard sharks pose almost no danger to humans. There is a single record from 1955 of a leopard shark harassing a skin diver with a nosebleed, though no injuries resulted. This species is caught by commercial fisheries using gillnets and longlines, and by recreational anglers and spearfishers; it is also caught as bycatch in bottom trawls. The meat is considered excellent eating and is sold fresh or frozen. However, leopard sharks living alongside human development may accumulate pollutants such as mercury, pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) within their bodies, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife warns against eating them regularly. The leopard shark is prized by the aquarium trade for its attractive appearance and hardiness; this led to many newborn pups being captured with hook-and-line off southern California in the late 1980s and early 1990s. It may live for over 20 years in captivity.
Most of the fishing for leopard sharks occurs in the waters off California, where commercial landings peaked at in 1983 and has averaged annually since 1991. These figures are believed to be underestimates, as an unknown portion of the leopard shark catch is recorded simply as "shark". In recent decades the number of sharks taken recreationally has exceeded those taken commercially, with sport fishers catching an average of 52,000 sharks per year from 1980–1988, and 45,000 sharks per year since 1993. This species contributes negligibly to fishery landings off Oregon. The status of leopard sharks off Mexico is uncertain, although Mexican shark fisheries tend to focus more on larger species.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the leopard shark as of Least Concern. It is highly susceptible to local depletion due to its slow growth rate and low level of exchange between regional stocks. It was considered for, but is not managed under, the U.S. Pacific Fishery Management Council's (PMC) 1982 Groundfish Management Plan. In 1992, the State of California imposed a recreational minimum size limit of and a possession limit of three fish, a move that was strongly supported and promoted by the sport fishing community. In 1993, the State also instituted a minimum size limit of for the commercial harvesting of all sharks and rays, including for the aquarium trade. In addition, Californian restrictions on the use of certain types of fishing gear in near-shore waters confer good protection to this shark's core population. These management measures seem to have successfully reduced fishing mortality and halted the population decline from the 1980s; the status of the leopard shark off California is regarded as secure, with demographic models estimating an annual population increase of 3–6% with sustainable fishing.
See also
List of sharks
References
External links
Triakis semifasciata, Leopard shark at FishBase
Biological Profiles: Leopard Shark at Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department
Triakis semifasciata (Leopard shark) at Monterey Bay Aquarium
leopard shark
Taxa named by Charles Frédéric Girard
Marine fauna of North America
Western North American coastal fauna
Viviparous fish
Fish of the Gulf of California
Fish of the Western United States
Fauna of California
Fish of Mexico
Fish of the United States
Fish of North America
Fauna of the Baja California Peninsula
leopard shark |
4269514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repetition%20%28Kierkegaard%20book%29 | Repetition (Kierkegaard book) | Repetition () is an 1843 book by Søren Kierkegaard and published under the pseudonym Constantin Constantius to mirror its titular theme. Constantin investigates whether repetition is possible, and the book includes his experiments and his relation to a nameless patient known only as the Young Man.
The Young Man has fallen in love with a girl, proposed marriage, the proposal has been accepted, but now he has changed his mind. Constantin becomes the young man's confidant. Coincidentally, the problem that the Young Man had is the same problem Kierkegaard had with Regine Olsen. He had proposed to her, she had accepted but he had changed his mind. Kierkegaard was accused of "experimenting with the affections of his fiancée".
Charles K. Bellinger says Either/Or, Fear and Trembling and Repetition are works of fiction, "novelistic" in character; they focus on the boundaries between different spheres of existence, such as the aesthetic and the ethical, and the ethical and the religious; they often focus on the subject of marriage; they can be traced back to Kierkegaard's relationship with Regine." There is much in this work that is autobiographical in nature. How much is left up to the reader. Kierkegaard explores the conscious choices this Young Man makes. He had written about repetition previously in his unpublished book Johannes Climacus.
Kierkegaard published Fear and Trembling, Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 and Repetition all on the same date, October 16, 1843. Abraham was the main character in Fear and Trembling and the Three Upbuilding Discourses were about love. Repetition presents a noticeable contrast between the other two books that is almost comical. He takes up the idea of repetition again in his 1844 work The Concept of Anxiety where he explores the concepts of sin and guilt more directly. The book could be the counterpart of Goethe's Clavigo, which Kierkegaard dealt with in Either/Or.
Structure
Part One: Report by Constantin Constantius
Part Two: Repetition
Letters from the Young Man, August 15 – January 13
Incidental Observations by Constantin Constantius
Letter from the Young Man, May 31
Concluding Letter by Constantin Constantius, Copenhagen, August 1843
Report by Constantin Constantius
Constantin believes that "repetition and recollection are the same movement, except in opposite directions, for what is recollected has been, is repeated backward." An individual can remember some past event or emotional experience with intensity. That individual might try to "repeat pleasure continuously and eternalize the pleasure in the temporal". This is what Constantin is trying to accomplish. He hopes that Repetition will become a new philosophical category. That it will trump Hegel and explain the relation between the Eleatics and Heraclitus. "Mediation” is a foreign word; “repetition” is a good Danish word, according to him.
He reports that he has met a melancholic young man and has decided to become his confidant. He says, "an observer fulfills his duties well, he is to be regarded as a secret agent in a higher service, for the observer’s art is to expose what is hidden". During his conversation with the Young Man he comes to understand that he is in love but he talks about his love as though it were just a memory. He says the Young Man "was deeply and fervently in love, that was clear, and yet a few days later he was able to recollect his love. He was essentially through with the entire relationship."
His observations lead him to conclude that the young man really isn't in love, but that the girl (he never calls her a woman) is "the occasion that awakened the poetic in him and made him a poet." He calls him the "sorrowful knight of recollection’s only happy love." He has had his first love but that's not anywhere near the experience of marriage. Kierkegaard says the following in Either/Or, "The question, namely, is this: Can this love be actualized? After having conceded everything up to this point, you perhaps will say: Well, it is just as difficult to actualize marriage as to actualize first love. To that I must respond: No, for in marriage there is a law of motion. First love remains an unreal in itself that never acquires inner substance because it moves only in the external medium. In the ethical and religious intention, marital love has the possibility of an inner history and is as different from first love as the historical is from the unhistorical. This love is strong, stronger than the whole world, but the moment it doubts it is annihilated; it is like a sleepwalker who is able to walk in the most dangerous places with the complete security but plunges down when someone calls his name. Marital love is armed, for in the intention not only is attentiveness directed to the surrounding world but the will is directed toward itself, toward the inner world." The Young Man, like Byron, "declares that love is heaven and marriage hell."
Constantin, "the aesthetic schemer", tells the Young Man he should become a deceiver. He says, "Be inconstant, nonsensical; do one thing one day and another the next, but without passion, in an utterly careless way that does not, however, degenerate into inattention, because, on the contrary, the external attentiveness must be just as great as ever but altered to a formal function lacking all inwardness.
He then goes to Berlin, because he had been there once before and he wants to see if he can repeat the same experience he had the first time. He goes to the same place he stayed on his first journey and finds that his landlord is now married. “The landlord went on to prove the esthetic validity of marriage. He succeeded marvelously, just as well as he had the last time in proving the perfection of bachelorhood.”. He tries to find repetition at the theater but it eludes him, he tries the coffee shop and finally says, "I had discovered that there simply is no repetition and had verified it by having it repeated in every possible way". Stuart Dalton from The University of Hartford regards Repetition essentially as a comedy and there is humor in much of the book. Kierkegaard wrote humorously about the idea of repetition in Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, he said,
Repetition
Constantin is still pursuing repetition. Now he's seeking a "sameness that has a far more anesthetic power than the most whimsical amusements" when he gets a letter from the Young Man demanding that he keep "unbroken silence" about the whole affair he was speaking to him about and that he will not be seeing him anymore. He will correspond by mail only. Constantin says, "This, then, is the thanks one gets for having trained oneself every day for years to have only an objective theoretical interest in people, in everyone for whom the idea is in motion! At one time, I tried to assist the idea in him; now I am reaping the harvest, namely, I am supposed to be and also not to be both being and nothing, entirely as he so pleases, and not to receive the slightest appreciation for being able to be that and thereby to help him out of the contradiction." He continues to diagnose him.
The Young Man tells him he will be going to Job for help and will write his reports to Constantin.
Letters from the Young Man, August 15 – May 31
"Two years after the death of his father, in the year 1840, Søren Kierkegaard entered into an engagement of marriage with a young girl living in Copenhagen, whose name was Regine Olsen. However, he was very soon brought to the insight that no marriage was possible for him. He sought to break the engagement, but succeeded only in stirring the heart of his fiancé to a passionate outburst, in which she begged him not to leave her. Moved profoundly by the ardor of her love he sought to emancipate her and himself through the adoption of a very involved and curious method." Journal entries seem to indicate that Kierkegaard was wary of marriage as early as 1838 and that he had a definite reason for breaking off the engagement.
Did he use the method endorsed by Constantin and become a deceiver? The letters from the Young Man are either written in relation to Regine or they are a passionate cry for freedom. He wanted to find a truth to live and die for. The letters describe his inner struggle against the social norms of his time. Must he keep his pledge because the social order demands that he does it?
First he blames his psychologist but he still needs him. Existential philosophy calls this Ressentiment.
Then he blames the girl.
Then he appeals to Job. Later, in Edifying Discourses in Various Spirits (1847), Kierkegaard discusses Job's guilt again. "Job’s friends did not have any criteria for what it means to suffer as one who is innocent before God. The highest that the Jews knew was a piety such as Job’s, and this is why it was doubly arrogant and doubly unjust of the friends to speak in this way of Job. The Christian, however, knows that there is only one, but also that there is one, who suffered before God as innocent. No one dares to compare himself to him or measure himself by his standard; between him and every human between there is an eternal difference. That is why it now applies with renewed clarity that in relation to God a human being always suffers as guilty."
Then he questions his own existence and the concept of guilt. Existential philosophers call this an existential crisis.
Then he demands his rights. Kierkegaard is developing his concept of individuality. The Young Man wants to stand out from the crowd and make his own decisions about his own life.
His question is never what is love, but how do I know I'm in love, how do you know you're in love? Too many people want to read about love in order to find out what love is. Kierkegaard says one must act, not just think about acting. His letter dated January 13 states he is now married and doing his best to be a husband.
Contrasting Abraham in Fear and Trembling with the Young Man creates an excellent comedy when taken together. Abraham wasn't anxious about the social order, he just followed God but the Young Man is overflowing with anxiety about what his friends will say about him, and he followed Job. Kierkegaard wrote in Fear and Trembling: "It would be altogether desirable if esthetics would sometime attempt to begin where for so many years it has ended-in the illusion of magnanimity. As soon as it did this, it would be working hand in hand with the religious, for this is the only power that can rescue the esthetic from its battle with the ethical." Kierkegaard says, "I perceived that he was a poet-if for no other reason I saw it in the fact that a situation that would have been taken easily in stride by a lesser mortal expanded into a world event for him." On December 6, 1843 Kierkegaard published his Four Upbuilding Discourses, he explains this Young Man's relation to Job in the following way, In tempestuous times, when the foundation of existence is tottering, when the moment shivers in anxious expectancy of what may come, when every explanation falls silent at the spectacle of the wild tumult, when a person’s innermost being groans in despair and in “bitterness of soul” cries to heaven, then Job still walks along, at the generation’s side and guarantees that there is a victory, guarantees that even if the single individual loses in the struggle, there is still a God who, just as he proportions every temptation humanly, even though the person did not withstand the temptation, will still make a way out such as he can bear it – yes, even more gloriously than any human expectancy. Only the defiant person could wish that Job did not exist, that he could completely divest his soul of the last love still present in the wail of despair, that he could whine about life, indeed curse life in such a way that there would not be even an echo of faith and trust and humility in his words, that in his defiance he could stifle the scream in order not to create the impression that there was anyone whom it provoked. Only a soft person could wish that Job did not exist, that he could instead leave off thinking, the sooner the better, could give up all movement in the most disgusting powerlessness, could blot himself out in the most wretched and miserable forgetfulness. Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Four Upbuilding Discourses, The Lord Gave, And The Lord Took Away; Blessed Be The Name Of The Lord. (Job 1:20-21) p. 111
Incidental Observations by Constantin Constantius
Constantin has renounced all theorizing but still thinks about the Young Man and the girl. As far as he's concerned the Young Man is a poet. He says, "A poet seems to be born to be a fool for the girls. If a girl made a fool of him to his face, he would think of it generous of her."
The Young Man writes once more, on May 31, to let Constantin know that the "girl" is married. Kierkegaard-The Young Man says, "I belong to the idea. When it beckons me, I will follow; when it makes an appointment, I wait for it day and night; no one calls me to dinner, no one expects me for supper. When the idea calls, I abandon everything, or, more correctly, I have nothing to abandon. I defraud no one, I sadden no one by being loyal to it; my spirit is not saddened by my having to make another sad. When I come home, no one reads my face, no one questions my demeanor. No one coaxes out of my being an explanation that not even I myself can give to another, whether I am beatific in joy or dejected in desolation, whether I have won life or lost it." Repetition p. 221
Kierkegaard as well as the other two characters in the story belong to the idea of what a marriage is but not to the actuality of a real marriage. Kierkegaard calls the Young Man's behaviour criminal.
Concluding Letter by Constantin Constantius, Copenhagen, August 1843
Constantin addresses his readers. He says,
Criticism
August Strindberg referred to Kierkegaard in his book To Damascus (1900). Part 1 is compared to "Kierkegaard's Gentagelse" by Gunnar Ollen who translated the book.
The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 1915, had a short article about Søren Kierkegaard. They wrote, In Gentagelsen (' Repetition,' October 1843), Kierkegaard sketches an abortive transition to the religious sphere. 'Repetition' is one of his characteristic ideas; it signifies persistence in, and faithfulness to, a chosen course of life, and is thus opposed to the (esthetic standpoint, with constancy only in change. But Kierkegaard also gives the word a more special meaning—that rather of 'resumption' (Gentagelse, 'taking again')—implying that each higher stage of life carries with it the lower in a transfigured form. Gentagelsen tells of a young man who seeks to pass from the (esthetic to the religious sphere, but for want of a true penitence becomes merely a romanticist; i.e., he simply resumes his old self; and his case is contrasted with that of Job, who humbled himself utterly before God, and at last regained all that he had lost, and more—the true ' repetition."
Lev Shestov was a philosopher who wondered how Russia had missed Kierkegaard. He understood Repetition in the following way. "Here is how Kierkegaard tells of this in his Repetition: "The greatness of Job is therefore not that he said, 'The Lord hath given, the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the Lord' - what he indeed said at first and did not later repeat... The greatness of Job lies in the fact that the passion of freedom is not choked or calmed in him by any false expression... Job demonstrates the compass of his world view through the firmness with which he knows how to eschew all crafty ethical evasions and cunning wiles." Everything that Kierkegaard says of Job can also be said of himself. And here is the closing passage in which Kierkegaard says, "Job is blessed and received everything back again double. This is what people call a repetition... Thus there is a repetition. When does it come? When did it come for Job? When all conceivable human certainty and probability was on the side of impossibility." And, according to Kierkegaard's deep conviction, this repetition will "obtain a very important role in the newer philosophy," for "the new philosophy will teach that all of life is a repetition." Kierkegaard As A Religious Philosopher, by Lev Shestov, 1938
Kierkegaard wrote, What kind of power is it that wants to deprive me of my honor and my pride and do it in such a meaningless way! Am I inevitably guilty, a deceiver, whatever I do, even if I do nothing? Or have I perhaps gone mad? Then the best thing to do would be to lock me up, for people cravenly fear particularly the utterances of the insane and the dying. What does it mean: mad? What must I do to enjoy civic esteem, to be regarded as sensible? Why does no one answer? I offer a reasonable reward to anyone who invents a new world! I have set forth the alternatives. Is there anyone so clever that he knows more than two? But if he does not know more, then it certainly is nonsense that I am mad, unfaithful, and a deceiver, while the girl is faithful and reasonable and esteemed by the people. Repetition p. 202 He is always asking himself questions just as Johann Gottlieb Fichte had done in his 1800 book, The Destination of Man, also called The Vocation of Man where he wrote against the easy answer for every question by vain repetitions.The book is therefore not intended for philosophers by profession, who will find in it nothing that may not be found in other writings of the same author. It is intended to be intelligible to all readers who are able really to understand a book at all. Those who have accustomed themselves merely to the repetition of certain sets of phrases in varied order, and who mistake this operation of memory for that of the understanding, will probably find it unintelligible. It ought to exercise on the reader an attractive and animating power, raising him from the sensuous world, to that which is above sense. The author at least has not performed his task without some of this happy inspiration.
Kierkegaard was influential in Martin Buber's 'I and Thou' philosophy and Martin Heidegger's development of the "new philosophical category" Dasein.
Alicia Borinsky of Boston University took up Kierkegaard's Repetition in her 1981-1982 article On Translation and the Art of Repetition. The two characters talk so they can silence (translate) each other. Kierkegaard imagines still another exchange in his essay, the one between a reader and Constantine Constantinus. There seems to be no escape from the interpretative chain, the police function of the observer. Poetry appears in this essay as the effect of a loss. The two or four characters are linked by a paranoid system of translation that stands -- as Kierkegaard would want us to believe -- for the nature of every human exchange and constitutes the precondition for poetic repetition. … In Repetition Kierkegaard set out an exemplary subject for one of the main concerns of poetry, bringing hidden things to light. His way of inquiry is translation with its connotations of interpretation, betrayal, silencing. On Translation and the Art of Repetition by Alicia Borinsky P. 220 Dispositio Vol VII No. 19-20
Rollo May wrote a history of Existentialism from the psychological point of view. He said,
Kierkegaard was very concerned about his relationship with God. C. Stephen Evans, says that "Kierkegaard regarded himself as a psychologist. Three of his books, The Concept of Anxiety, Repetition, and The Sickness Unto Death, are designated as psychological by their subtitles, and he frequently called himself a psychologist in his journal. … Imagine a naïve Christian who knows nothing about psychology as a science-let’s call him “Kirk”-engaged in conversation with a knowledgeable psychologist-“Dr. John.” Dr. John tells Kirk that psychology models itself after the natural sciences and attempts to gain a scientific understanding of human behavior and mental processes. Kirk asks Dr. John what psychologists think about God and God’s relationship to human beings. Dr. John replies that individual psychologists have different beliefs about God. He himself is a Christian, he tells Kirk, and of course, for him any ultimate understanding of human beings requires a theological perspective too. But, he hastens to add, his personal religious beliefs do not enter into psychology as a scientific discipline because science restricts itself to the natural realm, which can be studied by empirical methods.Dr. John’s answer leaves Kirk dissatisfied. He has a lot of lingering misgivings. Kirk can understand that science may have to limit itself to the empirically observable, but he questions the value, or even the truthfulness, of the knowledge gained by such a science. After all, he thinks, isn’t the most important thing about human beings their relationship to God? Can anyone hope to understand them without understanding them in this light?" Søren Kierkegaard's Christian Psychology: Insight for Counseling and Pastoral Care By C. Stephen Evans, Kierkegaard as a Psychologist, p. 25-26
Clare Carlisle described the internal and external struggle that every existing individual has to go through. "The struggle between philosophy and existence (often a struggle internal to the individual, especially to the intellectual and perhaps academic individual who is this text’s likely reader) is essential to Kierkegaard’s dramatization of his conflict with Hegel. Throughout Kierkegaard’s pseudonymous authorship the ‘abstract thinker’, the ‘pitiful professorial figure is criticized from the perspective of the existing individual. Challenging the Hegelian view that the Concept expresses the highest form of truth, texts such as Repetition constitute ‘a polemic against the truth as knowledge’ and suggest instead that truth must be grasped in terms of ‘subjectivity’ or ‘inwardness’."
Both Constantin and the Young Man had the power to act as single individuals instead of trying to become world historically famous or worrying about the crowd but neither of them used the power. They both just pursued the idea. Kierkegaard says of them,
Later, in The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard discusses this power again in terms of the eternal. His idea of the eternal is comparable to Nietzsche's idea of eternal return, only backwards. Niels Nymann Eriksen has written about Kierkegaard's category of repetition. This book explores "the Other" and "Becoming" as well as "Recollection" and "Repetition."
Notes
References
Sources
Primary sources
Either/Or Part I Edited by Victor Eremita, February 20, 1843, translated by David F. Swenson and Lillian Marvin Swenson Princeton University Press 1971
Either/Or Part II. Translated by Howard and Edna Hong. Princeton, 1988,
Repetition, A Venture in Experimental Psychology, by Constantin Constantius, October 16, 1843, by Søren Kierkegaard, Edited and Translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, 1983, Princeton University Press
Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Søren Kierkegaard 1843-1844 Copyright 1990 by Howard V. Hong Princeton University Press
Stages on Life's Way, Søren Kierkegaard, April 30, 1845, Edited and Translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong 1988, Princeton University Press
Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments Volume I, by Johannes Climacus, edited by Søren Kierkegaard, Copyright 1846 – Edited and Translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong 1992 Princeton University Press
Søren Kierkegaard's Journals & Papers
Secondary sources
Soren Kierkegaard Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, edited by James Hastings, 1908 p. 696-700
Soren Kierkegaard , by David F. Swenson, Scandinavian studies and notes, Volume 6 No. 7 August 1921 Editor George T Flom University of Illinois Published in Menasha, Wisconsin
Lectures on the Religious Thought of Søren Kierkegaard, Eduard Geismar, Augsburg Publishing Co 1937
Kierkegaard & the Existential Philosophy, by Lev Shestov, 1938, translated from Russian by Elinor Hewitt, Ohio University Press, 1969.
A Very Short Life of Kierkegaard, by Charles K. Bellinger
The Discovery of Being, By Rollo May 1983, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994
Soren Kierkegaard's Christian Psychology: Insight for Counseling and Pastoral Care By C. Stephen Evans, Regent College Publishing, 1995
Kierkegaard's Repetition as a Comedy in Two Acts, by Stuart Dalton, University of Hartford
Kierkegaard's category of repetition: a reconstruction, By Niels Nymann Eriksen, Published by, Walter de Gruyter, 2000
Dan Anthony Storm on Repetition
External links
Books by Søren Kierkegaard
1843 books
Existentialist books
Philosophical novels
Works published under a pseudonym |
4269567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog | Dog | The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from extinct Pleistocene wolves, and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living relative. The dog was the first species to be domesticated by humans. Hunter-gatherers did this, over 15,000 years ago, which was before the development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canids.
The dog has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes. Dog breeds vary widely in shape, size, and color. They perform many roles for humans, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship, therapy, and aiding disabled people. Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the human–canine bond has been a topic of frequent study. This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet of "man's best friend".
Taxonomy
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae, the two-word naming of species (binomial nomenclature). Canis is the Latin word meaning "dog", and under this genus, he listed the domestic dog, the wolf, and the golden jackal. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata), which is not found in any other canid.
In 1999, a study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from the grey wolf, with the dingo and New Guinea singing dog breeds having developed at a time when human communities were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild subspecies and proposed two additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758 and, dingo named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (junior synonym) for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision. Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the "domestic dog" clade with some debating it.
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be feral Canis familiaris and therefore did not assess them for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Evolution
Domestication
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf. The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of canine distemper. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the Late Pleistocene.
This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated in the time of hunter–gatherers, which predates agriculture. DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage.
The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a commensal pathway into domestication. The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. In 2021, a literature review of the current evidence infers that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia, with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas. The oldest unambiguous dog remains are from Oberkassel in Germany, dating to around 15,000 years ago
Breeds
Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally recognized dog breeds. In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog breeds, which resulted in a vast range of phenotypes. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years, and since then dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern breeds due to artificial selection imposed by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, and hunting, retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression, which demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs. As a result, present day dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world. The most striking example of this dispersal is that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.
Biology
Anatomy
Skeleton
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types. The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for powerful back muscles to connect to, the long ribs provide plenty of room for the heart and lungs, and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton allowing great flexibility.
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton greatly enhanced in size for larger types as mastiffs and miniaturised for smaller types such as terriers; dwarfism has been selectively utilised for some types where short legs are advantageous such as dachshunds and corgis. Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with naturally short tails have as few as three.
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant divergence in terms of skull shape between types. The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.
Senses
A dog's senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch. One study suggested that dogs can feel Earth's magnetic field.
Coat
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside. Premature graying can occur in dogs from as early as one year of age; this is associated with impulsive behaviors, anxiety behaviors, fear of noise, and fear of unfamiliar people or animals.
Tail
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or corkscrew. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be crucial in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries.
Health
Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two severe medical conditions significantly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all breeds and ages, and Gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, mites, hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms, which is a roundworm species that lives in the hearts of dogs.
Several human foods and household ingestible are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids, causing theobromine poisoning, onions and garlic, causing thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning, grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, and xylitol. The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs. Signs of ingestion can include copious vomiting (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other symptoms are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.
Lifespan
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most, the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) ranges from 10 to 13 years. The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged. For dogs in England, increased body weight has been found to be negatively correlated with longevity (i.e., the heavier the dog, the shorter its lifespan), and mixed-breed dogs live on average 1.2 years longer than purebred dogs.
Reproduction
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds, and is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to copulation. Because the ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter.
Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation; 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization, with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies.
Neutering
Neutering is the sterilization of animals, usually by removing the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of dogs' overpopulation in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.
According to the Humane Society of the United States, three to four million dogs and cats are euthanized each year. Many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs. Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop cancers affecting the mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs. However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs and prostate cancer in males and osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.
Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g., between half and full siblings). Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations. Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.
In a study of seven dog breeds (the Bernese Mountain Dog, Basset Hound, Cairn Terrier, Brittany, German Shepherd Dog, Leonberger, and West Highland White Terrier), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival. Another analysis of data on 42,855 Dachshund litters found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression. In a study of Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.
Behavior
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and external stimuli. As the oldest domesticated species, dogs' minds inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans more than any other species and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as great apes, but rather parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.
Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response (i.e., selection for tameness) and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and later in breed formation. Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem-solving ability.
Intelligence
Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by inference and have advanced memory skills. A study with Rico, a Border Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items immediately and four weeks after the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented his learning and memory capabilities. He had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs can read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing, pointing, and human voice commands.
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are no more exceptional than those of other animals, such as horses, chimpanzees, or cats. One limited study of 18 household dogs found that they lacked spatial memory, and were more focused on the "what" of a task rather than the "where".
Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. An experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans. Another study revealed that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not.
Communication
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans and translate the information that dogs are transmitting. Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Humans communicate to dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture.
Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large carnivoran living in the human environment.
In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million and 987 million. About 20% of dogs live as pets in developed countries. In the developing world, dogs are typically feral or communally owned, with pet dogs uncommon. Most of these dogs live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%). Little is known about these dogs, or the dogs in developed countries that are feral, strays, or are in shelters because the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes.
Competitors and predators
Although dogs are the most abundant and widely distributed terrestrial carnivores, feral and free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans. For example, a review of the studies in dogs' competitive effects on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves. Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.
Wolves kill dogs wherever they are found together. In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed. Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. In particular, leopards are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter what their size. Siberian tigers in the Amur River region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. This indicates that the dogs were targeted. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way. Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.
Diet
Dogs have been described as omnivores. Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have extra copies of amylase and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet. Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their saliva and are classified as having a high starch diet. However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce bile acid with taurine and they cannot produce vitamin D, which they obtain from animal flesh.
Of the twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms (including selenocysteine), dogs cannot synthesize ten: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
Also more like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain nitrogen balance. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.
Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog is nearly universal among human societies. Notable exceptions once included:
The Aboriginal Tasmanians, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of dingos on that continent
The Andamanese peoples, who were isolated when rising sea levels covered the land bridge to Myanmar
The Fuegians, who instead domesticated the Fuegian dog, a different canid species
Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs, or where dogs died out after original settlement, notably the Mariana Islands, Palau and most of the Caroline Islands with exceptions such as Fais Island and Nukuoro, the Marshall Islands, the Gilbert Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Tonga, Marquesas, Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Rapa Iti in French Polynesia, Easter Island, the Chatham Islands and Pitcairn Island (settled by the Bounty mutineers, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).
Dogs were introduced to Antarctica as sled dogs, but were later outlawed by international agreement due to the possible risk of spreading infections.
Roles with humans
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with a complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations. These attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful animals today.
The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and the military, companionship and aiding disabled individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.
Pets
It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.
"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs" and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history. Pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased. In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today (the expression "in the doghouse" – recorded since 1932 – to describe exclusion from the group implies a distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians. People and their dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's lives to the point where pet dogs actively shape how a family and home are experienced.
There have been two significant trends occurring within the second half of the 20th century in pet dogs' changing status. The first has been "commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior. The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.
A vast range of commodity forms aims to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion. The list of goods, services, and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries. Dog training books, classes, and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued.
The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog-human family as a pack. Some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer, have promoted a dominance model of dog-human relationships. However, it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions. The idea of the "alpha dog" trying to be dominant is based on a disproved theory about wolf packs. Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog; to mediate their interactions with each other.
Increasingly, human family-members engage in activities centered on the dog's perceived needs and interests, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.
According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs. The same source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of male and female pet dogs. Although several programs promote pet adoption, less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from shelters.
A study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to compare humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize human emotional sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.
Workers
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in many roles. In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for herding livestock (collies, sheepdogs), hunting (hounds, pointers) and rodent control (terriers). Other types of working dogs include search and rescue dogs, detection dogs trained to detect illicit drugs or chemical weapons; guard dogs; dogs who assist fishermen with the use of nets; and dogs that pull loads. In 1957, the dog Laika became the first animal to be launched into Earth orbit, aboard the Soviets' Sputnik 2; she died during the flight.
Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including guide dogs, hearing dogs, mobility assistance dogs and psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities. Some dogs owned by people with epilepsy have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care.
Athletes and models
People often enter their dogs in competitions, such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the dog's externally observable qualities (such as appearance, movement and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows.
Food
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China, Vietnam and the Philippines, which dates back to antiquity. Based on limited data, it is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. In China, debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat. Following the Sui and Tang dynasties of the first millennium, however, people living on northern China's plains began to eschew eating dogs, which is likely due to Buddhism and Islam's spread, two religions that forbade the consumption of certain animals, including the dog. As members of the upper classes shunned dog meat, it gradually became a social taboo to eat it, even though the general population continued to consume it for centuries afterward. Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland. Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. Dog fat is also reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs in some parts of Poland and Central Asia. Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.
In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the Nureongi, differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.
The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or the body's vital energy. A 19th-century version of bosintang explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still prevalent in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.
Health risks
In 2018, the WHO reported that 59,000 people died globally from rabies, with 59.6% in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most important vector. Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate. Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.
In the U.S., cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year. It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.
Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.
Health benefits
Dogs suffer from the same common disorders as humans; these include cancer, diabetes, heart disease and neurologic disorders. Their pathology is similar to humans, as is their response to treatment and their outcomes. Researchers are identifying the genes associated with dog diseases similar to human disorders, but lack mouse models to find cures for both dogs and humans. The genes involved in canine obsessive-compulsive disorders led to the detection of four genes in humans' related pathways.
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical health and psychological well-being. Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being have been criticized for being poorly controlled. It found that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians.
A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets." In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition. This effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study.
People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behavior and that for guardians of dogs, these effects are relatively long-term. Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs. The association between dog ownership and adult physical activity levels has been reviewed by several authors.
The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral and psychological indicators of anxiety. Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the hygiene hypothesis. The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs cannot only provide companionship and social support themselves but also act as facilitators of social interactions between humans. One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not. In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.
Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders. Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease. One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.
Cultural importance
Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, alertness, and love. In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine, and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her. In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection. In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs. Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies and may originate from Proto-Indo-European religion. In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades. Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess Hecate. In Norse mythology, a dog called Garmr guards Hel, a realm of the dead. In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn. In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watchdogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka. A black dog is also considered to be the vahana (vehicle) of Bhairava (an incarnation of Shiva).
In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness. Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after that. As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis). In Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege. Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them. The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing it as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet." Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets.
Terminology
Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.
Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).
Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.
Sire – the male parent of a litter.
Dam – the female parent of a litter.
Litter – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.
Whelping – the act of a bitch giving birth.
Whelps – puppies still dependent upon their dam.
See also
Cat–dog relationship
Cynanthropy
Dognapping
Domesticated silver fox
Lists of dogs
Mastocytoma in dogs
Nematode infection in dogs
List of individual dogs
List of oldest dogs
References
Bibliography
External links
Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography for Canis lupus familiaris
Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation
Dogs in the Ancient World, an article on the history of dogs
View the dog genome on Ensembl
Genome of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4), via UCSC Genome Browser
Data of the genome of Canis lupus familiaris, via NCBI
Data of the genome assembly of Canis lupus familiaris (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4), via NCBI
Wolves
Scavengers
Cosmopolitan mammals
Animal models
Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances
Mammals described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
4270223 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakes%20in%20mythology | Snakes in mythology | Snakes are a common occurrence in myths for a multitude of cultures. The Hopi people of North America viewed snakes as symbols of healing, transformation, and fertility. In other cultures snakes symbolized the umbilical cord, joining all humans to Mother Earth. The Great Goddess often had snakes as her familiars—sometimes twining around her sacred staff, as in ancient Crete—and they were worshipped as guardians of her mysteries of birth and regeneration. Although not entirely a snake, the plumed serpent, Quetzalcoatl, in Mesoamerican culture, particularly Mayan and Aztec, held a multitude of roles as a deity. He was viewed as a twin entity which embodied that of god and man and equally man and serpent, yet was closely associated with fertility. In ancient Aztec mythology, Quetzalcoatl was the son of the fertility earth goddess, Cihuacoatl, and cloud serpent and hunting god, Maxicoat. His roles took the form of everything from bringer of morning winds and bright daylight for healthy crops, to a sea god capable of bringing on great floods. As shown in the images there are images of the sky serpent with its tail in its mouth, it is believed to be a reverence to the sun, for which Quetzalcoatl was also closely linked.
Immortality
The West African kingdom of Dahomey regarded snakes as immortal because they appeared to be reincarnated from themselves when they sloughed their skins. Snakes were often also associated with immortality because they were observed biting their tails to form a circle and when they coiled they formed spirals. Both circles and spirals were seen as symbols of eternity. This symbol has come to be known as the Ouroboros. The circle was particularly important to Dahomeyan myth where the snake-god Danh circled the world like a belt, corseting it and preventing it from flying apart in splinters. In Egyptian myth, the state of existence before creation was symbolized as Amduat; a many-coiled serpent from which Ra the Sun and all of creation arose, returning each night and being reborn every morning. Also, in Norse mythology, the snake biting its tail (Ouroboros) symbolized the sea as the eternal ring which enclosed the world. In Egypt the snake has healing abilities. Hymns and offerings were made to it since it was believed that the Goddess could manifest through the snake.
"In a hymn to the goddess Mertseger, a workman on the Necropolis of Thebes relates how the goddess came to him in the form of a snake to heal his illness (Bunn1967:617).In Serer cosmogony and religion, the serpent is the symbol of the pangool, the saints and ancestral spirits of the Serer people of West Africa. When a person dies, the Serer believe that their soul must make its way to Jaaniiw (a place where good souls go). Before the soul can reach Jaaniiw in order to reincarnate (ciiɗ in Serer), it must transform into a black snake. During this transformation, the snake hides in a tree. For this reason, it is taboo in Serer culture to kill snakes. A great degree of respect is afforded to snakes in Serer culture, as they are the very embodiment and symbol of their saints and ancestral spirits.Gravrand, Henry, La civilisation sereer, "Cosaan: les origines", vol.1, Nouvelles Editions africaines (1983), p 33, Thiaw, Issa Laye, Mythe de la création du monde selon les sages sereer, pp. 45−50, 59−61 [in] "Enracinement et Ouverture" – "Plaidoyer pour le dialogue interreligieux", Konrad Adenauer Stiftung (23 and 24 June 2009), Dakar (Retrieved: March 18, 2020) Like their Serer counterparts, the Dogon people of Mali also have great reverence for the serpent. The serpent plays an active role in Dogon religion and cosmogony. The mythology of the Dogon's primordial ancestor Lebe, it based almost entirely on a serpent mythology. In their traditional African religious belief, they say that the Serpent Lebe guided the Dogon people from Mandé to the Bandiagara Escarpment (their current home) when they decided to migrate to flee Islamization and persecution. The Dogon believe that Lebe is the very reincarnation of the Dogon's first ancestor—who was resurrected in the form of a snake.Imperato, Pascal James, Dogon Cliff Dwellers: The Art of Mali's Mountain People, L. Kahan Gallery/African Arts (1978), pp. 15, 23
In the Sumerian culture snakes were also very important as a healing symbol. In Hammurabi’s Law Code (c. 1700 BC) the god Ninazu is identified as the patron of healing, and his son, Ningishzida, is depicted with a serpent and staff symbol (Bunn 1967:618)
Creation myths
Snakes were a common feature of many creation myths, for example many people in California and Australia had myths about the Rainbow Snake, which was either Mother Earth herself giving birth to all animals or a water-god whose writhing created rivers, creeks and oceans. In ancient Indian myth, the drought-serpent Ahi or Vritra swallowed the primordial ocean and did not release all created beings until Indra split the serpent's stomach with a thunderbolt. In another myth, the protector Vishnu slept on the coils of the world-serpent Shesha (or "Ananta the endless";). Shesha in turn was supported on Kurma and when Kurma moved, Shesha stirred and yawned and the gaping of its jaws caused earthquakes.
In Chinese mythology, the woman-headed snake Nüwa made the first humans. She made humans one at a time with clay.
To conserve her energy, she dipped a rope in clay and flicked it so blobs of clay landed everywhere; each blob of clay became an individual human. The first humans of hers became high-class, but second ones became low-class.
Greek cosmological myths tell of how Ophion the snake incubated the primordial egg from which all created things were born.
The classical symbol of the Ouroboros depicts a snake in the act of eating its own tail. This symbol has many interpretations, one of which is the snake representing cyclical nature of life and death, life feeding on itself in the act of creation.
The underworld
Snakes were regularly regarded as guardians of the Underworld or messengers between the Upper and Lower worlds, because they lived in cracks and holes in the ground. The Gorgons of Greek myth were snake-women (a common hybrid) whose gaze would turn flesh into stone, the most famous of them being Medusa. Nagas, "the demon cobra" and naginis were human-headed snakes whose kings and queens who lived in jewel-encrusted underground or underwater paradises and who were perpetually at war with Garuda the Sun-bird. In Egyptian myth, every morning the serpent Aapep (symbolising chaos) attacked the Sunship (symbolizing order). Aapep would try to engulf the ship and the sky was drenched red at dawn and dusk with its blood as the Sun defeated it.
In Nordic myth, evil was symbolized by the serpent (actually a dragon) Nidhogg (the 'Dread Biter') who coiled around one of the three roots of Yggdrasil the Tree of Life, and tried to choke or gnaw the life from it.
"Here there is an evil dragon named Nidhogg that gnaws constantly at the root, striving to destroy Yggdrasil"
In ancient Slavic paganism a deity by the name of Veles presided over the underworld. He is almost always portrayed as a serpent or dragon depending on the particular myth. The underworld was part of a mythical world tree. The roots of this tree (usually growing in water) were guarded by Veles (Volos) the serpent god.
The idea of snake-people living below the Earth was prominent in American myth. The Aztec underworld, Mictlan was protected by python-trees, a gigantic alligator and a snake, all of which spirits had to evade by physical ducking and weaving or cunning, before they could start the journey towards immortality. In North America, the Brule Sioux people told of three brothers transformed into rattlesnakes which permanently helped and guided their human relatives.
The Pomo people told of a woman who married a rattlesnake-prince and gave birth to four snake-children who freely moved between the two worlds of their parents. The Hopi people told of a young man who ventured into the underworld and married a snake-princess.
Snakes have been associated with Hecate, the Greek goddess of magic and the lower world.
Water
Snakes were also commonly associated with water especially myths about the primordial ocean being formed of a huge coiled snake as in Ahi/Vritra in early Indian myth and Jormungand in Nordic myth. Sea monsters lived in every ocean from the seven-headed crocodile-serpent Leviathan of Hebrew myth to the sea-god Koloowisi of the Zuni people of North America and the Greek monster Scylla with twelve snake-necks. In some cultures, eels (which spend their early lives in freshwater before returning to the sea as adults) were regarded as magical creatures.
Rivers and lakes often had snake-gods or snake-guardians including Untekhi the fearsome water-spirit of the Missouri River. Until recently, some northern European communities held well dressing ceremonies to appease the snake-spirits which lived in village wells and told legends of saints defeating malevolent lake-snakes e.g. Saint George killing a maiden-devouring serpent or Saint Columba lecturing the Loch Ness Monster which then stopped eating humans and became shy of human visitors.
Carved stones depicting a seven-headed cobra are commonly found near the sluices of the ancient irrigation tanks in Sri Lanka; these are believed to have been placed as guardians of the water.
Wisdom
Snakes were associated with wisdom in many mythologies, perhaps due to the appearance of pondering their actions as they prepare to strike, which was copied by medicine men in the build-up to prophecy in parts of West Africa. Usually the wisdom of snakes was regarded as ancient and beneficial towards humans but sometimes it could be directed against humans. In East Asia snake-dragons watched over good harvests, rain, fertility and the cycle of the seasons, whilst in ancient Greece and India, snakes were considered to be lucky and snake-amulets were used as talismans against evil.
The Biblical story of the fall of man tells of how Adam and Eve were deceived into disobeying God by a snake (identified as Satan by both Paul and John in II Corinthians and Revelation, respectively). In the story, the snake convinces Eve to eat fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, which she then convinces Adam to do as well. As a result, God banishes Adam and Eve from the garden and curses the snake.
In the state of Kerala, India, snake shrines occupy most households. Snakes were called upon by the creator of Kerala, Parasurama, to make the saline land fertile. The Mannarasala Shri Nagaraja Temple is one of the main centers of worship. The presiding deity here is Nagaraja - a five-headed snake god born to human parents as a blessing for their caretaking of snakes during a fire. It is believed that Nagaraja left his earthly life and took Samadhi but still resides in a chamber of the temple.
Healing
Healing and snakes were associated in ancient Greek myth with Asclepius, whose snake-familiars would crawl across the bodies of sick people asleep at night in his shrines and lick them back to health.
In northern Europe and West Asia, snakes were associated with healing whilst in parts of South Asia, snakes are regarded as possessing aphrodisiac qualities. Greek myth held that people could acquire second hearing and second sight if their ears or eyes were licked by a snake.
Snake gods
In ancient Mesopotamia, Nirah, the messenger god of Ištaran, was represented as a serpent on kudurrus, or boundary stones. Representations of two intertwined serpents are common in Sumerian art and Neo-Sumerian artwork and still appear sporadically on cylinder seals and amulets until as late as the thirteenth century BC. The horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) appears in Kassite and Neo-Assyrian kudurrus and is invoked in Assyrian texts as a magical protective entity. A dragon-like creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the Hellenistic Period (323 BC–31 BC). This creature, known in Akkadian as the mušḫuššu, meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem. It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god Ninazu, but later became the attendant to the Hurrian storm-god Tishpak, as well as, later, Ninazu's son Ningishzida, the Babylonian national god Marduk, the scribal god Nabu, and the Assyrian national god Ashur.
The anthropomorphic basis of many myth-systems meant snake-gods were rarely depicted solely as snakes. Exceptions to this were the Fijian creator-god Ndengei, the dozen creator-gods of the Solomon Islands (each with different responsibilities), the Aztec Mother Goddess Coatlicue, and the Voodoo snake-spirits Damballa, Simbi and Petro. Snake-gods were more often portrayed as hybrids or shape-shifters; for example, North American snake-spirits could change between human and serpentine forms whilst keeping the characteristics of both. Likewise, the Korean snake goddess Eobshin was portrayed as a black snake that had human ears.
The Aztec spirit of intelligence and the wind, Quetzalcoatl ("Plumed Serpent"). The Mayan sky-goddess was a common attribute. However, in her case, the snakes leaned into her ears and whispered the secrets of the universe (i.e. the secrets of herself). In Indian myth, Shiva had a cobra coiled on his head and another at rest on his shoulder, ready to strike his enemies. Egyptian myth has had several snake-gods, from the 'coiled one' Mehen who assisted Ra in fighting Aapep every day to the two-headed Nehebkau who guarded the underworld. In Korean mythology, the goddess Eobshin was the snake goddess of wealth, as snakes ate rats and mice that gnawed on the crops.
The Horned Serpent appears in the mythologies of many Native Americans. Details vary among tribes, with many of the stories associating the mystical figure with water, rain, lightning and thunder. Horned Serpents were major components of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex of North American prehistory.
Rituals
The Hopi people of North America performed an annual snake dance to celebrate the union of Snake Youth (a Sky spirit) and Snake Girl (an Underworld spirit), and to renew fertility of Nature. During the dance, live snakes were handled and at the end of the dance the snakes were released into the fields to guarantee good crops. "The snake dance is a prayer to the spirits of the clouds, the thunder and lightning, that the rain may fall on the growing crops.." In the northwestern Indian city, Banaras, a festival called Naga Pancami is celebrated during the rainy season of Sravana (July/August) to pay homage to the supernatural snakes or deities. Thousands of people gather around snake pools called Naga kuan that are said to lead to Nagaloka, the lavish underwater world of these snake deities or Nagas. Worshippers bathe in and jump from the ledges into the pools as a way to honor them and ensure that they provide things like fertility of the land and its people, and protection from the poisons (wrath) of its bite. In this region, females are more numbered as the worshippers of Nagas, which most closely resemble religious ritual.
Literary Symbolism Derived from Myth
Snakes taken from stories of mythology are expressed throughout the use of language. Examples include...
See also
Aapep - an ancient Egyptian deity who embodied chaos and appears in art as a giant serpent
Ahi or Vritra - a serpent or dragon in Hinduism, the personification of drought
Atum - an ancient Egyptian deity of creation, sometimes depicted as a serpent
Bobbi-Bobbi - to the Binbinga people of northern Australia, a huge supernatural snake who lived in the heavens in the Dreamtime
Echidna - in Greek mythology, a half-woman and half-snake monster
Eobshin - the goddess of the storage and wealth in Korean mythology, believed to be a black snake with ears
Glycon— an ancient snake god, having a large and influential cult within the Roman Empire in the 2nd century; the contemporary satirist Lucian proclaimed the god a hoax, supposedly represented by a hand puppet
Illuyankas - a serpentine dragon in Hittite mythology
Leviathan - a monstrous Biblical sea serpent
Jörmungandr - a sea serpent in Norse mythology
Meretseger - an ancient Egyptian cobra-goddess
Nehustan - a Biblical bronze serpent which God told Moses to erect, but was later destroyed when it became an idol
Rod of Asclepius - a serpent-entwined rod wielded by the Greek god Asclepius, a deity associated with healing and medicine
Serpents in the Bible
Serpent (symbolism)
Snakes in Chinese mythology
Tefnut - an ancient Egyptian deity of moisture, sometimes depicted as a lion-headed serpent
Sheshnag - an ancient hindu god, supposedly he keeps earth on his head
Medusa - a woman cursed by Athena to become a snake woman , and people who sees her eyes will petrify
Quetzalcoatl - (pron. Quet-zal-co-at) or 'Plumed Serpent' was one of the most important gods in ancient Mesoamerica. A mix of bird and rattlesnake, his name is a combination of the Nahuatl words quetzal (the emerald plumed bird) and coatl (serpent). Quetzalcóatl was the god of winds and rain, and the creator of the world and humanity.
References
John Bathurst Deane, Worship of the Serpent: Traced Throughout the World
Hamilton A. Tyler, Pueblo Gods and Myths'', University of Oklahoma Press, 1964
External links
Medusa
Chinese Tradition: Nuwa makes humans
Apep Egyptian Snake God
Snakes
Legendary serpents
Mythology |
4270304 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Iditarod | 2006 Iditarod | The ceremonial start of the 34th annual (XXXIV) Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race across the U.S. state of Alaska began amidst the crowds of Anchorage on March 4, 2006, and the start of the competitive race, or "restart", began the next day in Willow. The race followed a modified version of the northern route for 1,151 mi (1,852 km) across the Alaska Range, through the sparsely inhabited Interior, along the Yukon River, and then up the coast of the Bering Sea to the city of Nome. Unlike in previous years, where the teams had to deal with unseasonably warm temperatures and soft, mushy snow, the weather was cold, with temperatures reported as low as −40 °F (−40 °C).
Eighty three competitors started the race, eleven "scratched", and one was withdrawn from the race. The field of racers was extremely competitive, with pundits like Cabela's John Little listing more than half a dozen possible winners. The ultimate winner was Jeff King, who crossed under the "burled arch" on March 15, becoming one of the few four-time champions. Fellow four-time winner Doug Swingley of Montana came in 2nd place, followed by Paul Gebhardt. Each of the 83 teams was composed of 16 dogs, four of whom died during the event.
Note: All times are Alaska Standard Time/AKST (UTC-9).
Competitors
There were 83 mushers that entered to race. The 51 Alaskans included four-time champion and speed-record holder Martin Buser, three-time winner Jeff King, 2004 winner Mitch Seavey, and the only five-time champion Rick Swenson, including a few Alaska Natives like Ramy Brooks, John Baker, and Ed Iten. There were 23 mushers as well from the lower 48 states, including four-time champion Doug Swingley.
Internationally, Canada is represented by three-time Yukon Quest winner Hans Gatt, Karen Ramstead, the owner of the only all-Siberian Husky team in the race, Sebastian Schnuelle, and rookie Warren Palfrey. Norway had three mushers in the race in that year, the 2005 rookie of the year, Bjørnar Andersen, and newcomers Tore Albrigtsen and Tove Sørensen (2005 champion Robert Sørlie is not racing this year). Fabrizio Lovati of Italy and Ben Valks of the Netherlands brought the European total to 5 mushers.
Celebrity mushers included Gary Paulsen, who ran his rookie race in 1983, scratched in 1985, withdrew prior to the race in 2005, and became the first musher to scratch in 2006, on March 6 at 1:08 a.m. at Skwentna. Legally blind musher Rachael Scdoris of Bend, Oregon, has also attempted the Iditarod for the second time, after she scratched in Eagle Island in 2005. Her visual interpreter for that year was Tim Osmar.
According to Iditarod reporter Little, the field was just as competitive as it was during the 2005 Iditarod, making it very hard to pick a winner. Former champions Buser, King, Swingley, and Seavey were all strong candidates to win. Of that elite crowd, King won the Kobuk 440 last year and the Kusko this year; while five-time winner Swenson, who scratched for the first time in 2005, is probably out of the running. The last of the likely winners is Bjørnar Andersen. As this year's representative of Team Norway, he inherited half of Robert Sørlie's winning 2005 team of dogs, and even without them Andersen's 4th-place finish in 2004 was the best finish by a rookie since the race first started in the 1970s.
Other racers who expected to finish well were Lance Mackey, who won the 1,000 mi (1,600 km) Yukon Quest, three-time runner up DeeDee Jonrowe, 2005's 2nd-place finisher Ed Iten, two-time runner up Ramy Brooks, perennial top-10er John Baker. A third tier of capable racers included winner of the 2005 Klondike 300 Cim Smyth (who also recorded the fastest time from Safety to Nome in 2005, despite only having 5 dogs left), Jessie Royner, winner of the 2005 Sheep Mountain 150 Ken Andersen, Aaron Burmeister, 2nd-place finisher in the 2005 Klondike 300 Matt Hayashida, Melanie Gould, Paul Gebhardt, and former Yukon Quest winner Aliy Zirkle. A win by either Aliy Zirkle or Lance Mackey would place them in the elite company of mushers to have won both the Yukon Quest and the Iditarod — in Lance's case, in the same year, an historical first. Hans Gatt is normally a contender, but this year he is running a team of young, inexperienced dogs.
Warren Palfrey of Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Tore Albrigtsen or Tove Sorensen from Norway were likely candidates for rookie of the year.
Awards
Doug Swingley won the PenAir Spirit of Alaska Award on March 8 at 0:12 a.m. for being the first to reach McGrath, on the bank of the Kuskokwim River. He was awarded a "spirit mask" by artist Orville Lind and USD $500 in credit to cover travel or freight shipments at the checkpoint by PenAir's Chief Operating Officer, Danny Seybert.
Doug Swingley also won the CGI Dorothy Page Halfway Award on March 9 at 0:09 a.m. for being the first to reach Cripple, which is officially designated as the halfway point on even years when the northern route is run. He was awarded USD $3,000 in gold nuggets at the checkpoint by CGI Logisitics' Rick Westbrook.
Paul Gebardt won the Millennium Alaskan Hotel's First to the Yukon Award on March 10 at 12:05 a.m. for being the first to reach Ruby, on the bank of the Yukon River. He was awarded USD $3,500 in one-dollar bills at the checkpoint and had a gourmet seven-course meal prepared on a camp stove by Millennium Alaskan Hotel's Executive Chef Stephen England and Food and Beverage Director Brooke McGrath. The "Yukon Fox" Emmitt Peters, 1975 winner of the Iditarod and Ruby native, participated.
Jeff King won the Wells Fargo Gold Coast Award on March 12 at 12:26 p.m. for being the first to reach Unalakleet, an Inupiaq Eskimo community on the Norton Sound of the Bering Sea. He was awarded the Gold Coast trophy and USD $2,500 in gold at the checkpoint by Wells Fargo' Community Banking President for Nome and Kotzebue, Jennifer Imus.
Jeff King won the XXXIV Iditarod on March 15, at 1:11:36 a.m. for being the first to reach the Burled Arch in Nome. He was awarded USD $69,000 by Wells Fargo, and a 2006 pickup from Anchorage Chrysler Dodge. Only King, Martin Buser, Susan Butcher, and Doug Swingley have won the race four times; and only Rick Swenson has won it five times. At 50 years of age, King also became the oldest musher to win the race.
Mike Jayne won the Rookie of the Year Race on March 16 at 3:07:15 a.m. for being the first rookie to reach the finish. He arrived in 25th place, beating out Tove Sorensen, who finished in 28th and 29th place, both at 4:30:30 a.m.. Jayne beat five-time winner Rick Swenson, who finished his 30th Iditarod at 3:27:30 a.m. in 26th position, his worst place ever. Swenson is a member of the Iditarod Trail Committee board of directors, and has been making intimations of retirement.
Glenn Lockwood received the red lantern award for being the last to finish the race.
The awards will be presented again to the winners during the Awards Banquet at the Nome Recreation Center on March 19.
Scratches
Eleven mushers "scratched" (withdrew from the race):
Gary Paulsen was in 62nd place when he scratched on March 6 at 5:30 a.m. in Skwentna for "personal reasons"
Lori Townsend was in 44th place when she scratched on March 6 at 9:40 p.m. in Rainy Pass due to a possible rib injury.
Sandy McKee was in 78th place when she scratched on March 7 at 8:00 p.m. in Rainy Pass.
Rookie Sue Morgan from Richmond, Utah, was in 78th place when she scratched on March 8 at 8:00 a.m. in Rainy Pass due to a possible cracked rib.
Terry Adkins of Sand Coulee, Montana, was in 67th place when he scratched on March 10 at 10:15 a.m. in Takotna.
Rich Larson of Sand Coulee, Montana was in 69th place when he scratched on March 10 at 11:15 a.m. in McGrath due to the "lack of leaders in his team"
Richard Hum of Talkeetna, Alaska, scratched on March 10 at 11:20 a.m. in McGrath "because his team was young".
Jim Warren of Linwood, Michigan, scratched on March 10 at 12:07 p.m. in Takotna "based on well being of his remaining young team".
Matt Hayashida of Willow, Alaska scratched on March 11 at 7:45 a.m. in Cripple "based on the well being of his dog team".
Veteran Iditarod competitor John Barron of Helmsville, Montana, scratched on March 11 at 3:00 p.m. in Galena "because his team was sick".
Dave Tresino scratched on March 11 at 4:30 p.m. in Cripple due to a "lack of leaders".
One musher was withdrawn from the race. Withdrawing a musher is at the sole discretion of Race Marshall Mark Nordman:
Ben Valks of the Netherlands was withdrawn from the race after arriving in Shaktoolik on March 18 at 4:00 p.m. as the red lantern in last place. According to Norman's report, "Valks had taken good care of his team and himself throughout the race, but that in his judgment Valks' team was no longer considered competitive".
Canine fatalities
Each of the 83 teams was composed of 16 dogs at the start of the competitive race in Willow. Mushers are allowed to drop dogs at any checkpoint, usually because of concern over their performance, but also or for their health. Veterinarians examine the dogs at each checkpoint, and also have the discretion to withdraw dogs. Dropped dogs are flown to Anchorage or Nome, where they are provided with medical care. Teams are usually reduced to between 9 and 12 dogs by the time they arrived in Nome.
An average of 3 dogs die each year. A necropsy by a board certified veterinary pathologist is conducted after every fatality to determine the cause of death.
Yellowknife, a 4-year-old male from Noah Burmeister's team, died on March 9 at 6:00 a.m.. Yellowknife was initially dropped at Rohn on March 7, and was provided medical care in Anchorage. The preliminary necropsy indicated pneumonia as the cause of death.
Bear, a 3-year-old male from David Sawatzsky's team, died on March 11 between Cripple and Ruby. The gross necropsy found no abnormalities.
Cupid, a 4-year-old female from Jim Lanier's team, died on March 12 between Galena and Nulato. The gross necropsy found regurgitation and aspiration were the likely cause of death, and secondarily gastric ulcers.
Jack, a 5-year-old male from Wisconsin musher Ron Cortte's team, died on March 18 at White Mountain. Jack was examined by veterinarians on arrival and appeared normal, but died of unknown causes 30 min later.
Route
The race ran over the Alaska Range, where an avalanche claimed the life of Richard Strick Jr. in mid-February, into the former Gold Rush country of the Alaska Interior, past Athabaskan villages. Since 2006 is an even numbered year, the race followed the northern route from Ophir, past the halfway point at Cripple, before rejoining the main route at Kaltag, on the Yukon River. From Kaltag the race swings west to the Norton Sound, on coast of the Bering Sea.
March 4: Ceremonial start in Anchorage
Ceremonial start at Anchorage: The mushers departed Anchorage on March 4, 2006. A large crowd watched as 83 teams composed of a musher and twelve dogs pulling a dogsled, left the starting chute at the corner of Fourth and D Streets, and followed the 11 mi (18 km) route through the urban center. The mushers were accompanied on the sled by "Idita-riders", the high bidders in a pre-race auction.
Eagle River: After the mushers arrived at Eagle River, the dogs were transported by vehicle to the "restart" location. Normally this is at Wasilla, the headquarters of the Iditarod Trail Committee, and the race continues from there to the next checkpoint at Knik, before reaching Yentna Station. In 2006, the restart was pushed back to Willow, and continued on directly to Yentna, skipping Wasilla and Knik entirely.
March 5: Restart at Willow
Restart at Willow: The mushers departed the Community of Willow two minutes apart, in Bib order. The first musher (Loni Townsend, Bib 2) left on March 5 at 2:00 p.m. AKST, and the last (Paul Gebhardt, Bib 83) left 2 hr 44 min later at 4:44 p.m. The teams were increased to 16 dogs each. No additional dogs could be added, but they could be left behind at any of the checkpoints along the route.
Yentna: Four-time winner Doug Swingley departed Yentna in first place, on March 5 at 5:35 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Bryan Bearss (at 5:42 p.m.), Jim Lanier (5:47 p.m.), Lori Townsend (5:48 p.m.), and Jessie Royer (5:51 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 35 min (by 6:10 p.m.), the top 20 within 1 hr 2 min (by 6:37 p.m.), and the last within 8 hr 49 min (by March 6 at 2:24 a.m.). The last to leave, in 83rd place was Ben Valks.
Skwentna: Bryan Bearss departed Skwentna in first place, on March 5 at 9:19 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Ramy Brooks (at 9:46 p.m.), Melanie Gould (9:50 p.m.), Ramey Smyth (10:19 p.m.), and three-time winner Jeff King (10:21 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 2 hr 24 min (by 11:43 p.m.), the top 20 within 4 hr 54 min (by March 6, at 2:13 p.m.), and the last within 17 hr 30 min (by March 6 at 2:49 p.m.). The red lantern in 82nd place was Ben Valks, after Gary Paulsen scratched.
March 6: Alaska Range
Finger Lake: John Baker departed Finger Lake in first place, on March 6 at 9:15 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were fellow Alaska Native Ramy Brooks (at 9:31 a.m.), Doug Swingley (9:32 a.m.), Jeff King (9:53 a.m.), and Melanie Gould (10:00 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 1 hr 9 min (by 10:24 a.m.), the top 20 within 2 hr 55 min (by 12:10 p.m.), and the last within 1 day 0 hr 16 min (by March 7 at 9:31 a.m.). The red lantern in 82d place was Ben Valks.
Rainy Pass: Ramey Smyth departed Rainy Pass in first place, on March 6 at 2:46 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jessica Hendricks (at 6:18 p.m., 3 hr 32 min later), Lance Mackey (6:19 p.m.), the Norwegian Bjørnar Andersen (6:38 p.m.), and Paul Gebhardt (6:40 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 4 hr 42 min (by 7:28 p.m.), the top 20 within 5 hr 44 min (by 8:30 p.m.), and the last within 1 day 20 hr 32 min (by March 8 at 11:18 a.m.). The red lantern in 79th place was Ben Valks, after Lori Townsend, Sandy McKee, and Sue Morgan scratched.
Rohn: Doug Swingley departed Rohn in first place, on March 6 at 10:45 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jeff King (at 11:23 p.m.), Ramy Brooks (11:59 p.m.), Aliy Zirkle (March 7 at 0:11 a.m.), and 2004 winner Mitch Seavey (0:15 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 2 hr 46 min (by March 7 at 1:31 a.m.), the top 20 within 6 hr 5 min (by 4:50 a.m.), and the last within 2 days 3 hr 43 min (by March 9 at 2:28 a.m.). The red lantern in 79th place was Ben Valks.
March 7: Alaska Interior
Nikolai: Doug Swingley departed Nikolai in first place, on March 7 at 7:09 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jeff King (at 7:15 p.m.), Aliy Zirkle (7:45 p.m.), Ed Iten (8:46 p.m.), and Mitch Seavey (8:55 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 2 hr 16 min (by 9:25 p.m.), the top 20 within 4 hr 53 min (by March 8 at 0:02 a.m.), and the last within 2 days 15 hr 54 min (by March 10 at 11:03 a.m.). The red lantern in 79th place was Ben Valks.
March 8
McGrath: Doug Swingley departed McGrath in first place, on March 8 at 0:18 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jeff King (at 0:47 a.m.), Aliy Zirkle (2:21 a.m.), three-time runner up DeeDee Jonrowe (3:33 a.m.), and John Baker (5:13 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 6 hr 2 min (by 6:20 a.m.), the top 20 within 9 hr 14 min (by 9:32 a.m.), and the last within 3 days 8 hr 56 min (by March 11 at 9:14 a.m.). The red lantern in 77th place was Trent Herbst, after Richard Hum and Rick Larson scratched.
Takotna: Doug Swingley departed Takotna in first place, on March 8 at 8:19 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jason Barron, Mitch Seavey, John Barron (all three departed at 11:00 a.m.), and Ed Iten (11:08 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 5 hr 28 min (by 1:47 p.m.), the top 20 within 20 hr 29 min (by March 9 at 4:48 a.m.), and the last within 3 days 14 hr 48 min (by March 11 at 11:07 p.m.). The red lantern in 75th place was Ben Valks, after Terry Adkins and Jim Warren scratched.
Ophir: Doug Swingley departed Ophir in first place, on March 8 at 11:01 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were DeeDee Jonrowe (at 4:55 p.m.), Cim Smyth (4:58 p.m.), John Baker (5:26 p.m.), and Paul Gebhardt (6:35 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 19 hr 46 min (by March 9 at 6:46 a.m.), the top 20 within 28 hr 00 min (by March 9 at 3:01 p.m.), and the last within 3 days 15 hr 44 min (by March 12 at 2:45 a.m.). The red lantern in 75th place was Ben Valks.
March 9: Halfway
Cripple: Paul Gebhardt departed Cripple in first place, on March 9 at 1:48 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jeff King (at 10:45 p.m., 6 hr 57 min later), Aliy Zirkle (11:43 p.m.), Doug Swingley (March 10 at 3:05 a.m.), and Aaron Butmeister (March 10 at 4:34 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 17 hr 52 min (March 10 at 7:40 a.m.), the top 20 within 19 hr 13 min (by March 10 at 10:01 a.m.), and the last within 3 days 22 hr 14 min (by March 13 at 12:02 p.m.). The red lantern in 73rd place was Ben Valks, after Matt Hayashide and Dave Tresino scratched.
March 10: Yukon River
Ruby: Paul Gebardt departed Ruby in first place, on March 10 at 8:34 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Jeff King (at 4:01 p.m.), Doug Swingley (7:45 p.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (9:09 p.m.), and Aliy Zirkle (11:00 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 16 hr 22 min (by March 11 at 0:56 a.m.), the top 20 within 20 hr 38 min (by March 11 at 5:12 a.m.), and the last within 4 days 6 hr 27 min (by March 14 at 3:01 p.m.). The red lantern in 73rd place was Ben Valks.
March 11
Galena: Jeff King departed Galena in first place, on March 11 at 3:28 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 7:52 a.m.), Mitch Seavey (8:00 a.m.), Ed Iten (8:17 a.m.), and Jason Barron (also 8:17 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 8 hr 10 min (by 11:38 a.m.), the top 20 within 14 hr 5 min (by 5:33 p.m.), and the last within 4 days 6 hr 28 min (by March 15 at 9:56 a.m.). The red lantern in 72nd place was Ben Valks, after John Barron scratched.
Nulato: Jeff King departed Nulato in first place again, on March 11 at 1:06 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 1:27 p.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (3:27 p.m.), Lance Mackey (7:58 p.m.), and Paul Gebhardt (8:42 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 8 hr 26 min (by 9:32 p.m.), the top 20 within 16 hr 52 min (by March 12, at 5:58 a.m.), and the last within 4 days 10 hr 27 min (by March 15 at 11:33 p.m.). The red lantern in 72nd place was Ben Valks.
March 12: Bering Sea
Kaltag: Jeff King departed Kaltag in first place for the third straight checkpoint, on March 12 at 0:21 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 0:57 a.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (3:30 a.m.), Aliy Zirkle (3:37 a.m.), and John Baker (7:33 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 9 hr 9 min (by 9:30 a.m.), the top 20 within 15 hr 49 min (by 4:10 p.m.), and the last within 4 days 13 hr 29 min (by March 16 at 1:50 p.m.). The red lantern in 72nd place was Ben Valks.
Unalakleet: Jeff King departed Unalakleet in first place again, on March 12 at 6:50 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 8:40 p.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (March 13 at 0:48 a.m.), Bjørnar Andersen (2:52 a.m.), and John Baker (2:54 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 12 hr 7 min (by 6:57 a.m.), the top 20 within 19 hr 43 min (by 2:33 p.m.), and the last within 5 days 1 hr 49 min (by March 17 at 8:39 p.m.). The red lantern in 72nd place was Ben Valks.
March 13
Shaktoolik: Jeff King departed Shaktoolik in first place, on March 13 at 5:22 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 8:03 a.m.), Paul Gebhardt (8:44 a.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe(10:37 a.m.), and Bjørnar Andersen (12:27 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 11 hr 23 min (by 4:45 p.m.), the top 20 within 16 hr 53 min (by 10:15), and the last within 5 days 6 hr 55 min (by March 18 at 12:17 p.m.). The red lantern in 71st place was Katrina Pawlaczyk, after Ben Valks scratched.
Koyuk: Jeff King departed Koyuk in first place, on March 13 at 3:51 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 7:16 p.m.), Paul Gebhardt (9:33 p.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (9:35 p.m.), and Aliy Zirkle (9:42 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 12 hr 12 min (by March 14 at 4:03 a.m.), and the top 20 within 19 hr 1 min (by 10:52 a.m.).
Elim: Jeff King departed Elim in first place, on March 13 at 10:23 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (March 14 at 2:19 a.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (5:19 a.m.), Paul Gebhardt (5:27 a.m.), and John Baker (6:01 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 14 hr 7 min (by 12:30 p.m.), and the top 20 within 19 hr 8 min (by 5:31 p.m.).
March 14
White Mountain: Jeff King departed White Mountain in first place, on March 14 at 2:34 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 5:41 p.m.), Paul Gebhardt (8:00 p.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (8:29 p.m.), and John Baker (9:14 p.m.). The top 10 departed within 12 hr 33 min (by March 15 at 3:07 a.m.), and the top 20 within 18 hr 26 min (by 9:00 a.m.).
Safety: Jeff King departed Safety in first place, on March 14 at 9:53 p.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (March 15 at 0:57 a.m.), Paul Gebardt (2:31 a.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe(3:23 a.m.), and John Baker (4:31 a.m.). The top 10 departed within 11 hr 38 min (by 9:31 a.m.), and the top 20 within 17 hr 57 min (by 2:50 p.m.).
March 15: Burled arch
Nome: Jeff King passed under the "burled arch" on Front Street in Nome in first place, on March 15 at 1:11 a.m.. The remainder of the top 5 were Doug Swingley (at 4:18 a.m.), Paul Gebhardt (5:23 a.m.), DeeDee Jonrowe (6:25 a.m.), and John Baker (7:37 a.m.). The top 10 arrived within 10 hr 57 min (12:08 p.m.), and the top 20 within 18 hr 14 min (by 6:31 p.m.).
Notes
References
Checkpoint summary. (March 17, 2006, 13:15:46 AKST). 2005 Iditarod Trail Committee, Inc. Retrieved March 17 from Official Site of the Iditarod, 2006 Iditarod, Checkpoint Summary.
Gephardt first to reach Ruby: Receives "Millennium Alaskan Hotel First to the Yukon Award". (March 10, 2006). Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
Klott, Kevin. March 17, 2006. Jayne earns Iditarod rookie of the year. Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved March 17, 2006.
Little, Jon. (March 4, 2006). A no-brainer for Iditarod fantasy leaguers: Andersen is the team to beat. Retrieved from Cabela's Iditarod 2006 Race Coverage on March 13, 2006.
—. (March 4, 2006). Sun shines as teams launch into Iditarod 34. Retrieved from Cabela's Iditarod 2006 Race Coverage on March 13, 2006.
Nordman, Mark. (March 9, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 9, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 11, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advistory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 12, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved March 13, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 13, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved March 13, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 13, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved March 13, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 18, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Nome, Alaska. Retrieved March 18, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 18, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Nome, Alaska. Retrieved March 19, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 18, 2006). Iditarod XXXIV advisory. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Nome, Alaska. Retrieved March 19, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
St. George, Chas. (March 6, 2006). Paulsen scratches in Skwentna. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 6, 2006). Townsend scratches in Skwentna. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 7, 2006). McKee scratches in Skwentna. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 8, 2006). Morgan scratches in Rainy Pass. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 8, 2006). Swingley wins PENAIR Spirit of Alaska Award. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 9, 2006). Swingley is first to reach Cripple and a pot of gold nuggets. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 10, 2006). Adkins scratches in Takotna. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 10, 2006). Hum scratches in McGrath. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 10, 2006). Larson scratches in McGrath. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 10, 2006). Warren scratches in Takotna Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 11, 2006). Barron scratches in Galena. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 11, 2006). Hayashida scratches in Cripple Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 11, 2006). Tresino scratches in Cripple. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 12, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 12, 2006). First to Unalakleet. Tresino scratches in Cripple. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 13, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
—. (March 15, 2006). King makes it number four. Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race. Anchorage, Alaska. Retrieved on March 13, 2006, from Official Site of the Iditarod, For Press (pdf of press release).
External links
The official site
Blogging the Iditarod Trail
Cabela's coverage
Anchorage Daily News coverage
Iditarod Podcast Coverage (unofficial site, podcast and vodcast coverage of start and restart)
Student Broadcast Team Coverage (Students who live on the trail produce Iditarod race reports, interviews & stories)
Daily pictures from a school in Shageluk
Nome Alaska Radio Station broadcasts the finish live!
Musher home pages
Team Norway (Bjørnar Andersen)
Ramy Brooks
Martin Buser
Lance Mackey
Karen Ramstead
Ed Stielstra
Aliy Zirkle
Iditarod
Iditarod
Iditarod |
4270413 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20in%20Norway | Islam in Norway | Islam is the second largest religion in Norway after Christianity. As of 2023, the number of Muslims living in Norway was 182,607 (3.3% of the population of 5,514,042). The majority of Muslims in Norway are Sunni, with a significant Shia minority. 55 percent of Muslims in the country live in Oslo and Akershus. The vast majority of Muslims have an immigrant background, and very few Norwegians are Muslim.
History
Icelandic annals date the arrival of representatives from the Muslim sultan of Tunis in Norway in the 1260s, after King Håkon Håkonsson had sent embassies to the Sultan with rich gifts. However, the number of Muslims in the country was not significant until the latter half of the 20th century. By 1958, Ahmadiyya missionaries had attracted a small number of converts and established a small community in Oslo. Immigration from Muslim countries to Norway began late compared to other western European countries and did not gather pace until the late 1960s. However, due to the oil boom, labor migration lasted longer than in other countries. The first Pakistani immigrant laborers arrived in 1967. In 1975, labor immigration to Norway was halted, but rules for family reunification were relatively relaxed for several more years. As a result, while most immigrants until the 1970s were laborers, immigration in the 1980s and 1990s was dominated by those seeking asylum.
The number of Muslims in Norway was first registered in official statistics in 1980 when it was given as 1006. These statistics were based on membership of a registered congregation. The actual number is likely to be higher given that few Muslims were then members of a mosque. Historian of religion Kari Vogt estimates that 10% of Norwegian Muslims were members of a mosque in 1980, a proportion which had increased to 70% by 1998. Being a member of a mosque was an alien concept to many immigrants from Muslim countries. The number of registered members of mosques increased to 80,838 in 2004, but then dropped to 72,023 in 2006. Part of the reason for the drop could be a new methodology in the compilation of statistics.
At the end of the 1990s, Islam passed the Roman Catholic Church and Pentecostalism to become the largest minority religion in Norway, provided Islam is seen as one group. However, as of 2013, the Roman Catholic Church regained its position as the largest minority religion in Norway due to increasing immigration from European countries and less immigration from Muslim-majority countries. In 2009, the total number of registered Muslim congregations was 126. More than 40 prayer locations exist in the city of Oslo.
In 2010 a Muslim from Örebro in Sweden wanted to build a mosque in Tromsø with money from Saudi Arabia but the Norwegian government declined to give permission on the grounds that Saudi Arabia has no freedom of religion and potential Norwegian money to churches in the opposite direction would be stopped as churches are illegal there.
In June 2018, the parliament of Norway passed a bill banning clothing covering the face at educational institutions as well as daycare centres, which included face-covering Islamic veils. The prohibition applies to pupils and staff alike.
Religiosity
Studies conducted for a TV channel in 2006 found that 18% of Norwegian Muslims reported visiting the mosque once a week. A similar study in 2007 reported that 36% of Muslim youth visit the mosque less than once a month.
According to a 2007/2008 survey of students at upper secondary schools in Oslo, 25% of Muslims pray regularly while 12% attend religious services weekly.
Opinion
According to a survey in 2016, about 98% of Norwegian Muslims believed that Human rights are important, about 94% believed Democracy is important, and 95% believed that Muslims should live in peace with Non-Muslims. In the same poll a minority of 47% said that it is not important to follow Sharia law.
According to a 2017 poll, 3 out of 10 Muslims agree it's important to follow Sharia law.
According to a survey of 4,000 Muslims in 2017, only two percent agreed to statements such as "Islam allows the use of violence" and that the September 11 attacks on America in 2001 can be justified.
Radicalizations
About 70 people have left Norway to become foreign fighters in Syria or Iraq, while around 20 have returned.
In May 2019 it was announced that those who had joined the Islamic State who only had residence permits in Norway would have their permits annulled to prevent them from returning to Norway. And in September 2019, 15 foreigners in Norway had their residence permits revoked.
Conversion
In 2004, it was estimated that 500-1,000 Norwegians have converted to Islam. Many Norwegians, both men and women, have converted in order to marry Muslims.
Demographics
Muslims in Norway are a very fragmented group, coming from many different backgrounds. Kari Vogt estimated in 2000 that there were about 500 Norwegian converts to Islam. The rest are mostly first or second-generation immigrants from a number of countries. The largest immigrant communities from Muslim countries in Norway are from Pakistan, Iraq and Somalia:
An unknown, but presumably high, proportion of these immigrant populations is Muslim. In other words, the largest group of Norwegian Muslims originate in Pakistan, but no single nationality constitute as much as a quarter of the total population.
The Turkish, Pakistani and Iranian communities are quite established in Norway. 55% of Iranians have lived in Norway for more than 10 years. The Iraqis are a more recent group, with 80% of the Iraqi community having arrived in the past 10 years.
In the 1990s there was a wave of asylum seekers from the Balkans, mostly Bosniaks. In recent years most immigrants arrive as part of family reunification.
According to the Verdens Gang newspaper, during the 1990s around 500 people converted to Islam in Norway and this number increased to around 3,000 in 2019.
By county (2019)
By region (2019)
Organizations
Mosques have been important, not just as places of prayer, but also as a meeting place for members of minority groupings. Several mosques also do different forms of social work, e.g. organising the transport of deceased members back to their countries of origin for burial. The mosques are mostly situated in regular city blocks, and are not easily visible features of the cities.
Some of the earliest attempts to organize Islamic worship in Norway was done by labor organizations as early Muslims were labor migrants. The first mosque was established in 1972 by Pakistani immigrants. Another mosque, the Islamic Cultural Centre (ICC) opened in Oslo in 1974. The initiative for the mosque came from Pakistanis who were helped by the Islamic Cultural Centre which had already opened in Copenhagen in Denmark. The new mosque adhered to the deobandi branch of Sunni Islam. Adherents of the Sufi inspired Barelwi movement, who constituted the majority of Pakistanis in Norway, soon felt the need for a mosque of their own, and opened the Central Jamaat-e Ahl-e Sunnat in 1976. Today this is the second largest mosque in Norway, with over 6,000 members. The first Shia mosque, Anjuman-e hussaini, was founded in 1975, and until 1994 was the only Shia congregation. The Tablighi Jamaat came to Norway in 1977. An Albanian mosque was established in 1989, and a Bosnian mosque in the 1990s. Until the 1990s, mosques and Islamic organizations in Norway were established along ethnic lines. Such establishments were by immigrants from Pakistan, Turkey, Morocco, Arab world, Somalia, The Gambia and Bosnia.
Starting , Muslims of different ethnicities and sects came together to form umbrella organizations. The Muslim Defence Committee was established in 1989 to give an Islamic response to the Salman Rushdie affair. The Islamic Women's Group of Norway and Urtehagen Foundation were established in 1991, and in 1993 the Islamic Council of Norway was established to conduct dialogue with the Church of Norway. Another major change in the 1990s was that mosques became more inclusive to women. For example, in 1999 the ICC began offering Arabic and Qur'an classes to women and including women in Eid prayers.
Also in the 1990s, Muslim youth and student associations were established. In 1995, the Muslim Student Society (MSS) was founded at the University of Oslo, driven by a need to find prayer space for Islamic prayer. The MSS soon expanded its activities to include conducting interfaith dialogue, courses on dawah, iftar during Ramadan, and other community projects. In 1996, the Muslim Youth of Norway (NMU) was founded. In 1999, NMU began publishing Explore (later called Ung Muslim) a magazine geared towards Norwegian Muslim youth.
By 2005, only one purpose-built mosque existed in Norway, built by the Sufi-inspired Sunni Muslim World Islamic Mission in Oslo in 1995. Minhaj-ul-Quran International established its mosque and centre in 1987. In 2000, this was the first Norwegian mosque to start performing the adhan - the call to prayer. Initially, the mosque received permission from Gamle Oslo borough to perform the adhan once a week. This was appealed to county authorities by the Progress Party. The ruling of the fylkesmann (county governor) of Oslo and Akershus stated that no permission was required for performing the adhan, leaving the mosque free to perform it at their own discretion. The mosque decided to limit themselves to performing the adhan once a week.
While less than 10% of Muslims were members of an Islamic organization in 1980, this figure rose to 50% in 1990, and increased to 55% by 2007.
Umbrella organisations
The main umbrella organization in Norway is the Islamic Council Norway, which was set up in 1993. As of 2008, it comprises 40 member organisations totalling 60,000 members. One researcher estimates it represents 50-75% of all Norwegian Muslims. Since 1997, the Islamic Council has also had Shia representation. The Islamic Council is regularly consulted by the government in matters of religion. The Council is also involved with interfaith dialogue, particularly with the Church of Norway. In 2009, the Islamic Council publicly denounced harassment of homosexuals. Minhaj-ul-Quran has a branch in Norway and community centre was established in Oslo in 1987. In 1991, the Islamic Women's Group Norway (Islamsk Kvinnegruppe Norge) was founded, after an initiative by the Norwegian convert Nina Torgersen. In 1995, a Muslim Students' Society (Muslimsk Studentsamfunn) was established at the University of Oslo, with some of its officers, such as Mohammad Usman Rana, becoming important voices in the Norwegian public sphere. The Islamic foundation Urtehagen was established in 1991 by the Norwegian convert Trond Ali Linstad, at first running a kindergarten and youth club. In 1993, Linstad applied for the first time to establish a Muslim private school. The Labour Party government of Gro Harlem Brundtland rejected the application in 1995, stating that it would be "detrimental to the integration of the children". After the Labour government was replaced by the government of Kjell Magne Bondevik of the Christian People's Party in 1997, Linstad applied again, and his application was approved in 1999. In August 2001, Urtehagen School (Urtehagen friskole) opened with 75 pupils. However, internal conflicts at the school led to its closure in the spring of 2004. Plans to open a similar school in Drammen in 2006 were blocked after the new center-left government stopped all new private schools after coming to power in 2005.
Ahmadiyya
Various Ahmadi mosques include Noor Mosque, opened in Oslo August 1, 1980, and Baitun Nasr Mosque in Furuset, Oslo. There are about 1,700 Ahmadi Muslims in Norway. The majority of the Ahmadi Muslims in Norway are from Pakistan.
Salafi
Profetens Ummah is a Salafist organisation notorious for its statements and vocal demonstrations praising Islamic terrorism. Many Norwegian jihadi fighters for ISIL have links with the organizations, and some Norwegians who joined ISIL were also members of the radical organization Islam Net, founded in 2008.
Non-Denominational Islam
In June 2017, Thee Yezen al-Obaide revealed plans to create a mosque in Oslo named Masjid al-Nisa (The Women's Mosque). In an interview, al-Obaide described the mosque as "a feminist mosque where women have as much space as men. Both men and women should be able to lead prayers, and all genders should be able to pray in the same room." The mosque will also be open to LGBT people and has been compared to the Ibn Ruschd-Goethe mosque in Germany and the Mariam Mosque in Denmark.
Culture
Since 2007, the Islamic Cultural Centre stages an Eid Mela annually that attracts around 5,000 visitors. The event involves food, concerts, and other activities.
Islamic dress
In 2007, a debate arose over banning face veils in higher education but institutions advised against such a bill. Similar debates occurred in 2010 but again did not result in a ban. In 2012, a student at the University of Tromsø was expelled from class by a professor but no general ban was adopted. However, the Oslo City Council and County Board of Østfold banned niqabs in teaching situations at their high schools. Norwegian law does not make reference to the right for people to wear religious headgear, but the issue is part of by the Working Environment Act and the Gender Equality Act. The Norwegian Labour Inspectorate considers refusal to accommodate religious headgear as discrimination. Hijabs have been incorporated into uniforms in the army, healthcare, etc.
In a 2014 poll conducted by the Norwegian Directorate of Integration and Diversity, a majority of Norwegians held negative views over the wearing of the hijab outside the home. Stronger disagreement (75%) was expressed towards the hijab being part of the police uniform in Norway. Concerning the full-cover niqab, 86% expressed a negative or very negative opinion.
In June 2017, the Norwegian government proposed rules banning female students from wearing full-face veils. Education Minister Torbjørn Røe Isaksen said that in their perspective, full-face veils like the hijab have no place in educational settings since they hinder good communication. The administration is subsequently examining the likelihood of controlling the utilization of such pieces of clothing in childcare focuses, schools and colleges.
The Prime Minister of Norway Erna Solberg stated in an interview that in Norwegian work environments it is essential to see each other's faces and therefore anyone who insists on wearing a niqab is in practice unemployable. Solberg also views the wearing of the niqab as a challenge to social boundaries in the Norwegian society, a challenge that would be countered by Norway setting boundaries of its own. Solberg also stated that anyone may wear what they wish in their spare time and that her comments applied to professional life but that any immigrant has the obligation to adapt to Norwegian work life and culture.
In June 2018, the parliament of Norway passed a bill banning clothing covering the face at educational institutions as well as daycare centres, which included face-covering Islamic veils. The prohibition applies to pupils and staff alike.
In April 2019, telecom company Telia received bomb threats after featuring a Muslim woman taking off her hijab in a commercial. Although the police considered unlikely that the threat would be carried out, delivering such threats is still a crime in Norway.
Interfaith relations
Following the 2015 Copenhagen shootings, Norwegian Muslims were among those taking part in a vigil on February 21, 2015, evening, in which they joined hands with Norwegian Jews and others to form a symbolic protective ring around the Norwegian capital's main synagogue.
In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims. Such antisemitism was condemned by Muslim organizations in Norway.
A 2017 study by the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities found that negative attitudes towards Muslims and Jews were prevalent. 34% of Norwegians had negative attitudes towards Muslims. Among Muslim immigrants who have lived in Norway for at least 5 years, 28.9% had negative attitudes towards Jews (compared to 8.3% for the population). The survey also found that a majorities of Norwegian Jews and Norwegian Muslims believed in cooperating with one another to fight discrimination.
Discrimination
Islamophobia refers to the set of discourses, behaviours and structures which express feelings fear, towards Islam and Muslims in Norway. Islamophobia can manifest itself through discrimination in the workforce, negative coverage in the media, and violence against Muslims. In 2004 the slogan, "Ikke mobb kameraten min (Don't touch my hijab)," was adopted by a Norwegian protest movement focused around the case of Ambreen Pervez and a proposed hijab ban. Pervez was told by her employer that she was not to wear her hijab to work. The slogan was an adaption of the French slogans, "Ne touche pas a mon pote (Don't touch my buddy)," and, "Touche pas à mon foulard (Don't touch my hijab.)" A number of employment discrimination cases in Norway arose over the wearing of the hijab.
Public opinion
A 2005 study analyzed the portrayal of Muslims in the 8 largest newspapers of Norway. It found that Muslims were generally portrayed negatively, even more negatively than other immigrants, and only 3% of the articles portrayed Muslims positively.
In a 2014 poll conducted by the Norwegian Directorate of Integration and Diversity, 5 of 10 Norwegians considered Islamic values to be either completely or partially incompatible with Norwegian society.
According to a 2017 poll study by the Norwegian Center for Studies of the Holocaust and Religious Minorities, 34.1% of the population showed strong prejudice against Muslims: 27.8% feels "disgusted" by Muslims; 19.6% would not want Muslims as neighbors; 42% thought that Muslims did not want to integrate into Norway; 39% saw Muslims as a "threat" to Norwegian culture; 31% thought that Muslims wanted to take over Europe. These figures were slightly lower than those from a similar study made in 2011. Nevertheless 75% of Norwegians condemned acts of anti-Muslim violence.
According to a 2020 poll conducted by the Norwegian Directorate of Integration and Diversity, a slight majority of people of Norway (52%) consider Islam incompatible with fundamental values of the Norwegian society. This result had been similar for the last 15 years. By comparison, only a minority (22%) considered Buddhism incompatible with Norwegian values.
See also
Iraqis in Norway
Norwegians with Pakistani background
Syrians in Norway
Norwegian Iranians
Ahmadiyya in Norway
History of Islam in the Arctic and Subarctic regions
References
Sources
- Northern Scholar lecture, University of Edinburgh
External links
Minhaj-ul-Quran, Norway
"Religious communities and life stance communities, 1 January 2012," Statistics Norway (Published: 4 December 2012). Retrieved 24-11-2013.
Statistics Norway: Who do immigrants in Norway marry?
Statistics Norway: Focus on Immigration and Immigrants
Links: Islam in Western Europe: Norway
Islamic Council Norway in Norwegian
Jacobsen, Christine M. and Oddbjørn Leirvik (2013) "Norway" in Jørgen S. Nielsen (ed.) Yearbook of Muslims in Europe, Leiden: Brill, Vol. 5, updated 2013.
Jørgen S. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh, 1992) |
4270540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3%3A10%20to%20Yuma%20%282007%20film%29 | 3:10 to Yuma (2007 film) | 3:10 to Yuma is a 2007 American western action drama film directed by James Mangold and produced by Cathy Konrad, starring Russell Crowe and Christian Bale in the lead roles with supporting performances by Peter Fonda, Gretchen Mol, Ben Foster, Dallas Roberts, Alan Tudyk, Vinessa Shaw, and Logan Lerman. It is about a drought-impoverished rancher (Bale) who takes on the dangerous job of taking a notorious outlaw (Crowe) to justice. It is the second adaptation of Elmore Leonard's 1953 short story "Three-Ten to Yuma", after the 1957 film of the same name. Filming took place in various locations in New Mexico. 3:10 to Yuma opened September 7, 2007, in the United States and received positive reviews from critics. It grossed $71 million worldwide on the budget of $48–55 million.
Plot
In 1884 Arizona, Dan Evans is a poor rancher and Civil War veteran who owes money to the wealthy Glen Hollander. One night, Hollander's men burn down his barn and scatter his cattle as a warning to pay his debts. The next morning Evans and his two sons are searching for their lost herd when they stumble upon Ben Wade and his gang robbing an armored stagecoach staffed by Pinkertons. Wade sees Evans and his two sons watching from the hills and decides that they aren't a threat to his gang, so Wade takes their horses, promising to leave them tied up "on the road to Bisbee", so that Evans can recover them, but won't be able to give warning immediately. After Wade's gang departs, Evans rescues the lone surviving coach guard, Byron McElroy, left alive but severely wounded.
Wade and his gang ride to Bisbee to drink at the local saloon and divide up the loot. The gang departs but Wade chooses to stay behind to enjoy the company of the barmaid. Evans brings McElroy to veterinarian/lawman Doc Potter, then tries in vain to negotiate his debt with Hollander. Evans then finds Wade emerging from an upstairs room in the saloon and coaxes a few dollars from Wade over the trouble he caused Evans. As the two talk, lawmen surround the saloon and arrest Wade.
Grayson Butterfield, the railroad's representative, hires a posse consisting of McElroy, Potter, Tucker (one of Hollander's men), and Evans to take Wade to Contention, where Wade is to be put on the 3:10 afternoon train to Yuma Territorial Prison. Evans asks for $200 () to deliver Wade, which Butterfield agrees to. The group meets at Evans's ranch, where McElroy arranges for a decoy wagon to distract Wade's gang.
During the journey, both Tucker and McElroy provoke Wade; he stabs Tucker to death with a stolen fork and throws McElroy off a cliff. Wade attempts to escape but is stopped when Evans's son William appears. The group is ambushed by Apaches, allowing Wade to use the confusion to flee into a Chinese laborer construction camp. The foreman of the camp captures Wade and the posse arrives to collect him, but the foreman, holding an old grudge against the outlaw, wants to kill Wade. A gunfight breaks out between the two groups, killing Potter while the rest escape with Wade. They arrive in Contention hours before the train's departure time and check into a hotel, where several local marshals join them.
Wade's gang members ambush the decoy wagon and kill everyone after finding out that Wade is in Contention. The gang, now led by Charlie Prince, offers a $200 cash reward to anyone who kills one of Wade's captors. Numerous men volunteer, causing the town's marshals to desert immediately; Wade's men kill them when they try to surrender. Butterfield resigns as well, but agrees to keep William safe at Evans's behest. Evans agrees to put Wade on the prison train if Butterfield pays him $1000, escorts his son safely home, grants his farm access to river water, and gets Hollander to leave his family alone.
Evans escorts Wade out of the hotel, and the two make their way across town, evading continuous gunfire from the gang and the townsmen. Wade surprises Evans and nearly strangles him, but relents when Evans reveals that delivering Wade to the train is not only for his family but his honor as well. Wade then admits he has already been to Yuma Prison and escaped twice, and agrees to board the train, allowing Evans's contract to be fulfilled and redeeming Evans to his sons.
Wade helps Evans evade his gang and finally boards the train, congratulating Evans on his efforts. Charlie appears and shoots Evans despite Wade's order to stop. Wade steps off the train, comforting Evans in his final moments. When Charlie returns Wade's gun belt, he abruptly executes Charlie along with the rest of his gang. William appears and draws his gun on Wade but does not kill him, instead turning to his dying father. Wade boards the train and politely surrenders his weapon. Evans dies as William tells him he accomplished his mission and got the money. Butterfield watches the train depart with Wade on it. As the train disappears around a bend, Wade whistles, and his faithful horse pricks up his ears and gallops after the train, indicating that Wade is already planning his next escape.
Cast
Russell Crowe as Ben Wade, the ruthless leader of a gang of outlaws
Christian Bale as Dan Evans, a one-legged war veteran turned rancher
Logan Lerman as William Evans, Dan's eldest son, who dreams of adventure
Dallas Roberts as Grayson Butterfield, an agent of the Southern Pacific Railroad
Ben Foster as Charlie Prince, Ben's ruthless right-hand
Peter Fonda as Byron McElroy, an elderly bounty hunter working for the railroad who has history with Wade
Vinessa Shaw as Emma Nelson
Alan Tudyk as Doc Potter, a veterinarian and volunteer lawman
Gretchen Mol as Alice Evans, Dan's wife
Lennie Loftin as Glen Hollander, Dan's creditor
Johnny Witworth as Darden
Kevin Durand as Tucker, a sadistic ranch hand employed by Glen Hollander
Luke Wilson as Zeke
Production
In June 2003, Columbia Pictures announced a negotiation with Mangold to helm a remake of the 1957 Western film 3:10 to Yuma, based on a script written by Michael Brandt and Derek Haas. After being apart from the project for several years, Mangold resumed his role as director in February 2006. Production was slated to begin in summer 2006. In the same month, Tom Cruise expressed an interest in starring as the villain in the film. Eric Bana also briefly sought a role in the film.
In summer 2006, Columbia placed the film in turnaround, and the project was acquired by Relativity Media. Crowe and Bale were cast as the main characters, and Relativity began seeking a distributor for the film. By September, Lions Gate Entertainment signed on to distribute the film. Later in the month, Peter Fonda, Gretchen Mol, Dallas Roberts, Ben Foster, and Vinessa Shaw were cast. Filming was slated to begin on October 23, 2006, in New Mexico. On the first day of filming, a rider and his horse were seriously injured in a scene when the horse ran directly into a camera-carrying vehicle instead of veering off as planned. The rider was hospitalized, and the horse had to be euthanized on the set. The animal's death prompted an investigation from the American Humane Association. By November, the AHA concluded its investigation, finding that the horse did not respond accordingly due to having received a dual training approach and the rider not being familiar with the mount. The organization recommended no charges against the producers. Principal photography took place in and around Santa Fe, Abiquiú, and Galisteo. The Bonanza Creek Ranch represented the film's town of Bisbee as a "kinder, gentler frontier town" while Galisteo was set up to be Contention (now a ghost town), a "much rougher, bawdier, kind of sin city". Others locations were the scenic Diablo Canyon and the Gilman Tunnels () along New Mexico State Road 485. Filming concluded on January 20, 2007.
After filming concluded, the owners of the Cerro Pelon Ranch petitioned to keep a $2 million expansion to the movie set on their property, which was supposed to be dismantled within 90 days. The set of 3:10 to Yuma made up 75% of the overall sets on the ranch. The county's development review committee granted their request, which enabled the possibility of future revenue generation.
Release
3:10 to Yuma was originally slated for an October 5, 2007 release, but Lionsgate moved the film's release a month earlier to September 7, 2007, to beat competing Western films The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford and No Country for Old Men. As a result of the move, the studio was not able to use the Toronto International Film Festival as a platform for the film's release, but it was released before a cluster of films similarly vying for awards. According to Lionsgate president Tom Ortenberg, "In what is shaping up to be a very impressive and crowded field of upscale commercial motion pictures this fall, we wanted to be one of the first ones out, so that everything else will be measured against us." The earlier theatrical run positioned it for a prominent high-definition Blu-ray Disc and DVD release in the first week of January, during awards seasons. Lionsgate similarly planned this strategy for Crash (2004), which won the Academy Award for Best Picture that year.
In Germany, the film was released by Columbia Pictures, which had produced the 1957 original.
Reception
Box office
3:10 to Yuma debuted in the United States and Canada on September 7, 2007, in 2,652 theaters. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $14 million and ranked #1 at the U.S. and Canadian box office. 3:10 to Yuma grossed $53.6 million in the United States and $17.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $71.2 million.
Critical response
On film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89% based on 223 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "The remake of this classic Western improves on the original, thanks to fiery performances from Russell Crowe and Christian Bale as well as sharp direction from James Mangold." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer said "There is more greed-driven corruption in the remake than there was in the original" and that the film is less a remake "than a resurrection of both the film and its now unfashionable genre." Sarris said Fonda and Foster "are especially memorable" and said "the performances of Mr. Crowe and Mr. Bale alone are worth the price of admission."
The New Yorker film critic David Denby wrote that the film "is faster, more cynical, and more brutal" than the 1957 film. Denby wrote that Fonda "gives an amazingly fierce performance" and that Crowe "gives a fascinating, self-amused performance", saying "Crowe is an acting genius." Denby said "this is by far [director James Mangold's] most sustained and evocative work." Denby wrote that "much of this Western is tense and intricately wrought."
Ty Burr of The Boston Globe called the film "lean, almost absurdly satisfying." Burr wrote that Crowe and Bale "are among the best, most intuitively creative we have, and whatever transpires offscreen in Crowe’s case, onscreen they only serve their characters. Neither man showboats here, and it’s a thrill to watch them work." Burr said that the character of Ben Wade is "a snake and a snake charmer in one irresistible package" and said Foster as Charlie Prince is "mesmerizing." Burr said "Bale and Crowe never once misstep" and that Mangold "steers clear of Deadwood revisionism." Burr, however, wrote that the ending "makes little to no sense in a post-Clint Eastwood universe."
Bruce Westbrook of the Houston Chronicle gave the film 3½ stars and called it "the best Western since Unforgiven", calling it "both cathartic and intelligent." He wrote that the film "draws clear inspiration from the lonely heroics of High Noon" and said "While a wildly eventful action-adventure and outlaw shoot-'em-up, it's also a vibrant story of heroism, villainy and hard-earned redemption." Westbrook said that Crowe and Bale are "at the top of their game" and "Crowe is reliably charismatic as a man who's less craven and bloodthirsty than wise, resourceful and expedient." Shawn Levy of The Oregonian gave the film a "B+" and said the film is "grounded in something like the credible realism of a John Ford Western but which also can appease the thirsts for blood, wit and tension harbored by fans of Quentin Tarantino." Levy wrote "The original film spends much time on conversation between Wade and Evans and focuses more on Evans's wife, whereas the new film has more action sequences and is infused subtly with themes that echo vexing contemporary political and moral issues." Levy said "Christian Bale gives us another of his wounded, desperate, stubborn men" and "Russell Crowe fills a role originated by Glenn Ford with a big dose of the mocking charisma, cool discernment and casual cruelty of Robert Mitchum." Levy said the climax "sews up the narrative too quickly", but called the film "a fine and sturdy picture."
The Christian Science Monitor critic Peter Rainer gave the film a "B+" and wrote "what Alfred Hitchcock once said about thrillers also applies to Westerns: The stronger the bad guy, the better the film. By that measure, 3:10 to Yuma is excellent." Comparing the film to the 1957 film, Rainer wrote that the film "is larger in scope than its predecessor, and significantly altered in its ending, but essentially it's the same old morality play." Rainer said the "drippy father-son stuff is the least successful aspect of the movie." Rainer also wrote "Bale acts as if he's still playing the POW survivalist from Werner Herzog's Rescue Dawn" and said "his hyperrealistic performance is a drag next to Crowe's dapper prince of darkness." Rainer said Crowe's "underplaying here is in many ways as hammy as if he were overplaying, and that's just fine."
Richard Schickel of Time said "when a movie is as entertaining as this one, you begin to think this formerly beloved genre is due for a revival." Schickel said the 1957 film "was, in my opinion, not as good as a lot of people thought" and said Crowe "never settles for predictability when he's on screen and never lets us settle into complacency as we watch him." Schickel wrote that director Mangold "never loses his crispness or his narrative efficiency." Schickel said the comparisons to Unforgiven "are not entirely apt", saying that "Mangold's offering lacks the blackness and absurdity" of that film. He wrote, "It is more in the vein of Anthony Mann's westerns of the 1950s — trim, efficiently paced, full of briskly stated conflicts that edge up to the dark side, but never fully embrace it."
IGN praised Foster's performance as Charlie Prince, saying, "the real scene-stealer in the film, though, is Foster. Crazy-eyed gunslinger Charlie Prince is like a loyal but wild dog who will maul anyone seeking to hurt his master and would follow him into hell if need be. There is a glance between Ben and Charlie near the end that is one of the most moving and dramatic moments seen in any film this year." UGO ranked Foster's character #50 in their "Best Second-In-Commands", saying that "Stepping up to fill Ben Wade's shoes is tough business, but that's the task the psycho cowboy Charlie Prince was left with when his bank robbing leader was wrangled by the police."
Awards and nominations
The film received two Academy Award nominations for the 80th Academy Awards. Marco Beltrami was nominated for Best Original Score, and Paul Massey, David Giammarco, and Jim Stuebe were nominated for Best Sound Mixing. The film also received a nomination for Best Cast at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards.
See also
List of American films of 2007
3:10 to Yuma (1957 film), the first film adaptation directed by Delmer Daves and starring Glenn Ford (as Wade), Van Heflin (as Evans), and Felicia Farr (as Emmy).
References
External links
3:10 to Yuma at MoviePress
Production notes
2007 films
2007 Western (genre) films
Remakes of American films
American Western (genre) films
2000s English-language films
Films based on adaptations
Films based on American short stories
Films based on works by Elmore Leonard
Films directed by James Mangold
Films produced by Cathy Konrad
Films scored by Marco Beltrami
Films set in Arizona
Films set on trains
Films shot in New Mexico
Lionsgate films
Relativity Media films
Revisionist Western (genre) films
Western (genre) film remakes
2000s American films |
4270664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asimina%20triloba | Asimina triloba | Asimina triloba, the American papaw, pawpaw, paw paw, or paw-paw, among many regional names, is a small deciduous tree native to the eastern United States and Canada, producing a large, yellowish-green to brown fruit. Asimina is the only temperate genus in the tropical and subtropical flowering plant family Annonaceae, and Asimina triloba has the most northern range of all. Well-known tropical fruits of different genera in family Annonaceae include the custard-apple, cherimoya, sweetsop, ylang-ylang, and soursop.
The pawpaw is a patch-forming (clonal) understory tree of hardwood forests, which is found in well-drained, deep, fertile bottomland and also hilly upland habitat. It has large, simple leaves with drip tips, more characteristic of plants in tropical rainforests than within this species' temperate range. Pawpaw fruits are the largest edible fruit indigenous to the United States (not counting gourds, which are typically considered vegetables rather than fruit for culinary purposes, although in botany they are classified as fruit).
Pawpaw fruits are sweet, with a custard-like texture, and a flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and pineapple. They are commonly eaten raw, but are also used to make ice cream and baked desserts. However, the bark, leaves, fruit, and seeds contain the potent neurotoxin annonacin.
Names
This plant's scientific name is Asimina triloba. The genus name Asimina is adapted from the Native American (probably Miami-Illinois) name or combining the root terms rassi= “divided lengthwise into equal parts” and min= “seed, fruit, nut, berry, etc.” through the French colonial . The specific epithet triloba in the species' scientific name refers to the flowers' three-lobed calyx (green in photo at right) and doubly three-lobed corollas, the shape not unlike a tricorne hat.
The common name of this species is variously spelled pawpaw, paw paw, paw-paw, and papaw. It probably derives from the Spanish papaya, an American tropical and subtropical fruit (Carica papaya) sometimes also called "papaw", perhaps because of the superficial similarity of their fruits and the fact that both have very large leaves. The name pawpaw or papaw, first recorded in print in English in 1598, originally meant the giant herb Carica papaya or its fruit (as it still commonly does in many English-speaking communities, including Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). Daniel F. Austin's Florida Ethnobotany states that:
The original "papaw" ... is Carica papaya. By 1598, English-speaking people in the Caribbean were calling these plants "pawpaws" or "papaws" ... [yet later, when English-speakers settled in] the temperate Americas, they found another tree with a similarly aromatic, sweet fruit. It reminded them of the "papaya", which had already become "papaw", so that is what they called these different plants ... By 1760, the names "papaw" and "pawpaw" were being applied to A. triloba.
Yet A. triloba has had numerous local common names, many of which compare it to a banana rather than to Carica papaya. These include wild banana, prairie banana, Indiana banana, Hoosier banana, West Virginia banana, Kansas banana, Kentucky banana, Michigan banana, Missouri banana, Appalachian banana, Ozark banana, Indian banana, banango, and the poor man's banana, as well as American custard apple, asimoya, Quaker delight, and hillbilly mango.
Due to increased interest in the foraging and locavore food movement during the late 2010s and the COVID-19 pandemic, the pawpaw has been referred to tongue-in-cheek as the "hipster banana".
Several tribes of Native Americans have terms for the pawpaw such as (Pawnee), (Kansa), and (Choctaw).
Description
A. triloba is a large shrub or small tree growing to a height of , rarely as tall as , with trunks or more in diameter. The large leaves of pawpaw trees are clustered symmetrically at the ends of the branches, giving a distinctive imbricated appearance to the tree's foliage.
The leaves of the species are simple, alternate and spirally arranged, entire, deciduous, obovate-lanceolate, long, broad, and wedge-shaped at the base, with an acute apex and an entire margin, with the midrib and primary veins prominent. The petioles are short and stout, with a prominent adaxial groove. Stipules are lacking. The expanding leaves are conduplicate, green, covered with rusty tomentum beneath, and hairy above; when fully grown they are smooth, dark green above, and paler beneath. When bruised, the leaves have a disagreeable odor similar to a green bell pepper. In autumn, the leaves are a rusty yellow, allowing pawpaw groves to be spotted from a long distance.
Pawpaw flowers are perfect, about across, rich red-purple or maroon when mature, with three sepals and six petals. They are borne singly on stout, hairy, axillary peduncles. The flowers are produced in early spring at the same time as or slightly before the new leaves appear, and have a faint fetid or yeasty smell.
The fruit of the pawpaw is a large, yellowish-green to brown berry, long and broad, weighing from , containing several brown or black seeds in diameter embedded in the soft, edible fruit pulp. The conspicuous fruits begin developing after the plants flower; they are initially green, maturing by September or October to green, yellowish green, or brown. When mature, the heavy fruits bend the weak branches down. Full ripening often happens only after the fruit falls naturally, thus signifying a seed dispersal strategy aimed at ground-based, rather than arboreal, mammals.
Other characteristics:
Calyx: Sepals three, valvate in bud, ovate, acuminate, pale green, downy
Corolla: Petals six, in two rows, imbricate in the bud; inner row acute, erect, nectariferous; outer row broadly ovate, reflexed at maturity; petals at first are green, then brown, and finally become dull purple or maroon and conspicuously veiny
Stamens: Indefinite, densely packed on the globular receptacle; filaments short; anthers extrorse, two-celled, opening longitudinally
Pollen: Shed as permanent tetrads
Pistils: Several, on the summit of the receptacle, projecting from the mass of stamens; ovary one-celled; stigma sessile; ovules many
Branchlets: Light brown, tinged with red, marked by shallow grooves
Winter buds: Small, of two kinds, the leaf buds pointed and closely appressed to the twigs, and the flower buds round, brown, and fuzzy
Bark: Light gray, sometimes blotched with lighter gray spots, sometimes covered with small excrescences, divided by shallow fissures; inner bark tough, fibrous; bark with a very disagreeable odor when bruised
Wood: Pale, greenish yellow, sapwood lighter; light, soft, coarse-grained and spongy with a specific gravity of 0.3969 and a density of
Longevity of fruit production: Undetermined
Range and ecology
Asimina triloba is a member of the Annonaceae family, commonly referred to as the “custard-apple” or “soursop” family. Annonaceae are a diverse group comprising the single largest family of the order Magnoliales. They are a tropical family consisting of 112 accepted genera with about 2,200 species spread primarily across South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
The pawpaw is an exception to this pattern, as it is the most temperate member of its family. Its range extends as far north as the southern portion of Ontario, Canada. Within the United States, pawpaw is native to the eastern, southern, and midwestern states, ranging from New York westward to southeastern Nebraska, southward to eastern Texas and the panhandle of Florida. The tree is commonly found in the wild within or along the slopes of floodplains and shady, rich bottomlands, but it requires somewhat elevated slopes because it has a deep-reaching taproot.
Hybridization with other Asimina species
The common pawpaw is the largest and most well known of the 13 species of the Asimina genus in North America. Of those 13, 11 prefer very warm weather and have ranges rarely extending northward of Florida or coastal Alabama. Their ranges do not overlap with Asimina triloba.
One southern USA species, Asimina parviflora, does overlap in range with pawpaw. This species is smaller than pawpaw in both its flower and its woody growth. A. parviflora is more shrublike, rarely growing even a third as tall as pawpaw. Genomically verified hybrids of A. triloba and A. parviflora have been classified as Asimina piedmontana.
Pollination
Pawpaw are self-incompatible, meaning pollen cannot fertilize flowers on the same plant. This, coupled with the pawpaw's tendency to form clonal patches can reduce fertilization success. A single patch consisting of many stems may therefore produce no fruit if all stems are genetically identical. Fruitless pawpaw patches have been documented in Ohio.
The floral scent of Asimina triloba has been described as "yeasty," which is one of several features that signify a "beetle pollination syndrome." Other floral features of pawpaw indicative of beetle pollination include petals that curve over the downward-pointing flower center, along with food-rich fleshy bases of the inner whorl of petals. A "pollination chamber" is thereby created at a depth that only small beetles can access during the initial female-receptive stage of floral bloom. As with other well-studied species of Annonaceae, the delay in the shift from female to male floral stage offers beetles a secure, and possibly thermogenic, residence in which not only to feed but also to mate. Receptive stigmas at their arrival, followed by pollen-shedding stamens during pollinator departure, are regarded as an early form of mutualism evolved between plants and insects that is still dominant in the most ancient lineages of flowering plants, including the Magnoliids (of which Annonaceae is the most species-rich taxonomic family).
Beetles are the dominant form of pollinator ascribed for genera and species within the Annonaceae family. However, two species of genus Asimina (Asimina triloba and Asimina parviflora) bear a floral character that has given rise to an alternative hypothesis that carrion or dung flies are their effective pollinators. That floral characteristic is the dark maroon color of the petals. Hence, while no scholarly papers have documented carrion or dung flies as effective pollinators in field observations, the strength of this hypothesis has led to placement of carrion during the bloom time in pawpaw orchards by some horticultural growers.
Professional papers on genus Asimina and its species have warned of the difficulties in discerning whether insects observed on or collected from flowers are effective pollinators or merely casual and thus opportunistic visitors.
A citizen science project in southern Michigan utilized natural history forms of observation, along with video and photo documentation, during a "pawpaw pollinator watch" in May 2021. Two species of tiny sap beetle were reported as the most abundant and the most consistently present insect types at depth within the flowers, and thus as the most likely effective pollinators. The two species are Glischrochilus quadrisignatus and Stelidota geminata. Both are in the taxonomic family Nitidulidae. Nitidulid beetles are described by Clemson University as likely "night flying" pollinators of pawpaw. Larvae and adult beetle stages of Glischrochilus quadrisignatus were also documented by the citizen project on the ground-level side of rotting fruit in a pawpaw orchard in Michigan following the fruit harvest.
Seed dispersal
Until the expansion of humans into North America at the end of the Pleistocene, dispersal of pawpaw seeds would primarily have occurred via the dung of certain megafauna (such as mastodons, mammoths, and giant ground sloths). The fruit of pawpaw is thus recognized as having coevolved with large mammals serving as long-distance seed dispersers.
The megafaunal dispersal syndrome is a common feature of some plants native to the Western Hemisphere, where a large proportion of megafauna went extinct near the end of the glacial episodes. Such fruits are now regarded as evolutionary anachronisms. Their anatomical features, such as seeds too big for today's fruit eaters to swallow and then defecate, means they are no longer well adapted for current ecological conditions.
Another indicator of dispersal adaptation for megafauna is that pawpaw fruit (wild types and most cultivars) tend to remain green or become blotched with brown when at peak ripeness. Mammals (other than primates) rely on olfactory rather than visual clues for discerning ripe fruit, so fruit color is no signal of ripeness for large mammals. An advantage of maintaining green fruit skin throughout the ripening process is that photosynthesis can continue during this time.
Following the extinction of much of the ice age megafauna, bears would have continued dispersing pawpaw seeds in their dung. Hand carrying of fruit and seeds by humans expanding from Asia into North America would have extended the range of long-distance seed dispersal. Humans intentionally continue this role today via horticultural plantings, along with wild plantings as far north as Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. Small mammals, including raccoons, gray foxes, opossums, and squirrels, assist in local movements of seeds.
Interactions with herbivores
Pawpaw defends against herbivory by producing strong-smelling natural toxins known as acetogenins. Pawpaw leaves, twigs, and bark are therefore seldom consumed by rabbits, deer, or goats, nor by insects. However, mules have been seen eating pawpaw leaves in Maryland.
Larvae of the zebra swallowtail (Eurytides marcellus), a butterfly, feed exclusively on young leaves of A. triloba and various other pawpaw (Asimina) species, but do not occur in great numbers on the plants. Chemicals consumed by the caterpillars confer protection throughout the butterflies' lives, as trace amounts of acetogenins remain present, making them unpalatable to birds and other predators. A citizen-led project in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is restoring pawpaw along a river for the purpose of encouraging return of the zebra swallowtail. (See image at right.)
Other insects which have evolved the ability to consume pawpaws include Talponia plummeriana, the pawpaw peduncle borer, whose larvae can be found in flowers, and Omphalocera munroei, the asimina webworm, whose larvae mostly feed upon leaves.
Patch-forming clonal growth
Pawpaw is well suited to life as an understory tree. Its large seed enables significant below-ground growth before the above-ground growth needs to access sunlight for photosynthesis. As well, the species is so shade-adapted that propagation of seedlings in nursery and landscape settings may fail if the emerging plants are not protected from direct sunlight.
Patch-forming clonal growth is achieved by way of shallow, horizontally spreading stems (rhizomes). By retaining these interconnections, photosynthates can be shared among the stems (ramets). Stems that access sunlight can grow as tall as 30 feet and will bear the most fruit. Stems that develop under canopy shade tend to curve and bend in quest of sunlight patches, with a greater density of small stems than where the tallest stems have captured the canopy positions.
Pawpaws are not the first to colonize a disturbed site, but because they are capable of growing in deep shade, they can establish from seed beneath mature deciduous trees and then spread into a subcanopy patch. They may even become dominant through time by depriving native canopy trees from re-establishing via seed in a treefall gap, owing to the dense shade within a pawpaw patch. Under such circumstances, the pawpaw subcanopy becomes the forest canopy, albeit at a height half as high as the usual canopy of native trees. Accessing full sunlight, the patch is then capable of producing more fruit.
Shifting dynamics
Pawpaw is predominantly a lowland species associated with moist but well-drained soils. Recently it has been colonizing drier upland forests.
Upslope expansion has been attributed to a lessening of human-set fires within forested habitats of the eastern United States. Unlike common canopy trees such as oaks and pines, pawpaw has no resistance against ground fires. So a reduction in fires has enabled pawpaw, as well as other shade-adapted native trees (including American beech and striped maple), to become more common. As well, because toxins in the bark, twigs, and leaves of pawpaw repel herbivory, forests browsed by overpopulated deer offer pawpaw even more competitive advantages.
Pawpaw exhibits a high tolerance for intense shading, even compared with other shade-adapted species such as striped maple. Pawpaw leaves cast very heavy shade, and this chokes out seedlings and saplings of most canopy species (though not native spring herbs that benefit from the late-leafing habit of pawpaw). This helps pawpaw outcompete rival species and is a contributor to its increased abundance in forests across its range.
Conservation
On a global (range-wide) scale, the common pawpaw (A. triloba) has a NatureServe global conservation rank of G5 (very common). The species is, however, listed for conservation concern in the northernmost parts of its range, owing to the happenstance of where governmental boundaries exist. In the United States, the species has an N5 (very common), but is considered a threatened species in New York, and an endangered species in New Jersey. In Canada, where the species is found only in portions of southern Ontario, it has a rank of N3 (vulnerable), and a NatureServe subnational conservation rank of S3 (vulnerable) in Ontario. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has given the species a general status of "Sensitive", and its populations there are monitored.
In areas in which deer populations are dense, pawpaws appear to be becoming more abundant locally, since the deer avoid them but consume seedlings of most other woody plants.
Disease
The genus Asimina exists on only one continent, North America. This gives the pawpaw a distinct advantage in the modern world of transcontinental commerce. In contrast to North American tree genera whose ranges extend into Europe or Asia (notably, chestnut and elm), global horticultural trade is therefore unlikely to introduce diseases that could decimate pawpaw.
As for native disease, the pawpaw fares very well. There are no known disease agents (including insects) that are especially damaging. Consequently, planting of pawpaw for landscaping or fruit production requires little to no attention to disease management.
Habitat restoration
Pawpaws are sometimes included in ecological restoration plantings, as they have many characteristics that make them ideal for repair of riparian ecosystems. The tree’s fondness of wet soil and tendency to multiply clonally to form dense and well-rooted thickets can protect against erosion and runoff. As a native species, pawpaw can be planted on river slopes for erosion control, as introduced species formerly used in the eastern United States for this purpose (such as bamboo and Amur honeysuckle) are now discouraged or prohibited because of their invasiveness. The nonexistent commercial demand of pawpaw timber also protects trees used for ecological reasons from potential future harvest.
In the eastern United States, where large predators are almost entirely lacking, pawpaw is one of the few native subcanopy trees whose bark and leaves are too poisonous for deer to browse. It is therefore a viable species for forest understory restoration in areas where fragmented landscapes, dwellings, and parks status preclude hunting as a population control.
Human uses
Uses other than food
The tough, fibrous inner bark of the pawpaw has traditionally been used by Native Americans and settlers in the Midwest for making ropes, fishing nets, and mats, and for stringing fish. Because the exotic emerald ash borer beetle is destroying black ash trees (Fraxinus nigra) in its native range, a basketmaker in Michigan whose ancestors traditionally used this northern species of ash has begun planting pawpaw seeds as a potential fiber replacement. The planting is occurring several hundred miles north of pawpaw's historically native range, so it is an example of assisted migration of a plant in a time of rapid climate change.
Pawpaw logs have been used for split-rail fences in Arkansas. The hard, brown, shiny lima-bean-sized seeds were sometimes carried as pocket pieces in Ohio. Due to the presence of acetogenins, the leaves, twigs, and bark of pawpaw trees can be used to make an organic insecticide.
Edible fruit
The earliest documented mention of pawpaws is in the 1541 report of the Spanish de Soto expedition, who found Native Americans east of the Mississippi River cultivating what some have identified as the pawpaw. The tree's scientific name (Asimina triloba) comes from the Powhatan word Assimina, which a Jamestown settler transcribed in 1612 as “wheat plum". The Lewis and Clark Expedition consumed pawpaws during their travels. Thomas Jefferson planted it at Monticello, his plantation in Virginia. Legend has it that chilled pawpaw fruit was a favorite dessert of George Washington.
Historically, the pawpaw was a commonly eaten fruit throughout its native range. With the advent of motor travel and refrigeration it has been phased out of popularity to the point of obscurity in favor of other commercial fruits.
As described by horticulturist Barbara Damrosch, the fruit of the pawpaw "looks a bit like mango, but with pale yellow, custardy, spoonable flesh and black, easy-to-remove seeds." Wild-collected pawpaw fruits ripen in late August to mid-September through most of their range, but a month later near their northward limit. They have long been a favorite treat throughout the tree's extensive native range in eastern North America, and on occasion are sold locally at farmers' markets.
Pawpaw fruits have a sweet, custard-like flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and cantaloupe, varying significantly by source or cultivar, with more protein than most fruits. Nineteenth-century American agronomist E. Lewis Sturtevant described pawpaws as "a natural custard, too luscious for the relish of most people." Ohio botanist William B. Werthner wrote, "The fruit ... has a tangy wild-wood flavor peculiarly its own. It is sweet, yet rather cloying to the taste and a wee bit puckery – only a boy can eat more than one at a time."
Fresh fruits of the pawpaw are commonly eaten raw, either chilled or at room temperature. However, they can be kept only 2–3 days at room temperature, or about a week if refrigerated. This short shelf life and difficulty shipping whole are a primary barrier to the pawpaws success as a commercial fruit. The easily bruised pawpaw fruits do not ship well unless frozen. Where pawpaws grow, the fruit pulp is also often used locally in baked dessert recipes, with pawpaw substituted with volumetric equivalency in many banana-based recipes.The sweet and creamy fruit is also popular mixed into ice cream or blended into pancakes and other breads.
Nutrition
According to a report from the KSU Pawpaw Program (right table), raw pawpaw (with skin) is 19% carbohydrates, 1% protein, 1% fat, and 79% water (estimated). In a 100-g reference amount, the raw fruit provides 80 Calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (22% DV), magnesium (32% DV), iron (54% DV), and manganese (124% DV). The fruit also contains a moderate amount of vitamin A (11% DV).
Pawpaw fruit is very rich in many minerals and micronutrients compared to most other fruits; apples, oranges, bananas, etc.
Phytochemicals
Pawpaw pulp contains phenolic acids and flavonols, particularly epicatechins and procyanidins. Phytochemical extracts of the bark, leaves, twigs, and seeds contain acetogenins, including the neurotoxin annonacin, as well as other phytochemicals.
Cultivars
Over the years, a variety of cultivars of A. triloba have been developed or discovered, although some have been lost and are no longer available commercially. Most named cultivars derive from the northern parts of the species range.
Kentucky State University (KSU) has a pawpaw research program which seeks to develop methods and varieties to increase the viability of the pawpaw to be grown as a commercial fruit crop.
The named varieties producing large fruit and performing well in Kentucky per research trials are 'NC-1', 'Overleese', 'Potomac', 'Shenandoah', 'Sunflower', 'Susquehanna', 'Wabash', KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell'.
Research
Kentucky State University (KSU) has the only full-time pawpaw research program in the world; it was started in 1990 with the aim of developing pawpaw as a new tree-fruit crop for Kentucky. Pawpaw is the largest edible native fruit in North America and has very few diseases compared to other orchard crops. KSU is the site of the USDA National Clonal Germplasm Repository for Asimina species and the pawpaw orchards at KSU contain over 1,700 trees. Research activities include germplasm collection and variety trials, and efforts are directed towards improving propagation, understanding fruit ripening and storage, and developing orchard management practices. Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. KSU has created the three cultivars KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell', with foci on better flavors, higher yields, vigorous plants, and low seed-to-pulp ratios.
Cultivation
Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. Cross-pollination of at least two different genetic varieties of the plant is recommended. Scholarly research is insufficient for horticulturalists to adopt best methods for attracting insect pollinators, as effective pollinators have not yet been distinguished from casual insect visitors. Therefore, some growers resort to hand pollination or use pollinator attractants, such as spraying fish emulsion or hanging chicken necks or other meat near the open flowers to attract carrion-feeding beetles.
Pawpaws have not been cultivated for their fruits on the scale of apples or peaches, primarily because pawpaw fruits ripen to the point of fermentation soon after they are picked, and only frozen fruit stores or ships well. Other methods of preservation include dehydration, production of jams or jellies, and pressure canning (using the numerical values for bananas). Methods of separating seeds from the pulp are still in the experimental phase. Mechanical methods are most efficient, but any splitting or injury of seeds can contaminate the remaining pulp with seed poisons.
Cultivation of pawpaws for fruit production has attracted interest, particularly among organic growers, as a fruit with few to no pests that can successfully be grown in its native environment without pesticides. The commercial cultivation and harvesting of pawpaws is strongest in southeastern Ohio and also being explored in Kentucky and Maryland, as well as various areas outside the species' native range, including California, the Pacific Northwest, and Massachusetts.
The pawpaw is used for landscaping due to its distinctive growth habit, the appeal of its fresh fruit, and its relatively low maintenance needs once established.
Changing perspectives of the general population towards a healthier and environmentally conscious diet has led to increased interest in the pawpaw as food in recent years. Using pawpaw puree as a substitute for other sweeteners and creamers adds micronutrients such as iron and manganese while typically reducing the total sugar content as well as glycemic index of most recipes. If done correctly this will not negatively impact the quality of baked goods or desserts. In a study conducted using pawpaw puree in muffins, the pawpaw muffins were preferred in the blind taste test over the control (sugar) and other sweeteners (apple puree).
Commercial pawpaw production tends to be less intensive than other fruit trees. Pawpaw requires very little pesticide/herbicide, even when planted as a monoculture. Because of its long taproot, pawpaw grows well even in drier upland plantings. Also attractive to fruit growers is its ability to be grown in more northern climates of the eastern United States and southern Canada than commercial fruit species grown primarily in the warmth of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and California.
Propagation
Trees are easily grown from seed. Seeds should not be permitted to dry, as they lose viability if they dehydrate to 5% moisture. The seeds need to be stratified by moist cold storage for 60–100 days at (some publications suggest 90–120 days). They will lose their viability if stored for three years or more; some seeds survive if stored for two years. Germination is hypogeal. This means that the cotyledons remain within the seed coat, acting as a food store for early growth until the plumule emerges from the soil on the epicotyl, or true stem. Because the large seeds contain enough energy to produce a long taproot prior to seeking photosynthetic opportunities above ground, the seed itself will be pushed upward and into the air if shallow planted in standard pots.
Given the 6 to 7 year maturity time and relatively poor success rates for dispersal and germination, it often requires 7 to 10 years for a sapling-to-sapling life cycle to occur for a given individual.
Propagation using cuttings has generally not been successful.
Desirable cultivars are propagated by chip budding or whip grafting onto a root stock. Pawpaw seeds do not grow "true to type" — each individual seed in a fruit is genetically different from the others and from its parent tree. Purchased cultivars do not produce seeds true to type, either, which is why cultivars are all grafted trees. Root sucker seedlings, however, are all genetically identical to their host.
Commercial nurseries usually ship grafted cultivars in containers. Other nurseries, such as the Kentucky Division of Forestry, ship bareroot seedlings for reforestation projects and area homeowners.
Harvesting small stems within a wild pawpaw patch is usually unsuccessful because most are clones of (and still connected to) adjacent stems and therefore lack fully developed roots.
Cultural significance
Old song
A traditional American folk song portrays wild harvesting of pawpaws; Arty Schronce of the Georgia Department of Agriculture gives these lyrics:
He notes that "picking up pawpaws" refers to gathering the ripe, fallen fruit from beneath the trees, and that the "pocket" in the song is that of an apron or similar tie-on pocket, not a modern pants or blue-jeans pocket, into which pawpaws would hardly fit. A "pawpaw patch" refers to the plant's characteristic patch-forming clonal growth habit.
Place names
The pawpaw is the basis for various place and school names in the United States, almost all using the older spelling variant "paw paw".
The Paw Paw Tunnel on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in Maryland is a 3118-foot (950-m) canal tunnel completed in 1850 to bypass about 5 miles of the 6-mile-long Paw Paw Bends of the Potomac River near the town of Paw Paw, West Virginia, all ultimately named after the pawpaw tree.
In Michigan, the Paw Paw River is named for the pawpaw trees that grew along its banks. Paw Paw Lake and Little Paw Paw Lake are both tributaries to the river. The town of Paw Paw, Michigan, is located at the junction of two branches of the Paw Paw River. The Paw Paw Railroad (1857–1887) operated a 4-mile (6.4-km) rail line between Lawton and Paw Paw, in Van Buren County, Michigan.
The village of Paw Paw, Illinois, was named after a nearby grove of pawpaw trees.
The community of Paw Paw, Indiana, in Miami County, and Paw Paw Township in DeKalb County and Paw Paw Township in Wabash County are all named after groves of native pawpaw trees.
Paw Paw, Kentucky, a community in easternmost Kentucky, was named after the native fruit tree.
The (now empty) town of Paw Paw, Missouri, was named after the trees.
Art
Nineteenth-century naturalist and painter John James Audubon included pawpaw foliage and fruits in the background of his illustration of the yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) in his classic work, The Birds of America (1827–1838).
Pawpaw fruits and a pawpaw leaf are featured in the painting Still Life with Pawpaws (circa 1870–1875) by Edward Edmondson, Jr. (1830–1884), at the Dayton Art Institute in Dayton, Ohio.
The Paw Paw is mentioned in the song "Bear Necessities" from the movie "The Jungle Book" : "Now when you pick a paw-paw or a prickly pear And you prick a raw paw, well, next time beware Don't pick the prickly pear by the paw When you pick a pear try to use the claw But you don't need to use the claw When you pick a pear of the big paw-paw Have I given you a clue?"
Other
The third Thursday in September has been designated as National Pawpaw Day by the National Day Calendar. It was announced on September 19, 2019, at Kentucky State University's monthly sustainable agriculture workshop, the Third Thursday Thing.
The pawpaw was designated as Ohio's state native fruit in 2009.
Since 1999, the Ohio Pawpaw Growers' Association has sponsored an annual Ohio Pawpaw Festival at Lake Snowden, near Albany, Ohio.
Since 2012, Delaware's Alapocas Run State Park has hosted an annual Pawpaw Folk Festival featuring tastings of the fruit.
The larva of the Pawpaw sphinx moth feeds on pawpaw leaves.
Since 2019, the pawpaw has been the official state fruit tree of Missouri.
The endangered Missouri variety of French is known by outsiders and some native speakers as "Paw-Paw French."
References
Further reading
External links
Kentucky State University Pawpaw Program
The Pawpaw: Foraging For America's Forgotten Fruit''
triloba
Crops originating from North America
Edible fruits
Fiber plants
Medicinal plants of North America
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Trees of the Southeastern United States
Trees of the North-Central United States
Trees of the Northeastern United States
Trees of the Southern United States
Trees of Ontario
Trees of the South-Central United States
Trees of the Great Lakes region (North America)
Trees of the United States
Fruit trees
Fruits originating in North America
Trees of North America
Trees of the Eastern United States
Trees of Canada
Trees of Eastern Canada |
4271629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%8Diku%20mama | Kyōiku mama | is a Japanese pejorative term which translates literally as "education mother". The kyōiku mama is a stereotyped figure in modern Japanese society portrayed as a mother who relentlessly drives her child to study, to the detriment of the child's social and physical development, and emotional well-being.
The kyōiku mama is one of the best-known and least-liked pop-culture figures in contemporary Japan. The kyōiku mama is analogous to American stereotypes such as the stage mother who forces her child to achieve show-business success in Hollywood, the stereotypical Chinese tiger mother who takes an enormous amount of effort to direct much of her maternal influence towards developing their children's educational and intellectual achievement, and the stereotypical Jewish mother's drive for her children to succeed academically and professionally, resulting in a push for perfection and a continual dissatisfaction with anything less or the critical, self-sacrificing mother who coerces her child into medical school or law school.
The stereotype is that a kyōiku mama is feared by her children, blamed by the press for school phobias and youth suicides, and envied and resented by the mothers of children who study less and fare less well on exams.
Factors influencing development of kyōiku mama
In the early 1960s, part-time women's labor began at a few major corporations in Japan and was adopted by other companies within a decade. It became popular among married women in the 1970s and even more so by 1985.
Women's return to the workplace is often explained two-fold: by financial demands to complement the family budget, and by psychological demands to relate themselves to society.
Child-rearing women in the 1960s inspired the media to produce the idiom kyōiku mama, which referred to "the domestic counterpart of sararii-man" (salaryman). This encompassed a major responsibility to "rear children, especially the males, to successfully pass the competitive tests needed to enter high school and college". No such idiom emerged that deemed men "education papas"; it was "mamas" who became a social phenomenon.
The education system
The education system and larger political economy it serves influence why mothers become obsessed with children's education. Social prejudices influence media stereotypes of kyōiku mamas that blame women rather than political conditions. Getting a good, steady job in the future very much depends on getting into a good university, which depends on attaining high scores on the national university exams in a student's last year of high school. Ordinary people, including mothers, feel powerless to change this system.
As a result, there is a clear map pointing students to the right nursery school that leads to the right kindergarten, the best elementary school, junior high school, and high school, all of which may be associated with prestigious universities. To ensure these results, some parents have been known to commit unethical or illegal acts to promote their child's success.
In one case, a restaurant owner paid a $95,000 bribe in an attempt to get his child enrolled in Aoyama Gakuin, a prestigious kindergarten for children who are three or four years old. Because of the kindergarten's affiliation with an elite university, parents are willing to go to extreme lengths to get their children enrolled. Aoyama Gakuin has room for 40 new students a year. Every year, it receives more than 2000 hopeful applicants. The tests the potential students take are known to be extremely difficult.
The issue is compounded by the notion that most important job positions in business and government are held by graduates of the University of Tokyo. In addition, which university a student attends is believed to affect one's choices for a future spouse. Because a child's life appears to be determined by what schools he or she attends, many mothers take extraordinary measures to get children into good schools.
Changing family structures
The older generation of Japanese grew up in larger households than those normally found in Japan today. Back then, ikuji (, "child-raising") included a larger surrounding environment, made up of more relatives and extended family, and more children: siblings and cousins. Children who grew up in that time learned responsibilities through the care of younger siblings. These children relied on themselves in the outside world through much of their childhood lives. In those days, child-raising was more of a private matter, handled only by the child's surrounding family.
In the 1970s, men's wages decreased and women left home earlier to find jobs. These women "considered themselves free" after the child's junior high education. The previous generation did not feel this until after the child had finished high school.
In contemporary Japan, couples are having fewer children and teaching the children self-reliance. This involves consulting child-raising professionals. This new need in professional advice is commonly termed "child-raising neurosis" by professionals. Reliance on professionals has largely created a new generation of young mothers with low self-confidence in their child-raising abilities. Indeed, most Japanese mothers today grew up in smaller families with only one or two children. Their mothers provided them with everything they needed and gave them little to no responsibilities involving their siblings. Thus, that generation of children has grown up to become mothers who have no idea how to raise their children.
In addition, in contemporary Japan there are mothers who completely devote themselves to child-raising. Another subtype, described by Nishioka Rice, is the kosodate mama (), who adds psychosociological elements into child-raising. In addition to providing for her a good education, she develops an emotional and psychological relationship with her children. One way to do this is through "skinship"—being in constant close physical contact with her children. This could, for example, involve carrying her child on her back wherever she goes or bathing with her children every night. Through skinship, ittaikan () is achieved, a "one-ness and balanced, positively valenced dependency" between mother and child.
Societal views
In Japan, a mother who works is commonly seen as selfish in a society where child-raising is linked directly with the physical closeness between mother and child. This emphasis can be a cause of the development of a kyōiku mama who always worries about her children's education success. This produces children that society views as lacking self-reliance, antisocial, and selfish.
When compared to American mothers, Japanese mothers have a stronger belief in effort as opposed to innate ability. Japanese children see their efforts as necessary to fulfill a social obligation to family, peers, and community. Children are forced to focus on their effort, seeing it as the cause of success. According to society, if a child does not succeed, they were not trying hard enough. This is unrelated to the child's grades; children always need to put forth more effort. Mothers pressure children because they are held strongly accountable for their children's actions.
It is very hard to find daycare in some parts of Japan, and it is socially looked down upon if a mother sends her child to one. The mother is seen as insufficient, not having the skills to raise a child on her own, or selfish, giving her child over to a caretaker while she pursues her own separate goals.
The term kyōiku mama became used in other similar contexts. For example, the former Ministry of International Trade and Industry was dubbed kyōiku mama for its approach and initiatives in guiding industrial growth, in a manner similar to the definition of a nanny state.
Media
Housewives are surrounded by popular media that encourages their actions. Daytime television, magazines, products, and services for mothers are largely focused on improving the home and raising the children. Thus, the job of motherhood is taken very seriously by mothers in Japan. A common description of a mother's free time is “three meals and a nap.”
Class distinctions
Kyōiku mamas, preparatory preschools, and heavily academic curricula exist in Japan, yet they are relatively rare and concentrated in urban, wealthy areas. Kyōiku mamas are prominent in the middle classes. Middle-class women train the children, the next generation of the middle class. In a speech at the 1909 Mitsukoshi children's exhibition, First Higher School principal Nitobe Inazō asserted, "The education of a citizenry begins not with the infant but with the education of a country's mothers."
In the post-World War II era in Japan, the mother was the creator of a new child-centered world stamped with middle-class values. The mother was linked with the success of the child's education. A woman was expected to be a "good wife, wise mother" and became the single most important figure in raising the child to become a successful future adult. Mothers needed to put their efforts into raising and teaching their children. Through self-cultivation and rearing of the children, the woman was crucial to a family's ability to claim a place in the so-called middle stratum.
As education credentials became the recognized prerequisite to social advancement in the early 20th century, kyōiku mama actively looked to the education system, especially admission into middle school for boys and higher school for girls, to help improve the family's social position. The competition to pass the entrance examination to middle school and girls' higher school became intense, creating the social phenomenon known as shiken jigoku (): examination hell. While risshin shusse (), or rising in the world, was the clarion call of the mass of the middle class, there was no risshin shusse without a kyōiku mama. For the education mother, making the child into a superior student was a concern that began with the child's entrance into elementary school at age six and extended to all aspects of the child's education.
Working-class mothers are not as intensely active in their children's education as middle-class mothers. An ethnographic study by Shimizu Tokuda (1991) portrayed one middle school that faced persistent academic problems in a working-class neighborhood of Osaka. The study illustrated efforts by teachers to improve the student's academic performance: providing tests, promoting monthly teacher discussions, painting walls to enhance the study environment, and restricting hours spent in extracurricular activities. While students' enrollment in high school slightly improved, academic achievement level remained lower than the national average. This study revealed that students' academic problems were deeply related to their home environments. Most students had parents who were uneducated and not involved in their children's education.
American view
In contrast to Japan's mostly negative images of kyōiku mamas, American leaders who put forth the image of "superhuman Japan" to boost American education performance extolled Japan's education-minded mothers. Both of Ronald Reagan's education secretaries focused attention on Japanese mothers as mirrors to improve American families and schools. Reagan's first Secretary of Education, Terrel Bell (credited for the wording of A Nation at Risk) wrote an enthusiastic foreword to Guy Odom's Mothers, Leadership and Success—a book whose basic point was that only vigorous, aggressive and intelligent Super Moms exemplified by Japanese mothers could reinvigorate America. William J. Bennett, head of the Department of Education in Reagan's second term, praised Japan's "one parent on the scene" who "stays in touch with the teachers, supervises the homework, arranges extra instructional help if needed, and buttresses the child's motivation to do well in school and beyond".
Contemporary kyōiku mamas
Many Japanese mothers dedicate much time to get their children from one entrance exam to another. At the national university entrance exams, held in Tokyo, most mothers travel with their children to the examination hall. They arrive and stay at a nearby hotel, grilling their children on last-minute statistics and making sure that they are not late to the exam.
Some mothers are beginning their children's education at even younger ages. A 30-year-old mother in Japan says, "This is my first baby, and I didn't know how to play with her or help her develop". She sends her 6-month-old daughter to a pre-pre-school in Tokyo. A headmaster at another pre-pre-school claims that the school, for children one year or older, helps to nurture and develop the children's curiosity through "tangerine-peeling or collecting and coloring snow".
Mothers are essentially in heavy competition with other mothers who want their children to get into the elite universities. In some cases, to make it seem like her own child is not studying as much, mothers will let their child use the parents' bedroom to study while the mothers watch television in the living room. Other mothers who pass by the house will see the child's bedroom light off, assuming that the child has shirked his or her studies to watch television. The next morning, the mother will report what happened on the shows to her child, who will go to school and talk about it to his or her classmates, who will also assume that their friend is a slacker, lowering their expectations of their friend and for themselves. However, when examination time rolls around, the "slacker" will be admitted into an elite school while his or her friends will drop behind.
Kyōiku mamas often give their children a big first appearance in the neighborhood through a kōen debyū (), where the mothers "parade their offspring around the neighborhood parks for approval".
Mothers send their children to cram schools (juku), where children may stay until 10 or 11pm. Japan has over 35,000 cram schools for college examinations. In addition to cram schools, children are sent to calligraphy, keyboard, abacus, or kendo classes. As revealed by Marie Thorsten, moral panics about juku and education mamas occurred at the same time, in the 1970s. "As 'second schools', the juku, as consumer services, appealed to mothers’ anxieties about their children, shaping the image of the 'normal' mother as one who sends her children to juku and stays up to date with commercialized trends in examination preparation."
Effects on children
In the 1950s, full-time mothers devoted themselves to a smaller number of children. Parental stress resulted in the commonality of new childhood problems; these include bronchial asthma, stammering, poor appetite, proneness to bone fractures, and school phobia. Children were aware they were their mother's purpose in life. Mothers played the role of their children's school teachers while they were at home.
Sometimes, a child who grows up with a kyōiku mama turns into a tenuki okusan (, "hands-off housewife"). This stereotype describes women who typically have jobs and are not around the children as much, essentially becoming the female version of the stereotypical absent Japanese father, a "leisure-time parent" or "Sunday friend". These mothers are said to not do a lot of homemaking, commonly making large, freezable meals that are easy to reheat in case they are not home or too busy to do the cooking. They do not attempt to represent their families in the community through participation in their children's school PTA and other community functions.
Compared to modern American children, Japanese youths have less drug use, depression, violence, and teenage pregnancy, although these may be caused due to harsher laws and intrinsic social values in the Japanese culture.
Government regulations
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology has admitted that the education system and parental pressure are taking their toll on children. Education reforms that the Ministry of Education has enacted beginning in the 1970s have challenged Japan's egalitarian school system. To decrease academic pressure among students from examination competition, the Ministry of Education cut school hours and increased non-academic activities such as recess and clubs in elementary and junior high schools.
In 2002, the central government reduced school hours again, decreased content, and introduced a new curriculum at all public elementary schools to encourage individual students' learning interests and motivation. The Japanese Ministry of Education published a white paper stating that children do not have opportunities such as "coming into contact with nature, feeling awe and respect for life, and experiencing the importance of hard work learning from difficulties".
Japanese education and related stress
Post-war Japan in the 1950s made it a "national mission to accelerate its education program. Children of this era had to distinguish themselves from peers at an early age if they hoped to get into a top university. Entrance exams for these children began in kindergarten.
By the mid-1970s, pressure to achieve in children created the need for specialty schools. Seventy percent of students continued their long school day at juku or "cram schools".
In the 1980s, a series of suicides linked to school pressures began. Elementary and middle school students took their lives after failing entrance exams.
During the 1990s, the economic collapse in Japan (after its global economic dominance in the previous decade) led to a loss of motivation by students. The once highly touted academic ratings of Japan in math and science fell behind those of American levels. The stress began to lead to classroom disruption.
In 2001, the National Education Research Institute found that 33 percent of teachers and principals polled said that they had witnessed a complete breakdown of class "over a continuous period" due to defiant children "engaging in arbitrary activity". In 2002, the Japanese Education Ministry — pressured by the need to reform — eliminated 30 percent of its core curriculum. This freed up time for students to learn in groups according to the students' chosen path.
The use of the term mukatsuku, meaning "irritating and troublesome", has been rising in use among students as a description of the feelings they experience of being fed up with teachers, parents, and life.
See also
Education in Japan
Helicopter parent
Hong Kong children
Tiger parenting, a similar parenting style in Mainland China and other parts of East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia
Soccer mom
References
Academic pressure in East Asian culture
Behavior modification
Education in Japan
Japanese family structure
Japanese values
Maternity in Japan
Pejorative terms for women
Social issues in Japan
Stereotypes of middle class women
Suicide in Japan
1960s neologisms |
4271664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20atmospheric%20dispersion%20models | List of atmospheric dispersion models | Atmospheric dispersion models are computer programs that use mathematical algorithms to simulate how pollutants in the ambient atmosphere disperse and, in some cases, how they react in the atmosphere.
US Environmental Protection Agency models
Many of the dispersion models developed by or accepted for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) are accepted for use in many other countries as well. Those EPA models are grouped below into four categories.
Preferred and recommended models
AERMOD – An atmospheric dispersion model based on atmospheric boundary layer turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including treatment of multiple ground-level and elevated point, area and volume sources. It handles flat or complex, rural or urban terrain and includes algorithms for building effects and plume penetration of inversions aloft. It uses Gaussian dispersion for stable atmospheric conditions (i.e., low turbulence) and non-Gaussian dispersion for unstable conditions (high turbulence). Algorithms for plume depletion by wet and dry deposition are also included in the model. This model was in development for approximately 14 years before being officially accepted by the U.S. EPA.
CALPUFF – A non-steady-state puff dispersion model that simulates the effects of time- and space-varying meteorological conditions on pollution transport, transformation, and removal. CALPUFF can be applied for long-range transport and for complex terrain.
BLP – A Gaussian plume dispersion model designed to handle unique modelling problems associated with industrial sources where plume rise and downwash effects from stationary line sources are important.
CALINE3 – A steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to determine pollution concentrations at receptor locations downwind of highways located in relatively uncomplicated terrain.
CAL3QHC and CAL3QHCR – CAL3QHC is a CALINE3 based model with queuing calculations and a traffic model to calculate delays and queues that occur at signalized intersections. CAL3QHCR is a more refined version based on CAL3QHC that requires local meteorological data.
CTDMPLUS – A complex terrain dispersion model (CTDM) plus algorithms for unstable situations (i.e., highly turbulent atmospheric conditions). It is a refined point source Gaussian air quality model for use in all stability conditions (i.e., all conditions of atmospheric turbulence) for complex terrain.
OCD – Offshore and coastal dispersion model (OCD) is a Gaussian model developed to determine the impact of offshore emissions from point, area or line sources on the air quality of coastal regions. It incorporates overwater plume transport and dispersion as well as changes that occur as the plume crosses the shoreline.
Alternative models
ADAM – Air force dispersion assessment model (ADAM) is a modified box and Gaussian dispersion model which incorporates thermodynamics, chemistry, heat transfer, aerosol loading, and dense gas effects.
ADMS 5 – Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System (ADMS 5) is an advanced dispersion model developed in the United Kingdom for calculating concentrations of pollutants emitted both continuously from point, line, volume and area sources, or discretely from point sources.
AFTOX – A Gaussian dispersion model that handles continuous or puff, liquid or gas, elevated or surface releases from point or area sources.
DEGADIS – Dense gas dispersion (DEGADIS) is a model that simulates the dispersion at ground level of area source clouds of denser-than-air gases or aerosols released with zero momentum into the atmosphere over flat, level terrain.
HGSYSTEM – A collection of computer programs developed by Shell Research Ltd. and designed to predict the source-term and subsequent dispersion of accidental chemical releases with an emphasis on dense gas behavior.
HOTMAC and RAPTAD – HOTMAC is a model for weather forecasting used in conjunction with RAPTAD which is a puff model for pollutant transport and dispersion. These models are used for complex terrain, coastal regions, urban areas, and around buildings where other models fail.
HYROAD – The hybrid roadway model integrates three individual modules simulating the pollutant emissions from vehicular traffic and the dispersion of those emissions. The dispersion module is a puff model that determines concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) or other gaseous pollutants and particulate matter (PM) from vehicle emissions at receptors within 500 meters of the roadway intersections.
ISC3 – A Gaussian model used to assess pollutant concentrations from a wide variety of sources associated with an industrial complex. This model accounts for: settling and dry deposition of particles; downwash; point, area, line, and volume sources; plume rise as a function of downwind distance; separation of point sources; and limited terrain adjustment. ISC3 operates in both long-term and short-term modes.
OBODM – A model for evaluating the air quality impacts of the open burning and detonation (OB/OD) of obsolete munitions and solid propellants. It uses dispersion and deposition algorithms taken from existing models for instantaneous and quasi-continuous sources to predict the transport and dispersion of pollutants released by the open burning and detonation operations.
PANACHE – Fluidyn-PANACHE is an Eulerian (and Lagrangian for particulate matter), 3-dimensional finite volume fluid mechanics model designed to simulate continuous and short-term pollutant dispersion in the atmosphere, in simple or complex terrain.
PLUVUEII – A model that estimates atmospheric visibility degradation and atmospheric discoloration caused by plumes resulting from the emissions of particles, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. The model predicts the transport, dispersion, chemical reactions, optical effects and surface deposition of such emissions from a single point or area source.
SCIPUFF – A puff dispersion model that uses a collection of Gaussian puffs to predict three-dimensional, time-dependent pollutant concentrations. In addition to the average concentration value, SCIPUFF predicts the statistical variance in the concentrations resulting from the random fluctuations of the wind.
SDM – Shoreline dispersion model (SDM) is a Gaussian dispersion model used to determine ground-level concentrations from tall stationary point source emissions near a shoreline.
SLAB – A model for denser-than-air gaseous plume releases that utilizes the one-dimensional equations of momentum, conservation of mass and energy, and the equation of state. SLAB handles point source ground-level releases, elevated jet releases, releases from volume sources and releases from the evaporation of volatile liquid spill pools.
Screening models
These are models that are often used before applying a refined air quality model to determine if refined modelling is needed.
AERSCREEN – The screening version of AERMOD. It produces estimates of concentrations, without the need for meteorological data, that are equal to or greater than the estimates produced by AERMOD with a full set of meteorological data. The U.S. EPA released version 11060 of AERSCREEN on 11 March 2010 with a subsequent update, version 11076, on 17 March 2010. The U.S. EPA published the "Clarification memorandum on AERSCREEN as the recommended screening model" on 11 April 2011.
CTSCREEN – The screening version of CTDMPLUS.
SCREEN3 – The screening version of ISC3.
TSCREEN – Toxics screening model (TSCREEN) is a Gaussian model for screening toxic air pollutant emissions and their subsequent dispersion from possible releases at superfund sites. It contains 3 modules: SCREEN3, PUFF, and RVD (Relief Valve Discharge).
VALLEY – A screening, complex terrain, Gaussian dispersion model for estimating 24-hour or annual concentrations resulting from up to 50 point and area emission sources.
COMPLEX1 – A multiple point source screening model with terrain adjustment that uses the plume impaction algorithm of the VALLEY model.
RTDM3.2 – Rough terrain diffusion model (RTDM3.2) is a Gaussian model for estimating ground-level concentrations of one or more co-located point sources in rough (or flat) terrain.
VISCREEN – A model that calculates the impact of specified emissions for specific transport and dispersion conditions.
Photochemical models
Photochemical air quality models have become widely utilized tools for assessing the effectiveness of control strategies adopted by regulatory agencies. These models are large-scale air quality models that simulate the changes of pollutant concentrations in the atmosphere by characterizing the chemical and physical processes in the atmosphere. These models are applied at multiple geographical scales ranging from local and regional to national and global.
Models-3/CMAQ – The latest version of the community multi-scale air quality (CMAQ) model has state-of-the-science capabilities for conducting urban to regional scale simulations of multiple air quality issues, including tropospheric ozone, fine particles, toxics, acid deposition, and visibility degradation.
CAMx – The comprehensive air quality model with extensions (CAMx) simulates air quality over many geographic scales. It handles a variety of inert and chemically active pollutants, including ozone, particulate matter, inorganic and organic PM2.5/PM10, and mercury and other toxics.
REMSAD – The regional modeling system for aerosols and deposition (REMSAD) calculates the concentrations of both inert and chemically reactive pollutants by simulating the atmospheric processes that affect pollutant concentrations over regional scales. It includes processes relevant to regional haze, particulate matter and other airborne pollutants, including soluble acidic components and mercury.
UAM-V – The urban airshed model was a pioneering effort in photochemical air quality modelling in the early 1970s and has been used widely for air quality studies focusing on ozone.
Other models developed in the United States
CHARM – A model capable of simulating dispersion of toxics and particles. It can calculate impacts of thermal radiation from fires, overpressures from mechanical failures and explosions, and nuclear radiation from radionuclide releases. CHARM is capable of handling effects of complex terrain and buildings. A Lagrangian puff screening version and Eulerian full-function version are available. More information is available here.
HYSPLIT – Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model. Developed at NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory. The HYSPLIT model is a complete system for computing simple air parcel trajectories to complex dispersion and deposition simulations. More information about this model can be found at
PUFF-PLUME – A Gaussian chemical/radionuclide dispersion model that includes wet and dry deposition, real-time input of meteorological observations and forecasts, dose estimates from inhalation and gamma shine, and puff or plume dispersion modes. It is the primary model for emergency response use for atmospheric releases of radioactive materials at the Savannah River Site of the United States Department of Energy. It was first developed by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in the 1970s.
Puff model – Puff is a volcanic ash tracking model developed at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. It requires NWP wind field data on a geographic grid covering the area over which ash may be dispersed. Representative ash particles are initiated at the volcano's location and then allowed to advect, diffuse, and settle within the atmosphere. The location of the particles at any time after the eruption can be viewed using the post-processing software included with the model. Output data is in netCDF format and can also be viewed with a variety of software. More information on the model is available here.
Models developed in the United Kingdom
ADMS-5 – See the description of this model in the alternative models section of the models accepted by the U.S. EPA.
ADMS-URBAN – A model for simulating dispersion on scales ranging from a street scale to citywide or county-wide scale, handling most relevant emission sources such as traffic, industrial, commercial, and domestic sources. It is also used for air quality management and assessments of current and future air quality vis-a-vis national and regional standards in Europe and elsewhere.
ADMS-Roads – A model for simulating dispersion of vehicular pollutant emissions from small road networks in combination with emissions from industrial plants. It handles multiple road sources as well as multiple point, line or area emission sources and the model operation is similar to the other ADMS models
ADMS-Screen – A screening model for rapid assessment of the air quality impact of a single industrial stack to determine if more detailed modelling is needed. It combines the dispersion modelling algorithms of the ADMS models with a user interface requiring minimal input data.
GASTAR – A model for simulating accidental releases of denser-than-air flammable and toxic gases. It handles instantaneous and continuous releases, releases from jet sources, releases from evaporation of volatile liquid pools, variable terrain slopes and ground roughness, obstacles such as fences and buildings, and time-varying releases.
NAME – Numerical atmospheric-dispersion modelling environment (NAME) is a local to global scale model developed by the UK's Met Office. It is used for: forecasting of air quality, air pollution dispersion, and acid rain; tracking radioactive emissions and volcanic ash discharges; analysis of accidental air pollutant releases and assisting in emergency response; and long-term environmental impact analysis. It is an integrated model that includes boundary layer dispersion modelling.
UDM – Urban dispersion model is a Gaussian puff based model for predicting the dispersion of atmospheric pollutants in the range of 10m to 25 km throughout the urban environment. It is developed by the Defense Science and Technology Laboratory for the UK Ministry of Defence. It handles instantaneous, continuous, and pool releases, and can model gases, particulates, and liquids. The model has a three regime structure: that of single building (area density < 5%), urban array (area density > 5%) and open. The model can be coupled with the US model SCIPUFF to replace the open regime and extend the model's prediction range.
Models developed in continental Europe
The European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change, which is part of the European Environment Agency (EEA), maintains an online Model Documentation System (MDS) that includes descriptions and other information for almost all of the dispersion models developed by the countries of Europe. The MDS currently (July 2012) contains 142 models, mostly developed in Europe. Of those 142 models, some were subjectively selected for inclusion here. Anyone interested in seeing the complete MDS can access it here.
Some of the European models listed in the MDS are public domain and some are not. Many of them include a pre-processor module for the input of meteorological and other data, and many also include a post-processor module for graphing the output data and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps.
The country of origin is included for each of the European models listed below.
AEROPOL (Estonia) – The AERO-POLlution model developed at the Tartu Observatory in Estonia is a Gaussian plume model for simulating the dispersion of continuous, buoyant plumes from stationary point, line and area sources over flat terrain on a local to regional scale. It includes plume depletion by wet and/or dry deposition as well as the effects of buildings in the plume path.
Airviro Gauss (Sweden) – A gaussian dispersion model that handles point, road, area and grid sources developed by SMHI. Plumes follow trajectories from a wind model and each plume has a cutoff dependent on wind speed. The model also support irregular calculation grids.
Airviro Grid (Sweden) – A simplified eulerian model developed by SMHI. Can handle point, road, area and grid sources. Includes dry and wet deposition and sedimentation.
Airviro Heavy Gas (Sweden) – A model for heavy gas dispersion developed by SMHI.
Airviro receptor model (Sweden)- An inverse dispersion model developed by SMHI. Used to find emission sources.
ATSTEP (Germany) – Gaussian puff dispersion and deposition model used in the decision support system RODOS (real-time on-line decision support) for nuclear emergency management. RODOS is operational in Germany by the Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) and test-operational in many other European countries. More information on RODOS is available here and on the ATSTEP model here.
AUSTAL2000 (Germany) – The official air dispersion model to be used in the permitting of industrial sources by the German Federal Environmental Agency. The model accommodates point, line, area and volume sources of buoyant plumes. It has capabilities for building effects, complex terrain, plume depletion by wet or dry deposition, and first order chemical reactions. It is based on the LASAT model developed by Ingenieurbüro Janicke Gesellschaft für Umweltphysik.
BUO-FMI (Finland) – This model was developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) specifically for estimating the atmospheric dispersion of neutral or buoyant plume gases and particles emitted from fires in warehouses and chemical stores. It is a hybrid of a local scale Gaussian plume model and another model type. Plume depletion by dry deposition is included but wet deposition is not included.
CAR-FMI (Finland) – This model was developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) for evaluating atmospheric dispersion and chemical transformation of vehicular emissions of inert (CO, NOx) and reactive (NO, NO2, O3) gases from a road network of line sources on a local scale. It is a Gaussian line source model which includes an analytical solution for the chemical cycle NO-O3-NO2.
CAR-International (The Netherlands) – Calculation of air pollution from road traffic (CAR-International) is an atmospheric dispersion model developed by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research. It is used for simulating the dispersion of vehicular emissions from roadway traffic.
DIPCOT (Greece) – Dispersion over complex terrain (DIPCOT) is a model developed in the National Centre of Scientific Research "DEMOKRITOS" of Greece that simulates dispersion of buoyant plumes from multiple point sources over complex terrain on a local to regional scale. It does not include wet deposition or chemical reactions.
DISPERSION21 (Sweden) – This model was developed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) for evaluating air pollutant emissions from existing or planned industrial or urban sources on a local scale. It is a Gaussian plume model for point, area, line and vehicular traffic sources. It includes plume penetration of inversions aloft, building effects, NOx chemistry and it can handle street canyons. It does not include wet or dry deposition, complex atmospheric chemistry, or the effects of complex terrain.
DISPLAY-2 (Greece) – A vapour cloud dispersion model for neutral or denser-than-air pollution plumes over irregular, obstructed terrain on a local scale. It accommodates jet releases as well as two-phase (i.e., liquid-vapor mixtures) releases. This model was also developed at the National Centre of Scientific Research "DEMOKRITOS" of Greece.
EK100W (Poland) – A Gaussian plume model used for air quality impact assessments of pollutants from industrial point sources as well as for urban air quality studies on a local scale. It includes wet and dry deposition. The effects of complex terrain are not included.
FARM (Italy) – The Flexible Air quality Regional Model (FARM) is a multi-grid Eulerian model for dispersion, transformation and deposition of airborne pollutants in gas and aerosol phases, including photo-oxidants, aerosols, heavy metals and other toxics. It is suited for case studies, air quality assessments, scenarios analyses and pollutants forecast.
FLEXPART (Austria/Germany/Norway) – An efficient and flexible Lagrangian particle transport and diffusion model for regional to global applications, with capability for forward and backward mode. Freely available. Developed at BOKU Vienna, Technical University of Munich, and NILU.
GRAL (Austria) – The GRAz Lagrangian model was initially developed at the Graz University of Technology and it is a dispersion model for buoyant plumes from multiple point, line, area and tunnel portal sources. It handles flat or complex terrain (mesoscale prognostic flow field model) including building effects (microscale prognostic flow field model) but it has no chemistry capabilities. The model is freely available: http://lampz.tugraz.at/~gral/
HAVAR (Czech Republic) – A Gaussian plume model integrated with a puff model and a hybrid plume-puff model, developed by the Czech Academy of Sciences, is intended for routine and/or accidental releases of radionuclides from single point sources within nuclear power plants. The model includes radioactive plume depletion by dry and wet deposition as well as by radioactive decay. For the decay of some nuclides, the creation of daughter products that then grow into the plume is taken into account.
IFDM (Belgium) – The immission frequency distribution model, developed at the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), is a Gaussian dispersion model used for point and area sources dispersing over flat terrain on a local scale. The model includes plume depletion by dry or wet deposition and has been updated to handle building effects and the O3-NOx-chemistry. It is not designed for complex terrain or other chemically reactive pollutants.
INPUFF-U (Romania) – This model was developed by the National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology in Bucharest, Romania. It is a Gaussian puff model for calculating the dispersion of radionuclides from passive emission plumes on a local to urban scale. It can simulate accidental or continuous releases from stationary or mobile point sources. It includes wet and dry deposition. Building effects, buoyancy effects, chemical reactions and effects of complex terrain are not included.
LAPMOD (Italy) – The LAPMOD (LAgrangian Particle MODel) modeling system is developed by Enviroware and it is available for free. LAPMOD is a Lagrangian partile model fully coupled to the diagnostic meteorological model CALMET and can be used to simulate the dispersion of inert pollutants as well as odors and radioactive substances. It includes dry and wet deposition algorithms and advanced numerical schemes for plume rise (Janicke and Janicke, Webster and Thomson). It can simulate inert pollutants, odors and radioactive substances and it is part of ARIES, the official Italian modeling system for nuclear emergencies operated by ISPRA and by the regional environmental protection agency of Emilia-Romagna, Italy.
LOTOS-EUROS (The Netherlands) – the long term ozone simulation – European operational smog (LOTOS-EUROS) model was developed by the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) and Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) in The Netherlands. It is designed for modelling the dispersion of pollutants (such as: photo-oxidants, aerosols, heavy metals) over all of Europe. It includes simple reaction chemistry as well as wet and dry deposition.
MATCH (Sweden) – A multi-scale atmospheric transport and chemistry (MATCH). A three-dimensional, Eulerian model, suitable from urban to global scale.
MEMO (Greece) – A Eulerian non-hydrostatic prognostic mesoscale model for wind flow simulation. It was developed by the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in collaboration with the Universität Karlsruhe. This model is designed for describing atmospheric transport phenomena in the local-to-regional scale, often referred to as mesoscale air pollution models.
MERCURE (France) – An atmospheric dispersion modeling CFD code developed by Electricite de France (EDF) and distributed by ARIA Technologies, a French company. The code is a version of the CFD software ESTET, developed by EDF's Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique.
MODIM (Slovak Republic) – A model for calculating the dispersion of continuous, neutral or buoyant plumes on a local to regional scale. It integrates a Gaussian plume model for single or multiple point and area sources with a numerical model for line sources, street networks and street canyons. It is intended for regulatory and planning purposes.
MSS (France) – Micro-swift-spray is a Lagrangian particle model used to predict the transport and dispersion of contaminants in urban environments. The SWIFT portion of this model predicts a mass-consistent wind field that considers terrain; no-penetration conditions for building boundaries; Rockle zones for recirculation, edge, and rooftop separation; and background and locally generated turbulence. The spray portion of the tool handles the dispersion of passive gases, dense gases, and particulates. Spray also accounts for plume buoyancy effects, wet and dry depositions, and calculates microscale pressure fields for integration with building models. The MSS development team is found at ARIA Technologies (France) and U.S. integration activities are led by Leidos. Validation testing of MSS has been done in conjunction with JEM and HPAC tool releases and the model is coupled with SCIPUFF/UDM to create a nested dispersion capability inside HPAC. For more information on MSS see http://www.aria.fr.
MUSE (Greece) – A photochemical atmospheric dispersion model developed by Professor Nicolas Moussiopoulos at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece. It is intended for the study of photochemical smog formation in urban areas and assessment of control strategies on a local to regional scale. It can simulate dry deposition and transformation of pollutants can be treated using any suitable chemical reaction mechanism.
OML (Denmark) – A model for dispersion calculations of continuous neutral or buoyant plumes from single or multiple, stationary point and area sources. It has some simple methods for handling photochemistry (primarily for NO2) and for handling complex terrain. The model was developed by the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark. It is now maintained by the Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University. For further reference see as well: OML home page
ONM9440 (Austria) – A Gaussian dispersion model for continuous, buoyant plumes from stationary sources for use in flat terrain areas. It includes plume depletion by dry deposition of solid particulates.
OSPM (Denmark) – The operational street pollution model (OSPM) is a practical street pollution model, developed by the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark. It is now maintained by the Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University. For almost 20 years, OSPM has been routinely used in many countries for studying traffic pollution, performing analyses of field campaign measurements, studying efficiency of pollution abatement strategies, carrying out exposure assessments and as reference in comparisons to other models. OSPM is generally considered as state-of-the-art in applied street pollution modelling. For further reference see as well: OSPM home page
PANACHE (France) – fluidyn-PANACHE is a self-contained fully 3D fluid dynamics software package designed to simulate accidental or continuous industrial and urban pollutant dispersion into the atmosphere. It simulates release and toxic/flammables pollutants dispersion in various weather conditions in calculated 3D complex winds and turbulence fields. Gas, particles, droplets induced flow and transport/diffusion is simulated with Navier-Stokes equations for jet-like, dense, cold, cryogenic or hot, buoyant releases. The application covers the very short scale (tens of meters) and the local scale (ten kilometers) where the complex flow pattern as related to obstacles, variable land uses, topography is calculated explicitly.
PROKAS-V (Germany) – A Gaussian dispersion model for evaluating the atmospheric dispersion of air pollutants emitted from vehicular traffic on a road network of line sources on a local scale.
PLUME (Bulgaria) – A conventional Gaussian plume model used in many regulatory applications. The basis of the model is a single simple formula which assumes constant wind speed and reflection from the ground surface. The horizontal and vertical dispersion parameters are a function of downwind distance and stability. The model was developed for routine applications in air quality assessment, regulatory purposes and policy support.
POLGRAPH (Portugal) – This model was developed at the University of Aveiro, Portugal by Professor Carlos Borrego. It was designed for evaluating the impact of industrial pollutant releases and for air quality assessments. It is a Gaussian plume dispersion model for continuous, elevated point sources to be used on a local scale over flat or gently rolling terrain.
RADM (France) – The random-walk advection and dispersion model (RADM) was developed by ACRI-ST, an independent research and development organization in France. It can model gas plumes and particles (including pollutants with exponential decay or formation rates) from single or multiple stationary, mobile or area sources. Chemical reaction, radioactive decay, deposition, complex terrain, and inversion conditions are accommodated.
RIMPUFF (Denmark) – A local and regional scale real-time puff diffusion model developed by Risø National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy, Technical University of Denmark. Risø DTU. RIMPUFF is an operational emergency response model in use for assisting emergency management organisations dealing with chemical, nuclear, biological and radiological (CBRN) releases to the atmosphere. RIMPUFF is in operation in several European national emergency centres for preparedness and prediction of nuclear accidental releases (RODOS, EURANOS, ARGOS), chemical gas releases (ARGOS), and serves also as a decision support tool during active combatting of airborne transmission of various biological infections, including e.g. Foot-and Mouth Disease outbreaks. DEFRA Foot and Mouth Disease.
SAFE AIR II (Italy) – The simulation of air pollution from emissions II (SAFE AIR II) was developed at the Department of Physics, University of Genoa, Italy to simulate the dispersion of air pollutants above complex terrain at local and regional scales. It can handle point, line, area and volume sources and continuous plumes as well as puffs. It includes first-order chemical reactions and plume depletion by wet and dry deposition, but it does not include any photochemistry.
SEVEX (Belgium) – The Seveso expert model simulates the accidental release of toxic and/or flammable material over flat or complex terrain from multiple pipe and vessel sources or from evaporation of volatile liquid spill pools. The accidental releases may be continuous, transient or catastrophic. The integrated model can handle denser-than-air gases as well as neutral gases (i.e., neither denser than or lighter than air). It does not include handling of multi-component material, nor does it provide for chemical transformation of the releases. The model's name is derived from the major disaster caused by the accidental release of highly toxic gases that occurred in Seveso, Italy in 1976.
SNAP (Norway) – The Severe Nuclear Accident Programme (SNAP) model is a Lagrangian type atmospheric dispersion model specialized on modelling dispersion of radioactive debris.
SPRAY (Italy, France) – A Lagrangian particle dispersion model (LPDM) which simulates the transport, dispersion and deposition of pollutants emitted from sources of different kind over complex terrain and with the presence of obstacles. The model easily takes into account complex situations, such as the presence of breeze cycles, strong meteorological inhomogeneities and non-stationary, low wind calm conditions and recirculations. Simulations can cover area ranging from very local (less than one kilometer) to regional (hundreds of kilometres) scales. Plume rise of hot emission from stack is taken into account using a Briggs formulation. Algorithms for particle-oriented dry/wet deposition processes and for considering the gravitational settling are present. Dry deposition can be computed on ground and also on ceil/roof and on lateral faces of obstacles. Dispersion under generalized geometries like arches, tunnels and walkways can be performed. Dense gas dispersion is simulated using five conservation equations (mass, energy, vertical momentum and two horizontal momenta) based on Glandening et al. (1984) and Hurley and Manins (1995). Plume spread at the ground due to gravity is also simulated by a method (Anfossi et al., 2009), based on Eidsvik (1980).
STACKS (The Netherlands) – A Gaussian plume dispersion model for point and area buoyant plumes to be used over flat terrain on a local scale. It includes building effects, NO2 chemistry and plume depletion by deposition. It is used for environmental impact studies and evaluation of emission reduction strategies.
STOER.LAG (Germany) – A dispersion model designed to evaluate accidental releases of hazardous and/or flammable materials from point or area sources in industrial plants. It can handle neutral and denser-than-air gases or aerosols from ground-level or elevated sources. The model accommodates building and terrain effects, evaporation of volatile liquid spill pools, and combustion or explosion of flammable gas-air mixtures (including the impact of heat and pressure waves caused by a fire or explosion).
SYMOS'97 (Czech Republic) – A model developed by the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute for dispersion calculations of continuous neutral or buoyant plumes from single or multiple point, area or line sources. It can handle complex terrain and it can also be used to simulate the dispersion of cooling tower plumes.
TCAM is a multiphase three-dimensional eulerian grid model designed by ESMA group of University of Brescia, for modelling dispersion of pollutants (in particular photochemical and aerosol) at mesoscale.
UDM-FMI (Finland) – This model was developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) as an integrated Gaussian urban scale model intended for regulatory pollution control. It handles multiple point, line, area and volume sources and it includes chemical transformation (for NO2), wet and dry deposition (for SO2), and downwash phenomena (but no building effects).
VANADIS (Poland) – 3D unsteady state eulerian type model – Demo – 3d dispersion model – please read vanadis_eng.txt.
Models developed in Australia
AUSPLUME – A dispersion model that has been designated as the primary model accepted by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) of the Australian state of Victoria. (update:AUSPLUME V6 will no longer be the air pollution dispersion regulatory model in Victoria from 1 January 2014. From this date the air pollution dispersion regulatory model in Victoria will be AERMOD.)
pDsAUSMOD – Australian graphical user interface for AERMOD
pDsAUSMET – Australian meteorological data processor for AERMOD
LADM – An advanced model developed by Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) for simulating the dispersion of buoyant pollution plumes and predicting the photochemical formation of smog over complex terrain on a local to regional scale. The model can also handle fumigated plumes (see the books listed below in the "Further reading" section for an explanation of fumigated plumes).
TAPM – An advanced dispersion model integrated with a pre-processor for providing meteorological data inputs. It can handle multiple pollutants, and point, line, area and volume sources on a local, city or regional scale. The model capabilities include building effects, plume depletion by deposition, and a photochemistry module. This model was also developed by Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO).
DISPMOD – A Gaussian atmospheric dispersion model for point sources located in coastal regions. It was designed specifically by the Western Australian Department of Environment to simulate the plume fumigation that occurs when an elevated onshore pollution plume intersects a growing thermal internal boundary layer (TIBL) contained within offshore air flow coming onshore.
AUSPUFF – A Gaussian puff model designed for regulatory use by CSIRO. It includes some simple algorithms for the chemical transformation of reactive air pollutants.
Models developed in Canada
MLCD – Modèle Lagrangien à courte distance is a Lagrangian particle dispersion model (LPDM) developed in collaboration by Environment Canada's Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC) and by the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences of University of Alberta. This atmospheric dispersion and deposition model is designed to estimate air concentrations and surface deposition of pollutants for very short range emergency problems (less than ~10 km from the source).
MLDPn – Modèle Lagrangien de dispersion de particules d'ordre n is a Lagrangian particle dispersion model (LPDM) developed by Environment Canada's Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC). This atmospheric and aquatic transport and dispersion model is designed to estimate air and water concentrations and ground deposition of pollutants for various emergency response problems at different scales (local to global). It is used to forecast and track volcanic ash, radioactive material, forest fire smoke, chemical hazardous substances as well as oil slicks.
Trajectory – The trajectory model, developed by Environment Canada's Canadian Meteorological Centre (CMC), is a simple tool designed to calculate the trajectory of a few air parcels moving in the 3D wind field of the atmosphere. The model provides a quick estimate of the expected trajectory of an air parcel by the advection transport mechanism, originating from (forward trajectory) or arriving at (backward trajectory) a specified geographical location and a vertical level.
Models developed in India
HAMS-GPS – Software used for management of environment, health and safety (EHS). It can be used for training as well as research involving dispersion modeling, accident analysis, fires, explosions, risk assessments and other related subjects.
Air pollution dispersion models
ADMS 5
AERMOD
CALPUFF
DISPERSION21
PUFF-PLUME
MERCURE
NAME
OSPM
SAFE AIR
RIMPUFF
HAMS-GPS EIA modeling
Others
Air pollution dispersion terminology
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
Roadway air dispersion modeling
Wind profile power law
References
Schenk R (1996) Entwicklung von IBS Verkehr, Fördervorhaben des Ministeriums für Umwelt und Landwirtschaft des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt, FKZ 76213//95, 1996
Schenk R (1980) Numerische Behandlung instationärer Transportprobleme,Habilitation an der TU Dresden, 1980
Further reading
For those who would like to learn more about atmospheric dispersion models, it is suggested that either one of the following books be read:
www.crcpress.com
External links
Air Quality Modeling – From the website of Stuff in the Air
The Model Documentation System (MDS) of the European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (part of the European Environment Agency)
USA EPA Preferred/Recommended Models Alternative Models Screening Models Photochemical Models
Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling. Addresses the international community of atmospheric dispersion modellers – primarily researchers, but also users of models. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their work.
The ADMS models and the GASTAR model
The AUSPLUME model
The CHARM model
Fluidyn-PANACHE: 3D Computational Fluid Dynamcis(CFD) model for Dispersion Analysis
The HAMS-GPS software
The LADM, DISPMOD and AUSPUFF models
The LAPMOD model
The NAME model
The RIMPUFF model
The SPRAY model
The TAPM model
Validation of the Urban Dispersion Model (UDM)
Atmospheric dispersion modeling |
4271896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dane%20Swan | Dane Swan | Dane Swan (born 25 February 1984) is a former elite professional Australian rules footballer who played for the Collingwood Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). Swan was drafted with pick 58 in the 2001 AFL draft, and made his debut in Round 13, 2003 against the .
Known as a prolific ball-winner, Swan averaged almost 27 disposals per game over his career. Swan was a premiership player, a Brownlow Medallist, a three-time Copeland Trophy recipient, a Leigh Matthews Trophy recipient, and a five-time All-Australian.
Swan was notably runner-up in the 2017 reality TV show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, on Network Ten.
Early life
Swan was born in Melbourne to Billy and Deidre Swan. He is a direct descendant of Thomas Flanagan, an Irish convict transported to Australia in 1849. His father Billy Swan was a highly decorated footballer in the VFA, winning the J. J. Liston Trophy twice and playing a competition record 302 games with Port Melbourne and Williamstown from 1976 to 1993.
He grew up playing junior football for the Westmeadows Football Club in the Essendon District Football League, and attended St. Bernard's College in Essendon before playing his under-18 football with the Calder Cannons in the TAC Cup.
Swan's performances at the Calder Cannons were ordinary and he was perceived by some recruiters to be a larrikin with questionable kicking accuracy and work ethic; however, showed an interest in him as a potential late maturer in the mould of his father.
Career
Swan was recruited by the Collingwood Football Club with pick 58 in the 2001 AFL draft. He made his debut in June 2003 at the age of 19, though he only played three games (against the , and ). Swan managed just 30 games in his first four seasons in the system at Collingwood, and although he played some solid football in that time, he was not regarded as outstanding. He played much of this time with Williamstown, which was then Collingwood's , and he was a member of its 2003 premiership team.
In 2006, he broke through, playing 21 games and finished sixth in the Copeland Trophy voting. Swan mainly rotated through the midfield and moved forward when required. His first nine weeks were productive, averaging nearly 26 disposals and kicked 15 goals, before a hamstring injury suffered against in round ten sidelined him until round thirteen.
2007 was considered his breakout season as he placed fourth in the Copeland Trophy and was a surprise packet at the Brownlow, leading for most of the night before finishing sixth with 20 votes.
2008
The 2008 Copeland Trophy winner had a strong year averaging twenty-five disposals, seven marks, three tackles and one goal a game. Swan led the team in total disposals (590) and kicks (368), second in marks (163), and third in handballs (222) and tackles (75). He had 14 games of 25 possessions or more and kicked two or more goals on six occasions. Round 10 against was one of Swan's best, collecting 34 possessions, 10 marks and two goals. In round 14 against , he had 30 touches and 13 marks.
2009
In the 2009 season, Swan averaged 31.8 disposals, 7.8 marks, 3.0 tackles and 5.4 inside-50s per game. He was one of the AFL's most prolific ball winners, along with being an in-and-under specialist winning the contested ball at most stoppages whilst also running hard.
In Collingwood's 2009 round 10 clash against , Swan obtained 48 possessions, 22 kicks and 26 handballs. This was the best disposal count in a decade and was then the third-highest-recorded disposals count in one match, behind Greg Williams' 53 and Tony Shaw's 50. It was a record since the length of game quarters was shortened from 25 minutes to 20 minutes in 1994, until surpassed in round 22, 2011 by 's Scott Thompson (51 disposals).
He was ranked third for total inside-50s, fourth in total goal assists, first in total kicks, fourteenth in total handballs, first in total disposals, tenth in total marks, fifth in inside-50s per game, thirteenth in goal assists per game, second in kicks per game, second in disposals per game. He was voted runner-up at the AFLPA MVP awards (polling 584 votes), finishing behind Gary Ablett (688). He was regarded as one of the front-runners for the Brownlow Medal, but finished outside the top ten.
Swan was selected in the 2009 All-Australian team, but controversially as a half forward flanker, rather than as a midfielder, which is his usual position.
2010
Swan averaged 31.8 disposals, including 19 kicks per game, totalling a then AFL record 820 disposals for the season. On 6 September, Swan won the AFL Players Association MVP Award (Leigh Matthews Trophy) after a vote by the players. That year he was also elected as the ruck-rover for the All-Australian team. His consistent season was a cornerstone to Collingwood's fifteenth premiership, to the point of having his tattoos referenced on the Herald Sun premiership poster. Swan finished third in the Brownlow Medal count, having started favourite. On 31 October in the International Rules Series he won the Jim Stynes Medal. At the conclusion of the season, Swan became only the fourth-ever Collingwood player to win three consecutive Copeland Trophies.
2011
With Swan's contract at Collingwood due to expire at the end of 2011, there was much pre-season media speculation over a possible move to new AFL club . This was put to rest during the lead-up week to the season's commencement when Collingwood announced that Swan had signed a new three-year deal, committing him to the club until the end of 2014. Swan started 2011 in the same good form as 2010. He attained 40 disposals in round 2 against but sustained a quad injury close to the midway point of the season and his form deteriorated. Collingwood decided to send Swan, with teammates Brent Macaffer, Darren Jolly and Nathan Brown, to a high-altitude training camp in Arizona in an attempt to help the players recover faster from their individual injuries. The trip proved effective for Swan, with an immediate effect on his playing performances. In the next six games after his return, he had an average of 35.3 disposals per game with a strong effort against Essendon with 45 possessions and a goal. He later won the 2011 Brownlow Medal with 34 votes—setting a new record for the most votes polled in a count under the 3–2–1 system, which was later surpassed by Patrick Dangerfield in 2016.
2012
Swan received some criticism early on in the 2012 season and was accused of being unfit and "too fat". In the annual Anzac Day clash, Swan won his first Anzac Day medal as best on ground after a one-point win over Essendon, with forty-two possessions, three goals and six tackles during the game. Swan missed two games midway through the season due to a hamstring injury, then returned for the Queen's Birthday clash in Round 11 against , where he finished with a game high 42 possessions. Strong performances over the following two months saw Swan rise in the Brownlow Medal betting, to become one of the favourites behind Jobe Watson, Scott Thompson and Gary Ablett. Swan was later found to have broken a pledge made by the playing group to abstain from drinking alcohol for the remainder of the season. He was suspended for two games as a result. Swan had over 40 disposals in six different games, reaching a new career high of 49 against in the round 17 loss, he also didn't have below 25 disposals. Swan over the home and away season averaged 35.7 disposals (career high and AFL record since stats were recorded) and 1.2 goals a game. Despite missing four home and away games Swan still finished fourth in the Brownlow Medal count and averaged more votes per game than anyone else in the top ten. He was named on the bench in the All-Australian team, his fourth selection in his career.
2013
Swan started the season averaging 30 possessions in the first three matches. In round 4, Swan played his 200th AFL game against an unbeaten Richmond, producing an almost best on ground performance (thirty-five disposals, six marks and one goal) and was only bettered by teammate Travis Cloke, who kicked a career best seven goals. At the end of the year Swan averaged 31.2 disposals, 5.7 marks, 3.4 tackles, and 5.2 inside-50s per game. He finished first in overall disposals, and equal seventh in total inside-50s. Swan was selected as the ruck-rover in the 2013 All-Australian team, the fifth consecutive year he was included. Swan finished third in the Brownlow Medal with 26 votes, losing by two to the winner Gary Ablett, and one to second-placed Joel Selwood.
2014
After wrist surgery in the off season, Swan started the season slowly, with an average of 22 disposals in the first three rounds, including just sixteen disposals in round 2. It didn't take long for him to find his form though, including thirty-five disposals and eleven marks against North Melbourne, and twenty-six disposals and four goals against Essendon to earn him his second ANZAC medal.
2015
After 2014, a year that Swan described as putrid, He returned to career-best form in 2015, averaging twenty-nine disposals and one goal per game, as well as reaching the 250-game milestone. Swan notched 30 disposals in 11 games during 2015, and played every game in 2015 apart from Collingwood's round 23 clash against Essendon due to a knee injury he sustained the week before. Although Collingwood missed the finals, Swan arguably proved to critics that at the age of 31 he is still able to play high-quality football at an elite level.
2016
In the round one clash against Sydney, Swan was badly injured after landing awkwardly on his foot, breaking three bones, including a Lisfranc. The injury ruled him out of the rest of the season, and in August he announced his immediate retirement from the AFL.
Statistics
A prolific ball-winner, particularly in the latter part of his career, Swan lead the AFL in total disposals on four occasions and total kicks on five occasions. Swan accumulated an average of 26.85 disposals per game during his AFL career, which at the time of his retirement was the second-highest average of all time behind only Greg Williams (26.88 per game).
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| scope=row | 2003 || || 36
| 3 || 0 || 0 || 14 || 13 || 27 || 4 || 3 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 4.7 || 4.3 || 9.0 || 1.3 || 1.0 || 0
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2004 || || 36
| 13 || 2 || 5 || 105 || 66 || 171 || 49 || 18 || 0.2 || 0.4 || 8.1 || 5.1 || 13.2 || 3.8 || 1.4 || 0
|-
| scope=row | 2005 || || 36
| 14 || 3 || 2 || 143 || 91 || 234 || 67 || 22 || 0.2 || 0.1 || 10.2 || 6.5 || 16.7 || 4.8 || 1.6 || 0
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2006 || || 36
| 21 || 19 || 12 || 311 || 176 || 487 || 168 || 44 || 0.9 || 0.6 || 14.8 || 8.4 || 23.2 || 8.0 || 2.1 || 11
|-
| scope=row | 2007 || || 36
| 25 || 13 || 14 || 422 || 173 || 595 || 187 || 85 || 0.5 || 0.6 || 16.9 || 6.9 || 23.8 || 7.5 || 3.4 || 20
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2008 || || 36
| 24 || 22 || 23 || 368 || 222 || 590 || 163 || 75 || 0.9 || 1.0 || 15.3 || 9.3 || 24.6 || 6.8 || 3.1 || 12
|-
| scope=row | 2009 || || 36
| 25 || 18 || 25 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 444† || 325 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 769† || 161 || 77 || 0.7 || 1.0 || 17.8 || 13.0 || 30.8 || 6.4 || 3.1 || 12
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row bgcolor=F0E68C | 2010# || || 36
| 26 || 24 || 23 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 505† || 315 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 820† || 146 || 123 || 0.9 || 0.9 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 19.4† || 12.1 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 31.5† || 5.6 || 4.7 || 24
|-
| scope=row | 2011 || || 36
| 24 || 32 || 23 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 472† || 288 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 760† || 129 || 77 || 1.3 || 1.0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 19.7† || 12.0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 31.7† || 5.4 || 3.2 || bgcolor=98FB98 | 34±
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2012 || || 36
| 21 || 25 || 22 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 442† || 283 || 725 || 138 || 71 || 1.2 || 1.0 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 21.0† || 13.5 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 34.5† || 6.6 || 3.4 || 25
|-
| scope=row | 2013 || || 36
| 23 || 21 || 21 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 436† || 281 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 717† || 131 || 79 || 0.9 || 0.9 || bgcolor=CAE1FF | 19.0† || 12.2 || 31.2 || 5.7 || 3.4 || 26
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2014 || || 36
| 17 || 11 || 12 || 244 || 180 || 424 || 79 || 49 || 0.6 || 0.7 || 14.4 || 10.6 || 24.9 || 4.6 || 2.9 || 17
|-
| scope=row | 2015 || || 36
| 21 || 21 || 14 || 336 || 273 || 609 || 104 || 81 || 1.0 || 0.7 || 16.0 || 13.0 || 29.0 || 5.0 || 3.9 || 13
|- style=background:#EAEAEA
| scope=row | 2016 || || 36
| 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0
|- class=sortbottom
! colspan=3 | Career
! 258 !! 211 !! 196 !! 4242 !! 2686 !! 6928 !! 1526 !! 804 !! 0.8 !! 0.8 !! 16.4 !! 10.4 !! 26.9 !! 5.9 !! 3.1 !! 186
|}
Honours and achievements
Team:
AFL Premiership (Collingwood): 2010
McClelland Trophy (Collingwood): 2010, 2011
NAB Cup (Collingwood): 2011
Robert Rose Cup: 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013
Individual:
Brownlow Medal: 2011
Joseph Wren Memorial Trophy (VFL Best and Fairest): 2003
Copeland Trophy (Collingwood Best and Fairest): 2008, 2009, 2010
Leigh Matthews Trophy: 2010
All-Australian: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013
Herald Sun Player of the Year: 2009, 2010
Australian Football Media Association Player of the Year: 2009, 2010
Bob Rose-Charlie Sutton Medal: 2009
AFLCA Champion Player of the Year: 2010
Lou Richards Medal: 2010
Australian Representative Honours in International rules football: 2010
Jim Stynes Medal: 2010
AFL ANZAC Medal: 2012, 2014
Controversies
In 2003, Swan was arrested with two others following a brawl at Federation Square in which a security guard (Jesse James) was knocked unconscious, and another man (Claudio Celano) was left with a permanent brain injury. Swan was charged with 13 offences, including assault, affray and intentionally causing serious injury. Swan was convicted of affray and ordered to perform 100 hours of community service. Mr Celano, who suffered a permanent brain injury, sued his three assailants and in a settlement, Swan and the other offenders agreed to make payment of $100,000 to Mr Celano. However, in 2009 Mr Celano again sued Swan and the other offenders because they had failed to make payment as agreed and Swan was penalised for that failure to make payment. Mr Celano's lawyer noted that Swan and the other offenders had not made any apology to his client. In an interview in 2010, Swan detailed how close the incident came to ending his football career. Coach Mick Malthouse gave him a second chance, believing that Swan did not deserve to have his career derailed because of one stupid decision. In a further interview in 2017, Swan stated he had 'no regrets' about the incident which left one man unconscious and another with a permanent brain injury.
In March 2010, Swan hit a parked truck on the way from his house to training. Four months later, Swan was hit in the mouth at a nightclub.
In August 2012, Swan received an internal two-match suspension from the Collingwood senior team for breaking team rules—specifically, a pledge by the playing group to abstain from alcohol between late July and the end of the season.
In June 2014, Swan attended a fundraising event hosted by John Gatto, the brother of underworld figure Mick Gatto. Collingwood president Eddie McGuire had no problem with the incident.
In May 2018, explicit video footage of Swan was leaked, leading to a police investigation.
In January 2023, Swan tweeted about 'male tampons', causing controversy as they were actually absorbent underwear for incontinence.
Personal life
Swan has been with his girlfriend, Taylor Wilson, since 2010. In November 2020 they announced that they were expecting a child. Their son, Tate, was born on 13 February 2021.
References
External links
1984 births
Collingwood Football Club players
Collingwood Football Club premiership players
Brownlow Medal winners
Copeland Trophy winners
All-Australians (AFL)
Living people
People educated at St. Bernard's College, Melbourne
Calder Cannons players
Williamstown Football Club players
Australian rules footballers from Melbourne
Australian people of Irish descent
Australia international rules football team players
Leigh Matthews Trophy winners
VFL/AFL premiership players |
4271952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob-B-Hood | Rob-B-Hood | Rob-B-Hood (, also known as Robin-B-Hood, literally: Baby Project) is a 2006 Hong Kong action comedy drama film written, produced and directed by Benny Chan, feature an ensemble cast include Jackie Chan, Louis Koo, Yuen Biao, Michael Hui, Gao Yuanyuan, Charlene Choi, Chen Baoguo and Matthew Medvedev. It tells the story of a kidnapping gone wrong in Hong Kong; a trio of burglars consisting of Thongs (Chan), Octopus (Koo) and the Landlord (Hui) kidnap a baby from a wealthy family on behalf of triads. With the Landlord arrested, Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby for a short time, developing strong bonds with him. Reluctant to hand the baby over, the two are forced to protect him from the triads who hired them in the first place.
Originally announced in 2005, the film marked Benny Chan's third collaboration with Jackie Chan, following Who Am I? and New Police Story. It was produced with a budget of HK$16.8 million and filming took place in Hong Kong between December 2005 and January 2006. Rob-B-Hood is the first film in over 30 years in which Jackie Chan plays as a thief.
Rob-B-Hood was released in Hong Kong, China and Southeast Asia on 29 September 2006 based in Hong Kong to generally positive reviews. The film topped the Chinese box office in October 2006 and despite not being given a release in most European and North American countries, it grossed over US$20 million worldwide. The film was nominated for Best New Performer and Best Action Choreography at the 26th Hong Kong Film Awards.
Plot
Friends Thongs and Octopus evade security guards in a hospital, having stolen money and cancer medication from the safe. Meanwhile, a newborn baby to the wealthy Lee family is snatched by Max, the mother's ex-boyfriend, prompting the security guards give chase, ignoring the burglars, and corner Max on an escalator. Following a violent struggle, Max and the baby fall over the side—the baby is caught by Thongs, while Max plummets to his death. While the guards are distracted, Thongs and Octopus leave in the Landlord's minivan.
A few months later, the Landlord finds his flat burgled, his life savings gone. He receives a phone call from his middleman Uncle Seven, offering him a job to kidnap baby Lee on behalf of a triad boss, who claims the baby is his grandson. Enticed by the HK$7 million reward, Thongs and Octopus accept the job without knowing its objectives, finding out only after the Landlord has fled the Lees' mansion with the baby. Disgusted by the idea of kidnapping a baby, Thongs threatens to return him, but relents after the Landlord tells him of his predicament. En route to their rendezvous point in Sai Kung, the trio encounter a police road block which the Landlord attempts to outrun, only to crash his van down a hill. As the police close in on them, the stuck Landlord instructs Thongs and Octopus to leave with the baby. While in custody for reckless driving, the Landlord learns of the baby's value through the news. He phones Thongs, instructing him not to hand the baby over to anyone prior to his release so he can jack up the price. Over the next few days, Thongs and Octopus take care of the baby, developing a strong bond with him. The two begin to regret their vices: Thongs resists the urge to gamble, while Octopus feels sorry for cheating on his wife Pak Yin, who is getting pregnant. Meanwhile, both the triads and the police are after the baby. The triad boss, enraged by the non-delivery of his "grandson", sends his men to retrieve the baby from Thongs' flat. Confronted by both the triads and Police Inspector Mok, Thongs and Octopus go into hiding with the baby.
Shortly after his release, the Landlord is brought to the triad boss, who increases his offer to HK$30 million for the baby. He finds Thongs and Octopus at the hospital, where the baby is being treated for fever. The Landlord informs the two of the triads' latest offer, but Thongs and Octopus are more concerned about the baby's welfare than the cash. However, the two agree to bring the baby to the triad boss' mansion, where the Landlord will meet them with the rest of the money. They reach the triad boss' mansion and hand over the baby reluctantly. As the trio are about to leave, they hear the baby crying for them as a blood sample is taken from his arm. Thongs and Octopus experience a flashback of the days they spent with the baby. Overcome by their feelings, they fight their way into the triad boss' private amusement park to recover the baby while the Landlord leaves with the money. Thongs almost manages to escape with the baby, but is forced to surrender when the triads threaten to hurl Octopus to his death.
Thongs and Octopus are taken to the triad boss, who insists the baby is his grandson, only to be proven wrong by the blood test. Driven mad, the boss places the baby in a deep freeze room next to Max's corpse so the baby can be with his son, prompting Thongs and Octopus to fight for the baby. The two end up trapped in the room with two minions, but are saved when Inspector Mok arrives with the Landlord, who swiftly cracks the lock to the room. Thongs and Octopus run to the garage with the comatose baby, where Thongs attempts to revive him with a makeshift defibrillator powered by a car battery from a Pagani Zonda by holding onto the crocodile clips with his bare hands. Despite his efforts, the baby does not come to and is driven off in an ambulance, where his heart is found to be beating weakly. Imprisoned for kidnapping, Thongs, Octopus and the Landlord volunteer for a mock capital punishment demonstration during an open day, using the opportunity to apologise to their loved ones. After the demonstration, Inspector Mok informs the three that their sentences have been further reduced by the Department of Justice. Thongs, Octopus, and the Landlord then see the baby alive and well with his parents. As a token of appreciation for saving the baby's life, Thongs, Octopus and the Landlord are offered jobs by the Lee family as a bodyguard, chauffeur and head of security respectively.
Cast
Jackie Chan (成龍) as Thongs (人字拖): A professional burglar who has stolen a variety of expensive goods. A compulsive gambler, he has fallen out with his family over his lifestyle, resulting in his father having a stroke. Despite his vices, Thongs maintains a sense of ethics, making him reluctant to kidnap the baby. The name "Thongs" refers to his flip-flop footwear.
Louis Koo (古天樂) as Octopus (八達通): A fellow burglar working with Thongs. He uses the money he steals to buy expensive cars and to court a rich girl.
Michael Hui (許冠文) as The Landlord (包租公): The mentor of Thongs and Octopus for over 20 years. Unlike his trainees, the Landlord does not spend his share of the loot, instead stashing it in a safe in his home.
Matthew Medvedev as Matthew the Baby: The infant son of the wealthy Lee family, kidnapped by Thongs, Octopus and the Landlord on behalf of a triad boss.
Yuen Biao (元彪) as Inspector Steve Mok (莫史迪): The policeman in charge of the case involving the baby's disappearance.
Teresa Carpio as The Landlady (包租婆): The Landlord's wife. Driven mad by the death of her only son many years earlier, the Landlady carries a doll of a baby boy with her at all times.
Gao Yuanyuan (高圓圓) as Melody: A student nurse from the Peking University, who works as a part-time childcare consultant, teaching Thongs and Octopus how to take care of the baby, and later becomes Thong's love interest.
Charlene Choi (蔡卓妍) as Pak Yin (白燕), Octopus's pregnant wife who was being neglected, forcing her into a series of dead end jobs to make ends meet.
Terence Yin (尹子維) as Max: The former boyfriend of the baby's mother who claims the baby as his. He dies from a fall following a struggle for the baby in a hospital soon after it is born.
Cherrie Ying (應采兒) as Lee Man-yee: The girl of the wealthy Lee family who is the baby's mother.
Chen Baoguo (陳寶國) as The Triad boss: Having lost his only son Max, the triad boss will stop at nothing to capture the baby.
Ken Lo (盧惠光) and Hayama Go (葉山豪) as Balde and Tokyo Joe: Two high-ranking minions of the triad gang.
Conroy Chan and Gill Mohindepaul Singh as McDaddy and Hairy: These two are visited Thongs and Octopus residents when the both are finding him.
Daniel Wu as Daniel (cameo appearance), a security van driver.
Nicholas Tse as Nicholas (cameo appearance), a security van driver.
Jackie Chan stunt team
Chan Man-ching
Nicky Li
Ken Lo
Wu Gang
He Jun
Park Hyun-jin
Lee In-seob
Han Guanhua
Production
Rob-B-Hood was a joint production from JCE Movies Limited, a company set up by Jackie Chan in 2003, and Huayi Brothers Film & Taihe Investment Company, distributors of films such as Warriors of Heaven and Earth, The Banquet and Kekexili: Mountain Patrol. Chan has starred in over 50 action films, and has intimated in recent years that he has grown tired of being typecast as the "nice guy". The film is notable as the first in over 30 years, in which he plays a negative character—a criminal and compulsive gambler.
Development and writing
Jackie Chan contacted Benny Chan shortly after the release of New Police Story to discuss plans for a new action film. Chan stated that he did not want to play the typical nice guy role that has been the staple of his previous films. Eventually, Benny Chan and scriptwriter Alan Yuen came up with a daring idea: Chan will play Thongs, a petty criminal who has fallen out with his family over his gambling habit. Benny Chan had originally intended for Jackie to play a full-fledged villain, who "hits women and burns people with cigarettes". However, the script was toned down to appease the Chinese censors, who found the character to be too evil. Nevertheless, for only the third time in his acting career, Chan plays a character who is sentenced to prison.
Chan co-wrote the film and designed the action sequences, whilst director Benny Chan wrote the film's dramatic elements, completing the script by October 2005. Two additional protagonists were designed as Thongs' partners in crime, with the intention of increasing the comedic value of the film through their interactions. The film's Chinese title is Bo Bui Gai Wak (Cantonese: 寶貝計劃, literally Project BB, with "BB" being a homophone for "Baby"), a reference to Chan's award-winning 1983 film Project A (Cantonese: A Gai Wak, A計劃).
Casting
The cast of Rob-B-Hood includes actors ranging from newcomer Gao Yuanyuan to veteran actor Chen Baoguo. Daniel Wu and Nicholas Tse, who both starred in the film New Police Story, make cameo appearances as homosexual security van drivers during a car chase in the film.
Octopus, Thong's partner in crime, is played by Louis Koo, an award-winning actor with past appearances including the TVB drama series Detective Investigation Files IV and the films Election and Election 2. Although Koo co-starred with Jackie Chan, a number of action scenes involving his character were shot with a stunt double. In addition, Koo was the baby's favourite on set—Whenever the baby cried, Koo was always the first to cheer him up.
The Landlord, the leader of Thongs and Octopus, is played by Michael Hui, a Hong Kong Film Award-winning comedic actor who starred in various box office hits from 1970s to 1990s before emigrating to Canada shortly before the handover of Hong Kong. Hui was chosen for the part because he is the ideal actor to play a character who persuades others to do bad things. The producers had originally intended Hui to fight along with Chan and Koo, however, it was eventually decided that Hui would simply act as the brains of the gang.
Rob-B-Hood features a collaboration between Jackie Chan and Yuen Biao. The pair, along with Sammo Hung, were Peking Opera School classmates and co-starred in a number of action comedy films in the 1980s, including Project A, Wheels on Meals, and the Lucky Stars trilogy. Chan had originally intended to co-star with both Yuen and Hung, reuniting the trio for the first time since 1988 film Dragons Forever. However, Hung declined due to a scheduling conflicts. Yuen Biao plays the role of Police Inspector Steve Mok, assigned to investigate the baby's disappearance. Some of Yuen's past antics were revisited in Rob-B-Hood, including a fight in which he tried in vain to handcuff Chan's character.
Over 100 auditions were held before the suitable baby was found to star in the film. Benny Chan chose Matthew Medvedev, a one-year-old infant of Chinese and Colombian descent. Medvedev, known as Baby Matthew, was literally recruited off the street when an assistant director spotted him with his parents on the MTR. Although his family was simply visiting Hong Kong, they agreed to stay and let Matthew appear in Rob-B-Hood.
Filming and post-production
Rob-B-Hood is the third Jackie Chan film directed by Benny Chan, following Who Am I? and New Police Story. With a budget of HK$16.8 million, principal photography took place in Hong Kong, began on 14 December 2005 and concluded on 26 April 2006. Filming locations included Central, Sai Kung District, Sha Tin, Hong Kong Ocean Park, Cyberport, Tai Po Waterfront Park and Victoria Prison.
Benny Chan described the filming process as some of the darkest days of his career, explaining that the baby was a factor beyond his control, and could not work more than eight hours a day. Whenever a scene involving the baby was shot, the crew members had to be silent, communicating in sign language. Benny Chan stated it took time, patience, and money to guide the baby through each shot, and numerous retakes were required due to the baby's constant crying and napping. As a result, production went over budget. Special methods were sometimes used to coax the baby into co-operation. One scene required the baby to suckle Chan's nipple. The baby was initially hesitant, but relented after the crew brushed a large amount of honey onto the nipple.
Jackie Chan was the stunt director of Rob-B-Hood, having choreographed all the stunts with the Jackie Chan Stunt Team. He continued his tradition of performing his own stunts in the film, for example, jumping between several air-conditioners on the outer wall of a tall building to reach the ground. Several scenes required Chan to co-ordinate his stunts with the baby, including a car chase around the Sha Tin industrial area, in which he managed to snatch the baby away seconds before a car crashed into him; and a scene in Ocean Park in which he climbed on the underside of a roller coaster with the baby in hand. Chan suffered minor injuries attempting stunts in the film, having been kicked in the chest by a stuntman wearing the wrong boots and fallen off a quad bike, while attempting to perform a wheelie. Chan's combat choreography included the use of improvised weapons in combat; when he fought a pair of skilled henchmen in a deep freeze room, he defeated them by spraying them with milk and then using a large fan to blast them with cold air.
In the post-production process, the editing was held by Benny Chan's frequent collaborator Yau Chi-wai, while Chan Fai-young served as a score composer for the film.
Release
Theatrical release
Rob-B-Hood had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 8 September 2006. After the film's premiere at the Venice Film Festival, several scenes highlighting the personal relationships between characters were deleted from Rob-B-Hood prior to its release to the general public. Benny Chan explains that including too many dramatic scenes may distract the audience from the plot. The uncut version of Rob-B-Hood is included in the DVD release as the "Extended Version" feature.
The cut version of the film was released simultaneously in Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries on 29 September. Afterwards, Rob-B-Hood was released in Japan on 7 April 2007. Greece remains the only European country in which Rob-B-Hood was released, on 13 February 2007. The film is rated IIA in Hong Kong (unsuitable for children), G in Singapore and U in Malaysia.
The Japanese title of Rob-B-Hood is プロジェクトBB (Purojekuto BB), literally Project BB, the name initially proposed for the film. In Greece, the film is known as Ασύλληπτοι Απατεώνες (transliteration: Asulliptoi Apateones), meaning Inconceivable Frauds. In the United States, the film is known as Robin-B-Hood.
Home media
The first pressing of the DVD was released in Hong Kong in November 2006 on Region 0. This has since been discontinued and the subsequent standard and limited edition releases were on Region 3. All Hong Kong versions contain two discs: a movie disc and an extras disc. The movie disc features both the cinematic and uncut versions of the film, along with a commentary track by Benny Chan. The extras disc contains a "behind-the-scenes" video, the post-production press conference, a collection of deleted scenes and the music video of the theme song.
The limited edition DVD is housed in a box-file style box and contains various pieces of merchandise including branded sandals and door signs. An even more limited release of 5000 units was briefly available, and handed out at various film festivals. This edition contained a crystal dummy, an imitation bank note and a branded 2007 calendar in addition to the merchandise in the other limited edition release.
The DVD was later released in other East Asian countries, including China (Region 6), Japan (Region 2), South Korea, Thailand and Malaysia (Region 3). On 26 December 2007, the DVD was released in the US (Region 1) by Dragon Dynasty in a "two-disc ultimate edition", which contains much of the same extras as the Hong Kong releases, including the commentary by Benny Chan, though with US trailers replacing the domestic ones. However, the runtime for this release is 126:28, which is somewhere between the theatrical cut (121:46) and the director's cut (135:11) on the Hong Kong releases.
On 24 May 2010, DVD was released by Cine Asia in a two-disc ultimate edition at the United Kingdom in Region 2.
Reception
Critical response
Rob-B-Hood was generally well received by critics. Jay Weissberg of Variety described the film as "a mildly fun ride that banked on Jackie's tried-and-true comic charm in a standard baby kidnapping farce enlivened by just enough action sequences to keep hoary diaper scenes from soiling the playpen". Credit was given to the stunt choreography and the acting partnership of Jackie Chan and Louis Koo, although some reviewers were disappointed about the absence of Sammo Hung.
The plot of Rob-B-Hood received mixed reviews: The Chinese newspaper Xiao Xiang Chen Bao found it concise, hilarious and touching, whereas Jay Weissberg criticised it for being unoriginal. In addition, Felix Cheong of Channel NewsAsia found the subplots involving the antagonists' families redundant, detracting from the main story and making the film "tediously long". However, Chan was praised for his decision to play a darker character in Rob-B-Hood. Andrew Sun of South China Morning Post stated that "one of the best things Chan can do for his flagging movie career is to play a heavy—a nasty, scum-of-the-earth antagonist, since you do not always have to play a hero to be a hero." Sun emphasised the need for Chan to show flexibility in his roles, citing a number of actors that have thrived by playing the occasional villain.
Box office
Rob-B-Hood grossed HK$1.2 million the day it was released in Hong Kong. In China, the film topped the box office during the four-day National Day holiday weekend, grossing ¥8.9 million. It went on to top the Chinese box office in October with box office figures exceeding ¥90 million. Rob-B-Hood performed well in Southeast Asia, grossing US$404,000 in Singapore, US$400,000 in Malaysia and US$604,000 in Thailand during its first four days. In total, Rob-B-Hood had a worldwide gross of US$20,434,179 despite not being released in North America and most of Europe.
Accolades
See also
Jackie Chan filmography
References
External links
HK cinemagic entry
2006 films
2006 action comedy films
2006 martial arts films
Hong Kong action comedy films
Hong Kong martial arts films
2000s Cantonese-language films
2000s crime comedy films
2000s martial arts comedy films
Films directed by Benny Chan
Films set in Hong Kong
Films shot in Hong Kong
Films about babies
Films with screenplays by Alan Yuen
2006 comedy films
2000s Hong Kong films |
4271984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent%20tuberculosis | Latent tuberculosis | Latent tuberculosis (LTB), also called latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is when a person is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but does not have active tuberculosis (TB). Active tuberculosis can be contagious while latent tuberculosis is not, and it is therefore not possible to get TB from someone with latent tuberculosis. The main risk is that approximately 10% of these people (5% in the first two years after infection and 0.1% per year thereafter) will go on to develop active tuberculosis. This is particularly true, and there is added risk, in particular situations such as medication that suppresses the immune system or advancing age.
The identification and treatment of people with latent TB is an important part of controlling this disease. Various treatment regimens are in use for latent tuberculosis. They generally need to be taken for several months.
Transmission
Latent disease
TB Bacteria Are Spread Only from a Person with Active TB Disease ... In people who develop active TB of the lungs, also called pulmonary TB, the TB skin test will often be positive. In addition, they will show all the signs and symptoms of TB disease, and can pass the bacteria to others. So, if a person with TB of the lungs sneezes, coughs, talks, sings, or does anything that forces the bacteria into the air, other people nearby may breathe in TB bacteria. Statistics show that approximately one-third of people exposed to pulmonary TB become infected with the bacteria, but only one in ten of these infected people develops active TB disease during their lifetimes.However, exposure to tuberculosis is very unlikely to happen when one is exposed for a few minutes in a store or in a few minutes social contact. "It usually takes prolonged exposure to someone with active TB disease for someone to become infected.
After exposure, it usually takes 8 to 10 weeks before the TB test would show if someone had become infected."Depending on ventilation and other factors, these tiny droplets [from the person who has active tuberculosis] can remain suspended in the air for several hours. Should another person inhale them, he or she may become infected with TB. The probability of transmission will be related to the infectiousness of the person with TB, the environment where the exposure occurred, the duration of the exposure, and the susceptibility of the host.In fact, "it isn't easy to catch TB. You need consistent exposure to the contagious person for a long time. For that reason, you're more likely to catch TB from a relative than a stranger."
If a person had latent tuberculosis, they do not have active/contagious tuberculosis. Once exposed, people very often have latent tuberculosis. To convert to active tuberculosis, the bacteria must become active.
In some Countries like Canada people have medical privacy or "confidentiality" and do not have to reveal their active tuberculosis case to family, friends, or co-workers; therefore, the person who gets latent tuberculosis may never know who had the active case of tuberculosis that caused the latent tuberculosis diagnosis for them. Only by required testing (required in some jobs) or developing symptoms of active tuberculosis and visiting a medical doctor who does testing will a person know they have been exposed. Because tuberculosis is not common in the United States, doctors may not suspect tuberculosis; therefore, they may not test. If a person has symptoms of tuberculosis, it is wise to be tested.
Persons with diabetes may have an 18% chance of converting to active tuberculosis. In fact, death from tuberculosis was greater in diabetic patients. Persons with HIV and latent tuberculosis have a 10% chance of developing active tuberculosis every year. "HIV infection is the greatest known risk factor for the progression of latent M. tuberculosis infection to active TB. In many African countries, 30–60% of all new TB cases occur in people with HIV, and TB is the leading cause of death globally for HIV-infected people."
Reactivation
Once a person has been diagnosed with Latent Tuberculosis (LTBI) and a medical doctor confirms no active tuberculosis, the person should remain alert to symptoms of active tuberculosis for the remainder of their life. Even after completing the full course of medication, there is no guarantee that the tuberculosis bacteria have all been killed."When a person develops active TB (disease), the symptoms (cough, fever, night sweats, weight loss etc.) may be mild for many months. This can lead to delays in seeking care, and results in transmission of the bacteria to others."
Tuberculosis does not always settle in the lungs. If the outbreak of tuberculosis is in the brain, organs, kidneys, joints, or others areas, the patient may have active tuberculosis for an extended period of time before discovering that they are active. "A person with TB disease may feel perfectly healthy or may only have a cough from time to time." However, these symptoms do not guarantee tuberculosis, and they may not exist at all, yet the patient may still have active tuberculosis. A person with symptoms listed may have active tuberculosis, and the person should immediately see a physician so that tuberculosis is not spread. If a person with the above symptoms does not see a physician, ignoring the symptoms can result in lung damage, eye damage, organ damage and eventually death.
When tuberculosis settles in other organs (rather than lungs) or other parts of the body (such as the skeletal), symptoms may be different from when it settles in the lungs (such as the symptoms listed above). Thus, without the cough or flu-like symptoms, a person can unwittingly have active tuberculosis. Other symptoms include back pain, flank pain, PID symptoms, confusion, coma, difficulty swallowing, and many other symptoms that would be a part of other diseases. (Please see the reference for more information on symptoms.) Therefore, seeing a physician and asking for a tuberculosis test is absolutely necessary to rule out tuberculosis when a patient has symptoms without a diagnosis of disease.
Risk factors
Situations in which tuberculosis may become reactivated are:
if there is onset of a disease affecting the immune system (such as AIDS) or a disease whose treatment affects the immune system (such as chemotherapy in cancer or systemic steroids in asthma or Enbrel, Humira or Orencia in rheumatoid arthritis);
malnutrition (which may be the result of illness or injury affecting the digestive system, or of a prolonged period of not eating, or disturbance in food availability such as famine or residence in a refugee camp. concentration camp);
degradation of the immune system due to aging.
certain systemic diseases such as diabetes, and "other conditions: debilitating disease (especially haematological and some solid cancers), long-term steroids, end-stage renal disease, silicosis and gastrectomy/jejuno-ileal bypass all confer an increased risk.
"Elderly patients: latent TB may reactivate in elderly patients."
young age.
Diagnosis
There are two classes of tests commonly used to identify patients with latent tuberculosis: tuberculin skin tests and IFN-γ (Interferon-gamma) tests.
The skin tests currently include the following two:
Mantoux test
Heaf test
IFN-γ tests include the following three:
T-SPOT.TB
QuantiFERON-TB Gold
QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube
Tuberculin skin testing
The tuberculin skin test (TST) in its first iteration, the Mantoux Test, was developed in 1908. Tuberculin (also called purified protein derivative or PPD) is a standardised dead extract of cultured TB, injected into the skin to measure the person's immune response to the bacteria. So, if a person has been exposed to the bacteria previously, they should express an immune reaction to the injection, usually a mild swelling or redness around the site. There have been two primary methods of TST: the Mantoux test, and the Heaf test. The Heaf test was discontinued in 2005 because the manufacturer deemed its production to be financially unsustainable, though it was previously preferred in the UK because it was felt to require less training to administer and involved less inter-observer variation in its interpretation than the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test was the preferred test in the US, and is now the most widely used TST globally.
Mantoux test
See: Mantoux test
The Mantoux test is now standardised by the WHO. 0.1 ml of tuberculin (100 units/ml), which delivers a dose of 5 units is given by intradermal injection into the surface of the lower forearm (subcutaneous injection results in false negatives). A waterproof ink mark is drawn around the injection site so as to avoid difficulty finding it later if the level of reaction is small. The test is read 48 to 72 hours later. The area of induration (NOT of erythema) is measured transversely across the forearm (left to right, not up and down) and recorded to the nearest millimetre.
Heaf test
See:Heaf test
The Heaf test was first described in 1951. The test uses a Heaf gun with disposable single-use heads; each head has six needles arranged in a circle. There are standard heads and pediatric heads: the standard head is used on all patients aged 2 years and older; the pediatric head is for infants under the age of 2. For the standard head, the needles protrude 2 mm when the gun is actuated; for the pediatric heads, the needles protrude 1 mm. Skin is cleaned with alcohol, then tuberculin (100,000 units/ml) is evenly smeared on the skin (about 0.1 ml); the gun is then applied to the skin and fired. The excess solution is then wiped off and a waterproof ink mark is drawn around the injection site. The test is read 2 to 7 days later.
Grade 0: no reaction, or induration of 3 or less puncture points;
Grade 1: induration of four or more puncture points;
Grade 2: induration of the six puncture points coalesce to form a circle;
Grade 3: induration of 5 mm; or more
Grade 4: induration of 10 mm or more, or ulceration
The results of both tests are roughly equivalent as follows:
Heaf grade 0 & 1 ~ Mantoux less than 5 mm;
Heaf grade 2 ~ Mantoux 5–14 mm;
Heaf grade 3 & 4 ~ Mantoux 15 or greater
Tuberculin conversion
Tuberculin conversion is said to occur if a patient who has previously had a negative tuberculin skin test develops a positive tuberculin skin test at a later test. It indicates a change from negative to positive, and usually signifies a new infection.
Boosting
The phenomenon of boosting is one way of obtaining a false positive test result. Theoretically, a person's ability to develop a reaction to the TST may decrease over time – for example, a person is infected with latent TB as a child, and is administered a TST as an adult. Because there has been such a long time since the immune responses to TB has been necessary, that person might give a negative test result. If so, there is a fairly reasonable chance that the TST triggers a hypersensitivity in the person's immune system – in other words, the TST reminds the person's immune system about TB, and the body overreacts to what it perceives as a reinfection. In this case, when that subject is given the test again (as is standard procedure, see above) they may have a significantly greater reaction to the test, giving a very strong positive; this can be commonly misdiagnosed as Tuberculin Conversion. This can also be triggered by receiving the BCG vaccine, as opposed to a proper infection. Although boosting can occur in any age group, the likelihood of the reaction increases with age.
Boosting is only likely to be relevant if an individual is beginning to undergo periodic TSTs (health care workers, for example). In this case the standard procedure is called two-step testing. The individual is given their first test and in the event of a negative, given a second test in 1 to 3 weeks. This is done to combat boosting in situations where, had that person waited up to a year to get their next TST, they might still have a boosted reaction, and be misdiagnosed as a new infection.
Here there is a difference in US and UK guidelines; in the US testers are told to ignore the possibility of false positive due to the BCG vaccine, as the BCG is seen as having waning efficacy over time. Therefore, the CDC urges that individuals be treated based on risk stratification regardless of BCG vaccination history, and if an individual receives a negative and then a positive TST they will be assessed for full TB treatment beginning with X-ray to confirm TB is not active and proceeding from there. Conversely, the UK guidelines acknowledge the potential effect of the BCG vaccination, as it is mandatory and therefore a prevalent concern – though the UK shares the procedure of administering two tests, one week apart, and accepting the second one as the accurate result, they also assume that a second positive is indicative of an old infection (and therefore certainly LTBI) or the BCG itself. In the case of BCG vaccinations confusing the results, Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) tests may be used as they will not be affected by the BCG.
Interpretation
According to the U.S. guidelines, there are multiple size thresholds for declaring a positive result of latent tuberculosis from the Mantoux test: For testees from high-risk groups, such as those who are HIV positive, the cutoff is 5 mm of induration; for medium risk groups, 10 mm; for low-risk groups, 15 mm. The U.S. guidelines recommend that a history of previous BCG vaccination should be ignored. For details of tuberculin skin test interpretation, please refer to the CDC guidelines (reference given below).
The UK guidelines are formulated according to the Heaf test: In patients who have had BCG previously, latent TB is diagnosed if the Heaf test is grade 3 or 4 and have no signs or symptoms of active TB; if the Heaf test is grade 0 or 1, then the test is repeated. In patients who have not had BCG previously, latent TB is diagnosed if the Heaf test is grade 2, 3 or 4, and have no signs or symptoms of active TB. Repeat Heaf testing is not done in patients who have had BCG (because of the phenomenon of boosting). For details of tuberculin skin test interpretation, please refer to the BTS guidelines (references given below).
Given that the US recommendation is that prior BCG vaccination be ignored in the interpretation of tuberculin skin tests, false positives with the Mantoux test are possible as a result of: (1) having previously had a BCG (even many years ago), or (2) periodical testing with tuberculin skin tests. Having regular TSTs boosts the immunological response in those people who have previously had BCG, so these people will falsely appear to be tuberculin conversions. This may lead to treating more people than necessary, with the possible risk of those patients developing adverse drug reactions. However, as Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine is not 100% effective, and is less protective in adults than pediatric patients, not treating these patients could lead to a possible infection. The current US policy seems to reflect a desire to err on the side of safety.
The U.S. guidelines also allow for tuberculin skin testing in immunosuppressed patients (those with HIV, or who are on immunosuppressive drugs), whereas the UK guidelines recommend that tuberculin skin tests should not be used for such patients because it is unreliable.
Interferon-γ testing
The role of IFN-γ tests is undergoing constant review and various guidelines have been published with the option for revision as new data becomes available.CDC:MMWR Health Protection Agency:UK
There are currently two commercially available interferon-γ release assays (IGRAs): QuantiFERON-TB Gold and T-SPOT.TB. These tests are not affected by prior BCG vaccination, and look for the body's response to specific TB antigens not present in other forms of mycobacteria and BCG (ESAT-6). Whilst these tests are new they are now becoming available globally.
CDC:
HPA Interim Guidance:
Drug-resistant strains
It is usually assumed by most medical practitioners in the early stages of a diagnosis that a case of latent tuberculosis is the normal or regular strain of tuberculosis. It will therefore be most commonly treated with Isoniazid (the most used treatment for latent tuberculosis.) Only if the tuberculosis bacteria does not respond to the treatment will the medical practitioner begin to consider more virulent strains, requiring significantly longer and more thorough treatment regimens.
There are 4 types of tuberculosis recognized in the world today:
Tuberculosis (TB)
Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB)
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB)
Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis (TDR TB)
Treatment
The treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is essential to controlling and eliminating TB by reducing the risk that TB infection will progress to disease. Latent tuberculosis will convert to active tuberculosis in 10% of cases (or more in cases of immune compromised patients). Taking medication for latent tuberculosis is recommended by many doctors.
In the U.S., the standard treatment is nine months of isoniazid, but this regimen is not widely used outside of the US.
Terminology
There is no agreement regarding terminology: the terms preventive therapy and chemoprophylaxis have been used for decades, and are preferred in the UK because it involves giving medication to people who have no disease and are currently well: the reason for giving medication is primarily to prevent people from becoming unwell. In the U.S., physicians talk about latent tuberculosis treatment because the medication does not actually prevent infection: the person is already infected and the medication is intended to prevent existing silent infection from becoming active disease. There are no convincing reasons to prefer one term over the other.
Specific situations
"Populations at increased risk of progressing to active infection once exposed:
Persons with recent TB infection [those infected within the previous two years]
Congenital or acquired immunosuppressed patients (in particular, HIV-positive patients)
Illicit intravenous drug users; alcohol and other chronic substance users
Children (particularly those younger than 4 years old)
Persons with comorbid conditions (ie, chronic kidney failure, diabetes, malignancy, hematologic cancers, body weight of at least 10% less than ideal, silicosis, gastrectomy, jejunoileal bypass, asthma, or other disorders requiring long-term use of corticosteroids or other immunosuppressants)."
Treatment regimens
It is essential that assessment to rule out active TB be carried out before treatment for LTBI is started. To give treatment for latent tuberculosis to someone with active tuberculosis is a serious error: the tuberculosis will not be adequately treated and there is a serious risk of developing drug-resistant strains of TB.
There are several treatment regimens currently in use:
9H — isoniazid for 9 months is the gold standard (93% effective, in patients with positive test results and fibrotic pulmonary lesions compatible with tuberculosis).
6H — Isoniazid for 6 months might be adopted by a local TB program based on cost-effectiveness and patient compliance. This is the regimen currently recommended in the UK for routine use. The U.S. guidance excludes this regimen from use in children or persons with radiographic evidence of prior tuberculosis (old fibrotic lesions) (69% effective).
6 to 9H2 — An intermittent twice-weekly regimen for the above two treatment regimens is an alternative if administered under Directly observed therapy (DOT).
4R — rifampicin for 4 months is an alternative for those who are unable to take isoniazid or who have had known exposure to isoniazid-resistant TB.
3HR — Isoniazid and rifampin may be given daily for three months.
2RZ — The two-month regimen of rifampin and pyrazinamide is no longer recommended for treatment of LTBI because of the greatly increased risk of drug-induced hepatitis and death.
3HP – three-month (12-dose) regimen of weekly rifapentine and isoniazid. The 3HP regimen has to be administered under DOT. A self-administered therapy (SAT) of 3HP is investigated in a large international study.
Evidence for treatment effectiveness
A 2000 Cochrane review containing 11 double-blinded, randomized control trials and 73,375 patients examined six and 12 month courses of isoniazid (INH) for treatment of latent tuberculosis. HIV positive and patients currently or previously treated for tuberculosis were excluded. The main result was a relative risk (RR) of 0.40 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31 to 0.52) for development of active tuberculosis over two years or longer for patients treated with INH, with no significant difference between treatment courses of six or 12 months (RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.73 for six months, and 0.38, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.50 for 12 months).
A Cochrane systematic review published in 2013 evaluated four different alternatives regimens to INH monotherapy for preventing active TB in HIV-negative people with latent tuberculosis infection. The evidence from this review found no difference between shorter regimens of Rifampicin or weekly, directly observed Rifapentine plus INH compare to INH monotherapy in preventing active TB in HIV-negative people at risk of developing it . However the review found that the shorter Rifampicin regimen for four months and weekly directly observed Rifapentine plus INH for three months "may have additional advantages of higher treatment completion and improved safety." However the overall quality of evidence was low to moderate (as per GRADE criteria) and none of the included trials were conducted in LMIC nations with high TB transmission and hence might not be applicable to nations with high TB transmission.
Treatment efficacy
There is no guaranteed "cure" for latent tuberculosis. "People infected with TB bacteria have a lifetime risk of falling ill with TB..." with those who have compromised immune systems, those with diabetes and those who use tobacco at greater risk.
A person who has taken the complete course of Isoniazid (or other full course prescription for tuberculosis) on a regular, timely schedule may have been cured. "Current standard therapy is isoniazid (INH) which reduce the risk of active TB by as much as 90 per cent (in patients with positive LTBI test results and fibrotic pulmonary lesions compatible with tuberculosis) if taken daily for 9 months." However, if a person has not completed the medication exactly as prescribed, the "cure" is less likely, and the "cure" rate is directly proportional to following the prescribed treatment specifically as recommended. Furthermore, "[I]f you don't take the medicine correctly and you become sick with TB a second time, the TB may be harder to treat if it has become drug resistant." If a patient were to be cured in the strictest definition of the word, it would mean that every single bacterium in the system is removed or dead, and that person cannot get tuberculosis (unless re-infected). However, there is no test to assure that every single bacterium has been killed in a patient's system. As such, a person diagnosed with latent TB can safely assume that, even after treatment, they will carry the bacteria – likely for the rest of their lives. Furthermore, "It has been estimated that up to one-third of the world's population is infected with M. tuberculosis, and this population is an important reservoir for disease reactivation." This means that in areas where TB is endemic treatment may be even less certain to "cure" TB, as reinfection could trigger activation of latent TB already present even in cases where treatment was followed completely.
Epidemiology
Tuberculosis exists in all countries in the world, though some countries have a larger number of people infected than others. Per 100,000 people, Eswatini has the greatest number of tuberculosis cases in the world (627). Second is Cambodia (560), followed by Zambia (445), fourth is Djibouti (382), fifth is Indonesia (321), Mali (295), Zimbabwe (291), Kenya (291), Papua New Guinea (283) and Gambia (283).
The United States, Sweden and Iceland have some of the lowest rates of tuberculosis at 2 per 100,000. Canada, Netherlands, Jamaica, Norway, Malta, Grenada and Antigua and Barbuda also have low infection rates, at 3 per 100,000. In North America, countries over 10:100,000 include Mexico (14), Belize (18), Bahamas (19), Panama (28), El Salvador (36), Nicaragua (35), Honduras (46), Guatemala (48), and the Dominican Republic (88).
Most Western European countries have less than 10 per 100,000 except Spain (14), Portugal (16), Estonia (27), Latvia (43) and Lithuania (48), while Eastern and Southern European countries tend to have a greater number, with Romania (94) being the highest.
In South America, the countries with the greatest rates of tuberculosis per 100,000 are Bolivia (30) and Guyana (18), with the remaining countries having less than 10:100,000.
"One-third of the world's burden of tuberculosis (TB), or about 4.9 million prevalent cases, is found in the World Health Organization (WHO) South-East Asia Region."
"About one-third of the world's population has latent TB, which means people have been infected by TB bacteria but are not (yet) ill with disease and cannot transmit the disease," and most of those cases are in developing countries.
"In the US, over half of all active TB cases occur in immigrants. The reported cases of active TB in foreign-born persons has remained at 7000–8000 per year, while the number of cases in US-born people has dropped from 17,000 in 1993 to 6,500 in 2005. As a result, the percentage of active TB cases in immigrants has increased steadily (from 29% of all cases in 1993 to 54% in 2005)," and most of those cases are in developing countries.
Controversy
There is controversy over whether people who test positive long after infection have a significant risk of developing the disease (without re-infection). Some researchers and public health officials have warned that this test-positive population is a "source of future TB cases" even in the US and other wealthy countries, and that this "ticking time bomb" should be a focus of attention and resources.
On the other hand, Marcel Behr, Paul Edelstein, and Lalita Ramakrishnan reviewed studies concerning the concept of latent tuberculosis in order to determine whether tuberculosis-infected persons have life-long infection capable of causing disease at any future time. These studies, both published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) in 2018 and 2019, show that the incubation period of tuberculosis is short, usually within months after infection, and very rarely more than two years after infection. They also show that more than 90% of people infected with M. tuberculosis for more than two years never develop tuberculosis even if their immune system is severely suppressed. Immunologic tests for tuberculosis infection such as the tuberculin skin test and interferon gamma release assays (IGRA) only indicate past infection, with the majority of previously infected persons no longer capable of developing tuberculosis. Ramakrishnan told the New York Times that researchers "have spent hundreds of millions of dollars chasing after latency, but the whole idea that a quarter of the world is infected with TB is based on a fundamental misunderstanding." The first BMJ article about latency was accompanied by an editorial written by Dr. Soumya Swaminathan, Deputy Director-General of the World Health Organization, who endorsed the findings and called for more funding of TB research directed at the most heavily afflicted parts of the world, rather than disproportionate attention to a relatively minor problem that affects just the wealthy countries.
The World Health Organization no longer endorses the concept that all those with immunologic evidence of past TB infection are currently infected and so are at risk of developing TB some time in the future. In 2022, the WHO issued corrigenda to its 2021 Global TB Report to clarify estimates on the worldwide burden of infected people. These corrigenda deleted "About a quarter of the world's population is infected with M. tuberculosis" and replaced it with "About a quarter of the world's population has been infected with M. tuberculosis." The corrigenda also removed the prior estimate of the lifetime risk of TB of 5 to 10% among those with evidence of past TB infection, indicating that they no longer have confidence in earlier estimates that a substantial percentage of those with positive immunologic test results will develop the disease.
See also
Silent disease
References
Further reading
External links
Immunologic tests
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis |
4272389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willys%20MB | Willys MB | The Willys MB and the Ford GPW, both formally called the U.S. Army Truck, ton, 4×4, Command Reconnaissance, commonly known as the Willys Jeep, Jeep, or jeep, and sometimes referred to by its Standard Army vehicle supply nr. G-503, were highly successful American off-road capable, light military utility vehicles. Well over 600,000 were built to a single standardized design, for the United States and the Allied forces in World War II, from 1941 until 1945. This also made it (by its light weight) the world's first mass-produced four-wheel drive car, built in six-figure numbers.
The -ton jeep became the primary light, wheeled, multi-role vehicle of the United States military and its allies, with President Eisenhower once calling it "one of three decisive weapons the U.S. had during WWII." With some 640,000 units built, the ton jeeps constituted a quarter of the total military support motor vehicles that the U.S. produced during the war, and almost two-thirds of the 988,000 light 4WD vehicles produced, when counted together with the Dodge WC series. Large numbers of jeeps were provided to U.S. allies, including the Soviet Union at the time. Aside from large amounts of 1- and 2ton trucks, and 25,000 ton Dodges – some 50,000 ton jeeps were shipped to help Russia during WWII – against Nazi-Germany's total production of just over 50,000 Kübelwagens, the jeep's primary counterpart.
Historian Charles K. Hyde wrote: "In many respects, the jeep became the iconic vehicle of World War II, with an almost mythological reputation of toughness, durability, and versatility." Not only did it become the workhorse of the American military, literally replacing the use of horses and other draft animals (still heavily used in World War I), but also motorcycles (and sidecars) in every role, from messaging and cavalry units to supply trains – but improvised field modifications also made the jeep capable of just about any other function soldiers could think of. Moreover: military jeeps were adopted by countries all over the world, to this day – so much that they have become the most widely used and recognizable military vehicle in history.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe in World War II, wrote in his memoirs that most senior officers regarded it as one of the five pieces of equipment most vital to success in Africa and Europe. General George Marshall, Chief of Staff of the US Army during the war, called the vehicle "America's greatest contribution to modern warfare." In 1991, the MB Jeep was designated an "International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark" by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
After WWII, the original jeep continued to serve, in the Korean War and other conflicts, until it was updated in the form of the M38 Willys MC and M38A1 Willys MD (in 1949 and 1952 respectively), and received a complete redesign by Ford in the form of the 1960-introduced M151 jeep. Its influence, however, was much greater than that — manufacturers around the world began building jeeps and similar designs, either under license or not — at first primarily for military purposes, but later also for the civilian market. Willys turned the MB into the civilian Jeep in 1945, making the world's first mass-produced civilian four-wheel drive. The "Jeep" name was trademarked, and grew into a successful, and highly valued brand.
The success of the jeep inspired both an entire category of recreational 4WDs and SUVs, making "four-wheel drive" a household term, and numerous incarnations of military light utility vehicles. In 2010, the American Enterprise Institute called the jeep "one of the most influential designs in automotive history". Its "sardine tin on wheels" silhouette and slotted grille are perhaps even more instantly recognizable than the VW Beetle, and it has evolved into the currently produced Jeep Wrangler still largely designed like the original jeep design.
History
The design challenge and achievement
By 1940, U.S. policies had caused a stark disadvantage compared to Nazi Germany's aim, building a standard fleet of Wehrmacht (German armed forces) motor vehicles. From 1933, German industry could only produce Wehrmacht approved trucks. The U.S. Quartermaster's only significant success for standardization, through late September 1939 Army Regulations on tactical trucks, was that the War Department limited procurement to just five payload chassis types (categories), from ton to 7ton — but only "models produced commercially by two or more competing companies..." The Army was still to use "commercially standard" trucks and parts, with only minor modifications, like brush-guards, tow-hooks, etc. Specially designed vehicles or a standardized truck fleet were still ruled out. "This policy was intended to assure speedy production at the outbreak of war, regardless of the maintenance and spare parts problems that might develop later". The new rules more or less allowed the Army to order in late 1939 the U.S. military's first ever light, quantity-produced 4x4 trucks: the half-ton Dodge G-505 VC-series trucks, delivered in first half of 1940, but these were still not light enough for the jobs that both the Infantry and Ordnance branches required it for. By contrast, Germany had already completed a development program to produce off-road capable "Standardized Military Vehicles" (the Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht), from 1933–1938, which had already yielded a fleet of tens of thousands of standardized vehicles for the German Army. Moreover, lessons were learned, and a second program to develop a cheap, light, nimble multipurpose off-roader, the Volkswagen Kübelwagen, had already started in 1938. America's military faced a severe catch-up situation, both in time and knowledge. In June 1940 the race was on to produce a lightweight, 4-wheel drive cross-country vehicle for the U.S. Army, capable of carrying equipment and personnel across rough terrain.
The idea of the jeep originated with the infantry, which needed a low-profile, powerful vehicle with four-wheel drive and it was turned over to commercial companies (chiefly Bantam, Willys, and Ford) to deliver – the development repeatedly being described as a "design by committee". In fall 1941, Lt. E.P. Hogan of the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps wrote: "Credit for the original design of the Army's truck ton, 4x4, may not be claimed by any single individual or manufacturer. This vehicle is the result of much research and many tests." Hogan credited both military and civilian engineers, especially those working at the Holabird Quartermaster Depot.
Nevertheless, Willys' advertising and branding during and after the war aimed to make the world recognize Willys as the creator of the jeep. When Willys first applied to trademark the "Jeep" name in February 1943, Bantam, Ford and other companies objected, because of their contributions to the jeep and the war effort. Although many other companies advertised their patriotic efforts to producing the ton jeeps, including Ford, featuring their own GPW jeeps in their ads – nobody took their claims as far as Willys-Overland, and the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) opened a case, charging Willys-Overland with misrepresentation in their advertising and news claims, on 6 May 1943. According to the New York Times, the FTC ruled that Willys did not perform the "spectacular achievement" of creating, designing and perfecting the "jeep" together with U.S. Army Quartermaster officers, but that: "The idea of creating a "jeep" was said by the FTC .. to have been originated by the American Bantam [Co.] of Butler, PA "[with U.S. Army officers]" and to have been [conceived and] developed by that company." Willys appealed this ruling, and after a five-year investigation, in 1948 the FTC again ruled that "Willys was unfairly taking credit for the creation and was thus using unfair methods of competition. The FTC ordered Willys to stop claiming they were the sole creator of the Jeep."
Some 70 years later, in a late 2012 article, the Defense Acquisition Research Journal still called the jeep design "..a product of a massive team effort, including all three manufacturers as well as Army engineers, both military and civilian."
Moreover, in 2015, the Pennsylvania General Assembly unanimously adopted a non-controversial House Resolution (382): "..commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Bantam jeep, invented and originally manufactured in Butler, Pennsylvania", therein explicitly resolving that the American Bantam Car co. of Butler, PA, invented the jeep, calling it "one of the most famous vehicles in the world," were the only party to deliver a working prototype of a light four-wheel drive reconnaissance car within the required seven weeks, which withstood 30 days of Army testing at Camp Holabird, then further developed that car, and manufactured 2,675 jeeps, before losing further production contracts to Willys and Ford Motor Co's, for fear that Bantam wouldn't be able to ramp up production to 75 jeeps a day, and after the Army handed Ford and Willys the blueprints of Bantam's detailed technical drawings – though Bantam proved highly capable and productive during the war, entrusted with manufacturing torpedo-motors and more.
However, on 7 April 1942, U.S. patent 2278450 for the WW II jeep, titled "Military vehicle body" had been awarded to the U.S. Army, which had applied for it, listing Colonel Byron Q. Jones as the inventor on the patent, though he had performed no work on the design of the vehicle. Filed on 8 October 1941, stating in the application that "The invention described herein, if patented, may be manufactured and used by or for the Government for governmental purposes without the payment of any royalty thereon", the patent relates to a "small car vehicle body having convertible features whereby it is rendered particularly desirable for military purposes" and describes the purpose as being "a convertible small car body so arranged that a single vehicle may be interchangeably used as a cargo truck, personnel carrier, emergency ambulance, field beds, radio car, trench mortar unit, mobile anti-aircraft machine gun unit, or for other purposes."
First motorizations and World War I
For centuries, horses were used for reconnaissance, communications, and pulling loads, whenever wars were fought, but after the start of the 20th century, motorcycles were the first motor vehicles eagerly adopted by the military, either to replace mounted/ridden cavalry horses, or to motorize infantry.
The armies of World War I relied on marching men, horses, and railways for movement but its new technologies introduced motor vehicles: the first tanks, armoured car, and artillery tractors. Motorcycles were the most prolific motor-tools in the Allied arsenal.
Cavalry, mounted infantry, scouts and messengers could now be mobilized in combat with much greater speed, agility, and near tireless machines, exactly what was wanted for relaying critical orders, getting munitions to machine guns, and scouting miles ahead of advancing units. The quick and nimble motorcycle, "ridden hard through shot and shell to secure victory", has made itself irreplaceable in specific roles on the battlefield to this day.
But motorcycles also had serious limitations. One could be fast on a decent road, but many roads were still so bad, that the U.S. already had a Good Roads Movement in the late 19th century, as increased usage of bicycles required improving the surfaces of existing wagon and carriage trails. The motorcycles of the era were not ideal; only the best motorcyclists could endure a muddy battlefield trail, control the bike and keep it from stalling, damage, or flipping over; and driver training was both costly in terms of time and money. They had poor off-roading ability and lacked payload capacity. Adding a sidecar provided more stability, but payload and cargo space remained very limited, and having only one powered wheel out of three, still meant the combination got stuck a lot. Royal Page Davidson used patents of Charles Duryea to modify chassis, with machine-guns and armor shield, from 1898.
At the same time, the arrival and growing use of automobiles led to various individuals pioneering cross-USA vehicle trips, followed by the first transcontinental trips by convoys of vehicles. After the U.S. Army purchased its first truck in 1907, of 5ton payload capacity, in the late summer of 1913, the Army Medical and Quartermaster Corps (QC) took a 3/4ton QC field-truck, on a multi-leg experimental trek through Alaska for the state's Road Commission – both to try the truck's bad-road supply and maintenance abilities as well as test the state of several important overland connections in the rough territory. In 1915 followed the first successful transcontinental motor convoy, traveling the entire Lincoln Highway, from New York City to the Panama-Pacific World Exhibition in San Francisco, taking four months – for making a film about it.
Starting 1916, the Quartermaster Corps was servicing over 100 'motor trucks', of as many as 27 'varieties'; and in March that year, the U.S. Army decided to form its first two motor companies, to be used immediately in the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico, starting 14 March 1916. One company got 27 four-wheel drive, 2ton, Jeffery off-road Quad trucks. The other got 27 heavy-duty, 1ton, long wheelbase, rear-wheel drive White trucks. The U.S. War Department procured the vehicles as rolling chassis, which the manufacturers had to expedite to El Paso, Texas. The wagon bodies for the chassis came from the Quartermaster Depot. The most suitable truck capacity found by the Quartermaster General for Army use to be 1ton, matching both the country roads nature, the strength of bridges, as well as the existing troop supply system, at the time also using standard 1ton, four-mule wagons.
Meanwhile, World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914. More than five years before, Henry Ford had launched his Model T. ".. its speed, durability, stamina, and ease of maintenance (compared to a horse) had already won over many civilians," and British and French forces also wanted them. Ford, an isolationist, would not sign a contract with an overseas government, but local dealers sold over 50,000 Fords to European forces, who militarized them locally, most famously into ambulances. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford sold directly to his country, delivering another 15,000 cars before peace was signed.
Britain, France, and Russia were already buying American-made four-wheel drive trucks from the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company, and Jeffery / Nash Quads, because on the muddy roads and European battlefields, they wouldn't get stuck all the time.
The United States procured thousands of motor vehicles for its military, including some 12,800 Dodges, plus thousands of four-wheel drive trucks: 1ton Nash Quads, and 3 and 5ton FWD trucks. General John J. Pershing viewed horses and mules as acceptable for the previous three U.S. wars, but in the new century, his cavalry forces had to move quicker, with more range and more personnel. He was the first to deploy motorcycles, in the Mexican Border War, predominantly a cavalry campaign over wide regions of the Southwest, where Harley-Davidson motorcycles provided to the Army gave the U.S. the advantage over the horse-mounted Mexicans. The U.S. Army was so pleased with further innovations, like a sidecar as a platform to mount machine-guns, that the U.S. procured many more motorcycles than 4WD trucks for World War I. "Entire infantry units were mobilized on motorcycles, and they also provided an ideal way to rapidly deploy machine gun crews into position. Medical units used them to evacuate wounded on stretcher-equipped sidecars, and to return medical supplies and ammunition"
"By the end of the war, the whole world saw the horse as hopelessly outclassed." Nevertheless – crucially – using four-wheel drive still remained tied to heavier trucks, of to capacity. All through World War I — there weren't any light four-wheel drive vehicles yet.
Interbellum tests, and formulating the need for a standardized, 4x4, quarter-ton
Immediately after World War I, the further and future use of motor vehicles was considered. In many roles, motorized vehicles had successfully replaced horses and other draft animals, but several roles remained that required better or more specialized vehicles. In 1919 already, the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps recommended the acquisition of a new kind of military vehicle, "..of light weight and compact size, with a low silhouette and high ground clearance, and possess the ability to carry weapons and men over all sorts of rough terrain." The U.S. Army started looking for a small vehicle suited for reconnaissance and messaging, while at the same time searching for a light cross-country weapons carrier.
However, after World War I, the United States had a big public debt, and the military had masses of left-over war vehicles, so vehicle budgets were drastically cut. During the first half of the interwar period, the Roaring Twenties, despite a booming economy, United States non-interventionism and neutrality policies were supported by both elite and popular opinion, to the point of isolationism, and no real budgets were allocated. Then, the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the following Great Depression resulted in economic austerity policies lasting until the end of the 1930s, thus curtailing any development of new military vehicles, like a light 4WD car.
At the same time, there was a drive for standardization. By the end of World War I, U.S. forces overseas had a total of 216 different makes and models of motor vehicles to operate, both foreign and domestic, and no good supply system to keep them running.
Various light motor vehicles were tested — at first motorcycles with and without sidecars, and some modified Ford Model Ts. But what was needed was a very light, small, battlefield utility vehicle to replace motorcycles (with or without sidecar) — more user-friendly to control, but just as easy to get in and out of. In the early 1930s, the U.S. Army experimented with a bantam weight "midget truck" for scouts and raiders. A , low-slung mini-car with a pick-up body, provided by American Austin Car Company, was shown in a 1933 article in Popular Mechanics magazine. One of the pictures showed that the vehicle was light enough to be man-handled — four soldiers could lift it from the ground entirely. But it was still only rear-wheel drive.
After 1935, when the U.S. Congress declared World War I vehicles obsolete, procurement for "remotorization of the Army" gained more traction, but pre-war, peacetime budget restrictions still meant that the U.S. Comptroller General imposed open bidding on every additional, or even incremental procurement. Each time, the Army was forced to award the contract to the lowest bid that met requirements and specifications, often different makers – however, saving a small percentage initially, on the procurement, overall proved "penny wise, pound foolish" because it led to problematic diversity of the fleet, requiring too much training of operators and mechanics for maintenance and repairs, and an unmanageably large supply of non-interchangeable spare parts – “The commanding officer at Holabird reported in 1935 that, the 360 different models of vehicles now in the Army ... involve nearly a million items of spare parts which neither the War Department nor any other authority can control.” This was bad for logistics in times of war, both in terms of supply chains, as well as hindering troops' mobility by, blocking the ability to repair one vehicle by scavenging parts off another. And the Army could still only get multi-axle drive on 'tactical' trucks, "requiring the greatest battlefield mobility".
Meanwhile, in Asia and the Pacific, Japan had invaded Manchuria in 1931 and was at war with China from 1937. Its Imperial Army used a small, , three-man crew, four-wheel drive car for reconnaissance and troop movements, the Kurogane Type 95, produced in limited numbers from 1936.
In 1937 Marmon-Herrington presented five 4x4 Fords, and American Bantam (previously American Austin) once again contributed — delivering three Austin derived roadsters in 1938. The U.S. Army itself had also built an experimental light, low-profile scout and gun mover, the Howie-Wiley Machine Gun Carrier, ordered by General Walter Short, then Assistant Commander of the Army's Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, and built by Captain Robert G. Howie and Master Sergeant Melvin C. Wiley. Completed in April 1937, with a driver and a gunner laying prone, operating a .30 caliber machine gun, the vehicle was nicknamed the "belly flopper".
By 1939 the U.S. Army began standardizing its general-purpose truck chassis types by payload rating, initially in five classes from . The Quartermaster Corps saw that the Army needed truck chassis to be standardized in crucial basic functional 'types' (body models), and within 'payload capacity' classes. Additionally, some crucial features could not be equipped by the QC to commercial trucks after procurement. Cross-country capabilities, like increased ground clearance and multi-axle drive, had to be designed and built into the trucks from the factory. The Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee concurred, and in June 1939 requested the Chief of Staff's approval, to start standardizing truck chassis and bodies procured for the Army into five payload classes: ton, 1ton, 2ton, 4ton, and 7ton and all tactical trucks had to have (part-time) all-wheel drive capability. Furthermore, to achieve the needed level of standardization, the Quartermaster General urged trucks should be bought en masse from there on. Acting Chief of Staff, George C. Marshall, approved the procurement policy in the summer of 1939. The Quartermaster Corps also wanted to require the truck industry to use dimensionally interchangeable components, but further standardization measures were not approved until 1940.
However in 1940, the Army revised the categories. For the first time, a quarter-ton truck tactical (4x4) chassis class was introduced, at the bottom of the range, and the ton chassis was supplanted by a ton payload class.
By the eve of entering World War II, the United States Department of War had determined it needed a ton, cross-country reconnaissance vehicle. Although ton four-by-fours had outperformed ton 4x4 trucks during testing in 1938, the half-ton 4x4 trucks – both from Marmon-Herrington Ford, and the 1940 Dodge VC series – still proved too large and heavy, and insufficiently agile off-road. Anxious to have a quarter-ton truck in time for America's entry into World War II, the U.S. Army solicited proposals from domestic automobile manufacturers. Recognizing the need to create standard specifications, the Army formalized its requirements on 11 July 1940, and submitted them to 135 U.S. automotive manufacturers.
Development start – Bantam Reconnaissance Car
In the early 1930s, the Infantry Board at Fort Benning had become interested in the British Army's use of the tiny Austin 7 car in a reconnaissance role, and in 1933 received a car from the American Austin Car Company in Pennsylvania which built them under license. Ever since then, their devout on-the-road salesman and (Washington) lobbyist, ex-military Harry Payne kept approaching many U.S. Army and Defense branches and officers, hoping to sell the idea of a small, lightweight reconnaissance car to someone Army or Defense, getting some much-needed government contract business for his company. And Payne kept pushing while American Austin had gone bankrupt and its assets were reincorporated into American Bantam. In 1938, American Bantam again loaned three much-improved cars to the Pennsylvania National Guard for trials during summer maneuvers, which were received as reliable, economical and practical.
During the first days of September 1939, World War Two had escalated in Europe, with Hitler's invasion of Poland, and the Nazi German forces showed the world a new, highly mobile form of warfare, dubbed ‘Blitzkriegʼ, or lightning war, by a coordinated combination of fast moving tanks and motorized infantry, (self-propelled) artillery, and air support. In response, President Franklin Roosevelt, made an emergency proclamation on September 8, 1939. It authorized the U.S. an increase in size of both the regular Army and the National Guard. The War Department was also authorized to spend an additional $12 million on motor transport.
The Army then ordered the U.S. military's first ever production quantity of light, ton, 4x4 tactical trucks: going on 5,000 Dodge G-505 VC series, which arrived by the Spring of 1940. Until that point, only a few third party after-market modified four-wheel drive ton trucks, mainly Marmon-Herrington derived Fords, had been bought after 1935, for testing, but the prevailing belief amongst military higher-ups and Congress was, that all the extra 4-wheel drive hardware would make any truck lighter than a ton payload model, so much heavier that the weight-gain would cancel out any benefits gained from adding 4-wheel drive. But after the ton 4x4 Dodges arrived, two decisions were made: greatly more of these ton Dodges were ordered (some 80,000 for the 1941 model year revisions), but also, in June 1940, the Army's tactical trucks payload categories were revised. For the first time, the Army introduced a quarter-ton 4x4 truck chassis class, and just above that, the ton chassis were going to be supplanted by a ton class.
Bantam officials met with chiefs of Infantry and Cavalry and suggested a contract to further develop military versions of their light car. But in June 1940 – as a collaboration with the Quartermaster Corps (QMC), still responsible for U.S. unarmored tactical military vehicles in 1940 – the Ordnance Corps initiated a Technical (sub-)Committee, for the QMC to formulate comprehensive, exact specification for this new, very lightweight, cross-country tactical vehicle, capable of carrying personnel and equipment across rough terrain. The committee included the now major Robert Howie, invited for his expertise, having actually built an ultra-light prototype infantry-support vehicle, officers representing the Quartermaster Corps, and the Army's using arms: Infantry, Cavalry, and the two Coastguard divisions, as well as civilian engineers, mainly from Camp Holabird and Bantam. To begin with, the committee sent an Army delegation including Howie, and Camp Holabird vehicle testing engineers, to Butler, Pennsylvania, to visit American Bantam's factory, being invited to an extensive demonstration there, to evaluate their compact cars and production facilities. Once there, Howie stayed several days, and also Robert Brown, a Camp Holabird civilian engineer, who was instructed to disregard the presentation, but changed his mind after seeing it. Brown also stayed at the Bantam plant where both Howie and he worked out specifications with Crist for the proposed vehicle.
By the end of June 1940, with American Bantam's consultation, the Quartermaster Corps issued their initial specifications. They specified a part-time 4-wheel drive vehicle, with a 2-speed transfer case, three bucket seats, a fold-down windshield, and blackout and driving lights, of just , with a payload up to , on a wheelbase no longer than (the wheelbase of American Bantam's pickup truck), a maximum (collapsible) height of (three inches above the Howie-Wiley machine-gun carrier), and an engine and drivetrain, capable of smoothly pulling at speeds ranging from . Its body design was to be rectangular in shape, including a sketch drawing, handed to the Ordnance Technical Committee.
By now the war was underway in Europe, so the Army's need was urgent, but also very demanding. No sooner than July 1940, some 135 manufacturers of automotive or similar equipment were approached by a government letter to submit bids, to be received by 22 July, a span of just eleven days. In the first stage, the winning manufacturer(s) were given just seven weeks (49 days), from the moment of awarding the contract, to submit their first fully functional prototype and 75 days for completing 70 test vehicles in total. The Army's Ordnance Technical Committee specifications were equally stringent: the vehicle would be four-wheel drive, have a crew of three, on a wheelbase no longer than , later stretched to , and tracks no wider than . The height with the windshield folded down was also raised, to . The diminutive dimensions were similar in size and weight to American Bantam's compact truck and roadster models. It was now to carry a payload and be powered by an engine capable of of torque. The most daunting demand, however, was an empty weight of no more than .
Initially, only American Bantam Car Company and Willys-Overland entered the competition. And only Bantam provided a proper set of technical drawings. Ford joined later, after being approached directly. Although Willys was the low bidder, Willys was penalized for needing more days to make a prototype, and the dollars penalty per extra day put Willys' price above Bantam's – earning them the contract, as the only company committing to deliver a pilot model in 49 days and 70 more pre-production units days.
American Bantam's chief engineer and plant manager, Harold Crist, was an experienced automobile engineer who had early-on worked on the first Duesenberg and been an engineer at Stutz Motor Company of Indianapolis for 18 years, worked a spell for Marmon, and then for Bantam from 1937–1942. drafted freelance Detroit designer Karl Probst to collaborate. Probst initially turned Bantam down, but agreed to work without pay after an Army request and began work on 17 July 1940. Probst laid out full design drawings for the American Bantam prototype, known as the Bantam Reconnaissance Car, or BRC Pilot, in just two days, and worked up a cost estimate the next day. Bantam's bid was submitted, complete with blueprints, on the 22 July deadline.
American Bantam had purchased the assets of American Austin Car Company from the bankruptcy court and had developed their own line of small cars and engine technology, free of licenses from the British Austin Motor Company. As the only small car manufacturer in the United States at the time, their design concept was initially to leverage their commercial off-the-shelf components as much as possible. Bantam adapted front sheetmetal body-stampings from its car line: the cowl, dashboard, and curvy front fenders.
However, once Brown returned to Camp Holabird, Crist reviewed their thinking, and realized that the new vehicle would have to be mostly new, rather than simply a modified version of an existing Bantam model. He and others at Bantam immediately set about sourcing the right components: transmission, transfer case, driveshafts and axles. Bantam's own engines made just 22 hp, and not even a straight-4 Hercules engine would do, so a Continental four-cylinder, making 45 horsepower and of torque was selected, mated to a Warner Gear transmission. Custom-built four-wheel drive-train components included the Spicer transfer case to send power to the front and rear axles. They were both Spicer-made, originally Studebaker Champion rear axles, but modified for four-wheel drive use.
Using off-the-shelf automotive parts where possible had helped to design the car and draw up its blueprints quickly. By working backwards, Probst and American Bantam's draftsmen converted what Crist and a few other engineers and mechanics had rigged together in the factory, back into drawings. The hand-built prototype was then completed in Butler, Pennsylvania, and basically untested, driven by Crist and Probst, to the Army vehicle test center at Camp Holabird, Maryland. It was delivered at 4.30 pm on 23 September 1940, just half an hour within the deadline. The American Bantam Pilot, initially called the "Blitz Buggy."
Enter Willys and Ford – early production jeeps
As the War Department deemed American Bantam to not have the production capacity or financial resources to deliver on the scale the Army would need, the other two bidders, Ford and Willys, were encouraged to complete their own pilot models for testing. The contract for the new reconnaissance car would be determined by trials. While Bantam's prototype underwent testing at Camp Holabird from 27 September to 16 October, Ford and Willys' technical representatives were invited and given ample opportunity to observe the vehicle and study its performance. To expedite Ford and Willys' prototypes, the War Department forwarded the Bantam's blueprints to them, claiming the government owned all designs in the proposals submitted to it in the bidding contest. American Bantam chose not to dispute this.
Bantam continued building the further 70 prototypes, as per the initial contract. Bantam's original no.01 first remained at Holabird for incessant shake-down and breaking point testing, and ad-hoc fixes and improvements of weaknesses, while by November 1940, Ford and Willys also submitted their first prototypes to compete in the Army's trials. Exterior changes, mainly mounting flat and square front fenders, instead of the first car's bulbous round ones, identify the BRC (Bantam Reconnaissance Car) Mark IIs, also called the .
Both the Willys "Quad" and the Ford "Pygmy" prototypes were very similar to the Bantam Pilot and were joined in testing by Bantam's Mark II models. The Willys Quad immediately stood out because of its strong engine of 60 gross Hp (SAE), which the soldiers liked very much, in such a lightweight, open-top car. Chief engineer Delmar 'Barney' Roos had been working on Willys' 4-cylinder car-engine for years, and with many detail changes had managed to get it to 60 hp from an initial low forties output. The Ford Gypsy on the other hand was held back by its tractor engine, Ford's only four-cylinder engine still made in 1940 – despite serious efforts to make it stronger. Dale Roeder was Ford's team leader behind the Pygmy, and his team managed to tune the motor from 30bhp to the specified 40bhp, by using a different camshaft and a bigger carburettor. More importantly, the Ford's front sheetmetal design was the cleverest, fusing all the front lighting behind a straight grille grate, side by side, into one cheap, integrated whole, under a wide, flat, and horizontal hood, useful as a makeshift table. And with its simple piano hinge, it allowed opening the hood all the way to the upright windshield, without even needing a prop-rod, and giving excellent access to the engine, also because of its wide opening.
By then the U.S. armed forces were in such haste, and allies like Britain, France, and USSR wanted to acquire these new "Blitz-Buggies", that after initially considering 1,500 pre-production units in total, all three cars were declared 'acceptable', and orders for 1,500 units per company were given for field testing and export. At this time, it was acknowledged the original weight limit (which even Bantam's Mk.II could not meet) was unrealistic, and it was raised to . On 22 January 1941, the Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee advised standardization of the jeeps across all manufacturers.
For the ensuing pre-production runs, each maker's vehicles received further revisions, and new names once more. For 1941, Bantam's got called the Production began on 31 March 1941, with a total of 2,605 built up to 6 December — the number ordered was raised because Britain and the USSR already wanted more of them supplied under Lend-Lease.
The Bantam BRC-40 was the lightest and most nimble of the three early production models, and the Army lauded its good suspension, brakes, and high fuel economy. However, as the company could not meet the Army's demand for 75 vehicles a day, production contracts were also awarded to Willys and Ford.
Ford's pre-production jeep was named the "GP", with "G" indicating a "Government" contract, and "P" chosen by Ford to designate a car with a wheelbase of . The Ford GP was not only the most numerous (at about 4,458) early production jeeps — it was also the first jeep fielded in some numbers to U.S. Army units. Ford's overall design and quality of construction had advantages over the Bantam and Willys models, but the GP's engine, an adaptation of their Model N tractor engine, was underpowered and not sufficiently reliable. Ford built fifty units with four-wheel steering, of which four have survived.
Willys-Overland was the last of the three manufacturers to start early production, waiting until 5 June 1941 to kick-off production, needing to reduce the Quad's weight by . After many painstaking detail changes, Willys renamed their vehicle "MA", for "Military" model "A". Only 1,555 MAs were built, most of which went to the Soviet Union under Lend-Lease. Only 27 units are still known to exist. After enough comparative testing, Willys were also tasked with integrating whatever features were seen as better on the Ford and Bantam, into their design – for instance copying the Ford's front sheetmetal, to arrive at an optimal 'MB' model, for mass-production.
Eventually, virtually all of the Willys-Overland and most of the American Bantam and Ford GP early production jeeps were provided to Britain and USSR, leaving a few hundred Bantam BRCs and under 1,000 GPs for the home troops.
Full production – Willys MB and Ford GPW
By July 1941, the War Department desired to standardize and decided to select a single manufacturer to supply them with the next order for 16,000 vehicles. Willys won the contract mostly due to its much more powerful 60 hp engine (the L134 "Go Devil"), which soldiers raved about, and its lower cost and silhouette. The design features in the Bantam and Ford entries which represented an improvement over Willys's design were incorporated into the Willys, moving it from an "MA" designation to "MB". Most obvious is the front design from the Ford GP, with a wide, flat hood, and the headlights moved inward from the fenders to under the hood, protected by a single wide, straight front grille and a brush guard.
The jeep, once it entered mass production, introduced several new automotive technologies. Having four-wheel drive for the first time introduced the need for a transfer case, and the use of constant-velocity joints on the driven front wheels and axle, to a regular production car-sized vehicle.
In early October 1941, it became clear that Willys-Overland could not keep up with procurement needs, and Ford received government contracts to build 30,000 units, according to Willys' blueprints, drawings, specifications, and patents, including the more powerful Willys engine. When Ford offered to increase the displacement and power of the tractor engine in their GP model, the government declined and insisted that Ford produce jeeps identical to the Willys, both for the much stronger engine, and for complete commonality/interchangeability of the components. Willys received no license fees, and Ford complied. The Ford was designated "GPW", with the "W" indicating the "Willys" licensed design and engine. Ford retooled at a cost of $4 million (~$ in ) to build Willys engines and produced the first GPW as quickly as 2 January 1942. Just days before, in late December 1941, the Quartermaster Corps had ordered another 63,146 GPWs.
One extra condition to Ford's jeep orders was to manufacture them in several different Ford assembly plants, in addition to Ford's primary 'River Rouge' plant in Dearborn (Michigan). The QC expressly demanded Ford decentralize their jeep manufacturing to facilitate the Army's logistics, shipping from all three coasts. Besides Dearborn, Ford also assembled jeeps in their Louisville, Chester (Pennsylvania), Dallas (Texas), and Richmond (California) plants. Ford's Edgewater (New Jersey) plant also built jeeps in the first four months of 1943.
During World War II, Willys produced 363,000 Jeeps and Ford some 280,000. Some 50,000 were exported to the USSR under the Lend-Lease program. Ford's assembly across plants distributed as: River Rouge 21,559; Dallas and Louisville almost tied at 93,748 and 93,364 units respectively; Chester 18,533, and Edgewater just 1,333 units. Bantam stopped further jeep production and made two-wheel jeep trailers. This was sufficient to keep the firm going until it was taken over in 1956.
Ford built jeeps with functionally interchangeable parts and components, in part facilitated by using components from common sources: frames from Midland Steel, wheels from Kelsey-Hayes, and axles and transfer cases from Spicer. However, Ford had replaced the welded grate front grille by a single pressed/stamped sheet steel part, with nine vertical open slots to ventilate the radiator, and circular openings in front of the lights, to simplify production, and save costs. Willys also adopted this in their production of the MB after unit 25,808. Predictably, there were still many minor differences; the Ford chassis had an inverted U-shaped front cross member instead of a tubular bar, and a Ford script letter "F" was stamped onto many small parts.
Many body detail differences remained for as long as January 1944, when a composite body, fabricated by American Central, was finally agreed upon by both Ford and Willys. American Central had been making the jeep's bodies from the first 1500 units order for the Willys MA and had also built Ford's jeep bodies for two years already, but until January 1944, Ford and Willys contracts retained detail differences. However, from then on features of both designs were integrated. Through the chaotic circumstances of war, sometimes peculiar deviations from regular mass-production came off the assembly line, that are now prized by collectors. For instance: the earliest Ford GPWs had a Willys design frame, and in late-1943, some GPWs came with an unmodified Willys body; and in 1945 Willys produced some MBs with a deep mud exhaust system, vacuum windshield wipers, and a Jeep CJstyle parking brake.
The Ford GPA, the amphibious jeep
Approximately 13,000 additional amphibious jeeps were built by Ford as the Ford GPA (nicknamed "Seep" for "Sea Jeep"). Its design directly inspired by the larger DUKW, and by the same designer and company, Rod Stephens Jr. of Sparkman & Stephens yacht designers, the vehicle was produced too quickly, or its operational capability and limitations misunderstood. Although the GPA came out barely heavier, wider or taller than standard jeeps, it was one third longer, and proved unwieldy on land. Adding insult to injury, the Seep would often get stuck in mud or when wading, where the MB jeeps would not.
In water, its disappointing performance was even more problematic, because contrary to the DUKW, it had insufficient freeboard for coastal landings from open sea, leading to mixed success and tragic losses in the allied Sicily landings in July 1943. Many GPAs were passed on under the Lend-Lease program – some 3,500 (more than a quarter of total production) to the USSR alone. The Soviets, however, were sufficiently pleased with its ability to cross the rivers and swamps in their territories, that they developed their own version of it after the war: the GAZ-46.
By contrast, Ferdinand Porsches engineering bureau designed an even lighter four-wheel drive amphibious vehicle, the VW Type 166 'Schwimmwagen', that quickly became popular in the German ranks, because of its excellent off-road performance, contrary to the limitations of their regular VW Kübelwagens without 4-wheel drive – and they only used them on inland waters. The U.S. Ford GPA amphibious jeeps thus also became one of the rare allied vehicle types that was numerically outproduced by their direct German counterparts – the 15,000 plus VW Schwimmwagens.
Accessories and equipment fittings
Unlike the various Dodge WC series models of larger, light 4x4 trucks, the Willys and Ford jeeps were all the same from the factory, and specialization happened only through standardized accessories, field kits, and local / in field modifications. Frequently made additions to the standard jeeps were to fit weaponry, communications equipment, Litter carriers, wire cutters, or rudimentary armor.
Jeep trailer
Some 150,000 -ton trailers were made by over ten different companies, specifically built to be towed by the jeep – most of them by Bantam and Willys. These doubled the jeeps' nominal payload.
Radio gear
The jeep's primary command and reconnaissance roles of course necessitated fitting many kinds of tactical communication equipment. The first standard production fitting was for the SCR-193 radio, placed on either side in the rear of a jeep, on top of the rear wheel well. For proper reception, this included radio interference suppression shielding, so indicated by a suffix 'S' on the jeep's hood registration number. In 1943/1944, the Army shifted to FM radios, and new fittings were developed for those. At least fourteen Signal Corps Radio set fittings were standardized, including for the SCR-187, SCR-284, SCR-499, SCR-506, SCR-508, SCR-510, SCR-522, SCR-528, SCR-542, SCR-608, SCR-610, SCR-619, SCR-628, SCR-694, SCR-808, SCR-828, and VRC-l.
Gun mounts
Two of the original uses of the ton truck were reconnaissance and the support of infantry with machine guns. These roles led to the desire to mount automatic rifles, to be fired from the jeep. To mount either a .30-caliber M1919 Browning machine gun or .50-cal (12.7 mm) M2 Browning heavy machine gun, the M31 pedestal, a tubular pedestal with bracing in three directions, was developed. This was the most common factory jeep machine-gun mount during the war, with 31,653 produced. It was followed by the improved M31C in March 1945, but this came too late for much combat in World WarII. Besides these, units often created their own pedestal mounts in the field or adapted other pedestal mounts as available. Additionally, in 1943 the M48 bracket mount was standardized, to attach the .30-cal. machine gun or .30-cal. M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle in front of the passenger seat. Like with the pedestals, troops improvised many gun-holding brackets in the field. Troops frequently preferred a .30 cal machine gun on a pivot, to fire from the front passenger seat.
Aside from actual fielding intentions, the jeep was widely used for various weapons mounts trials during World WarII, simply because the jeep was a handy platform to test all kinds of ring mounts, multiple gun mounts, as well as different weapons. The widespread adoption of the jeep in other armies also meant many different armaments. The most rigorous efforts were by the British. Perhaps the most well-known are the jeeps modified by the SAS for the 1942 desert raids in Egypt. These had several armaments, commonly using twin 0.303-inch Vickers K machine guns on the passenger side.
Field kits
Many field kits originated as locally made modifications and additions, for which standard kits were later produced by both the U.S. and Britain. Frequently used examples were rear baggage racks, ambulance litters and frames to transport lying wounded on jeeps, and wire cutters. Soldiers frequently ran into (literally) wires — either inadvertently, inconveniently strung communication wires, or deliberately placed by the enemy, to injure or kill motorcycle and vehicle personnel. The typical countermeasure was to mount a tall vertical steel bar to the front bumper, that would either cut offending strings or deflect them over the heads of the jeep crew. This was first used in Tunisia, 1943, but became frequent in Italy (1943–1945), and especially necessary in France (1944).
More specific kits were created to enhance off-roading and mechanical capabilities, dealing with extreme climates, and technical support applications, like laying communication cables, or a field arc welder kit.
Many solutions made the jeep run on rails, popular in the Pacific theater with U.S., Britain, and Commonwealth troops, especially in Burma. A-frames on the front bumper enabled two jeeps to tow heavy trailers (for 2ton trucks) in tandem. For desert cooling, radiator surge tanks were used in North Africa in 1942. Equally, there were winterization kits, even snowplows, and the jeep's go-anywhere capability was further aided with deep water fording kits, tire air compressors, and a winch option. For communications, jeeps were modified with rear ditch plows and cable laying reels, such as the RL-31 reel unit.
Off-road enhancements
To disembark jeeps in amphibious landings, in 1943 a deep-water fording kit for the jeep was produced. This enabled jeeps to be driven off landing craft like the Landing Craft Mechanized (LCM), wading into relatively deep water, without flooding the engine or short-circuiting the electrical system. After several interim kits were issued, the U.S. Army standardized the universal WV-6 kit (later G9-5700769) which served all WWII ton to 2ton trucks. The kit contained flexible hoses for both the exhaust and the air intake, as well as proper waterproofing equipment. Westinghouse developed a T1 air compressor, to be used in conjunction with special tires, to deflate the tires off-road, in soft mud or snow, and be able to pressurize them again after. It could be fitted under a maintenance work order, from October 1944. There was even a small capstan winch field kit made for the jeep, driven off the motor, for self-extracting, or pulling other jeeps trapped in mud or snow. The winch was very small and made hand-cranking of the jeep impossible. The latter two features remained rare.
Arctic weather measures
Willys developed a winterization kit for very cold climates. This included a cold-starting stove, crankcase ventilator, primer, hood insulation blanket, radiator blanket, a body enclosure kit, defroster/de-icer, and snow chains. These kits were however frequently unavailable, so units took their own measures in the field, particularly improvising various body enclosures, to protect the crew from extreme weather. In addition, two companies fabricated snowplows for the jeep. Geldhill Road Machinery Company made the 7T1NE plow, an angled single blade, while the JV5.5E was a V-shape design. The Wausau Iron Works built two similar designs, designated as the J and JB snowplows. Neither of these seem to have been commonly issued in combat. Photos of snowplows in use in the European theater mostly show improvised plows, likely adaptations of snowplows locally found at hand.
Further development of the jeep
Although no other light jeeps were taken into production, it was not for lack of trying. Both key military men, who had been championing the development of military vehicle concepts they had formulated for years – sometimes already since World War One – had led to conclusions about the logic of military mechanization, as well as automakers large and small, who now saw that in wartime, all of a sudden there were budgets available to work with. Of course, this was primarily true for the firms involved so far.
After losing out on mass-production of the four-wheel drive ton, Bantam built the Army one 4x2 quarter-ton chassis in 1942, but to no further consequence.
An exception was an order for a series of some 200 to 500 standardized jeeps to be modified, by Holden (then G.M. of Australia), into field ambulances for the U.S. Marine Corps in the Pacific Theater, because they found the standard ton Dodge WC-54 ambulances too unwieldy, and even their own ton, 4x4 International M-1-4 vehicles both too ponderous and too scarce. In 1942, Lt. Cmdr. French Moore, MC, a battalion surgeon with the 2nd Marine Division (Camp Elliott, CA) started developing his design for an MB/GPW-based 'light field-ambulance'. He submitted blueprints, and records of performance of his prototype to Marine Corps Commandant Lt. Gen. Thomas Holcomb. It could carry up to "35 patients 1,000 yards and return, in an hour." Rebuilt to Moore's design, it was approved for fielding in time for the Solomon Island Campaign in 1943. Three series were built in modest numbers but totaling more than the USMC's own ambulance versions of their International M-1-4 and M-2-4s.
Lightweight jeeps
After the initial design specification of a maximum weight had been raised to almost double that in production, to achieve the necessary ruggedness on the main ton, the Army still wanted a truly lightweight model for airborne missions and use in the jungles of the Pacific theaters. In 1942 and 1943, at least five companies proposed designs: Crosley, Chevrolet, Ford, Willys, and Kaiser. The Crosley CT-3 "Pup" prototypes were superlight, one- or two-passenger, but still four-wheel-drive buggies, that were transportable and air-droppable from a Douglas C-47 Skytrain. Six of the 2-cylinder, 13 hp, Pups were deployed overseas after undergoing tests at Fort Benning, Georgia, but the project was discontinued due to several weak components. Seven of 36 Pups built are known to
Most of the competitors' models were more similar to standard jeeps, just lighter and smaller. Willys managed to reduce the weight on their 'MB-L' (MB Lightweight) to some in 1943; and Army engineers were impressed by the Chevrolet and its advanced features: a single center spar frame, and an integrated gearbox and transfer case. Kaiser created six prototypes with a 42 hp engine but including some unfavorable design trade-offs.
Willys eventually produced even more radical designs. The Willys WAC (Willys Air Cooled) had three seats, built around a centrally mounted 24 hp Harley Davidson engine, weighed only , but was noisy and not user-friendly. Still, it showed promise, and was further developed, eventually resulting in the Willys JBC, or 'Jungle Burden Carrier'. By early 1945 this had turned into a mere motorized wheeled load-carrying platform, with a single seat, that preceded the 1950s Willys M274 'Mechanical Mule'.
In Britain, Nuffield Mechanizations and Aero cut down a Willys MB in length and width, and stripped it for minimum weight, to serve airborne forces. The Airborne Forces Development Centre in Wiltshire oversaw an entire modification program for jeeps in airborne units, involving many modifications to reduce both weight and or size, including to wedge them into Horsa gliders, for operation Market Garden.
Antitank jeeps
Besides towing 37mm antitank guns, it was also tested mounted directly on the quartertons. In early 1941, the US Army's Tank Destroyer Command was urgently looking to make their antitank guns more mobile, to better serve their tactical doctrine. One of the first prototypes, the T2 37mm Gun Motor Carriage (GMC), mounted a standard 37mm gun and gun shield on a Bantam BRC-40, aiming forward over the hood. Seven of these were built and tested, starting in May 1941, but were found awkward. So instead, eleven T2E1 GMC units aimed the 37mm gun rearwards for trials. Shooting rearwards had advantages, but this configuration also proved difficult to man and operate the gun. The units were all dismantled to regular jeeps. In 1942, the larger ton Dodge WC-52 was converted and standardized as the M6 Gun Motor Carriage, with a rear-aiming 37mm M3 gun, but these also worked poorly in the field, and most were rebuilt back to regular WC-52 trucks.
Late in the war, in 1945, the first large-caliber recoilless rifles became available, and the first jeep-mounted tests were performed, but they only came to fruition after World WarII. One rare exception was Operation Varsity, for which two 75-mm. recoilless rifles were issued to the 17th U.S. Airborne Division, that could be mounted on their jeeps, proving useful in anti-tank fights.
Rocket jeeps
The jeep being too light to mount substantial guns, it was more suited later in the war, as a platform for rocket artillery, that didn't have the enormous recoil as conventional tube artillery. The California Institute of Technology developed two different 4.5-inch jeep-based rocket launcher systems for the U.S. Navy. Several other initiatives all used 4.5-inch rockets and tubes. Testing was also done by both U.S. Army and Marine Corps, but none of the jeep-mounted rocket launchers were built in any significant number because it was more efficient to use larger trucks that could carry more rockets. The Soviet Red Army deployed twelve units fitted with 12-rail M-8 82mm rocket launchers in the bed of a jeep, from December 1944 in the Carpathian Mountains.
Stretched and uprated jeeps
To extend the jeep's luggage space, the simplest, and most frequently used method was the addition of a rear baggage rack. In exceptional cases, units would actually stretch both body and frame of a jeep, to give it more passenger and luggage space, but for this usage, a Dodge WC model was available in many cases. Nevertheless, building stretched, 6x6 jeeps with ton cross-country payload, was explored with much interest. As early as July 1941, after the unsuccessful testing with the T2 and T2E1 37mm antitank guns mounted on Bantam jeeps, the U.S. Quartermaster Corps (QMC) thought to lengthen ton jeeps into 6WD for specialized roles, including the 37mm gun. Willys was contracted that month for both a T13 and a T14 Gun Motor Carriage, based on the Willys MA – one firing forward, and one rearward, like the earlier Bantams. In reality, two models of rearward firing T14 were built, based on Willys MBs, one slat grille in late 1941, and one or more stamped grilles, by January 1942.
Nevertheless, the QMC and Willys kept developing the ton 6x6, in various versions, as the "Super-Jeep". By March 1942, the T14 GMC was revised as a cargo / prime mover, named Willys 'MT-TUG', that could compete in some roles with the ton Dodges. The Army tested these in various configurations, up to a 1ton rated version, as a light, multi-purpose tractor truck, cargo, or personnel carrier. For the United States Army Air Force (USAAF), several MT-Tug units were built with a fifth-wheel coupling on the cargo floor, for various Fruehauf trailers, and loaded with sandbags on the cargo bed, even as aircraft tugs.
The Willys MT models had the same ton rating as the new for 1942 Dodge WC series, but weighed only , with a range, and a top speed of . Willys pointed out that every 6x6 'Super Jeep' would save of steel for their construction, as well as 40% in fuel usage, compared to the Dodge trucks. Moreover, it comprised 65% unaltered standard jeep components, and many of the other parts were also just modified standard jeep parts. By January 1943, the Willys MT-TUG was further evaluated by the Army Transport Command at Camp Gordon Johnston, FL. It was positively reviewed there for its effortless operation in deep sand. Although the Willys ton's performance was even called 'exemplary' by some.
Fifteen 6x6 Willys MT(-Tug)s alone were built as "Truck, ton, 6×6, Tractor", under Ordnance production contract W303ORD4623, production order T6620, and even a maintenance supplement for the "6x6 Willys MBTug" was printed with the 1943 TM101513 technical manual. Including miscellaneous test units, a total of 24 units are believed to have been built, with six known survivors.
An even smaller number of ton jeeps with a slightly stretched wheelbase were built as the Willys MLW(−1) through MLW-4 "Jungle Jeep". LW stood for Long(er) Wheelbase, to accommodate significantly larger wheels and 7.50–20 tires with a tractor-like profile, with the objective to serve in the jungles of the Pacific theater, after a September 1943 request from the South West Pacific for a truck with payload and mobility over mud and swamps of jungle terrain, superior to that of the regular jeep.
Tracked jeeps
Several tracked jeep prototypes were built, because of such a need in Alaska and Canada. After America entered the war, a Japanese attack on the Aleutians] suddenly made the Alaskan military base a zone of great military importance. The snow-rich circumstances created a need for tracked, jeep-like, all-purpose vehicles, and the Canadian Bombardier company and Willys created the T29 jeep half-track out of one of the existing 6x6 Willys MT chassis. The T-29 'Snow Tractor' (Jan 1943) expanded the rear chassis to a total of six wheels: three on each side, with a broad rubber belt serving as a track, running around two Ford model A wheels, followed by a notably larger wheel at each back corner. Instead of front wheels, the rig got skis, and the front-wheel driveline was omitted, to save cost and weight. It was followed up with the T29E1, on which front wheels returned, but mounted on the front skis, and still non-driven, just so that the front could now both glide and roll.
Due to Willys' workload, International Harvester helped assemble a further five T29E1 prototypes. Under the steering front wheels, skis could be mounted or removed. An Aberdeen test report critiqued that the T-29E1 was difficult to steer, as the tracks could not be controlled independently, and that prolonged use caused excessive track component wear. A completely rearranged rear was then proposed, and a T28 litter-carrier was completed for testing by August 1944. The only known surviving half-track WWII jeep is a WillysT28 named 'Penguin'. Further (fully) tracked "jeeps" were also armored, and developed for, and by Canada — see armored jeeps.
Armored jeeps
Many jeeps received added armor in the field, especially in Europe in 1944–1945. Frequently, a rear slanting armor plate was added in front of the grille, and replacing the windshield, as well as the sides, in place of where doors would be.
Since reconnaissance was one of the jeep's primary purposes, there was a demand for some armor from the start of production. Starting April 1942, the second T14 GMC 6x6 Willys MT-Tug chassis was converted to the T24 Scout Car. Though performing well in trials, the T24 was abandoned in the autumn in favor of the M8 & M20 Light Armored Car. Concurrently, the Ordnance Corps was pushed to work on a lightly armored reconnaissance design, based on the standard Willys 4x4 jeep. Different armor configurations were tested on the T25 through T25E3 prototypes respectively.
Canada created a light, tracked, armored, and armed vehicle using Jeep automotive components. In late 1942, the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND)'s Directorate of Vehicles and Artillery (DVA) began work at No.1 Proving Ground in Ottawa on a small tracked vehicle successively named: 'Bantam Armoured Tracked Vehicle', the 'Light Recce Tank', and finally: the 'Tracked Jeep', TJ.
The Canadian "Tracked Jeep" Mk.1 measured long, and wide, by high; it had a maximum armor of 12mm (-inch), and aimed at top speeds of 56 km/h (35 mph) on land and 8 km/h (5 mph) in the water. The vehicle was intended for taking messages over contested ground, armored reconnaissance, and engaging unarmored enemy troops in airborne and combined operations. Willys and Marmon-Herrington were contracted for five more prototypes, Willys for power train components, and MH for the armored hulls and the Hotchkiss-type running gear. The Tracked Jeep showed excellent cross-country performance and uphill mobility was better than other light tracked utility vehicles, while its amphibious capability was adequate, despite its low freeboard. There were however serious shortcomings with the running-gear and tracks. Work to fix this delayed testing until late 1944, and British insights demanded such fundamental changes, that a Mk.2 version was developed, of which another six units were fabricated, and not ready until after the war had ended. The problems with tracks and running gear were still not sorted out, and development halted.
Flying jeep
The most extreme concept tried was to turn the jeep into a rotor kite (or gyrokite), similar to an autogyro – the Hafner Rotabuggy (officially Malcolm Rotaplane). Designed by Raoul Hafner in 1942 and sponsored by the Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment (AFEE), after their Rotachute enjoyed some success, a passive rotor assembly was added over the jeep cabin, along with a lightweight tail, for stabilization. This jeep could be towed into the air by a transport or bomber tug. The Rotabuggy would then be towed to the drop zone as a rotary-wing glider. It took until autumn 1944 to achieve a decent test flight, and other military gliders, particularly the Waco Hadrian and Airspeed Horsa) made the Rotabuggy superfluous. Incidentally, it was first named the "Blitz Buggy", but that was soon dropped for "Rotabuggy".
Etymology
There is no consensus among historians as to how the U.S. Army's World War II quarter-ton reconnaissance car became known as the "jeep", let alone how the word originated in the first place. Explanations have proven difficult to verify. With certainty, the term "jeep" was already in use before the war, designating various things, while the 'ton trucks' at first had many different designations and nicknames.
Eugene the Jeep and prior usage of "jeep"
According to several knowledgeable authors, the word "jeep" was used well before World War II; career soldiers used it since World War I – both as casual U.S. Army slang for new, uninitiated recruits or other personnel who still had to prove their mettle, as well as used by Army motor pool mechanics, about any new, unproven vehicles or prototypes. Zaloga also describes use as an adjective: "jeepy," similar to 'cooky' or 'goofy,' to mean anything insignificant, silly, awkward or foolish.
Later, in mid-March 1936, a character called Eugene the Jeep was created in E. C. Segar's Popeye cartoons. Eugene the Jeep was Popeye's "jungle pet" and was small, able to walk through walls and move between dimensions, and could go anywhere and solve seemingly impossible problems. The Eugene cartoon character brought new meaning to the Jeep name, diverging from the initial, somewhat pejorative meaning of the term, instead changing the slang to mean a capable person or thing. King Features Syndicate, publisher of the 'Thimble Theater' comics that featured Popeye and Eugene the Jeep, trademarked the name "Jeep" in August 1936.
Eugene the Jeep's go-anywhere ability resulted in various industrial and four-wheel drive vehicles getting nicknamed "Jeep" in the late-1930s. Around 1940, converted 4WD Minneapolis-Moline tractors, supplied to the U.S. Army as prime movers, were called "jeeps", and Halliburton used the name for an electric logging device, or for a custom built four wheel drive exploration/survey vehicle. A small, anti-submarine, escort aircraft carrier was called a "jeep carrier" in the U.S. Navy in WWII, and also several aircraft – prototypes for both Kellett autogyros, and for the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, as well as the 1941 Curtiss-Wright AT-9 were called "jeeps". Additionally, in 1936/1937, Canadian soldiers had received a ton Marmon-Herrington half-track and called it a "Jeep" (with a capital'J').
In 1940–1942, soldiers initially used "jeep" for half-ton or three-quarter-ton Dodge Command Reconnaissance cars, with the three-quarter ton Command Cars later called "beeps" (for "big Jeeps"), while the quarter-ton cars were called "peeps", "son of jeep", "baby jeep", "puddle-jumper", "bug"; or "bantams" or "quads". A seven-page article in Popular Science (Oct 1941) headlined introducing the quarter-ton as "Leaping Lena" – also one of the nicknames of the ubiquitous, same length Ford Model T – and further called it a buggy, or just a bug. Originally, "peep" seemed a fitting name, because the quarter-ton was considered primarily a reconnaissance (peeping) car.
The early 1940s terminology situation is summed up in the definition given in Words of the Fighting Forces by Clinton A. Sanders, a dictionary of military slang published in 1942, in the Pentagon library: "Jeep: A four-wheel drive car of one-half to one-and-one-half-ton capacity for reconnaissance or other army duty. A term applied to the bantam cars, and occasionally to other motor vehicles (U.S.A.) in the Air Corps, the Link Trainer; in the armored forces, the ton command car. Also referred to as 'any small plane, helicopter, or gadget'." – The term "Jeep" could still mean various things, including light-wheeled utility vehicles other than the jeep.
Moreover, in April 1942, the Sarasota Herald-Tribune reported that the Army was still "hopelessly divided" on how to define "jeep" or "peep". Despite opening with the definition, the of the lexicographer Dr. Charles E. Funk of the United Service Organizations (U.S.O.), identical to the above ("jeep: a four-wheel drive car of one-half to one-and-one-half-ton capacity for reconnaissance or other army duty"), a survey of Army camp editors in thirty states, conducted by the NCCS branch of the U.S.O. revealed that less than 25% agreed with that meaning for posterity. Twenty-six percent of camp editors still called the small combat rigs "Bantam cars", and 28% used names or definitions not even listed in the questionnaire. Ten percent considered that "jeeps are not peeps", whereas 6.6% contradicted that they are. "In May of 1942, newspapers announced the armored division [still] officially named the quarter-ton command/reconnaissance car the 'Peep', while the half-ton armored [division] car was called the 'Jeep'." The Milwaukee Journal published two photos to help readers distinguish between the two. In May 1942, an article in the Pittsburgh Press confirmed that the Army had legitimized the slang terms "jeep" and "peep" as words used by the Army, in official orders.
Relation with presence of light 4WDs in numbers
In the first years of the war, this usage of the term 'jeep' logically meshes with the ratios of U.S. light-wheeled military truck production. In 1940, the U.S. government took delivery of 8,058 light trucks – 6,583 of which were tons, 4x4, Dodge G-505 VC- and WC-models (82%). The ton jeep was yet to be designed. The half-tons provoked two insights: the military wanted many more, but also needed another vehicle – even smaller, lighter, and more agile. In 1941, Dodge ramped up the ton WC-series, delivering some 60,000 units, compared to some 15,000 quarter tons, almost all still early production units, built by three different manufacturers. Even in 1942, when production of the standardized ton jeep really got up to speed, it didn't catch up to the WC-series' numbers — the 170,000 jeeps built still only amounted to half of the total 356,000 light trucks the Army had received by end of that year. It took until early 1943 for the Ford and Willys jeeps to outnumber the ton and ton Dodge WC models in service.
Whether "jeep" was derived from "GP"
One of the most frequently given explanations is that the designation "GP" was slurred into the word "Jeep", in the same way that the contemporary HMMWV (for "High-Mobility Multi-purpose Wheeled Vehicle") has become known as the 'Humvee' — either from the initial Ford model "GP" – or from the military 'G.P.', for "General Purpose" (vehicle). Although prior existence of the term "jeep" dismisses this as an etymology in the strict sense.
The first version, based on the Ford "GP" model code, was already given in an article in the San Francisco Call-Bulletin in late 1941, and is to an extent plausible, because the pre-standardized Ford GP was the first of the ton jeeps to reach GIs by the hundreds, starting from early 1941. So, it is possible "GP" could have evolved into "Geep" and then "jeep".
The latter 'GP'-based explanation though this does appear in the TM9-803 Manual, and the car is designated a "GP" in the TM9-2800 Manual — these were published in late 1943 and early 1944, and their influence on the jeep's name is dubious. One reason being: the jeep wasn't the only of the Quartermaster Corps' "general purpose" vehicles – so if this was the source, people would have nicknamed others "geeps" or "jeeps" as well, as they did before. More influential perhaps, was the 1943 short propaganda / documentary film The Autobiography of a 'Jeep', by the U.S. Office of War Information, in which the jeep itself literally propagates this origin story of its nickname.
Willys-Overland's positions and promotion
Joe Frazer, president of Willys-Overland from 1939 until 1944, claimed to have coined the word jeep by slurring the initials G.P., possibly related to Willys-Overland's 1943 trademark and 1946 copyright claims to the Jeep name. However, the company handling Willys' public relations in 1944 wrote that the jeep name probably came from the fact that the vehicle made quite an impression on soldiers at the time, so much so that they informally named it after the go-anywhere Eugene the Jeep.
In early 1941, when the test cars went by names like BRC / "Blitz-Buggy", Ford Pygmy and others, Willys-Overland staged a press event in Washington, D.C., a publicity stunt and Senate photo opportunity demonstrating the car's off-road capability by driving it up and down the U.S. Capitol steps. Irving "Red" Hausmann, a test driver on the Willys development team who had accompanied the car for its testing at Camp Holabird, had heard soldiers there referring to it as a jeep. He was enlisted to go to the event and give a demonstration ride to a group of dignitaries, including Katherine Hillyer, a reporter for the Washington Daily News. When asked what it was, Hausmann said "it's a Jeep". Hausmann preferred "Jeep", to distinguish the Willys rig from the other funny-named quarter tons at Camp Holabird. Hillyer's syndicated article appeared in the newspaper on 20 February 1941, with a photo showing a jeep going up the Capitol steps and a caption including the term "jeep". This is believed to be the most likely origin of the term being fixed in public awareness. Even though Hausmann did not create or invent the word "Jeep", he likely contributed to its mainstream media usage indicating the quarter-ton vehicle.
Convergence from mixed origins and media coverage
It is plausible that the origin was mixed and converged on "jeep" from multiple directions. Ford Motor Company pushed its Ford GP hard, to get the military contract, putting the term "GP" into use. Military officers and G.I.s involved in the procurement and testing of the car may have called it jeep from the WWI slang. Civilian contractors, engineers, and testers may have related it to Popeye's "Eugene the Jeep" character. People may have heard the same name from different directions, and as one person heard it from another, put their own understanding and explanation on it. Overwhelming presence of the nickname 'jeep' in the public's opinion was probably the deciding factor.
From 1941 on, a "constant flow of press and film publicity", as well as Willys advertising as of 1942, proclaiming it had created and perfected the jeep, cemented the name "Jeep" in the civilian public's mind, even when "peep" was still used at many army camps, and President Roosevelt spoke of the vital role the "peep" had to play in defending the shores of Fort Story, Virginia (04-1942).
One other particularly influential article may have been the January 1942 full review of the military's new wonder buggy in Scientific American, reprinted as "Meet the Jeep" in Reader's Digest, the best-selling consumer magazine of the day. Author Jo Chamberlin was duly impressed by the "midget combat car" and wrote:
In a prescient footnote, Chamberlin wrote: "Some army men call the bantam a "peep", reserving "jeep" for the larger command car in which the brass hats ride. However, the term 'jeep' (born of GP, an auto manufacturing classification) is used by newspapers and most soldiers, and apparently will stick'".
Grille
Willys made its first 25,000 MB Jeeps with a welded flat iron "slat" radiator grille. It was Ford who first designed and implemented the now familiar and distinctive stamped, vertical-slot steel grille into its vehicles, which was lighter, used fewer resources, and was less costly to produce. Along with many other design features innovated by Ford, this was incorporated into the design and implemented by April 1942.
In order to be able to get their grille design trademarked, Willys gave their post-war jeeps a seven-slot grille instead of the Ford nine-slot design. This applies both to Willys' "Civilian Jeeps", as well as the M38 and M38A1 military models. Through a series of corporate takeovers and mergers, AM General Corporation ended up with the rights to use the seven-slot grille.
Service
The USA provided jeeps to almost all of the Allies in World War II. Britain, Canada, Australia, India, the Free French, USSR, and China all received jeeps, mostly under the American Lend-Lease program. Some 182,500 units were provided to Allies under Lend-Lease alone. Almost 105,000 to the British Empire, including Australia and India, plus over 8,000 to Canada, and some 50,000 to the Soviet Union. The Free French (almost 10,000) and China (almost 7,000) were medium takers, and many other countries received a small number. America shipped a total of 77,972 various "jeeps" to the Soviet Union – consisting of 49,250 tons, 25,200 Dodge tons, and 3,520 Ford GPA.
In the deserts of the North African campaign, the jeep's abilities so far surpassed those of British vehicles that it wasn't unusual for jeeps to rescue a three-ton truck stuck in the sand. In combat, the British would use their jeeps in groups of up to fifty or sixty to raid Rommel's supply lines by surprise, exploiting the jeep's low silhouette; able to remain unseen, hide behind dunes, and surprise the enemy.
Within the U.S. military, jeeps were used by every branch. In the U.S. Army, an average of 145 units were assigned to each infantry regiment. Around the world, jeeps served in every overseas theater of operation, in every environment, under all weather and climatic conditions — in North Africa and the Pacific Theater, the Western Allied invasion of Europe in 1944, as well as the Eastern Front. From deserts to mountains, from jungles to beachheads, jeeps could be pulled out of thick mud by their riders, and they were even flown into battle on light glider planes. In the European theater, they were so ubiquitous that some German troops believed that each American soldier was issued their own jeep.
Jeeps served as indefatigable pack horses for troop transport and towing supply trailers, carrying water, fuel, and ammunition, and pulling through the most difficult terrain. They performed nimble scout and reconnaissance duty, were frequent ambulances for the wounded, and did hearse service. They also doubled as mobile field command headquarters or weapons platforms – either with mounted machine guns or pulling small artillery pieces into "unreachable" areas over inhospitable terrain. The Jeep's flat hood was used as a commander's map table, a chaplain's field altar, the G.I.s' poker table, or even for field surgery. In the cauldron of war, the jeeps served every purpose imaginable: as a power plant, light source, improvised stove for field rations, or a hot water source for shaving. Equipped with the proper tools, it would plow snow, or dig long furrows for laying heavy electrical cable along jungle airfields – laid by another jeep following it.
Battle-hardened warriors learned to weld a roof-top height vertical cutter-bar to the front of their jeeps, to cut any trip wires tied across roads or trails by the Germans, placed to snap the necks of unsuspecting jeepers. Fitted with flanged steel wheels, they could pull railroad cars. In Europe, "The service of this vehicle was excellent, considering all the abuse it was obliged to take from bad roads, high speeds, overloading, and lack of maintenance. It performed tasks that it was never intended to perform, from carrying ammunition to locations where other wheeled vehicles could not travel, to serving as a cross-country ambulance traversing roads and country considered practically impassible." Pulitzer Prize–winning war journalist Ernie Pyle wrote: "It does everything. It goes everywhere. It's as faithful as a dog, as strong as a mule and as agile as a goat. It constantly carries twice what it was designed for, and still keeps on going."
Despite some shortcomings, the jeep was generally well-liked, seen as versatile, maneuverable, reliable, and almost indestructible. The seats were found uncomfortable, sometimes caused the so-called "Jeep riders' disease" and cramped in the rear, but many soldiers enjoyed driving the nimble jeep, appreciating its powerful engine; and with its light weight, low-cut body sides, bucket seats, and manual floor-shifter, it was as close to a sportscar as most GIs had ever driven. Enzo Ferrari called the Jeep "America's only real sports car." Nazi generals admired the jeep more than any other U.S. materiel, and it was the vehicle they most liked to capture for general use.
Post-war
Willys-Overland filed to trademark the "Jeep" name in 1943. From 1945 onwards, Willys marketed its four-wheel drive vehicle to the public with its CJ (Civilian Jeep) versions, making these the world's first mass-produced 4WD civilian cars. Even before actual civilian purpose jeeps had been created, 3 January 1944 issue of Life magazine featured a story titled: 'U.S. Civilians Buy Their First Jeeps'. A mayor from Kansas had bought a Ford GP in Chicago in 1943, and it performed invaluable work on his 2,000-acre farm.
Already in 1942 industrial designer Brooks Stevens came up with an idea on how to make a civilian car called Victory Car on the jeep chassis. It never went into production, but Willys liked the idea and gave Brook Stevens notable design jobs, including the 1946 Willys Jeep Station Wagon, 1947 Willys Jeep Truck, and 1948 Willys-Overland Jeepster, as well as the 1963–1993 Jeep Wagoneer.
In 1948, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission agreed with American Bantam that the idea of creating the Jeep was originated and developed by American Bantam in collaboration with the U.S. Army as well as Ford and Spicer. The commission forbade Willys from claiming, directly or by implication, that it had created or designed the jeep, and allowed it only to claim that it contributed to the development of the vehicle. The trademark lawsuit initiated and won by Bantam was a hollow victory: American Bantam went bankrupt by 1950 and Willys was granted the "Jeep" trademark the same year.
The first CJs were essentially the same as the MB, except for such alterations as vacuum-powered windshield wipers, a tailgate (and therefore a side-mounted spare tire), and civilian lighting. Also, the civilian jeeps had amenities like naugahyde seats, chrome trim, and were available in a variety of colors. Mechanically, a heftier T-90 transmission replaced the Willys MB's T84 in order to appeal to the originally considered rural buyer demographic.
In Britain, Rover were also inspired to build their own, very jeep-like vehicle. Their first testing prototype was actually built on the chassis of a war-surplus jeep, on the Welsh farm of then Rover chief engineer Maurice Wilks and by his older brother, managing director Spencer Wilks. Production of their "Land Rover" started after its presentation model was well received at the first post-war Amsterdam International Auto show or 'AutoRAI' in 1948.
Willys-Overland and its successors, Willys Motors and Kaiser Jeep continued to supply the U.S. military, as well as many allied nations with military jeeps through the late 1960s. In 1950, the first post-war military jeep, the M38 (or MC), was launched, based on the 1949 CJ3A. In 1953, it was quickly followed by the M38A1 (or MD), featuring an all-new "round-fendered" body in order to clear the also new, taller, Willys Hurricane engine. This jeep was later developed into the civilian launched in 1955. Similarly, its ambulance version, the M170 (or MDA), featuring a 20-inch wheelbase stretch, was later turned into the civilian .
Before the CJ-5, Willys offered the public a cheaper alternative with the taller F-head, overhead-valve engine, in the form of the 1953 , simply using a body with a taller hood. This was quickly turned into the M606 jeep (mostly used for export, through 1968) by equipping it with the available heavy-duty options such as larger tires and springs, and by adding black-out lighting, olive drab paint, and a trailer hitch. After 1968, M606A2, and -A3 versions of the were created in a similar way for friendly foreign governments.
In 1976, after more than two decades, Jeep complemented the with a new CJ model, the . Though still a direct evolution of the round-fendered CJ5, it had a longer wheelbase. And, for the first time, a CJ had doors, as well as an available hardtop. Since then, new evolutions were derived from the – from 1987 onwards as Jeep "Wranglers". Nevertheless, these are considered direct descendants of the WWII jeep. The 2018 Wranglers still have a separate, open-topped body and ladder-frame, solid live axles front and rear, with part-time four-wheel drive, and high and low gearing. The compact body retains the Jeep grille and profile and can even still be driven with the doors off, and the windshield folded forward.
Licenses to produce jeeps, especially for were issued to manufacturers in many different countries, starting almost straight after WWII, with the Willys MB pattern. Some firms, like Mahindra and Mahindra Limited in India, continue to produce them in some form or another to this day. Chinkara Motors of India produces the Jeepster, with FRP body. The Jeepster can be delivered a diesel engine or the 1.8L Isuzu petrol.
In France, the army used Hotchkiss M201 jeeps – essentially licensed Willys MBs, and in the former Yugoslavia, the arms manufacturer Zastava rebooted their car building branch, making 162 Willys jeeps. In Japan, Mitsubishi's first jeeps were versions of the , and in 1950 Toyota Motors was given an order by U.S. forces to build a vehicle to Jeep specifications, resulting in Toyota's BJ and FJ series of utility vehicles, slightly bigger and more powerful jeep-type vehicles. After the , several countries also built the Willys MD / M38A1 under license. For instance, the Dutch built some 8,000 "NEKAF" jeeps, which remained in service for some 40 years. In Israel, AIL continues building military derivatives of Jeep Wrangler models for the Israeli Security Forces, ongoing since 1991. Their current AIL models are based on Africa Automotive Distribution Services (AADS) of Gibraltar's Jeep J8 model.
The compact military jeep continued to be used in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. In Korea, it was mostly deployed in the form of the MB, as well as the M38 and M38A1 (introduced in 1952 and 1953), its direct descendants. In Vietnam, the most used jeep was the then newly designed Ford M151, which featured such state-of-the-art technologies as a unibody construction and all-around independent suspension with coil springs. The M151 jeep remained in U.S. military service into the 1990s, and many other countries still use small, jeep-like vehicles in their militaries.
Apart from the mainstream of — by today's standards — relatively small jeeps, an even smaller vehicle was developed for the U.S. Marine Corps, suitable for helicopter airlifting and manhandling, the M422 "Mighty Mite".
Eventually, the U.S. military decided on a fundamentally different concept, choosing a much larger vehicle that not only took over the role of the jeep, but also replaced all its other light-wheeled vehicles: the HMMWV ("Humvee").
In 1991, the Willys-Overland Jeep MB was designated an International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Postwar conversions
Filipino jeepney
When American troops began to leave the Philippines at the end of World War II, hundreds of surplus jeeps were sold or given to local Filipinos. The Filipinos stripped down the jeeps to accommodate several passengers, added metal roofs for shade, and decorated the vehicles with vibrant colors and bright chrome hood ornaments.
The jeepney rapidly emerged as a popular and creative way to re-establish inexpensive public transportation, which had been virtually destroyed during World War II.
Argentine Autoar
Starting in 1950, a Jeep-engined utility vehicle was produced by Autoar in Argentina. Starting from 1951, a new sedan was introduced using the same 2199 cc Jeep engine and manual transmission. It was fitted with overdrive to compensate for the Jeep's low axle ratio. In 1952, a new overhead valve 3-litre six-cylinder was announced but was probably never built. At that time, Piero Dusio returned to Italy. In the 1950s, production was sporadic, and models built included a station wagon with a Jeep-type 1901 cc engine.
Commemorative edition
Inspired by the U.S. Army Willys MB, Jeep produced about 1000 Willys editions of the 2004 Wrangler TJ and hoped to sell twice that number for the 2005 model year.
Production numbers
Gallery
Operators
See also
Austin Champ
The Autobiography of a 'Jeep'
CUCV
DKW Munga
Einheits-PKW der Wehrmacht
Fath Safir (Iran)
Ford GTB 'Burma jeep'
GAZ-64 and GAZ-67
Hafner Rotabuggy
Hotchkiss M201
HMMWV
Kaiser Jeep
Jeep CJ
Jeep trailer
Jeep train
Land Rover Defender
Land Rover Perentie
Land Rover (original series)
List of U.S. military jeeps
List of U.S. military vehicles by supply catalog designation
Mercedes-Benz G-Class
M151 Truck, Utility, l/4-Ton, 4×4
Willys M38
Willys M38A1
M422 Mighty Mite
Mowag Eagle
Mitsubishi Type 73 Light Truck
Ñandú (vehicle)
Peugeot P4
Suzuki Jimny
UAZ-469
Universal Carrier
Volkswagen Iltis
Volkswagen Kübelwagen
Volkswagen Schwimmwagen
Willys FAMAE Corvo
Footnotes
References
General references
Publications Catalog
Further reading
399 pages. – Documents the jeep from conception of the (Bantam) Reconnaissance Car, to the Quarter Master Corps' awarding of the jeep contract to Willys.
External links
British Army Jeep Research – Non-profit resource on the jeep in British service
History of the Jeep – How Stuff Works — links to several further detailed chapters
Military jeeps – The U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum
– Historic timeline
The Jeep – One of the Most Famous Vehicles in the World – is Celebrated at its Birthplace. - Voice of America
Jeep
World War II vehicles of the United States
Military trucks of the United States
Motor vehicles manufactured in the United States
Military light utility vehicles
GPW
MB
Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944 |
4272994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindred%20%28novel%29 | Kindred (novel) | Kindred (1979) is a novel by American writer Octavia E. Butler that incorporates time travel and is modeled on slave narratives. Widely popular, it has frequently been chosen as a text by community-wide reading programs and book organizations, and for high school and college courses.
The book is the first-person account of a young African-American writer, Dana, who is repeatedly transported in time between her Los Angeles, California home in 1976 with her white husband and an early 19th-century Maryland plantation just outside Easton. There she meets some of her ancestors: a proud, free Black woman and a white planter who forces her into slavery and concubinage. As Dana stays for longer periods in the past, she becomes intimately entangled with the plantation community. Dana makes hard choices to survive slavery and to ensure her return to her own time.
Kindred explores the dynamics and dilemmas of antebellum slavery from the sensibility of a late 20th-century Black woman, who is aware of its legacy in contemporary American society. Through the two interracial couples who form the emotional core of the story, the novel also explores the intersection of power, gender, and race issues, and speculates on the prospects of future egalitarianism.
While most of Butler's work is classified as science fiction, Kindred crosses genre boundaries and is also classified as African-American literature. Butler has categorized the work as "a kind of grim fantasy.".
Plot
Kindred scholars have noted that the novel's chapter headings suggest something "elemental, apocalyptic, archetypal about the events in the narrative", thus giving the impression that the main characters are participating in matters greater than their personal lives.
Prologue
Dana, a young black woman, wakes up in the hospital with her arm amputated. Police deputies question her about the circumstances and ask her whether her husband Kevin, a white man, beats her. Dana tells them that she lost her arm because of an accident and that Kevin is not to blame. When Kevin visits her, they acknowledge being afraid to tell the truth because no one would believe them.
The River
Their lives were altered on June 9, 1976, the day of Dana's twenty-sixth birthday, in the year the United States was celebrating its bicentennial. The day before, Dana and Kevin had moved into a house a few miles away from their old apartment in Los Angeles. While unpacking, Dana suddenly became dizzy.
When she comes to her senses, she is at the edge of a wood, near a river where a small, red-haired boy is drowning. Dana wades in after him, drags him to shore, and tries to revive him. The boy's mother begins screaming and hitting Dana, accusing her of killing her son, whom she identifies as Rufus. The boy recovers and a white man arrives and points a gun at Dana, terrifying her. She becomes dizzy again and regains consciousness at her new house with Kevin beside her. Kevin, shocked at her disappearance and reappearance, tries to understand if the episode was real or a hallucination.
The Fire
Dana washes off the filth from the river but dizziness marks another transition. This time, she comes to in a bedroom where a red-haired boy has set his bedroom drapes aflame. He is Rufus, now a few years older. Dana quickly puts out the fire. Rufus confesses he set fire to the drapes to get back at his father for beating him after he stole a dollar. As they talk, Rufus casually uses the N-word to refer to Dana, which upsets her, but she comes to realize that she has been transported in time as well as space, specifically to Maryland, circa 1815.
Rufus advises her to seek refuge at the home of Alice Greenwood and her mother, free blacks who live at the edge of the plantation. Dana realizes that both Rufus and Alice are her ancestors, as they will have a child from whom she will descend. At the Greenwoods', Dana witnesses a group of young white men smash down the door, drag out Alice's enslaved father, and whip him brutally for being there without papers. One of the men punches Alice's mother when she refuses his advances. The men leave, Dana comes out of hiding, and helps Alice's mother. She is confronted by one of the white men, who attempts to rape her. Fearing for her life, Dana luckily returns to 1976.
Though hours have passed for her, Kevin assures her that she has been gone only for a few minutes. The next day, Kevin and Dana prepare for the possibility that she may travel back in time again by packing a survival bag for her and by doing some research on Black history in books in their home library.
The Fall
In a flashback, Dana recounts how she met Kevin while doing minimum-wage temporary jobs at an auto-parts warehouse. Kevin becomes interested in Dana when he learns she is a writer and they become friends, although coworkers are judgmental because he is white. The two find they have much in common; both are orphans, both love to write, and both their families disapproved of their aspiration to become writers. They become lovers.
Again in 1976, Kevin is preparing to go to the library to find out how to forge "free papers" for Dana. She feels dizzy and Kevin holds her, traveling with her to the past. They find Rufus writhing in pain from a broken leg. Next to him is a black boy named Nigel, whom they send to the main house for help.
Rufus reacts with violent disbelief when he finds out that Kevin and Dana are married: whites and blacks are not allowed to marry in his time, although he knows many white men have enslaved black mistresses. Dana and Kevin explain to Rufus that they are from the future and prove it by showing the dates stamped on the coins Kevin carries in his pockets. Rufus promises to keep their identities a secret, and Dana tells Kevin to pretend that he is her owner. When Tom Weylin, Rufus's father, arrives with his slave Luke to retrieve Rufus, Kevin introduces himself. Weylin grudgingly invites him to dinner.
At the Weylin plantation, Rufus's mother Margaret fusses about her son's well-being and, jealous of the attention Rufus shows Dana, sends the young woman to the cookhouse. There, Dana meets two house slaves: Sarah, the cook; and Carrie, her mute daughter. Unsure as to what their next act should be, Kevin accepts Weylin's offer to become Rufus's tutor. Kevin and Dana stay on the plantation for several weeks. They observe the relentless cruelty and torture that Weylin, Margaret, and the spoiled Rufus use against the slaves. They are sadistic and evil, they feel entitled to treat the slaves as property. Weylin catches Dana reading and whips her mercilessly. The dizziness overcomes her before Kevin can reach her and she travels back to 1976 alone.
The Fight
In a flashback, Dana remembers how she and Kevin were married. Both of their families opposed the marriage due to ethnic bias. While Kevin's reactionary sister is prejudiced against African Americans, Dana's uncle abhors the idea of a white man eventually inheriting his property. Only Dana's aunt favors the union, as it would mean that her niece's children would have lighter skin. Kevin and Dana marry without any family present.
After eight days of being home recuperating without Kevin, Dana time travels to find Rufus getting beaten up by Isaac Jackson, the enslaved husband of Alice Greenwood. Dana learns that Rufus had attempted to rape Alice, who was once his childhood friend. Dana convinces Isaac not to kill Rufus, and Alice and Isaac run away while Dana gets Rufus home. She learns that it has been five years since her last visit and that Kevin has left Maryland. Dana nurses Rufus back to health in return for his help delivering letters to Kevin. Five days later, Alice and Isaac are caught.
Isaac is mutilated and sold to traders heading to Mississippi. Alice is beaten, savaged by dogs, and enslaved as penalty for helping Isaac escape. Rufus, who claims to love Alice, buys her, and orders Dana to nurse her back to health. Dana does so with much care. When Alice finally recovers, she curses Dana for not letting her die, and is wracked with grief for her lost husband.
Rufus orders Dana to convince Alice to have sex with him now that she has recovered. Dana speaks with Alice, outlining her three options: she can refuse and be whipped and raped; she can acquiesce; or she can try again to run away. Injured and terrified by her previous punishment, Alice gives in to Rufus's desire and becomes his concubine. While in his bedroom, Alice learns that Rufus did not send Dana's letters to Kevin, and tells Dana. Furious that Rufus lied to her, Dana runs away to find Kevin, but is betrayed by a jealous slave, Liza. Rufus and Weylin capture her and Weylin whips her brutally.
When Weylin learns that Rufus failed to keep his promise to Dana to send her letters, he writes to Kevin and tells him that Dana is on the plantation. Kevin comes to retrieve Dana, but Rufus stops them on the road and threatens to shoot them. He tells Dana that she can't leave him again. The dizziness overcomes Dana and she travels back to 1976, this time with Kevin.
The Storm
Dana's and Kevin's happy reunion is short-lived, as Kevin has a hard time adjusting to the present after living in the past for five years. He shares a few details of his life in the past with Dana: he witnessed terrible atrocities against slaves, traveled farther up north, worked as a teacher, helped slaves escape, and grew a beard to disguise himself from a lynch mob. Disconcerted about his trouble in re-entering his former world, he grows angry and cold. Deciding to let him work his feelings out, Dana packs a bag in case she time travels again.
Soon enough she finds herself outside the Weylin plantation house in a rainstorm, with a very drunk Rufus lying face down in a puddle. She tries to drag him back to the house, then gets Nigel to help her carry him. At the house, an aged Weylin appoints Dana to nurse Rufus back to health under threat of her life. Suspecting Rufus has malaria and knowing she cannot help much, Dana feeds Rufus the aspirin she has packed to lower his fever. Rufus survives, but remains weak for weeks. Dana learns that Rufus and Alice have had three mixed-race "children of the plantation" and that only one, a boy named Joe, has survived. Alice is pregnant again. Rufus had forced Alice to let the doctor bleed the other two when they had fallen ill, a customary treatment of the time, but it killed them.
Weylin has a heart attack and Dana is unable to save his life. But, Rufus believes she let Weylin die and sends her to work in the corn fields as punishment. By the time he repents his decision, she has collapsed from exhaustion and is being whipped by the overseer. Rufus appoints Dana as the caretaker of his ailing mother, Margaret. Now the master of the plantation, Rufus sells off some slaves, including Tess, Weylin's former concubine. Dana expresses her anger about that sale, and Rufus explains that his father left debts he must pay. He convinces Dana to use her writing skill to stave off his other creditors.
Time passes and Alice gives birth to a girl, Hagar, a direct ancestor of Dana. Alice confides that she plans to run away with her children as soon as possible, as she fears that she is forgetting to hate Rufus. Dana convinces Rufus to let her teach his son Joe and some of the slave children how to read. However, when a slave named Sam asks Dana if his younger siblings can join in on the lessons, Rufus sells him off as punishment for flirting with her. When Dana tries to interfere, Rufus hits her. Faced with her own powerlessness over Rufus, she retrieves the knife she has brought from home and slits her wrists in an effort to time travel.
The Rope
Dana awakens in Los Angeles, at home, with her wrists bandaged and Kevin by her side. She tells him of her eight months in the plantation, of Hagar's birth, and of the need to keep Rufus alive, as the slaves would be separated and sold if he died. When Kevin asks if Rufus has raped Dana, she responds that he has not, that such an attempt would cause her to kill him, despite the possible consequences.
Fifteen days later, on the 4th of July, Dana returns to the plantation. There she finds that Alice has hanged herself. Alice tried to run away after Dana disappeared, and as punishment Rufus whipped her and told her that he had sold her children. But he had sent to them to stay with his aunt in Baltimore. Racked with guilt about Alice's death, Rufus nearly commits suicide himself.
After Alice's funeral, Dana uses that guilt to convince Rufus to free his children by Alice. From that moment on, Rufus keeps Dana at his side almost constantly, having her share meals and teach his children. One day, he finally admits that he wants Dana to replace Alice in his life. He says that unlike Alice, who, despite growing used to Rufus, never stopped plotting to escape him, Dana will see that he is a fair master and eventually stop hating him. Dana, horrified at the thought of forgiving Rufus in this way, flees to the attic to find her knife. Rufus follows her there, and when he attempts to rape her, Dana stabs him twice with her knife. Nigel arrives to see Rufus's death throes, at which point Dana becomes terribly sick and time travels home for the last time. She finds herself in excruciating pain, as her arm has been joined to a wall in the spot where Rufus was holding it.
Epilogue
Dana and Kevin travel to Baltimore to investigate the fate of the Weylin plantation after Rufus's death in archival records, but they find very little: a newspaper notice reporting Rufus's death as a result of his house catching fire, and a Slave Sale announcement listing all the Weylin slaves except Nigel, Carrie, Joe, and Hagar. Dana speculates that Nigel covered up the murder by starting the fire, and feels responsible for the sale of the slaves. To that, Kevin responds that she cannot do anything about the past, and now that Rufus is finally dead, they can return to their peaceful life together.
Characters
Edana (Dana) Franklin: A 26-year-old African-American woman writer, she is the protagonist and the narrator of the story. She is married to a white writer named Kevin. She repeatedly travels in time to a slave plantation in antebellum Maryland, where she first encounters a white ancestor as the boy Rufus. There Dana has to make hard compromises to survive and to ensure her life in her own time.
Kevin Franklin: Dana's husband is a white writer twelve years older than she. Kevin loves her deeply and became estranged from his family to marry her. When he travels with Dana to the past, he witnesses the brutality of slavery and becomes an abolitionist, also helping slaves escape to freedom.
Rufus Weylin: The red-haired son of white planter Tom Weylin and his wife; the father owns a Maryland plantation and numerous slaves. As Dana returns, she sees the adult Rufus replace his father as master. Rufus rapes Alice, a free black woman, and their mixed-race daughter Hagar later becomes one of Dana's maternal ancestors.
Tom Weylin: The owner of an antebellum Maryland plantation, he is a hard master and father, insisting on obedience from family and slaves. He whips Dana on multiple occasions, and authorizes the selling of his slaves' children. He is likened to Kevin in looks.
Alice Greenwood (later, Alice Jackson): She was born free and is a proud Black woman. Later she is enslaved as punishment for having helped her enslaved husband Isaac try to escape. Rufus buys Alice and forces her to become his concubine. Two of their children survive: Joe and Hagar. She hangs herself after Rufus tells her he has sold her children.
Sarah: The cook of the Weylin household is its domestic manager; she tries to protect the house slaves while making them work hard. Tom Weylin sold all of Sarah's children except her mute daughter Carrie.
Margaret Weylin: The plantation owner's wife indulges their son Rufus. Both she and her husband are abusive to the house slaves. She leaves after her infant twins die and returns with an opium addiction.
Hagar Weylin: Rufus and Alice's youngest daughter. Hagar is a direct ancestor of Dana through her maternal line.
Luke: A slave at the Weylin plantation who works as Weylin's overseer. Weylin sells him for not being sufficiently obedient.
Nigel: The son of Luke and an enslaved woman at the Weylin plantation. He and Rufus were playmates as children. Dana secretly teaches him as a child to read and write. When older, he tries to flee, but is captured. Held at the plantation, he forms a family with Sarah's daughter, Carrie.
Carrie: Sarah's daughter is mute, but she helps Dana find the strength for the hard compromises she must make to survive. She becomes Nigel's wife.
Liza: An enslaved woman jealous of Dana for what she thinks is special treatment, she snitches on Dana when she runs away. This results in Dana being caught and whipped.
Tess: An enslaved woman whom Tom Weylin uses sexually.
Jake Edwards: One of the white overseers on the Weylin plantation, he also abuses Tess sexually.
Main themes
Realistic depiction of slavery and slave communities
Kindred explores how a modern black woman would deal with a slave society, where most black people were considered property; it was a world where "all of society was arrayed against you".
During an interview, Butler said that, while she read slave narratives for background, she believed that if she wanted people to read her book, she would have to present a less violent version of slavery than found in these accounts.
Scholars of Kindred consider the novel an accurate, fictional account of many slave lives. Concluding that "there probably is no more vivid depiction of life on an Eastern Shore plantation than that found in Kindred", Sandra Y. Govan traces how Butler's book follows the classic patterns of the slave narrative genre: loss of innocence, harsh punishment, strategies of resistance, life in the slave quarters, struggle for education, experience of sexual abuse, realization of white religious hypocrisy, and attempts to escape, with ultimate success.
Robert Crossley notes that Butler's intense first-person narration deliberately echoes many slave narratives, thereby giving the story "a degree of authenticity and seriousness". Lisa Yaszek sees Dana's visceral first-hand account as a deliberate criticism of earlier depictions of slavery, such as the book and film Gone with the Wind, produced largely by whites, and even the television miniseries Roots, based on a book by African-American writer Alex Haley.
In Kindred, Butler portrays individual slaves as distinctive persons, giving each his or her own story. Robert Crossley says that Butler treats the blackness of her characters as "a matter of course", to resist the tendency of white writers to incorporate African Americans into their narratives just to illustrate a problem or to divorce themselves from charges of racism. Thus, in Kindred the slave community is depicted as a "rich human society": the proud yet victimized freewoman Alice; Sam the field slave, who hopes Dana will teach his brother to read and write; Liza, who frustrates Dana's escape; the bright and resourceful Nigel, Rufus's childhood friend who learns to read from a stolen primer; and, most importantly, Sarah the cook, who Butler develops as a deeply angry yet caring woman subdued only by the threat of losing her last child, the mute Carrie.
Master-slave power dynamics
Scholars have argued that Kindred complicates a common representations of chattel slavery as an oppressive system dominated by the master and economic goals. Pamela Bedore notes that while Rufus seems to hold all the power in relationship to Alice, she never wholly surrenders to him. Alice's suicide can be read as her "final upsetting of their power balance", and escaping him through death. By placing Kindred in comparison to other Butler novels such as Dawn, Bedore explores the bond between Dana and Rufus as re-envisioning slavery as a "symbiotic" interaction between slave and master: since neither character can exist without the other, they are continually forced to collaborate in order to survive. The master does not simply control the slave but depends on her. From the side of the slave, Lisa Yaszek notices conflicting emotions: in addition to fear and contempt, affection may be felt for the familiar whites and their occasional kindnesses. A slave who collaborates with the master to survive is not reduced to a "traitor to her race" or to a "victim of fate."
Kindred portrays the exploitation of black female sexuality as a main site of the historic struggle between master and slave. Diana Paulin describes Rufus's attempts to control Alice's sexuality as a means to recapture power he lost when she chose Isaac as her sexual partner. Compelled to submit sexually to Rufus, Alice divorces her desire to preserve a sense of self. Similarly, Dana reconstructs her sexuality while time traveling to survive. While in the present, Dana chooses her husband and enjoys sex with him. In the past, her status as a black female forced her to submit to the master as sexual property. Rufus as an adult attempts to control Dana's sexuality, and attempts rape to use her to replace Alice. Dana's killing Rufus is the way she rejects the role of female slave, distinguishing herself from those who did not have the power to say "no."
Critique of American history
Scholarship on Kindred often touches on its critique of the official history of the formation of the United States as an erasure of the raw facts of slavery. Lisa Yaszek places Kindred as emanating from two decades of heated discussion over what constituted American history, with a series of scholars pursuing the study of African-American historical sources to create "more inclusive models of memory." Missy Dehn Kubitschek argues that Butler set the story during the bicentennial of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence of the United States to suggest that the nation should review its history in order to resolve its current racial strife. Robert Crossley believes that Butler dates Dana's final trip to her Los Angeles home on the Bicentennial to connect the personal with the social and the political. The power of this national holiday to erase the grim reality of slavery is negated by Dana's living understanding of American history, which makes all her previous knowledge of slavery through mass media and books inadequate. Yaszek further notes that Dana throws away all her history books about African-American history on one of the trips back to her California home, as she finds them to be inaccurate in portraying slavery. Instead, Dana reads books about the Holocaust and finds these books to be closer to her ordeals as a slave.
In several interviews, Butler has mentioned that she wrote Kindred to counteract stereotypical conceptions of the submissiveness of slaves. While studying at Pasadena City College, Butler heard a young man from the Black Power Movement express his contempt for older generations of African Americans for what he considered their shameful submission to white power. Butler realized the young man did not have enough context to understand the necessity to accept abuse just to keep oneself and one's family alive and well. Thus, Butler resolved to create a modern African-American character, who would go back in time to see how well he (Butler's protagonist was originally male) could withstand the abuses his ancestors had suffered.
As Ashraf A. Rushdy explains, Dana's memories of her enslavement become a record of the "unwritten history" of African Americans, a "recovery of a coherent story explaining Dana's various losses." By living these memories, Dana makes connections between slavery and contemporary late 20th century social situations, including the exploitation of blue-collar workers, police violence, rape, domestic abuse, and racial segregation.
Trauma and its connection to historical memory (or historical amnesia)
Kindred reveals the repressed trauma that slavery caused in the United States' collective historical memory. In an interview in 1985, Butler suggested that this trauma comes partly from attempts to forget America's dark past: "I think most people don’t know or don’t realize that at least 10 million blacks were killed just on the way to this country, just during the middle passage....They don’t really want to hear it partly because it makes whites feel guilty." In a later interview with Randall Kenan, Butler explained how debilitating this trauma has been, as she symbolized by having her protagonist lose her left arm.
She said:
"I couldn't really let [Dana] come all the way back. I couldn't let her return to what she was, I couldn't let her come back whole and [losing her arm], I think, really symbolizes her not coming back whole. Antebellum slavery didn’t leave people quite whole."
Many academics have extended Dana's loss as a metaphor for the "lasting damage of slavery on the African American psyche" to include other meanings. For example, Pamela Bedore interprets it as the loss of Dana's naïveté regarding the supposed progress of racial relations in the present. For Ashraf Rushdy, Dana's missing arm is the price she must pay for her attempt to change history. Robert Crossley quotes Ruth Salvaggio as inferring that the amputation of Dana's left arm is a distinct "birthmark" that represents a part of a "disfigured heritage." Scholars have also noted the importance of Kevin having his forehead scarred during his travel to the past. Diana R. Paulin argues that it symbolizes Kevin's changing understanding of racial realities, which constitute "a painful and intellectual experience".
Race as social construct
The construction of the concept of "race" and its connections to slavery are central themes in Butler's novel. Mark Bould and Sherryl Vint place Kindred as a key science fiction literary text of the 1960s and 1970s black consciousness period, noting that Butler uses the time travel trope to underscore the perpetuation of past racial discrimination into the present and, perhaps, the future of America. The lesson of Dana's trips to the past, then, is that "we cannot escape or repress our racist history but instead must confront it and thereby reduce its power to pull us back, unthinkingly, to earlier modes of consciousness and interaction."
The novel's focus on how the system of slavery shapes its central characters dramatizes society's power to construct raced identities. The reader witnesses the development of Rufus from a relatively decent boy allied to Dana to a "complete racist" who attempts to rape her as an adult. Similarly, Dana and Kevin's prolonged stay in the past reframes their modern attitudes. Butler's depiction of her principal character as an independent, self-possessed, educated African-American woman defies slavery's racist and sexist objectification of black people and women.
Kindred also challenges the fixity of "race" through the interracial relationships that form its emotional core. Dana's kinship to Rufus disproves America's erroneous concepts of racial purity. It also represents the "inseparability" of whites and blacks in America. The negative reactions of characters in the past and the present to Dana and Kevin's interracial relationship highlight the continuing hostility of both white and black communities to interracial mixing. At the same time, the relationship of Dana and Kevin extends the concept of "community" from people related by ethnicity to people related by shared experience. In these new communities, whites and black people may acknowledge their common racist past and learn to live together.
The depiction of Dana's white husband, Kevin, also serves to examine the concept of racial and gender privilege. In the present, Kevin seems unconscious of the benefits he derives from his skin color, as well as of the way his actions serve to disenfranchise Dana. Once he goes to the past, however, he must not just resist accepting slavery as the normal state of affairs, but dissociate himself from the unrestricted power white males enjoy as their privilege. His prolonged stay in the past transforms him from a naive white man oblivious about racial issues into an anti-slave activist fighting racial oppression.
The meaning of the novel's title: blood relations and interracial marriage
Kindred’s title has several meanings: at its most literal, it refers to the genealogical link between its modern-day protagonist, the slave-holding Weylins, and both the free and bonded Greenwoods; at its most universal, it points to the kinship of all Americans regardless of ethnic background.
Since Butler’s novel challenges readers to come to terms with slavery and its legacy, one significant meaning of the term "kindred" is the United States’ history of miscegenation and its denial by official discourses. The literal kinship of black people and whites must be acknowledged if America is to move into a better future.
On the other hand, as Ashraf H. A. Rushdy contends, Dana's journey to the past serves to redefine her concept of kinship from blood ties to that of "spiritual kinship" with those she chooses as her family: the Weylin slaves and her white husband, Kevin. This sense of the term "kindred" as a community of choice is clear from Butler's first use of the word to indicate Dana and Kevin's similar interests and shared beliefs. Dana and Kevin's relationship, in particular, may signal the way for black and white America to reconcile: they must face the country's racist past together so they can learn to co-exist as kindred.
As Farah Peterson discusses in "Alone with Kindred", the novel stands out as one of the only works of 20th-century American literature to center an interracial couple as protagonists and explore interracial marriage as one of its main themes.
Strong female protagonist
In her article "Feminisms", Jane Donawerth describes Kindred as a product of more than two decades of recovery of women's history and literature that began in the 1970s. The republication of a significant number of slave narratives, as well as the work of Angela Davis, who highlighted the heroic resistance of the black female slave, introduced science fiction writers such as Octavia Butler and Suzy McKee Charnas to a literary form that redefined the heroism of the protagonist as endurance, survival, and escape. As Lisa Yaszek notes further, many of these African-American woman's neo-slave narratives, including Kindred, discard the lone male hero in favor of a female hero immersed in family and community. Robert Crossley sees Butler's novel as an extension of the slave women's memoirs exemplified by texts such as Harriet Ann Jacobs' Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, especially in its portrayal of the compromises the heroine must make, the endurance she must have, and her ultimate resistance to victimization.
Originally, Butler intended for the protagonist of Kindred to be a man, but as she explained in her interview, she could not do so because a man would immediately be "perceived as dangerous": "[s]o many things that he did would have been likely to get him killed. He wouldn't even have time to learn the rules...of submission." She realized that sexism could aid a female protagonist, "who might be equally dangerous" but "would not be perceived so."
Most scholars see Dana as an example of a strong female protagonist. Angelyn Mitchell describes Dana as a black woman "strengthened by her racial pride, her personal responsibility, her free will, and her self-determination." Identifying Dana as one of Butler's many strong female black heroes, Grace McEntee explains how Dana attempts to transform Rufus into a caring individual despite her struggles with a white patriarchy. These struggles, Missy Dehn Kubitschek explains, are clearly represented by Dana's resistance to white male control of a crucial aspect of her identity—her writing—both in the past and in the present. Sherryl Vint argues that, by refusing to have Dana be reduced to a raped body, Butler would seem to be aligning her protagonist with "the sentimental heroines who would rather die than submit to rape" and thus "allows Dana to avoid a crucial aspect of the reality of female enslavement." However, by risking death by killing Rufus, Dana becomes a permanent surviving record of the mutilation of her black ancestors, both through her one-armed body and by becoming "the body who writes Kindred." In contrast to these views, Beverly Friend believes Dana represents the helplessness of modern woman and that Kindred demonstrates that women have been and continue to be victims in a world run by men.
Female quest for emancipation
Some scholars consider Kindred as part of Butler's larger project to empower black women. Robert Crossley sees Butler' science fiction narratives as generating a "black feminist aesthetic" that speaks not only to the sociopolitical "truths" of the African-American experience, but specifically to the female experience, as Butler focuses on "women who lack power and suffer abuse but are committed to claiming power over their own lives and to exercising that power harshly when necessary." Given that Butler makes Dana go from liberty to bondage and back to liberty beginning on the day of her birthday, Angelyn Mitchell views Kindred as a revision of the "female emancipatory narrative" exemplified by Harriet A. Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, with Butler's story engaging in themes such as female sexuality, individualism, community, motherhood, and, most importantly, freedom in order to illustrate the types of female agency that are capable of resisting enslavement.
Similarly, Missy Dehn Kubistchek reads Butler's novel as "African-American woman’s quest for understanding history and self" which ends with Dana extending the concept of "kindred" to include both her black and white heritage, as well as her white husband, while "insisting on her right to self definition."
Genre
Publishers and academics have had a hard time categorizing Kindred. In an interview with Randall Kenan, Butler stated that she considered Kindred "literally" as "fantasy". According to Pamela Bedore, Butler's novel is difficult to classify because it includes both elements of the slave narrative and science fiction. Frances Smith Foster insists Kindred does not have one genre and is in fact a blend of "realistic science fiction, grim fantasy, neo-slave narrative, and initiation novel." Sherryl Vint describes the narrative as a fusion of the fantastical and the real, resulting in a book that is "partly historical novel, partly slave narrative, and partly the story of how a twentieth century black woman comes to terms with slavery as her own and her nation's past."
Critics who emphasize Kindred’s exploration of the grim realities of antebellum slavery tend to classify it mainly as a neo-slave narrative. Jane Donawerth traces Butler's novel to the recovery of slave narratives during the 1960s, a form then adapted by female science fiction writers to their own fantastical worlds. Robert Crossley identifies Kindred as "a distinctive contribution to the genre of neo-slave narrative" and places it along Margaret Walker’s Jubilee, David Bradley's The Chaneysville Incident, Sherley Anne Williams’s Dessa Rose, Toni Morrison’s Beloved, and Charles R. Johnson's Middle Passage. Sandra Y. Govan calls the novel "a significant departure" from the science fiction narrative not only because it is connected to "anthropology and history via the historical novel", but also because it links "directly to the black American slave experiences via the neo-slave narrative." Noting that Dana begins the story as a free black woman who becomes enslaved, Marc Steinberg labels Kindred an "inverse slave narrative."
Still, other scholars insist that Butler's background in science fiction is key to our understanding of what type of narrative Kindred is. Dana's time traveling, in particular, has caused critics to place Kindred along science fiction narratives that question "the nature of historical reality," such as Kurt Vonnegut's "time-slip" novel Slaughterhouse Five and Philip K. Dick’s The Man in the High Castle, or that warn against "negotiat[ing] the past through a single frame of reference," as in William Gibson's "The Gernsback Continuum." In her article "A Grim Fantasy", Lisa Yaszek argues that Butler adapts two tropes of science fiction—time-travel and the encounter with the alien Other—to "re-present African-American women’s histories." Raffaella Baccolini further identifies Dana's time traveling as a modification of the "grandfather paradox" and notices Butler's use of another typical science fiction element: the narrative's lack of correlation between time passing in the past and time passing in the present.
Style
Kindred ‘s plot is non linear; rather, it begins in the middle of its end and contains several flashbacks that connect events in the present and past. In an interview, Butler acknowledged that she split the ending into a "Prologue" and an "Epilogue" so as to "involve the reader and make him or her ask a lot of questions" that could not be answered until the end of the story. Missy Dehn Kubitschek sees this framing of Dana's adventures as Butler's way to highlight the significance of slavery to what Americans consider their contemporary identity. Because "Prologue" occurs after Dana travels in time and "Epilogue" concludes with a message on the necessity to confront the past, we experience the story as Dana's understanding of what we have yet to understand ourselves, while the "Epilogue" speaks about the importance of this understanding. Roslyn Nicole Smith proposes that Butler's framing of the story places Dana literally and figuratively in media res so as to take her out of that in media res; that is, to indicate Dana's movement from "a historically fragmented Black woman, who defines herself solely on her contemporary experiences" to "a historically integrated identity" who has knowledge of and a connection to her history.
Kindred ’s story is further fragmented by Dana’s report of her time traveling, which uses flashbacks to connect the present to the past. Robert Crossley sees this "foreshortening" of the past and present as a "lesson in historical realities." Because the story is told from the first-person point of view of Dana, readers feel they are witnessing firsthand the cruelty and hardships that many slaves faced every day in the South and so identify with Dana's gut-wrenching reactions to the past. This autobiographical voice, along with Dana's harrowing recollection of the brutality of slavery and her narrow escape from it, is one of the key elements that have made critics classify Kindred as a neo-slave narrative.
Another strategy Butler uses to add dramatic interest to Kindreds story is the deliberate delay of the description of Dana and Kevin’s ethnicities. Butler has stated in an interview she did not want to give their "race" away yet since it would have less of an impact and the reader would not react the way that she wanted them to. Dana's ethnicity becomes revealed in chapter two, "The Fire", while Kevin's ethnicity becomes clear to the reader in chapter three, "The Fall," which also includes the history of Dana's and Kevin's interracial relationship.
Butler also uses Alice as Dana's doppelgänger to compare how their decisions are a reflection of their environment. According to Missy Dehn Kubitschek, each woman seems to see a reflection of herself in the other; each is the vision of what could be (could have been) the possible fate of the other given different circumstances. According to Bedore, Butler's use of repetition blurs the lines between the past and present relationships. As time goes on, Alice and Rufus's relationship begins to seem more like a miserable married couple while Dana and Kevin become somewhat distant.
Background
Butler wrote Kindred specifically to respond to a young man involved in black consciousness raising. He felt ashamed of what he considered the subservience of older generations of African Americans, saying they were traitors and he wanted to kill them. Butler disagreed with this view. She believed that a historical context had to be given so that the lives of the older generations of African Americans could be understood as the silent, courageous resistance that it was, a means of survival. She decided to create a contemporary character and send her (originally it was a him) back to slavery, to explore how difficult a modern person would find it to survive in such harsh conditions. As Butler said in a 2004 interview with Allison Keyes, she "set out to make people feel history."
Butler's field research in Maryland also influenced her writing of Kindred. She traveled to the Eastern Shore to Talbot County where she wandered a bit. She also conducted research at the Enoch Pratt Free Library in Baltimore and the Maryland Historical Society. She toured Mount Vernon, the plantation home of America's first president, George Washington. At the time, guides referred to the slaves as "servants" and avoided referring to the estate as a former slave plantation. Butler also spent time reading slave narratives, including the autobiography of Frederick Douglass, who escaped and became an abolitionist leader. She read many grim accounts, but decided she needed to moderate events in her book in order to attract enough readers.
Reception
Kindred is Butler's bestseller, with Beacon Press advertising it as "the classic novel that has sold more than 450,000 copies."
Among Butler's peers, the novel has been well received. Speculative writer Harlan Ellison has praised Kindred as "that rare magical artifact… the novel one returns to again and again", while writer Walter Mosley described the novel as "everything the literature of science fiction can be".
Book reviewers were enthusiastic. Los Angeles Herald-Examiner writer Sam Frank described the novel as "[a] shattering work of art with much to say about love, hate, slavery, and racial dilemmas, then and now." Reviewer Sherley Anne Williams from Ms. defined the novel as "a startling and engrossing commentary on the complex actuality and continuing heritage of American slavery. Seattle Post-Intelligencer writer John Marshall said that Kindred is "the perfect introduction to Butler’s work and perspectives for those not usually enamored of science fiction." The Austin Chronicle writer Barbara Strickland declared Kindred to be "as much a novel of psychological horror as it is a novel of science fiction."
High school and college courses have frequently chosen Kindred as a text to be read. Linell Smith of The Baltimore Sun describes it as "a celebrated mainstay of college courses in women's studies and black literature and culture." Speaking at the occasion of Beacon Press' reissue of Kindred for its 25th Anniversary, African-American literature professor Roland L. Williams said that the novel has remained popular over the years because of its crossover appeal, which "continues to find a variety of audiences--fantasy, literary and historical" and because "it is an exceedingly well-written and compelling story… that asks you to look back in time and at the present simultaneously."
Communities and organizations also choose this novel for common reading events. In 2003, Rochester, New York selected Kindred as the novel to be read during the third annual "If All of Rochester Read the Same Book." Approximately 40,000 to 50,000 people participated by reading Kindred and joining panel discussions, lectures, film viewings, visual arts exhibitions, poetry readings, and other events from February 2003 until March 2003. The town discussed the book in local groups, and from March 4–7 met Octavia Butler during her appearances at colleges, community centers, libraries, and bookstores. In the spring of 2012, Kindred was chosen as one of thirty books to be given away as part of World Book Night, a worldwide event conducted to encourage love for books and reading by giving away hundreds of thousand of free paperbacks in one night.
Adaptations
Seeing Ear Theatre. "Kindred: An Online Dramatic Presentation." 2001. (This audio play adaptation stars Alfre Woodard as "Dana" and was produced by Brian Smith and Jacqueline Cuscuna for Seeing Ear Theatre. It also features award-winning actresses Lynn Whitfield and Ruby Dee.)
Duffy, Damian (Adapter) and John Jennings (Illustrator). Kindred: A Graphic Novel Adaptation. Abrams ComicArts. January 10, 2017. (10) (13)
Television
In March 2021, it was announced that FX had given the production a pilot order for a television adaptation of the novel. In January 2022, it was announced that FX had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of 8 episodes, starring Mallori Johnson as Dana, Micah Stock as Kevin, Ryan Kwanten as Tom Weylin, Gayle Rankin as Margaret Weylin, Austin Smith as Luke, Sophina Brown as Sarah, and David Alexander Kaplan as Rufus Weylin. It is produced by FX Productions, with Branden Jacobs-Jenkins as showrunner. The series premiered all 8 episodes on December 13, 2022, on Hulu. The episodes of season one cover the first three chapters of the novel, The River, The Fire, and The Fall, though some major changes from the novel have been made for the series, including setting the current day in 2016 rather than 1976, having Dana and Kevin not married but in a new relationship, and adding Dana's mother Olivia as a new character who also travels through time. In January of 2023, it was reported that the series had been canceled after one season.
References
Further reading
Reviews
Russ, Joanna. "Books". The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (February 1980): 94–101.
Snyder, John C. "Kindred by Octavia E. Butler", SciFiDimensions. June 2004.
Scholarship
Beaulieu, Elizabeth Ann. So Many Relatives': Twentieth-Century Women Meet Their Pasts." Black Women Writers and the American Neo-Slave Narrative: Femininity Unfettered. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. 109–136.
Bast, Florian. No.': The Narrative Theorizing of Embodied Agency in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy 53.2 (2012): 151–81.
Dubey, Madhu. "Speculative Fictions of Slavery." American Literature 82.4 (2010): 779–805.
Hua, Linh U. "Reproducing Time, Reproducing History: Love And Black Feminist Sentimentality in Octavia Butler's Kindred. African American Review 44.3 (2011): 391–407.
Jesser, Nancy. "Blood, Genes and Gender in Octavia Butler's Kindred and Dawn." Extrapolation 43.1 (2002): 36+.
Knabe, Susan and Wendy Gay Pearson. "'Gambling Against History': Queer Kinship and Cruel Optimism in Octavia Butler's Kindred". In Rebecca J. Holden and Nisi Shawl (eds), Strange Matings: Science Fiction, Feminism, African American Voices, and Octavia E. Butler. Seattle, WA: Aqueduct Press, 2013. 51–78.
LaCroix, David. "To Touch Solid Evidence: The Implicity of Past and Present in Octavia E. Butler's Kindred", The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association 40.1 (Spring 2007): 109–119.
Levecq, Christine. "Power and Repetition: Philosophies of (Literary) History in Octavia E. Butler’s Kindred", Contemporary Literature 41.3 (Fall 2000): 525–553.
Long, Lisa. "A Relative Pain: The Rape of History in Octavia Butler's Kindred and Phyllis Alesia Perry's Stigmata", College English 64.4 (March 2002): 459–483.
McKible, Adam. These Are the Facts of the Darky's History': Thinking History and Reading Names in Four African American Texts", African American Review 28.2 (Summer 1994): 223–235.
Parham, Marisa. "Saying 'Yes': Textual Traumas in Octavia Butler's Kindred". Middle Eastern & North African Writers 32.4 (Winter 2009): 1315–1331.
Reed, Brian K. "Behold the Woman: The Imaginary Wife in Octavia Butler’s Kindred". CLA Journal Al (September 2003): 66–74.
Spaulding, A. Timothy. "The Conflation of Time in Ishmael Reed’s Flight to Canada and Octavia Butler’s Kindred." Re-forming the Past: History, the Fantastic, and the Postmodern Slave Narrative. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2005. 25–60.
Tettenborn, Eva. "Teaching Imagined Testimony: Kindred, Unchained Memories, and The African Burial Ground in Manhattan", Transformations 16.2 (Fall 2005): 87–103.
Thompson, Carlyle van. "Moving Past the Present: Racialized Sexual Violence and Miscegenous Consumption in Octavia Butler's Kindred", Eating the Black Body: Miscegenation as Sexual Consumption in African American Literature and Culture. New York: Peter Lang, 2006. 107–144.
Turner, Stephanie S. What Actually Is': The Insistence of Genre in Octavia Butler's Kindred", FEMSPEC 4.2 (2004): 259–280.
Wagers, Kelley. "Seeing 'From the Far Side of the Hill': Narrative, History, and Understanding in Kindred and The Chaneysville Incident", MELUS 34.1 (Spring 2009): 23–45.
Wood, Sarah. "Exorcizing the Past: The Slave Narrative as Historical Fantasy", Feminist 85 (2007): 83–96.
Flagel, Nadine. It's Almost Like Being There': Speculative Fiction, Slave Narrative, and the Crisis of Representation in Octavia Butler's Kindred". Canadian Review of American Studies 42.2 (2012): 216–45.
Robertson, Benjamin. Some Matching Strangeness': Biology, Politics, and The Embrace of History in Octavia Butler's Kindred." Science Fiction Studies 37.3 (2010): 362–381.
Poetry
VanMeenen, Karen, ed. Residue of Time: Poets Respond to Kindred. Rochester, NY: Writers & Books, 2003. [Part of Writers & Books' annual community-wide reading program "If All of Rochester Read the Same Book".]
External links
Kindred, audiobook at the Internet Archive.
Kindred Reader's Guide: An Interview With Octavia Butler; part of Writers & Books "If All of Rochester Read the Same Book2 event – adopted Kindred as Rochester, New York's book of the year for 2003.
1979 American novels
1979 fantasy novels
1979 science fiction novels
American novels adapted into television shows
Doubleday (publisher) books
Easton, Maryland
Feminist science fiction novels
Fiction set in 1815
Fiction set in 1976
Literature by African-American women
Novels about American slavery
Novels about time travel
Novels by Octavia Butler
Novels set in Maryland
Novels set in the 1810s
Novels set in the 1970s
Nonlinear narrative novels |
4273140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar%20%282009%20film%29 | Avatar (2009 film) | Avatar (marketed as James Cameron's Avatar) is a 2009 epic science fiction film directed, written, co-produced, and co-edited by James Cameron and starring Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez, and Sigourney Weaver. It is the first installment in the Avatar film series. It is set in the mid-22nd century, when humans are colonizing Pandora, a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system, in order to mine the valuable mineral unobtanium. The expansion of the mining colony threatens the continued existence of a local tribe of Na'vi, a humanoid species indigenous to Pandora. The title of the film refers to a genetically engineered Na'vi body operated from the brain of a remotely located human that is used to interact with the natives of Pandora.
Development of Avatar began in 1994, when James Cameron wrote an 80-page treatment for the film. Filming was supposed to take place after the completion of Cameron's 1997 film Titanic, for a planned release in 1999; however, according to Cameron, the necessary technology was not yet available to achieve his vision of the film. Work on the language of the Na'vi began in 2005, and Cameron began developing the screenplay and fictional universe in early 2006. Avatar was officially budgeted at $237 million, due to the groundbreaking array of new visual effects Cameron achieved in cooperation with Weta Digital in Wellington. Other estimates put the cost at between $280 million and $310 million for production and at $150 million for promotion. The film made extensive use of new motion capture filming techniques and was released for traditional viewing, 3D viewing (using the RealD 3D, Dolby 3D, XpanD 3D, and IMAX 3D formats), and "4D" experiences in selected South Korean theaters.
Avatar premiered on December 10, 2009, in London and was released in the United States on December 18, 2009, to positive reviews. Critics highly praised its groundbreaking visual effects, though the story was considered to be predictable. During its theatrical run, the film broke several box office records, including becoming the highest-grossing film of all time. In July 2019, this position was overtaken by Avengers: Endgame, but with subsequent re-releases, beginning with China in March 2021, it returned to becoming the highest-grossing film since then. Adjusted for inflation, Avatar is the second-highest-grossing movie of all time, only behind Gone with the Wind, with a total of a little more than $3.5 billion. It also became the first film to gross more than and the best-selling video title of 2010 in the United States. Avatar was nominated for nine awards at the 82nd Academy Awards, winning three, and received numerous other accolades. The success of the film also led to electronics manufacturers releasing 3D televisions and caused 3D films to increase in popularity. Its success led to the Avatar franchise, which includes the sequels Avatar: The Way of Water (2022), Avatar 3 (2025), Avatar 4 (2029), and Avatar 5 (2031).
Plot
In 2154, the natural resources of the Earth have been depleted and is suffering ecocide. The Resources Development Administration (RDA) mines the valuable mineral unobtanium on Pandora, a moon in the Alpha Centauri star system. Pandora, whose atmosphere is inhospitable to humans, is inhabited by the Na'vi, , blue-skinned, sapient humanoids that live in harmony with nature. To explore Pandora, genetically matched human scientists use Na'vi-human hybrids called "avatars". Paraplegic Marine Jake Sully is sent to Pandora to replace his deceased identical twin, who had signed up to be an operator. Avatar Program head Dr. Grace Augustine considers Sully inadequate but accepts him as a bodyguard.
While escorting the avatars of Grace and Dr. Norm Spellman, Jake's avatar is attacked by Pandoran wildlife, and he flees into the forest, where he is rescued by female Na'vi Neytiri. Suspicious of Jake, she takes him to her clan. Neytiri's mother, Mo'at, the clan's spiritual leader, orders her daughter to initiate Jake into their society. Colonel Miles Quaritch, head of RDA's security force, promises Jake that the company will restore the use of his legs if he provides information about the Na'vi and their gathering place, the giant Hometree, under which is a rich deposit of unobtanium. Learning of this, Grace transfers herself, Jake, and Norm to an outpost. Jake and Neytiri fall in love as Jake is initiated into the tribe. He and Neytiri choose each other as mates. When Jake attempts to disable a bulldozer threatening a sacred Na'vi site, Administrator Parker Selfridge orders Hometree destroyed. Despite Grace's argument that destroying Hometree could damage Pandora's biological neural network, Selfridge gives Jake and Grace one hour to convince the Na'vi to evacuate.
Jake confesses that he was a spy and the Na'vi take him and Grace captive. Quaritch's soldiers destroy Hometree, killing many, including Neytiri's father, the clan chief. Mo'at frees Jake and Grace, but they are detached from their avatars and imprisoned by Quaritch's forces. Pilot Trudy Chacón, disgusted by Quaritch's brutality, airlifts Jake, Grace, and Norm to Grace's outpost. Grace is shot during the escape. Jake regains the Na'vi's trust by connecting his mind to that of Toruk, a dragon-like creature feared and revered by the Na'vi. At the sacred Tree of Souls, Jake pleads with Mo'at to heal Grace. The clan attempts to transfer Grace into her avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls, but she dies. Supported by new chief Tsu'tey, Jake unites the clan, telling them to gather all the clans to battle the RDA. Quaritch organizes a strike against the Tree of Souls to demoralize the Na'vi. Jake prays to the Na'vi deity Eywa via a neural connection with the Tree of Souls. Tsu'tey and Trudy are among the battle's heavy casualties.
The Na'vi are rescued when Pandoran wildlife unexpectedly join the attack and overwhelm the humans, which Neytiri interprets as Eywa answering Jake's prayer. Quaritch, wearing an AMP suit, escapes his crashed aircraft and breaks open the avatar link unit containing Jake's human body, exposing it to Pandora's poisonous atmosphere. As Quaritch prepares to slit Jake's avatar's throat, he is killed by Neytiri, who saves Jake from suffocation, seeing his human form for the first time. With the exceptions of Jake, Norm, and a select few others, all humans are expelled from Pandora. Jake is permanently transferred into his avatar with the aid of the Tree of Souls.
Cast
Sam Worthington as Corporal Jake Sully, a disabled former Marine who becomes part of the Avatar Program after his twin brother is killed. His military background helps the Na'vi warriors relate to him. Cameron cast the Australian actor after a worldwide search for promising young actors, preferring relative unknowns to keep the budget down. Worthington, who was living in his car at the time, auditioned twice early in development, and he has signed on for possible sequels. Cameron felt that because Worthington had not done a major film, he would give the character "a quality that is really real". Cameron said he "has that quality of being a guy you'd want to have a beer with, and he ultimately becomes a leader who transforms the world". Cameron offered the role to Matt Damon, with a 10% stake in the film's profits, but Damon turned the film down because of his commitment to the Bourne film series.
Worthington also briefly appears as Jake's deceased identical twin, Tommy.
Zoe Saldaña as Neytiri te Tskaha Mo'at'ite, the daughter of the leaders of the Omaticaya (the Na'vi clan central to the story). She is attracted to Jake because of his bravery, though frustrated with him for what she sees as his naiveté and stupidity. She serves as Jake's love interest. The character, like all the Na'vi, was created using performance capture, and its visual aspect is entirely computer generated. Saldaña signed on for potential sequels.
Stephen Lang as Colonel Miles Quaritch, the head of the mining operation's security detail. Fiercely consistent in his disregard for any life not recognized as human, he has a profound disregard for Pandora's inhabitants that is evident in both his actions and his language. Lang had unsuccessfully auditioned for a role in Cameron's Aliens (1986), but the director remembered Lang and sought him for Avatar. Michael Biehn, who had worked with Cameron in Aliens, The Terminator and Terminator 2: Judgment Day, was briefly considered for the role. He read the script and watched some of the 3-D footage with Cameron but was ultimately not cast.
Michelle Rodriguez as Trudy Chacón, a combat pilot assigned to support the Avatar Program who is sympathetic to the Na'vi. Cameron had wanted to work with Rodriguez since seeing her in Girlfight.
Giovanni Ribisi as Parker Selfridge, the corporate administrator for the RDA mining operation. While he is at first willing to destroy the Na'vi civilization to preserve the company's bottom line, he is reluctant to authorize the attacks on the Na'vi and taint his image, doing so only after Quaritch persuades him that it is necessary and that the attacks will be humane. When the attacks are broadcast to the base, Selfridge displays discomfort at the violence.
Joel David Moore as Dr. Norm Spellman, a xenoanthropologist who studies plant and animal life as part of the Avatar Program. He arrives on Pandora at the same time as Jake and operates an avatar. Although he is expected to lead the diplomatic contact with the Na'vi, it turns out that Jake has the personality better suited to win the natives' respect.
Moore also portrays Spellman's Na'vi avatar.
CCH Pounder as Mo'at, the Omaticaya's spiritual leader, Neytiri's mother, and consort to clan leader Eytukan.
Wes Studi as Eytukan te Tskaha Kamun'itan, the Omaticaya's clan leader, Neytiri's father, and Mo'at's mate.
Laz Alonso as Tsu'tey te Rongola Atey'itan, the finest warrior of the Omaticaya. He is heir to the chieftainship of the tribe. At the beginning of the film's story, he is betrothed to Neytiri.
Sigourney Weaver as Dr. Grace Augustine, an exobiologist and head of the Avatar Program. She is also Sully's mentor and an advocate of peaceful relations with the Na'vi, having set up a school to teach them English.
Weaver also portrays Grace's Na'vi avatar.
Dileep Rao as Dr. Max Patel, a scientist who works in the Avatar Program and comes to support Jake's rebellion against the RDA
Matt Gerald as Corporal Lyle Wainfleet, a human mercenary who works for the RDA as Quaritch's right hand man.
Additionally, Alicia Vela-Bailey appears, uncredited, as Ikeyni, the leader of the Tayrangi clan, Saeyla, one of the young hunters who accompany Jake during his Iknimaya and a harassed blonde woman in a bar that Jake defends. Vela-Bailey served as the stunt double for Zoe Saldana and would later portray Zdinarsk in Avatar: The Way of Water. Terry Notary, who performed stunts as well, plays the Banshees via motion capture.
Production
Origins
In 1994, director James Cameron wrote an 80-page treatment for Avatar, drawing inspiration from "every single science fiction book" he had read in his childhood as well as from adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and H. Rider Haggard. Parts of the movie also came to him in a dream when he was 19 years old. He dreamed about a bioluminescent forest with fiber-optic trees, fan lizards, a river with bioluminescent particles and a purple moss that would lit up when someone stepped on it. When he woke up he made a drawing of the scene and later used it in the movie. In , Cameron announced that after completing Titanic, he would film Avatar, which would make use of synthetic, or computer-generated, actors. The project would cost $100 million and involve at least six actors in leading roles "who appear to be real but do not exist in the physical world". Visual effects house Digital Domain, with whom Cameron has a partnership, joined the project, which was supposed to begin production in mid-1997 for a 1999 release. However, Cameron felt that the technology had not caught up with the story and vision that he intended to tell. He decided to concentrate on making documentaries and refining the technology for the next few years. It was revealed in a Bloomberg BusinessWeek cover story that 20th Century Fox had fronted $10 million to Cameron to film a proof-of-concept clip for Avatar, which he showed to Fox executives in .
In February 2006, Cameron revealed that his film Project 880 was "a retooled version of Avatar", a film that he had tried to make years earlier, citing the technological advances in the creation of the computer-generated characters Gollum, King Kong, and Davy Jones. Cameron had chosen Avatar over his project Battle Angel after completing a five-day camera test in the previous year.
Development
From January to April 2006, Cameron worked on the script and developed a culture for the film's aliens, the Na'vi. Their language was created by Paul Frommer, a linguist at USC. The Na'vi language has a lexicon of about 1000 words, with some 30 added by Cameron. The tongue's phonemes include ejective consonants (such as the "kx" in "skxawng") that are found in Amharic, and the initial "ng" that Cameron may have taken from Te Reo Māori. Actress Sigourney Weaver and the film's set designers met with Jodie S. Holt, professor of plant physiology at University of California, Riverside, to learn about the methods used by botanists to study and sample plants, and to discuss ways to explain the communication between Pandora's organisms depicted in the film.
From 2005 to 2007, Cameron worked with a handful of designers, including famed fantasy illustrator Wayne Barlowe and renowned concept artist Jordu Schell, to shape the design of the Na'vi with paintings and physical sculptures when Cameron felt that 3-D brush renderings were not capturing his vision, often working together in the kitchen of Cameron's Malibu home. In , Cameron announced that he would film Avatar for a mid-2008 release and planned to begin principal photography with an established cast by . The following August, the visual effects studio Weta Digital signed on to help Cameron produce Avatar. Stan Winston, who had collaborated with Cameron in the past, joined Avatar to help with the film's designs. Production design for the film took several years. The film had two different production designers, and two separate art departments, one of which focused on the flora and fauna of Pandora, and another that created human machines and human factors. In , Cameron was announced to be using his own Reality Camera System to film in 3-D. The system would use two high-definition cameras in a single camera body to create depth perception.
While these preparations were underway, Fox kept wavering in its commitment to Avatar because of its painful experience with cost overruns and delays on Cameron's previous picture, Titanic. During the production of Titanic, Cameron rewrote the script to streamline the plot by combining several characters' roles and offered to cut his fee if the film were a commercial disappointment. Cameron installed a traffic light with the amber signal lit outside of co-producer Jon Landau's office to represent the film's uncertain future. In mid-2006, Fox told Cameron "in no uncertain terms that they were passing on this film," so he began shopping it around to other studios and approached Walt Disney Studios, showing his proof of concept to then chairman Dick Cook. However, when Disney attempted to take over, Fox exercised its right of first refusal. In , Fox finally agreed to commit to making Avatar after Ingenious Media agreed to back the film, which reduced Fox's financial exposure to less than half of the film's official $237 million budget. After Fox accepted Avatar, one skeptical Fox executive shook his head and told Cameron and Landau, "I don't know if we're crazier for letting you do this, or if you're crazier for thinking you can do this ..."
In December 2006, Cameron described Avatar as "a futuristic tale set on a planet 200 years hence ... an old-fashioned jungle adventure with an environmental conscience [that] aspires to a mythic level of storytelling". The press release described the film as "an emotional journey of redemption and revolution" and said the story is of "a wounded former Marine, thrust unwillingly into an effort to settle and exploit an exotic planet rich in biodiversity, who eventually crosses over to lead the indigenous race in a battle for survival". The story would be of an entire world complete with an ecosystem of phantasmagorical plants and creatures, and native people with a rich culture and language.
Estimates put the cost of the film at about $280–310 million to produce and an estimated $150 million for marketing, noting that about $30 million in tax credits would lessen the financial impact on the studio and its financiers. A studio spokesperson said that the budget was "$237 million, with $150 million for promotion, end of story."<ref name="Patten (2009)">{{Cite web |last=Patten |first=Dominic |date=December 3, 2009 |title=Avatar' True Cost – and Consequences |url=https://www.thewrap.com/avatars-true-cost-and-consequences-11206/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702133635/https://www.thewrap.com/avatars-true-cost-and-consequences-11206/ |archive-date=July 2, 2015 |access-date=April 27, 2022 |website=TheWrap}}</ref>
Filming
Principal photography for Avatar began in in Los Angeles and Wellington. Cameron described the film as a hybrid with a full live-action shoot in combination with computer-generated characters and live environments. "Ideally at the end of the day the audience has no idea which they're looking at," Cameron said. The director indicated that he had already worked four months on nonprincipal scenes for the film. The live action was shot with a modified version of the proprietary digital 3-D Fusion Camera System, developed by Cameron and Vince Pace. In , Fox had announced that 3-D filming for Avatar would be done at 24 frames per second despite Cameron's strong opinion that a 3-D film requires higher frame rate to make strobing less noticeable. According to Cameron, the film is composed of 60% computer-generated elements and 40% live action, as well as traditional miniatures.
Motion-capture photography lasted 31 days at the Hughes Aircraft stage in Playa Vista in Los Angeles. Live action photography began in at Stone Street Studios in Wellington and was scheduled to last 31 days. More than a thousand people worked on the production. In preparation of the filming sequences, all of the actors underwent professional training specific to their characters such as archery, horseback riding, firearm use, and hand-to-hand combat. They received language and dialect training in the Na'vi language created for the film. Before shooting the film, Cameron also sent the cast to the Hawaiian tropical rainforests to get a feel for a rainforest setting before shooting on the soundstage.
During filming, Cameron made use of his virtual camera system, a new way of directing motion-capture filmmaking. The system shows the actors' virtual counterparts in their digital surroundings in real time, allowing the director to adjust and direct scenes just as if shooting live action. According to Cameron, "It's like a big, powerful game engine. If I want to fly through space, or change my perspective, I can. I can turn the whole scene into a living miniature and go through it on a 50 to 1 scale." Using conventional techniques, the complete virtual world cannot be seen until the motion-capture of the actors is complete. Cameron said this process does not diminish the value or importance of acting. On the contrary, because there is no need for repeated camera and lighting setups, costume fittings and make-up touch-ups, scenes do not need to be interrupted repeatedly. Cameron described the system as a "form of pure creation where if you want to move a tree or a mountain or the sky or change the time of day, you have complete control over the elements".
Cameron gave fellow directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson a chance to test the new technology. Spielberg said, "I like to think of it as digital makeup, not augmented animation ... Motion capture brings the director back to a kind of intimacy that actors and directors only know when they're working in live theater." Spielberg and George Lucas were also able to visit the set to watch Cameron direct with the equipment.
To film the shots where CGI interacts with live action, a unique camera referred to as a "simulcam" was used, a merger of the 3-D fusion camera and the virtual camera systems. While filming live action in real time with the simulcam, the CGI images captured with the virtual camera or designed from scratch, are superimposed over the live action images as in augmented reality and shown on a small monitor, making it possible for the director to instruct the actors how to relate to the virtual material in the scene.
Due to Cameron's personal convictions about climate change, he allowed only plant-based (vegan) food to be served on set.
Visual effects
A number of innovative visual effects techniques were used during production. According to Cameron, work on the film had been delayed since the 1990s to allow the techniques to reach the necessary degree of advancement to adequately portray his vision of the film. The director planned to make use of photorealistic computer-generated characters, created using new motion capture animation technologies he had been developing in the 14 months leading up to .
Innovations include a new system for lighting massive areas like Pandora's jungle, a motion-capture stage or "volume" six times larger than any previously used, and an improved method of capturing facial expressions, enabling full performance capture. To achieve the face capturing, actors wore individually made skull caps fitted with a tiny camera positioned in front of the actors' faces; the information collected about their facial expressions and eyes is then transmitted to computers. According to Cameron, the method allows the filmmakers to transfer 100% of the actors' physical performances to their digital counterparts.
Besides the performance capture data which were transferred directly to the computers, numerous reference cameras gave the digital artists multiple angles of each performance. A technically challenging scene was near the end of the film when the computer-generated Neytiri held the live action Jake in human form, and attention was given to the details of the shadows and reflected light between them.
The lead visual effects company was Weta Digital in Wellington, at one point employing 900 people to work on the film. Because of the huge amount of data which needed to be stored, cataloged and available for everybody involved, even on the other side of the world, a new cloud computing and Digital Asset Management (DAM) system named Gaia was created by Microsoft especially for Avatar, which allowed the crews to keep track of and coordinate all stages in the digital processing. To render Avatar, Weta used a server farm making use of 4,000 Hewlett-Packard servers with 35,000 processor cores with 104 terabytes of RAM and three petabytes of network area storage running Ubuntu Linux, Grid Engine cluster manager, and 2 of the animation software and managers, Pixar's RenderMan and Pixar's Alfred queue management system. The render farm occupies the 193rd to 197th spots in the TOP500 list of the world's most powerful supercomputers. A new texturing and paint software system, called Mari, was developed by The Foundry in cooperation with Weta. Creating the Na'vi characters and the virtual world of Pandora required over a petabyte of digital storage, and each minute of the final footage for Avatar occupies 17.28 gigabytes of storage. It would often take the computer several hours to render a single frame of the film. To help finish preparing the special effects sequences on time, a number of other companies were brought on board, including Industrial Light & Magic, which worked alongside Weta Digital to create the battle sequences. ILM was responsible for the visual effects for many of the film's specialized vehicles and devised a new way to make CGI explosions. Joe Letteri was the film's visual effects general supervisor.
Music and soundtrack
Composer James Horner scored the film, his third collaboration with Cameron after Aliens and Titanic. Horner recorded parts of the score with a small chorus singing in the alien language Na'vi in .
He also worked with Wanda Bryant, an ethnomusicologist, to create a music culture for the alien race.
The first scoring sessions were planned to take place in early 2009. During production, Horner promised Cameron that he would not work on any other project except for Avatar and reportedly worked on the score from four in the morning until ten at night throughout the process. He stated in an interview, "Avatar has been the most difficult film I have worked on and the biggest job I have undertaken." Horner composed the score as two different scores merged into one. He first created a score that reflected the Na'vi way of sound and then combined it with a separate "traditional" score to drive the film.
British singer Leona Lewis was chosen to sing the theme song for the film, called "I See You". An accompanying music video, directed by Jake Nava, premiered , 2009, on MySpace.
Themes and inspirations Avatar is primarily an action-adventure journey of self-discovery, in the context of imperialism, and deep ecology.
Cameron said his inspiration was "every single science fiction book I read as a kid" and that he wanted to update the style of Edgar Rice Burroughs' John Carter series. He acknowledged that Avatar shares themes with the films At Play in the Fields of the Lord, The Emerald Forest, and Princess Mononoke, which feature clashes between cultures and civilizations, and with Dances with Wolves, where a battered soldier finds himself drawn to the culture he was initially fighting against. He also cited Hayao Miyazaki's anime films such as Princess Mononoke as an influence on the ecosystem of Pandora.
In 2012, Cameron filed a 45-page legal declaration that intended to "describe in great detail the
genesis of the ideas, themes, storylines, and images that came to be Avatar." In addition to historical events (such as European colonization of the Americas), his life experiences and several of his unproduced projects, Cameron drew connections between Avatar and his previous films. He cited his script and concept art for Xenogenesis, partially produced as a short film, as being the basis for many of the ideas and visual designs in Avatar. He stated that Avatar "concepts of a world mind, intelligence within nature, the idea of projecting force or consciousness using an avatar, colonization of alien planets, greedy corporate interests backed up by military force, the story of a seemingly weaker group prevailing over a technologically superior force, and the good scientist were all established and recurrent themes" from his earlier films including Aliens, The Abyss, Rambo: First Blood Part II, The Terminator and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. He specifically mentioned the "water tentacle" in The Abyss as an example of an "avatar" that "takes on the appearance of...an alien life form...in order to bridge the cultural gap and build trust."
Cameron also cited a number of works by other creators as "reference points and sources of inspiration" for Avatar. These include two of his "favorite" films, 2001: A Space Odyssey, where mankind experiences an evolution after meeting alien life, and Lawrence of Arabia, where "an outsider...encounters and immerses into a foreign culture and then ultimately joins that group to fight other outsiders." Cameron said he became familiar with the concept of a human operating a "synthetic avatar" inside another world from George Henry Smith's short story "In the Imagicon" and Arthur C. Clarke's novel The City and the Stars. He said he learned of the term "avatar" by reading the cyberpunk novels Neuromancer by William Gibson and Islands in the Net by Bruce Sterling. The idea of a "world mind" originated in the novel Solaris by Stanislaw Lem. Cameron mentioned several other films about people interacting with "indigenous cultures" as inspiring him, including Dances with Wolves, The Man Who Would Be King, The Mission, The Emerald Forest, Medicine Man, The Jungle Book and FernGully. He also cited as inspiration the John Carter and Tarzan stories by Edgar Rice Burroughs and other adventure stories by Rudyard Kipling and H. Rider Haggard.
In a 2007 interview with Time magazine, Cameron was asked about the meaning of the term Avatar, to which he replied, "It's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form. In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human's intelligence into a remotely located body, a biological body." Cameron also cited the Japanese cyberpunk manga and anime Ghost in the Shell, in terms of how humans can remotely control, and transfer their personalities into, alien bodies.
The look of the Na'vi – the humanoids indigenous to Pandora – was inspired by a dream that Cameron's mother had, long before he started work on Avatar. In her dream, she saw a blue-skinned woman 12 feet () tall, which he thought was "kind of a cool image". Also he said, "I just like blue. It's a good color ... plus, there's a connection to the Hindu deities, which I like conceptually." He included similar creatures in his first screenplay (written in 1976 or 1977), which featured a planet with a native population of "gorgeous" tall blue aliens. The Na'vi were based on them.
For the love story between characters Jake and Neytiri, Cameron applied a star-crossed love theme, which he said was in the tradition of Romeo and Juliet. He acknowledged its similarity to the pairing of Jack and Rose from his film Titanic. An interviewer stated, "Both couples come from radically different cultures that are contemptuous of their relationship and are forced to choose sides between the competing communities." Cameron described Neytiri as his "Pocahontas", saying that his plotline followed the historical story of a "white outsider [who] falls in love with the chief's daughter, who becomes his guide to the tribe and to their special bond with nature." Cameron felt that whether or not the Jake and Neytiri love story would be perceived as believable partially hinged on the physical attractiveness of Neytiri's alien appearance, which was developed by considering her appeal to the all-male crew of artists. Although Cameron felt Jake and Neytiri do not fall in love right away, their portrayers (Worthington and Saldana) felt the characters did. Cameron said the two actors "had a great chemistry" during filming.
For the film's floating "Hallelujah Mountains", the designers drew inspiration from "many different types of mountains, but mainly the karst limestone formations in China." According to production designer Dylan Cole, the fictional floating rocks were inspired by Huangshan (also known as Yellow Mountain), Guilin, Zhangjiajie, among others around the world. Cameron had noted the influence of the Chinese peaks on the design of the floating mountains.
To create the interiors of the human mining colony on Pandora, production designers visited the Noble Clyde Boudreaux oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico during . They photographed, measured and filmed every aspect of the platform, which was later replicated on-screen with photorealistic CGI during post-production.
Cameron said that he wanted to make "something that has this spoonful of sugar of all the action and the adventure and all that" but also have a conscience "that maybe in the enjoying of it makes you think a little bit about the way you interact with nature and your fellow man". He added that "the Na'vi represent something that is our higher selves, or our aspirational selves, what we would like to think we are" and that even though there are good humans within the film, the humans "represent what we know to be the parts of ourselves that are trashing our world and maybe condemning ourselves to a grim future".
Cameron acknowledges that Avatar implicitly criticizes the United States' role in the Iraq War and the impersonal nature of mechanized warfare in general. In reference to the use of the term shock and awe in the film, Cameron said, "We know what it feels like to launch the missiles. We don't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil, not in America." He said in later interviews, "... I think it's very patriotic to question a system that needs to be corralled ..." and, "The film is definitely not anti-American."
A scene in the film portrays the violent destruction of the towering Na'vi Hometree, which collapses in flames after a missile attack, coating the landscape with ash and floating embers. Asked about the scene's resemblance to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, Cameron said he had been "surprised at how much it did look like ".
Marketing
Promotions
The first photo of the film was released on , 2009, and Empire released exclusive images from the film in its October issue. Cameron, producer Jon Landau, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, and Sigourney Weaver appeared at a panel, moderated by Tom Rothman, at the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con on . Twenty-five minutes of footage was screened in Dolby 3D.
Weaver and Cameron appeared at additional panels to promote the film, speaking on the 23rd and 24th respectively. James Cameron announced at the Comic-Con Avatar Panel that will be 'Avatar Day'. On this day, the trailer was released in all theatrical formats. The official game trailer and toy line of the film were also unveiled on this day.
The 129-second trailer was released online on , 2009.
The new 210-second trailer was premiered in theaters on , 2009, then soon after premiered online on Yahoo! on , 2009, to positive reviews.
An extended version in IMAX 3D received overwhelmingly positive reviews. The Hollywood Reporter said that audience expectations were colored by "the [same] establishment skepticism that preceded Titanic" and suggested the showing reflected the desire for original storytelling. The teaser has been among the most viewed trailers in the history of film marketing, reaching the first place of all trailers viewed on Apple.com with 4 million views.
On October 30, to celebrate the opening of the first 3-D cinema in Vietnam, Fox allowed Megastar Cinema to screen exclusive 16 minutes of Avatar to a number of press. The three-and-a-half-minute trailer of the film premiered live on , 2009, during a Dallas Cowboys football game at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, on the Diamond Vision screen, one of the world's largest video displays, and to TV audiences viewing the game on Fox. It is said to be the largest live motion picture trailer viewing in history.
The Coca-Cola Company collaborated with Fox to launch a worldwide marketing campaign to promote the film. The highlight of the campaign was the website AVTR.com. Specially marked bottles and cans of Coca-Cola Zero, when held in front of a webcam, enabled users to interact with the website's 3-D features using augmented reality (AR) technology. The film was heavily promoted in an episode of the Fox series Bones in the episode "The Gamer In The Grease" (Season 5, Episode 9). Avatar star Joel David Moore has a recurring role on the program, and is seen in the episode anxiously awaiting the release of the film. A week prior to the American release, Zoe Saldana promoted the film on Adult Swim when she was interviewed by an animated Space Ghost. McDonald's had a promotion mentioned in television commercials in Europe called "Avatarize yourself", which encouraged people to go to the website set up by Oddcast, and use a photograph of themselves to change into a Na'vi.
Books Avatar: A Confidential Report on the Biological and Social History of Pandora, a 224-page book in the form of a field guide to the film's fictional setting of the planet of Pandora, was released by Harper Entertainment on , 2009.
It is presented as a compilation of data collected by the humans about Pandora and the life on it, written by Maria Wilhelm and Dirk Mathison. HarperFestival also released Wilhelm's 48-page James Cameron's Avatar: The Reusable Scrapbook for children. The Art of Avatar was released on , 2009, by Abrams Books. The book features detailed production artwork from the film, including production sketches, illustrations by Lisa Fitzpatrick, and film stills. Producer Jon Landau wrote the foreword, Cameron wrote the epilogue, and director Peter Jackson wrote the preface. In , Abrams Books also released The Making of Avatar, a 272-page book that detailed the film's production process and contains over 500 color photographs and illustrations.
In a 2009 interview, Cameron said that he planned to write a novel version of Avatar after the film was released. In , producer Jon Landau stated that Cameron plans a prequel novel for Avatar that will "lead up to telling the story of the movie, but it would go into much more depth about all the stories that we didn't have time to deal with", saying that "Jim wants to write a novel that is a big, epic story that fills in a lot of things". In August 2013 it was announced that Cameron hired Steven Gould to pen four standalone novels to expand the Avatar universe.
Video game
Cameron chose Ubisoft Montreal to create an Avatar game for the film in 2007. The filmmakers and game developers collaborated heavily, and Cameron decided to include some of Ubisoft's vehicle and creature designs in the film. Avatar: The Game was released on , 2009, for most home video game consoles (PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, Nintendo DS, iPhone) and Microsoft Windows, and for PlayStation Portable. A second game, Avatar: Frontiers of Pandora, was under development as of 2021.
Action figures and postage stamps
Mattel Toys announced in December 2009 that it would be introducing a line of Avatar action figures.
Each action figure will be made with a 3-D web tag, called an i-TAG, that consumers can scan using a web cam, revealing unique on-screen content that is exclusive to each specific action figure. A series of toys representing six different characters from the film were also distributed globally in McDonald's Happy Meals.
In December 2009, France Post released a special limited edition stamp based on Avatar, coinciding with the film's worldwide release.
Releases
Theatrical
Initial screeningAvatar premiered in London on , 2009, and was released theatrically worldwide from to 18. The film was originally set for release on , 2009, during filming but was pushed back to allow more post-production time (the last shots were delivered in November) and give more time for theaters worldwide to install 3D projectors. Cameron stated that the film's aspect ratio would be 1.78:1 for 3D screenings and that a 2.39:1 image would be extracted for 2D screenings. However, a 3D 2.39:1 extract was approved for use with constant-image-height screens (i.e., screens that increase in width to display 2.39:1 films). During a 3D preview showing in Germany on , the movie's DRM "protection" system malfunctioned, and some copies delivered weren't watched at all in the theaters. The problems were fixed in time for the public premiere.Avatar was released in a total of 3,457 theaters in the US, of which 2,032 theaters showed it in 3D. In total, 90% of all advance ticket sales for Avatar were for 3D screenings.
Internationally, Avatar opened on a total of 14,604 screens in 106 territories, of which 3,671 were showing the film in 3D (producing 56% of the first weekend gross). The film was simultaneously presented in IMAX 3D format, opening in 178 theaters in the United States on . The international IMAX release included 58 theaters beginning on , and 25 more theaters were to be added in the coming weeks. The IMAX release was the company's widest to date, a total of 261 theaters worldwide. The previous IMAX record opening was Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, which opened in 161 IMAX theaters in the US, and about 70 international. 20th Century Fox Korea adapted and later released Avatar in 4D version, which included "moving seats, smells of explosives, sprinkling water, laser lights and wind".
Post-original release
In July 2010, Cameron confirmed that there would be an extended theatrical rerelease of the film on , 2010, exclusively in 3D theaters and IMAX 3D. Avatar: Special Edition includes an additional nine minutes of footage, all of which is CG, including an extension of the sex scene and various other scenes that were cut from the original theatrical film. This extended re-release resulted in the film's run time approaching the then-current IMAX platter maximum of 170 minutes, thereby leaving less time for the end credits. Cameron stated that the nine minutes of added scenes cost more than a minute to produce and finish. During its 12-week re-release, Avatar: Special Edition grossed an additional $10.74 million in North America and $22.46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $33.2 million. The film was later re-released in China in March 2021, allowing it to surpass Avengers: Endgame to become the highest-grossing film of all time.Avatar was rereleased in theaters on September 23, 2022, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures for a limited two-week engagement, with the film being remastered in 4K high-dynamic range, with select scenes at a high frame rate of 48 fps. The reissue was prior to the December 2022 premiere of its sequel, Avatar: The Way of Water. Prior to this, Cameron previously teased a re-release of the film back in 2017 when promoting the Dolby Cinema re-release of Titanic, stating that there were plans in the works to remaster the film with Dolby Vision and re-release it in Dolby Cinema.
Home media
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in the US on , 2010, and in the UK on . The US release was not on a Tuesday as is the norm, but was done to coincide with Earth Day. The first DVD and Blu-ray release does not contain any supplemental features other than the theatrical film and the disc menu in favor of and to make space for optimal picture and sound. The release also preserves the film's 1.78:1 (16:9) format over the 2.39:1 (21:9) scope version as Cameron felt that was the best format to watch the film. The Blu-ray disc contains DRM (BD+ 5) which some Blu-ray players might not support without a firmware update.Avatar set a first-day launch record in the U.S. for Blu-ray sales at 1.5 million units sold, breaking the record previously held by The Dark Knight (600,000 units sold). First-day DVD and Blu-ray sales combined were over four million units sold. In its first four days of release, sales of Avatar on Blu-ray reached 2.7 million in the United States and Canada – overtaking The Dark Knight to become the best ever selling Blu-ray release in the region. The release later broke the Blu-ray sales record in the UK the following week. In its first three weeks of release, the film sold a total of DVD and Blu-ray discs combined, a new record for sales in that period. As of , 2012, DVD sales (not including Blu-ray) totaled over units sold with in revenue. Avatar retained its record as the top-selling Blu-ray in the US market until January 2015, when it was surpassed by Disney's Frozen.
The Avatar three-disc Extended Collector's Edition on DVD and Blu-ray was released on , 2010. Three different versions of the film are present on the discs: the original theatrical cut (162 minutes), the special edition cut (170 minutes), and a collector's extended cut (178 minutes). The DVD set spreads the film across two discs, while the Blu-ray set presents it on a single disc. The collector's extended cut contains 8 more minutes of footage, thus making it 16 minutes longer than the original theatrical cut. Cameron mentioned, "you can sit down, and in a continuous screening of the film, watch it with the Earth opening". He stated the "Earth opening" is an additional minutes of scenes that were in the film for much of its production but were ultimately cut before the film's theatrical release. The release also includes an additional 45 minutes of deleted scenes and other extras.
Cameron initially stated that Avatar would be released in 3D around , but the studio issued a correction: "3-D is in the conceptual stage and Avatar will not be out on 3D Blu-ray in November." In , Fox stated that the 3D version would be released some time in 2011. It was later revealed that Fox had given Panasonic an exclusive license for the 3D Blu-ray version and only with the purchase of a Panasonic 3DTV. The length of Panasonic's exclusivity period is stated to last until . On , Cameron stated that the standalone 3D Blu-ray would be the final version of the film's home release and that it was "maybe one, two years out". On Christmas Eve 2010, Avatar had its 3D television world premiere on Sky.
On August 13, 2012, Cameron announced on Facebook that Avatar would be released globally on Blu-ray 3D. The Blu-ray 3D version was finally released on October 16, 2012.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Avatar on Ultra HD Blu-ray on June 20, 2023.
Reception
Critical response
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 82% of 335 reviews are positive, and the average rating is 7.4 out of 10. The site's consensus reads, "It might be more impressive on a technical level than as a piece of storytelling, but Avatar reaffirms James Cameron's singular gift for imaginative, absorbing filmmaking." On Metacritic—which assigns a weighted mean score—the film has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale. Every demographic surveyed was reported to give this rating. These polls also indicated that the main draw of the film was its use of 3D.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times called the film "extraordinary" and gave it four stars out of four. "Watching Avatar, I felt sort of the same as when I saw Star Wars in 1977," he said, adding that like Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, the film "employs a new generation of special effects" and it "is not simply a sensational entertainment, although it is that. It's a technical breakthrough. It has a flat-out Green and anti-war message".
A. O. Scott of At The Movies also compared his viewing of the film to the first time he viewed Star Wars and he said "although the script is a little bit ... obvious," it was "part of what made it work". Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film, saying "The King of the World sets his sights on creating another world entirely in Avatar, and it's very much a place worth visiting." Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review. "The screen is alive with more action and the soundtrack pops with more robust music than any dozen sci-fi shoot-'em-ups you care to mention," he stated. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded Avatar a three-and-a-half out of four star rating and wrote in his print review "It extends the possibilities of what movies can do. Cameron's talent may just be as big as his dreams." Richard Corliss of Time magazine thought that the film was "the most vivid and convincing creation of a fantasy world ever seen in the history of moving pictures." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film has "powerful" visual accomplishments but "flat dialogue" and "obvious characterization". James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story, giving it four out of four stars; he wrote "In 3-D, it's immersive – but the traditional film elements – story, character, editing, theme, emotional resonance, etc. – are presented with sufficient expertise to make even the 2-D version an engrossing -hour experience."Avatars underlying social and political themes attracted attention. Armond White of the New York Press wrote that Cameron used "villainous American characters" to "misrepresent facets of militarism, capitalism, and imperialism".See also last paragraph of the above section Avatar Themes and inspirations. Russell D. Moore of The Christian Post concluded that "propaganda exists in the film" and stated "If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war, then you've got some amazing special effects." Adam Cohen of The New York Times was more positive about the film, calling its anti-imperialist message "a 22nd-century version of the American colonists vs. the British, India vs. the Raj, or Latin America vs. United Fruit". Ross Douthat of The New York Times opined that the film is "Cameron's long apologia for pantheism [...] Hollywood's religion of choice for a generation now", while Saritha Prabhu of The Tennessean called the film a "misportrayal of pantheism and Eastern spirituality in general", and Maxim Osipov of The Hindustan Times, on the contrary, commended the film's message for its overall consistency with the teachings of Hinduism in the Bhagavad Gita. Annalee Newitz of io9 concluded that Avatar is another film that has the recurring "fantasy about race" whereby "some white guy" becomes the "most awesome" member of a non-white culture. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune called Avatar "the season's ideological Rorschach blot", while Miranda Devine of The Sydney Morning Herald thought that "It [was] impossible to watch Avatar without being banged over the head with the director's ideological hammer." Nidesh Lawtoo believed that an essential, yet less visible social theme that contributed to Avatars success concerns contemporary fascinations with virtual avatars and "the transition from the world of reality to that of virtual reality".
Critics and audiences have cited similarities with other films, literature or media, describing the perceived connections in ways ranging from simple "borrowing" to outright plagiarism. Ty Burr of The Boston Globe called it "the same movie" as Dances with Wolves. Like Dances with Wolves, Avatar has been characterized as being a "white savior" movie, in which a "backwards" native people is impotent without the leadership of a member of the invading white culture. Parallels to the concept and use of an avatar are in Poul Anderson's 1957 novelette "Call Me Joe", in which a paralyzed man uses his mind from orbit to control an artificial body on Jupiter. Cinema audiences in Russia have noted that Avatar has elements in common with the 1960s Noon Universe novels by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, which are set in the 22nd century on a forested world called Pandora with a sentient indigenous species called the Nave. Various reviews have compared Avatar to the films FernGully: The Last Rainforest, Pocahontas and The Last Samurai. NPR's Morning Edition has compared the film to a montage of tropes, with one commentator stating that Avatar was made by "mixing a bunch of film scripts in a blender". Gary Westfahl wrote that "the science fiction story that most closely resembles Avatar has to be Ursula Le Guin's novella The Word for World Is Forest (1972), another epic about a benevolent race of alien beings who happily inhabit dense forests while living in harmony with nature until they are attacked and slaughtered by invading human soldiers who believe that the only good gook is a dead gook". The science fiction writer and editor Gardner Dozois said that along with the Anderson and Le Guin stories, the "mash-up" included Alan Dean Foster's 1975 novel, Midworld. Some sources saw similarities to the artwork of Roger Dean, which features fantastic images of dragons and floating rock formations. In 2013, Dean sued Cameron and Fox, claiming that Pandora was inspired by 14 of his images. Dean sought damages of $50m. Dean's case was dismissed in 2014, and The Hollywood Reporter noted that Cameron had won multiple Avatar idea theft cases.Avatar received compliments from filmmakers, with Steven Spielberg praising it as "the most evocative and amazing science-fiction movie since Star Wars" and others calling it "audacious and awe inspiring", "master class", and "brilliant". Noted art director-turned-filmmaker Roger Christian is also a noted fan of the film. On the other hand, Duncan Jones said: "It's not in my top three James Cameron films. ... [A]t what point in the film did you have any doubt what was going to happen next?". For French filmmaker Luc Besson, Avatar opened the doors for him to now create an adaptation of the graphic novel series Valérian and Laureline that technologically supports the scope of its source material, with Besson even throwing his original script in the trash and redoing it after seeing the film. TIME ranked Avatar number 3 in their list of "The 10 Greatest Movies of the Millennium (Thus Far)" also earning it a spot on the magazine's All-Time 100 list, and IGN listed Avatar as number 22 on their list of the top 25 Sci-Fi movies of all time.
Box office
General Avatar was released internationally on more than 14,000 screens. It grossed $3,537,000 from midnight screenings in the United States and Canada, with the initial 3D release limited to 2,200 screens. The film grossed $26,752,099 on its opening day, and $77,025,481 over its opening weekend, making it the second-largest December opening ever behind I Am Legend, the largest domestic opening weekend for a film not based on a franchise (topping The Incredibles), the highest opening weekend for a film entirely in 3D (breaking Ups record), the highest opening weekend for an environmentalist film (breaking The Day After Tomorrows record), and the 40th-largest opening weekend in North America, despite a blizzard that blanketed the East Coast of the United States and reportedly hurt its opening weekend results. The film also set an IMAX opening weekend record, with 178 theaters generating approximately $9.5 million, 12% of the film's $77 million (at the time) North American gross on less than 3% of the screens.
International markets generating opening weekend tallies of at least $10 million were for Russia ($19.7 million), France ($17.4 million), the UK ($13.8 million), Germany ($13.3 million), South Korea ($11.7 million), Australia ($11.5 million), and Spain ($11.0 million). Avatars worldwide gross was US$241.6 million after five days, the ninth largest opening-weekend gross of all time, and the largest for a non-franchise, non-sequel and original film. 58 international IMAX screens generated an estimated $4.1 million during the opening weekend.
Revenues in the film's second weekend decreased by only 1.8% in domestic markets, marking a rare occurrence, grossing $75,617,183, to remain in first place at the box office and recording what was then the biggest second weekend of all time. The film experienced another marginal decrease in revenue in its third weekend, dropping 9.4% to $68,490,688 domestically, remaining in first place at the box office, to set a third-weekend record.Avatar crossed the $1 billion mark on the 19th day of its international release, making it the first film to reach this mark in only 19 days. It became the fifth film grossing more than $1 billion worldwide, and the only film of 2009 to do so. In its fourth weekend, Avatar continued to lead the box office domestically, setting a new all-time fourth-weekend record of $50,306,217, and becoming the highest-grossing 2009 release in the United States, beating Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. In the film's fifth weekend, it set the Martin Luther King Day weekend record, grossing $54,401,446, and set a fifth-weekend record with a take of $42,785,612. It held the top spot to set the sixth and seventh weekend records grossing $34,944,081 and $31,280,029 respectively. It was the fastest film to gross $600 million domestically, on its 47th day in theaters.
On , it became the first film to gross over worldwide, and it became the first film to gross over in the U.S. and Canada, on , after 72 days of release. It remained at number one at the domestic box office for seven consecutive weeks – the most consecutive No. 1 weekends since Titanic spent 15 weekends at No.1 in 1997 and 1998 – and also spent 11 consecutive weekends at the top of the box office outside the United States and Canada, breaking the record of nine consecutive weekends set by Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest. By the end of its first theatrical release Avatar had grossed $749,766,139 in the U.S. and Canada, and $ in other territories, for a worldwide total of $.
Including the revenue from a re-release of Avatar featuring extended footage, Avatar grossed $785,221,649 in the U.S. and Canada, and $2,137,696,265 in other countries for a worldwide total of $2,922,917,914. Avatar has set a number of box office records during its release: on , 2010, it surpassed Titanics worldwide gross to become the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide 41 days after its international release, just two days after taking the foreign box office record. On , 47 days after its domestic release, Avatar surpassed Titanic to become the highest-grossing film of all time in Canada and the United States. It became the highest-grossing film of all time in at least 30 other countries and is the first film to gross over $2 billion in foreign box office receipts.
IMAX ticket sales account for $243.3 million of its worldwide gross, more than double the previous record. By 2022, this figure rose to $268.6 million.
Box Office Mojo estimates that after adjusting for the rise in average ticket prices, Avatar would be the 14th-highest-grossing film of all time in North America. Box Office Mojo also observes that the higher ticket prices for 3D and IMAX screenings have had a significant impact on Avatars gross; it estimated, on , 2010, that Avatar had sold approximately tickets in North American theaters, more than any other film since 1999's Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. On a worldwide basis, when Avatars gross stood at $2 billion just 35 days into its run, The Daily Telegraph estimated its gross was surpassed by only Gone with the Wind ($3.0 billion), Titanic ($2.9 billion), and Star Wars ($2.2 billion) after adjusting for inflation to 2010 prices, with Avatar ultimately winding up with $2.92 billion after subsequent re-releases. Reuters even placed it ahead of Titanic after adjusting the global total for inflation. The 2015 edition of Guinness World Records lists Avatar only behind Gone with the Wind in terms of adjusted grosses worldwide.
Commercial analysis
Before its release, various film critics and fan communities predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, in line with predictions made for Cameron's previous blockbuster Titanic. This criticism ranged from Avatars film budget, to its concept and use of 3-D "blue cat people". Slate magazine's Daniel Engber complimented the 3D effects but criticized them for reminding him of certain CGI characters from the Star Wars prequel films and for having the "uncanny valley" effect. The New York Times noted that 20th Century Fox executives had decided to release Alvin and the Chipmunks: The Squeakquel alongside Avatar, calling it a "secret weapon" to cover any unforeseeable losses at the box office.
Box office analysts, on the other hand, estimated that the film would be a box office success. "The holy grail of 3-D has finally arrived," said an analyst for Exhibitor Relations. "This is why all these 3-D venues were built: for Avatar. This is the one. The behemoth." The "cautionary estimate" was that Avatar would bring in around $60 million in its opening weekend. Others guessed higher. There were also analysts who believed that the film's three-dimensionality would help its box office performance, given that recent 3D films had been successful.
Cameron said he felt the pressure of the predictions, but that pressure is good for film-makers. "It makes us think about our audiences and what the audience wants," he stated. "We owe them a good time. We owe them a piece of good entertainment." Although he felt Avatar would appeal to everyone and that the film could not afford to have a target demographic, he especially wanted hard-core science-fiction fans to see it: "If I can just get 'em in the damn theater, the film will act on them in the way it's supposed to, in terms of taking them on an amazing journey and giving them this rich emotional experience." Cameron was aware of the sentiment that Avatar would need significant "repeat business" just to make up for its budget and achieve box office success, and believed Avatar could inspire the same "sharing" reaction as Titanic. He said that film worked because, "When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it. They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life."
After the film's release and unusually strong box office performance over its first two weeks, it was debated as the one film capable of surpassing Titanics worldwide gross, and its continued strength perplexed box office analysts. Other films in recent years had been cited as contenders for surpassing Titanic, such as 2008's The Dark Knight, but Avatar was considered the first film with a genuine chance to do so, and its numbers being aided by higher ticket prices for 3D screenings did not fully explain its success to box office analysts. "Most films are considered to be healthy if they manage anything less than a 50% drop from their first weekend to their second. Dipping just 11% from the first to the third is unheard of," said Paul Dergarabedian, president of box-office analysis for Hollywood.com. "This is just unprecedented. I had to do a double take. I thought it was a miscalculation." Analysts predicted second place for the film's worldwide gross, but most were uncertain about it surpassing Titanic because "Today's films flame out much faster than they did when Titanic was released." Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, believed in the film's chances of becoming the highest-grossing film of all time, though he also believed it was too early to surmise because it had only played during the holidays. He said, "While Avatar may beat Titanics record, it will be tough, and the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s." Cameron said he did not think it was realistic to "try to topple Titanic off its perch" because it "just struck some kind of chord" and there had been other good films in recent years. He changed his prediction by mid-January. "It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time," he said.
Although analysts have been unable to agree that Avatars success is attributable to one primary factor, several explanations have been advanced. First, January is historically "the dumping ground for the year's weakest films", and this also applied to 2010.
Cameron himself said he decided to open the film in December so that it would have less competition from then to January. Titanic capitalized on the same January predictability, and earned most of its gross in 1998. Additionally, Avatar established itself as a "must-see" event. Gray said, "At this point, people who are going to see Avatar are going to see Avatar and would even if the slate was strong." Marketing the film as a "novelty factor" also helped. Fox positioned the film as a cinematic event that should be seen in the theaters. "It's really hard to sell the idea that you can have the same experience at home," stated David Mumpower, an analyst at BoxOfficeProphets.com. The "Oscar buzz" surrounding the film and international viewings helped. "Two-thirds of Titanics haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly ...Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was No. 1 in all of them", and the markets "such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today" with "more screens and moviegoers" than before.
According to Variety, films in 3D accumulated $1.3 billion in 2009, "a threefold increase over 2008 and more than 10% of the total 2009 box-office gross". The increased ticket price – an average of $2 to $3 per ticket in most markets – helped the film. Likewise, Entertainment Weekly attributed the film's success to 3D glasses but also to its "astronomic word-of-mouth". Not only do some theaters charge up to $18.50 for IMAX tickets, but "the buzz" created by the new technology was the possible cause for sold-out screenings. Gray said Avatar having no basis in previously established material makes its performance remarkable and even more impressive. "The movie might be derivative of many movies in its story and themes," he said, "but it had no direct antecedent like the other top-grossing films: Titanic (historical events), the Star Wars movies (an established film franchise), or The Lord of the Rings (literature). It was a tougher sell ..." The Hollywood Reporter estimated that after a combined production and promotion cost of between $387 million and $437 million, the film turned a net profit of $1.2 billion.
Accolades Avatar won the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Visual Effects, and was nominated for a total of nine, including Best Picture and Best Director. Avatar also won the 67th Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama and Best Director, and was nominated for two others. At the 36th Saturn Awards, Avatar won all ten awards it was nominated for: Best Science Fiction Film, Best Actor, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actor, Best Supporting Actress, Best Director, Best Writing, Best Music, Best Production Design and Best Special Effects.
The New York Film Critics Online honored the film with its Best Picture award. The film also won the Critics' Choice Awards of the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Action Film and several technical categories, out of nine nominations. It won two of the St. Louis Film Critics awards: Best Visual Effects and Most Original, Innovative or Creative Film. The film also won the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) award for Production Design and Special Visual Effects, and was nominated for six others, including Best Film and Director. The film has received numerous other major awards, nominations and honors.
Legacy
Despite the film's financial and critical success, some journalists have questioned Avatar's cultural impact. In 2014, Scott Mendelson of Forbes said the film had been "all but forgotten", citing the lack of merchandising, a fandom for the film, or any long-enduring media franchise, and further stated that he believed most general audiences could not remember any of the film's details, such as the names of its characters or actors in the cast. Mendelson argued Avatar's only achievement of note to be its popularization of 3D cinema. Despite this, he still felt it was a quality film, saying, "A great blockbuster movie can just be a great blockbuster movie without capturing the lunchbox market." He further reflected and reversed his stance in 2022 after the box office success of the re-release, saying, "The very things that made Avatar sometimes feel like a 'forgotten blockbuster' have inspired a skewed renewed nostalgia for its singular existence. It was just a movie, an original auteur-specific movie that prioritized top-shelf filmmaking and clockwork plotting over quotable dialogue and memes."
Some have questioned if there is an audience for the film's planned sequels, believing there to be a lack of interest in the face of the multiple delays of their release dates. Writing for The Escapist, Darren Mooney acknowledged that the film had not been broadly remembered in the pop cultural subconscious and had not found a fandom in the same sense as many other popular media, but argued that this was not a negative point, saying, "its defining legacy is the insistence that it lacks a legacy."
In 2022, in response to the trailer for Avatar's upcoming sequel and the film's re-release, journalists again questioned the cultural relevance of the film, particularly Patrick Ryan of USA Today, who said the film had "curiously left almost no pop-culture footprint". In contrast, Bilge Ebiri of Vulture called others' opinions that the film had left no cultural impact "narrow-minded" and said that the film still held up well. A detailed overview of the Avatar franchise was reported in The New York Times in December of that year.
Sequels Avatar success led to two sequels; this number was subsequently expanded to four. Avatar: The Way of Water (2022) grossed over $2.3 billion, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2022, and received a similarly positive critical and audience response. It will be followed by Avatar 3 (2025). Fourth and fifth Avatar films, titled Avatar 4 and Avatar 5, respectively, are scheduled to be released in 2029 and 2031.
Related media
Stage adaptation Toruk – The First Flight is an original stage production by the Montreal-based Cirque du Soleil which ran between December 2015 and June 2019. Inspired by Avatar, the story is set in Pandora's past, involving a prophecy concerning a threat to the Tree of Souls and a quest for totems from different tribes. Audience members could download an app in order to participate in show effects. On January 18, 2016, it was announced via the Toruk Facebook page that filming for a DVD release had been completed and was undergoing editing.
Theme park attraction
In 2011, Cameron, Lightstorm, and Fox entered an exclusive licensing agreement with the Walt Disney Company to feature Avatar-themed attractions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide, including a themed land for Disney's Animal Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. The area, known as Pandora – The World of Avatar, opened on May 27, 2017.
Novels
Following the release of Avatar, Cameron planned to write a novel based on the film, "telling the story of the movie, but [going] into much more depth about all the stories that we didn't have time to deal with." In 2013, this plan was superseded by the announcement of four novels set within the "Avatar expanded universe", to be written by Steven Gould. The books were due to be published by Penguin Random House, although since 2017, there has been no update on the planned book series.
See also
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
List of films featuring powered exoskeletons
Red Scorpion Run of the Arrow''
Notes
References
Further reading
A detailed analysis of the film's parallels with the teachings of the Vedas.
External links
Official shooting script
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4273276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimasa%20Kingdom | Dimasa Kingdom | The Dimasa Kingdom (also Kachari kingdom) was a late medieval/early modern kingdom in Assam, Northeast India ruled by Dimasa kings. The Dimasa kingdom and others (Kamata, Chutiya) that developed in the wake of the Kamarupa kingdom were examples of new states that emerged from indigenous communities in medieval Assam as a result of socio-political transformations in these communities. The British finally annexed the kingdom: the plains in 1832 and the hills in 1834. This kingdom gave its name to undivided Cachar district of colonial Assam. And after independence the undivided Cachar district was split into three districts in Assam: Dima Hasao district (formerly North Cachar Hills), Cachar district, Hailakandi district. The Ahom Buranjis called this kingdom Timisa.
In the 18th century, a divine Hindu origin was constructed for the rulers of the Kachari kingdom and it was named Hidimba, and the kings as Hidimbesvar. The name Hiḍimbā continued to be used in the official records when the East India Company took over the administration of Cachar.
Origins
The origin of the Dimasa Kingdom is not clear. According to tradition, the Dimasa had their domain in Kamarupa and their king belonged to a lineage called Ha-tsung-tsa or Ha-cheng-sa, a name first mentioned in a coin from 1520. Some of them had to leave due to a political turmoil and while crossing the Brahmaputra some of them were swept away—therefore, they are called Dimasa ("Son-of-the-big-river"). The similarity in Dimasa traditions and religious beliefs with those of the Chutiya kingdom supports this tradition of initial unity and then divergence. Linguistic studies too point to a close association between the Dimasa language and the Moran language that was alive till the beginning of the 20th-century, suggesting that the Dimasa kingdom had an eastern Assam presence before the advent of the Ahoms. The eastern Assam origin of the Dimasas is further reinforced by the tradition of the tetulary goddess Kecaikhati whose primary shrine was around Sadiya; the tribal goddess common to many Kachari peoples: as the Rabhas, Morans, Tiwas, Koch, Chutias, etc.
According to legend Hachengsa (or Hasengcha) was an extraordinary boy brought up by a tiger and a tigress in a forest near Dimapur who replaced the existing king following divine oracles; which likely indicates the emergence of a strong military leader able to consolidate power. Subsequently, the Hasengcha Sengfang (clan) emerged and beginning with Khorapha (1520 in Dimapur), the Dimasa kings continued to draw lineage from Hachengcha in Maibong and Khaspur till the 19th century.
Given different traditions and legends, the only reliable sources of the early history of the Dimasa kingdom is that given in the Buranjis, even though they are primarily narrations of wars between the Ahom and the Dimasa polities.
Early history
The historical accounts of the Dimasas begin with mentions in Ahom chronicles: according to an account in a Buranji, the first Ahom king Sukaphaa (r. 1228–1268) encountered a Kachari group in the Tirap region (currently in Arunachal Pradesh), who informed him that they along with their chief had to leave a place called Mohung (salt springs) losing it to the Nagas and that they were settled near the Dikhou river. This supports a tradition that the eastern boundary of the Kachari domain extended up to Mohong or Namdang river (near Joypur, Assam) beyond the river Dichang, before the arrival of Ahoms. Given the settlement was large, Sukaphaa decided not to engage with them before settling with the Barahi and Moran polities. During the reign of Sukaphaa's successor Suteuphaa () the Ahoms negotiated with this group of the Dimasa, who had been in the region between Dikhou and Namdang for about three generations by then, and the Dimasa group moved to the west of the Dikhou river. These isolated early accounts of the Dimasas suggest that they controlled the region between the Dikhu river in the east and the Kolong river in the west and included the Dhansiri valley and the north Cachar hills from the late 13th century.
At Dimapur
The Ahom language Buranjis call the Dimasa kings khun timisa, and place them initially in Dimapur, where Timisa is a corruption of Dimasa. The Dimasa kingdom did not record their history, and much of the early information come from other sources. The Ahom Buranjis, for instance, record that in 1490 the Ahom king Suhenphaa (1488-93) created a forward post at Tangsu and when the Dimasas killed the commander and 120 men the Ahoms sued for peace by offering a princess to the Dimasa king along with other presents, but the name of the Dimasa king is not known. The Dimasas thus recovered the region east of the Dikhau river that it had lost in the late 13th century.
Ekasarana biographies of Sankardeva written after his death use the name Kachari for the Dimasa people and the kingdom and record that around 1516 the Baro-Bhuyans at Alipukhuri came into conflict with their Kachari neighbors which escalated into the Dimasa king preparing to attack them. This led Sankardeva and his group to abandon the region for good. One of the earliest mention of Kachari is found in the Bhagavat of Sankardev in the section composed during the later part of his life in the Koch kingdom where he uses it synonymously with Kirata. Another early mention of the name Kachari comes from Kacharir Niyam (Rules of the Kacharis), composed during the reign of Tamradhwaj Narayan (), when the Dimasa rulers were still ruling in Maibang.
A coin dated 1520 commemorating a decisive victory over enemies is one of the earliest direct evidence of the historical kingdom. Since no conflict with the Kacharis is mentioned in the Ahom Buranjis it is conjectured that the enemy could have been the nascent Koch kingdom of Biswa Singha. Though issued in a Sanksritised name of the king (Viravijay Narayan, identified with Khorapha) with the mention of a goddess Chandi, there is no mention of the King's lineage but a mention of Hachengsa, a Boro-Garo name indicated that an appropriate Kshatriya lineage had still not been created by 1520. The first Hindu coin from the Brahmaputra valley, it followed the same weights and measures of the coins from the Muslim Sultans of Bengal and Tripura and indicate influence from them.
This kingdom might have been part of ancient Sinitic networks such as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).
Fall of Dimapur
Soon after absorbing the Chutia kingdom in 1523 Suhungmung, the Ahom king, decided to recover the territory the Ahoms had lost in 1490 to the Dimasa kingdom and sent his commander Kan-Seng in 1526 who advanced up to Marangi. In one of these attacks the Dimasa king Khorapha was killed, and Khunkhara, his brother, came to power. The two kingdoms made peace and decided to maintain the Dhansiri river as the boundary. This peace did not hold and fighting broke out between an advancing Ahom force against a Kachari force arrayed along the Dhansiri—the Kacharis were successful initially, but they suffered a massive loss at Marangi, and again an uneasy stalemate prevailed. In 1531 the Ahoms went on the offence and Khunkhara's brother Detcha lost his life attacking the newly erected Ahom fort at Marangi. Both the Ahom king and the commander then attacked the Nenguriya fort, and Khunkhara had to flee with his son. The Ahoms force under Kan-Seng then reached Dimapur following which Detchung, a son of the earlier king Khorapha, approached Suhungmung at Nenguriya and submitted his claim to the Dimasa throne. The Ahoms thereafter claimed the Dimasa king as thapita-sanchita (established and preserved), and the Dimasa kingdom provided support to the Ahom kingdom when it was under the attack of Turbak in 1532/1533, a Turko-Afghan commander from Bengal.
But when Detchung (also called Dersongpha) tried to throw off the yoke Suhungmung advanced against Detchung captured and killed him, and then advanced on and occupied Dimapur in 1536. The Dimasas rulers thereafter abandoned Dimapur.
Cultural affinities at Dimapur
The current ruins at Dimapur, the same city that Suhungmung occupied, include a 2 mile long brick wall on three sides, with the Dhansiri river on the fourth; and tanks—indicating a large city. The existing gateway too was in brick and display the Islamic architectural style of Bengal. The ruins include curious carved 12 feet tall pillars of sandstone with hemispherical tops and foliated carvings with representations of animals and birds but no humans that display no Hindu influence. Despite the Sanskrit markings of the 1520 silver coin issued by Viravijay Narayan (Khorapha), the city lacked any sign of Brahminical influence, from the observations in 1536 as recorded in the Buranjis, as well as the colonial observations of 1874.
At Maibang
The fall of Dimapur in 1536 was followed by a 22-year period of interregnum, and there is no mention of a king in the records. In either 1558 or 1559 a son of Detsung, Madanakumara, assumed the throne with the name Nirbhaya Narayana, and established his capital at Maibang in the North Cachar hills. Not all the Kachari people accompanied the rulers from Dimapur to Maibong—and those who remained in the plains developed independently in language and customs. In the hills around Maibong, the Dimasa rulers encountered already established Naga and Kuki peoples, who accepted the Dimasa rule.
Khorapha, the earlier king, claimed in the coin issued earlier in 1520 from Dimapur that he had defeated the enemies of Hachengsa without specifying his relationship to him but Nirbhaya Narayana and his successors in Maibong for the next hundred years or so claimed in their coins that they belonged to the family of Hachensa; thereby signalling a change in the mode of legitimacy from deed to birth. On the other hand Dimasa kings from Maibang are recorded as Lord of Heremba from the 16th century by those outside the Dimasa kingdom who practiced sedentary agriculture and who had already experienced Brahminism.
Koch invasion
After subjugating the Ahoms in 1564, the Koch commander Chilarai advanced on Marangi, subjugated Dimarua and finally advanced on the Dimasa kingdom, then possibly under Durlabh Narayan or his predecessor Nirbhay Narayan and made it into a feudatory of the Koch kingdom. This campaign realigned the relationships and rearranged the territorial controls among the political formations of the time. Dimarua, which was a feudatory of the Dimasa kingdom, was set up by Chilarai was a buffer against the Jaintia kingdom. The hold of the Ahom kingdom, which was already subjugated, over the Dimasa kingdom weakened. Further, Chilarai defeated and killed the Twipra king, and occupied the Cachar region from him and established Koch administration there at Brahmapur (Khaspur) under his brother Kamal Narayan—this region was to form the core of the Dimasa rule in the 18th century. The size of the annual tribute— seventy thousand rupees, one thousand gold mohurs and sixty elephants— testifies to the resourcefulness of the Kachari state.
A conflict with the Jaintia Kingdom over the region of Dimarua led to a battle, in which the Jaintias suffered defeat. After the death of Jaintia king Dhan Manik, Satrudaman the Dimasa king, installed Jasa Manik on the throne of Jaintia Kingdom, who manipulated events to bring the Dimasa Kacharis into conflict with the Ahoms once again in 1618. Satrudaman, the most Dimasa powerful king, ruled over Dimarua in Nagaon district, North Cachar, Dhansiri valley, plains of Cachar and parts of eastern Sylhet. After his conquest of Sylhet, he struck coins in his name.
By the reign of Birdarpan Narayan (reign around 1644), the Dimasa rule had withdrawn completely from the Dhansiri valley and it reverted to a jungle forming a barrier between the kingdom and the Ahom kingdom.
When a successor king, Tamradhwaj, declared independence, the Ahom king Rudra Singha deputed 2 of his generals to invade Maibong with over 71,000 troops, and destroyed its forts in 1706. Tamardhwaj fled to Jaintia Kingdom where he got treacherously imprisoned by the King of Jaintia Kingdom, after his imprisonment he sent messengers to the Assam king for help, in response Rudra Singha deputed his generals with over 43,000 troops to invade Jaintia kingdom. The Jaintia king was captured and taken to the court of Rudra Singha where the Jaintia king submitted and the territories of the Dimasa Kingdom and Jaintia kingdom got annexed to the Ahom kingdom.
State structure
Kacharis had three ruling clans (semfongs): Bodosa (an old historical clan), Thaosengsa (the clan to which the kings belonged), and Hasyungsa (to which the kings relatives belonged).
The king at Maibang was assisted in his state duties by a council of ministers (Patra and Bhandari), led by a chief called Barbhandari. These and other state offices were manned by people of the Dimasa group, who were not necessarily Hinduized. There were about 40 clans called Sengphong of the Dimasa people, each of which sent a representative to the royal assembly called Mel, a powerful institution that could elect a king. The representatives sat in the Mel mandap (Council Hall) according to the status of the Sengphong and which provided a counterfoil to royal powers.
Over time, the Sengphongs developed a hierarchical structure with five royal Sengphongs though most of the kings belonged to the Hacengha (Hasnusa) clan. Some of the clans provided specialized services to the state ministers, ambassadors, storekeepers, court writers, and other bureaucrats and ultimately developed into professional groups, e.g. Songyasa (king's cooks), Nablaisa (fishermen).
By the 17th century, the Dimasa Kachari rule extended into the plains of Cachar. The plains people did not participate in the courts of the Dimasa Kachari king directly. They were organized according to khels, and the king provided justice and collected revenue via an official called the Uzir. Though the plains people did not participate in the Dimasa Kachari royal court, the Dharmadhi guru and other Brahmins in the court cast a considerable influence, especially with the beginning of the 18th century.
At Khaspur
In the medieval era, after the fall of Kamarupa kingdom the region of Khaspur was originally a part of the Tripura Kingdom, which was taken over by Koch king Chilarai in the 16th century. The region was ruled by a tributary ruler, Kamalnarayana, the brother of king Chilarai. Around 18th century Bhima Singha, the last Koch ruler of Khaspur, didn't have any male heir. His daughter, Kanchani, married Laxmichandra, the Dimasa prince of Maibang kingdom. And once the last Koch king Bhima Singha died the Dimasas migrated to Khaspur, thus merging the two kingdoms into one as Kachari kingdom under the king Gopichandranarayan, as the control of the Khaspur kingdom went to the ruler of the Maibong kingdom as inheritance from the royal marriage and established their capital in Khaspur, near present-day Silchar. The independent rule of the Khaspur's Koch rulers ended in 1745 when it merged with the Kachari kingdom. Khaspur is a corrupted form of the word Kochpur. Gopichandranarayan (r.1745-1757), Harichandra (r.1757-1772) and Laxmichandra (r.1772-1773) were brothers and ruled the kingdom in succession. In 1790, a formal act of conversion took place and Gopichandranarayan and his brother Laxmichandranarayan were proclaimed to be Hindus of the Kshatriya caste.
During the reign of Krishnachandra (1790 - 1813), a number of Moamarias rebels took shelter in the Cachar state. The Ahoms blamed the Dimasa for providing refuge to the rebels and this led to a number of small skirmishes between the Ahoms and the Dimasas from 1803 to 1805.
The King of Manipur sought the help of Krishna Chandra Dwaja Narayan Hasnu Kachari against the Burmese Army. The King Krishna Chandra defeated Burmese in the war and in lieu was offered the Manipuri Princess Induprabha. As he was already married to Rani Chandraprabha, he asked the princess to be married to his younger brother Govinda Chandra Hasnu.
Sanskritization
The fictitious but widely believed legend that was constructed by the Hindu Brahmins at Khaspur goes as follows: During their exile, the Pandavas came to the Kachari Kingdom where Bhima fell in love with Hidimbi (sister of Hidimba). Bhima married princess Hidimbi according to the Gandharva system and a son was born to princess Hidimbi, named Ghatotkacha. He ruled the Kachari Kingdom for many decades. Thereafter, kings of his lineage ruled over the vast land of the "Dilao" river ( which translates to "long river" in English), now known as Brahmaputra River for centuries until 4th century AD.
British occupation
The Dimasa Kachari kingdom came under Burmese occupation in the late early 19th-century along with the Ahom kingdom. The last king, Govinda Chandra Hasnu, was restored by the British after the Yandabo Treaty in 1826, but he was unable to subjugate Senapati Tularam who ruled the hilly regions. Senapati Tularam Thaosen domain was Mahur River and the Naga Hills in the south, the Doyang River on the west, the Dhansiri River on the east and Jamuna and Doyang in the north. In 1830, Govinda Chandra Hasnu died. In 1832, Senapoti Tularam Thaosen was pensioned off and his region was annexed by the British to ultimately become the North Cachar district; and in 1833, Govinda Chandra's domain was also annexed to become the Cachar district.
After Raja Govinda Chandra
In The British annexed the Dimasa Kachari Kingdom under the doctrine of lapse. At the time of British annexation, the kingdom consisted of parts of Nagaon and Karbi Anglong; North Cachar (Dima Hasao), Cachar and the Jiri frontier of Manipur.
Rulers and Kings
Notes
References
Kingdoms of Assam |
4273386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia%20Enloe | Cynthia Enloe | Cynthia Holden Enloe (born July 16, 1938) is an American political theorist, feminist writer, and professor. She is best known for her work on gender and militarism and for her contributions to the field of feminist international relations. She has also influenced the field of feminist political geography, with feminist geopolitics in particular.
Biography
Cynthia Enloe was born in New York City and grew up in Manhasset, Long Island, a New York suburb. Her father was from Missouri and went to medical school in Germany from 1933 to 1936. Her mother went to Mills College and married Cynthia's father upon graduation.
After completing her undergraduate education at Connecticut College in 1960, she went on to earn an M.A. in 1963 and a Ph.D. in 1967 in political science at the University of California, Berkeley. While at Berkeley, Enloe was the first woman ever to be a Head TA for Aaron Wildavsky, then an up-and-coming star in the field of American Politics. For much of her professional life she taught at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. At Clark, Enloe served as Chair of the Department of Political Science and as Director of Women's Studies. She also served on the university's Committee on Personnel and its Planning and Budget Review Committee. Enloe was awarded Clark University's Outstanding Teacher Award on three separate occasions.
At the beginning of her career, Enloe mainly focused on studying ethnic and racial politics. She completed her dissertation in Malaysia on a Fulbright Scholarship from 1965-1966. There, she researched the country's ethnic politics. Ten years after receiving her PhD, Enloe had written six books on the subject of ethnical tensions and its role in politics, however she had yet to look at any of these subjects from a feminist angle; something she admits she is “embarrassed of.” It wasn't until she first began teaching at Clark University, in the middle of the U.S.-Vietnam war, that Enloe really began to develop her feminist thought. Enloe spoke with a colleague at Clark, the only man on the faculty who was a veteran, about his experiences during the Vietnam war. He mentioned that Vietnamese women were hired by American soldiers to do their laundry. She began to wonder how history would be different if the entire war had been told through the eyes of these Vietnamese women.
Ever since, Enloe's work has primarily focused upon how feminist and gendered politics have shaped the national and international conversations. Enloe focuses on the unfair treatment of women in globalized factory and the many ways in which women are exploited for their labor. She also critiques global as well as U.S. militarization, specifically the roles women play in combat. Enloe isn't afraid to address security from a feminist perspective. She argues that the U.S. military model trains men to be the protectors of women and then produces an environment in which women are the victims of physical violence. One of Enloe's many contributions to feminist writings has been her coining of the term “feminist curiosity.” It came about in 2003 when Enloe was giving a talk at Ochanomizu University, a historic women's university in Tokyo. She has said that she wanted to come up with a phrase that she felt could be understood in both English and Japanese as her lecture was being translated for those who attended. Enloe created this idea of “feminist curiosity” as a way of saying that feminism is about the questions you ask, not just the answers you give.
Having retired from Clark, Enloe is a research professor in the Department of International Development, Community, and Environment and is still a frequent and energetic lecturer. In addition to serving on the editorial board for scholarly journals such as Signs and the International Feminist Journal of Politics, Cynthia Enloe has written fifteen books, mostly published by the University of California Press. Much of Enloe's research centers on women's place in national and international politics. Her books cover a wide range of issues encompassing gender-based discrimination as well as racial, ethnic, and national identities. She is also a member of the academic network of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.
Enloe states that she has been influenced by many other feminists who use an ethnographic approach, specifically, Seung-Kyung Kim's (1997) work on South Korean women factory workers during the pro-democracy campaign and Anne Allison's (1994) work on observing corporate businessmen's interactions with hostesses in a Tokyo drinking club. Enloe has also listed Diane Singerman, Purnima Mankekar, and Cathy Lutz as people who have inspired and influenced her work. When asked how Enloe defines feminism for herself, she stated that "Feminism is the pursuit of deep, deep justice for women in ways that change the behaviors of both women and men, and really change our notions of what justice looks like." She has been awarded Honorary Doctorates by prestigious universities such as Union College (2005), the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies (2009), Connecticut College (2010), the University of Lund, Sweden (2012) and Clark University (2014).
She currently lives in Boston with partner Joni Seager.
Publications
Bananas, Beaches and Bases
Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (first published in 1990, with a revised edition published in 2014) presents sexism as a prevalent issue and gives readers a look at the history of such commonplace components of the modern world as the tourism industry. Enloe displays the links between women of different cultures during the 1800s. Enloe discusses colonialism in light of the typically held perceptions of the masculine West and the feminine East. Discussing women from varied cultures, Enloe investigates how Muslim women, among others, felt compelled to validate their cultural practices in the face of Orientalism. This book argues that lack of understanding of foreign cultures and fascination with the differences in clothing and lifestyles of indigenous and colonial populations contributed to their continued subjugation.
Bananas Beaches and Bases conveys the issues that feminist movements face because of nationalism and socially instilled masculinity after years of Western colonialism. International politics have worked against feminist movements because of the long lasting influences of colonialism. The antiquated ideas of colonialism have complicated the goals of the feminist cause. Colonialism encouraged Western countries to believe they were superior to non Western countries, ultimately leading to Western men believing they were superior to women. During Western colonialism women were treated as sexual symbols of exploration, postcards specifically. Westerner exploration and tourism went hand in hand with the exploitation of women.
Women who were invested in the ideas of nationalism were not valued as valid participants. Additionally, women wearing veils became a question of nationalism. European colonizers saw the veil in Muslim countries as a symbol of female seclusion. Then arose the question of whether Muslim women should demonstrate their commitment to the nationalist cause by wearing the veil or throwing it away.
Bananas Beaches and Bases reinforces the fact that masculinity has been used to create a patriarchal system, leading to male dominance over women. Militarization during wartime has reinforced masculinized social order. The war in Vietnam which re-masculinized America serves as an example of how gender and warfare became intertwined through specific gender roles during war.
In her writing, Enloe uses Afghanistan as an example of how national militarization was harmful towards women trying to establish a presence in nationalist movements. Afghani women living in rural communities were caught in war and were in danger of bombings or exile. The militarization in Afghanistan emphasized the importance of unity and “national survival”, this emphasis silenced women in the nationalist movements. National militarization benefited men and oppressed women who were seeking to change the patriarchal structure in place. The enforcement of world order through militarization consequently reinforced the influences of masculinity, further challenging feminist efforts to equalize society.
Enloe continues to illustrate the struggle that feminist movements face in international politics through the domestic service industry. Enloe states that “domestic work is international business with political implications.” During the Industrial Revolution, female domestic workers were in high demand because middle class women believed they needed to protect their own femininity from manual labor. From the time of the Industrial Revolution to modern day, female domestic workers have faced the challenges of being treated as subordinate to the middle class. Female domestic workers continue to have the responsibility of providing for family abroad while facing increasingly strict immigration laws and restrictions from the International Monetary Fund.
Bananas Beaches and Bases illustrates how feminist movements have been at a disadvantage because of colonial influences and patriarchal driven societal structures. These colonial influences have cause women to be viewed as sexual objects, disregarded as part of nationalist movements and looked down upon in the domestic service industry. Enloe brings to light the idea that in order for feminist movements to succeed we must support organizations seeking rights for women along with ridding the world of the obsolete colonialist thought in which men run the world. Through Bananas, Beaches and Bases the public is able to better understand the dynamics of sexual politics.
"No commentator has done more than Cynthia Enloe to explore the numerous roles that ordinary women play in the international system and global political economy -- as industrial and domestic workers; activists; diplomats and soldiers; wives of diplomats and soldiers; sex workers; and much else besides," wrote Adam Jones in his review of Maneuvers in the journal Contemporary Politics.
In Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives Enloe elaborates upon the theme of militarization and how governments utilize women's labor in the process of preparing for and fighting wars.
The Curious Feminist
In The Curious Feminist: Searching for Women in the New Age of Empire (2004) Enloe pays particular attention to the effect of globalization on women's labor and wage ratios. This book not only addresses women's roles in economic markets, world conflicts, and power politics, but also shows Enloe's particular interest in linking these themes to women's everyday lives. She addresses themes similar to those in Bananas, Beaches and Bases, but in this book she also discusses how she became interested in becoming a feminist. She asserts that curiosity as a feminist means that no woman's life should be beyond the scope of her interest. She also focuses on the influence of American culture on women of other nations and scrutinizes the masculine aspects of such well-established organizations as the United Nations and the American military. Among other things, she explains that, though she views violence as fundamentally masculine, she does not view only men as perpetrators of violence.
"Gender Is Not Enough: The Need for Feminist Consciousness"
In "Gender Is Not Enough: The Need for Feminist Consciousness" (2004), Enloe reviews previous conversations with colleagues and fellow feminists, regarding masculinity and international relations. It is mentioned that women are generally disengaged in the UN's wartime peace process of "DDR": disarmament, demobilization and reintegration. Enloe comments on a recent meeting she attended pertaining to 'gender and small arms trade', and how attempts to focus the UN gathering on masculinity had been largely unsuccessful. The matter of international relations and masculinity is addressed, and with that, the concern of masculinity of peacemaking efforts in relation to security. Conversation about the politics of masculinity is quickly dismissed by delegates, suggesting the fear of having their masculinity – and therefore reputation in the world of international relations – examined. As important as it is to address the dynamics of masculinity in politics and specifically in international relations, it is also crucial not to neglect the women and girls. When masculinity is given proper thought, it seems the topic of feminism becomes non-existent. The invisibility of women in military measures and the political disregard for the needs and ideas of women and girls are highlighted and given proper context. Enloe discusses the question of serious feminist analysis in international relations. Two potential fears arise from this question; first, thought of one's own relationship to masculinity is necessary when deciding what is deemed a "serious" issue; and second, the potential to be seen as feminine based on one's judgment of said "serious" issue and therefore the possibility of being valued as less credible. Enloe warns the issues of letting masculinity and men override all aspects of international relations. She speaks of her own difficulties with writing candidly about women and the military and her fears of not being recognized as a legitimate political scientist because of her particular views. The stigma behind feminist thought in international relations needs to be reviewed and resolved. Enloe makes very clear that there is still an immense need for the study of masculinity in international relations and political economy. In order to better develop the international relations discipline, it is imperative that 'gender' be given a broader scope. In order to do so, there must be a feminist consciousness throughout the international relations community, as well as at the local level. A feminist consciousness will instill the education and interest in women and girls through their experiences, actions and ideas. Enloe finishes by reminding that without a proper feminist consciousness; we cannot fully comprehend or accurately analyze masculinity.
Nimo's War, Emma's War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War
Unlike Enloe's previous books, Nimo's War, Emma's War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War (2010) looks at how war itself is a cataclysm that disrupts countless lives. In this particular book, Cynthia Enloe solely focuses on capturing the impact of war and revolution on women during the Iraq War. The book looks at eight ordinary women, half Iraqis and half American, and all these women reflect different ideas about feminism through looking into their lives in detail. Importantly, Enloe does not only focus on the female half of this gender-driven phenomenon, but she also looks at their male counterpart in order to further investigate and provide an insight between the consequences of war and the effects on gender roles.
"Maha's Story" talks about an Iraqi woman who, as well as many others, found themselves in a situation where their husband is either dead, divorced, detained, or missing, with children to care for, no social safety nets, meager finances, and no working papers. Maha finds herself caught in between an ethnic cleansing which Enloe terms, "the wielding of violence and intimidation for the sake of driving people of one ethnic or sectarian community out of a region...for the sake of securing that space for members of another ethnic or sectarian community."
"Kim's Story" reveals how gender and war affect each other on the other side of the world in the United States, whether or not one is actual place of war or away from it. Kim is a young American woman married to a National Guard soldier who lives in the San Francisco Bay Area. Her story shows that their nation's state of war is dependent on wives playing certain roles. In the United States, "women who married active-duty, full-time American soldiers had been socialized to perform the demanding role of 'the military wife' ... each woman needed to be persuaded that she was most helpful and loyal to her own husband if she organized her labor and emotions in a way that enhanced the military as a whole." Yet when the men comes home, there are stories that are untold. The American media are reluctant to pursue stories of domestic violence against women whose husbands are involved with the military largely because it is too great of a business risk during wartime. The blame for this neglect and decision to treat male domestic violence as a nonissue is on the entire military's masculinized culture.
Selected other writings
The Big Push: Exposing and Challenging the Persistence of Patriarchy, Oakland, University of California Press, 2018.
Contributor, International Relations Theory for the Twenty-First Century, Martin Griffiths, ed., USA: Routledge, 2007
"Conversation with Cynthia Enloe," in Signs. Summer, 2003.
"The Surprised Feminist," in Signs. Vol. 25, No. 4 (Summer 2000) 1023-1026.
The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1993 (published in Japanese, 1999); new ed. Berkeley & London, University of California Press, 2000 (published in Turkish, 2003).
Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives, London, Pandora Press; San Francisco, Harper\Collins, 1988 (editions have been published in Finnish and Swedish).
Ethnic Conflict and Political Development, Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1973 (repr. University Press of America, 1986).
Coeditor (with Wendy Chapkis) Of Common Cloth: Women in the Global Textile Industry, Amsterdam: Transnational Institute; Washington: Institute for Policy Studies, 1983.
Contributor, Loaded Questions: Women in Militaries, Wendy Chapkis, ed., Amsterdam: Transnational Institute; Washington: Institute for Policy Studies, 1981.
Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies, London: Penguin Books, 1980; Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980.
Police, Military, Ethnicity: Foundations of State Power, New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1980.
Coeditor (with Dewitt Ellinwood), Ethnicity and the Military in Asia, New Brunswick: Transition Books, 1980.
Coauthor (with Guy Pauker and Frank Golay), Diversity and Development in Southeast Asia: The Coming Decade, New York: McGraw-Hill and Council of Foreign Relations, 1977.
Coeditor (with Ursula Semin-Panzer), The Military, The Police and Domestic Order: British and Third World Experiences, London: Richardson Institute for Conflict and Peace Research, 1976.
The Comparative Politics of Pollution, New York: Longman's, 1975.
Multi-Ethnic Politics: The Case of Malaysia, Berkeley Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1970.
Editorial board of the Journal of Women, Politics & Policy.
Critiques of writings
Bananas, Beaches and Bases would be considered Enloe's best-known work. It links various feminist issues regarding international relations throughout prior periods in time and throughout different cultures and places them at the forefront of discussion. In The Journal of Politics Karen Beckwith writes: "Enloe poses an initially simple question which leads to complex if necessarily partial conclusions: What happens to our international understanding of politics if we make the experience of women's lives central to our analysis?" Beckwith later states, "Her analysis is clear, complex, amusing demystifying, accessible, and insightful." In The American Political Science Review Anne Sisson Runyan writes: “Bananas, Beaches, and Bases offers a refreshing, insightful, and critical departure from conventional, top-down treatments of international politics.” Runyan later states, “At a time when there is a need to explore the complex interplay of cultural, social, economic, and political forces in the face of the bankruptcy of modernist and masculinist ideologies, orders, and institutions as well as the enormity of global problems, this contemporary feminist reading of world politics makes eminent sense.” In The Journal of the History of Sexuality Manju Parikh writes, “Enloe's analysis is not only a timely contribution but also entertaining reading, which is a welcome addition to supplement the usual dry textbooks in the field.” Enloe also incorporates class and ethnicity into the shaping of women's behavior and our understanding of international relations as well. In Contemporary Sociology Kathryn Ward writes, "When seen from the everyday perspective of poor women of color, who are at the heart of our analyses, women's central roles in the world economic and political system become very clear, in contrast with past theories of the world economic and political system that have focused on the activities of white, elite men.” Ward later states, “Such analyses may disturb some who are invested in past theories or who are uncomfortable with activism. However, I would argue, as does Enloe, that some of our most insightful and compelling analyses and theories will come from decentering past theories and looking at experiences, ideas, and emerging theories by activist women of color from around the world."
In Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives, Enloe addresses the impact of militarization on gender relations and the social status of women. In The Journal of Peace Research Veena Gill writes, "In the context of militarism, [Enloe] analyzes the different roles of women from a social and economic perspective as army wives, nurses, prostitutes, soldiers, workers in defense and allied industries, and from the point of view of feminism. The military institution is exposed as a powerful patriarchal institution which women are urged to resist in their overall efforts towards social justice and equal status."
In Maneuvers; the International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives, Enloe expands on her themes from Does Khaki Become You. She emphasizes the different experiences of women located in varied ethnic, national, class, and occupational contexts and how they are tailored to the needs of militarism, therefore embedding themselves in policy. In The American Political Science Review Mary Fainsod Katzenstein writes, "Those already among Enloe's wide readership will know some of this text's central arguments, but Maneuvers offers a trove of new insights. A thesis even more powerfully developed here than in Enloe's earlier writings is the title of the book—how policymakers maneuver to make strategic choices." Katzenstein later states, "Maneuvers has more than a functionalist lesson; by emphasizing policy choices and variability across time and national context, Enloe shows that militaries are not governed by primeval identities."
Honors and recognition
Fulbright awards to Malaysia and Guyana
Guest professorships in Japan, Britain and Canada
“Outstanding Teacher”, Clark University (3 times)
Fellow of the Harvard Radcliffe Institute (2000–2001)
Honorary Doctorate, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London (2009).
The Susan B. Northcutt Award, Women's Caucus for International Studies, International Studies Association, to recognize "a person who actively works toward recruiting and advancing women and other minorities in the profession, and whose spirit is inclusive, generous and conscientious." (2008)
The Susan Strange Award, International Studies Association, for "a person whose singular intellect, assertiveness, and insight most challenge conventional wisdom and organizational complacency in the international studies community during the previous year." (2007)
See also
Feminism in international relations
Betty Reardon
Elise M. Boulding
References
Further reading
Enloe, Cynthia. "When Berkeley was 'Berkeley': Learning That One’s Grad Studies Are Never Outside of History" H-DIPLO (11 March 2020) online
"Interview – Cynthia Enloe," E-INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, MAR 13 2013
"Theory Talk #48: Cynthia Enloe" Tuesday, May 22, 2012
"An Interview with Cynthia Enloe: The Gendered Dynamics of Foreign Policy", Praxis: The Fletcher Journal of Human Security, VOLUME XXIV – 2009,
Stephanie Van Hook, "Taking women's lives seriously — an interview with Cynthia Enloe" September 13, 2012. Wagingnonviolence.com,
Video: Interview with Cynthia Enloe at the Graduate Institute in Geneva in 2012
Kathy E. Ferguson, "Reading Militarism and Gender with Cynthia Enloe," Theory & Event, Volume 5, Issue 4, 2001,
Carol Cohn and Cynthia Enloe, "A Conversation with Cynthia Enloe: Feminists Look at Masculinity and the Men Who Wage War," Signs, Vol. 28, No. 4 (Summer 2003): 1187–1107
Cynthia Enloe's Report from The Syrian Peace Talks, Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, January 30, 2014
Robin L. Riley, The Women's War (Review of Nimo's War, Emma's War: Making Feminist Sense of the Iraq War By Cynthia Enloe)
University of California Press, 2010 in Ms. Magazine, Spring 2010
Research Profile for Cynthia Enloe Clark University website (accessed March 27, 2007).
External links
Papers, 1977-1984. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
Interview at British International Studies Association
1938 births
Living people
American feminist writers
American political philosophers
Clark University faculty
Connecticut College alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Women political scientists
American women academics |
4273648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWHB | KWHB | KWHB (channel 47) is a religious television station in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States, owned and operated by the Christian Television Network (CTN). The station's studios are located on Yellowood Avenue in Broken Arrow, and it transmits from atop the CityPlex Towers (located south of the Oral Roberts University campus).
History
Early history
The non-commercial UHF channel 47 allocation was contested between two groups that vied to hold the construction permit to build a new station on the frequency. The first prospective permittee was the David Livingstone Missionary Foundation, a nonprofit religious corporation headed by Billy James Hargis, a Tulsa-born evangelist, who founded American Christian College; the foundation filed an application with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on April 17, 1978. The second applicant, Alden Communications Corporation, filed its own application on September 5. The FCC granted the license to the Livingstone Missionary Foundation on December 12, 1979. After vying for the construction permit for a year-and-a-half, Alden and the Livingstone Foundation proposed consolidating their respective permit applications; soon, Livingstone Church of Christian Crusade, Inc. Following a March 1980 hearing in which the FCC determined issues regarding the respective licensing proposals, the Hargis group (which by that time, had transferred the permit application to another of his organizations, Church of Christian Crusade, Inc. [CCC]) was granted the permit that winter, despite issues that Alden had raised against CCC in part over possible rule violations in its attempts to discourage public file inspections. Hargis planned to sign on the station by Christmas of 1981. CCC applied for its station to use KBJH-TV as its callsign, applying the calls that the Livingstone Foundation used on its Christian radio station on 98.5 FM, KBJH (now KVOO-FM). That request was protested by the Scripps-Howard Broadcasting, which contested that the assignment would create confusion with Scripps-owned NBC affiliate KJRH-TV (channel 2); however, the FCC Broadcast Bureau stated that calls were sufficiently different to prevent confusion in part because KJRH was a VHF station, and granted CCC use of the callsign in January 1982.
In October 1983, Church of the Christian Crusade sold an 85% interest in the permit to Oral Roberts University (ORU) for 85% of FCC-approved expenditures totaling $255,000; the FCC granted approval of the transaction on January 12, 1984. However, ORU would later back out of the transaction that spring, at which time CCC was granted its next set of calls for the channel 47 permit, KDLF-TV (after the organization's radio station in Port Neches, Texas, now KBPO). The permit changed hands once again in July 1984, when CCC sold the permit to Television Communications Inc. (owned by local minister Jack Rehburg) for $410,000; Rehburg subsequently planned to call its proposed station KTCT (for "Tulsa Christian Television", which had served as the branding for KGCT-TV [channel 41, later KTFO and now MyNetworkTV affiliate KMYT-TV] when Rehburg maintained a time-leasing agreement with that station from 1984 to 1985).
After the Rehburg group backed out of the sale, the permit would finally find a buyer who would sign on the station in the fall of 1984, when the permit was sold to San Francisco–based Coit Drapery and Cleaners, Inc. Channel 47, as KTCT, first signed on the air on June 3, 1985. Operating as a religious independent station, it originally maintained studio facilities located at East 58th Street and South Garnett Road in southeastern Tulsa ( east of the then-studio facility of KGCT). Its initial schedule consisted of Christian programming from the PTL Satellite Network, including shows such as The PTL Club, Heritage Village USA and 100 Huntley Street, as well as programs from televangelists such as Kenneth Copeland, Jerry Falwell, Jimmy Swaggart and Richard Roberts. KTCT suffered from financial problems early on, and reduced its programming schedule to approximately six hours a day by that winter. Coit Drapery and Cleaners opted to put KTCT up for sale there, and wanted to sell the station to a Christian religious broadcast ministry.
LeSEA ownership
In April 1986, South Bend, Indiana–based LeSEA Evangelistic Ministries (eventually renamed Family Broadcasting Corporation in June 2018) – an organization headed by Lester Sumrall and sons Frank, Phillip and Peter Sumrall – purchased the station from Coit for $3.4 million. After the acquisition was finalized in the fall of 1986, LeSEA changed the station's call letters to KWHB (standing for "World Harvest Broadcasting"). The station initially retained some PTL programming and added other religious programs in the ministry's inventory and original programs (such as The 700 Club, LeSEA Alive, Lester Sumrall Teaches and televangelism programs from pastors such as Dwight Thompson, Ernest Angley and Jack Van Impe). By 1987, KWHB also added secular family-oriented entertainment programming on weekday afternoons between 2:00 and 7:00 p.m. and from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. on Saturdays; at the time, it began selling airtime during its secular programming to local and national advertisers to run commercials during program breaks.
After KGCT began a two-year operational cessation in February 1989, in order to allow original owner Green Country Associates to weigh sale offers for the station, KWHB acquired a selection of cartoon shorts and animated series that channel 41 previously carried on its schedule. As time went on, KWHB carried a broad mix of various syndicated programs including classic and some recent sitcoms (such as The Adventures of Ozzie & Harriet, Mister Ed, The Little Rascals, Dennis The Menace (both the live-action sitcom and the animated series), The Brady Bunch, I Love Lucy, The Andy Griffith Show and The Cosby Show), westerns (such as Bonanza), and animated series (such as The Jetsons, Yogi's Gang and DuckTales); it also carried a mixture of movies and sporting events on weekends. Televangelist and church service programming by this time typically aired during the prime time and overnight hours and throughout most of its Sunday lineup. Although the station ran a decent amount of general entertainment programming, the Tulsa edition of TV Guide never included KWHB in its listings for undisclosed reasons, an unusual situation given that the magazine had provided listings for full-time Christian television stations in its other regional editions.
During the 1990s, KWHB also began producing several local programs such as the public affairs program 47 Family Magazine, and ministerial programs like Life on the Vine, Full Gospel House of Prayer and Through the Bible with Les Feldick (the latter of which was syndicated to other television stations throughout Oklahoma and surrounding states); one such show, the Contemporary Christian music video program EQ Video, was syndicated to all eleven television stations that LeSEA owned at that time. On July 11, 1993, Tele-Communications, Inc. (TCI) – which, as a byproduct of a corporate breakup tied to AT&T's 1999 purchase of TCI, would sell its Tulsa cable franchise to Cox Communications in February 2000 – began offering KWHB on channel 7, which expanded the station's distribution to cable television subscribers in the Tulsa area; KWHB was one of three Tulsa-area stations (along with KTFO and Claremore-based educational independent KRSC-TV [channel 35, now KRSU-TV]) to be given clearance on TCI as a result of rules included in the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act that allowed full-power television stations to elect for mandatory carriage on cable providers.
KWHB became a part-time network affiliate on January 11, 1995, when it initiated a rather informal charter affiliation with The WB at that network's launch. Channel 47 initially carried the network's family-oriented prime time shows (such as 7th Heaven, The Parent 'Hood, Smart Guy and Sister, Sister) and, beginning with its debut that September, animated series from the network's children's program block, Kids' WB, on weekday afternoons and Saturday mornings. However, because of LeSEA Broadcasting's ministerial structure, the strict content guidelines that the group maintained for secular programs carried on its stations resulted in KWHB refusing to clear prime time network shows that contained strong profanity, violent or sexual content (such as Unhappily Ever After, Savannah, Charmed and Buffy the Vampire Slayer) on the belief that they would offend the sensibilities of channel 47's mostly Christian and Evangelical viewership; these programs were substituted with either ministry and televangelist programs or secular syndicated programs already in LeSEA's inventory or sports. Originally, this was not a significant issue as the preempted programs could be seen in the market via the superstation feed of Chicago WB affiliate WGN-TV (now standalone cable channel NewsNation) on most of the area's cable and satellite providers.
Local cable provider TCI dropped WGN from its lineup on December 31, 1996, when WGN, The Nashville Network and BET were removed to make room for five channels not previously carried on TCI's Tulsa system (Cartoon Network, TLC, Animal Planet, ESPN2 and HGTV). While this cut off access to the KWHB-preempted WB programs carried on the superstation feed to TCI's approximately 170,000 subscribers in the Tulsa area, it remained available locally on Heartland Cable Television, DirecTV, Dish Network and PrimeStar. WGN was particularly vulnerable to removal as it had lost access to much of the Chicago Bulls' 1996–97 game schedule due to a dispute between its Tulsa-based distributor, United Video Satellite Group (co-founded by Ed Taylor and Roy Bliss, founders of local TCI predecessor Tulsa Cable Television), and the National Basketball Association (NBA) over WGN's carriage of the team's telecasts outside of the Chicago market (TCI did not include its Oklahoma systems among those that retained the WGN national feed per an agreement reached with United Video that December, which kept the channel available on TCI in five Midwestern states). The WB began to regret affiliating with a conservative religious station because of LeSEA's pre-emption policies, and began making plans to move its programming elsewhere. Muskogee-based KWBT (channel 19, now CW affiliate KQCW-DT) took over as the market's WB affiliate when it bowed on September 12, 1999, carrying The WB's entire prime time schedule (including the few shows that KWHB carried beforehand) as well as the Kids' WB lineup. (For the reasons concerning The WB's prior partnership with KWHB, in preparation for the network's fall 1999 premiere week, KWBT included some returning WB prime time shows that station had declined to carry, as part of an evening catch-up block that aired during the week of September 12.)
In August 1998, LeSEA Broadcasting and KWHB were fined up to $12,000 by the Federal Communications Commission for exceeded Children's Television Act advertising limits (which restrict programming time allocated to commercials to 12 minutes per hour on weekdays and 10½ minutes per hour on weekends) during children's programs that aired on the station a total of 47 times between July 13, 1996 and December 1, 1997. In a notice of apparent liability for forfeiture, the FCC noted that the station noted on its last renewal application that it had exceeded the guidelines by anywhere between 15 and 95 seconds during the cited incidents. The station cited in an application for its prior license renewal that the violations resulted from "inadvertence and/or human error stemming from the failure of KWHB's personnel to detect, over the course of more than a year, a computer error responsible for the commercial overages," and issue that the Commission has "repeatedly rejected" as a reasoning for advertising time violations in the past. In 2001, KWHB moved to new studio facilities located on South Memorial Drive (north of East 91st Street) in southeastern Tulsa.
On May 4, 1999, transmission lines at KWHB's Coweta transmitter facility were knocked out due to intense lightning related to severe thunderstorms associated with a storm system that produced 66 tornadoes across the central third of Oklahoma on May 3. KWHB's signal was taken offline on May 8, due to a steady decrease in power to the transmission lines, as station engineers were preparing to remove and replace the lines and their internal electrical conductors. On that date, TCI regained access to the station at its northeastern Oklahoma headends after repairs to the direct fiber optic studio feed were completed. KWHB's over-the-air signal returned to the air on May 19.
By 2012, KWHB had reduced its secular programming slightly (consisting of sitcoms, drama series and lifestyle programs) to 3:00 to 7:00 p.m. each weekday, with a scattering of secular shows airing for a few hours each Saturday and for up to an hour on Sundays, along with a three-hour-long block of children's programs compliant with FCC educational programming guidelines on Saturday mornings. In September 2017, following similar scheduling changes at LeSEA's other stations, KWHB was repositioned as a family-oriented entertainment station. Secular shows were now more than half the schedule. Its schedule was revamped to consist mostly of off-network reruns of sitcoms and drama series made from the 1950s to present during the afternoon and evening hours, a late-night block of westerns, and first-run syndicated court and lifestyle shows on weekday early afternoons and weekend afternoons; religious programming was relegated to weekday mornings between 7:30 a.m. and noon, but continue to make up the majority of its Sunday lineup.
Christian Television Network ownership
On October 22, 2019, Family Broadcasting Corporation announced it would sell KWHB to Clearwater, Florida-based Christian Television Corp. (owned and headed by Robert D'Andrea) for $2.1 million. The sale included only the license, transmitter, other equipment, and real estate. It excluded sales and programming contracts as well as employment contracts. This would mean all programming from KWHB would be dropped and the station would convert to CTN shows full time (some of which also aired previously on KWHB under different contracts). The sale received FCC approval on January 13, 2020, and was finalized one month later on February 20. On March 1, 1½ weeks after the purchase's closure, channel 47 converted into an owned-and-operated station of the Christian Television Network; this resulted in KWHB becoming the third full-time, full-power religious station in the Tulsa market, alongside Bartlesville-licensed TBN owned-and-operated station KDOR-TV (channel 17) and Oral Roberts University-owned religious independent KGEB (channel 53). (CTN had gained O&Os in Las Vegas, Colorado Springs and New Orleans through a previous sale involving LeSEA in April 2018.)
Subchannel history
KWHB-DT2
KWHB-DT2 is the second digital subchannel of KWHB-TV, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 47.2. KWHB launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 47.2 in 2009, which initially served as a standard definition simulcast feed of the station's main channel. On June 17, 2014, KWHB-DT2 became an affiliate of classic television network Cozi TV, through an affiliation agreement announced on that date involving six of its seven television stations (with the exception of Indianapolis sister station WHMB-TV, which was exempted from the agreement due to an existing affiliation contract with Dispatch Broadcast Group-owned NBC affiliate WTHR and sister station WALV-CD). On July 1, 2017, the subchannel became an affiliate of the family-oriented entertainment network Light TV. On September 9, 2019, KWHB-DT2 became an affiliate of Dabl. In late 2022, CTNi was moved from DT4 from DT3.
KWHB-DT3
KWHB-DT3 is the third digital subchannel of KWHB-TV, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 47.3. KWHB launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 47.3 on June 17, 2014, which initially served as a standard definition simulcast feed of the station's main channel. On July 1, 2017, the subchannel became an affiliate of LeSEA's religious-secular network World Harvest Television (WHT). On September 9, 2019, KWHB-DT3 became a charter affiliate of the lifestyle-oriented network Christian Television Network Lifestyle.
KWHB-DT4 (dufunct)
KWHB-DT4 is the fourth digital subchannel of KWHB-TV, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 47.4. KWHB launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 47.4 on June 17, 2014, which initially served as a standard definition simulcast feed of the station's main channel. On July 1, 2017, the subchannel became an affiliate of LeSEA's secondary religious-secular network Family Entertainment Television. On September 1, 2019, KWHB-DT4 became an affiliate of CTNi. In late 2022, the network was moved to DT3 and removed the subchannel.
Past programming
News programming
In November 1995, KWHB entered into a news share agreement with KJRH-TV to produce twice-daily news and weather updates each weekday at 5:55 and 6:29 p.m. The five-minute-long updates utilized the same anchors as those seen on KJRH's 5:00 and 6:00 p.m. newscasts. These news updates continued to air until the agreement concluded in 1998.
Sports programming
Since coming under LeSEA ownership in the late 1980s, channel 47 has carried various local and syndicated sporting events. The station carried weekly high school football games involving teams from northeastern Oklahoma high schools on Friday nights in the fall of 1989; it expanded high school sports coverage expanded in January 1990, when KWHB began carrying a high school basketball "game-of-the-week" each Friday evening. Most of the games were broadcast on tape delay in late night on the night the game was held, though most games began to be televised live in 2005. In addition, starting in 2000, the station maintained a contract with Jenks High School to telecast games involving the Jenks Trojans football and basketball teams. From 1992 to 1999, KWHB held the local broadcast rights to televise NFL preseason games involving the Dallas Cowboys. From 1992 to 1995, the station also carried tape-delayed broadcasts of Central Hockey League games featuring the Tulsa Oilers.
From 1988 to 1998, channel 47 carried regular season and postseason college basketball and football games involving various local and regional teams including the Tulsa Golden Hurricane (through Creative Sports/ESPN Plus's contract with the Missouri Valley Conference and, then with Tulsa's member conference after 1996, the Western Athletic Conference, along with several 2005 regular season games that KWHB produced in conjunction with College Sports Television), the Oral Roberts Golden Eagles and the Oklahoma Sooners, as well as select NCAA tournament appearances involving at least some of those teams distributed via syndication partners of those teams or through CBS (for network-televised games conflicting with those carried on KOTV [channel 6]). Prior to being added by the provider, KWHB also fed select telecasts of NCAA men's basketball tournament games to Tulsa Cable Television and its successors United Artists Cable and TCI (such as the first-round men's basketball tournament game between the Sooners and the East Tennessee State Buccaneers in March 1989, and the March 1991 Missouri Valley Conference tournament game between Tulsa and the Wichita State Shockers). From 1993 to 2014, channel 47 held the partial local rights to the Southeastern Conference syndication package by Jefferson-Pilot Communications and Raycom Sports, carrying regular season college football and basketball games as well as the SEC men's basketball tournament.
From 1997 to 1999, KWHB carried outlaw and championship sprint car races held at Tulsa Speedway (which closed in 2005) each weekend during the track's auto racing season. From 1999 to 2004, the station carried regular season and occasional playoff minor league baseball games involving the Tulsa Drillers. The agreement marked the first time that the Drillers had their games aired on local television since 1994 (when TCI discontinued an exclusive contract with the team to carry its games on the provider's two community access channels, with select games airing regionally on Home Sports Entertainment [HSE]), and the first time since 1982 that the team's games were carried over-the-air locally (when ABC affiliate KTUL (channel 8) and then-independent station KOKI-TV (channel 23, now a Fox affiliate) carried an approximately 20-game regular season package that year). For the final year of the contract, KWHB carried most of the team's 2004 regular season games, though declining ratings resulted in the station cancelling plans to air the last two scheduled Drillers broadcasts at the end of the season.
In April 2001, KWHB obtained the broadcast rights to carry AF2 games involving the Tulsa Talons, beginning with the arena football league's 2001 season. The station initially aired the Talons' regular season games on a tape-delayed basis; KWHB began to televise several of the team's games live in 2003. Talons co-owner Henry Primeaux cited KWHB's telecasts of the entire 16-game regular season in 2005 in part for helping increasing ticket sales by 14% and raising attendance by 8.3% (an average of 44,722, up from 41,292 in 2004) over the previous year. The Talons transferred their local broadcasts exclusively to KWBT for the 2005 season. The Talons returned to channel 47 on a one-time-only basis in August 2007, when it telecast their appearance in that year's ArenaCup championship game against the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Pioneers. (The team's vice president and general manager at that time, Bill Paddock, incidentally served as general manager for KWHB from 1999 to 2005.) From 2005 to 2007, the station also carried select regular season and exhibition National Basketball Development League games involving the Tulsa 66ers (which became the Oklahoma City Blue upon its relocation downstate to Oklahoma City in 2014).
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital conversion
KWHB began transmitting a digital television signal on UHF channel 48 on February 21, 2003. The station shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 47, on February 17, 2009 (the original target date for full-power television stations in the United States to transition from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate (which Congress had moved the previous month to June 12 to allow additional time for consumers unprepared for the changeover to make necessary precautions to continue receiving broadcast stations). The station's digital channel assignment was relocated from its pre-transition allocation on UHF channel 48 to its former analog-era allocation, UHF channel 47.
References
External links
Christian Television Network affiliates
Television channels and stations established in 1985
1985 establishments in Oklahoma
WHB
Missouri Valley Conference broadcasters |
4273963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20schools%20in%20Sabah | List of schools in Sabah | This is a list of schools in Sabah, Malaysia. Schools are categorised according to their types and education districts (for schools which do not fall under the direct rule of Ministry of Education) and is arranged alphabetically in Malay language. Note that only some notable schools are abbreviated.
For the purpose of this list:
KV stands for Kolej Vokasional (vocational college);
SJK (C) stands for Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan Cina (Chinese type primary school);
SK stands for Sekolah Kebangsaan (primary school);
SM(K) stands for Sekolah Menengah (Kebangsaan) (secondary school); and
SMKA stands for Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (Islamic secondary school).
SRS stands for Sekolah Rendah Swasta (private primary school)
Specific schools
Chinese independent schools
Kian Kok Middle School, Kota Kinabalu
Sabah Tshung Tsing Secondary School, Kota Kinabalu
Sabah Chinese High School, Tawau
Yu Yuan Secondary School, Sandakan
Fully residential schools
SM Sains Lahad Datu (SEMSALD)
SM Sains Sabah, Tuaran (SMESH)
Islamic secondary schools
SM Agama al-Irsyadiah Marakau, Ranau (SMAIM)
SMKA Keningau (SEMAKEN)
SMKA Kota Kinabalu (SMKAKK)
SMKA Limauan, Papar (SMALNIS)
SMKA Mohamad Ali, Ranau (SEMEKAR)
SMKA Tun Ahmadshah, Kota Kinabalu (SMKA TUNAS)
SMKA Tun Datu Mustapha, Papar (SMKA TDM)
SMKA Tun Juhar, Sandakan (SMATJU)
SMKA Tun Said, Kota Belud (SMATS KB)
SMKA Tun Sakaran, Semporna (SMATS Semporna)
SMU Islamiah, Tawau (SMIT)
SDA Mission schools
SMA Tamparuli (SASS)
SMA Goshen, Kota Marudu (GASS)
SRA Tamparuli
SRA Goshen, Kota Marudu
SRA Tenghilan
SRA Gaur, Kota Belud
SRA Rangalau, Kota Belud
SRA Kelawat, Kota Belud
SRA Sungoi
SRA Tagaroh, Kota Marudu
SRA Damai, Kota Marudu
SRA Tambuluran, Kota Marudu
SRA Marabau
SRA Bambangan
Private schools
Maktab Nasional, Likas (MN)
SRS Datuk Simon Fung, Likas (SRSDSF)
Seri Insan Borneo School, Kota Kinabalu
Yuet Ching Private School, Kota Kinabalu
International Schools
Charis International School, Tawau
Kinabalu International School, Kota Kinabalu,
Vision International School, Tawau
Technical and vocational colleges
KV Beaufort
KV Lahad Datu
KV Likas, Kota Kinabalu
KV Keningau
KV Keningau 2
KV Kudat
KV Sandakan
KV Tawau
Special education schools
SK Pendidikan Khas Kota Kinabalu, Tuaran
SK Pendidikan Khas Tuaran, Putatan
Sport schools
Sekolah Sukan Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu
Public schools
Secondary education: Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan (SMK)
Beaufort
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Kung Ming (1)
SJK (C) Lian Hwa
SJK (C) Pei Yin
SK Bandau
SK Bangkalalak
SK Batandok
SK Bentuka
SK Biah Batu 65
SK Binsulok
SK Bukau
SK Gadong
SK Garama
SK Jabang
SK Kabajang
SK Karangan
SK Kampung Bambangan
SK Kampung Brunei
SK Kebatu
SK Kebulu
SK Kepawa
SK Kota Klias
SK Klias Baru
SK Klias Kecil
SK Kukuro
SK Lago
SK Ladang Lumadan
SK Lajau
SK Lembah Poring
SK Lingkungan
SK Luagan
SK Lubok
SK Lumat
SK Lupak
SK Maraba
SK Mempagar
SK Batu 60
SK Nukahan
SK Padas Damit
SK Pekan Membakut
SK Pekan Beaufort
SK Pengiran Jaya Pimping
SK Pintas
SK Rancangan Klias
SK Saga-Saga
SK Sinoko
SK St. John
SK St. Paul
SK St. Patrick
SK Suasa
SK Tahak
SK Takuli
SK Tamalang
SK Tiong Baru
SK Weston
Secondary schools:
SMK Beaufort
SMK Beaufort II
SMK Beaufort III
SMK Gadong
SMK Kota Klias
SMK Membakut
SMK Membakut II
SMK St. Patrick, Membakut
SMK St. Paul, Beaufort
SMK St. John, Beaufort
SMK Weston
Keningau
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Cheng Ming
SJK (C) Yuk Kong
SJK (C) Yuk Yin
SK Ambual
SK Ansip
SK Apin-Apin
SK Banjar
SK Batu Lunguyan
SK Binuwou Tengah
SK Binakaan
SK Binanon
SK Binaong
SK Bingkor
SK Bonor
SK Bulu Silou
SK Bunang Sook
SK Bundu Apin-Apin
SK Bunga Raya
SK Bunsit
SK Dalit
SK Delayan Tulid
SK Gaulan
SK Inandung
SK Kabatang Baru
SK Kalampun
SK Kampung Baru
SK Kampung Biah
SK Kampung Keningau
SK Karamatoi
SK Kawakaan
SK Jaya Baru
SK Kampung Beriawa Ulu
SK Kapayan Baru
SK Kebulu
SK Kuala Kahaba
SK Liau Apin-Apin
SK Lintuhun Baru
SK Luagan
SK Magatang
SK Malaing
SK Malima
SK Mamagun
SK Mansiat
SK Membulu
SK Menawo
SK Merampong
SK Meninipir
SK Nandagan
SK Nangkawangan
SK Pangas
SK Pasir Puteh
SK Patikang Laut
SK Pekan Keningau
SK Pekan Keningau II
SK Penagatan
SK Pohon Batu
SK Rancangan Belia Tiulon
SK Rancangan Biah
SK Senagang
SK Simbuan Tulid
SK Sinaron Tengah
SK Sinua
SK Sinulihan Baru
SK Sodomon
SK Sook
SK St. Francis Xavier
SK St. James Apin-Apin
SK Tuarid Taud
SK Tulid
SK Ulu Liawan
SK Ulu Senagang
Secondary schools:
SM St. Francis Xavier
SMK Apin-Apin
SMK Bingkor
SMK Gunsanad
SMK Gunsanad II
SMK Keningau
SMK Keningau II
SMK Ken Hwa
SMK Sook
SMK Tulid
Kinabatangan
Primary schools:
SK Abai
SK Balat
SK Batu Puteh
SK Bilit
SK Buang Sayang
SK Bukit Garam
SK Bukit Garam II
SK Desa Permai
SK Jaya Baru
SK Kampung Suan Lamba
SK Kota Kinabatangan
SK Kuala Suan Lamba
SK Kuamut
SK Ladang Bode Kretam
SK Ladang Sungai Bendera
SK Ladang Tomanggong
SK Litang
SK Paris
SK Paris 3
SK Rancangan Suan Lamba
SK Sandau
SK Sangau
SK Sapagaya
SK Sentosa Jaya
SK Sinar Jaya
SK Singgah Manis
SK Sri Ganda
SK Sukau
SK Sungai Lokan
SK Tidung Tabin
SK Tundun Bohangin
Secondary schools:
SMK Bukit Garam
SMK Bukit Garam II
SMK Paris
SMK Sukau
Kota Belud
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Chung Hwa
SK Ambong
SK Bangkahak Baru
SK Dalas
SK Dudar
SK Gensurai
SK Jawi-Jawi
SK Keguraan
SK Labuan
SK Kaung
SK Kebayau
SK Kelawat
SK Kesapang
SK Kiau
SK Kinasaraban
SK Kuala Abai
SK Kulambai
SK Lasau Podi
SK Lasau Tintapon
SK Melangkap
SK Mengkulat
SK Menunggui
SK Nahaba
SK Nanamun
SK Narinang
SK Pandasan
SK Pangkalan Abai
SK Pekan Kota Belud
SK Peladok
SK Piasau
SK Pinolobu
SK Pituru
SK Podos
SK Pulau Mantanani
SK Rampayan Ulu
SK Rangalau
SK Rosok
SK Sarang
SK Sayap
SK Sembirai
SK Suang Punggor
SK St. Edmund
SK Taburan
SK Taginambur
SK Tamau
SK Tambatuan
SK Tambulian
SK Tampasuk I
SK Tampasuk II
SK Tamu Darat
SK Tarintidon
SK Tengkurus
SK Taun Gusi
SK Timbang
SK Timbang Dayang
SK Tuguson
SK Ulu Kukut
Secondary schools:
SMK Arshad
SMK Narinang
SMK Pekan Kota Belud
SMK Pekan II Kota Belud
SMK Tambulion
SMK Taun Gusi
SMK Usukan
Kota Kinabalu
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Che Hwa Kolombong
SJK (C) Chung Hwa Likas
SJK (C) Chung Hwa Kampung Air
SJK (C) Good Shepherd, Manggatal
SJK (C) Lok Yuk Likas
SJK (C) Lok Yuk Manggatal
SJK (C) Shan Tao
SJK (C) St. James
SJK (C) St. Peter Telipok
SJK (C) Yick Nam
SK Api-Api
SK Babagon Toki
SK Bantayan
SK Bukit Padang
SK Darau
SK Gantisan
SK Gudon
SK Inanam II
SK Inanam Laut
SK Kebagu
SK Kebayau
SK Keronggu
SK Kitobu
SK Kokol
SK Kolombong
SK Lapasan
SK Likas
SK Lok Yuk Inanam
SK Lok Yuk Likas
SK Luyang
SK Malawa
SK Mutiara
SK Natai
SK Pangkalan TLDM Kota Kinabalu
SK Pengiran Siti Hafsah
SK Pomotodon
SK Poring-Poring
SK Pulau Sepanggar
SK Pulau Gaya
SK Rampayan
SK Ruminding
SK Sacred Heart
SK Sembulan
SK Sri Gaya
SK St. Agnes
SK St. Catherine
SK St. Francis Convent
SK Stella Maris
SK Talungan
SK Tampulan
SK Tanjung Aru I
SK Tanjung Aru II
SK Tobobon
SK Tombongon
SK Unggun
SK (Cina) Anglo-Chinese
Secondary schools:
SM Maktab Sabah
SMK All Saints
SMK Bandaraya
SMK Inanam
SMK Kolombong
SM La Salle
SMK Lok Yuk Likas
SMK Likas
SMK Perempuan Likas
SMK Pulau Gaya
SMK Taman Tun Fuad
SMK Tinggi Kota Kinabalu
SMK Tobobon
SMK SANZAC
SMK Shan Tao
SMK St. Francis Convent
SMK St. Peter Telipok
SM Stella Maris
Sixth form college:
Kolej Tingkatan Enam Kota Kinabalu
Kota Marudu
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Khoi Ming
SK Bengkongan
SK Bintasan
SK Gana
SK Koromoko
SK Kota Marudu II
SK Lampada
SK Langkon
SK Magandai
SK Mangaris
SK Mangin
SK Marak-Parak
SK Masalog
SK Melangkap
SK Ongkilan
SK Panaitan
SK Pekan Kota Marudu
SK Popok
SK Ranau
SK Samparita
SK Sampir
SK Simpangan
SK Sunsui
SK Tagaroh
SK Tagibang
SK Talantang
SK Tandek
SK Tanjung Batu
SK Taritipan
SK Temuno Teringai Darat
SK Tigaman
SK Timbang Batu
SK Tumunda Salimandut
Secondary schools:
SMK Bandau
SMK Bengkongan
SMK Kota Marudu I
SMK Kota Marudu II
SMK Langkon
SMK Tandek
Kuala Penyu
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Chung Hwa
SJK (C) Phui Hwa
SK Batu Linting
SK Berangkok
SK Janang
SK Kekapor
SK Kilugus
SK Lambidan
SK Mansud
SK Melikai
SK Menumpang
SK Menunggang
SK Palu-Palu
SK Pekan Kuala Penyu
SK Pekan Menumbok
SK Rimbaan
SK Sangkabok
SK Sinapokan
SK St. Augustine
SK St. Joseph
SK St. Peter Bundu
SK St. Stephen
SK Tanjung Aru
SK Tempurong
SK Tenambak
Secondary schools:
SMK Kuala Penyu
SMK Menumbok
SMK Pekan Kuala Penyu
SMK St. Peter Bundu
Kudat
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Hwa Lian
SJK (C) Lok Yuk Batu 1
SJK (C) Lok Yuk Pinangsoo
SJK (C) Our Lady Immaculate
SJK (C) Sacred Heart Tajau
SJK (C) St. Peter
SJK (C) Yuk Hwa Tamalang
SK Balambangan Banggi
SK Bangau
SK Barambangon
SK Batu Layar
SK Bingolon
SK Dampirit
SK Dogoton
SK Dualog
SK Garau
SK Gumandang
SK Indarason Laut
SK Kampung Minyak
SK Kapitangan
SK Karakit Banggi
SK Lajong
SK Laksian
SK Lampaki
SK Landung Ayang
SK Limau-Limauan
SK Limbuak
SK Lodung
SK Lok Yuk Batu 1
SK Lok Yuk Sikuati
SK Lok Yuk Tamalang
SK Lokoton
SK Loktohog Banggi
SK Lotong
SK Matunggong
SK Muhibbah
SK Nangka
SK Padang
SK Palak
SK Panudahan
SK Parapat Darat
SK Pata
SK Pekan Kudat II
SK Perapat Laut
SK Pinawantai
SK Pulau Tigabu
SK Sabur
SK Sebayan
SK Semayan Banggi
SK Sikuati
SK St. James
SK Suangpai
SK Tanjung Manawali
SK Terongkongan
SK Tiga Papan
SK Tinangol
SK Tun Datu Haji Mustapha
Secondary schools:
SM Pei Tsin
SM St. Peter
SMK Abdul Rahim
SMK Abdul Rahim II
SMK Banggi
SMK Kudat
SMK Kudat II
SMK Matunggong
SMK Pinawantai
SMK Sikuati
SMK Sikuati II
Kunak
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Pai Sheng
SK Gading-Gading
SK Kampung Selamat
SK Kunak I
SK Kunak II
SK Kunak Jaya
SK Ladang Binuang
SK Ladang Giram
SK Lormalong
SK Madai
SK Mostyn
SK Pangi
SK Skim Kokos
SK Tanjung Keramat
SK Tun Fuad
Secondary schools:
SMK Madai
SMK Kunak
SMK Kunak Jaya
Labuk–Sugut
Primary schools:
SK Abuan
SK Balaban Jaya
SK Basai Baru
SK Bawang
SK Binsulung
SK Botition
SK Bukit Besi
SK Golong
SK Holy Cross
SK Jambongan
SK Jaya Bakti
SK Kabuluh
SK Keniogan
SK Kolapis
SK Ladang Sabapalm
SK Lidong
SK Limau-Limau
SK Lingkabau
SK Lubang Buaya
SK Maidan
SK Malalin
SK Matanggal Beluran
SK Monopod
SK Moynod
SK Nangoh
SK Obah
SK Pamol
SK Pantai Boring
SK Pekan Beluran
SK Perancangan
SK Pinangkau
SK Semawang
SK Seri Pagi
SK Simpangan
SK Sualok
SK Sungai Nafas
SK Sungai Nangka
SK Sungai Sapi
SK Sungai-Sungai
SK Tagas-Tagas
SK Tampat
SK Tangkarason
SK Tanjung Nipis
SK Terusan Sugut
SK Tetabuan
SK Ulu Muanad
Secondary schools:
SMK Balaban Jaya, Beluran
SMK Beluran
SMK Beluran II
SMK Pamol, Beluran
SMK Terusan Sugut, Beluran
Lahad Datu
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Chee Vun
SJK (C) Kiau Shing
SJK (C) Siew Ching
SJK (C) Sin Wah
SJK (C) Yuk Choi
SK Amalania
SK Aakapit
SK Bangingod
SK Batu 6 1/2 Segama
SK Bikang
SK Binuang
SK Bukit Balacon
SK Cenderawasih
SK Fajar Harapan
SK Jeroco
SK Kennedy Bay
SK Lahad Datu II
SK Lahad Datu III
SK Lahad Datu IV
SK Lok Buani
SK Payang
SK Pekan Lahad Datu
SK Permai
SK Sabah Cocoa
SK Sahabat 16
SK Sahabat 4
SK Sahabat 2
SK Sepagaya
SK Silabukan
SK Silam
SK Sri Darun
SK Sri Pantai
SK St. Dominic
SK St. Stephens
SK Tambisan
SK Tanjong Paras
SK Tanjung Labian
SK Tawaiyari
SK Telisai
SK Terusan
SK Tungku
SK Ulu Tungku
SK Unico Desa
Secondary schools:
SMK Agaseh
SMK Desa Kencana
SMK Sepagaya
SMK Segama
SMK Silabukan
SMK St. Dominic
SMK Tungku
Papar
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Anglo Chinese
SJK (C) Bong Hwa
SJK (C) Cheng Hwa
SJK (C) Cheng Ming
SJK (C) Hwa Yin Rampazan
SJK (C) Kin Kiau
SJK (C) Sen Ming
SJK (C) St. Joseph
SJK (C) Tung Shan
SK Belatik
SK Benoni
SK Buang Sayang
SK Daingin
SK Gana
SK Kaiduan
SK Kambizaan
SK Kawang
SK Kayau
SK Kelanahan
SK Kelatuan
SK Kimanis
SK Kogopon
SK Kuala Papar
SK Langkawit
SK Limputong
SK Lingan
SK Mandahan
SK Mandalipau
SK Mook
SK Nyaris-Nyaris
SK Our Lady
SK Padawan Besar
SK Pantai Manis
SK Pekan Bongawan
SK Pekan Kimanis
SK Pekan Kinarut
SK Pekan Papar
SK Pengalat Besar
SK Pengalat Kecil
SK Rampazan
SK Sabandil
SK Sacred Heart Kampung Biau
SK St. Joseph
SK St. Mary
SK Sumbiling
SK Surati
SK Tampasak
SK Tanaki
SK Ulu Lumagar
SK Viging Ulu
Secondary schools:
SM St. Joseph
SM St. Mary
SMK Benoni
SMK Bongawan
SMK Kinarut
SMK Majakir
SMK Takis
Penampang
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Hwa Shiong
SJK (C) Yue Min
SK Babagon
SK Bahang
SK Buayan
SK Buit Hill
SK Kampung Contoh
SK Kem Lok Kawi
SK Kibabaig
SK Kipovo
SK Longkogungon
SK Moyog
SK Pekan Putatan
SK Penampang
SK Petagas
SK Putaton Inobong
SK Puun Tonoh
SK St. Aloysius Limbanak
SK St. Anthony
SK St. Joseph
SK St. Paul Kolopis
SK Sugud
SK Tampasak Togudon
SK Tansau
SK Terian
SK Tombovo
Secondary schools:
SM St. Michael
SMK Bahang
SMK Datuk Peter Mojuntin
SMK Limbanak
SMK Putatan
SMK Tansau
Pensiangan
Primary schools:
SK Babalitan
SK Kampung Bahagia
SK Kampung Enam
SK Kebu Baru
SK Kuala Salong
SK Labang
SK Layon
SK Longongon
SK Lotong
SK Pandiwan
SK Pekan Nabawan
SK Pekan Pensiangan
SK Pementerian
SK Pengaraan
SK Penontomon
SK Salarom
SK Saliku
SK Saliliran
SK Salinatan
SK Sapulut
SK Sasandukon
SK Sibangali
SK Simatuoh
SK Tampusison
SK Tetagas
SK Tinanduk
SK Ulu Mosopoh
Secondary schools:
SMK Nabawan
SMK Nabawan II
SMK Sapulut
Pitas
Primary schools:
SK Bawang
SK Bawing
SK Bongkol
SK Dallas
SK Dandun
SK Datong
SK Kanibongan
SK Kasagaan
SK Kibubuk
SK Kusilad
SK Liu
SK Malubang
SK Mandurian
SK Manggis
SK Mangkapon
SK Mapan-Mapan
SK Maringgan
SK Nibang
SK Pandan Mandamai
SK Pantai
SK Pekan Pitas
SK Pekan Pitas II
SK Pinapak
SK Pinggan-Pinggan
SK Rosob
SK Rukom
SK Salimpodon Darat
SK Senaja
SK Sosop
SK Telaga
Secondary schools:
SMK Bongkol
SMK Kanibongan
SMK Pinggan-Pinggan
SMK Pitas
SMK Pitas II
SMK Telaga
Ranau
Primary schools:
SJK (C) Pai Wen
SK Badukan
SK Bongkud
SK Bundu Tuhan
SK Don Bosco
SK Gana-Gana
SK Gusi
SK Kaingaran
SK Kampung Libang
SK Kananapon
SK Kandawayon
SK Karagasan
SK Kauluan
SK Kawiyan Sugut
SK Kemburungoh
SK Kepangian
SK Keranaan
SK Kilimu
SK Kimondou
SK Kinapulidan
SK Kinasaraban
SK Kinirasan
SK Kirokot
SK Kituntul
SK Kundasang
SK Langsat
SK Lipasu
SK Lohan
SK Longut
SK Malinsau
SK Mangkapoh
SK Marakau
SK Matupang
SK Maukab
SK Mesilou
SK Miruru
SK Mohimboyon
SK Nalapak
SK Nampasan
SK Napong
SK Naradan
SK Narawang
SK Nukakatan
SK Nunuk Ragang
SK Paginatan
SK Pahu Himbaan
SK Paus
SK Pekan II Ranau
SK Pekan Ranau
SK Perancangan
SK Pinausuk
SK Pinawantai
SK Poring
SK Randagong
SK Ratau
SK Sagiban
SK Sagindai
SK Sri Gabungan
SK St. Benedict
SK Tagudon Lama
SK Tampios
SK Tarawas
SK Tiang
SK Tibabar
SK Timbua
SK Tinanom
SK Toboh
SK Togop Darat
SK Tongou
SK Tudan
SK Waang
Secondary schools:
SMK Bundu Tuhan
SMK Kemburongoh
SMK Kundasang
SMK Lohan
SMK Mat Salleh
SMK Matupang Jaya
SMK Ranau
SMK Timbua
SMK Ulu Sugut
Sandakan
SM Convent St. Cecilia
SM St. Mary
SM St. Mike
SM Yu Yuan
SMK Batu Sapi
SMK Berhala Darat
SMK Elopura
SMK Elopura 2
SMK Merpati
SMK Muhibbah
SMK Pamol
SMK Perempuan Sandakan
SMK Sandakan
SMK Sandakan 2
SMK Simpangan
SMK Taman Fajar
Semporna
SMK Datuk Haji Panglima Jakarullah
SMK Datuk Panglima Abdullah
SMK Bugaya
SMK Bugaya 2
SMK Bum-Bum
SMK Kabogan
SMK Kabogan 2
SMK Tagasan
Sipitang
SMK Padang Berampah
SMK Pengiran Omar
SMK Pengiran Omar II
SMK Sindumin
Tambunan
SM St. Martin Tampasak
SMK Desa Wawasan
SMK Nambayan
SMK Tambunan
Tawau
SM Holy Trinity
SM St. Patrick
SM Convent St. Ursula
SMK Abaka
SMK Balung
SMK Balung Bestari
SMK Jalan Apas
SMK Jambatan Putih
SMK Kabota
SMK Kalabakan
SMK Kinabutan
SMK Kuhara
SMK Merotai Besar
SMK Tawau
SMK Umas-Umas
SMK Wallace Bay
Tenom
SMK Chinta Mata
SMK Chung Hwa
SMK Entabuan
SMK Kemabong
SMK St. Anthony
SMK Tenom
Tongod
SMK Entilibon
SMK Penangah
SMK Telupid
SMK Tongod
SMK Ulu Sapi
Tuaran
Primary schools:
Sekolah Agama Suria, Tuaran
SJK (C) Chen Sin, Tuaran
SJK (C) Chung Hwa Tenghilan
SJK (C) Chung Hwa Tamparuli
SJK (C) Kok Wah Talibong, Tamparuli
SJK (C) St. Philip, Tamparuli
SK Bantayan, Tamparuli
SK Baru-Baru, Tuaran
SK Bawang, Tamparuli
SK Berungis, Tuaran
SK Bolong, Tuaran
SK Bongol, Tamparuli
SK Bundung, Tamparuli
SK Bundu Tohuri, Tamparuli
SK Bungalio, Tamparuli
SK Gayang, Tuaran
SK Gayaratau, Tamparuli
SK Giok, Kiulu
SK Gontung, Tamparuli
SK Guakon Baru, Tamparuli
SK Kauluan, Tamparuli
SK Kayangat, Tamparuli
SK Kelawat, Tamparuli
SK Kindu, Tuaran
SK Kitapol, Tamparuli
SK Koporingan, Tamparuli
SK Laputong, Tamparuli
SK Laya-Laya, Tuaran
SK Lingga Baru, Tamparuli
SK Linungkuan, Tamparuli
SK Lokos, Kiulu
SK Lokub, Kiulu
SK Lok Yuk Telipok
SK Kapa, Tamparuli
SK Malangang Baru, Kiulu
SK Mantob, Tamparuli
SK Mengkabong, Tuaran
SK Nongkolud, Tuaran
SK Pahu, Tamparuli
SK Pekan Kiulu
SK Pekan Tamparuli
SK Pekan Telipok
SK Pekan Tenghilan
SK Pekan Tuaran
SK Penimbawan, Tuaran
SK Poring, Tamparuli
SK Pukak, Tamparuli
SK Rangalau Baru, Kiulu
SK Rangalau Lama, Kiulu
SK Rugading, Tuaran
SK Rungus, Tamparuli
SK Rungus Nahaba, Tamparuli
SK Sambah, Tenghilan
SK Saradan, Tenghilan
SK Selupoh, Tuaran
SK Serusup, Tuaran
SK Sinulihan, Tamparuli
SK St. John, Tuaran
SK Sungai Damit, Tamparuli
SK Sungoi, Kiulu
SK Taginambur, Tamparuli
SK Tambalang, Tuaran
SK Tambulaong, Tuaran
SK Termunong, Tuaran
SK Tinambak, Tamparuli
SK Tiong Perungusan, Tamparuli
SK Togop, Tamparuli
SK Tombongon, Tamparuli
SK Tomis, Tamparuli
SK Topokon, Tamparuli
SK Tudan, Kiulu
SK Wangkod, Tamparuli
SK Wasai, Kiulu
Secondary schools:
SM St. James, Tenghilan
SM St. John, Tuaran
SMK Badin, Tuaran
SMK Pekan Telipok
SMK Taman Ria, Tuaran
SMK Tamparuli
SMK Tenghilan
SMK Tun Fuad Stephens, Kiulu
SMK Seri Nangka, Tuaran
SMK Sungai Damit, Tamparuli
References
See also
Education in Malaysia
Sabah |
4274072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betye%20Saar | Betye Saar | Betye Irene Saar (born July 30, 1926) is an African American artist known for her work in the medium of assemblage. Saar is a visual storyteller and an accomplished printmaker. Saar was a part of the Black Arts Movement in the 1970s, which engaged myths and stereotypes about race and femininity. Her work is considered highly political, as she challenged negative ideas about African Americans throughout her career; Saar is best known for her art work that critiques American racism toward Blacks.
Personal life
Betye Saar was born Betye Irene Brown on July 30, 1926, to Jefferson Maze Brown and Beatrice Lillian Parson in Los Angeles, California. Both parents attended the University of California, Los Angeles, where they met. Saar spent her early years in Los Angeles. After her father's death in 1931, Saar and her mother, brother, and sister moved in with her paternal grandmother, Irene Hannah Maze, in the Watts neighborhood in Los Angeles. The family then moved to Pasadena, California, to live with Saar's maternal great-aunt Hatte Parson Keys and her husband Robert E. Keys.
Growing up, Saar collected various ephemera and regularly created and repaired objects. Her college education began with art classes at Pasadena City College and continued at the University of California, Los Angeles after she received a tuition award from an organization that raised funds to send minority students to universities. Saar received a B.A. in design in 1947. She went on to graduate studies at California State University, Long Beach, University of Southern California, California State University, Northridge, and American Film Institute. During her time in graduate school, she married Richard Saar and gave birth to three daughters: Tracye, Alison and Lezley Saar.
Artistic career
Early work
Saar started her adult life as a social worker and then later pursued her passion in art. She began her graduate education in 1958, originally working towards a career in teaching design. However, a printmaking class she took as an elective changed the direction of her artistic interests. She described printmaking as her "segue from design into fine arts."
In Saar's early work she collected racist imagery and continued throughout her career. She was inspired to create assemblages by a 1967 exhibition by found object sculptor, Joseph Cornell. She was also greatly influenced by Simon Rodia's Watts Towers, which she witnessed being built in her childhood. Saar said that she was "fascinated by the materials that Simon Rodia used, the broken dishes, sea shells, rusty tools, even corn cobs—all pressed into cement to create spires. To me, they were magical."
In oral history interviews, Saar later recalled seeing extensive African, Oceanic and Egyptian art on a visit to the Field Museum in Chicago as being "an important step in my development as an artist ... They had rooms and rooms of it. I had never seen that much.” She found the robe of an African chief especially meaningful.
She began to create work that consisted of found objects arranged within boxes or windows, with items that drew from various cultures to reflect her own mixed ancestry: African American, Irish, and Native American.
Rejection of white feminism and reclaiming the black female body
Saar was raised by her Aunt Hattie, who influenced her identity as a Black woman. Saar described her great-aunt as a woman with dignity and poise, which impacted her depiction of the Black female body. This impact is evident in a work Saar dedicated to her great-aunt titled Record For Hattie, 1972. Saar's rejection of white feminism initially pushed her artistic focus on the Black male but in the 1970s she shifted her focus to the Black female body. Record For Hattie is a mixed media assemblage made from an antique jewelry box. Inside the top of the jewelry box is a broken picture frame containing a faded picture of a woman, representing her Aunt Hattie. Surrounding the picture frame rose materials are sewn along with a red and white star and crescent moon pendent. In the bottom of the jewelry box there is a metal cross on the right side, a red leather wallet in the middle, on top is an image of child, and on the left there are sewing materials. During the 1970s Saar responded to the racism, fetishization, and eroticization of the Black female body by reclaiming the Black female body. Saar's work resisted the artistic style of primitivism, as well as the white feminist movement that refused to address issues of race. Saar's work is a result of the convergence of Black power, spirituality and mysticism, and feminism, as seen in Black Girl's Window, 1969. Black Girl's Window is an assemblage piece made from an old window, in which the painted silhouette of a girl presses her face and hands against the pane. Above her head are nine smaller window panes arranged three by three, which display various symbols and images, including moons and stars, a howling wolf, a sketched skeleton, an eagle with the word "love" across its chest, and a tintype woman.
In the 1960s, Saar began collecting images of Aunt Jemima, Uncle Tom, Little Black Sambo, and other stereotyped African American figures from folk culture and advertising of the Jim Crow era. She incorporated them into collages and assemblages, transforming them into statements of political and social protest. The Liberation of Aunt Jemima is one of her most notable works from this era. In this mixed-media assemblage, Saar utilized the stereotypical mammy figure of Aunt Jemima to subvert traditional notions of race and gender. "It's like they abolished slavery but they kept Black people in the kitchen as Mammy jars," Saar says of what drove her to make the piece. "I had this Aunt Jemima, and I wanted to put a rifle and a grenade under her skirts. I wanted to empower her. I wanted to make her a warrior. I wanted people to know that Black people wouldn't be enslaved by that."
Saar's assemblage is laid inside of a shoebox-sized frame, plastered with Aunt Jemima advertisements. A caricatured sculpture of Aunt Jemima presents a notepad with a photograph of a Mammy with a white baby depicted. The Aunt Jemima sculpture holds a broom and a rifle, subverting her happy servant and caregiver stereotype by way of a militant alter ego who demands her own agency and power. A large, clenched fist, echoing the Black power symbol, is collaged over and partially obscuring the Mammy photograph, recognizing the aggressive and radical means used by African American activists in the 1970s to fight for their rights. Aunt Jemima is liberated through transformation from a racist domestic caricature into an image of Black power.
Although Saar considers herself to be a feminist, she avoids referring to her artwork as such. Instead, Saar prefers to emphasize the elements of cross-culturalism and spirituality that are present in her pieces. During the early 1970s, Saar endured racism within the context of the white feminist arts movement. These experiences caused her to become interested in promoting a Black consciousness that was distinct from the Black power politics of the era. Saar's autobiographical representations of Black womanhood are not erotic and do not represent the body in an explicit manner; therefore, they exemplify a resistance to imaging the Black body. This resistance suggests her rejection of white feminism and her rejection of the "feminine aesthetic" that is determined by white feminists and grounded in female sexuality.
Saar was supported as an artist-in-residence in Adelaide, South Australia, by the Women's Art Movement there in the 1970s or 1980s.
Assemblage and installation
Saar's lifelong habit of scouring flea markets and yard sales deepened her exposure to the many racial stereotypes and demeaning depictions of Blacks to be found among the artifacts of American commercial and consumer culture, such as advertisements, marketing materials, knickknacks, sheet music, and toys. Three years later, she produced a series of more than twenty pieces that, in her own words, "exploded the myth" of such imagery, beginning with her seminal portrait of Aunt Jemima. In the 1970s, Saar moved on to explore ritual and tribal objects from Africa as well as items from African American folk traditions. In boxed assemblages, she combined shamanistic tribal fetishes with images and objects intended to evoke the magical and the mystical. When her great-aunt died in 1974, Saar acquired family memorabilia and created a series of more personal and intimate assemblages that incorporated nostalgic mementos of her great-aunt's life. She arranged old photographs, letters, lockets, dried flowers, and handkerchiefs in shrine-like boxes to suggest memory, loss, and the passage of time. This became a body of work she referred to as her "nostalgic series."
In 1977, Saar created a piece entitled Spirit Catcher. It was inspired by and looks like a traditional craft item used in rituals, but was personally invented by her. She claims that although the object is not authentically sourced, it still has magical qualities. There is a mirror on the top of the artwork that could be interpreted as an evil eye against racism. Saar occasionally utilized organic materials in her work, such as bamboo, skulls, raffia, and rattan, and a few of these materials can be seen in Spirit Catcher. This assemblage piece caused many Los Angeles-based artists of color to see the straw and beads as a way to explore an organic and even mysterious sense of Blackness. Saar and this particular piece were also the subjects of a short television documentary entitled "Spirit Catcher—The Art of Betye Saar," which aired on television in 1978.
In the early 1980s, Saar taught in Los Angeles at UCLA and the Otis Art Institute. In her own work she approached a larger, room-sized scale, and created site-specific installations. These included altar-like shrines exploring the relationship between technology and spirituality, and incorporated her interests in mysticism and Voodoo. Through the pairing of computer chips with mystical amulets and charms, these monumental constructions suggested the need for an alliance of both systems of knowledge: the technical and the spiritual.
Saar continues to live and work in Los Angeles, working primarily in found object sculpture. She has been awarded honorary doctorate degrees by California College of Arts and Crafts, California Institute of the Arts, Massachusetts College of Art, Otis College of Art and Design, and San Francisco Art Institute.
As of 2016, she celebrated her work with a couple parties and a solo show of new work at Roberts and Tilton Gallery (now Roberts Projects).
The Liberation of Aunt Jemima
Betye Saar's 1972 artwork The Liberation of Aunt Jemima was inspired by a knick knack she found of Aunt Jemima although it seems like a painting, it is a three dimensional mixed media assemblage 11 3/4" x 8" x 3/4". The journal Blacks in Higher Education states that "her painting offered a detailed history of the Black experience in America". Saar shows Aunt Jemima exaggerated in every way by stereotypes. She wears a large exaggerated colored dress, along with a bright checkered head piece. Her skin is depicted as really Black, her eyes are large bulging out of her head. Her lips are large and highlighted with red color. She draws out the stereotype of being Black. Holding a broom in one hand showing they were only good for cleaning. The woman also stands on cotton representing slavery. The Woman's Art Journal states: "African American artists as diverse as Betye Saar reclaim and explore their identity. ‘Not good enough’ and ‘But good enough to serve.’" While the piece shows the Aunt Jemima holding a cleaning tool in her right hand, it also shows her holding a rifle in her left. This allows Saar to establish a visual connection between Aunt Jemima and the concept of resistance. By doing so, Aunt Jemima is depicted as being a powerful figure who commands the attention and respect of the viewers. Angela Davis has said the work launched the Black women's movement.
In her 2016 article "Influences" for Frieze, Saar explains directly about some of her artistic choices in the piece: "I found a little Aunt Jemima mammy figure, a caricature of a Black slave, like those later used to advertise pancakes. She had a broom in one hand and, on the other side, I gave her a rifle. In front of her, I placed a little postcard, of a mammy with a mulatto child, which is another way Black women were exploited during slavery. I used the derogatory image to empower the Black woman by making her a revolutionary, like she was rebelling against her past enslavement."
In the book Parodise of Ownership by Richard Schur states, "Saar deployed Aunt Jemima's image to promote cultural nationalism during the 1960s and 1970s[…] sought to correct the injustice done by over one hundred years of stereotyped advertising and depicts Aunt Jemima in an angry, defiant, and/ or rebellious poses." She wanted to promote support for political independence and break stereotypes used to describe Black women. The artwork was originally inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
In "The Women's Art Journal Betye Saar: Extending the Frozen Monument", James Cristen Steward states: "Against the backdrop of pancake packaging is a grinning popped-eye 'Mammy" with a broom in one hand and a rifle in the other. In the foreground another vintage caricature of a jaunty, almost flirtatious Mammy, one arm balancing a willing white child against her corset hourglass waste she simply allows the derogatory images to speak for themselves". The broom symbolizes the domesticity that Black women were forced to occupy jobs in serving, confining them to specific places. White people's perspective on Black women was that they were only good for serving others. She portrays through her art the two representations of Black women, how stereotypes portray them, defeminizing and desexualizing them and reality. Saar's intention for having the stereotype of the mammy holding a rifle to symbolize that Black women are strong and can endure anything, a representation of a warrior. Saar has stated, that "the reasoning behind this decision is to empower Black women and not let the narrative of a white person determine how a Black women should view herself".
Film
In 1971, Saar created a film entitled Colored Spade. Following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, Saar began to work with the racist images of Black individuals that had become so popular in American culture. Saar decided to compile such images into a film that was based on the song from the musical Hair called "Colored Spade," which contains a list of derogatory terms for African Americans. The film depicts a montage of caricatured images from the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century culture, such as sheet music, comics, and food containers. Many of these images are animated by camera movements, zooms, and rapid cutting. Eventually, the images of Black individuals are replaced by images of racist organizations, which all culminate into a photograph of a white policeman. Saar zooms in on this image until the focus is lost, and then zooms out to reveal prominent figures from the Civil Rights movement, such as Dr. King and Angela Davis. This recontextualization of racist culture allows the issue to serve as evidence of white prejudice as opposed to Black degeneracy.
Political activism
In the late 1960s, her focus turned to the civil rights movement and issues of race. Black women artists such as Faith Ringgold, Betye Saar, Adrian Piper, Howardena Pindell, and Barbara Chase-Riboud explored the African American identities and actively rejected art world racism, while simultaneously being drawn to the cause of women's liberation.
Saar, in her artistic journey through various artistic and activist communities from Black nationalist to Black feminist and womanist, maintained a "mobile of identity" that permitted her to interact freely with each group. Saar met with other Black women artists at Suzanne Jackson's Gallery 32 in 1970. The resulting group show was titled Sapphire (You've Come a Long Way, Baby). This was likely the first contemporary African American women's exhibition in California, and included watercolorist Sue Irons, printmaker Yvonne Cole Meo, painter Suzanne Jackson, pop artist Eileen Abdulrashid, Gloria Bohanon, and Saar.
When asked about the politics behind her art in a 2015 interview with writer Shelley Leopold, Saar stated, "I don't know how politics can be avoided. If you happen to be a young Black male, your parents are terrified that you're going to be arrested—if they hang out with a friend, are they going to be considered a gang? That kind of fear is one you have to pay attention to. It's not comfortable living in the United States. I'm born in Los Angeles, with middle class parents and so I never really had to be in a situation that tense. My grandmother lived in Watts and it's still really poor down there. People just do the best they can."
Letter campaign
In the late 1990s, Saar was a recognizable and vocal critic of artist Kara Walker's work. Kara Walker created artworks that some scholars said exhibited "the psychological dimension of stereotypes and the obscenity of the American racial unconscious". Walker's controversial works included Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as it Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart (1994), and The End of Uncle Tom and Grand Allegorical Tableau of Eva in Heaven (1995). The shocking images, her supporters said, challenged racist and stereotypical images of African Americans by offering stark images of the degradation of African Americans. Other critics, such as Saar and Howardena Pindell, disagreed with Walker's approach and believed the artist was reinforcing racism and racist stereotypes of African American life. In an NPR Radio interview, Saar "felt the work of Kara Walker was sort of revolting and negative and a form of betrayal to the slaves, particularly women and children, and that it was basically for the amusement and the investment of the white art establishment". The difference in age between Saar and her contemporaries and Walker can explain the older critics’ reactions to Walker's work. When Walker received the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Genius Award in 1997, Saar wrote letters to people in the art industry, protesting the award and asking, "Are African Americans being betrayed under the guise of art?"
Solo exhibitions
1973 California State University, Los Angeles, California.
1975 Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, New York.
1976 Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut and Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York, New York.
1977 Baun-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, California and San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California.
1979 Baum-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, California.
1980 Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, New York.
1981 Baum-Silverman Gallery, Los Angeles, California and Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York, New York.
1982 Quay Gallery, San Francisco, California.
1983 Women's Art Movement, Adelaide, Australia and Canberra School of Art, Canberra Connecticut, Australia.
1984 California, Los Angeles, California and Georgia State University Art Gallery, Atlanta, Georgia.
1987 Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
1988 Taichung Museum of Art, Taichung, Taiwan.
1989 City Gallery Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand and Art space, Auckland, New Zealand
1990 Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, California.
1991 Objects Gallery, Chicago, Illinois.
1992 The Ritual Journey. Joseloff Gallery, University of Hartford, Connecticut.
1993 Fresno Art Museum, Fresno, California.
1994 Santa Monica Museum of Art, Santa Monica, California.
1996 Des Moines Art Center, Des Moines, Iowa and The Palmer Museum of Art, Penn State College, Pennsylvania and de Saisset Museum, Santa Clara, California and Joslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska.
1997 Tacoma Art Museum, Tacoma, Washington.
1998 Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, New York, New York and Jan Baum Gallery, Los Angeles, California and California African American Museum, Los Angeles, California.
1999 University of New Mexico Art Museum, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico and Anderson Ranch Art Center, Snowmass, Colorado and The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan.
2000 Savannah College of Art & Design, Savannah, Georgia and Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, New York City, New York.
2002 Merrill Lynch & Co., Inc., Princeton, NJ
2005 University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor, Michigan
2006 Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento, California
2014 Roberts & Tilton, Culver City, California
2016 Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona
2016 Fondazione Prada, Milan Italy
2016 Roberts & Tilton, Culver City, California
2017 Craft and Folk Art Museum (now Craft Contemporary), Los Angeles
2018 Roberts Projects, Culver City, California
2019 New York Historical Society, New York, NY
2019 Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY
2019 LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2020 Morgan Library & Museum, New York, NY
2021 Nasher Sculpture Center, Dallas, TX //www.nashersculpturecenter.org/art/exhibitions/exhibition/id/1802?betye-saar-call-and-response
2022 Institute of Contemporary Art, Miami, FL
Awards and honors
1984 and 1974: National Endowment for the Arts Artist Fellowship
1990: 22nd Annual Artist Award, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York
1990: J. Paul Getty Fund for the Visual Arts Fellowship
1991: Honorary Doctorate Degree: California College of the Arts
1991: John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation
1992: Honorary Doctorate Degrees: Otis College of Art and Design and San Francisco Art Institute
1992: James Van Der Zee Award, Brandywine Workshop, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
1993: Distinguished Artist Award, Fresno Art Museum
1995: Honorary Doctorate Degrees: California Institute of the Arts and Massachusetts College of Art
1997: The Visual Artists Award, The Flintridge Foundation, Pasadena, California
2014: Edward MacDowell Medal
2020: Wolfgang-Hahn-Preis Köln
Notable works in public collections
Aries Nymph (1966), University Museum of Contemporary Art, Amherst, Massachusetts
A Siege of Sirens (1966), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and Museum of Modern Art, New York
Vision of El Cremo (1967), Palmer Museum of Art, State College, Pennsylvania
Black Girl's Window (1969), Museum of Modern Art, New York
Gris-Gris Box (1972), Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles
The Liberation of Aunt Jemima (1972), Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive, California
It's Only A Matter of Time (1974), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
The Time Inbetween (1974), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Indigo Mercy (1975), Studio Museum in Harlem, New York
The Birds and The Beasts Were There (1976), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Dark Erotic Dream (1976), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Keep for Old Memoirs (1976), Museum of Modern Art, New York
Samadhi (1977), High Museum of Art, Atlanta
Twilight Awakening (1978), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
Window of Ancient Sirens (1979), Studio Museum in Harlem, New York
Dat Ol' Black Magic (1981), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
Ball of Fire (1985), Philadelphia Museum of Art
Cryptic Confessions, The Question (1988), Boca Raton Museum of Art, Florida
The Differences Between (1989), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
House of Ancient Memory (1989), Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
La Luz (1989), Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute, Utica, New York
Wishing for Winter (1989), Smithsonian Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Ancestral Spirit Chair (1992), Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
Gris Gris Guardian (1990-1993), Los Angeles County Museum of Art
The Trickster (1994), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
Whitey's Way (1970-1996), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Blow Top Blues: The Fire Next Time (1998), Minneapolis Institute of Art and National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC
I'll Bend But I Will Not Break (1998), Los Angeles County Museum of Art
The Long Memory (1998), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia and Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
Maid-Rite (Mask Eyes) (1998), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia
Mother and Children in Blue (1998), Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
Wot's Dat (1998) from the series Workers + Warriors: The Return of Aunt Jemima, Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Ithaca, New York
Further reading
Paysour, Fleur. "Wonders of the House of Saar." International Review of African American Art vol. 20, no. 3 (2005), pp. 51–3
Willette, Jeanne S. M. "Stitching Lives: Fabric in the Art of Betye Saar." Fiberarts vol. 23 (March/April 1997), pp. 44–81
Van Proyen, M. "A Conversation with Betye and Alison Saar" [interview]. Artweek v. 22 (August 15, 1991) pp. 3+
Etra, John. "Family Ties." ARTnews vol. 90 (May 1991), pp. 128–33.
Saar, Betye, et al. 2005. Betye Saar: Extending the Frozen Moment. Ann Arbor; Berkeley: University of Michigan Museum of Art; University of California Press
Saar, Betye [entry in] Women Artists of Color: A Biocritical Sourcebook to 20th Century Artists in the Americas. Phoebe Farris, ed. Westport, Connecticut: 1999. Pages 333–339. Entry includes biography, selected exhibitions, 41-item bibliography, and biographical essay. Jones, Kellie et al. Now dig this! : art & Black Los Angeles, 1960–1980. 2011 Los Angeles: Hammer Museum, 2011.
Jones, Kellie. South of Pico: African American Artists in Los Angeles in the 1960s and 1970s. Durham: Duke University Press, 2017.
References
External links
Betye Saar at Roberts Projects, Los Angeles, CA
1926 births
Assemblage artists
American contemporary artists
African-American contemporary artists
African-American feminists
American feminists
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
California State University, Long Beach alumni
Living people
American women printmakers
20th-century American women artists
20th-century American printmakers
Activists from California
21st-century American women artists
Artists from Los Angeles
African-American printmakers
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American artists
21st-century African-American women |
4274116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Doulagh%27s%20Church | St Doulagh's Church | St Doulagh's Church () is the oldest stone-roofed church still in use in Ireland. It is situated approximately 10 kilometres from Dublin city, just north of the hamlet of Balgriffin, within Fingal and in the traditional County Dublin, and is marked as "St Doulagh's Church, Balgriffin". Its complex also comprises an octagonal baptistry built over a holy well - Ireland's only surviving standalone baptistry - and a stone housing over a pool. St Doulagh's is one of the two churches in the Church of Ireland "United Parishes of Malahide, Portmarnock and St Doulagh's.
History and status
The oldest part of the church as it stands is medieval dating from the 12th century, and believed to have been home to a small monastic settlement. However, according to studies on the site, Christian activity here dates back to the time of St. Patrick.
Hudson (2005) states that King Sitric of Dublin gave land at St Doulough's, Portrane and Reachrain (probably Lambay Island) to Holy Trinity (Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin). In 1179, Pope Alexander III gave the "church lands at Clochar" to Laurence O'Toole, Archbishop of Dublin, so it was already church land - but there was no mention of a building. In regard to the other sites mentioned in the papal document, buildings are noted, suggesting that there may have been no useful building then at St Doulough's. The Canons Regular of St Augustine had by then been administering Christ Church. It seems possible that construction of the present building started about that time. However, there is no mention of a church at St Doulough's in the papal taxation lists of the early 14th century.
It is not until 1406 that the first definite mention of a church at St Doulough's is made, when indulgences were granted by the Archbishop of Armagh to all who visited the church of St Doulough in the diocese of Dublin and confessed their sins to the resident chaplain Eustace Roche, and made a payment to the church. Rachel Moss believes that the church referred to is the eastern end of the medieval building and speculates that the funds generated may have then spurred building expansion. It seems likely from all this that construction of the present building started soon after the granting of the site to Holy Trinity by the Pope, and that additions and alterations were made in succeeding centuries, the dates of which are guesswork based on various narratives.
Following the English Reformation, the church and its assets came into the control of the Established church. The majority Roman Catholic population was obliged to conduct its services elsewhere, often in private accommodations. There was a regular "pattern" held at the church until at least the 18th century. Since 1974, the church of the Holy Trinity in Donaghmede has served the Roman Catholic parishioners of that area, including later-built Clongriffin, and Balgriffin.
St Doulagh
Very little is known of St Doulagh () who gave his name to the church. It is calculated that he lived in the early 7th century and was a hermit/anchorite. He is said to have lived isolated, in a cell attached to the church, and to have had only minimal contact with the outside world. Anchoritism was a feature of the Celtic church and one of many interesting points of similarity between Ireland's early Christianity and the Eastern churches.
There is no extant history of St Doulough, and his dates are a matter for conjecture. Reeves (1859) stated that St Duilech is mentioned in Sacred Genealogies as the son of Malach, son of Sinell, and eighth in descent from Fergus Mac Rossa who is supposed to have lived in Christian Ireland. Reeves also mentions a St Mobhi (as told in the Leabhar Laighin, Book of Leinster) as an uncle of St Duilech. St Mobhi's death was mentioned by Tighernach as 630, and thus Reeves assigns the year 600 as approximately the time St Duilech lived. The Martyrology of Donegal says he was of the race of Conmac, son of Fergus, son of Ros, son of Rudhraidhe, and Clochar is given as the name of his church. The Gaelic for Grangegorman is Cill Duiligh, which suggests he had a connection with that place. There are other early documents that refer to St Duilech of Clochar (Rachel Moss, 2003) and the site is referred to as Clochar in many documents up to the late 1500s. The earliest historical reference to the church dates from the ninth century, in The Martyrology of Oengus; in that text, the church is called Duilech Cain Clochair.
The early documentation of St Doulough is sketchy, but legend has it that he was an anchorite. In the Calendar of Christ Church, he is described as ‘Episcopus and Confessor’, suggesting a ministry. A later anchorite, resident in St Douloughs, Eustace Roche, was also a confessor and the record of 1406 states that indulgences were granted to those who confessed to him and made a donation to the church.
There was an alternative view of the origins of the name Doulough, but it was more tenuous. Dr Ledwich, in Antiquities of Ireland, is quoted in an 1833 edition of the Dublin Penny Journal to the effect that the church was founded by St Olave, a Norseman, and that this name was corrupted to Doulough. Indeed, there are a number of churches in Britain dedicated to the Norse saint. However, the architecture of this building is agreed to be Irish. Dr Ledwich took the view that the western end of the church was much older than the eastern end or the tower. Dr Ledwich pointed out that the framing of some windows suggests that they were made by assorted carved stones gathered (possibly pillaged, which is what Norsemen were said to be prone to) from various sites. In any case, further re-arranging of these stones in times long after the Norsemen, is indicated by a sequence of alterations. However, Dr Ledwich's views of the founding saint and the dating of the church have been disproved by recent scholarship, especially by Reeves, Moss and Harbison.
There is a curved ditch to the north of the site. This is thought to date from the 6th or 7th century (Rachel Moss, 2002) and indicates a Christian settlement and graveyard. St Doulough could have occupied the site at that time. Excavation work on the ditch by Grassroots Archaeology in 2015 at least does not disprove this theory, and suggests that a circular ditch once enclosed the entire site. The investigation by Grassroots Archaeology centred on a spot to the west of the church, by the road entrance where there was a ditch in medieval times. The fact that the road curves away from the church at this point suggests such a feature.
The feast day of St Doulagh is November 17.
The Chapel of Saint Samson, Balgriffin
There was an ancient chapel at Balgriffin, that was dedicated to the Welsh saint, Saint Samson (Samson of Dol). St. Samson is sometime incorrectly credited with founding a monastery at St. Doulagh's. The chapel was united with St. Doulagh's in 1543, by the 17th century the abandoned chapel was in ruins. Evidence of the church form the 10th century, was uncovered during recent excavations some 400meters from the village, in place called churchfields. Recent housing developments have been named after St. Samson in Balgriffin.
The buildings
The church
The main historic building is 48 feet by 18 feet, with a double roof of rough stone set with cement. The space between the inner and outer, wedge-style, roof is usable. Partway along the roof is a small stone tower. There is a small door on the south face, with a rough arch, and traces of smoother arches on either side. Inside are a smaller room, with the reputed tomb of St Doulagh, and a larger room, the former main place of worship, with a stairway to the upper floor and tower.
Along the stairway is the Prior's chamber, then an area where the clergy may have eaten and slept.
A modern church structure was added in 1864, and consecrated in 1865.
Holy well, baptistry and pool
The complex at St Doulagh's includes, in the field beyond the church and slightly nearer the road, a sunken stone enclosure. Within this is a low octagonal building, covering a spring, known as St Doulagh's Well. Outside the building is an open-air pool with stone seating, where pilgrims used to gather on November 17. The octagonal building is believed to have been a baptistry, the only surviving detached baptistry in Ireland, and the pool alongside may have been used for adult immersion.
The baptistry was repaired and supplied with fresco paintings of St Patrick, St Doulagh, St Bridget and St Columcille, and others, by a resident of the vanished village of Feltrim, in 1609. The frescos were damaged by soldiers of Sir Richard Bulkeley of Dunlavin after the Battle of the Boyne.
Down a short path beyond the sunken enclosure is a stairway down to a small rectangular stone building which contains a pool of water, called St Catherine's Pond. This may also have been used for baptismal rites. It is connected to St Doulagh's well by a subterranean link, and a single spring supplies both.
The cross
There is also a cross, of non-local granite, at the entrance.
Functions of the church building
Moss (2003) took the view that southeastern part of this building, now known as ‘The Oratory’, was erected first. At the very least this was to provide living accommodation, possibly functioning as a church. At ground floor level, to the west of The Oratory is a small room with its own entrance. This could have been accommodation for an additional resident clergyman or anchorite. It was common in medieval Ireland for such a room to be added to the west of a church for an anchorite who might be an unordained person following monastic rules. (O’Keefe, 2015) It seems possible that the building of the tower house took place after the 1406 granting of an indulgence, centred on the church, generated the necessary funds. Certainly, the battlements serve a purpose different from a simple cell. There is an arcade of two arches in the northwestern corner of the Oratory. This has led to speculation that an aisle was built in this position at the time the tower house was built, in order to accommodate a larger congregation.
By 1406 the Normans were firmly established in their sphere of influence, The Pale. One of their colonising projects was Norman control of the Church. The Norman method of operating suggests that they established at some time, at their convenience, their own incumbent priest in St Doulough's. The tower house could well have been built for such a person, to provide better accommodation and to project a sense of power. The building of the tower house might suggest consolidation rather than significant expansion since a rural population, possibly poor, was unlikely to expand. Funds for the tower house might otherwise have come from tithes, were funds from tithes available. A decree of the Synod of Cashel in 1170 ordered that tithes be paid by every man to his parish. However, Geraldus Cambrensis stated in 1185 that the Irish do not yet pay tithes. Norman efficiency may well have rectified that. There are records of tithes being granted to the Abbey of St Thomas in Dublin in the late 1100s.
In 1506 a grant of lands was made by John Burnell of Ballygriffin (Balgriffin) to John Young, chaplain of St Douloughs for a chantry in the chapel of St Douloughs. (Moss, 2002) This would have provided funds for the saying of Masses for Burnell, patron of the church and would have enabled him to be buried within the church. An investigation by Leo Swan in 1987 found evidence of a late medieval burial in the north wall. This may be the grave of John Burnell. There is nothing to suggest that the chantry involved the building of a separate chapel. In medieval times tombs in such a position were used as ‘Easter Sepulchres’, the devotional practice of placing the consecrated host on such a tomb on Good Friday and Holy Saturday, symbolic of the entombment of Jesus. (O’Keefe, 2015) That at least might be a possibility here.
By 1630 St Douloughs had fallen on hard times. In visiting the building that year, Archbishop Burkeley found that the church was in a ruinous state with no ornaments and that the parishioners and indeed the owner of the lands were Catholic and worshipped elsewhere. (R Moss, 2002) The Civil Survey of Dublin, done between 1654 and 1656 found that ‘the church lands of St Dowlagh’s’ consisted of three small thatched houses and the wall of a decayed chapel. It would appear for that that St Douloughs was no longer a functioning church. It implies that the stone roofs were no longer intact.
Rebuilding certainly took place in this era, post 1656, at the end of the Cromwellian war and it is to that time we may ascribe many of the features we see today: windows of varying shape and design, windows at low level believed to have been used as gun ports. Other changes may have been made at this time. (Moss, 2002) A stairway was inserted in the south west corner of the Oratory which blocked the lavatory which had earlier been installed in the tower house. We can still see the lavatory chute which ascends from near ground level to where the lavatory once stood. An earlier stair by the present south door was removed from the south east corner of the tower house and a hole made in the ceiling over the entrance, perhaps for defensive purposes.
Ceremonies in the church
The purpose of the church was for the assembly of the faithful for the celebration of Christian rites. In the medieval period, liturgical practices according to the Roman rite had become standardised in the Christian world, with some regional variations. (O’Keefe, 2015) We can expect that there was Mass, weekly and perhaps daily, baptisms, marriages and funerals. We can expect that there was an altar, now gone. We have a small baptismal font on a pedestal inside, which would have been traditionally placed inside the church door, symbolising entrance to the church by baptism, and a more elaborate one to the north of the church, which clearly dates from a period much later than the church's foundation, having a design similar to the huge Renaissance baptistry in Florence. There are the remains of a piscina (Figure 21) for the washing of hands and vessels, possibly wall mounted, with a drain leading outside, or perhaps the waste water drained into a vessel. The church would have had wooden furnishings, now gone.
Infant baptism had become standard by the eleventh century. Baptism was probably performed with much ceremony. The performance of baptism was evidence of a parochial church. A church decree from a synod in Dublin in 1186 ordered that an immovable baptismal font of stone be placed in the church in such a place as would allow a pascal procession to conveniently pass around. An immovable baptismal font in St Doulough's confined space may not have been practicable. There is indeed a movable baptism font. It is very likely that a pascal procession did take place. Within St Doulough's church, there was limited space for a procession so it may have continued outside. A tradition in relation to baptisms may have been in place before any regulations were established that led eventually to the building of a baptistry outside, regarded as the only one of its kind in Ireland. The outside baptistry is centred on a well. Local tradition has it that baptisms took place at this well in the early Christian period in Ireland.
Mass was obligatory for church members. A synod in Limerick in 1453 ordered that Mass was to be said in each church on each Sunday and holiday and all faithful, except the excommunicated, were to attend, on pain of excommunication. No work was allowed on Sundays and holidays. Possibly this formalised what was probably already common practice in many places. The same decree specified that the parishioners should provide the necessary church vessel, books, and vestments. The bell was to be rung three times to announce the Mass. This provides a fairly clear picture of the rules under which St Douloughs operated. A small bell may have been used at some stage, but eventually, St Douloughs got its own bell tower.
The consecrated host at that time in history was being treated with elaborate ceremonial. The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 decreed the doctrine of Transubstantiation which reinforced the veneration and ceremonial centred on the consecrated host. Roman Catholic tradition reserves the consecrated host in a tabernacle near the altar, or in a panel attached to the wall behind the altar or hung from the ceiling. (O’Keefe, 2015) No evidence has been found that establishes which method was used.
The Oratory
The eastern room on the ground floor of the medieval building is now called The Oratory. This is agreed to be the first element to be constructed and to have functioned as a church. It is aligned east–west and the altar according to church practice would have been at the eastern end. There are no architectural features that would suggest any screen that might have existed between a nave and a chancel. The principal window in the south wall of the Oratory has been dated by Harbison at 1230 AD. There is a taller window with a pointed arch behind the altar position on the east wall, possibly dating from the same time. There is a fragment of a piscina, for washing hands and vessels. A very narrow splayed window by the southeast corner, beside the altar position is said to have been a viewing hole for lepers, who were not allowed in the church. In the west wall of the Oratory is a hole said to have been used as a cure for ailments. In the west wall are evidence of blocked-up arches, said to have led at one stage to an aisle, now gone, which was built to accommodate congregation overflow. There is clear evidence of a blocked-up door in the south wall of the Oratory. There is a recess near the altar, possibly for vessels and other ceremonial items.
Restoration
The complex was cleaned and the baptistry complex in particular restored in 1991, although the Victorian church element was not a main focus of the work, which was State-funded.
People Associated with St. Doulagh's
The Precentor of Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, was the patron of the church, and provided the church with its perpetual curate (vicar).
The future Bishop of Drumore Rev. Dr. James Saurin served in St. Doulaghs from 1788, as from 1850 did the Rev. Prof. J. G. Abeltshauser, Professor of French and German in Trinity College.
Graveyard
There is a graveyard outside. There are no reported excavations to date the earliest graves. Burial within such a small church, indeed any parish church would have been extraordinary and a great privilege, reserved for founder and perhaps a very important benefactor. Tradition has it that St Doulough was buried just inside the church entrance. Excavations by Leo Swan uncovered evidence of a burial under the north wall, near the altar position. In fact, burial of church founders in the north wall of churches became common in medieval Ireland, the celebrant taking his seat, as appropriate by the south wall of the chancel.
Sources
Armstrong, Robert, ‘St Doulough’s Church’ in The Dublin Penny Journal, Vol 1 No 34 (Feb 16 1834)
D’Alton, J: History of County Dublin, (Dublin 1838)
De Paor, L: Cormac's Chapel: ‘The beginnings of Irish Romanesque’, in (ed. E Rynne) North Munster Studies, Essays in Commemoration of Monsignor Michael Moloney (1967)
Henry, F: Irish Art In the Romanesque Period, (1020-1170 AD ) 1970
Harbison, Peter: 'St Doulough's Church', in Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, Vol 71, No 281, (Spring, 1982)
Hudson, Benjamin: Viking Pirates and Christian Princes (Oxford University Press, 2005),
Leaske, H. G: Irish Churches and Monastic Buildings, Vol 1, 1955
Lewis, Samuel : Topographical Dictionary of Ireland
Moss, Rachel: 'St Doulough's Church', in Irish Arts Review, Vol. 20 No. 2 (Summer 2003)
O’Keefe, Tadhg: Medieval Irish Buildings, Four Courts Press, 2015
Reeves, W: ‘Memoir of the Church of St Duilech’, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 7, 1859.
Sloane, J: ‘Antiquities of Fingal, No 1, St Doulough's' in The Irish Builder, September and October 1879
Swan, Leo: 'Excavations at St Doulough's Church', Unpublished report, Record of Monuments and Places file Nos DU00901-00906
References
Balgriffin
Tourist attractions in Fingal
Churches in Fingal
Church of Ireland church buildings in the Republic of Ireland
Buildings listed on the Fingal Record of Protected Structures |
4274404 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual%20movements%20in%20Iran | Intellectual movements in Iran | Intellectual movements in Iran involve the Iranian experience of modernity and its associated art, science, literature, poetry, and political structures that have been changing since the 19th century.
History of Iranian modernity
Long before the European Renaissance generated the radical ideas that eventually reshaped Europe and the United States, Persian statesmen, artists, and intellectuals had formulated ideas that strikingly anticipate those of modernity. Since more than thousand years ago there has been a conflict in Persia between the search for modernity and the forces of religious obscurantism.
Some twenty-five hundred years ago, when Herodotus was writing his Histories, Persia was the West's ultimate other.
It has been a common belief of scholars that modernity began in the West and is by its philosophical nature, economic underpinning, and cultural exigencies a uniquely western phenomenon. All other cultures, those who have lived on the darker side of Renaissance must emulate the Western experience, if they want to be modern. From Max Weber to Milan Kundera, many Western scholars and writers have argued that everything from representative democracy and rational thought to the art of the novel and the essay are not only western in origin but also uniquely suited to its culture, and native to its temperature climes.
Persia with its impressively rich and varied cultural legacy had a formative role in shaping Western consciousness. The Bible is replete with profuse praise for Persia and its kings. The Bible's praise for Cyrus the Great was partially in recognition of his role in freeing the Jews from their Babylonian captivity; of equal importance was the fact that the vast Persian empire of the time was a paragon of religious and cultural tolerance.
Hegel whose writings are considered by many as the apex of the Western philosophical tradition, uses superlatives in praising the role of Persia and Zarathustra in history.
Following Hegel in 19th-century Germany, Nietzsche wrote his magnum opus, Thus Spoke Zarathustra that similarly touched upon this key figure of the Persian imagination. Nietzsche's book offers a radical critique, almost a total debunking, of the whole Western tradition of philosophy. It is no mere accident that Nietzsche chose to articulate his critical views in the name of Zarathustra. The end of the 19th century was not the only or the last time Zarathustra played a prominent role in shaping Western consciousness and philosophic discourse. In 1990s Persian influences on the millennial fever, and on other New Age themes, were so strong that Harold Bloom, the eminent American critic, suggested that the last decade of the twentieth century should in truth be called "a return to Zoroastrian origins."
Western art, no less than history and theology, bear testimony to the ubiquity of the Persian presence in antiquity. Of all the extant works of Greek tragedy, for example, the only one that is about a non-Greek subject is Aeschylus' play The Persians.
Generations of Iranian intellectuals
First generation
The nineteenth century Persian reformers who are considered as the first generation of Iranian intellectuals were perfectly conscious of the fact that it was not enough to rely upon the antiquity of Persian civilization to think about its continued ability to survive. They tried to establish a relationship with men of power that would have permitted them to dictate their blueprints for reforms. These blueprints naturally remained without immediate impact among the men of power to whom they were addressed. These intellectual reforms encountered a widespread opposition from the court and the Ulama. Abd al-Rahim Talebof, Fath-'Ali Akhoundzadeh, and Sani o Doleh belong to this generation.
Second generation
The second generation intended to introduce modern civilization to Persia, not only by imitating the West, but through a coherent and systematic approach to European culture. Mohammad-Taqi Bahar, Ali Dashti, Ali Akbar Davar, Mohammad-Ali Foroughi, Sadeq Hedayat, Bozorg Alavi, Ahmad Kasravi, Saeed Nafisi, Hasan Taqizadeh, Abdolhossein Teymourtash and `Abdu'l-Bahá belong to this generation.
Third generation
The third generation of Iranian intellectuals signify the absorption of Russian Marxism into Iranian political and social thought. With the popularity of Marxist ideology among the third generation of Iranian intellectuals, the new culture for translation and knowledge of modernity was drawn inevitably toward moral and political absolutes. Intellectuals claimed to be "givers of lessons" and acted as "moral legislators" who were critics of both the state and the society. Jalal Al-e-Ahmad and well known intellectual and social theorist Ali Shariati belong to this generation.
Fourth generation
Fourth generation of Iranian intellectuals are mainly characterized by the journals such as Goftegu and Kiyan. In contrast with the ideological generation of Iranian intellectuals who in their encounter with the western modernity favoured a monistic attitude exemplified by Marxist and Heideggerian philosophies, the Fourth Generation of Iranian intellectuals decided on a move away and a critical distanciation from master ideologies.
The methodological position of the new generation of Iranian intellectuals is characterized by two main philosophical attitudes: the extension of an anti-utopian thinking on an intersubjective basis on the one hand, and the urge for a non-imitative dialogical exchange with the modern values of the West on the other.
Abdolkarim Soroush among many others belong to the fourth generation.
Modern art movement
Iranian experience and development of modernity led to a unique style of cinema, painting and music. Iranian New wave, a movement in Iranian cinema, has found worldwide reputation due to its deeply Philosophical, poetic and artistic style. Abbas Kiarostami is the most notable figure in the New wave of Iranian cinema. In the artistic and aesthetic realm, features of New wave of Persian cinema, for example the works of Abbas Kiarostami, can be classified as postmodern.
In his book Close Up: Iranian Cinema, Past, Present, Future (2001) Hamid Dabashi describes modern Iranian cinema and the phenomenon of [Iranian] national cinema as a form of cultural modernity. According to Dabashi, "the visual possibility of seeing the historical person (as opposed to the eternal Qur'anic man) on screen is arguably the single most important event allowing Iranians access to modernity."
Mehdi Saeedi, is an internationally renowned artist and designer. His aesthetics have become a mainstay of design in many regions, especially in those using the Arabic script as their alphabet. And on November (2009) he won Grand Price for the Five Star Designers at International Invitational Poster Triennial in Osaka, Japan.
On 13 December 2006, graphic designer, Reza Abedini, received the Principal Award in the Prince Claus Awards for his way of applying the knowledge and accomplishments of Iran's artistic heritage, renewing them, and making them exciting again. Reza Abedini's Persian Sym style unites the rich calligraphic tradition of Persian culture with "modernity".
It is believed that Ebrahim Golestan, Fereydoun Rahnema and Farrokh Ghaffari founded Iran's "different" cinematic style and Iranian intellectual movement in the 20th century.
Marcos Grigorian and Hossein Zenderoudi were pioneers of Iranian modern painting and Sculpture.
Modern and contemporary architecture movement
Although the new era in Iranian architecture began with the rise of Safavid dynasty, (1501 - 1736), in fact, it is in the early decades of the twentieth century that the first generation of modern Iranian architects, almost like every generation of modern architects in the world, appears as being influenced by the Modern Movement and rationalism in architecture. Architects such as Vartan Hovanessian, Ali Sadegh, Mohsen Foroughi, Paul Akbar, Gabriel Guevrekian, Heydar Ghiai, Abdolaziz Farmanfarmaian and Hooshang Seyhoun are examples of this movement.
Later, in the mid-1960s, Ali Sardar Afkhami, Kamran Diba and Nader Ardalan are among those Iranian architects who have opened their design approach to the history and traditions to represent a trend of Iranian Post-Modernism.
Attention for the new trends in international architecture, is being carried out by Iranian architects, even after the Islamic Revolution. Like most architectural milieu of the world, in the 1980s the experiments on the transition from post-modernism to new developments, has influenced many Iranians architects, in architects such as , , and Darab Diba.
In this context, It is of interest the attempt by some architects like Abbas Gharib or Bahram Shirdel to go in deep within the most advanced theory and trends in contemporary and Post-contemporary architecture, such as the theory of Complex systems in architecture in the case of Gharib and folding theory in the case of Shirdel. These experiments are valid methods and contribution to liberate architecture and design, from abstraction, flatness, stiffness, forced rectangular and Heterotopia of the modernist spaces for a more fluid, flexible, soft and dynamic architecture, open to the complexities of its environment and context
Music movement
Simultaneous with the constitutional revolution in Iran, young musicians sought new forms of music to synchronize with the tide of social changes. In 1937, Tehran's Symphonic Orchestra started working and performing western as well as Iranian music.
The 1979 revolution launched a renaissance in Persian classical music. The emergence of three ensembles, the Aref Ensemble, the Sheyda Ensemble and the Masters of Persian Music revolutionized Iranian music during the late 20th century and at the turn of the millennium.
New figures emerged in Persian Symphonic Music, and several symphony orchestras started their work despite a lack of support from national governments or international bodies. The new wave can be characterized by growing interest in using both Iranian and European instruments and musical genres. Perhaps the best examples are the Melal Orchestra and the National Iranian Symphony Orchestra.
Folk music also enjoyed the emergence of figures such as Sima Bina and Kamkar. These musicians introduced Iranian folk music (Khorasani, Kurdish, Bandari, Mazandarani music, among others) to the international community by organizing numerous concerts worldwide.
Letters
Literary criticism and comparative literature in Iran entered a new phase in the 19th century. Persian literature enjoyed the emergence of influential figures as Sadeq Hedayat, Ahmad Kasravi, Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, Shahrokh Meskoob, Ebrahim Golestan and Sadegh Choubak.
Poetry after classics
Modern Persian poetry came into existence after Nima Yushij. Some notable figures include:
Nima Yushij
Bijan Jalali
Fereydoon Moshiri
Forough Farrokhzad
Manouchehr Atashi
Mehdi Akhavan-Sales
Hushang Ebtehaj
Ahmad Shamlou
Mohammad Ali Sepanloo
Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani
Mohammad Zohari
Simin Behbahani
Sohrab Sepehri
Drama
After the translation of Mirza Fatali Akhundov's plays into Persian in the 19th century, Persian drama came into a new period. 20th century saw the appearance of great playwrights such as Bahram Beyzai and Akbar Radi.
Modern scientific movement
The history of modern science in Iran dates back to the year 1851 and the establishment of Darolfonoon – which was founded as a result of the efforts of Mirza Taghi Khan Amir Kabir, aiming at training and teaching Iranian experts on many fields of sciences, and it was the future minded Abbas Mirza who first dispatched students to Europe to obtain a western education.
By the establishment of Tehran University, science in Iran entered a new phase. Mahmoud Hessaby, Ali-Asghar Hekmat, Moslem Bahadori and many others played roles in initiating and forming these movements. The outcome of the movement has been the emergence of researchers who have been trained and received doctorate degrees in the country and have found international reputations.
Modernization of Iranian medicine did not occur through the straightforward replacement of traditional Persian medicine by modern European medicine. Rather, the integration of modern medicine went through a long process that included both the reinterpretation of traditional theories by traditional physicians and the assimilation of modern theories through the prism of traditional medicine.
One of the main Iranian scientific movements in the late 20th century was in the field of chemistry and pharmaceutical chemistry. The main leaders of this movement were Abbas Shafiee, Bijan Farzami, Mohammad-Nabi Sarbolouki, Issa Yavari and Ahmad Reza Dehpour. The movement resulted in hundreds of research papers in peer-reviewed international journals.
Other notable figures who promoted world-class research in Iran during the 20th century are
Reza Mansouri and Yousof Sobouti (Physics)
Abolhassan Farhoudi (Immunology)
Mohammad Reza Zarrindast (Pharmacology)
Fereydoun Davatchi (Rheumatology)
Taher Movassaghian (Chemistry)
Ardeshir Ghavamzadeh (Hematology)
Ali Radmehr (Radiology)
Hossein Najmabadi (Medical genetics)
Hormoz Shams (Ophthalmology)
Moslem Bahadori (Pathology)
Hormoz Dabirashrafi (Obstetrics and Gynecology)
Hossein Esteky (Neuroscience)
G.R. Baradaran Khosroshahi (Mathematics)
Caro Lucas (Electrical Engg., AI)
Jawad Salehi (Electrical Engg.)
Ali Kaveh (Civil Engg.)
Iran's university population has swelled from 100,000 in 1979 to 2 million in 2006. Indeed, in Iran some 70% of science and engineering students are women.
Iran is now a world leader in some areas like string theory. When a reporter for Nature asked Reza Mansouri: "Why do I see so many string theory papers coming out of Iran?" He explained how Iranian scientists worked together under revolution, sanctions and war to bring Iran to such a position: "I remember exactly the beginning of the revolution, some old colleagues just sat together and spoke about what we could do for Iran. Is it understood that we have to look for excellence, in some areas that we may be strong and that we may get strong at that so that will be the field of physics. So we began with that. It happens that the most active field physicists in our country were working on the string theory at that time. So they tried to be of a school, so to speak, and we did know that that was the only way which was somehow independent of all these political fluctuations regarding war, regarding cultural revolution, all that, and we really tried hard to build up schools. So we have it now, string schools, so to say somehow."
In 2007 United Nations awarded Hossein Malek-Afzali with the prestigious UN Population Award. Malek Afzali has helped design strategies to improve health procedures, particularly adolescent health, reproductive health and family planning. In the field of reproductive health, he has engaged policymakers and religious leaders in the planning and implementation of reproductive health programmes in Iran.
Iranian women's movement
Currently women's rights groups are among the most active social rights groups in Iran and are mostly involved in an effort to gain equal rights for women in the Iranian legal system by opposing specific discriminatory laws. However, under the Presidential regime of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, elected president in 2005, women's rights advocates have been beaten, jailed and persecuted.
The presence of women in Iranian intellectual movements (science, modern literature, cinema, human-rights activism, etc.) has been remarkable throughout the history of modern Iran. According to the research ministry of Iran, women accounted for 56% of all university students in the natural sciences, including one in five Ph.D. students. Such education and social trends are increasingly viewed with alarm by the Iranian government.
In cinema and the visual arts, Shirin Neshat, Tahmineh Milani, Rakhshan Bani Etemad, and Samira Makhmalbaf created new cinematic styles which have attracted many from all over the world and in international festivals. Persian poet and literary figure Simin Behbahani was nominated for 1997 Nobel Prize for literature. The 2003 Nobel Peace Prize went to Shirin Ebadi for her efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Simin Daneshvar's Savushun is a novel about the Iranian experience of modernity during the 20th century.
Iranian writer and satirist, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi was perhaps the first professional female satirist, critic and one of the notable figures involved in Persian constitutional revolution.
In the early 20th century, Persian music enjoyed the emergence of Qamar ol-Molouk Vaziri, the "Lady of Iranian music".
Historical landmarks
Persian constitutional revolution
Iran had undergone a phenomenal constitutional revolution at the turn of the twentieth century. The constitutional movement was concerned with modernity and human rights. It led to the establishment of a parliament in Iran. Mirza Jahangir-Khan Shirazi and Farrokhi Yazdi were among the most notable writers and critics of this era who sacrificed their lives for establishment of democracy and freedom in Iran.
28 Mordad coup
In the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, known in Iran as the 28 Mordad coup, the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mosaddegh was overthrown on 19 August 1953. The coup d'état was orchestrated by the United Kingdom (under the name 'Operation Boot') and the United States (under the name TPAJAX Project).
Mossadegh had sought to reduce the semi-absolute role of the Shah granted by the Constitution of 1906, thus making Iran a full democracy, and to nationalize the Iranian oil industry, consisting of vast oil reserves and the Abadan Refinery, both owned by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, a British corporation (now BP).
A military government under General Fazlollah Zahedi was formed which allowed Mohammad-Rezā Shāh Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran (Persian for an Iranian king), to effectively rule the country as an absolute monarch according to the constitution. He relied heavily on United States support to hold on to power until his own overthrow in February 1979.
In August 2013 the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) admitted that it was involved in both the planning and the execution of the coup, including the bribing of Iranian politicians, security and army high-ranking officials, as well as pro-coup propaganda. The CIA is quoted acknowledging the coup was carried out "under CIA direction" and "as an act of U.S. foreign policy, conceived and approved at the highest levels of government."
Iranian Revolution
Some researchers believe that the Iranian Revolution was not a simple clash between modernity and tradition but an attempt to accommodate modernity within a sense of authentic Islamic identity, culture and historical experience.
Perceived by many as a revolt against the secular modernity of the West, Iranian revolution was welcomed by some Western thinkers as a triumph of spiritual values over the profane world of capitalist materialism. For others the Iranian revolution was a protest against the very political rationality of the modern era.
2nd of Khordad movement
The election of the former President Mohammad Khatami in May 1997 was through the emergence of a new political force, the youth. Inspired by simultaneously individualist and democratic ideals that are incompatible in every respect with the authoritarian values and symbols traditionally associated in the Iranian intellectual arena with Marxist and Heideggerian World views. It is in this new social atmosphere that the emergence of a global community or a cyberpolis was able to reveal to the Iranian youth the true nature of instrumental rationality as modern universal standards. Saeed Hajjarian was widely believed to be the main strategist behind the 1997 reform movement of Iran. He allegedly showed the supremacy of politics as such over any religious norm when he said that the survival of the Islamic Republic was paramount and that no religious ritual should stand in its way. This kind of decision, he states, means that politics are more important than religion and that this acknowledges the secularization of religion. In this context, he argues, it is possible to reassess velayat faqih and to reject its supremacy within the political field in Iran. While calling to build a new reform movement, Hajjarian believes that the reform movement started in 1997, died during Khatami's second term. He believes that the reform project started by Persian constitutional revolution, has not been completed yet.(ref: Farhad Khosrokhavar, The New Intellectuals in Iran, Social Compass, Vol. 51, No. 2, 191-202 (2004))
The scope of 2nd of Khordad movement was much broader than President Khatami's reform plan. The latter has been criticised for wanting slow progress and not producing a real democratic alternative for the current Islamic republic. When asked about this during Khatami's visit to United Kingdom, he said "You know for centuries we have been under dictatorship so we cannot get to a democracy all of a sudden, we have to go step by step"
Campaigns against intellectuals
After the Iranian Revolution, the Cultural Revolution and the Chain murders of Iran were two major campaigns that involved the imprisonment, torture, emigration, and massacre of Iranian scholars.
Intellectual circles in late 20th century
Intellectual circles in postrevolutionary Iran can be classified into the following categories:
Revolutionary intellectual circles
The main figures in this category are Ali Shariati, Jalal Al Ahmad and Morteza Motahhari. Morteza Motahhari was the main theorist and thinker behind Iranian revolution. He is considered to be one of the most influential philosophical leaders of pre-revolutionary Iran and the impact and popularity of his thought continues to be felt throughout Iranian society many years later.
Reformist intellectual circles
Main figures in this category are Mehdi Bazargan, Abdolkarim Soroush, Mohammad Mojtahed Shabestari, Mostafa Malekian, Mohsen Kadivar, Alireza Alavitabar and Hossein Bashiriyeh.
The unifying traits of these intellectuals include their recognition of reform in the Islamic thought, democracy, civil society and religious pluralism and their opposition to the absolute supremacy of the Faqih. The rise of religious intellectuals can be followed through the writings of Abdolkarim Soroosh. Soroosh's main idea is that there are perennial unchanging religious truths, but our understanding of them remains contingent on our knowledge in the fields of science and philosophy. Unlike Ali Shariati, who turned to Marxism to bring a historicist perspective to the Shiite thought, Soroosh debates the relation between democracy and religion and discusses the possibility of what he calls religious democracy.
Influenced by Persian mysticism, Soroush advocated a type of reformist Islam that went beyond most liberal Muslim thinkers of the 20th century and argued that the search for reconciliation of Islam and democracy was not a matter of simply finding appropriate phrases in the Qur'an that were in agreement with modern science, democracy, or human rights. Drawing on the works of Molana Jalaleddin Balkhi, Immanuel Kant, G.W.F. Hegel, Karl Popper, and Erich Fromm, Soroush called for a reexamination of all tenets of Islam, insisting on the need to maintain the religion's original spirit of social justice and its emphasis on caring for other people.
Other influential figures in these circles are Saeed Hajjarian, Ahmad Sadri, Mahmoud Sadri, Ezzatollah Sahabi, Ahmad Ghabel and Hassan Yousefi Eshkevari. Akbar Ganji had also been associated with this circle before he published his Manifest of Republicanism. Moreover, Akbar Ganji took a tour around the world in order to invite non Iranian intellectuals to join Iran's intellectual movement. Many Persian scholars believe that such interactions with world scholars would promote Iranian intellectualism and democratic reform. Richard Rorty, Noam Chomsky, Anthony Giddens, David Hild, Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt among a few others accepted the honorary membership of Iranian intellectual society.
Perhaps the most important achievement of this circle was training a new generation of Iranian intellectuals who are far ahead of their mentors and do not belong to any of well-established intellectual circles in Iran. Ahmad Zeidabadi and Mehdi Jami belong to this new generation of Persian scholars.
Democratic religious circles (In-system reformers)
These groups are characterized by the followings:
Support for Islamic republic as the best form of government
Calling for Religious tolerance
Calling for democratic values
Rejecting liberalism
Rejecting secularism
Calling for the rule of law and civil society
They believe that ethics has priority over politics.
The main thinker and theorist of this circle is Mohammad Khatami, former president of Iran. Other notable figures include Yousef Sanei, Abdollah Noori, Mir Hossein Mousavi and Mostafa Moin. They are mainly under the influence of ideas of Ayatollah Mirza Hossein Na'eeni and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
Neo-conservative intellectual circles
Unlike the reformist intellectuals, the neo- conservative intellectuals in Iran are in favor of the supremacy of the Leader and against concepts such as democracy, civil society and pluralism. This movement includes figures such as Reza Davari Ardakani, Javad Larijani and Mehdi Golshani. The famous personality among these is Reza Davari Ardakani, who as an anti- Western philosopher is very familiar with the works of Martin Heidegger. Davari, unlike Soroosh, takes some of the features of Heidegger's thought, mainly the critic of modernity and puts it into an Islamic wording. He rejects the Western model of democracy, which is based on the separation of politics and religion.
Non-religious intellectual circles
Main figures in this category are Javad Tabatabaei, Dariush Shayegan, Amir Hossein Aryanpour, Ramin Jahanbegloo, Ehsan Naraghi, Khosro Naghed, Abbas Milani, and Aramesh Doustdar.
Javad Tabtabaei deplores the deep roots of religion in the Iranian culture. For Tabatabai, the decline of the Iranian political thought goes back to the 9th and 10th centuries and, since then, it has been impossible for them to adequately understand the modernity. The social sciences, according to him, have been introduced in Iran without the secularization of thought and its rationalization and therefore, they reproduce in an unconscious way the ancient prejudices and the inability to think adequately.
Dariush Shayegan criticizes a view of religion that does not take into account the major trends of the modern world where cultural homogeneity and religious absolutism are questioned. The quest for a holistic identity based on a monolithic view of Islam is alien to the evolution of modern world and means the isolation and regression of the (Iranian) society.
Dariush Shayegan, who writes mainly in French (but has been extensively translated into Persian), shares some of the views of these particular intellectuals, but his major contribution is to invite Iranians to accept the ‘‘fragmented identity’’ of the modern world and to renounce a unitary view of the Self which leads to a fascination with utopian and mythological ideologies. He insists that, since Iran has undergone the change directly from tradition to postmodernity without the mediation of modernity, it is experiencing a strong malaise. His solution is to open up Iran to the new multicultural world in which one has to accept the diversity of the perspectives and, therefore, to be tolerant towards others who do not think and behave in the same way as the Self. This invitation to become open-minded and to give up the idea of a homogeneous culture exerts an undeniable influence on many young people in Iran.
Traditional scholars
The most notable circle was associated with Hossein Nasr, founder of Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy. For Nasr, the traditional world was pervaded by a tremendous sense of the Sacred and the Absolute, whereas the inception of modernity involved precisely the severing off of that awareness, resulting in what Max Weber would later dub the disenchantment of the world.
Nasr has been an unrelenting opponent of Islamic fundamentalism in all its forms throughout his career because he sees it as a somewhat vigilante reactionary movement operating within the paradigm of the modern nation state, but even more so, because it lacks a well thought out metaphysical basis rooted in a traditional Muslim understanding of the world which respects both nature and human dignity.
Other notable figures
There are several intellectual figures who continue to be very influential in Iranian society, while they do not belong to any of the above-mentioned philosophical circles:
Scholars:
Yadollah Sahabi, prominent academic, writer and scientist
Mohammad Gharib, pioneering physician and academic
Fereydoun Hoveyda (prominent scholar, writer and filmmaker)
Daryoush Ashouri (prominent scholar, linguist and cultural theorist)
Masoud Behnoud (prominent journalist and writer)
Parviz Varjavand (scholar, archeologist and expert of cultural heritage)
Farrokhroo Parsa (scholar, politician and physician; first female minister of Iran)
Economists:
Mousa Ghaninejad (senior Iranian economist)
Fariborz Rais-Dana (senior economist)
Experts on law and political sciences:
Davoud Hermidas-Bavand (prominent scholar and political scientist)
Nasser Katouzian (Tehran University professor of law and political sciences)
Jamshid Momtaz (Tehran University professor of international law)
Javad Zarif (prominent scholar, political analyst and expert on international relations)
Sadeq Zibakalam (leading political scientist and professor of Tehran University)
Amir Attaran lawyer and immunologist; expert on public health and global development issues.
Elaheh Koulaei (political scientist and expert on USSR at Tehran University)
Philosophy education in Iran
Philosophy has become a popular subject of study during last few decades in Iran. Comparing the number of philosophy books currently published in Iran with that in other countries, Iran possibly ranks first in this field but it is definitely on top in terms of publishing philosophy books. Currently different approaches are working in a diverging fields of philosophy:
1. Traditional Persian Islamic philosophy. traditional classic philosophy revived after a period of silence, in Tehran School, and notably works of Agha Ali Modarres Zonoozi in the early 20th century, after him both schools of Tehran and Ghom (with the works of Allameh Tabatabai and Imam Ruhollah Khomayni) activated philosophical debates. Nowaday, Islamic philosophy is the most fresh period all over the world in Iran all the way after Sfavid school of Isfahan. The most notable figures of our time include Allameh Hossein tabatabaii, Allameh Rafiai Gazvini, Mehdi Hayeri Yazdi, Falatouri, Hasan zadeh Amoli, Morteza Motahhari, Abolhasan Jelveh, Mohammad tagi Amoli, allameh hossein Gharavi Isfahani (kompani), Ibrahim Ashtiyani, Jalaloddin Ashtiyani, Kazem assar.
2. Western philosophy. The Western philosophy is mostly welcome to Iran in the 19th century, but its full development began in the 1970s, with the reactive movement against the left political thought of Soviet sect of Toodeh party, most notably by refutation of their Marxist–Leninist works (typically in Tagi Arani's works). The leading figures include Allameh Tabatabai, and his pupil Morteza Motahhari. Also Ahmad Fardid and his Circle who introduced phenomenology and very specifically Martin Heidegger to Iranian Academia. His pupils like Reza Davari, Dariush Shayegan who are now among famous Iranian philosophers developed his way to interpret modern conditions in Iran. Today the most dominant branch of Western philosophy in Iranian academia is Continental philosophy; The domination of the department of philosophy of the University of Tehran over the teaching of philosophy with laying on Islamic philosophy and Continental philosophy put it ahead of philosophy education in Iran. Department of philosophy of the University of Tehran traditionally is the top place of the greatest philosophers in secular education system in Iran; among the philosophers of the University of Tehran to be named are Reza Davari, Ebrahimi Dinani, and Mahmoud Khatami whose influences are clear all over students of philosophy. Reza Davari who is a philosopher with great debates on Modern condition, intellectualism and enlightenment ranked as the leading Persian philosopher with anti-Western approach. His ideas challenge the defender of Western culture and notably the defender of analytical philosophy and scienticism. Dinani is a defender of Islamic philosophy who also talks about the west; Mahmoud Khatami, who is commonly considered as a phenomenologist, is ranked as a totally scholar with no political sign who teaches analytical and continental philosophies in the university, but he has developed a different philosophy of his own that is called [Ontetics]. However, analytical philosophy is also introduced in Iran in the 1970s by the translations from British Empiricism, and then, in 1980 to the present an increasing interest is in students of philosophy to learn more from this 20th-century branch of philosophy. Very specifically, analytic philosophy of science and social science, and moral philosophy introduced by Abdolkarim Soroush in the early 1980s, and followed by others. Philosophy of mind introduced to Iranian academia by Mahmoud Khatami, and philosophy of logic and philosophy of language introduced by Hamid Vahid Dastgerdi. Philosophy of religion is also most welcome branch with the Iranian scholars.
3. Comparative philosophy is a tendency in Iranian scholarship.
4. Traditionalist (sonnatgera)is also an approach introduced by Hossein Nasr.
See also
History of philosophy
History of ideas
Intellectual history
Iranian modern and contemporary art
Iranian philosophy
Isfahan School
Persian literature
Religious intellectualism in Iran
Science and technology in Iran
References
Sources
Latifiyan, Ali. Reviewing the Performance of Intellectuals from 1941 to 1979, (1995), Tehran: Imam Sadiq University
Abbas Milani, Lost Wisdom: Rethinking Modernity in Iran, Mage Publishers, (2004). .
The fourth generation of Iranian intellectuals, Ramin Jahanbegloo, (2000).
Secularism, national identity, and the role of the intellectual, by Ramin Jahanbegloo, (2005).
Ramin Jahanbegloo, Iranian intellectuals: from revolution to dissent
Farhad Khosrokhavar, The New Intellectuals in Iran, Social Compass, Vol. 51, No. 2, 191-202 (2004)
Afshin Matin-asgari, Iranian postmodernity: the rhetoric of irrationality?, Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 13, Number 1 / Spring (2004).
Gheissari, Ali. Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th Century. Austin University of Texas Press, 1998.
External links
Religious Intellectual and Political Action in the Reform Movement
The next chapter: Atypical conversations with Daryush Shayegan on the impact of ideology in contemporary Iranian history
Far Near Distance: Contemporary positions of Iranian artists
The great land of the Sophy: Persian influences
The Emergence and Development of Religious Intellectualism in Iran
Sadeq Hedayat Centenary Symposium
Amir Hossein Aryanpour, A rational man
Coming to Terms with Modernity: Iranian intellectuals and the emerging public sphere
The reform movement and the debate on modernity and tradition in contemporary Iran
Abdolkarim Soroush; Iran's Democratic Voice Time magazine
Amir Hossein Aryanpour, Prominent Iranian intellectual
Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph of Nativism
Swedish scholar, Hans Rosling on Iranian experience of modernity
Iranian culture
Persian philosophy
History of civil rights and liberties in Iran
Intellectualism |
4274699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Vengeance | Operation Vengeance | Operation Vengeance was the American military operation to kill Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto of the Imperial Japanese Navy on 18 April 1943 during the Solomon Islands campaign in the Pacific Theater of World War II. Yamamoto, commander of the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, was killed near Bougainville Island when his transport aircraft was shot down by United States Army Air Forces fighter aircraft operating from Kukum Field on Guadalcanal.
The mission of the U.S. aircraft was specifically to kill Yamamoto, made possible because of United States Navy intelligence decoding transmissions about Yamamoto's travel itinerary through the Solomon Islands area. The death of Yamamoto reportedly damaged the morale of Japanese naval personnel, raised the morale of the Allied forces, and was intended as revenge by U.S. leaders, who blamed Yamamoto for the attack on Pearl Harbor that initiated the war between Imperial Japan and the United States.
The U.S. pilots claimed to have shot down three twin-engine bombers and two fighters during the mission, but Japanese records show only two bombers were shot down. There is a controversy over which pilot shot down Yamamoto's plane, but most modern historians credit Rex T. Barber.
Background
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy, scheduled an inspection tour of the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. He planned to inspect Japanese air units participating in Operation I-Go that had begun 7 April 1943; in addition, the tour would boost Japanese morale following the disastrous Guadalcanal campaign and its subsequent evacuation during January and February.
Intelligence
On 14 April the U.S. naval intelligence effort code-named "Magic" intercepted and decrypted orders alerting affected Japanese units of the tour. The original message, NTF131755, addressed to the commanders of Base Unit No. 1, the 11th Air Flotilla, and the 26th Air Flotilla, was encoded in the Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D, and was picked up by three stations of the "Magic" apparatus, including Fleet Radio Unit Pacific Fleet. The message was then deciphered by Navy cryptographers (among them future Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens); it contained time and location details of Yamamoto's itinerary, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey.
The decrypted text revealed that on 18 April Yamamoto would fly from Rabaul to Balalae Airfield, on an island near Bougainville in the Solomon Islands. He and his staff would fly in two medium bombers (Mitsubishi G4M Bettys of the Kōkūtai 705), escorted by six navy fighters (Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters of the Kōkūtai 204), to depart Rabaul at 06:00 and arrive at Balalae at 08:00, Tokyo time.
The U.S. Army Military Intelligence Service (MIS) was made up mostly of Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans). They were trained in interpretation, interrogation, and translation of Japanese materials ranging from standard textbooks to captured documents. Information leading to Yamamoto's ambush was a significant MIS contribution in the Solomons campaign. MIS Technical Sergeant Harold Fudenna translated an intercepted radio message indicating the itinerary of Yamamoto. Although this message was first met with skepticism that the Japanese would be so careless, other MIS linguists in Alaska and Hawaii had also intercepted the same message, confirming its accuracy.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt may have authorized Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox to "get Yamamoto", but no official record of such an order exists, and sources disagree whether he did so. Knox essentially let Admiral Chester W. Nimitz make the decision. Nimitz first consulted Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., Commander, South Pacific, and then authorized the mission on 17 April. These U.S. commanders judged that the benefits of a successful mission included that Japanese morale would be negatively affected by news of Yamamoto's death and that Yamamoto's replacement would be less capable. When the issue was raised that the mission could reveal that the United States had broken Japanese naval codes, the commanders decided the knowledge could be protected as long as the true source of the intelligence was kept hidden from unauthorized American personnel and the press.
Interception
To avoid detection by radar and Japanese personnel stationed in the Solomon Islands along a straight-line distance of about between U.S. forces and Bougainville, the mission entailed an over-water flight south and west of the Solomons. This roundabout approach was plotted and measured to be about . The fighters would, therefore, travel 600 miles out to the target and 400 miles back. The 1,000-mile flight, with extra fuel allotted for combat, was beyond the range of the F4F Wildcat and F4U Corsair fighters then available to Navy and Marine squadrons based on Guadalcanal. The mission was instead assigned to the 339th Fighter Squadron, 347th Fighter Group, whose P-38G Lightning aircraft, equipped with drop tanks, were the only American fighters in the Pacific with the range to intercept, engage and return.
339th Squadron Commander Major John W. Mitchell, already an ace pilot, was chosen to lead the flight. For better navigation, Mitchell asked for a navy compass, which was provided by Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel Luther S. Moore and installed in Mitchell's P-38 the day before the attack. All of the P-38 fighters mounted their standard armament of one 20 mm cannon and four .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns, and were equipped to carry two drop tanks under their wings. A limited supply of tanks was flown up from New Guinea, sufficient to provide each Lightning with one large tank to replace one of the small tanks. The difference in size put approximately greater weight on one side of the aircraft, but the tanks were located close enough to the aircraft's center of gravity to avoid serious performance problems.
Eighteen P-38s were assigned the mission. One flight of four was designated as the "killer" flight, while the remainder, which included two spares, would climb to to act as "top cover" for the expected reaction by Japanese fighters based at Kahili. A flight plan was prepared by the Command Operations Officer, Marine Major John Condon, but this was discarded by Mitchell who thought the airspeeds and time estimates were not best for intercepting Yamamoto. With several of his pilots assisting, Mitchell calculated an intercept time of 09:35, based on the itinerary, to catch the bombers descending over Bougainville, 10 minutes before landing at Balalae. He worked back from that time and drew four precisely calculated legs, with a fifth leg curving in a search pattern in case Yamamoto was not seen at the chosen point. In addition to heading out over the Coral Sea, the 339th would "wave-hop" all the way to Bougainville at altitudes no greater than 50 feet (15 m), maintaining radio silence.
Although the 339th Fighter Squadron officially carried out the mission, 10 of the 18 pilots were drawn from the other two squadrons of the 347th Group. The Commander AirSols, Rear Admiral Marc A. Mitscher, selected four pilots to be designated as the "killer" flight:
Captain Thomas G. Lanphier Jr.
Lieutenant Rex T. Barber
Lieutenant Jim McLanahan (dropped out with flat tire)
Lieutenant Joe Moore (dropped out with faulty fuel feed)
The remaining pilots would act as reserves and provide air cover against any retaliatory attacks by local Japanese fighters:
Major John Mitchell
Lieutenant William Smith
Lieutenant Gordon Whittiker
Lieutenant Roger Ames
Captain Louis Kittel
Lieutenant Lawrence Graebner
Lieutenant Doug Canning
Lieutenant Delton Goerke
Lieutenant Julius Jacobson
Lieutenant Eldon Stratton
Lieutenant Albert Long
Lieutenant Everett Anglin
Lieutenant Besby F. Holmes (replaced McLanahan)
Lieutenant Raymond K. Hine (replaced Moore)
A briefing included the designated cover story for the source of the intelligence stating it had come from Australian coastwatchers, who supposedly had spotted an important high-ranking officer boarding an aircraft at Rabaul. Several historians say that the pilots were not specifically briefed on the identity of their target, but Thomas Alexander Hughes writes that Mitscher told the assembled pilots it was Yamamoto, to "provide additional incentive" to the fliers.
The specially fitted P-38s took off from Kukum Field on Guadalcanal beginning at 07:25 on 18 April. Two of the Lightnings assigned to the killer flight dropped out of the mission at the start, one with a tire flattened during takeoff (McLanahan) and the second when its drop tanks would not feed fuel to the engines (Moore).
In Rabaul, despite urgings by local Japanese commanders to cancel the trip for fear of ambush, Yamamoto's airplanes took off as scheduled for the trip of . They climbed to , with their fighter escort at their 4 o'clock position and higher, split into two V-formations of three planes.
Mitchell's flight of four led the squadron at low altitude, with the killer flight, consisting of Lanphier, Barber, and spares Besby F. Holmes and Raymond K. Hine, immediately behind. Mitchell, fighting off drowsiness, navigated solely by dead reckoning (speed and compass heading). This has been called the longest-distance fighter-intercept mission of the war.
Mitchell and his force arrived at the intercept point one minute early, at 09:34, just as Yamamoto's aircraft descended into view in a light haze. The P-38s jettisoned the auxiliary tanks, turned to the right to parallel the bombers, and began a full power climb to intercept them.
The tanks on Holmes's P-38 did not detach, and his two-man element turned back toward the sea. Mitchell radioed Lanphier and Barber to engage, and they climbed toward the eight aircraft. The nearest escort fighters dropped their own tanks and dived toward the pair of P-38s. Lanphier immediately turned head-on and climbed towards the escorts while Barber chased the diving bomber transports. Barber banked steeply to turn in behind the bombers and momentarily lost sight of them, but when he regained contact, he was immediately behind one and began firing into its right engine, rear fuselage, and empennage. When Barber hit its left engine, the bomber began to trail heavy black smoke. The Betty rolled violently to the left, and Barber narrowly avoided a mid-air collision. Looking back, he saw a column of black smoke and assumed the Betty had crashed into the jungle. Barber headed towards the coast at treetop level, searching for the second bomber, not knowing which one carried the targeted high-ranking officer.
Barber spotted the second bomber—carrying Chief of Staff Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki and part of Yamamoto's staff—low over the water off Moila Point, trying to evade an attack by Holmes, whose wing tanks had finally come off. Holmes damaged the right engine of the Betty, which emitted a white vapor trail, but his closure speed carried him and his wingman Hine past the damaged bomber. Barber attacked the crippled bomber, and his bullet strikes caused it to shed metal debris that damaged his own aircraft. The bomber descended and crash-landed in the water. Ugaki and two others survived the crash and were later rescued. Barber, Holmes and Hine were attacked by Zeros, with Barber's P-38 receiving 104 hits. Holmes and Barber each claimed a Zero shot down during this melee, although Japanese records show that no Zeros were lost. The top cover briefly engaged reacting Zeros without making any kills. Mitchell observed the column of smoke from Yamamoto's crashed bomber. Hine's P-38 had disappeared by this point, presumably crashed into the water. Running close to minimum fuel levels for return to base, the P-38s broke off contact, with Holmes so short of fuel that he was forced to land in the Russell Islands. Hine was the only American pilot who did not return. Lanphier's actions during the battle are unclear as his account was later disputed by other participants, including the Japanese fighter pilots. As he approached Henderson Field, Lanphier radioed the fighter director on Guadalcanal that "That son of a bitch will not be dictating any peace terms in the White House", breaching security and endangering the code-breaking program. Upon landing, one engine quit from fuel starvation. He immediately put in a claim for shooting down Yamamoto.
Aftermath
The crash site and body of Yamamoto were found on 19 April, the day after the attack, by a Japanese search-and-rescue party led by army engineer Lieutenant Tsuyoshi Hamasuna. The crash site was located in the jungle north of the coastal site of the former Australian patrol post and Catholic mission of Buin (which was re-established after the war several kilometers inland).
The retrieval party noted Yamamoto had been thrown clear of the plane's wreckage, his white-gloved hand grasping the hilt of his katana, his body still upright in his seat under a tree. Hamasuna said Yamamoto was instantly recognizable, his head tilted down as if deep in thought. A post-mortem of Yamamoto indicated two bullet wounds, one to the back of his left shoulder, and a separate wound to his left lower jaw that appeared to exit above his right eye. The Japanese navy doctor examining Yamamoto's body determined the head wound killed Yamamoto. These more violent details of Yamamoto's death were hidden from the Japanese public, and the medical report whitewashed, this secrecy "on orders from above" according to biographer Hiroyuki Agawa.
In Japan, Yamamoto's killing became known as the "Navy A (kō) incident". It raised morale in the United States and shocked the Japanese, who were officially told about the incident only on 21 May. The announcement said that the admiral was killed in April while directing strategy on the front lines and had "engaged in combat with the enemy and met gallant death on a war plane."
Norman Lodge, an Associated Press correspondent in the South Pacific, found out what had happened and filed a detailed story about the mission on 11 May which said the United States had been tracking Yamamoto for five days before the shoot-down, but U.S. military censors prevented the story from going out. At this point, U.S. officials had not disclosed anything about the operation, and the American public first learned of Yamamoto's death when the 21 May Japanese statement was covered in the news. The Japanese account was augmented by American writers noting that Yamamoto's purported claim that he would dictate peace terms to the United States from a seat in the White House was now sure not to happen. Roosevelt was quoted as saying "Gosh!" on 21 May upon supposedly learning the news from reporters about the Japanese announcement. Over the next couple of days there were stories in the U.S. press speculating that the Japanese announcement was a cover for Yamamoto having committed hara-kiri because the war was not going well for the Japanese. Then on 31 May Time magazine ran separate stories several pages apart, one which reported the Japanese announcement and one which related how Lanphier and his P-38 pilots on Guadalcanal had shot down three Japanese bombers over Bougainville and then flown home wondering if they had killed "some Jap bigwig" in the bombers. However, the Japanese did not draw any conclusions from this.
Regardless of any cover story, intelligence officials in Great Britain were upset by the operation; not having suffered the Pearl Harbor attack themselves, they did not have the same visceral feelings towards Yamamoto and did not think that killing any one admiral was worth the risk to Allied codebreaking abilities against Japan. Indeed, Prime Minister Winston Churchill protested against the decision to go ahead with the operation to Roosevelt.
The American public did not learn the full story of the operation, including that it was based on broken codes, until 10 September 1945 after the conclusion of the war, when many papers published an Associated Press account. Even then U.S. intelligence was frustrated because they wanted to keep the secret longer as they were still debriefing Japanese intelligence officers and feared knowledge of the code-breaking would rush those officers into shame-driven suicide.
Crash site
The remains of Yamamoto's aircraft, 323 of the 705th Kokutai, lie in the jungle around from the town of Panguna, (). The crash site is around an hour's walk from the nearest road.
Although the aircraft wreckage has been heavily scavenged by souvenir hunters, parts of the fuselage remain where it crashed. The site is on private land. Access was previously difficult as the ownership of the land was disputed. However, , it is possible for visitors to gain access to the site by prior arrangement.
Part of one wing has been removed and is displayed, on permanent loan, at the Isoroku Yamamoto Family Museum in Nagaoka, Japan. One of the aircraft's doors is at the Papua New Guinea National Museum and Art Gallery.
Credit controversy
Although Operation Vengeance was notable for its target, there has been controversy about who shot down the admiral's aircraft. The issue began immediately after the mission when the U.S. military credited Captain Thomas Lanphier with the kill. Lanphier claimed in his report that after turning to engage the escort Zeros and shooting the wings off one, he had flipped upside down as he circled back towards the two bombers. Upon seeing the lead bomber turning in a circle below him, he came out of his turn at a right angle to the circling bomber and fired, blowing off its right wing. The plane then crashed into the jungle. Lanphier also reported that he saw Lieutenant Rex Barber shoot down another bomber which also crashed into the jungle.
From the report, U.S. intelligence assumed that three bombers had been downed because Lieutenant Besby F. Holmes claimed the "Betty" that crashed into the sea. None of the remaining pilots were debriefed after the mission because no formal interrogation procedures existed on Guadalcanal at that time. Likewise, Lanphier's claim of the kill was not officially witnessed. Many of the mission's other pilots were skeptical of the official U.S. Army version. Six months later, unauthorized details about the operation leaked into the press. In October 1943, an issue of Time magazine featured an article about Vengeance and mentioned Lanphier by name. An outraged U.S. Navy considered it a serious breach of security. As a result, Major John Mitchell's nomination for the Medal of Honor was downgraded to the Navy Cross; this was the same award subsequently presented to all the pilots of the killer flight.
The controversy did not subside after the war because of the testimony of the surviving Japanese escort pilot who witnessed the mission. Zero pilot Kenji Yanagiya, who had been in Yamamoto's fighter escort, told Mitchell he might have been responsible for the loss of Hine because he had heavily damaged a P-38 (escorting another Lightning that had not dropped its fuel tanks), although neither he nor any of the other Zero pilots had claimed a P-38 that day. The cause of Hine's disappearance is still officially undetermined. Yanagiya also affirmed that none of the escorting Japanese fighters were shot down, stating that only one was damaged enough that it required a half day of repair at Buin. These details contradicted Lanphier's claim for a Zero. Likewise, Japanese military records confirmed that only two Mitsubishi G4M bombers had been shot down on the day. Eventually, Lanphier and Barber were officially awarded half credits for the destruction of the bomber that crashed into the jungle, and half credits to Barber and Holmes for the bomber that crashed at sea. Several ground inspections of Yamamoto's crash site have determined that the path of the bullet impacts validated Barber's account because "all visible gunfire and shrapnel damage was caused by bullets entering from immediately behind the bomber," not from the right.
Subsequently, Barber petitioned the Air Force Board for Correction of Military Records to have his half credit on the bomber shared with Lanphier changed to a whole credit. In September 1991, the Air Force History Office advised the board that "enough uncertainty" existed in both Lanphier's and Barber's claims for them both to be accepted; the board's decision was split on Barber's petition. Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice ruled to retain the shared credit. Barber then applied to the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals to have the ruling of the Secretary of the Air Force overturned and the opposing claims re-investigated, but the court did not intervene.
In May 2006, Air Force Magazine published a letter by Doug Canning, a former pilot of the 347th Fighter Group who flew on Operation Vengeance (he escorted Holmes back to the Russell Islands). Canning, who was friends with both Lanphier and Barber, stated that Lanphier had written the official report, medal citations, and several magazine articles about the mission. He also claimed Barber had been willing to share the half credit for shooting down Yamamoto until Lanphier had given him an unpublished manuscript he had written, claiming he alone had shot down Yamamoto's plane. Canning agreed that Barber had a strong case for his claim citing the testimony of Yanagiya who saw Yamamoto's "Betty" crash 20 to 30 seconds after being hit from behind by fire from a P-38. Likewise, the second Betty carrying Ugaki crashed 20 seconds after being struck by aircraft fire. Canning stated categorically that the P-38Gs flown that day did not have aileron boost to assist in turning (as did later models), making it physically impossible for Lanphier's aircraft to have made the 180 degree turn fast enough to intercept Yamamoto's plane in less than 30 seconds. The Air Force later disqualified Lanphier's claim for shooting down a Zero in the battle, meaning that Lanphier lost his "ace" status as his total number of air-to-air kills dropped from five to four.
In spite of criticism from Barber and other surviving pilots from the mission, Lanphier continued to claim credit for downing Yamamoto until his death in 1987. Most newspaper obituaries reporting Lanphier's death credited him with killing Yamamoto. Barber continued to contest Lanphier's claim, mainly in military circles and publications, until his death in 2001.
Lieutenant Julius Jacobson, another pilot on the mission, remarked in 1997, "There were 15 of us who survived, and as far as who did the effective shooting, who cares?" Rice commented in 1993, "Historians, fighter pilots and all of us who have studied the record of this extraordinary mission will forever speculate as to the exact events of that day in 1943. There is glory for the whole team."
Legacy
The Yamamoto killing has been the subject of extensive historical and legal discussion in military, political and academic circles.
Following the 2020 killing of Iranian general Qasem Soleimani, the Yamamoto killing was cited by senior U.S. officials as a precedent. Various major media and noted pundits also singled out the Yamamoto killing as the relevant comparison, including The New York Times, who reported that the Yamamoto killing was "the last time the United States killed a major military leader in a foreign country" prior to the Soleimani killing.
Notes
References
Contains interview with Besby Frank Holmes.
Contains another interview with Besby Frank Holmes.
Further reading
– obituary on the death of Lieutenant Colonel Frank Holmes.
transcript and audio recording: "Rex Barber, Louis Kittel and Throck Chandler Oral History Conversation" (attack pilots in shootdown), National Museum of the Pacific War, undated
External links
Yamamoto's Plane Wreck footage of wreck published in 2015 (YouTube)
Conflicts in 1943
Imperial Japanese Navy
Isoroku Yamamoto
Military history of Japan during World War II
Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II
1943 in the Solomon Islands
Aerial operations and battles of World War II involving the United States
Battles and operations of World War II involving the Solomon Islands
20th-century aircraft shootdown incidents
April 1943 events |
4276023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison%20Ship%20Martyrs%27%20Monument | Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument | The Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument is a war memorial at Fort Greene Park, in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. It commemorates more than 11,500 American prisoners of war who died in captivity aboard sixteen British prison ships during the American Revolutionary War. The remains of a small fraction of those who died on the ships are interred in a crypt beneath its base. The ships included HMS Jersey, Scorpion, Hope, Falmouth, Stromboli, Hunter, and others.
Their remains were first gathered and interred in 1808. In 1867 landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, designers of Central Park and Prospect Park, were engaged to prepare a new design for Washington Park as well as a new crypt for the remains of the prison ship martyrs. In 1873, after development near the Brooklyn Navy Yard uncovered the remains, they were moved and re-interred in a crypt beneath a small monument. Funds were raised for a larger monument, which was designed by noted architect Stanford White. Constructed of granite, its single Doric column in height sits over the crypt at the top of a 33-step staircase. At the top of the column is an eight-ton bronze brazier, a funeral urn, by sculptor Adolph Weinman. President-elect William Howard Taft delivered the principal address when the monument was dedicated in 1908.
Context
Remains of deceased prisoners
During the Revolutionary War, the British maintained a series of prison ships in New York Harbor and jails on shore for prisoners of war. Due to a combination of neglect, poor conditions on the ships and disease, thousands of American prisoners of war died onboard the prison ships and jails, more than in all the engagements of the American Revolutionary War combined. Prisoners of war who died were disposed of either by a quick interment on the shore or being thrown overboard. Following the end of the war in 1783, the remains of those who died on the prison ships were neglected, left to lie along the Brooklyn shore on Wallabout Bay, a rural area little visited by New Yorkers. On January 21, 1877, the New York Times reported that the dead came from all parts of the nation and "every state of the Union was represented among them."
Officials of the local Dutch Reformed Church met with resistance from the property owner when they sought to remove the bones to their churchyard. Nathaniel Scudder Prime reported on "skulls and feet, arms and legs sticking out of the crumbling bank in the wildest disorder". Edwin G. Burrows described the skulls on the coast "as thick as pumpkins in an autumn cornfield". During construction at the Naval Yards, workers were not sure what to do with the bones, and they started to fill casks and boxes. They were reburied on the grounds of the nearby John Jackson estate.
Eventually, "near twenty hogsheads full of bones were collected by the indefatigable industry of John Jackson, esq. the committee of Tammany Society, and other citizens, to be interred in the vault." The monument's dedication plaque estimates that 11,500 prisoners of war died in the prison ships, but others estimate the number to be as high as 18,000.
Political resolve
The movement to commemorate the dead only took off when political differences between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans deepened in the last years of the eighteenth century and the latter took up the question of a memorial in response to the Federalist erection of a statue of George Washington in 1803. The Tammany Society, headed by Benjamin Romaine was created and grew into a Republican organization. On February 10, 1803 Republican Congressman Samuel L. Mitchill asked the federal government to erect a monument to the fallen, but had no success They then turned their efforts to a grand ceremonial re-interment of the prisoners' remains, emphasizing less the construction of a monument than something more suited to the common man. Tammany formed the Wallabout Committee in January 1808. Their efforts took strength from renewed anti-British sentiment stemming from American disputes with Britain in 1806 and 1807. Finally, when President Thomas Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1808, Tammany and the Republicans used their plans for a re-interment as part of their campaign to bolster anti-British sentiment in the United States.
Precursor vaults and monuments
First vault and monument
On April 13, 1808, there was a ceremony to lay the cornerstone of a planned vault. A grand ceremony of re-interment followed on May 26, 1808. The state voted to provide the Tammany Society $1,000 to build a monument. The Society pocketed the money and the monument was never built. A small square building stood above the 1808 vault with an eagle mounted at the point of the roof. It was located on a triangular plot of land near the Brooklyn Navy Yard waterfront (Wallabout Bay) in what is now called Vinegar Hill. A wooden fence with thirteen posts and bars painted with the names of the original thirteen states was erected in front. At the entrance through the fence, an inscription said: "Portal to the tomb of 11,500 patriot prisoners, who died in dungeons and prison-ships, in and about the City of New-York, during the Revolution." The remains were put in long coffins made of bluestone. Extra space was provided in case more bones were discovered during continuing renovations in the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Little was done to repair or maintain the vault and eventually the original monument was in a state of disrepair and neglect. In 1839, Benjamin Romaine purchased the land where the Martyrs were buried, in a tax sale from Henry Reed Stiles for $291.08. Later that year on July 4, 1839, Benjamin Romaine made an appeal for support (governmental or civic) to build a monument. In this appeal, Romaine talked about the monument and his intention to use his Revolutionary War pension for the monument. On January 31, 1844, Benjamin Romaine died and was also interred in the crypt as he had been a prisoner of war on the ships.
Second vault and monument
Later in the nineteenth century, the idea of erecting of a monument on the vault site attracted only occasional interest until 1873 when an appropriation of $6,500 was established for a new mausoleum. The new brick mausoleum in Fort Greene Park, then known as Washington Park, was constructed. The new mausoleum was constructed of Portland granite embellished with pillars and fret work of polished Aberdeen stone. The front of the tomb had the following inscription: "SACRED TO THE MEMORY, OF OUR SAILORS, SOLDIERS AND CITIZENS, WHO SUFFERED AND DIED ON BOARD BRITISH PRISON SHIPS IN THE WALLABOUT DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION". On June 18, 1873, the first tomb was emptied of bones and they were moved to this tomb. The bones remained here until interest was again built and a new monument could be constructed.
Current monument
Planning and construction
The Fort Greene chapter of the DAR was founded by Eliza M. Chandler White and formed in 1896 in Brooklyn to foster the construction of a "suitable memorial to the memory of martyrs, civilian, military and naval, who perished in the noisome prison ships anchored in the Wallabout Bay during the Revolutionary War". The group quickly partnered with the Old Brooklynites to increase focus on the memorial.
Following the discovery of additional bones in the Brooklyn Naval Yard in 1899, interest in establishing a significant monument was again renewed. On June 16, 1900, the bones found during additional excavations in the Brooklyn Navy Yard were interred in the crypt with full military honors. The boxes were reported to be oak, long and wide. On June 19, 1900, the Brooklyn Eagle reported that a committee had been appointed to build a larger memorial to replace the current one. Due to the work of this committee, funds for a new monument were finally considered and raised.
Funding for a larger monument came from all levels of government. On June 28, 1902, a joint resolution of the House and Senate appropriated $100,000 for the memorial construction under the provision that an additional $100,000 be raised from other sources. In the following months, New York State provided $25,000, and New York City $50,000, while private contributions provided another $25,000. Following funds being established, the Prison Ship Martyrs Association was incorporated in Albany on May 9, 1903 to oversee the work and the renowned architect Stanford White (1853–1906) of the architectural firm of McKim, Mead & White was commissioned to design it. The contract for construction of the monument was awarded to Carlin Construction Company under the project supervision of Lieut. Col. W. L. Marshall.
In 1776, Fort Greene Park was the site of Fort Putnam, one of a series of defenses built on the high land in Brooklyn. The construction was supervised by Colonel Rufus Putnam and the purpose was to protect New York from the British.
Dedication
The dedication ceremony on November 15, 1908, included a parade with 15,000 participants, including military and National Guard units, veterans, and civic organizations, including representatives of Tammany Hall Society in their first parade since the Civil War. President-elect William Howard Taft, Secretary of War Luke E. Wright, New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes, New Jersey Governor Franklin Fort, and Delaware Governor Preston Lea watched along with approximately twenty thousand spectators as "the enormous flag draping the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument on the highest point of Fort Greene Park, Brooklyn, was allowed to slide slowly to the ground from its heighth of 198 feet in the air". The ceremony was opened with a prayer delivered by Rev. S. Parkes Cadman, followed by a poem composed and read by the occasion's poet laureate Thomas Walsh. The principal address was delivered by Taft. He set out in detail the treatment of American prisoners and of the dead he said: "They died because of the cruelty of their immediate custodians and the neglect of those who, in higher authority, were responsible for their detention." He carefully described British culpability:
He discussed the treatment of prisoners of war throughout history and praised the recent Hague Convention on the rights of prisoners of war and the recent Sino-Japanese War in which "both parties exceeded, in the tenderness and the care which they gave to the prisoners of the other, the requirements of the Hague Convention".
Following the initial dedication, the Society of Old Brooklynites has hosted an annual memorial for the martyrs every year since President Taft dedicated the monument in 1908.
Neglect and restorations
20th century
In February 1914, one of the eagles was stolen. The thieves sold it as scrap metal for $24. They broke the eagle from the granite base, rolled it down the slope and loaded it on a three-wheeled pushcart, leaving tracks which the police were able to follow. When police found it at a recycling yard, the wings of the eagle had already been removed and partially melted.
By 1921, the beacon was out. The twin helix stairways to the top of the monument, which visitors once paid a dime to climb, were closed. Until then, visitors could go to the top to get impressive views of Manhattan. In 1923, the bronze door to the crypt was "battered from its hinges" by vandals and the crypt was exposed. The New York Times report of the incident described how the monument provided a play area for neighborhood children: "[A] score of children, white and black, who live in the neighborhood were using the granite coping of the walls leading to the crypt as a sort of 'chute the chutes.' The color line was sharply drawn. The slope of one side was used by the negro children while the slope of the other side amused the whites. The children of neither hue were concerned with the crime. They realized vaguely that something unusual had taken place, but it was not important enough to them to stop their daily sport." However, neglect and damage to the park required it to be renovated. The memorial had become so scarred by vandals and unkempt from lack of proper maintenance as to present a dilapidated appearance. Work was done to clean and preserve the site. A staircase and elevator were installed inside the large column, and it was reopened in 1937 by Park Commissioner Robert Moses. Again, the park was neglected and restoration work was required. It began in 1948 to "keep the shrine from falling apart". The staircase and elevator, however, were both removed in 1949. In 1966, the eagles were removed and went missing until 1974.
In the ensuing years, however, the park slowly decayed again and, by the 1970s, graffiti covered much of the base of the monument and vandalism was taking its toll. After being vandalized repeatedly, the four eagles were removed for repairs in 1966 and restored when $251,000 was spent to repair the monument about 1974, part of a larger $780,000 restoration of Fort Greene Park. They were again removed in 1981 and two of them are on display at the Central Park Arsenal, the administrative headquarters of the New York City Parks Department. They presently flank the third floor entrance.
In 1995, an examination of the vault reported it held bone fragments in 20 slate boxes, each . During the park system's inspection in 1995, graffiti was noted to be on the crypt's interior walls. The graffiti is questionably dated to go back to 1973, 1908, and as one tag was scribbled, 1776 — which is anachronistic considering that this was before the tomb was even built, in 1908.
During a site review on January 7, 2000, Park System workers raised the lid of the stone coffin of Benjamin Romaine. The interior of the coffin appeared to have contained a partially collapsed wooden coffin. By then, the monument was missing plaques, the plaza was potholed, the crypt had a plywood door, and the eternal flame had long been extinguished.
21st century
In December 2003, a dig was done on the original site of the Martyrs' Monument. The site dig was funded by a grant of $2,500 from the J. M. Kaplan Fund. It was supervised by Dr. Joan H. Geismar an archaeological consultant. The original site (block 44, lot 14 Brooklyn) is located on 89 Hudson Ave (formerly Jackson Street: named after an early donor of the property for the Monument in 1808). The goals of the dig were to review if any more human remains could be found on the site and if evidence of the original crypt remained. The site was scheduled for housing development to begin on the site. The Crypt location was specifically identified from an 1855 Perris insurance atlas as well as a mid-19th-century manuscript map found in the National Archives. The work determined that the site at one time contained a deep void, but no foundations were found. They did find a massive stone side wall as well as the likely original post holes for the rail fence. The site development was allowed with a recommendation of a plaque when work was done. The redevelopment of the site was completed and eventually the property changed owners. The status of the plaque is not known and currently there is no plaque on the site.
The city launched the renovation of the Prison Ship Monument with a $3.5 million budget in 2004. The scheduled repairs were plagued by cost overruns and the initial electrical contractor was fired by New York City and needed to be replaced. Additionally, a new spiral staircase was built inside the memorial. A budgetary study was conducted from March 6, 2006 to September 5, 2008 on electrical improvements and the cost estimated to about $341,000.
The restored monument was unveiled on November 15, 2008, a centennial celebration, at a rededication ceremony commissioned by the Fort Greene Park Conservancy to celebrate the centennial and re-dedication of the Fort Greene Park Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument. More than 500 people gathered to take part in the relighting of the flame to mark the 100th anniversary. That night, the column and urn were lit by a spectacular lighting scheme. The overall restoration cost for the monument from 2006 to 2008 was an estimated $5,100,000. However, in November 2009, it was noted that the light was again not working. The parks department worked to restore the lights and noted that although the lights were working correctly, there was a programming issue with the light timer.
In April 2015, a group of anonymous vandals illicitly installed a 100-pound bust of Edward Snowden, the National Security Agency whistle blower, atop one of the four columns at the edge of the memorial. It was removed the same day by Parks Department personnel.
Description
Constructed of granite, the monument's single Doric column in height sits over the crypt at the top of a staircase with 99 steps. When it was built, it was the world's tallest Doric column. The column carries the inscription: "1776 THE PRISON SHIP MARTYRS MONUMENT 1908". The monument's column contained a staircase accessed by a bronze door. The stone for the monument came from Lacasse quarry, about east of Newport, Vermont. The grand staircase of 100 granite steps rises in three stages. At the foot of the staircase, the entrance to the vault was covered by a slab of brown sandstone, now in storage, that bears the names of the 1808 monument committee and builders, as well as this inscription:
At the top of the column are uprights in diameter which are the shape of lion's heads. Each head weighs more than . These hold up the urn. At the top of the column is an eight-ton bronze brazier or a funeral urn. The urn, which is tall and weighs 7.5 tons, was cast by the Whale Creek Iron Works in Greepoint from designs of Manhattan sculptor Adolph Alexander Weinman. The top of the urn is glazed with extra heavy plate glass. The inside of the urn contains the mechanics for the lighting. The top had a light, the "eternal flame". It went out in 1921 and was never relit until 1997 when a new solar-powered eternal beacon was turned on as part of a ceremony. The solar powered beacon or "eternal flame", now consists of solar powered lights reflected from a mirror. It is lit daily during the hours of darkness. Around the urn is a bronze railing also cast at Whale Creek Iron Works.
Four open-winged eagles stood at the corners of the square terrace at the column's base, each on its own pedestal in front of a Doric column. They were designed by Adolf Weinman, who also designed the six-ton brazier that sits upon the monument's principal column.
The crypt is in a vault at the base of the stairs. Inside the vault the floor is made of concrete and the walls and ceiling are a bisque-colored brick. One enters the crypt through a copper-clad door. When entering it is three steps down and then a short passageway into the hill and at the end of the passage is the brick-lined crypt. The crypt is approximately square. There are a series of slate coffins inserted into a double-set of shelves on the right and left. Various bones are said to be sorted by type into different coffins, presumably because individual bodies could not be identified and re-assembled for burial.
Additions
A plaque was added in 1960 located across from the front label on the monument. The plaque reads:
During the Bicentennial Year – 1976, King Juan Carlos of Spain dedicated a plaque honoring the 700 Spaniards who died on the prison ships.
Currently surrounding the monument are secured exhibits explaining the history of the prison ships, the Battle of Brooklyn and a list of the 8,000 known martyrs. It is not documented when these exhibits were added.
Near the monument, a small building designed to coordinate with the work of McKim, Mead, and White once provided restroom facilities but was re-purposed as a visitors' center for the park. The visitors center has pictorial exhibits plus displays of Revolutionary War weapons and uniform buttons that have been uncovered in the park over the years. It also houses a list of the 8,000 known prisoners on the ships copied from the records in the British War Department.
Maintenance and responsibility
In the first half of the 20th century efforts were made to seek a national designation. However, the U.S. Department of the Interior declined at the time and noted that the prisoners didn't die at the site itself. Currently, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for the preservation and supervision of the monument. A budgetary study was conducted from March 6, 2006, to September 5, 2008, on electrical improvements and the cost estimated at $341,000. The overall restoration cost for the monument from 2006 to 2008 was estimated at $5,100,000.
On April 11, 2013, U.S. Congressman Hakeem Jeffries introduced the Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument Preservation Act, which would have directed the Secretary of the Interior to study the suitability and feasibility of designating the Prison Ship Martyr's Monument as a unit of the National Park System. The study would look at what it would cost to run the park and how its proposed designation as a National Park would affect the surrounding area. The House voted on April 28, 2014 to pass the bill in a voice vote. The Department of the Interior supported the bill. The National Park Service said that "the monument commemorates the sacrifice over more than 11,000 patriots during the American Revolution." Rep. Yvette Clarke, who co-sponsored the bill, argued that the bill was a good idea because "this monument commemorates not only the sacrifices of soldiers in the Revolutionary War who dedicated themselves to the cause of liberty, but a reminder than even in wartime we must protect basic human rights. These thousands of deaths were an atrocity that should never occur again." Rep. Jeffries said that "as one of America's largest revolutionary war burial sites and in tribute to the patriots that lost their lives fighting for our nation's independence, this monument deserves to be considered as a unit of the National Park Service."
See also
Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War
List of British prison hulks
References
Notes
Bibliography
Cray, Robert E., Jr.. "Commemorating the Prison Ship Dead: Revolutionary Memory and the Politics of Sepulture in the Early Republic, 1776–1808," Third series, vol. 56, no. 3, (July 1999)
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. "Fort Greene Historic District Designation Report" (September 26, 1978)
External links
New York Tribune of November 11, 1908 having engravings of the 1839 and 1867 tomb memorials
Prison Ship Martyrs Association website
Historical Marker Database: Prison Ship Martyrs Monument, additional images
Mindful Walker: "In Our Midst: The Prison Ship Martyrs," September 30, 2010, additional images
Prison Ship Martyrs Association, including additional images
Photo gallery
American Revolutionary War monuments and memorials
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
American Revolutionary War sites
Buildings and structures in Brooklyn
New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn
Outdoor sculptures in Brooklyn
Vandalized works of art in New York City
Monuments and memorials in Brooklyn
Monumental columns in the United States
New York (state) in the American Revolution
Martyrs' monuments and memorials
1908 sculptures
Buildings and structures completed in 1908
Stone sculptures in New York City
Fort Greene, Brooklyn
1908 establishments in New York City
Sculptures of birds in New York (state)
Works by Adolph Weinman
Sculptures of eagles |
4276146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Hood%20Simpson | William Hood Simpson | General William Hood Simpson (May 18, 1888 – August 15, 1980) was a senior United States Army officer who served with distinction in both World War I and World War II. He is best known for being the Commanding General of the Ninth United States Army in northwest Europe during World War II.
A graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where he was ranked 101st out of 103 in the class of 1909, Simpson served in the Philippines, where he participated in suppression of the Moro Rebellion, and in Mexico with the Pancho Villa Expedition in 1916. During World War I he saw active service in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive on the Western Front on the staff of the 33rd Division, for which he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal and Silver Citation Star. Between the wars he served on staff postings, attended the Command and General Staff College and the Army War College, and commanded the 3rd Battalion, 12th Infantry Regiment.
During World War II he commanded the 9th Infantry Regiment and was the assistant division commander of the 2nd Infantry Division. In succession he commanded the 35th and the 30th Infantry Divisions, the XII Corps, and the Fourth Army. In May 1944, with the three-star rank of lieutenant general, he assumed command of the Ninth Army. Simpson led the Ninth Army in the assault on Brest in September 1944, and the advance to the Roer River in November. During the Battle of the Bulge in December, Simpson's Ninth Army came under command of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group. After the battle was over in early 1945, the Ninth Army remained with Montgomery's 21st Army Group for Operation Grenade, the advance to the Rhine, and Operation Plunder, its crossing. On April 1 the Ninth Army made contact with the First Army, making a complete encirclement of the Ruhr, and on April 11, it reached the Elbe.
After the war ended, Simpson commanded the Second United States Army, and served in the Office of the Chief of Staff. He retired from the army in 1946. In retirement, he lived and worked in the San Antonio, Texas, area. He was a member of the board of directors of the Alamo National Bank, and succeeded General Walter Krueger as a member of the Board of Directors of the Chamber of Commerce of San Antonio. He died in the Brooke Army Medical Center on August 15, 1980, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Early life and military career
William Hood Simpson was born on May 18, 1888, at Weatherford, Texas, the son of Edward J. Simpson, a rancher, and his wife Elizabeth Hood, the daughter of Judge A. J. Hood, a prominent lawyer. His father and uncle had fought with the Confederate Army under Nathan Bedford Forrest in the American Civil War. He lived in Weatherford until he was five or six years old, when the family moved to Hood's ranch near Aledo, Texas. He did not start school until he was eight years old, when he started riding a horse several miles each day to the local school in Aledo. He attended Hughey Turner Training School, a college-preparatory school, where he played high school football, but did not graduate.
Simpson decided to pursue a military career and attend the United States Military Academy (USMA) at West Point, New York. He was friends with Fritz G. Lanham, the son of Samuel Lanham, the Governor of Texas (and a former law partner of Judge Hood). Through Lanham he was able to secure an appointment from his local Congressman, Oscar W. Gillespie. Competition was not fierce; only one other boy applied. As Simpson's academic credits were insufficient to qualify for automatic admission, Simpson had to sit an entrance examination at Fort Sam Houston in May 1905. A physical examination was conducted while he was there. He passed both, and was accepted into the class of 1909.
On June 14, 1905, a month after he turned 17, Simpson entered West Point. He found the curriculum difficult, and by the end of his first year, he stood 116th in a class that now numbered 120; 29 members of the class had dropped out. He was poor at mathematics, but excelled at equitation, and by the end of his second year his standing had risen to 107th out of 108, then to 100th out of 107 by the end of his third. When eight cadets, two of whom were from the class of 1909, were found guilty of hazing and suspended, it fell to Simpson, as a cadet captain, to escort them from the academy grounds. Simpson graduated on June 11, 1909, ranked 101st out of 103 in his class, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant of Infantry. Fellow members of his class included Jacob L. Devers (39th), George S. Patton (46th), and Robert L. Eichelberger (68th), all of whom eventually reached four-star rank, and John C. H. Lee (12th), and Delos C. Emmons (61st), who reached three-star rank.
Early military career and World War I
Simpson's first assignment was with the 2nd Battalion, 6th Infantry Regiment, which was stationed at Fort Lincoln, North Dakota. Soon after he joined in the regiment on September 11, 1909, it received orders to deploy to the Philippines. He embarked from San Francisco on January 5, 1910. He went to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines and participated in suppression of the Moro Rebellion. He returned to the United States with his regiment, arriving at the Presidio of San Francisco on July 10, 1912. The regiment moved to El Paso, Texas, between April 24 and May 1, 1914. Promoted to first lieutenant on July 1, 1916, he commanded Companies C and K in the Pancho Villa Expedition in 1916. On February 24, 1917, he became aide-de-camp to Brigadier General George Bell Jr., the commander of the El Paso Military District.
Simpson was promoted to captain on May 15, 1917, a month after the American entry into World War I. He followed Bell on a tour of inspection of the British and French forces on the Western Front in September and October 1917. They then returned to Camp Logan, Texas, where the 33rd Division was activated, with Bell, now a major general, as its first commander. The 33rd Division arrived in France in May 1918 and Simpson became its Assistant Chief of Staff (G-3), the staff member responsible for operations. He was promoted to major on June 7, 1918, and attended the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) Army General Staff College from June 15 to August 30. He returned to the 33rd Division as assistant to its G-2 (the staff member responsible for intelligence) on September 1, then became assistant to its G-3 on September 15. He became G-3 again on October 4, and participated in the Meuse–Argonne offensive. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on November 5, and became the division's chief of staff on November 17, soon after World War I ended on November 11, 1918. For his services during the war he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal and Silver Citation Star, and the French Croix de guerre and Legion of Honour in the grade of Chevalier. The citation for his Army DSM reads:
Between the wars
Upon returning to the United States in May 1919, Simpson was posted to the 6th Division at Camp Grant, Illinois, as its chief of staff from June 15, 1919, to August 25, 1920. He reverted to his substantive rank of captain on June 30, 1920, but was promoted to major again the following day. From August 26 to December 30, he served as its assistant chief of staff (G-3). He served in Washington, DC, in the Office of the Chief of Infantry from January 1, 1921, to August 1, 1923. In El Paso, Texas on Christmas Eve, 1921, he married Ruth Krakauer, an English-born widow whom he had first met while at West Point. From September 1, 1923, to May 28, 1924, he was a student officer in the Advanced Course at the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia. He then attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, from August 15, 1924, to June 19, 1925, when he was graduated as a distinguished graduate.
On July 1, 1925, Simpson assumed command of the 3rd Battalion, 12th Infantry Regiment, at Camp Meade, Maryland, and later Fort Washington, Maryland; his tour in command also included duty at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia from May to November 1926. He then attended the United States Army War College from August 15, 1927, to June 30, 1928. Upon graduation, he was assigned to the War Department General Staff in Washington, D.C., where he worked in the Latin American section of the G-2 branch. On June 20, 1932, he became Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Pomona College in Claremont, California, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel again from October 1, 1934. This posting also included duty as the Army representative at the California Pacific International Exposition in 1935. He then became an instructor at the Army War College in the G-4 Division from August 12, 1936, to June 24, 1937, and was director of its G-2 Division until August 25, 1940, with the rank of colonel from September 1, 1938.
World War II
On August 30, 1940, Simpson was appointed to command the 9th Infantry Regiment at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. He was promoted to brigadier general on October 1, 1940, and served as the Assistant Division Commander (ADC) of the 2nd Infantry Division from October 5, 1940, to April 4, 1941, when Fred L. Walker succeeded him. From April to September 1941 he was the first commander of the country's largest Infantry Replacement Training Center, Camp Wolters, located in Mineral Wells, Texas. He received a promotion to temporary major general on September 29, 1941, and commanded the 35th Infantry Division, an Army National Guard formation, at Camp Robinson, Arkansas, from October 15, 1941, to April 5, 1942, for which he was awarded the Legion of Merit. He then commanded the 30th Infantry Division, another Army National Guard formation, at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, until Leland Hobbs took command. On August 31, 1942, he took command of the newly created XII Corps.
Simpson commanded the Fourth United States Army from September 29, 1943, to May 8, 1944, with the three-star rank of lieutenant general as of October 13, 1943. Fourth Army was re-formed when the combined headquarters of the Western Defense Command and Fourth Army were separated. A cadre was provided by the Western Defense Command, but all senior officers were approved or selected by Simpson. He brought his chief of staff, Colonel James E. Moore with him from XII Corps. Moore had previously served with him as chief of staff of the 35th and 30th Infantry Divisions. The Fourth Army headquarters was initially in San Jose, California, and it functioned as a training army. In search of more office space, the headquarters was moved to the Presidio of Monterey, California on November 1, and then to Fort Sam Houston in January 1944, when it took over the training mission of the Third United States Army, which had moved overseas.
More personnel arrived in early 1944, enabling the Fourth Army to be split into a training army (the Fourth) and a headquarters to be deployed overseas, the Eighth, which was activated on May 5, 1944. Simpson and most of his staff became part of the Eighth Army headquarters. An advance party of the headquarters flew to the UK on May 11, and Simpson met with the commander of the European Theater of Operations, United States Army, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, an Army War College classmate. At Eisenhower's request, Simpson's command was redesignated the Ninth United States Army to avoid confusion with the British Eighth Army. The main body of Ninth Army embarked for the UK on the ocean liner on June 22. Simpson observed the abortive start of Operation Cobra on July 24 with Lieutenant Generals Courtney Hodges and Lewis H. Brereton. They were forced to take shelter as errant American bombs dropped around them. Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair invited Simpson to watch the repeat of the bombardment with him the following day, but Simpson elected to return to his headquarters in England. Once again bombs fell short, and McNair was killed.
The Ninth Army headquarters moved to France, as it landed at Utah Beach on August 29 and 30. It became active as part of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley's 12th Army Group on September 5, when it took over command of the US forces in Brittany from Lieutenant General George S. Patton Jr.'s Third Army. Simpson's first task was the capture of Brest. To overcome strong natural and man-made defenses, Simpson chose to employ overwhelming firepower. There were sufficient artillery pieces in the area, but not sufficient ammunition, especially for the heavier pieces. Over a two-week period, of artillery ammunition was brought forward from dumps in Normandy and the UK. The battle commenced on September 8, and after much hard fighting the city was liberated on September 20, 1944.
Simpson moved his headquarters to Arlon, where it opened on October 2, and two days later the Ninth Army relieved First Army in the southern portion of its line, taking over the center of the 12th Army Group's front in the Ardennes between the First and Third Armies. The stay at Arlon was brief; on October 10, Simpson received word that Ninth Army was to take over the northern sector of the 12th Army Group's front adjoining Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group. This was a consequence of Eisenhower's decision to reinforce that sector. The plan was for the Ninth Army to envelop the Ruhr industrial area to the north while First Army enveloped it to the south.
Reflecting on the decision later, Bradley opined that the "uncommonly normal" Ninth Army staff collaborated with the 21st Army Group better than the more temperamental First Army staff did. Ninth Army's attack on the Siegfried Line north of Aachen commenced on November 16, heralded by artillery and aerial bombardment that included attacks by heavy bombers of the Eighth Air Force and RAF Bomber Command. Progress was slow and costly. Simpson's offensive ended on December 14, but on the Roer River rather than the Rhine, due to the flooding threat posed by Roer dams upstream.
The Urft Dam (Urfttalsperre) held of water, and the Rur Dam (Schwammenauel) held another . The Germans could demolish them to create a disastrous flood. Alternatively, through controlled demolition, they could release . This would put the river into a flood condition that would cause it to rise by , increase the speed of the current by and increase the width to . This would preclude a crossing attempt for ten to twelve days.
Eisenhower was anxious about accepting an army commander without operational experience in the war, but senior officers with such experience were few in May 1944. By October 1, however, Eisenhower was sufficiently impressed by Simpson's performance to write to the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George C. Marshall, and recommend that Simpson's temporary rank of lieutenant general be made substantive. According to Colonel Armistead D. Mead, Simpson's G-3 (Operations) officer:
During the crisis of the Battle of the Bulge, the Ninth Army came under Montgomery's command on December 20. The Ninth Army took no part in the battle, but was stripped of eight divisions to reinforce the First Army, and took over part of its front. After the battle was over in early 1945, the Ninth Army remained with Montgomery's 21st Army Group for the final attack into Germany. For Operation Grenade, the crossing of the Roer, the Ninth Army was reinforced, its strength increased from five to twelve divisions. The major obstacle to the advance was the river itself, as the dams were still in German hands.
The British Second Army commenced Operation Veritable, the northern part of a pincer movement to clear the Rhineland, on February 8, 1945. Montgomery's plan was for Operation Grenade, scheduled to commence on February 10, 1945, to form the southern part of the pincer, but there was still no word of the capture of the Roer dams by the First Army. Montgomery left the decision of whether to delay Operation Grenade up to Simpson, but postponement would make the task of both the British troops already fighting more difficult, and increase the risk that the Germans would detect the Ninth Army's preparations. Simpson watched the river slowly rise, but could not be certain whether it was the result of German demolition or increased flow due to snow melt. Finally, he postponed the attack. His decision was the correct one; the waters continued to rise and the river level was up on February 9 and 10.
Operation Grenade was finally launched on February 23, even though the water level had not yet completely returned to normal. The attack was successfully concluded on March 5, with the Rhine reached. Next came Operation Plunder, the 21st Army Group's crossing of the Rhine; the Ninth Army's part was called Operation Flashpoint. The Rhine was crossed on March 24, 1945. On April 1 the Ninth Army made contact with First Army, making a complete encirclement of the Ruhr. Three days later, the Ninth Army reverted to the control of Bradley's 12th Army Group. On April 11, the Ninth Army reached the Elbe.
On March 10, Montgomery had written to Simpson:
After Victory in Europe Day, the Ninth Army participated in the occupation of Germany. On May 6, it took over the First Army's units, allowing the First Army headquarters to redeploy to the Pacific. Further regrouping followed, as most of the area covered was earmarked to be administered by the UK or Soviet Union. On June 15, all units of the Ninth Army were handed over to the Seventh United States Army, and Ninth Army headquarters prepared to redeploy to China. Simpson flew to China, where he met with Lieutenant General Albert C. Wedemeyer, the American commander there. Simpson was informed that he would become the Commanding General, Field Forces, and deputy theater commander. The end of the war in Asia came before this occurred.
Eisenhower summarized his experience with Simpson as follows:
For his services as commander of the Ninth Army, Simpson was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and a second Army Distinguished Service Medal. He also garnered foreign decorations that included being made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by the UK, a Grand Commander of the Order of Orange-Nassau by the Netherlands, and a Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold with palm by Belgium. He also received the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 from France, the Soviet Union's Order of Kutuzov, and the Croix de Guerre 1940 with palm from Belgium.
Later life
After the war ended, Simpson commanded the Memphis, Tennessee-based Second United States Army from October 11 to November 14, 1945. He then returned to Washington, DC, working in the Office of the Chief of Staff as a member of the Military Intelligence Board, and President of the War Department Reorganization Board from November 15, 1945, until April 4, 1946. He retired from the army with a physical disability on November 30, 1946. On August 4, 1954, he was promoted to full general on the retired list by a special Act of Congress that advanced officers who had commanded armies or the equivalent to that rank.
After retirement, Simpson lived and worked in the San Antonio, Texas, area. He was a member of the board of directors of the Alamo National Bank, and succeeded General Walter Krueger as a member of the Board of Directors of the Chamber of Commerce of San Antonio. He was also chairman of the board of the Alamo chapter of the Association of the United States Army, and spearheaded a drive to raise $750,000 for the construction of the Santa Rosa Children's Hospital.
His wife Ruth died in 1971, and soon thereafter, Simpson moved into the Menger Hotel in downtown San Antonio, where he was very popular with the staff. He suffered from phlebitis and neuritis, and was generally confined to his room. In 1978, at the age of 90, he met Catherine Louise (Kay) Berman, a retired civil-service worker from a military family 33 years his junior, and the two were married on April 9, 1978. They moved out of the Menger Hotel and into a home they built in Windcrest, Texas.
Simpson died in the Brooke Army Medical Center on August 15, 1980, and was buried alongside his first wife Ruth in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.
Military decorations
Dates of rank
Notes
References
External links
Photos of William Hood Simpson, hosted by the Portal to Texas History
United States Army Officers 1939–1945
Generals of World War II
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1888 births
1980 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Military personnel from Texas
People from Weatherford, Texas
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
United States Army Infantry Branch personnel
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army generals
United States Army War College alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
Pomona College faculty
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army War College faculty |
4276475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dark%20Knight | The Dark Knight | The Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan from a screenplay co-written with his brother Jonathan. Based on the DC Comics superhero Batman, it is the sequel to Batman Begins (2005) and the second installment in The Dark Knight Trilogy. The plot follows the vigilante Batman, police lieutenant James Gordon, and district attorney Harvey Dent, who form an alliance to dismantle organized crime in Gotham City. Their efforts are derailed by the Joker, an anarchistic mastermind who seeks to test how far the Batman will go to save the city from chaos. The ensemble cast includes Christian Bale, Michael Caine, Heath Ledger, Gary Oldman, Aaron Eckhart, Maggie Gyllenhaal, and Morgan Freeman.
Warner Bros. Pictures prioritized a sequel following the successful reinvention of the Batman film series with Batman Begins. Christopher and Batman Begins co-writer David S. Goyer developed the story elements, making Dent the central protagonist caught up in the battle between the Batman and the Joker. In writing the screenplay, the Nolans were influenced by 1980s Batman comics and crime drama films, and sought to continue Batman Begins heightened sense of realism. From April to November 2007, filming took place with a $185million budget in Chicago and Hong Kong, and on sets in England. The Dark Knight was the first major motion picture to be filmed with high-resolution IMAX cameras. Christopher avoided using computer-generated imagery unless necessary, insisting on practical stunts such as flipping an 18-wheel truck and blowing up a factory.
The Dark Knight was marketed with an innovative interactive viral campaign that initially focused on countering criticism of Ledger's casting by those who believed he was a poor choice to portray the Joker. Ledger died from an accidental prescription drug overdose in January 2008, leading to widespread interest from the press and public regarding his performance. When it was released in July, The Dark Knight received acclaim for its mature tone and themes, visual style, and performances—particularly that of Ledger, who received many posthumous awards including Academy, BAFTA, and Golden Globe awards for Best Supporting Actor, making The Dark Knight the first comic-book film to receive major industry awards. It broke several box-office records and became the highest-grossing 2008 film, the fourth-highest-grossing film of its time, and the highest-grossing superhero film.
Since its release, The Dark Knight has been assessed as one of the greatest superhero films ever made, one of the best movies of the 2000s, and one of the best films ever made. It is considered the "blueprint" for many modern superhero films, particularly for its rejection of a typical comic-book movie style in favor of a crime film that features comic-book characters. Many filmmakers sought to repeat its success by emulating its gritty, realistic tone to varying degrees of success. The Dark Knight has been analyzed for its themes of terrorism and the limitations of morality and ethics. The United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry in 2020. A sequel, The Dark Knight Rises, concluded The Dark Knight trilogy in 2012.
Plot
A gang of masked criminals robs a mafia-owned bank in Gotham City, betraying and killing each other until the sole survivor, the Joker, reveals himself as the mastermind and escapes with the money. The vigilante Batman, district attorney Harvey Dent, and police lieutenant Jim Gordon ally to eliminate Gotham's organized crime. The Batman's true identity, the billionaire Bruce Wayne, publicly supports Dent as Gotham's legitimate protector, as Wayne believes Dent's success will allow the Batman to retire, allowing him to romantically pursue his childhood friend Rachel Dawes, despite her relationship with Dent.
Gotham's mafia bosses gather to discuss protecting their organizations from the Joker, the police, and the Batman. The Joker interrupts the meeting and offers to kill the Batman for half of the fortune their accountant, Lau, concealed before fleeing to Hong Kong to avoid extradition. With the help of Wayne Enterprises CEO Lucius Fox, the Batman finds Lau in Hong Kong and returns him to the custody of Gotham police. His testimony enables Dent to apprehend the crime families. The bosses accept the Joker's offer, and he kills high-profile targets involved in the trial, including the judge and police commissioner. Although Gordon saves the mayor, the Joker threatens that his attacks will continue until the Batman reveals his identity. He targets Dent at a fundraising dinner and throws Rachel out of a window, but Batman rescues her.
Wayne struggles to understand the Joker's motives, but his butler Alfred Pennyworth says "some men just want to watch the world burn." Dent claims he is the Batman to lure out the Joker, who attacks the police convoy transporting him. The Batman and Gordon apprehend the Joker, and Gordon is promoted to commissioner. At the police station, the Batman interrogates the Joker, who says he finds the Batman entertaining and has no intention of killing him. Having deduced the Batman's feelings for Rachel, the Joker reveals she and Dent are being held separately in buildings rigged to explode. The Batman races to save Rachel while Gordon and the other officers go after Dent, but they discover the Joker gave their positions in reverse. Rachel is killed in the explosion, while Dent's face is severely burned on one side. The Joker escapes custody, extracts the fortune's location from Lau, and burns all of it, killing Lau in the process.
Wayne Enterprises accountant Coleman Reese deduces the Batman's identity and attempts to expose it, but the Joker threatens to blow up a hospital unless Reese is killed. While the police evacuate hospitals and Gordon struggles to keep Reese alive, the Joker meets with a disillusioned Dent, persuading him to take the law into his own hands and avenge Rachel. Dent defers his decision-making to his half-scarred, two-headed coin, killing the corrupt officers and the mafia involved in Rachel's death. As panic grips the city, the Joker reveals two evacuation ferries, one carrying civilians and the other prisoners, are rigged to explode at midnight unless one group sacrifices the other. To the Joker's disbelief, the passengers refuse to kill one another. The Batman subdues the Joker but refuses to kill him. Before the police arrest the Joker, he says although the Batman proved incorruptible, his plan to corrupt Dent has succeeded.
Dent takes Gordon's family hostage, blaming his negligence for Rachel's death. He flips his coin to decide their fates, but the Batman tackles him to save Gordon's son, and Dent falls to his death. Believing Dent is the hero the city needs and the truth of his corruption will harm Gotham, the Batman takes the blame for his death and actions and persuades Gordon to conceal the truth. Pennyworth burns an undelivered message to Wayne from Rachel, who said she chose Dent, and Fox destroys the invasive surveillance network that helped the Batman find the Joker. The city mourns Dent as a hero, and the police launch a manhunt for the Batman.
Cast
Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman: A wealthy socialite who as a child was traumatized by his parents' murder. Wayne secretly operates as the heroic vigilante Batman.
Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth: Wayne's father-figure, trusted butler, and confidant
Heath Ledger as the Joker: A criminal mastermind and anarchist who is determined to sow chaos and corruption throughout Gotham
Gary Oldman as James Gordon: One of the few honest officers in the Gotham City Police Department (GCPD) who assists the Batman's war on crime
Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent / Two-Face: Gotham's noble district attorney-turned-violent vigilante
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Rachel Dawes: Gotham's assistant district attorney and Wayne's childhood friend, who is divided between her feelings for him and for Dent.
Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox: Wayne Enterprises' CEO who supplies technology and equipment for the Batman's campaign
Additionally, Eric Roberts, Michael Jai White, and Ritchie Coster appear as crime bosses Sal Maroni, Gambol, and the Chechen, respectively; while Chin Han portrays Lau, a Chinese criminal banker. The GCPD cast includes Colin McFarlane as commissioner Gillian B. Loeb, Keith Szarabajka and Ron Dean as detectives Stephens and Wuertz, Monique Gabriela Curnen as rookie detective Anna Ramirez and Philip Bulcock as Murphy.
The cast also features Joshua Harto as Wayne Enterprises employee Coleman Reese, Anthony Michael Hall as news reporter Mike Engel, Néstor Carbonell as mayor Anthony Garcia, William Fichtner as a bank manager, Nydia Rodriguez Terracina as Judge Surrillo, Tom "Tiny" Lister Jr. as a prisoner, Beatrice Rosen as Wayne's Russian ballerina date, and David Dastmalchian as the Joker's paranoid schizophrenic henchman Thomas Schiff. Melinda McGraw, Nathan Gamble, and Hannah Gunn portray Gordon's wife Barbara, his son James Jr., and his daughter, respectively. The Dark Knight features several cameo appearances from Cillian Murphy, who reprises his role as Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow from Batman Begins; musical performer Matt Skiba; as well as United States Senator and life-long Batman fan Patrick Leahy, who has appeared in or voiced characters in other Batman media.
Production
Development
Following the critical and financial success of Batman Begins (2005), the film studio Warner Bros. Pictures prioritized a sequel. Although Batman Begins ends with a scene in which Batman is presented with a joker playing card, teasing the introduction of his archenemy, the Joker, Christopher Nolan did not intend to make a sequel and was unsure Batman Begins would be successful enough to warrant one. Christopher, alongside his wife and longtime producer Emma Thomas, had never worked on a sequel film but he and co-writer David Goyer discussed ideas for a sequel during filming. Goyer developed an outline for two sequels, but Christopher remained unsure how to continue the Batman Begins narrative while keeping it consistent and relevant, though he was interested in utilizing the Joker in Begins grounded, realistic style. Discussions between Warner Bros. Pictures and Christopher began shortly after Batman Beginss theatrical release, and development began following the production of Christopher's The Prestige (2006).
Writing
Goyer and Christopher collaborated for three months to develop The Dark Knight core plot points. They wanted to explore the theme of escalation and the idea that the Batman's extraordinary efforts to combat common crimes would lead to an opposing escalation by criminals, attracting the Joker, who uses terrorism as a weapon. The joker playing card scene in Batman Begins was intended to convey the fallacy of the Batman's belief his war on crime would be temporary. Goyer and Christopher did not intentionally include real-world parallels to terrorism, the war on terror, and laws enacted to combat terrorists by the United States government because they believed making overtly political statements would detract from the story. They wanted it to resonate with and reflect contemporary audiences. Christopher described The Dark Knight as representative of his own "fear of anarchy" and Joker represents "somebody who wants to just tear down the world around him."
Although he was a fan of Batman (1989), starring Jack Nicholson as the Joker, Goyer did not consider Nicholson's portrayal scary and wanted The Dark Knights Joker to be an unknowable, already-formed character, similar to the shark in Jaws (1975), without a "cliché" origin story. Christopher and Goyer did not give their Joker an origin story or a narrative arc, believing it made the character scarier; Christopher described their film as the "rise of the Joker". They felt the threat of cinematic villains such as Hannibal Lecter and Darth Vader had been undermined by subsequent films depicting their origins.
With Christopher's help, his brother Jonathan spent six months developing the story into a draft screenplay. After submitting the draft to Warner Bros., Jonathan spent a further two months refining it until Christopher had finished directing The Prestige. The pair collaborated on the final script over the next six months during pre-production for The Dark Knight. Jonathan found the "poignant" ending the script's most interesting aspect; it had always depicted the Batman fleeing from police but was changed from him leaping across rooftops to escaping on the Batpod, his motorcycle-like vehicle. The dialogue Jonathan considered most important, "you either die a hero or you live long enough to see yourself become the villain", came late in development. Influenced by films such as The Godfather (1972) and Heat (1995), and maintaining Batman Begins tone, their finished script bore more resemblance to a crime drama than a traditional superhero film.
Comic-book influences included writer Frank Miller's 1980s works, which portray characters in a serious tone, and the limited series Batman: The Long Halloween (1996–1997), which explores the relationship between the Batman, Dent, and Gordon. Dent was written as The Dark Knight central character, serving as the center of the battle between the Batman, who believes Dent is the hero the city needs, and the Joker, who wants to prove even the most righteous people can be corrupted. Christopher said the title refers to Dent as much as the Batman. He considered Dent as having a duality similar to the Batman's, providing interesting dramatic potential.
Focusing on Dent meant Bruce Wayne / Batman was written as a generally static character who did not undergo drastic character development. Christopher found writing the Joker the easiest aspect of the script. The Nolans identified the traits common to his media incarnations and were influenced by the character's comic-book appearances as well as the villain Dr. Mabuse from the films of Fritz Lang. Writer Alan Moore's graphic novel, Batman: The Killing Joke (1988), did not influence the main narrative but Christopher believed his interpretation of the Joker as someone partially driven to prove anyone can become like him when pushed far enough helped the Nolans give purpose to an "inherently purposeless" character. The Joker was written as a purely evil psychopath and anarchist who lacks reason, logic, and fear, and could test the moral and ethical limits of the Batman, Dent, and Gordon. Christopher and Jonathan later realized they had inadvertently written their version similarly to Joker's first appearance in Batman #1 (1940). The final scene, in which the Joker states he and the Batman are destined to battle forever, was not intended to tease a sequel but to convey the diametrically opposed pair were in an endless conflict because they will not kill each other.
Casting
Describing how his character had evolved from Batman Begins, Christian Bale said Wayne had changed from a young, naive, and angry man seeking purpose to a hero who is burdened by the realization his war against crime is seemingly endless. Because the new Batsuit allowed him to be more agile, Bale did not increase his muscle mass as much as he had for Batman Begins. Christopher had deliberately obscured combat in the previous film because it was intended to portray the Batman from the criminals' point of view. The improved Batsuit design let him show more of Bale's Keysi-fighting method training.
Christopher was aware Nicholson's popular portrayal of the Joker would invite comparisons to his version, and wanted an actor who could cope with the associated scrutiny. Ledger's casting in August 2006 was criticized by some industry professionals and members of the public who considered him inappropriate for the role; executive producer Charles Roven said Ledger was the only person seriously considered, and that Batman Begins positive reception would help alleviate any concerns. Christopher was confident in the casting because discussions between himself and Ledger had demonstrated they shared similar ideas regarding the Joker's portrayal. Ledger said he had some trepidation in succeeding Nicholson in the role but that the challenge excited him. He described his interpretation as a "psychopathic, mass-murdering, schizophrenic clown with zero empathy", and avoided humanizing him. He was influenced by Alex from the crime film A Clockwork Orange (1971), and British musicians Johnny Rotten and Sid Vicious.
Ledger spent about a month secluding himself in a hotel room while reading relevant comic books. He developed the character's voice by mixing a high-pitch and low-pitch, which was inspired by ventriloquist performances. His fighting style was designed to appear improvised and erratic. Ledger spent a further four months creating a "Joker diary" containing images and elements he believed would resonate with his character, such as finding the disease AIDS humorous. Describing his performance, Ledger said: "It's the most fun I've had with a character and probably will ever have... It was an exhausting process. At the end of the day, I couldn't move. I couldn't talk. I was absolutely wrecked." In a November 2007 interview, Ledger said when committing himself to any role, he had difficulty sleeping because he could not relax his mind, and often slept only two hours a night during filming.
Christopher wanted to cast an actor with an all-American "heroic presence" for Harvey Dent, something he likened to Robert Redford but with an undercurrent of anger or darkness. Josh Lucas, Ryan Phillippe, and Mark Ruffalo were considered, as well as Matt Damon, who could not commit due to scheduling conflicts. According to Christopher, Eckhart had the all-American charm and "aura ... of a good man pushed too far". Eckhart found portraying conflicted characters to be interesting; he said the difference between Dent and the Batman is the distance they are willing to go for their causes, and that after Dent's corruption he remains a crime fighter but he takes this to an extreme because he dislikes the restrictions of the law. Eckhart's performance was influenced by the Kennedy family, particularly Robert F. Kennedy, who fought organized crime with a similarly idealistic view of the law. During discussions on the portrayal of Dent's transformation into Two-Face, Eckhart and Christopher agreed to ignore Tommy Lee Jones's "colorful" portrayal in Batman Forever (1995), in which the character has pink hair and wears a split designer suit, in favor of a more realistic, slightly burnt, neutral-toned suit.
Describing his role as GCPD sergeant James Gordon, Oldman said Gordon is the "moral center" of The Dark Knight, an honest and incorruptible character struggling with the limits of his morality. Maggie Gyllenhaal replaced Katie Holmes as Rachel Dawes, as Holmes chose to star in the crime comedy Mad Money (2008) instead. Gyllenhaal approached Rachel as a new character and did not reference Holmes's previous performance. Christopher described Rachel as the emotional connection between Wayne and Dent, ultimately serving as a further personal loss to fuel Wayne's character. Gyllenhaal collaborated with Christopher on the character's depiction because she wanted Rachel to be important and meaningful in her relatively minor role. Musician Dwight Yoakam turned down a role as the bank manager or a corrupt police officer because he was recording his album Dwight Sings Buck (2007).
Pre-production
In October 2006, location scouting for Gotham City took place in the UK in Liverpool, Glasgow, London, and parts of Yorkshire, and in several cities in the U.S. Christopher chose Chicago because he liked the area and believed it offered interesting architectural features without being as recognizable as locations in better-known cities such as New York City. Chicagoan authorities had been supportive during filming of Batman Begins, allowing the production to shut stretches of roads, freeways, and bridges. Christopher wanted to exchange the more natural, scenic settings of Batman Begins such as the Himalayas and caverns for a modern, structured environment the Joker could disassemble. Production designer Nathan Crowley said the clean, neat lines of Chicagoan architecture enhanced the urban-crime drama they wanted to make, and that the Batman had helped improve the city. The destruction of Wayne Manor in Batman Begins provided an opportunity to move Wayne to a modern, sparse penthouse, reflecting his loneliness. Sets were still used for some interiors such as the Bat Bunker, the replacement for the Batcave, on the outskirts of the city. The production team considered placing it in the penthouse basement but believed it was too unrealistic a solution.
Much of The Dark Knight was filmed using Panavision's Panaflex Millennium XL and Platinum cameras but Christopher wanted to film about 40 minutes with IMAX cameras, a high-resolution technology using 70 mm film rather than the more-commonly used format 35 mm; the finished film includes 15–20% IMAX footage, running for about 28 minutes. This made it the first major motion picture to use IMAX technology, which was generally employed for documentaries. Warner Bros. was reluctant to endorse the use of the technology because the cameras were large and unwieldy, and purchasing and processing the film stock cost up to four times as much as typical 35 mm film. Christopher said cameras that could be used on Mount Everest could be used for The Dark Knight, and had cinematographer Wally Pfister and his crew begin training to use the equipment in January 2007 to test its feasibility. Christopher particularly wanted to film the bank heist prologue in IMAX to immediately convey the difference in scope between The Dark Knight and Batman Begins.
Filming in Chicago
Principal photography began on April 18, 2007, in Chicago on a $185million budget. For The Dark Knight, Pfister chose to combine the "rust-style" visuals of Batman Begins with the "dusk"-like color scheme of The Prestige (cobalt blues, greens, blacks, and whites), in part to address over-dark scenes in Batman Begins. To avoid attention, filming in Chicago took place under the working title Rory's First Kiss but the production's true nature was quickly uncovered by media publications. The Joker's homemade videos were filmed and mainly directed by Ledger. Caine said he forgot his lines during a scene involving one video because of Ledger's "stunning" performance.
The first scene filmed was the bank heist, which was shot in the Old Chicago Main Post Office over five days. It was scheduled early to test the IMAX procedure, allowing it to be refilmed with traditional cameras if needed, and it was intended to be publicly released as part of the marketing campaign. Pfister described it as a week of patience and learning because of the four-day wait for the IMAX footage to be processed. Filming moved to England throughout May, returning to Chicago in June.
Filming took place in the lobby of One Illinois Center, which served as Wayne's penthouse apartment; bookcases were built to hide the elevators. A floor of Two Illinois Center was decorated for Wayne's fundraiser. The crew was described as excited as this scene depicted the first meeting between the Batman and the Joker. The windows in both settings were covered in green screen material, allowing Gotham City visuals to be added later. In July, three weeks were spent filming the truck chase scene, mainly on Wacker Drive, a multi-level street that had to be closed overnight. During filming, Christopher added a set-piece of a SWAT van crashing through a concrete barricade. The sequence continued on LaSalle Street, which was also used for the GCPD funeral procession, for a practical truck-flip stunt and helicopter sequence. Additional segments were filmed on Monroe Street and Randolph Street, and at Randolph Street Station.
Navy Pier, along the shore of Lake Michigan, served as Gotham Harbor in a climactic ferry scene. Scouts spent over a month searching for suitable vessels but were unsuccessful, so construction coordinator Joe Ondrejko and his team built ferry facades atop barges. The entire sequence was filmed in one day and involved 800 extras, who were moved through makeup and clothing departments in shifts. Exterior footage of the Gotham Prewitt Building, the site of the Batman's and the Joker's final confrontation, was filmed at the in-construction Trump International Hotel and Tower. The owners refused permission to film a stunt in which the Batman suspends a SWAT team from the building, so this was filmed from the fortieth floor of a separate building site. A former Brach's candy factory on Cicero Avenue scheduled for demolition was used to film the Gotham General Hospital explosion in August 2007. Filming in Chicago concluded on September 1, ending with scenes of Wayne driving and crashing his car, before the production returned to England.
The Dark Knight includes Chicago locations such as Lake Michigan, which doubled as the Caribbean Sea where Wayne boards a seaplane; Richard J. Daley Center (Wayne Enterprises exteriors and a courtroom); The Berghoff restaurant (GCPD arresting mobsters); Twin Anchors restaurant; the Sound Bar; McCormick Place (Wayne Enterprises interiors); and Chicago Theatre. 330 North Wabash served as offices used by Dent, mayor Garcia, and commissioner Loeb; and its thirteenth floor appears as Wayne Enterprises' boardroom; Pfister enhanced its large, panoramic windows and natural light with an glass table and reflective bulbs. A Randolph Street parking garage is where the Batman captures Scarecrow and Batman impersonators. Christopher wanted several Rottweiler dogs in the scene but locating a dog-handler willing to simultaneously manage several dogs was difficult. A scene of the Batman surveying the city from a rooftop edge was filmed atop Willis Tower, Chicago's tallest building. Stuntman Buster Reeves was due to double as the Batman, but Bale persuaded the filmmakers to let him perform the scene himself. The thirteen weeks of filming in Chicago was estimated to have generated $45million for the city's economy and thousands of local jobs.
Filming in England and Hong Kong
Many interior locations for The Dark Knight were filmed on sets at Pinewood Studios, Buckinghamshire, and Cardington Airfield, Bedfordshire; these locations include the Bat Bunker, which took six weeks to build in a Cardington hangar. The Bat Bunker was based on 1960s Chicago building designs, and was integrated into existing concrete floor, and used the long, tall ceiling to create a broad perspective. The tall hangar was unsuitable for suspending the bunker roof, and an encompassing gantry was built to hold it and the lighting. After moving from Chicago in May, scenes filmed in the UK also include Criterion Restaurant, where Rachel, Dent, and Wayne share dinner, and a Gotham News scene that was filmed at the University of Westminster. The GCPD headquarters was rebuilt in the Farmiloe Building. During the interrogation scene, Ledger asked Bale to actually hit him, and although he declined, Ledger cracked and dented the walls by throwing himself around.
After returning to England in the middle of September, scenes were filmed for the ferry, hospital, and Gotham Prewitt building interiors. By mid-October, interior and exterior scenes of Rachel being held hostage surrounded by barrels of gasoline were filmed at Battersea Power Station. To avoid damaging the power station, a listed building, a false wall was built in front of it and lined with explosives. Nearby residents contacted emergency services believing the explosion was a terrorist attack. Filming in England concluded at the end of October with a variety of green-screen shots for the truck-chase sequence, and shots of Rachel being thrown from a window were filmed on a set at Cardington.
The final nine days of production took place in Hong Kong and included aerial footage from atop the International Finance Centre, as well as filming at Central to Mid-Levels escalator, The Center, Central, The Peninsula Hong Kong, and Queen's Road; and a stunt involving the Batman catching an in-flight C-130 aircraft. Despite extensive rehearsals of Reeves jumping from the McClurg Building in Chicago, a planned stunt to depict the Batman leaping from one Hong Kong skyscraper to another was canceled because local authorities refused permission for helicopter use; Pfister described the officials as a "nightmare". Christopher disputed a report that said a scene of the Batman leaping into Victoria Harbour was canceled because of pollution concerns, saying it was a script decision. The 127-day shoot concluded on November 15, on time and under budget.
Post-production
Editing was underway in January 2008 when Ledger, aged 28, died from an accidental overdose of a prescription drug. A rumor his commitment to his performance as the Joker had affected his mental state circulated, but this was later refuted. Christopher said editing the film became "tremendously emotional, right when he passed, having to go back in and look at him every day [during editing]... but the truth is, I feel very lucky to have something productive to do, to have a performance that he was very, very proud of, and that he had entrusted to me to finish". Because Christopher preferred to capture sound while filming rather than re-recording dialogue in post-production, Ledger's work had been completed before his death, and Christopher did not modify the Joker's narrative in response. Christopher added a dedication to Ledger and stuntman Conway Wickliffe, who died during rehearsals for a Tumbler (Batmobile) stunt.
Alongside lead editor Lee Smith, Christopher took an "aggressive editorial approach" to editing The Dark Knight to achieve its 152-minute running time. Christopher said no scenes were deleted because he believed every scene was essential, and that unnecessary material had been cut before filming. The Nolans had difficulties refining the script to reduce the running time but after removing so much material they believed it had become incomprehensible, they had added more scenes.
Special effects and design
Unlike the design process of Batman Begins, which was restrained by a need to represent Batman iconography, audience acceptance of its realistic setting gave The Dark Knight more design freedom. Chris Corbould, the film's special effects supervisor, oversaw the 700 effect shots Double Negative and Framestore produced; there were relatively few effects compared to equivalent films because Christopher only used computer-generated imaging where practical effects would not suffice. Production designer Nathan Crowley designed the Batpod (Batcycle) because Christopher did not want to extensively re-use the Tumbler. Corbould's team built the Batpod, which is based on a prototype Crowley and Christopher built by combining different commercial model components. The unwieldy, wide-tired vehicle could only be ridden by stuntman Jean Pierre Goy after months of training. The Gotham General Hospital explosion was not in the script but added during filming because Corbould believed it could be done.
Hemming, Crowley, Christopher, and Jamie Rama re-designed the Batsuit to make it more comfortable and flexible, developing a costume made from a stretchy material covered in over 100 urethane armor pieces. Sculptor Julian Murray developed Dent's burnt-facial design, which is based on Christopher's request for a skeletal appearance. Murray went through designs that were "too real and more horrifying" before settling on a more "fanciful" and detailed but less-repulsive version. Hemming designed Joker's overall appearance, which he based on fashion-and-music celebrities to create a modern and trendy look. Influence also came from the 1953 painting Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X by Francis Bacon—suggested by Christopher—and the character's comic-book appearances. The outfit consists of a purple coat, a green vest, an antique shirt, and a thin, 1960s-style tie that Ledger suggested. Prosthetics supervisor Conor O'Sullivan created Joker's scars, which he partly based on a scarred delivery man he met, and used his own technique to create and apply the supple, skin-like prosthesis. John Caglione Jr designed Joker's "organic" makeup to look as though it had been worn for days; this idea was partly based on more of Bacon's works. Caglione Jr used a theatrical makeup technique for the application; he instructed Ledger to scrunch up his face so different cracks and textures were created once the makeup was applied and Ledger relaxed. Ledger always applied the lipstick himself, believing it was essential to his characterization.
Music
Composers James Newton Howard and Hans Zimmer, who had also worked on Batman Begins, scored The Dark Knight because Christopher believed it was important to bridge the musical-narrative gap between the films. The score was recorded at Air Studios, London. Howard and Zimmer composed the score without seeing the film because Christopher wanted them to be influenced by the characters and story rather than fitting specific on-screen elements. Howard and Zimmer separated their duties by character; Howard focused on Dent and Zimmer focused on the Batman and the Joker. Zimmer did not consider the Batman to be strictly noble and wrote the theme to not seem "super". Howard wrote about ten minutes of music for Dent, wanting to portray him as an American who represents hope, but undergoes an emotional extreme and moral corruption. He used brass instruments for both moral ends but warped the sound as Dent is corrupted.
Zimmer wanted to use a single note for the Joker's theme; he said, "imagine one note that starts off slightly agitated and then goes to serious aggravation and finally rips your head off at the end". He could not make it work, however, and used two notes with alternating tempos and a "punk" influence. The theme was influenced by electronic music innovators Kraftwerk and Zimmer's work with rock band The Damned. He wanted to convey elements of the Joker's corrosion, recklessness, and "otherworldliness" by combining electronic and orchestral music, and modifying almost every note after recording to emulate sounds including thunder and razors. He attempted to develop original sounds with synthesizers, trying to create an "offputting" result by instructing musicians to start with a single note and gradually shift to the second over a three-minute period; the musicians found this difficult because it was the opposite of their training. It took several months to achieve Zimmer's desired result. Following Ledger's death, Zimmer considered discarding the theme for a more traditional one but he and Howard believed they should honor Ledger's performance.
Release
Marketing and anti-piracy
The Dark Knights marketing campaign was developed by alternate reality game (ARG) development company 42 Entertainment. Christopher wanted the team to focus on countering the negative reaction to Ledger's casting and controlling the revelation of the Joker's appearance. Influenced by the script and the comic books The Killing Joke, The Long Halloween, and Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth (1989), 42 Entertainment paced the ARG over annual events, although Warner Bros. rejected their ideas to use Jokerized Santas at Christmas, coffins filled with chattering teeth on Mother's Day (mocking Wayne's late mother), and Batman actors on rooftops due to safety concerns.
The ARG began in May 2007 with campaign posters for Dent and Joker playing cards bearing the phrase "I believe in Harvey Dent" were hidden inside comic books at stores around the U.S. This led people to a website where they could submit their e-mail addresses to reveal a pixel of a concealed Joker image; about 97,000 e-mail addresses and 20 hours were required to reveal the image in full, which was well received. At the San Diego Comic-Con, 42 Entertainment modified 11,000 one-dollar bills with the Joker's image and the phrase "Why So Serious?" that led finders to a location. 42 Entertainment's initial plan to throw the bills from a balcony was canceled due to safety concerns, so the bills were covertly distributed to attendees. Although the event was expected to attract a few thousand people, 650,000 arrived and participated in activities that included calling a number taken from a plane flying overhead and wearing Joker makeup to commit disruptive acts with actors. Globally, fans photographed letters on signs to form a ransom note. A U.S.-centric effort involved people recovering cellphones made by Nokia—a brand partner to the film—from a cake, which led to an early screening of the film's bank-heist prologue before its public release in December. Ledger's appearance in the prologue was well-received and positively changed the discourse around his casting.
Following Ledger's death, the campaign continued unchanged with a focus on Dent's election, which was influenced by the ongoing 2008 United States presidential election. Warner Bros. was concerned public knowledge of Dent's character was poor; the campaign included signs, stickers, and "Dentmobiles" visiting U.S. cities to raise his profile. The campaign concluded in July with displays of the Bat-Signal in Chicago and New York City that were eventually defaced by the Joker. Industry professionals considered the campaign innovative and successful.
Warner Bros. dedicated six months to anti-piracy methods; the film industry lost an estimated $6.1billion to piracy in 2005. Delivery methods of film reels were randomized and copies had a chain of custody to track who had access. Some theater staff were given night-vision goggles to identify people recording The Dark Knight, and one person was caught in Kansas City. Warner Bros. considered its strategy a success, delaying the appearance of the first "poorly-lit" camcorder version until 38–48 hours after its earliest global release in Australia.
Context
Compared to 2007's $9.7billion box-office take, in 2008, lower revenues were expected due to the large number of comedies competing against each other and the release of films with dark tones, such as The Dark Knight, during a period of rising living costs and election fatigue in the U.S. Fewer sequels, which generally performed well, were scheduled and only four—The Dark Knight, The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor, and Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull—were predicted to be blockbusters. Kingdom of the Crystal Skull was the only film expected to easily earn over $300million.
The Dark Knight was expected to sell well based on high audience anticipation, positive pre-release reviews, and a record $3.5million in IMAX pre-sales. Predictions placed its opening-weekend take above that of Iron Mans $102.1million but below that of Spider-Man 3s (2007) record $151.1million. Analysts said its success would be influenced by the lengthy running time that limited the number of screenings per day, and counter-programming from the romantic comedy Mamma Mia!—which surveyed well with women—and the family comedy Space Chimps. There was also a perceived limit on financial success for Batman films; the 1989 installment remained the franchise's highest-grossing release. The Dark Knights premiere took place on July 14, in IMAX in New York City. A block in Broadway was closed for the event, which included a live performance of the film score by Howard and Zimmer. The Hollywood Reporter said Ledger received several ovations, and that during the after-party, Warner Bros. executives struggled to maintain a balance between celebrating the successful response and commemorating Ledger.
Box office
On July 18, 2008, The Dark Knight was widely released in the U.S. and Canada in a record 4,366 theaters on an estimated 9,200 screens. It earned $158.4million during the weekend, a per-theater average of $36,282, breaking Spider-Man 3s record and making it the number-one film ahead of Mamma Mia! ($27.8million) and Hancock ($14million) in its third weekend. It set further records for the highest-grossing single-day ($67.2million on the Friday), Sunday ($43.6million), midnight opening ($18.5million, from 3,000 midnight screenings), and IMAX opening ($6.3million from about 94 locations), as well as the second-highest-grossing Saturday ($47.7million) behind Spider-Man 3, and contributed to the highest-grossing weekend on record ($253.6million). The film benefited from repeat viewings by younger audiences and had broad appeal, with 52% of the audience being male and an equal number of those under 25 years old, and those of 25 or older.
The Dark Knight broke more records, including for the highest-grossing opening week ($238.6million), and for three-, four-, five-, six-, seven-, eight-, nine-, and ten-day cumulative grosses, including the highest-grossing non-holiday Monday ($24.5million) and non-opening Tuesday ($20.9million, as well as the second-highest-grossing non-opening Wednesday ($18.4million), behind Transformers ($29.1million). It retained the number-one position in its second weekend with a total gross of $75.2million, ahead of the debuting Step Brothers ($31million), giving it the highest-grossing second weekend. It retained the number-one position in its third ($42.7million) and fourth ($26.1million) weekends, before falling to second place in its fifth, with a gross of $16.4million, behind the debuting Tropic Thunder ($25.8million). The Dark Knight remained in the top-ten highest-grossing films for ten weeks, and became the film to surpass $400million soonest (18 days) and $500million (45 days). The film was playing in fewer than 100 theaters when it received a 300-theater relaunch in late January 2009 to raise its profile during nominations for the 81st Academy Awards. This raised its total box office to $533.3million before it left theaters on March 5 after 33 weeks, making it the highest-grossing comic-book, superhero, and Batman film; the highest-grossing film of 2008; and the second-highest-grossing film ever (unadjusted for inflation), behind the 1997 romantic drama Titanic ($600.8million).
The Dark Knight was released in Australia and Taiwan on Wednesday, July 16, 2008, and opened in twenty markets by the weekend. It earned about $40million combined, making it second to Hancock ($44.8million), which was playing in nearly four times as many countries. The Dark Knight was available in sixty-two countries by the end of August, although Warner Bros. decided not to release it in China, blaming "a number of pre-release conditions... as well as cultural sensitivities to some elements of the film". The Dark Knight earned about $469.7million outside the U.S. and Canada, its highest grosses coming from the United Kingdom ($89.1million), Australia ($39.9million), Germany ($29.7million), France ($27.5million), Mexico ($25million), South Korea ($24.7million), and Brazil ($20.2million). This made it the second-highest-grossing film of the year behind Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull.
The film had grossed $997 million worldwide by January 2009. Its reissue in the run-up to the Oscars enabled the film to exceed $1billion in February, and it ultimately earned $1.003billion. It was the first superhero film to gross over $1billion, the highest-grossing film of 2008 worldwide, the fourth film to earn more than $1billion, and the fourth-highest-grossing film of its time behind Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest ($1.066billion), The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King ($1.119billion), and Titanic ($1.842billion). rereleases have further raised its box-office take to $1.006 billion.
Reception
Critical response
The Dark Knight received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a approval rating from the aggregated reviews of critics, with an average score of . The consensus reads; "Dark, complex and unforgettable, The Dark Knight succeeds not just as an entertaining comic book film, but as a richly thrilling crime saga." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 84 out of 100 based on 39 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Several publications called The Dark Knight the best comic-book hero adaptation ever made. Roger Ebert said it, alongside Iron Man, had redefined the potential of superhero films by combining comic-book tropes with real world events. Some appreciated its complex moral tale about the effects of vigilantism and terrorism on contemporary society. Emanuel Levy and Manohla Dargis praised the depiction of the characters as possessing both positive and negative aspects, such as the Batman's efforts to end crime provoking unintended consequences and a greater response from criminals; Dargis believed The Dark Knights exploration of chaos, fear, and death, following the September 11 attacks in 2001, represented "that American movies have entered a new era of ambivalence when it comes to their heroes or maybe just superness." Others criticized the dark, grim, intense, and self-serious tone as lacking any elements of fun or fantasy. David Denby said The Dark Knight was a product of a "time of terror", but focused on embracing and unleashing it while cynically setting up a sequel. Stephanie Zacharek and David Edelstein criticized a perceived lack of visual storytelling in favor of exposition, and aspects of the plot being difficult to follow amid the fast pace and loud score. Christopher's action direction was criticized, especially during fight scenes where it could be difficult to see things clearly, although the prologue bank heist was praised as among the film's best.
Ledger's performance received near-unanimous praise with the caveat that his death made the role both highly anticipated and difficult to watch. Dargis, among others, described Ledger as realizing the Joker so convincingly, intensely, and viscerally it made the audience forget about the actor behind the makeup. The Village Voice wrote the performance would have made Ledger a legend even if he had lived. Other reviews said Ledger outshone Nicholson's "magnificent" performance with macabre humor and malevolence. Reviews generally agreed the Joker was the best-written character, and that Ledger commanded scenes from the entire cast to create one of the most mesmerizing cinematic villains. Zacharek, however, lamented that the performance was not in service of a better film.
Bale's reception was mixed; his performance was considered to be alternately "captivating" or serviceable, but ultimately uninteresting and undermined by portraying an immovable and generally unchanged character who delivers the Batman's dialogue in a hoarse, unvarying tone. Eckhart's performance was generally well received; reviewers praised his portrayal of Dent as charismatic, and the character's subsequent transformation into a sad, bitter "monster", although Variety considered his subplot the film's weakest. Stephen Hunter said the Dent character was underwritten and that Eckhart was incapable of portraying the role as intended. Several reviewers regarded Gyllenhaal as an improvement over Holmes, although others said they found difficulty caring about the character and that Gyllenhaal, while more talented than her predecessor, was miscast. Peter Travers praised Oldman's skill in making a virtuous character interesting and he, among others, described Caine's and Freeman's performances as "effortless". Ebert surmised the entire cast provided "powerful" performances that engage the audience, such that "we're surprised how deeply the drama affects us".
Accolades
The Dark Knight appeared on several lists recognizing the best films of 2008, including those compiled by Ebert, The Hollywood Reporter, and the American Film Institute. At the 13th Satellite Awards, The Dark Knight received one award for Sound Editing or Mixing (Richard King, Lora Hirschberg, Gary Rizzo). A further four wins came at the 35th People's Choice Awards: Favorite Movie, Favorite Cast, Favorite Action Movie, and Favorite On-Screen Match-Up (Bale and Ledger), as well as Best Action Movie and Best Supporting Actor (Ledger) at the 14th Critics' Choice Awards. Howard and Zimmer were recognized for Best Motion Picture Score at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards. Ledger won the film's only awards at the 15th Screen Actors Guild Awards, 62nd British Academy Film Awards, and 66th Golden Globe Awards, for Best Supporting Actor. At the 14th Empire Awards, The Dark Knight received awards for Best Film, Best Director (Christopher Nolan), and Best Actor (Bale). Ledger received the award for Best Villain at the 2009 MTV Movie Awards, and at the 35th Saturn Awards, The Dark Knight won awards for Best Action or Adventure Film, Best Supporting Actor (Ledger), Best Writing (Christopher and Jonathan Nolan), Best Music (Howard and Zimmer), and Best Special Effects (Corbould, Nick Davis, Paul J. Franklin, Timothy Webber).
Before The Dark Knights release, film industry discourse focused on Ledger potentially earning an Academy Award nomination at the 81st Academy Awards in 2009, making him only the seventh person to be nominated posthumously, and if the decision would be influenced by his passing or performance. Genre films such as those based on comic books were also generally ignored by Academy voters. Even so, Ledger was considered a favorite to earn the award based on praise from critic groups and his posthumous Golden Globe award. Ledger won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, making him only the second performer to win an award posthumously (after Peter Finch in 1977), and The Dark Knight the first comic book adaptation to win an academy acting award. The Dark Knight also won an award for Best Sound Editing (King), and received six nominations for Best Art Direction (Crowley and Peter Lando), Best Cinematography (Pfister), Best Film Editing (Smith), Best Makeup (Caglione Jr. and O'Sullivan), Best Sound Mixing (Hirschberg, Rizzo, and Ed Novick), and Best Visual Effects (Davis, Corbould, Webber, and Franklin).
Despite the success of The Dark Knight, the lack of a Best Picture nomination was criticized and described as a "snub" by some publications. The response was seen as the culmination of several years of criticism toward the academy ignoring high-performing, broadly popular films. The backlash was such that, for the 82nd Academy Awards awards in 2010, the academy increased the limit for Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule". It allowed for more broadly popular but "respected" films to be nominated, including District 9, The Blind Side, Avatar, and Up, the first animated film to be nominated in two decades. This change is seen as responsible for the first Best Picture nomination of a comic book adaptation, Black Panther (2018). Even so, The Hollywood Reporter argued the academy mistook the appeals to recognize important, "generation-defining" genre films with just nominating more films.
Other releases
Home media
The Dark Knight was released on DVD and Blu-ray in December 2008. The release has a slipcover box-art that revealed a "Jokerized" version underneath, and contains featurettes on the Batman's equipment, the psychology used in the film, six episodes of the fictional news program Gotham Tonight, and a gallery of concept art, posters, and Joker cards. The Blu-ray disc version additionally offers interactive elements describing the production of some scenes. A separate, limited-edition Blu-ray disc set came with a Batpod figurine. The Dark Knight sold 3million copies across both formats on its launch day in the U.S., Canada, and the UK; Blu-ray discs comprised about 25–30% of the sales—around 600,000 units. The film was released at the beginning of the Blu-ray disc format; it was considered a success, breaking Iron Mans record of 250,000 units sold and indicating the format was growing in popularity. In 2011, it also became the first major-studio film to be released for rent via digital distribution on Facebook. A 4K resolution remaster, which was overseen by Christopher, was released in December 2017 as a set containing a 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray disc, and digital download, as well as special features from earlier releases.
Merchandise and spin-offs
Merchandise for The Dark Knight includes statuettes, action figures, radio-controlled Tumbler and Batpod models, costumes, sets of Batarangs, a limited-edition Grappling Launcher replica, board games, puzzles, clothing, and a special-edition UNO card game. A novelization written by Dennis O'Neil was released in 2008.
A direct-to-DVD animated film, Batman: Gotham Knight, was released in July 2008. Executive produced by Bruce Timm and Nolan's wife Emma Thomas, with Goyer as one of the writers, it includes veteran Batman voice actor Kevin Conroy reprising his role. Originally there was interest in bringing Bale and other actors from the live-action films to voice their respective characters, but it was not possible due to scheduling conflicts. Gotham Knight presents six vignettes, each of which are animated in a different artistic style, set between the events of Batman Begins and The Dark Knight.
A video game adaptation, Batman: The Dark Knight, was canceled due to development problems. The Dark Knight Coaster, an indoor roller coaster, opened in May 2008 at Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township, New Jersey. Costing $7.5million, the long attraction places riders in an imitation of Wayne Central Station in Gotham City as they move through areas that are vandalized or controlled by the Joker.
Themes and analysis
Terrorism and escalation
A central theme of The Dark Knight is escalation, particularly the rise of the Joker in response to the Batman's vigilantism. The Batman's vigilante operation arms him with high-tech military equipment against common criminals, and the Joker is the inevitable response and escalation of lawlessness to counter the Batman. Critic Siddhant Adlakha considered the Joker an analog for countries such as Iraq, Somalia, and Lebanon, which were targeted by U.S. military campaigns and responded with escalation using terrorism. The Batman also inspires copycat vigilantes, further escalating lawlessness. Film studies professor Todd McGowan said the Batman asserts authority over these copycats, telling them to stop because they do not have the same defensive equipment as himself, reaffirming his self-given authority to act as a vigilante.
The film has been analyzed as an analog for the war on terror, the militaristic campaign the U.S. launched following the September 11 attacks. The scene in which the Batman stands in the ruins of a destroyed building, having failed to prevent the Joker's plot, is reminiscent of the World Trade Center site after September 11. According to historian Stephen Prince, The Dark Knight is about the consequences of civil and government authorities abandoning rules in the fight against terrorism. Several publications criticized The Dark Knight for a perceived endorsement of "necessary evils" such as torture and rendition. Author Andrew Klavan said the Batman is a stand-in for then-U.S. president George W. Bush and justified the breaching of "boundaries of civil rights to deal with an emergency, certain that [the Batman] will re-establish those boundaries when the emergency is past". Klavan's interpretation was criticized by some publications that considered The Dark Knight anti-war, proposing society must not abandon the rule of law to combat lawlessness or risk creating the conditions for escalation. This is exemplified in the covert alliance formed between the Batman, Dent, and Gordon, leading to Rachel's death and Dent's corruption. Writer Benjamin Kerstein said both viewpoints are valid, and that "The Dark Knight is a perfect mirror of the society which is watching it: a society so divided on the issues of terror and how to fight it that, for the first time in decades, an American mainstream no longer exists".
The Batman and Dent resort to torture or enhanced interrogation to stop the Joker but he remains immune to their efforts because he has a strong belief in his goals. When Dent ineffectually attempts to torture Joker's henchman, the Batman does not condemn the act, only being concerned about public perception if people discover the truth. This conveys the protagonists' gradual abandonment of their principles when faced with an extreme foe. The Joker meets Dent in a hospital to explain how expected atrocities, such as the deaths of several soldiers, and societal failings are tolerated but when norms are unexpectedly disrupted, people panic and descend into chaos. Although the Joker wears disguising makeup, he is not hiding behind a mask and is the same person with or without makeup. He lacks any identity or origin, representing the uncertainty, unknowability, and fear of terrorism, although he does not follow any political ideology. Dent represents the fulfillment of American idealism, a noble person who can work within the confines of the law and allow the Batman to retire, but the fear and chaos embodied by the Joker taints that idealism and corrupts Dent absolutely.
In The Dark Knights final act, the Batman employs an invasive surveillance network by co-opting the phones of Gotham's citizens to locate the Joker, violating their privacy. Adlakha described this act as a "militaristic fantasy", in which a significant violation of civil liberties is required through the means of advanced technology to capture a dangerous terrorist, reminiscent of the 2001 Patriot Act. Lucius Fox threatens to stop helping the Batman in response, believing he has crossed an ethical boundary, and although the Batman agrees these violations are unacceptable and destroys the technology, the film demonstrates he could not have stopped the Joker in time without it.
Morality and ethics
The Dark Knight focuses on the moral and ethical battles faced by the central characters, and the compromises they make to defeat the Joker under extraordinary circumstances. Roger Ebert said the Joker forces impossible ethical decisions on each character to test the limits of their morality. The Batman represents order to the Joker's chaos and is brought to his own limit but avoids completely compromising himself. Dent represents goodness and hope; he is the city's "white knight" who is "pure" of intent and can operate within the law. Dent is motivated to do good because he identifies himself as good, not through trauma like the Batman, and has faith in the legal system. Adlakha wrote Dent is framed as a religious icon, his campaign slogan being "I believe in Harvey Dent", and his eventual death leaves his arms spread wide like Jesus on the Cross. Eckhart described Dent as someone who loves the law but feels constrained by it and his inability to do what he believes is right because the rules he must follow do not allow it. Dent's desire to work outside the law is seen in his support of the Batman's vigilantism to accomplish what he cannot.
Dent's corruption suggests he is a proxy for those looking for hope because he is as fallible and susceptible to darkness as anyone else. This can be seen in his use of a two-headed coin to make decisions involving others, eliminating the risk of chance by controlling the outcome in his favor, indicating losing is not an acceptable outcome for him. Once Dent experiences a significant traumatic event in the loss of Rachel and his own disfigurement, he quickly abandons his noble former self to seek his own form of justice. His coin is scarred on one side, introducing the risk of chance, and he submits himself to it completely. According to English professor Daniel Boscaljon, Dent is not broken; he believes in a different form of justice in a seemingly unjust world, flipping a coin because it is "Unbiased. Unprejudiced. Fair."
The Joker represents an ideological deviancy; he does not seek personal gain and causes chaos for its own sake, setting a towering pile of cash ablaze to prove "everything burns". Unlike the Batman, the Joker is the same with or without makeup, having no identity to conceal and nothing to lose. Boscaljon wrote the residents and criminals believe in a form of order and rules that must be obeyed; the Joker deliberately upends this belief because he has no rules or limitations. The character can be considered an example of Friedrich Nietzsche's "Superman", who exists outside definitions such as good and evil, and follows his own indomitable will. The film, however, leaves open the option to dismiss his insights because his chaos ultimately leads to death and injustice. Christopher described the Joker as an unadulterated evil, and professor Charles Bellinger considered him a satanic figure who repels people from goodness and tempts them with things they supposedly lack, such as forcing the Batman to choose between saving Dent—who is best for the city—and Rachel, who is best for Wayne. The Joker aims to corrupt Dent to prove anyone, even symbols, can be broken. In their desperation, Dent and the Batman are forced to question their own limitations. As the Joker states to the Batman:
The ferry scene can be seen as the Joker's true defeat, demonstrating he is wrong about the residents turning on each other in an extreme scenario. According to writer David Chen, this demonstrates, individually, people cannot responsibly handle power but by sharing the responsibility, there is hope for a compassionate outcome. Although the Batman holds to his morals and does not kill the Joker, he is forced to break his code by pushing Dent to his death to save an innocent person. The Batman chooses to become a symbol of criminality by taking the blame for Dent's crimes and preserving him as a symbol of good, maintaining the hope of Gotham's residents. Critic David Crow wrote the Batman's true test is not defeating the Joker but saving Dent, a task at which he fails. The Batman makes his own Christ-like sacrifice, taking on Dent's sins to preserve the city.
Although The Dark Knight presents this as a heroic act, this "noble lie" is used to conceal and manipulate the truth for what a minority determines is the greater good. McGowan considered the act heroic because the Batman's sacrifice will leave him hunted and despised without recognition, indicating he has learned from the Joker the established norms must sometimes be broken. According to professor Martin Fradley, among others, the Batman's "noble lie" and Gordon's support of it is a cynical endorsement of deception and totalitarianism. Wayne's butler Alfred also commits a noble lie, concealing Rachel's choice of Dent over Wayne to spare him the pain of her rejection.
Legacy
Cultural influence
The Dark Knight is considered an influential and often-imitated work that redefined the superhero/comic-book film genre, and filmmaking in general. In 2020, the United States Library of Congress selected The Dark Knight to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Before The Dark Knight, superhero films closely emulated their comic-book source material, and though the genre had seen significant successes such as Superman (1978), Batman (1989), X-Men (2000), and Spider-Man (2002), they were often considered disposable entertainment that did not garner much industry respect. A 2018 retrospective by The Hollywood Reporter said The Dark Knight taught filmmakers "comic book characters are malleable. They are able to be grounded or fantastic, able to be prestigious or pure blockbuster entertainment, to be dark and gritty or light, to be character-driven or action-packed, or any variation in-between."
The Dark Knight is considered a blueprint for the modern superhero film that productions either attempt to closely emulate or deliberately counter. Its financial, critical, and cultural successes legitimized the genre with film studios at a time when recent films, such as Daredevil, Hulk (both 2003), Fantastic Four (2005), and Superman Returns (2006) had failed to meet expectations. The genre became a focus of annual studio strategies rather than a relatively niche project, and a surge of comic-book adaptations followed, in part because of their broad franchising potential. In 2008, Ebert wrote; "[The Dark Knight], and to a lesser degree Iron Man, redefine the possibilities of the 'comic-book movie. The Atlantic wrote Iron Mans legacy in launching the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) could not have happened without the financial and critical success of The Dark Knight, which made comic book adaptations a central focus of film studios.
Retrospective analysis has focused on the way studios, eager to replicate its performance, released tonally dark, gritty, and realistic films, or reboots of existing franchises, many of which failed critically or commercially. Some publications said studios took the wrong lessons from The Dark Knight, treating source material too seriously and mistaking a dark, gritty tone for narrative depth and intelligent writing. The MCU is seen as a successful continuation of what made The Dark Knight a success, combining genres and tones relevant to each respective film while treating the source material seriously, unlike the DC Extended Universe, which more closely emulated the tone of The Dark Knight but failed to replicate its success.
Directors including Sam Mendes (Skyfall, 2012), Ryan Coogler (Black Panther), and David Ayer (Suicide Squad, 2016), have cited it as an influence on their work, and Steven Spielberg listed it among his favorite films. The film has been referenced in a variety of media including television shows such as Robot Chicken, South Park, and The Simpsons. U.S. President Barack Obama used Joker to explain the growth of Islamic State (IS) military group, saying "... the gang leaders of Gotham are meeting... they were thugs, but there was a kind of order... the Joker comes in and lights the whole city on fire. [IS] is the Joker." Joker's appearance became a popular Halloween costume and also influenced the 2009 Barack Obama "Joker" poster.
Retrospective assessments
Since its release, The Dark Knight has been assessed as one of the greatest superhero films ever made, among the greatest films ever made, and one of the best sequel films. It is also considered among the best films of the 2000s, and in a 2010 poll of thirty-seven critics by Metacritic regarding the decade's top films, The Dark Knight received the eighth most mentions, appearing on 7 lists. In the 2010s, a poll of 177 film critics by the BBC in 2016 listed it as the 33rd-best film of the 21st century, and The Guardian placed it 98th on its own list. In 2020, Empire magazine named it third-best, behind The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and Mad Max: Fury Road (2015). As of 2022, it remains the highest critically rated Batman film according to Rotten Tomatoes, and is often ranked as the best film featuring the character.
The Dark Knight remains popular with entertainment industry professionals, including directors, actors, critics, and stunt actors, being ranked 57th on The Hollywood Reporters poll of the best films ever made, 18th on Time Outs list of the best action films, and 96th on the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest American Films. The Dark Knight is included in the film-reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, and film critics James Berardinelli and Barry Norman included it in their individual listings of the 100 greatest films of all time. In 2012, Total Film named it the sixth-most-accomplished film of the preceding fifteen years, and a 2020 article by Empire named The Dark Knight as one of the films that defined the previous three decades. In 2020, Time Out named it the seventy-second-best action movie ever made.
Ledger's Joker is considered one of the greatest cinematic villains; several publications placed his portrayal second only to Darth Vader. In 2017, The Hollywood Reporter named Ledger's Joker the second-best cinematic superhero performance ever, behind Hugh Jackman as Wolverine, and Collider listed him as the greatest villain of the 21st century. In 2022, Variety listed him as the best superhero film performance of the preceding 50 years (Eckhart appears at number 22). Entertainment Weekly wrote there had not been another villain as interesting or "perversely entertaining" as Joker, and Ledger's performance was considered so defining that future interpretations would be compared against it. Michael B. Jordan cited the character as an inspiration for his character Erik Killmonger in Black Panther. The "pencil trick" scene, in which Joker makes a pencil disappear by slamming a mobster's head on it, is considered an iconic scene and among the film's most famous. Similarly, the character's line "why so serious?" is among the film's most famous and oft-quoted pieces of dialog, alongside "everyone loses their minds," and Dent's line "you either die a hero or you live long enough to see yourself become the villain", as well as Pennyworth's line "some men just want to watch the world burn"; the lines also became popular internet memes.
The Dark Knight remains popular with audiences in publicly voted rankings. Over 17,000 people voted the film into the top ten of American Cinematographers "Best-Shot Film of 1998–2008" list, and listeners of BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra named it their eighth-favorite film. Readers of Empire have alternatively voted it the fifteenth (2008), third (2014), and the fourth-greatest film ever made (2020). The Dark Knight was also voted the greatest superhero movie by readers of Rolling Stone (2014), and as one of New Zealand's favorite films (2015).
Sequel
The Dark Knight was followed by The Dark Knight Rises (2012), the conclusion of The Dark Knight Trilogy. In the film, the Batman is forced out of his self-imposed retirement following the events of The Dark Knight; he allies with Selina Kyle / Catwoman to take on Bane, a physically imposing revolutionary allied with the League of Shadows that is featured in Batman Begins. The Dark Knight Rises was a financial success, surpassing the box-office take of The Dark Knight, and was generally well received by critics but proved more divisive with audiences.
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
External links
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(DC Comics)
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2000s American films
2000s British films
2000s crime action films
2000s English-language films
2000s superhero films
2008 action thriller films
2008 crime drama films
2008 films
American action thriller films
American films about revenge
American crime drama films
American neo-noir films
American sequel films
American superhero films
BAFTA winners (films)
British action thriller films
British crime drama films
British sequel films
Films about bank robbery
Films about kidnapping in the United States
Films about organized crime in the United States
Films about security and surveillance
Films about ship hijackings
Films about terrorism
Films directed by Christopher Nolan
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award-winning performance
Films featuring a Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe winning performance
Films produced by Charles Roven
Films produced by Christopher Nolan
Films produced by Emma Thomas
Films scored by Hans Zimmer
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Films set in bunkers
Films set in Hong Kong
Films set on fictional islands
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in Chicago
Films shot in Hong Kong
Films shot in London
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Films shot in the United Kingdom
Films that won the Best Sound Editing Academy Award
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Live-action films based on DC Comics
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United States National Film Registry films
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4276631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert%20Pierlot | Hubert Pierlot | Hubert Marie Eugène Pierlot (, 23 December 1883 – 13 December 1963) was a Belgian politician and Prime Minister of Belgium, serving between 1939 and 1945. Pierlot, a lawyer and jurist, served in World War I before entering politics in the 1920s. A member of the Catholic Party, Pierlot became Prime Minister in 1939, shortly before Belgium entered World War II. In this capacity, he headed the Belgian government in exile, first from France and later Britain, while Belgium was under German occupation. During the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940, a violent disagreement broke out between Pierlot and King Leopold III over whether the King should follow the orders of his ministers and go into exile or surrender to the German Army. Pierlot considered Leopold's subsequent surrender a breach of the Constitution and encouraged the parliament to declare Leopold unfit to reign. The confrontation provoked a lasting animosity between Pierlot and other conservatives, who supported the King's position and considered the government's exile to be cowardly.
While in exile in London between 1940 and 1944, Pierlot served as both the prime minister of Belgium and minister of Defence and played an important role in wartime negotiations between the Allied powers, laying the foundation for Belgian post-war reconstruction. After the liberation of Belgium in September 1944, Pierlot returned to Brussels where, against his wishes, he headed a fresh government of national unity until February 1945. Criticism from the political left and the failure of the new government to deal with the serious issues facing the country following the liberation led to the fall of the government in February 1945 and he was replaced by the socialist Achille Van Acker. Pierlot's stance against Leopold III during the war made him a controversial figure during his lifetime and he was widely disliked in the same royalist and conservative circles from which his own Catholic Party (later the Christian Social Party) drew most of its support. He retired from politics in 1946 amid the crisis of the Royal Question, surrounding whether Leopold could return to the Belgian throne, and died peacefully in 1963. After his death, Pierlot's reputation improved as the decisions he took during the war were reconsidered by historians.
Birth and early career
Pierlot was born in Cugnon, a small village between Bertrix and Bouillon, in the Belgian Province of Luxembourg on 23 December 1883. His parents belonged to an eminent and wealthy Catholic family which was part of the Belgian conservative establishment. His brother, Jean Pierlot, would later become a member of the Belgian Resistance during the war and died in a German concentration camp in 1944.
Hubert Pierlot was educated in religious schools in Maredsous and later attended the prestigious Jesuit Collège Saint-Michel secondary school in Brussels. He studied at the Catholic University of Louvain where he received a licence in Political Science and a doctorate in Law. During his early life, he travelled to the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. He later married Marie-Louise ( De Kinder) and had seven children. With the German invasion of Belgium in August 1914, he volunteered for the Belgian infantry as a private. He served at the Battle of the Yser and on the Yser Front where he was decorated for valour. By the end of the war, he had reached the rank of Lieutenant and was serving in the 20th Regiment of the Line.
After the war, Pierlot joined the Catholic Party (Parti catholique), the main centre-right party in Belgium and one of the three that dominated Belgian political life. The Catholic Party, which was considered the party of stability and the establishment, was extremely electorally successful during the interwar period and headed a series of coalition governments. On 23 December 1925, Pierlot entered parliament as a member of the Chamber of Deputies representing Neufchâteau-Virton but left just a week later to become a senator. He served as provincial senator for Luxembourg from 1926 to 1936 and as directly elected senator for the same province between 1936 and 1946. He received a reputation for his oratorical abilities and for personal sincerity during the late 1920s.
In the successive Catholic government of the interwar period, he served as the minister of Internal Affairs (1934–35), minister of Agriculture (1934–35; 1936–39), and minister of Foreign Affairs (1939). He first led a coalition of Catholics and Socialists, and then one of Catholics and Liberals.
As Prime Minister
During the interwar period, Belgium pursued a policy of political neutrality and attempted to avoid confrontation with Nazi Germany. When the Phoney War broke out, Pierlot became the leader of a tripartite national government of Catholics, Liberals and Socialists which stayed in power until the German invasion in May 1940.
Break with Leopold III
During the fighting in May 1940, the Pierlot government came into conflict with King Leopold III who had taken personal command of the Belgian Army. The first confrontation between the government and the King occurred on 10 May, when the King, against the wishes of the government, left for his military headquarters without addressing the Chamber of Representatives like his father, Albert I, had done in 1914. Contact between the King and the government became sporadic while the government feared that the King was acting beyond his constitutional powers. Like his father, Leopold was subject to Article 64 of the constitution which specified that no act of the King was valid unless counter-signed by a government minister, yet also given supreme power in military matters under Article 68. The two clauses appeared to contradict each other and gave all the king's acts in military-political matters an unclear constitutional footing.
As the Belgian forces, together with their French and British allies, were forced to retreat, Leopold decided that surrendering the army was the only viable course of action. On 24 May, as the government was leaving the country for exile in France, a group of ministers including Pierlot held a final meeting with Leopold at the Kasteel van Wijnendale. They called for him to follow the example of the Norwegian king, Haakon VII, and join them in exile as a symbol of continued resistance. Leopold refused, believing that as commander, he should surrender alongside his army, provoking real animosity. He also believed that, by leaving for France, the Belgian government would surrender its neutrality and become a puppet government. He also believed that, as a neutral power with no formal treaty of alliance with France or Britain, the Belgian army was not obliged to hold out as long as it possibly could if it incurred huge casualties and had no chance of defending its own territory. On 28 May, after a brief attempt to form a new government of sympathetic politicians under Henri de Man and after denouncing Pierlot and his government, Leopold surrendered to the Germans and was made a prisoner of war.
Leopold's decision to surrender was seized on by the British and French press who blamed him for the military situation. The Belgian government met in Paris on 26 May and invoked Article 82 of the Constitution, declaring the monarch unable to reign (dans l'impossibilité de régner), and resolved to continue the fight against Germany. The following day, Pierlot held an important meeting with the French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, in which the French premier called for the Belgian government to publicly denounce the King and his surrender. Following the meeting, Pierlot gave a radio speech denouncing the King whom he accused of acting unconstitutionally and in sympathy with the Germans. Before being broadcast, Pierlot's speech was heavily edited by the French minister Georges Mandel to ensure a position favorable to the French. The denunciation of the King, who was popular across most strata of Belgian society and supported by the church, led to a big loss of public support and alienated Pierlot from his supporters and party.
Exile government in France
The government met in Limoges and then withdrew to Poitiers and Bordeaux, but as the French military situation deteriorated, became split over what should happen. The government was split between those who supported staying in France or staying with the French government and those who supported withdrawing to the United Kingdom. Pierlot supported retreating to London, but was keen to preserve the unity of his government, most of which supported remaining in France. Hoping to keep the Belgian Congo under Belgian sovereignty, Pierlot allowed the Minister of the Colonies, Albert de Vleeschauwer, to leave France while the government met to consider whether it should resign to make way for a new constitutional authority in occupied Brussels.
Fearing a surrender to the Germans, Marcel-Henri Jaspar, a junior minister, left France for London where, together with Camille Huysmans, he appeared to form a rebel government or Belgian National Committee (Comité national belge) condemned by the official government. De Vleeschauwer arrived in London, where he was joined by Camille Gutt, the Minister of Finances, to deal with the threat. Pierlot remained in France. De Vleeschauwer travelled to neutral Spain where, at Le Perthus on the French-Spanish border, he met with Pierlot and Paul-Henri Spaak, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, to attempt to persuade them to join him in London. Pierlot refused. Continued negotiations with the new Vichy government of Philippe Pétain proved fruitless. In August 1940, under pressure from the Germans, the French broke off diplomatic relations with the Belgian government and ordered it to disband. On 22 August, Pierlot and Spaak received the permission of the government to leave for London while the rest of the government remained in France.
Pierlot and Spaak, together with Pierlot's family, crossed into Francoist Spain with an official visa, but were arrested in Barcelona and held under house arrest in a hotel. On 18 October, they escaped from confinement and headed for Portugal where the regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, although neutral, was more sympathetic to the Allied cause than Spain. They finally arrived in London on 22 October.
Exile government in London
Shortly after his arrived in London, during the middle of the Blitz, Pierlot narrowly avoided being killed when the Carlton Hotel, where he was staying, was destroyed in bombing in November 1940.
The arrival of Pierlot and Spaak officially began the period of the "Government of Four" (Pierlot, Spaak, Gutt and De Vleeschauwer) which formed the core of the Belgian government in exile. Nonetheless, the Foreign Office distrusted Pierlot for not leaving France sooner. The Foreign Minister, Anthony Eden, is said to have remarked that "Pierlot is not impressive, but he is legitimate". Pierlot's status as the last elected Prime Minister did however provided sufficient legitimacy for the official government to undermine the Jaspar-Huysmans government in the eyes of the British government and achieve officially-approved status.
The government in exile received full diplomatic recognition from the Allied countries. The bulk of the Belgian government was installed in Eaton Square in the Belgravia area of London, which before the war had been the location of the Belgian Embassy. Other government departments were installed in nearby Hobart Place, Belgrave Square and in Knightsbridge. By May 1941, there were nearly 750 people working in the government in London in all capacities. The government in exile directed the formation of the Free Belgian Forces and was negotiated with the Resistance and other Allied governments. The government in exile also controlled much of Belgium's gold reserves, which had been evacuated before the defeat, which it loaned to the British and American governments. It was also involved in coordinating the war effort of the Belgian Congo which was an important source of raw materials, like uranium, to the Allies. From early in the war, the government was able to make contact with Leopold, through various intermediaries, but was unable to create a full reconciliation between the royal and Pierlot factions.
On 28 April 1941, Pierlot's two eldest children were travelling to their boarding school when the train they were on caught fire near Westborough, Lincolnshire. Both were killed.
Pierlot was one of the chief supporters of the Benelux Customs Union negotiated with both the Dutch and Luxembourgish governments in exile and signed in September 1944. Unlike Spaak, who was a staunch supporter of greater cooperation between states in Western Europe, Pierlot supported a transatlantic alliance with the United States to guarantee Belgian independence after the end of the war.
Defence ministry crisis
From its inception, the position of Minister of Defence in the government in exile was heavily contested. The appointment of Henri Rolin, an academic, to the position was particularly resented. In October 1942, Pierlot dismissed Rolin who he accused of involving himself in factional internal politics of the army, parts of which had begun to behave mutinously about their perceived inaction. To resolve the deadlock, Pierlot decided to take on the position personally. He began a major restructuring of the command structure of the infantry in an ultimately successful attempt to resolve the situation. A minor mutiny among soldiers from an artillery battery was quickly suppressed in November 1942, but Pierlot was widely criticised by the British press during the soldiers' court martial in January 1943.
In 1944, Pierlot began drawing up plans for the reorganization of the Belgian Army after the liberation, known as the Pierlot Plan (Plan Pierlot). The plan called for the formation of two brigades of infantry, six battalions of fusiliers, logistics and support units in Belgium immediately after liberation in order to fight alongside Allied troops during an invasion of Germany. In the longer term, these troops would form the core of a new division around which more troops could be raised.
Liberation governments
The liberation of Belgium begun in September 1944 as Allied forces moved eastwards. Brussels was liberated on 3 September. On 8 September, Pierlot and the government in exile arrived in the city by aeroplane. The return of the government was met with general indifference by the population, which felt the government had been indifferent to the plight of the population during the occupation.
Parliament met for the first time since 1940 on 19 September 1944 in which Pierlot presented a summary of the government's actions in Britain during the occupation. One of the first acts of the government was to make Prince Charles, Leopold's brother, the prince regent on 20 September. On 26 September, a new liberation government of national unity was created. Because of a shortage of candidates, Pierlot continued to head it. The new government included members of the Communist Party of Belgium (PCB-KPB) for the first time. It presided over the eventual liberation of all of Belgium, delayed by a German offensive in the Ardennes in the winter of 1944. The government was weakened by continued problems with the national food supply in the winter of 1944 which caused popular discontent.
During this period, the government was involved in launching Gutt's monetary reform plan as well as the disarming of the resistance as part of the transition to stability. A major crisis emerged within the government over the refusal of the Front de l'Indépendance (FI-OF) and the Partisans Armés (PA), two large left-wing resistance groups, to disband and disarm. Pierlot, suspicious of their motivations, came into confrontation with the Communists. The three Communist ministers resigned from the government, and the party began agitating against Pierlot. Amid fears of a Communist coup d'état, parliament voted through emergency powers allowing the Gendarmerie to forcibly disarm the resistance though sporadic strikes continued. The government also voted through important social security reforms.
Continued problems with the food supply, coupled the unpopularity of some of the government's measures, led to widespread press criticism of the Pierlot government. Strikes across the country in February 1945 further destabilised the government. On 7 February 1945, Pierlot publicly defended the actions of the government in parliament, but failed to make a significant impression. The government fell in February, and was replaced by a new, short-lived national union government under Achille Van Acker while the polemic surrounding the possible dismissal or restatement of Leopold III were considered.
Later life and death
After the fall of his government, Pierlot returned to his position as senator of the arrondissements of Arlon, Marche-en-Famenne, Bastogne, Neufchâteau and Virton until the elections of February 1946. In September 1945, Pierlot was appointed to the honorary role of Minister of State by Charles and, shortly after the 1946 election, was awarded the title of Count. Because he was considered an anti-Leopoldist during the crisis surrounding the Royal Question, he was ostracised by the pro-Leopoldist successor to the Catholic Party, the Christian Social Party (Parti social-chrétien or PSC-CVP).
Retiring from politics, Pierlot returned to practicing law in Brussels. In 1946, a book entitled the Livre Blanc (White Book) was published at the request of Leopold, defending the King and attacking the exile government's record. Responding to the criticism, Pierlot published a widely distributed series of articles in the newspaper Le Soir. He remained a controversial figure. King Baudouin, replacing his father as King in 1950, also refused to receive Pierlot at the palace. After 1947, he refused to return to politics or to respond publicly to criticism from his political enemies.
Pierlot died in Uccle, a wealthy suburb of Brussels, on 13 December 1963, ten days before his 80th birthday. He is buried in Cugnon. A charitable organisation, the Fondation Hubert Pierlot (Hubert Pierlot Foundation), was established by friends of Pierlot in 1966.
Posthumous rehabilitation
After his death, Pierlot's political reputation was reappraised by historians who reconsidered the decisions he took during his wartime government. He was notably praised by his colleague, Paul-Henri Spaak who later became first President of the United Nations General Assembly, Secretary General of NATO, and one of the founding fathers of the European Union. In his 1969 memoires, Spaak praised Pierlot as "serious to the point of severity, honest to the point of scrupulosity, a tireless worker, a devout Christian, a patriot, a model of civic, professional, and family virtues, he was an exceptional man."
References
Bibliography
External links
Hubert Pierlot at the official website of the Belgian Prime Minister
Hubert Pierlot, du devoir au sacrifice at La Libre Belgique
Hubert Pierlot, Premier ministre oublié at L'Avenir
Hubert Pierlot in ODIS - Online Database for Intermediary Structures
1883 births
1963 deaths
People from Bertrix
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
Belgian military personnel of World War I
20th-century Belgian lawyers
Catholic Party (Belgium) politicians
Prime Ministers of Belgium
Belgian Ministers of State
Members of the Belgian government in exile
World War II political leaders
Counts of Belgium |
4277081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20%28What%20the%20Fuck%20Is%20Going%20On%3F%29 | 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) | 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) is the debut studio album by British electronic band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (the JAMs), later known as the KLF. 1987 was produced using extensive unauthorised samples that plagiarised a wide range of musical works, continuing a theme begun in the JAMs' debut single "All You Need Is Love". These samples provided a deliberately provocative backdrop for beatbox rhythms and cryptic, political raps.
Shortly after independent release in June 1987, the JAMs were ordered by the Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society to destroy all unsold copies of the album, following a complaint from ABBA. In response, the JAMs disposed of many copies of 1987 in unorthodox, publicised ways. They also released a version of the album titled 1987 (The JAMs 45 Edits), stripped of all unauthorised samples to leave periods of protracted silence and so little audible content that it was formally classed as a 12-inch single.
Background and recording
On New Year's Day 1987, Bill Drummond decided to make a hip hop record under the pseudonym "the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu". Knowing little about modern music technology, he invited Jimmy Cauty, a former member of the band Brilliant, to join him. Cauty agreed, and the JAMs' debut single "All You Need Is Love" was independently released on 9 March 1987 as a limited-edition one-sided white label 12-inch. Cauty became "Rockman Rock", and Drummond used the nickname "King Boy D".
The reaction to "All You Need Is Love" was positive; the British music newspaper Sounds listed it as the single of the week, and lauded The JAMs as "the hottest, most exhilarating band this year". The song's reliance on uncleared, often illegal samples made commercial release impossible. In response, the JAMs re-edited the single, removing or doctoring the most antagonistic samples, and re-released it as "All You Need Is Love (106 bpm)" in May 1987. According to Drummond, profits from this re-release funded the recording of their first album. The JAMs had completed and pressed copies of the album by early May 1987, but did not have a distributor.
Like "All You Need Is Love", the album was made using an Apple II computer, a Greengate DS3 digital sampler peripheral card, and a Roland TR-808 drum machine. Several songs were liberally plagiarised, using portions from existing works and pasting them into new contexts, with the duo stealing "everything" and "taking... plagiarism to its absurd conclusion". This mashup of samples was underpinned by rudimentary beatbox rhythms and overlaid with Drummond's raps of social commentary, esoteric metaphors, and mockery. Drummond later said that:
Composition
1987 is built around samples of other artists' work, "to the point where the presence of original material becomes questionable". The album is raw and unpolished, the sound contrasting sharply with the meticulous production and tight house rhythms of the duo's later work as the KLF. The beatbox rhythms are basic (described as "weedy" by Q magazine), samples often cut abruptly, and distinctive plagiarised melodies are often played with a high-pitched rasping accompaniment. The plagiarised works are arranged so as to juxtapose with each other as a backdrop for the JAMs' rebellious messages and social comments. The lyrics include self-referential statements of the JAMs' agenda, imbued with their fictional backstory adopted from The Illuminatus! Trilogy.
Side one
The album's opening song, "Hey Hey We Are Not The Monkees", begins with simulated human sexual intercourse noises (which Drummond later referred to as "sampled breathing stuff") arranged as a rhythm. The album's first sample is "Here we come..." from the Monkees' theme. It progresses into a cryptic and bleak spoken verse from Drummond: "Here we come, crawling out of the mud, from chaos primeval to the burned out sun, dragging our bad selves from one end of time, with nothing to declare but some half-written rhymes". A cacophone of further samples from The Monkees' theme and Drummond's voice follow – "We're not The Monkees, I don't even like The Monkees!" – before it gets interrupted by an original a cappella vocal line that later became The KLF's "Justified and Ancient" – "We're justified/And we're ancient ... We don't want to upset the apple cart/And we don't wanna cause any harm".
The track is followed by a long sample of a London Underground train arriving at and leaving a tube station, with its recorded warning to passengers, "Mind the gap...". "Don't Take Five (Take What You Want)" follows, featuring The JAMs' associates Chike (rapper) and DJ Cesare (scratches). Built around The Dave Brubeck Quartet's "Take Five" and Fred Wesley's "Same Beat", the lyrics are mostly unconventional, with the majority of the song containing references to food: "I was pushing my trolley from detergent to cheese when I first saw the man with antler ears. I tried to ignore but his gaze held my eyes when he told me the truth about the basket of lies". Sounds considered the message of the song (if any) to be a modern version of Robin Hood: "This is piracy in action, with the venerable music industry figure, King Boy D, setting himself up as the Robin Hood of rap as he steals from the rich vaults of recording history".
The first side of the LP closes with "Rockman Rock (Parts 2 and 3)", a homage to Jimmy Cauty that plagiarises from an array of sources, including the "Bo Diddley Beat" and "Sunrise Sunset" from the Fiddler on the Roof soundtrack. Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love" (interspersed with Jimi Hendrix's "All Along the Watchtower"), "Since I've Been Loving You" and "Houses of the Holy" can be also heard in this track. Side one would not close until "Why Did You Throw Away Your Giro?", a track consisting of a question in reference to a line from "Rockman Rock" from a female adult jokingly answered by a male person, ended in 20 seconds.
Side two
The second side begins with "Me Ru Con", a traditional Vietnamese song performed a cappella by the JAMs' friend Duy Khiem. According to Drummond, it was a spontaneous recital by Khiem, who was in the studio contributing clarinet and tenor sax to the album. Khiem's vocal performance was later sampled by The KLF on the ambient house soundtrack to their movie, The Rites of Mu.
"The Queen and I" features extensive samples from ABBA's "Dancing Queen", often overlain with a rasping detuned accompaniment. These lead into Drummond's satirical and discontent rapping, a fictional account of his march into the British House of Commons and Buckingham Palace to demand answers. The song also protests the involvement of cigarette companies in sport ("When cancer is the killer/John Player run the league") and lambasts the "tabloid mentality" ("They all keep talking about Princess Di's dress"). The Sex Pistols' "God Save the Queen" is briefly sampled. After nearly three minutes of samples from the television show Top of the Pops, as well as sound clips from programmes and advertisements on other TV channels, Drummond cries "Fuck that, let's have The JAMs!". The acerbic "All You Need Is Love (106 bpm)" follows. A "stunning audio collage" featuring an AIDS public information film, a rerecording of glamour model Samantha Fox's "Touch Me (I Want Your Body)", and the nursery rhyme "Ring a Ring o' Roses", "All You Need Is Love" comments on sex and the British media's reaction to the AIDS crisis.
The final track on the album is "Next", which Drummond describes as "the only angst-er on the album", with "imagery of war and sordid sex". The track samples Stevie Wonder's "Superstition", Scott Walker's "Next" from Scott 2, the Fall's "Totally Wired," and Julie Andrews' "The Lonely Goatherd" from The Sound of Music, alongside Khiem's original melancholy clarinet and tenor saxophone contributions ("a saxophone of stupefying tediosity", according to Danny Kelly).
Bill Drummond summed up The JAMs' approach to composition in the first "KLF Information Sheet", sent out in October 1987: "We made [the album] not giving a shit for soul boy snob values or any other values, we just went in and made the noise we wanted to hear and the stuff that came out of our mouths.... Not a pleasant sound but it's the noise we had. We pressed it up and stuck it out. A celebration of sorts." Jimmy Cauty defended sampling as an artistic practice: "It's not as if we're taking anything away, just borrowing and making things bigger. If you're creative you aren't going to stop working just because there is a law against what you are doing."
In 1991, Drummond admitted: "We didn't listen to 1987 What The Fuck's Going On for a long time, and when we did we were embarrassed by it because it was so badly recorded. But I still felt we were able to get a lot out of ourselves through it."
Release and controversy
1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) was released in June 1987 on The JAMs' own record label, "The Sound of Mu(sic)".
1987 was met with mixed reviews in most of the major British music publications, including Melody Maker, NME, Sounds, and Q, and the album came to the attention of the management of Swedish pop group ABBA: The JAMs had sampled large portions of the ABBA single "Dancing Queen" on the track "The Queen And I". A legal showdown with ABBA and the Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society (MCPS) followed, 1987 was forcibly withdrawn from sale, and The JAMs were ordered to "deliver up the master tape, mothers, stampers and any other parts commensurate with manufacture of the record".
King Boy D and Rockman Rock travelled to ABBA's home country of Sweden, in the hope of meeting with ABBA personally, taking an NME journalist and photographer with them, along with most of the remaining copies of the LP and a gold disc of the album. Failing to find ABBA in residence at Polar Studios in Stockholm, they instead presented the gold disc to a blonde prostitute they pretended was Agnetha "fallen on hard times". Of the original LP's stock, some copies were disposed overboard on the North Sea ferry trip across, and the remainder were burned in a field in Gothenburg before dawn (as shown on the cover of their next album, Who Killed The JAMs?, and detailed in that album's single "Burn the Bastards"). The JAMs also played a recording of "The Queen and I" loudly outside the offices of ABBA's record label, Polar Music. The trip was unexpectedly eventful, the JAMs accidentally hitting and killing a moose, and later being shot at by a farmer, a bullet cracking the engine of their Ford Galaxie police car. They were, by their own account, towed back to England by the AA.
The JAMs were not entirely sure what they would have said to ABBA if they had been able to meet them. Rockman told NME: "We were hoping to explain [our artistic justification] to them and that maybe we'd come out of it friends, you know, them producing our album and us producing theirs—the kind of thing that often happens at these meetings." King Boy: "Yeah, we'd have said, 'Look, you haven't had many hits lately, you don't really wanna bother with all this West End musical shit do you? Come and do the new JAMMS [sic] album.'" In 1994, The Guardian looked back on the Swedish sojourn as "a grand, futile, attention-grabbing gesture, the kind that would come to characterise [the duo's] collaborative career... "We were being totally stupid about it" Drummond later acknowledged."
The JAMs offered what they claimed were "the last five" copies of 1987 for sale at £1000 each in a full-page advertisement in the April 1988 edition of The Face. Drummond argued that the offer exploited a loophole in The JAMs' agreement with the MCPS: "We were browsing around this record shop and came across these five copies of 1987.... We made it perfectly clear to the MCPS that we couldn't actually force the shops to send our LPs back.... [B]ecause we bought them in a shop, these LPs don't come into the agreement and we can do what we like with them and not break any laws." The master acetate and all of the band's other masters were donated to the British Library in 2023.
Critical response
Q magazine had mixed reactions to 1987, saying that there are "too few ideas being spread too thin". The magazine criticised some songs as "overlong" and questioned the overuse of sampling as "the impression of a random hotchpotch". Q also unfavourably commented that The JAMs' "use of the beatbox is altogether weedy". It liked some of its tracks: "there are some wickedly amusing ideas and moments of pure poetry in the lyrics while some of the musical juxtapositions are both killingly funny and strong enough to stand repeated listenings".
A reviewer for Melody Maker found 1987 "inspirational", and "the most exciting, most original record [he'd] heard in years". He also argued that: "Some snatches [of plagiarised music] rather outstay their welcome, tugging tell-tale glitz away from the clifftop and dangerously close to smug obviousness, but when the blows are kept short, sharp and very bloody, they make anything else you're very likely to hear on the radio dull and desperately humourless." "It's easy to dismiss The JAMs frolics as little more than a brightly coloured sideshow to the shabbiest circus in town", a later article said, but "believe me, it's far more than a gimmick".
In awarding 1987 the highest rating, a maximum five stars, Sounds—a publication that offered the duo's work consistent approval—mused, "Taking the sound of the moment (hip hop) as a backbone, 1987 steals sound artefacts from anywhere ... and meshes them together with King Boy's hysterical 'Clydeside' rap method with bewildering effect. ... [Y]ou could call this sampling technology's answer to T. S. Eliot's arch cut up work, The Wasteland. " "What's so good about The JAMs", the magazine said, "is the way they are capturing on disc the whole social and musical confusion and instability of 1987 Britain".
NME'''s Danny Kelly was not so impressed. He also felt that the record was underdeveloped and The JAMs were not the most skilled of practitioners. "Audacity, completely unfounded self-confidence, utter ruthlessness and a fast car will, of course, be useful attributes to the go-ahead noise-pirate of the 90s, but skill, feel, instinct, vision—y'know, boring old talent—will still be bottom line compulsories... it's in these latter commodities that the JAMs seem conspicuously undertooled." Compared to the output of DJ Code Money or Cut Creator ("all humour, vibrancy and colour... – aerosoled version[s] of The Book of Kells") Kelly felt Drummond's efforts to be a "glitter-crusted charity Christmas card". A later NME item called 1987 "the best comment on sampling culture ever made".
A retrospective review by AllMusic commented that 1987 is "a hilarious record" filled with "comments on music terrorism and [The JAMs'] own unique take on the Run-D.M.C. type of old-school rapping"; and The Penguin Price Guide for Record & CD Collectors called 1987 an "entirely brilliant example of the art of disc-jockey-as-producer". Giving another retrospective review from across the Atlantic, Trouser Press described 1987 as "energetic" and "a loopy dance album that isn't unlike a lot of sampled records, but proceeds from an entirely different cultural understanding."
Personnel
Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty were responsible for the concept and production of 1987, its lyrics and the TR-808 beatbox rhythms. Drummond provided rap, and an additional rapper introduced as 'Chike' appears on "Don't Take Five (Take What You Want)" and "Rockman Rock (Parts 2 and 3)". Duy Khiem contributed lead vocals to "Mẹ Ru Con", as well as clarinet and tenor sax to "Rockman Rock (Parts 2 and 3)" and "Next".
Track listing
Side one
Side two
"1987: The JAMs 45 Edits"
Following the enforced deletion of the 1987 album, the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu released an edited version as a 12" single, with all of the unauthorised samples removed, leaving sparse instrumentation, Drummond's social commentary and, in several cases, long periods of silence; the "Top of the Pops" section of the original LP yielded three minutes of silence on 45 Edits, and the only sample remaining from the original was The Fall's "Totally Wired."
The edited single was sold through normal retail channels and also offered as a "reward" to anyone who returned a copy of the LP to The JAMs' post office box. The single was released on 16 October 1987, and on 31 October 1987 The JAMs announced that the case with ABBA "is now closed". The sleevenotes to "1987: The JAMs 45 Edits" explain to the purchaser in a rather tongue-in-cheek fashion how to recreate the original 1987'' album for themselves:
This record is a version of our now deleted and illegal LP '1987, What The Fuck Is Going On?' with all of the copyright infringing 'samples' edited out. As this leaves less than 25 minutes of music we are able to sell it as a 12-inch 45. If you follow the instructions below you will, after some practice, be able to simulate the sound of our original record. To do this you will need 3 wired-up record decks, a pile of selected discs, one t.v. set and a video machine loaded with a cassette of edited highlights of last weeks 'Top of the Pops'. Deck one is to play this record on, the other two are to scratch in the missing parts using the selected records. For added authentic effect you could use a Roland 808 drum machine (well cheap and what we used in the original recordings) to play along behind your scratching.
Notes
References
1987 debut albums
The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu albums
KLF Communications albums
Recalled publications
Sampling controversies
Albums produced by the KLF
Hip hop albums by British artists
House music albums by British artists |
4277152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20cruiser%20Yura | Japanese cruiser Yura | was the fourth of the six ships completed in the of light cruisers for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), and like other vessels of her class, she was intended for use as the flagship of a destroyer flotilla. She served in the early stages of World War II.
Background and description
The second batch of three Nagara-class cruisers, including Yura, was authorized by the Diet as part of the 8-6 Fleet Completion Program on 12 March 1918 although they were not funded until the Fiscal Year 1920 Naval Estimates. The ships were intended to serve as flagships for destroyer and submarine squadrons, long-range scouts for the battlefleet, and to protect Japanese merchant shipping. The Nagara class was intended to displace at (standard load) and at normal load, but was slightly overweight and actually displaced . They had an overall length of , a beam of , and a draft of Their crew numbered 37 officers and 413 enlisted men. When serving as a flagship, an additional 5 officers and 22 enlisted men were embarked.
The Nagaras propulsion system consisted of four geared steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam from a dozen Kampon water-tube boilers. All of the boilers but two were oil-fired and those used a mixed-firing system where fuel oil was sprayed onto the coal to increase power. The turbines developed a total of and were intended to give the cruisers a speed of . Yura only reached from when the ship ran her sea trials on 18 February 1923. The ships carried enough fuel oil and coal to give them a range of at , an increase of from their designed range.
Armament, fire control and protection
The cruisers' main battery consisted of seven 3rd Year Type guns in single gun mounts protected by gun shields. Five of the guns were mounted on the centerline, one pair mounted back to back forward of the bridge and three aft of the funnels, on the aft superstructure. The remaining guns were positioned abreast the bridge, one on each broadside. For anti-aircraft defense, the ships were fitted with a pair of 3rd Year Type anti-aircraft (AA) guns abreast the middle funnel and two Type 3 heavy machine guns on a platform between the middle and rear funnels, one on each broadside. The ships were equipped with four rotating Type 8 twin-tube mounts for Type 8 torpedoes, two mounts on each broadside. Each tube was provided with a single reload torpedo forward of the mount. The Nagara-class ships were fitted with two rails at the stern that could accommodate 48 No. 1 naval mines These were actually a pair of mines that were connected by a cable and were intended to be dropped ahead of ahead of enemy ships so that hitting the cable would draw one or both mines in towards the ship's hull.
The main guns were controlled by a Type 13 director located at the top of the tripod mast. To determine the distance to the target, a pair of rangefinders were fitted, one on the bridge and the other near the 6.5 mm machine guns. An additional rangefinder was positioned on a platform between the forward and middle funnels.
The armor of the 5,500-ton cruisers was designed to protect against American shells and the ships were equipped with a waterline armor belt thick amidships that protected the propulsion machinery. Made from high-tensile steel, it consisted of a inner plate and an outer plate. The belt connected to the armored deck at the top and the double bottom below. The deck armor was also high-tensile steel, thick.
Aircraft
Inspired by the British deployment of aviation facilities aboard their C-class and Danae-class cruisers, the Nagara-class cruisers were built with an aircraft hangar in the forward superstructure and a flying-off platform that extended over one of the forward guns. Yura conducted trials with a Yokosuka E1Y2 reconnaissance floatplane in 1927–1928 that was stowed on the flying-off platform and lowered to the sea for takeoff and recovered by a derrick installed next to the bridge. The ship had an experimental spring-powered catapult installed on the platform in mid-1930 for trials with an Aichi E3A1 floatplane. Numerous accidents caused its replacement in October by a cordite-powered, Kure Type 2, Model 2 catapult.
During Yuras September 1933 – January 1934 refit, the hangar was converted into offices for the admiral's staff, radio rooms and storage compartments, the flying-off platform, its catapult and the derrick was removed and a rotating Kure Type 2, Model 3 catapult was installed forward of the mainmast, between two gun mounts. The pole mainmast was converted into a tripod mast with a stronger derrick to handle the aircraft. The cruiser operated a Nakajima E4N2 floatplane until the end of 1934 when a Kawanishi E7K floatplane was embarked.
Modifications
During her September 1933 – January 1934 refit, the ship's anti-aircraft suite was upgraded; the 76 mm AA guns was replaced by twin mounts for Type 93 machine guns and the 6.5 mm machine guns were replaced by Lewis guns. In addition a quadruple mount for Type 93 machine guns was installed in front of the bridge and the 2.5-meter rangefinder on the bridge was replaced by a model. After the torpedo boat capsized during a storm in 1934, the IJN realized that many of its ships were top-heavy and began modifying them to make them more stable. Yura began her modifications in October that included reducing the amount of equipment above the upper deck, shortening the foremast, and adding of ballast. The IJN took advantage of the ship's time in the shipyard to convert the mixed-firing boilers to fuel oil only and converting the lower coal bunkers to oil storage and the upper bunkers to a radio room and storage compartments. The ship was also modified to pump of seawater aboard to her improve her stability as necessary.
After several of the 5,500-ton cruisers suffered structural damage during the Fourth Fleet Incident in 1935, the ship's hull was strengthened by reinforcing the joints and adding Ducol steel plates to the deck and sides in 1936–1937. A single BI machine gun was installed on the bridge in July 1937. The 13.2 mm machine gun mounts were replaced by four 2.5 cm Type 96 AA guns in twin mounts in 1938.
Construction and career
Yura, named after the Yura River, was laid down on 21 May 1921 at the Sasebo Naval Arsenal, launched on 15 February 1922 and completed on 20 March 1923. The ship became the flagship of the 5th Cruiser Squadron (Sendai) which included her sister ships , , and on 1 April. Together with 2nd Destroyer Squadron, the 5th Squadron patrolled Chinese waters between 25 August and 4 September. The squadron, now consisting of Yura, Nagara and Natori, was assigned to the Second Fleet on 1 December. Reinforced by the light cruiser in May, the division made a cruise to Hahajima Island in October 1924. On 1 December, Yura became a private ship in the 5th Squadron which patrolled Chinese waters off the Yangtze River delta, Qingdao (Tsingtao) and Dalian (Dairen) from 25 March to 23 April 1925. The squadron made another cruise off Qindao beginning on 29 March 1926, but Yura returned to Sasebo on 1 April. She was commanded by Captain Soemu Toyoda from November 1926 to November 1927 and became flagship of Submarine Squadron 1 on 1 December. Two weeks later, the ship began trials with a Yokosuka E1Y2 floatplane and led her squadron on a patrol off Qindao from 26–27 March to 16 April 1927 together with the Third Cruiser Squadron. Yura was reduced to reserve at Sasebo on 1 December 1927.
On 10 December 1928, the ship was reactivated with Captain Otagaki Tomisaburō in command and became flagship of the Third Cruiser Squadron of the First Fleet. Escorted by the First Destroyer Squadron, the unit patrolled Chinese waters off Qindao, Dalian, and Qinhuangdao (Chinwangtao) from 29 March to 21 April 1929. Captain Wada Senzō replaced Otagaki on 1 November. The following year, the cruiser squadron visited Dalian in March–April. Yura was fitted with a spring-powered catapult for trials mid-year, but they were unsatisfactory and the catapult was replaced by a cordite-powered one in October 1930. The ship was placed in reserved on 1 December at Sasebo, but she was reactivated on 1 December 1931 and rejoined the Third Cruiser Squadron under the command of Captain Umataro Tanimoto.
Following the Manchurian Incident and the subsequent Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) instigated riots in Shanghai, China, that allowed it to attack units of the Chinese Army in and around Shanghai on 28 January 1932. The IJN dispatched the Third Cruiser Squadron, consisting of Yura, and her sisters and to the Shanghai area on 28–29 January. On 4 February, the squadron bombarded Chinese fortifications and positions at Wusong, near the confluence of the Huangpu River and the Yangtze River estuary. Yura and the supported attacks by the 9th Division and continued to provide gunfire support until their departure on 20 March. Upon her arrival back in Sasebo, Yura was docked for several months to repair damage inflicted by the muzzle blast of her own guns.
The ship remained part of the Third Cruiser Division until 20 May 1933 when all three sisters were transferred to the newly formed 7th Cruiser Squadron. Captain Rokuzō Sugiyama commanded the ship from 15 June to 15 November 1933. The squadron visited ports in Japanese Taiwan on 5–15 July and then patrolled southern Chinese waters until returning to Japan on 21 August, after which it participated in a fleet review off Yokohama four days later. Yura became the flagship of the Second Submarine Squadron on 1 November, although she had begun a lengthy refit in September that lasted until 25 January 1934. The squadron made a brief visit to Qingdao between 27 September and 5 October. After her return, the ship had a refit that improved her stability that lasted until January 1935 and Captain Wakabayashi Seisaku assumed command on 1 November. The squadron departed for a cruise off the Kurile Islands on 7 February 1935 and returned on 25 February. It participated in the Great Maneuvers of the Combined Fleet from 20 July to 2 October. Yura was assigned to the Sasebo Guard Squadron, formed from ships in reserve, on 15 November and had her hull strengthened and her engines repaired during a refit from 10 June 1936 to March 1937.
Yura became the flagship of Cruiser Squadron 8, commanded by Rear Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, of the First Fleet when she was recommissioned in March. The squadron made a cruise to Qingdao, returning to Japan on 6 April. After the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July, the cruisers departed Sasebo for a brief patrol in northern Chinese waters on 22 July, returning eight days later. The squadron was deployed to the Shanghai area on 10 August and supported operations there until returning home on 23 October. It was redeployed to that area a week later to support the amphibious landings by the IJA on the northern coast of Hangzhou Bay, south of Shanghai, in early November and arrived back at Sasebo on 22 November, after Captain Ichioka Hisashi had taken command on 15 November. Yura became a private ship on 1 December and had a brief refit from 24 March to 7 April 1938. The squadron patrolled southern Chinese waters later in April and the area off Shanghai in September. It reinforced the blockade of southern Chinese waters in October and November. The 8th Cruiser Squadron made a brief cruise of northern Chinese waters between 22 March 1939 and 2 April. Yura spent most of the month of August operating in southern Chinese waters. On 15 November the cruiser became the flagship of the Fifth Submarine Squadron which was assigned to the newly formed Fourth Fleet which was tasked with the defense of the islands of the South Seas Mandate. To this purpose Yura and her submarines operated there between 16 May 1940 and 22 September. The squadron was transferred to the Combined Fleet on 15 November and the ship patrolled the South China Sea in February–March 1941.
As of 1 September 1941, Yura was the flagship of Rear Admiral Daigo Tadashige, commander of the Fifth Submarine Squadron. The squadron was ordered to proceed to Palau with four submarines, , , , and on 26 November. They were diverted to Sanya, Hainan Island, where they arrived on 3 December and assigned to the Malaya Invasion Force.
Early stages of the Pacific War
When the attack on Pearl Harbor began on 8 December (Japanese time), Yura was covering the first troop convoy south of the Cape of Camau, French Indochina, while her submarines were part of a patrol line north of the Anambas Islands. The following afternoon, I-65 spotted the British Force Z, (the battleship , battlecruiser and supporting destroyers) that was enroute to the Gulf of Siam to attack the convoy. The submarine had problems transmitting its report so that Yura and the other addressees had difficulties decoding it and it took about two hours before the news was received by Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, commander of the invasion force. I-65 pursued Force Z until it was forced to dive when it spotted an unknown aircraft. Yura unsuccessfully searched for the British ships west of Poulo Condore Island until they were located and sunk by IJN torpedo bombers based in Indochina on 10 December, after which the ship proceeded to Cam Ranh Bay.
Yura was then attached to No. 2 Escort Unit for the rest of the month, escorting troop convoys during the invasion of Borneo from 13 – 26 December, and covering amphibious landings in Brunei, Miri, Seria, and Kuching. The assaulting troops occupied their objectives against little resistance, and Yura returned to Cam Ranh Bay on 27 December to begin a refit that lasted until 16 January 1942. Daigo hauled down his flag on 19 January and Yura became a private ship. She was assigned to the Main Force of the Escort Group of the Malay Force two days later and covered the landings at Endau, British Malaya, on 26 January. The ship patrolled the area between Cap St. Jacques (Vũng Tàu) and Natuna Besar until her return to Cam Ranh Bay on 3 February.
The cruiser was assigned to No. 2 Escort Unit in February to command the escort force for the 38th Division invading Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies, but she was reassigned to the covering force for the operation from the First Southern Expeditionary Fleet on 8 February. The unit departed Cam Ranh Bay two days later. A reconnaissance aircraft spotted ships north of Banka Strait that appeared to be escaping from British Singapore on 12 February and Ozawa split his force to intercept the ships before they could attack the invasion convoys. The British gunboat escaped detection and was able to set one Japanese transport on fire before she was sunk by Yura and the destroyers and on the evening of 14 February. The small Dutch cargo ship SS Makassar scuttled itself when approached by Yura and Asagiri the following evening. The cruiser covered the landings of troops at Palembang, Bangka Island, and Bantam Bay and Merak on Java during the rest of the month.
On 1 March 1942, the Dutch submarine fired two torpedoes at Yura, but both either missed or were duds. On 4 March, the ship rescued the crew of the oil tanker Erimo that had been sunk by the American submarine . Assigned to the No. 1 Escort Unit on 6 March, Yura escorted the invasion convoy for and covered the landings in Northern Sumatra (Operation T) until 15 March when she arrived at Penang, Occupied Malaya.
Indian Ocean Raids
To prepare for offensive operations against the Royal Navy in the Indian Ocean and to secure the line of communication between Singapore and Occupied Burma, the IJN General Staff ordered on 4 February that the Andaman Islands should be seized when practicable (Operation D). No. 1 Escort Unit, including Yura, and three troopships departed Penang on 20 March. The Japanese troops made an unopposed landing on Ross Island three days later. Yura arrived at Mergui, Burma, on 28 March.
In April, Yura was assigned to the raids in the Indian Ocean under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's Second Expeditionary Fleet. Yura, accompanied by the destroyers , , , and , departed Mergui and steamed into the Bay of Bengal with the cruisers and , , and and the light carrier to attack Allied merchant shipping. On 6 April 1942, east of Kalingapatnam in the Bay of Bengal Yura and Yūgiri sank the Dutch merchant vessel Batavia en route from Calcutta to Karachi. Yura and Yūgiri also sank the Dutch motorship Banjoewangi and the British steamer Taksang. At the end of April, Yura returned to Sasebo Naval Arsenal for a refit.
Battle of Midway
On 10 May 1942, Yura was made flagship of Rear Admiral Shōji Nishimura's 4th Destroyer Squadron. At the Battle of Midway, the squadron also included Captain Ranji Oe's 3rd Destroyer Division of 4 destroyers and Captain Yasuo Satō's 9th Destroyer Division of 3 destroyers. The 4th Destroyer Squadron was under the overall command of Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō, but did not see combat at Midway.
Solomon Islands Campaigns
On 7 August 1942 the United States began "Operation Watchtower" to retake Guadalcanal and the Solomon Islands. Yura was dispatched to Truk with Vice Admiral Kondō's IJN Second Fleet to begin reinforcement operations, and was thus at the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August 1942. Although the light carrier Ryūjō was sunk and was damaged, Yura emerged unscathed, and returned to Truk on 5 September 1942.
For the remainder of September 1942, Yura patrolled between Truk, Guadalcanal and the Shortland Islands. On 25 September 1942, while at Shortland, she was attacked by two Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers of the USAAF 11th Bomb Group based at Espiritu Santo and was slightly damaged.
On 11 October 1942, the submarine claimed a torpedo hit forward of Yuras bridge that inflicted minor damage, but postwar analysis failed to confirm this attack and Yura was apparently not damaged this day. On 12 October 1942, Yura departed Shortland to escort the seaplane tender and Chitose returning from a transport run from Guadalcanal, and on 14 October 1942, Yura assisted in landing 1,100 troops on Cape Esperance, Guadalcanal. Another "Tokyo Express" troop transport run to Guadalcanal was made on 17 October 1942 to carry 2,100 troops, field artillery pieces and anti-tank guns.
On 18 October 1942, en route back to Shortland, Yura was attacked by the submarine off Choiseul Island. Grampus fired four Mark 14 Torpedoes at Yura. One hit but did not explode, and Yura departed the area with a dent in her port side.
On 24 October 1942, Yura departed Shortland to bombard Guadalcanal with the No. 2 Attack Unit consisting of Rear Admiral Tamotsu Takama's flagship , , and . At the north entrance to Indispensable Strait, off Guadalcanal, on 25 October 1942 (the day before the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands), Yura, leading an attack group of destroyers off Santa Isabel Island in the Solomons was attacked by five SBD Dauntless dive-bombers of VS-71 and hit aft by two bombs near the engine room. She flooded and settled by the stern. After receiving reports of the attack, Vice Admiral Mikawa, CINC, IJN Eighth Fleet, cancelled Rear Admiral Takama's bombardment mission. The No. 2 Attack Unit reversed course back towards Shortland. On the way back, Yura was attacked again by three USAAF P-39 Airacobras and by four Marine SBDs, but these attacks failed to cause any additional damage. Captain Shiro Sato attempted to beach Yura but she was attacked again by four SBDs, three F4F Wildcats and four P-39s. Soon afterwards, Yura was attacked again by six USAAF B-17 Flying Fortress bombers from Espiritu Santo. These attacks reignited Yuras fires. At 18:30, after her crew was taken off, Japanese destroyers Harusame and Yūdachi scuttled Yura with torpedoes. She broke in two and her forward portion sank. At 19:00, her stern portion was sunk by gunfire from Yudachi at . Yura was removed from the navy list on 20 November 1942.
Notes
Bibliography
Nagara-class cruisers
Ships built by Sasebo Naval Arsenal
1922 ships
Second Sino-Japanese War cruisers of Japan
World War II cruisers of Japan
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in October 1942
Scuttled vessels |
4277393 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Rinder | Mike Rinder | Michael John Rinder (; born April 10, 1955) is an Australian-American former senior executive of the Church of Scientology International (CSI) and the Sea Organization based in the United States. From 1982 to 2007, Rinder served on the board of directors of CSI and also held the post of executive director of its Office of Special Affairs, overseeing the corporate, legal and public relations matters of Scientology at the international level.
Rinder left Scientology in 2007. Ever since then, he has spoken about the physical and mental abuse inflicted upon staff members by Chairman of Scientology, David Miscavige, and by Rinder himself before his departure from the cult, and has explained how abuse was embedded into the culture of Scientology. From 2016 to 2019, he co-hosted the Emmy Award-winning A&E documentary series Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath. In 2020, he and Remini reunited to launch the podcast Scientology: Fair Game. In September 2022, he published a memoir titled A Billion Years: My Escape From a Life in the Highest Ranks of Scientology.
Scientology career
Early years
Rinder was born in Adelaide, Australia, to Ian and Barbara Rinder in 1955. When he was 5 years old his parents became interested in Scientology and the family began attending the Church of Scientology International center in Australia.
In a 2006 interview with Rolling Stone, Rinder said he had experienced discrimination in Australia during the period when the state of Victoria had banned Scientology: "You couldn't own Scientology books ... If you did, you had to hide them because if the police came and found them, they'd take them away."
Joining Sea Org
After finishing high school, at age 18 Rinder joined the Sea Org on the ship Apollo, then headquarters for Sea Org and for Scientology. Rinder became an early member of the Commodore's Messenger Organization and rapidly rose in rank to head of the Office of Special Affairs.
Office of Special Affairs
As executive director of the Office of Special Affairs, he served as the chief spokesperson and representative of Scientology to the media for 25 years until replaced by Tommy Davis in 2005 under orders from David Miscavige. This office is responsible for overseeing public relations and legal issues for the church, as well as handling "internal investigations into members' behavior."
According to a 2016 Rolling Stone recap of the second episode of Leah Remini's documentary series "Scientology and the Aftermath", Rinder said of his position:
Rinder cited specific examples of this duty, saying that he personally traveled to London to prevent journalist John Sweeney, who is responsible for Scientology and Me, from attending a movie premiere and to attempt to "discredit Sweeney in any way that he could".
Departure from Scientology
Rinder has said that he was living in The Hole for over two years "when he was suddenly pulled from his prison and sent on [a] mission to London to defend the Church against John Sweeney's film", Scientology and Me, in March 2007. Rinder defended Scientology leader David Miscavige, but Miscavige was unhappy that Rinder was unable to stop the documentary from being shown. As a result, Rinder "was to report to the church's facility in Sussex, and dig ditches" and then was to be allowed to return to the United States.
Rinder claimed his moment of clarity came in a confrontation with the filmmaker, which was recorded on video. In the exchange, Rinder denied Sweeney's allegation that he had been abused by Miscavige and was instructed by him to deny it happened. Rinder realized afterwards though that Sweeney's allegation about him was true and he was unable to rationalize why he was denying it. Afterwards, instead of reporting to Sussex, Rinder decided to leave Scientology.
Rinder went to Virginia and told Scientology officials that he wanted to speak to his wife and also wanted his possessions. He did not speak to his wife, but was sent a FedEx package with a check for $5,000. His family photos were not sent. Rinder's official biography has since been removed from the official Scientology website.
Criticism of Church of Scientology
After leaving Scientology, Rinder relocated to Denver, Colorado, and initially didn't intend to speak out against the organization; in 2009, when St. Petersburg Times first asked him for an interview, he declined. However, a month later, two Washington-based Scientology lawyers went to his home unannounced, informed Rinder that they knew about the newspaper's visit and asked what he had revealed. According to Rinder, this incident was another moment of clarity, because he realized he was now being subjected to Scientology's practice of fair game intimidation and harassment despite declining to speak out. He decided to do the interview with the St. Petersburg Times, and said he was speaking out because "I don't want people to continue to be hurt and tricked and lied to." He spoke about Scientology's management and the repeated abuse that he gave as well as received, and the interviews became part of the paper's "The Truth Rundown" special issue.
Since then, Rinder has given numerous interviews to journalists and participated in several documentaries about Scientology. In March 2010, Rinder again confirmed allegations of abuse within Scientology to CNN's Anderson Cooper on Anderson Cooper 360°.
On September 28, 2010, Rinder appeared on The Secrets of Scientology broadcast by the BBC series Panorama. In 2015 he appeared in the HBO documentary entitled Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief by Alex Gibney which is based on the book by Lawrence Wright. Along with Leah Remini, Rinder co-hosted the A&E documentary series Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath.
Rinder published a memoir in September 2022 titled A Billion Years: My Escape From a Life in the Highest Ranks of Scientology.
His intimate knowledge about the organization, both as a Sea Org member for 46 years and as head of the OSA for 25 years, has been a revelation about the organization to the world. Rinder has discussed how the OSA responds to critics of the church who are Scientologists and those who aren't and stated that several events in the history of Scientology have rocked the organization: the death of L. Ron Hubbard in 1986, the discovery of Operation Snow White, the rise of the Internet in the 1990s, the mobile revolution of the 2000s and the rise of social media in the 2010s. These events have made it difficult for the church to attract new followers and retain current adherents and resulted in the church taking increasingly more draconian measures to ensure its survival.
Actions by church against critics
According to Rinder, Scientology's two principal weapons against critics within the organization are Auditing and Disconnection. Initially, auditing was meant to be a form of counseling (for which members pay over $500 per hour) to obtain the spiritual benefits of Scientology but by the time of his departure, he stated the practice had degenerated into a tool for interrogation and mind control. Non-compliant parishioners are labelled "suppressive persons" and disconnected from by other members of the church, including family members.
Auditing
The device used during auditing, called an E-meter, has a disclaimer on it that says "it does nothing by itself" but members are told that it functions like a lie detector. Mike Rinder, Mark Rathbun, Marc and Claire Headley state that auditing sessions are secretly recorded, including ones with secrets about Tom Cruise and initially were forms of spiritual counseling. That changed due to the reaction by many early Scientologists to the Xenu origin of man story found in OT III. They balked at it and began leaving the church and encouraging others to do so as well. According to Rinder, this is where the term "suppressive person" originated from. Rinder also stated that the prophecy of Hubbard's messiah like return after death to prevent an apocalyptic alien invasion in OT VIII (released in 1988, two years after his death) garnered a similar response, prompting many high-ranking Scientologists – including Pat Broeker – to leave the organization as a result. According to Rinder, virtually all of the executives, himself included, had rejected both of the above-mentioned Scientological tenets, however they nevertheless continued to train parishioners to accept them as true.
Rinder's moment of clarity after the confrontation with Sweeney came when he realized that it was the auditing sessions that led him to deny Sweeney's allegations that he knew were true. He later discovered the training he received during those sessions was developed from a book written by Hubbard in 1955 called Brain-Washing.
Disconnection
According to Rinder, for decades enrollment has been declining, but departures were more concerning. Without new Scientologists entering the organization, the church became increasingly dependent on retaining the followers they already had. The church's disconnection policy is primarily how the church discourages Scientologists from departing and is a mechanism of emotional blackmail. All communication with any Scientologist that "blows", or has an unauthorized departure as Rinder did, is immediately ceased. Since Scientologists are not permitted to have social relationships with non-Scientologists, they essentially lose contact with all their social contacts when they leave. Sea Org members are even more vulnerable when they leave because they are financially dependent on the church. Any Scientologist that doesn't disconnect from someone that leaves will be declared a suppressive person and expelled as well. This policy led to what Rinder stated are "captive" Scientologists – church members who stay not because they are faithful to the tenets but because they fear disconnection – and cites Leah Remini's mother as an example of this because she stated she wanted to leave Scientology prior to Leah's departure but delayed doing so because she didn't want to be disconnected from the rest of her family.
Rinder stated that the policy of "routing out", or authorized departure, is a sham. The church claims that anyone can voluntarily leave, or route out, and not be declared by paying a fee for leaving but in reality everyone that leaves gets declared by policy because they will have access to the internet after leaving and any parishioner who remains in contact with them will also have unauthorized access as well.
After leaving Scientology in 2007, Rinder and his first wife, Cathy, divorced after 35 years, and he has had no contact with her or his two adult children from his first marriage because of disconnection. In April 2010, Rinder, who lived in Clearwater, Florida, attempted to meet his son, who also lives in Clearwater, after learning he was diagnosed with cancer, but his son refused to see him. The church also refused to let him on the property and had him cited for trespassing by the Clearwater Police. Rinder stated his biggest regrets in life is having two children that were born into Scientology and having enforced the disconnection policy (to which he is now being subjected) when he was director of the OSA.
He stated the rise of social media in the late 2000s has allowed ex-Scientologists to connect with each other and form support groups for members who have left or want to leave. He credits the disconnection policy for the consistently negative media portrayal of Scientology. The reports of Scientology extracting large fees and their space opera beliefs were controversial, but their portrayal didn't become consistently negative until ex-Scientologists started sharing their stories through social media about families intentionally being broken up by disconnection because a family member decided to leave (or wasn't a member of) the church of Scientology.
Fair Game
Rinder stated that his primary role as Director of the Office of Special Affairs was defending the church against critics by employing Scientology's fair game tactics which essentially are to "intimidate, defame, harass, discredit, and effectively silence any criticism of Scientology". He and fellow defector Marty Rathbun, former head of the Religious Technology Center, revealed through these interviews how this was done. For instance, Rinder told the Times that Scientology critic Bob Minton ceased his criticism of Scientology after Rinder discovered "things that, really, he was worried about and had caused problems for him in the investigation that we had done" and that they had reached a private settlement. Rinder regrets his role in that investigation and has stated he considered Minton a friend at the time of Minton's death in January 2010. Both have said the policy was backfiring because victims, such as John Sweeney, reported their experiences with fair game and this led to more negative publicity and thus produced more critics than they were silencing. Rinder's own decision to speak out against Scientology is an example of this as well because he decided to speak out against the church after being victimized by fair game despite not criticizing the church after leaving. Rinder has been victimized by fair game numerous times and recalled an incident where he was sitting in his car at a doctor's office parking lot during a phone interview with BBC journalist John Sweeney when "five senior members of [Scientology's] California-based international management team – surrounded and screamed at him". The screaming was so loud, Sweeney was able to record the episode and later aired the recording on The Secrets of Scientology broadcast by the BBC's Panorama program.
The policy was becoming increasingly ineffective starting the 1980s as it was unable to stop publication of A Piece of Blue Sky by ex-Scientologist Jon Atack or the documentary Scientology and Me which ultimately led to Rinder's departure. The internet made it even less effective because information can be uploaded anonymously and then viewed by anyone with internet access.
Rinder said Fair Game's most significant failure came with the discovery of Operation Snow White by the FBI. The Church organized an illegal infiltration of 136 government agencies because of the IRS' refusal to reinstate the church's tax exempt status. The FBI raid that ensued led to the discovery of hundreds of documents detailing criminal activity by the Church, and dozens of high-ranking church officials were prosecuted. But according to Rinder, David Miscavige's claim that Fair Game succeeded in regaining Scientology's tax-exempt status in 1993 is untrue. It was reinstated, he said, because Scientology abandoned its Fair Game practices against the IRS after Hubbard's death, and instead followed the IRS policy for obtaining tax-exempt status.
According to Rinder, the Church never recovered from the FBI raid, because it provided documentary evidence to support critics' claims. This was also the primary source of information used in the article, The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power published by Time magazine in 1991.
Vexatious litigation
After the FBI raid, Rinder said that Fair Game tactics had to be changed. Intimidation tactics were still used, but took the form of vexatious litigation. Rinder stated this was effective at silencing organizations from disseminating information critical of Scientology, and kept the public relatively unaware of information seized during the FBI raid. However, the 1991 Time magazine article, "The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power," and the litigation that followed it ended this secrecy. The year before Scientology sued Time magazine for defamation, the Church was successful at shutting down the Cult Awareness Network (CAN) by suing the group. However, unlike CAN, the Time Warner Corporation had the resources to defend itself, as well as the documents obtained from the earlier FBI raid. Time Warner was able to successfully prove that Scientology's lawsuit was vexatious in nature, and that it was meant to financially drain critics into submission rather than to resolve any actual dispute. Additionally, the discovery process allowed for the subpoena of Church documents, which exposed the Church's litigation policies. As a result, the Church lost its lawsuit against Time Warner. In the aftermath of the Time Warner lawsuit, courts were less receptive to litigation brought by the Church, because its abuse of the legal system was well documented. The Church spent approximately seven million dollars in an attempt to discredit Time's article, which ultimately had the effect of drawing more attention to Scientology and public criticism of its practices. According to Rinder, the Time Warner lawsuit was ultimately responsible for "shattering the cone of silence" around Scientology.
In the decade that followed, criticism of the Church became bolder, more public and consistently negative. In the early 1990s, when the Internet was in its infancy, internet startups could be intimidated by the threat of litigation by the Church. But a decade later, those same companies were now large corporations with the resources to defend themselves. They also lobbied for legislation that shielded them from "loser pays" laws that would indemnify the Church if it lost a lawsuit, and anti-SLAPP laws that prohibited the Church from using lawsuits to financially drain a critic into submission. Although Scientology continued to sue individual critics, defendants began using discovery to introduce secret church documents into evidence, making them part of the public record, and thus viewable by anyone. An example of this was the 1993 case Church of Scientology International v. Fishman and Geertz.
Awards and charitable work
Mike Rinder was co-executive producer of the show Leah Remini: Scientology and the Aftermath in 2019 and 2020 when the show was nominated for the Emmy Awards, winning an Emmy for Outstanding Hosted Nonfiction Series Or Special - 2020.
In 2018, Mike Rinder co-founded The Aftermath Foundation, a nonprofit which helps people escape from Scientology, and connects former Sea Org members with housing, work and other support upon leaving the church. Rinder is a board member of the Foundation.
In 2019, CHILD USA awarded Mike Rinder and Leah Remini the Barbara Blaine Trailblazer Award for having "taken a brave, public stand for justice and given voice to many of Scientology's victims." As of 2023, Rinder sits on the CHILD USA board of directors where he helps to "[change] the laws in numerous states across the US with legislation enacted to make it possible for victims to pursue their day in court."
Personal life
Rinder has two children with his first wife Cathy, daughter Taryn and son Benjamin.
In 2012, his partner, Christie King Collbran, gave birth to the couple's son, Jack. In 2013, Rinder and Christie married, and he became stepfather to her son, Shane.
According to his blog, he now lives in Palm Harbor, Florida, with his wife, son and stepson.
In June 2023, it was announced that Rinder had developed advanced esophageal cancer.
Bibliography
References
External links
mrinder.com
Scientology:Fair Game Podcast with Leah Remini and Mike Rinder
1955 births
Living people
Australian emigrants to the United States
Australian podcasters
Australian television presenters
Australian whistleblowers
Critics of Scientology
Scientology officials
People from Clearwater, Florida
People from Palm Harbor, Florida
American former Scientologists
Primetime Emmy Award winners
YouTube podcasters |
4277544 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934%20in%20baseball | 1934 in baseball |
Champions
Major League Baseball
World Series: St. Louis Cardinals over Detroit Tigers (4-3)
All-Star Game, July 10 at Polo Grounds: American League, 9-7
Other champions
Negro League Baseball All-Star Game: East, 1-0
Awards and honors
Most Valuable Player:
American League: Mickey Cochrane, Detroit Tigers, C
National League: Dizzy Dean, St. Louis Cardinals, P
MLB statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
*Source refers to the league as the "East-West League", but the league was more generally known as the "Negro National League". Several games were included in the standings against non-League teams.
Source:
Post-season:
Chicago won the first half, Philadelphia won the second half.
Philadelphia beat Chicago 4 games to 3 games (1 tie) in a play-off.
Events
January–June
January 19 – Baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis denies Shoeless Joe Jackson's appeal for reinstatement. Jackson was one of eight Chicago White Sox players banned for their part in throwing the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds.
February 5 – Hank Aaron is born in Mobile, Alabama. Aaron will later set a major league record 755 home runs.
April 5 - New Reds owner Powel Crosley, for whom the Cincinnati park was renamed Crosley Field, hires Red Barber to broadcast the Reds' games on WSAI, a radio station owned by Crosley.
April 8 - In front of 15,000 fans, the Philadelphia Phillies defeat the Philadelphia A's 8-1. What made this inter-city exhibition game significant is that it is the first major league game of any kind to take place on a Sunday.
April 17 – Opening day, Casey Stengel makes his Major League managerial debut, as his Brooklyn Dodgers lose to the Boston Braves, 8–7 at Ebbets Field.
April 17 – Opening day, Lon Warneke of the Chicago Cubs throws first of two consecutive complete game one-hit victories, defeating the Cincinnati Reds, 6–0. Warneke will throw his second consecutive one-hit victory on April 22, defeating Dizzy Dean and the St. Louis Cardinals, 15–2.
April 18 – Paul Dean, younger brother of Dizzy Dean, makes his major league debut on the mound for the St. Louis Cardinals, while allowing four earned runs in just two innings.
April 22 – Moe Berg's American League record of 117 consecutive errorless games for a catcher, dating back to , comes to an end. Nevertheless, Berg bats three-for-four to lead the Washington Senators to a victory over the Philadelphia Athletics, 4–3.
April 29 – The Pittsburgh Pirates defeat the Cincinnati Reds 9–5 at Forbes Field, in the team's first ever Sunday home game after Pennsylvania's "Blue Law" prohibiting games on Sundays was repealed.
May 25 – The Cleveland Indians trade Wes Ferrell and Dick Porter to the Boston Red Sox in exchange for Bob Seeds, Bob Weiland and $25,000.
June 3 – In the sixth inning with two outs, the St. Louis Browns string together nine consecutive hits to beat the first place Cleveland Indians, 12–8.
July–September
July 4 – The Pittsburgh Crawfords' Satchel Paige pitches a 4-0 no-hitter against the Homestead Grays in Pittsburgh, then drove to Chicago to shut out the Chicago American Giants 1-0 in twelve innings, giving him two shutouts in two different cities on the same day.
July 6 – Jocko Conlan makes his major league debut in right field for the Chicago White Sox. After two seasons as a part-time player with the ChiSox, Conlan retires in order to pursue a career as an umpire.
July 10 – At the All-Star Game held at the Polo Grounds in New York City, New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell strikes out five consecutive American League batters: Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Jimmie Foxx, Al Simmons, and Joe Cronin, all future Hall-of-Famers. The American League defeated the National League, however, 9–7.
July 13 – Babe Ruth finds the 700 home run club. He will be the only member for almost 40 years.
August 4 – Already up 10-4 in the second game of a double header, the New York Giants score eleven runs in the ninth inning.
August 14 – The Detroit Tigers sweep the New York Yankees in a double header to bring their winning streak to fourteen games. The Yankees beat them the following day to end the streak.
September 16 – In the first game of a double header with the Brooklyn Dodgers, Phil Cavarretta makes his major league debut for the Chicago Cubs at barely eighteen years old. He strikes out in one at-bat as a pinch hitter.
September 21 – St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Dizzy Dean throws a three hitter in the first game of a doubleheader against the Brooklyn Dodgers. In the nightcap, his younger brother Paul no-hits them.
September 23 – With a 2½ games lead in the National League, the New York Giants lose the second game of a double header to the Boston Braves. The Giants lose their last five games of the season, to end two games back of the St. Louis Cardinals, who win their last four.
September 26 – The Detroit Tigers sweep a double header from the Chicago White Sox, giving Chicago ten losses in a row, and 97 losses for the season. The ChiSox, however, go 2-2 in their final four games to avoid 100 losses for the season.
September 30 – Dizzy Dean of the St. Louis Cardinals shuts out the Cincinnati Reds, 9-0, to reach his 30th win of the season.
October–December
October 3 – Sloppy play by the Detroit Tigers (five errors) helps the Cardinals cruise to an 8-3 victory in game one of the 1934 World Series.
October 4 – Goose Goslin's single in the twelfth wins it, as the Tigers take game two, 3-2.
October 5 – With two outs in the ninth inning, Paul Dean allows the Detroit Tigers their only run of the game. The Cards take a 2-1 series advantage with both wins come with one of the Dean brothers on the mound.
October 6 – This time it is the Cardinals who commit five errors in one game, two of which came in the Tigers' five run eighth inning, as Detroit wins game four, 10-4.
October 7 – The Detroit Tigers take game five of the World Series, 3-1. Dizzy Dean in the losing pitcher.
October 8 – Daffy Dean pitches nine innings, and again just gives up one earned run. Sloppy play, however, allows the Tigers to plate two more. Dean helps his own cause with a single in the seventh to drive in the game-winning run as the Cardinals win 4-3 to even up the series.
October 9 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the Detroit Tigers, 11–0, in Game seven of the World Series to win their third World Championship, four games to three. All four games are won by one of the Dean brothers (Dizzy is 2-1, Paul is 2-0). The St. Louis "Gashouse Gang" collected 73 hits in the series.
November 21 – The New York Yankees acquire Joe DiMaggio from San Francisco of the Pacific Coast League.
December 26 – Matsutaro Shoriki, head of Yomiuri Shimbun, announces the formation of the first professional baseball team in Japan, the Yomiuri Giants. The team is composed primarily of players who had played the American All-Stars who had toured Japan.
Births
January
January 8 – Gene Freese
January 16 – Jim Owens
January 20 – Camilo Pascual
January 23 – Joey Amalfitano
January 24 – John Briggs
January 25 – Ted Kazanski
January 28 – Bill White
February
February 1 – Bob Conley
February 3 – Noboru Akiyama
February 5 – Hank Aaron
February 9 – Ted Wills
February 16 – Don Eaddy
February 17 – Willie Kirkland
February 22 – Sparky Anderson
February 25 – Johnny Schaive
February 26 – Don Lee
March
March 3 – Bobby Locke
March 8 – Marv Breeding
March 8 – Willard Hunter
March 9 – Jim Landis
March 10 – Ken MacKenzie
March 18 – Charley Pride
April
April 1 – Rod Kanehl
April 8 – Turk Farrell
April 10 – Wes Stock
April 14 – Marty Keough
April 15 – J. C. Hartman
April 18 – Deacon Jones
April 26 – Mary Weddle
April 28 – Jackie Brandt
April 29 – Luis Aparicio
April 30 – Ken Retzer
May
May 3 – Chuck Hinton
May 4 – Barbara Gates
May 5 – Don Buddin
May 6 – Tom Baker
May 6 – Leo Burke
May 12 – Louise Clapp
May 13 – Arlene Buszka
May 13 – Don LeJohn
May 13 – Leon Wagner
May 15 – Bill Conlin
May 21 – Moe Thacker
May 22 – Arlene Kotil
May 22 – José Valdivielso
May 26 – Jim Mahoney
May 27 – Ray Daviault
May 28 – Bob Smith
June
June 3 – Jim Gentile
June 8 – Bill Smith
June 10 – Gloria Schweigerdt
June 16 – Pancho Herrera
June 22 – Russ Snyder
June 27 – Ed Hobaugh
June 29 – Duane Wilson
July
July 5 – Gordy Coleman
July 11 – Bob Allison
July 13 – Ken Hunt
July 19 – Bill Kirk
July 22 – R. C. Stevens
July 29 – Félix Mantilla
July 30 – Bud Selig
August
August 4 – Dallas Green
August 9 – Eli Grba
August 15 – Seth Morehead
August 18 – Roberto Clemente
August 18 – Billy Consolo
August 22 – Angelo Dagres
August 23 – Johnny Romano
August 25 – Ralph Mauriello
August 26 – Mary Froning
August 27 – Em Lindbeck
August 28 – Shirley Crites
September
September 2 – Margaret Jurgensmeier
September 6 – Tom Flanigan
September 10 – Roger Maris
September 11 – Marlan Coughtry
September 12 – Albie Pearson
September 13 – Tom Hughes
September 14 – Bob Perry
September 18 – Marilyn Jenkins
September 21 – Jerry Zimmerman
September 22 – Lou Johnson
October
October 1 – Chuck Hiller
October 2 – Earl Wilson
October 4 – Don Bradey
October 7 – Sammy Drake
October 8 – Mickey Harrington
October 14 – Tom Cheney
October 26 – Barbara Galdonik
October 31 – Carl Boles
November
November 1 – Howie Goss
November 10 – Norm Cash
November 25 – Cholly Naranjo
November 30 – Steve Hamilton
December
December 2 – Andre Rodgers
December 6 – Dan Dobbek
December 11 – Lee Maye
December 16 – Jim Bailey
December 17 – Kent Hadley
December 19 – Al Kaline
December 25 – Charlie Beamon
December 29 – Ramón Conde
Deaths
January
January 9 – Perry Werden, 68, first baseman who played for the St. Louis Maroons, Washington Nationals, Toledo Maumees, Baltimore Orioles, St. Louis Browns and Louisville Colonels in parts of seven seasons spanning 1884–1897.
January 16 – Wiley Dunham, 56, pitcher for the 1902 St. Louis Cardinals.
January 28 – John Kane, 51, outfielder who played with the Cincinnati Reds in 1907 and the Chicago Cubs in 1910.
January 29 – Bill Schenck, 79, infielder who played for the Louisville Eclipse, Richmond Virginians and Brooklyn Grays in a span of three seasons from 1882 to 1885.
January 30 – Frank McGee, 34, first baseman who played two games for the 1925 Washington Senators.
February
February 8 – Tom Sexton, 68, shortstop for the 1884 Milwaukee Brewers.
February 12 – Rowdy Elliott, 43, catcher who spent 23 years in baseball between 1907 and 1929, which included stints in the majors with the Boston Doves (1910), Chicago Cubs (1916–1918) and Brooklyn Robins (1920), being also a World War I veteran.
February 20 – George Mappes, 68, backup catcher and second baseman who played from 1885 to 1886 for the Baltimore Orioles and the St. Louis Maroons.
February 21 – Doc Adkins, 61, pitcher who played with the Boston Americans in 1902 and the New York Highlanders in 1903.
February 21 – Jim Roxburgh, 76, catcher for the 1884 Baltimore Orioles and the 1887 Philadelphia Athletics.
February 25 – John McGraw, 60, Hall of Fame manager who from 1902 through 1932 led the New York Giants to three World Series championships, 10 National League pennants, and 21 first-or second-place finishes, whose 2,763 managerial victories rank him third only to Connie Mack's career-best total of 3,731 and Tony La Russa; previously he was the star third baseman of the 1890s Baltimore Orioles, batting .336 in 848 games and playing on three NL pennant-winning clubs between 1892 and 1899.
February 27 – Frank Shannon, 60, shortstop who played with the Washington Senators in 1892 and the Louisville Colonels in 1896.
February 28 – John Irwin, 72, third baseman who played for the Worcester Ruby Legs, Boston Reds, Philadelphia Athletics, Washington Nationals, Buffalo Bisons, Boston Reds and Louisville Colonels in parts of eight seasons spanning 1882–1891.
March
March 3 – Mike O'Rourke, 65, pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles during the 1890 season.
March 7 – Bill Rotes, 62, pitcher for the Louisville Colonels in 1893.
March 9 – Dan Dugdale, 69, catcher who played with the Kansas City Cowboys in 1886 and the Washington Senators in 1894.
March 13 – Fielder Jones, 62, center fielder and manager; played for Brooklyn Superbas (1896–1900), including 1899–1900 National League champs, and Chicago White Sox (1901–1908), including 1901 and 1906 American League pennant-winners; as manager, guided the 1906 "Hitless Wonders" White Sox to World Series title; batted over .300 in six seasons and collected 683 victories as a manager of White Sox, St. Louis Terriers (Federal League), and St. Louis Browns over ten seasons spanning 1904 to 1918.
March 16 – Adrian Lynch, 37, pitcher for the St. Louis Browns in the 1920 season.
March 19 – Ray Jansen, 45, third baseman who played with the St. Louis Browns in 1910.
March 20 – Herm Doscher, 81, third baseman for five teams between 1872 and 1882, who also umpired during five seasons in the National League and the American Association.
March 21 – Pea Ridge Day, 34, pitcher who played from 1924 through 1926 for the St. Louis Cardinals and the Cincinnati Reds, and with the Brooklyn Robins in the 1931 season.
March 28 – Ed Larkin, 48, catcher for the 1909 Philadelphia Athletics.
April
April 1 – Barney Gilligan, 78, catcher who played from 1879 through 1888 for the Cleveland Blues, Providence Grays, Washington Nationals and Detroit Wolverines.
April 2 – John Roach, 66, pitcher for the 1887 New York Giants.
April 4 – Dick Johnston, 70, center fielder who played eight seasons from 1884 to 1891, while appearing for five different teams in three different leagues, which included stints with the Richmond Virginians, Boston Beaneaters, Boston Reds, New York Giants and Cincinnati Kelly's Killers.
April 10 – Bill Hunter, 46, outfielder who played with the Cleveland Naps in the 1912 season.
April 11 – Charles Moran, 55, backup infielder who played from 1903 through 1905 for the Washington Senators and St. Louis Browns.
April 19 – Charlie Hickman, 57, valuable utility and smart bases runner who played for nine different clubs in the American and National leagues from 1897 to 1908, amassing 91 career triples and several inside-the-park home runs, while leading the AL with 193 hits and 288 total bases in the 1902 season.
April 22 – Gus Creely, 63, shortstop who played for the St. Louis Browns during the 1890 season.
April 27 – Joe Vila, 67, journalist and editor for Boston and New York newspapers, who has been regarded as one of the most influential sportswriters during the first third of the 20th century, while setting fundamental changes in sports coverage during the decades to come.
May
May 3 – Lew Graulich, 70, minor league first baseman.
May 10 – Ed Willett, 50, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers from 1906 through 1913, who posted a 21-10 record and a 2.34 ERA to lead Detroit to the 1909 American League pennant, pitching later for the St. Louis Terriers of the outlaw Federal League in 1914 and 1915.
May 14 – Lou Criger, 62, the first Opening Day catcher in Boston American League franchise's history, who was behind plate for most of Cy Young's 511 victories, and also caught every inning of eight games in the first-ever World Series in 1903, helping Boston win the championship.
May 18 – Jumbo McGinnis, 80, ace pitcher for the original St. Louis Brown Stockings from 1882 to 1886, who hurled for them over 350 innings and averaged 26 wins in three consecutives seasons, while leading the American Association with six shutouts in 1883.
June
June 2 – James Pirie, 81, shortstop for the 1883 Philadelphia Quakers.
June 9 – Charlie Dexter, 57, catcher who played from 1896 through 1903 for the Louisville Colonels, Chicago Orphans and Boston Beaneaters.
June 10 – Les German, 65, pitcher who played with the Baltimore Orioles, New York Giants and Washington Senators, in all or part of six seasons spanning 1890–1896.
June 11 – Tim Manning, 80, second baseman who played for the Providence Grays and the Baltimore Orioles from 1882 to 1885.
June 21 – Monte Cross, 64, slick shortstop and speedy base runner during 15 seasons for five different franchises in the National and American leagues between 1892 and 1907, who played mostly for the Philadelphia Athletics and Phillies clubs from 1897 through 1907, earning six titles in putouts and three in assists while amassing a career 328 stolen bases.
June 29 – Charles Somers, 65, founding member of the American League in 1901 and also its principal financier, who owned the Cleveland Indians and also helped the junior circuit establish clubs in the cities of Boston, Chicago and Philadelphia.
July
July 6 – Ray Francis, 41, left-hander who pitched for the 1922 Washington Senators and the 1923 Detroit Tigers, and for the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox in the 1925 season.
July 18 – Sy Sanborn, 67, sportswriter for the Chicago Tribune from 1900 to 1920 and one of the founding members of the Baseball Writers' Association of America in 1908, who later collaborated for several years for The Sporting News.
July 19 – Ed Hutchinson, 67, second baseman for the Chicago Colts in the 1890 season.
July 29 – Walt McCredie, 57, outfielder for the 1903 Brooklyn Superbas of the National League, who later played and managed in the minor leagues for many years, leading his Portland team to Pacific Coast League pennants in 1906, 1910, 1911, 1913, and 1914.
July 29 – Dan Phelan, 81, first baseman who played for the Louisville Colonels of the American Association in 1890.
August
August 2 – Reggie Richter, 45, German pitcher for the Chicago Cubs in the 1911 season, who also spent four seasons in the minors with the Louisville Colonels, Montreal Royals and Newark Indians.
August 3 – Charlie Hastings, 63, pitcher for the Cleveland Spiders in 1893 and the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1896 through 1898.
August 8 – Wilbert Robinson, 70, Hall of Fame player and manager who spent 35 years in the majors, first as an outstanding catcher for the Baltimore Orioles during the 1890s, and later managing the Brooklyn Robins to two National League pennants in 1916 and 1920, while compiling a 1,399–1,398 managing record from 1914 to 1931.
August 11 – Joe Ward, 49, backup infielder who played with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1906, and for the New York Highlanders and the Philadelphia Phillies from 1909 to 1910.
August 12 – Ed Andrews, 75, outfielder and second baseman for the Philadelphia Quakers, Indianapolis Hoosiers, Brooklyn Ward's Wonders and Cincinnati Kelly's Killers in parts of nine seasons spanning 1884–1891, who led the National League with 56 stolen bases in 1896, and topped American Association outfielders with a .961 fielding average in 1891.
August 14 – Guy Morrison, 38, pitcher for the Boston Braves in the 1927 and 1928 seasons.
August 17 – Doc Potts, 65, catcher who appeared in one game for the 1892 Washington Senators of the National League.
August 21 – Carl Lundgren, 54, pitcher who posted a 91-55 record and a 2.42 ERA in 178 games for the Chicago Cubs, while helping his team win three consecutive National League pennants from 1906 to 1908, and two World Series championships in 1907 and 1908.
August 26 – Bill Kling, 67, pitcher who played from 1891 through 1892 for the Philadelphia Phillies and Baltimore Orioles, and with the Louisville Colonels in 1895.
August 27 – Henry Kohler, 82, National Association catcher/infielder for the Fort Wayne Kekiongas in 1871, and the Baltimore Marylands/Canaries from 1873 to 1874.
September
September 9 – John Dobbs, 53, outfielder who played from 1901 through 1905 for the Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Orphans, Chicago Cubs and Brooklyn Superbas.
September 22 – Tom Messitt, 60, catcher for the 1889 Louisville Colonels.
October
October 4 – Nixey Callahan, 60, one of the most versatile figures in the late 1800s and early 1900s, who averaged 16 wins in six full seasons, including two 20-wins seasons in 1903–1904 and the first no-hitter in American League history in 1902, while also playing the outfield and four infield positions between pitching appearances, to later manage the Chicago White Sox and the Pittsburgh Pirates.
October 6 – Tom Mansell, 79, outfielder who played for the Troy Trojans, Syracuse Stars, Detroit Wolverines, St. Louis Browns, Cincinnati Red Stockings and Columbus Buckeyes in parts of three seasons spanning 1879–1884.
October 8 – Bill Snyder, 36, pitcher for the Washington Senators from 1919 to 1920.
October 9 – Pat Pettee, 71, second baseman who played for the Louisville Colonels in 1891.
October 11 – Sandy Burk, 47, pitcher who played for the Brooklyn Superbas, Brooklyn Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals and Pittsburgh Rebels in a span of five seasons from 1910 to 1915.
October 14 – Les Cox, 30, pitcher for the 1926 Chicago White Sox.
October 16 – Highball Wilson, 56, pitcher who played for the Cleveland Spiders in 1899, the Philadelphia Athletics in 1902, and the Washington Senators from 1903 to 1904.
October 18 – Guy Morton, 41, pitcher for the Cleveland Naps and Cleveland Indians from 1914 to 1924.
October 20 – Paddy Greene, 59, third baseman who played from 1902 through 1903 for the Philadelphia Phillies, New York Highlanders and Detroit Tigers.
October 22 – Belden Hill, 70, third baseman for the 1890 Baltimore Orioles of the American Association.
November
November 8 – Reddy Grey, 59, outfielder who appeared in one game with the 1903 Pittsburgh Pirates.
November 15 – Barney Reilly, 50, second baseman for the Chicago White Sox in the 1909 season.
November 17 – Kid McLaughlin, 46, center fielder who played for the Cincinnati Reds in 1914.
November 18 – Tuffy Stewart, 51, right fielder for the Chicago Cubs in 1913 and 1914.
November 21 – Fred Glade, 58, pitcher for the Chicago Orphans, St. Louis Browns and New York Highlanders at the turn of the 20th century.
November 22 – Pop Swett, 64, catcher who played in 37 games for the 1890 Boston Reds.
December
December 2 – Tom Daley, 60, outfielder who played for the Cincinnati Reds in 1908, the Philadelphia Athletics in 1912 and 1913, and the New York Yankees from 1914 to 1915.
December 2 – Scotty Barr, 48, outfielder who played for the Philadelphia Athletics in the 1908 and 1909 seasons.
December 13 – Doc Shanley, 45, shortstop who played for the St. Louis Browns in 1912.
December 20 – Parke Wilson, 67, catcher for the New York Giants from 1893 to 1899.
December 22 – Kitty Brashear, 57, pitcher for the 1899 Louisville Colonels.
December 26 – George Kopshaw, 39, catcher who played for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1923 season.
December 26 – Jule Mallonee, 34, outfielder for the 1925 Chicago White Sox.
December 30 – George Henry, 71, outfielder for the 1893 Cincinnati Reds.
References |
4277629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian%20Americans | Armenian Americans | Armenian Americans () are citizens or residents of the United States who have total or partial Armenian ancestry. They form the second largest community of the Armenian diaspora after Armenians in Russia. The first major wave of Armenian immigration to the United States took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Thousands of Armenians settled in the United States following the Hamidian massacres of the mid-1890s, the Adana massacre of 1909, and the Armenian genocide of 1915–1918 in the Ottoman Empire. Since the 1950s many Armenians from the Middle East (especially from Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and Turkey) migrated to the United States as a result of political instability in the region. It accelerated in the late 1980s and has continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 due to socio-economic and political reasons. The Los Angeles area has the largest Armenian population in the United States.
The 2017 American Community Survey estimated that 485,970 Americans held full or partial Armenian ancestry. Various organizations and media criticize these numbers as an underestimate, proposing 800,000 to 1,500,000 Armenian Americans instead. The highest concentration of Americans of Armenian descent is in the Greater Los Angeles area, where 166,498 people have identified themselves as Armenian to the 2000 Census, comprising over 40% of the 385,488 people who identified Armenian origins in the United States at the time. The city of Glendale, in the Los Angeles metropolitan area, is widely thought to be the center of Armenian American life (although many Armenians live in the aptly named "Little Armenia" neighborhood of Los Angeles).
The Armenian American community is the most politically influential community of the Armenian diaspora. Organizations such as Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) and Armenian Assembly of America advocate for the recognition of the Armenian genocide by the United States government and support stronger Armenia–United States relations. The Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) is known for its financial support and promotion of Armenian culture and Armenian language schools.
History
Early history
The first recorded Armenian to visit North America was Martin the Armenian, from Iran. He was an Iranian Armenian tobacco grower who settled in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1618. In 1653–54, two Armenians from Constantinople were invited to Virginia to raise silk worms. A few other Armenians are recorded as having come to the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries, but most moved as individuals and did not establish communities. By the 1770s, over 70 Armenians had settled in the colonies. The persecution of Christian minorities under the Ottoman Empire and American missionary activities resulted in a small wave of Armenian migration to the United States in the 1830s from Cilicia and Western Armenia. Hatchik (Christopher) Oscanyan, a Constantinople American missionary school student, arrived in America in 1835 to pursue higher education. He later worked for the New York Herald Tribune and became the New York Press Club president. Many Armenians followed him and went to the US for education.
During the Civil War three Armenian doctors—Simeon Minasian, Garabed Galstian, and Baronig Matevosian—worked at military hospitals in Philadelphia. The only Armenian known to have participated in hostilities was Khachadour Paul Garabedian, who enlisted in the Union Navy. A naturalized citizen from Rodosto, Garabedian served aboard the blockade ships USS Geranium and USS Grand Gulf as a Third Assistant Engineer and later an officer from 1864 until his honorable discharge from the Navy in August 1865.
The number of Armenians rose from 20 in 1854 to around 70 by the 1870s. According to official statistics, 14 Armenians immigrated to the United States in 1878. In the late 1870s, small Armenian communities existed in New York City, Providence, Rhode Island, and Worcester, Massachusetts. By the late 1880s, their number reached 1,500. Many of them were young male students of the American Evangelical Missions spread throughout the Ottoman Empire. About 40% came from the Province of Kharpert. Before 1899, immigrants were not classified by ethnicity, but rather by country of birth, obscuring the ethnic origins of many Armenians. After 1869, however, Armenians from the eastern regions of the Ottoman Empire were registered as "Armenian" in American records. The number of Armenians who migrated to the United States from 1820 to 1898 is estimated to be around 4,000.
First wave of immigration and the Interwar period
Armenians began to arrive in the United States in unprecedented numbers in the late 19th century, most notably after the Hamidian Massacres of 1894–96, and before, during and after the Armenian genocide. Before this mass migration to the United States, the number of Armenians in the country was from 1,500 to 3,000. The New York Times talked of about 10,000 Armenians in the US in 1895.
Over 12,000 Armenians from the Ottoman Empire went to the United States throughout the 1890s. This period witnessed cultural contact between American and Armenian through Armenian nationalist dissident organizations within the Ottoman Empire and intense activity of American missionaries in the region who were sympathetic to the Armenian cause, making the long road of migration somewhat more bearable. With the exception of Fresno, California, which had land suitable for farming, the earliest Armenian immigrants mostly settled in the northeastern industrial centers, such as New York City, Providence, Worcester, and Boston. Armenian emigrants from the Russian Empire were only a minority in emigration from Armenian lands across the Atlantic (about 2,500 moved in 1898–1914), because Armenians were treated relatively better in Russia than in the Ottoman Empire. Once in America, some Armenians organized political parties to serve various causes in America and in the homeland. Turkish Armenian migration rose gradually in the first decade of the 20th century, partly due to the Adana Massacre of 1909, and the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913. Before the start of the World War I, there were already 60,000 Armenians in the United States. As more Armenians fell victim to the genocide and more Armenians were deported, the Armenian American community grew dramatically.
According to the Bureau of Immigration, 54,057 Armenians entered the United States between 1899 and 1917. The top listed countries of origin were Turkey (46,474), Russia (3,034), Canada (1,577), Great Britain (914), and Egypt (894). Immigrants were asked to indicate which state they were going to settle in; for Armenians, the most popular answers were New York (17,391), Massachusetts (14,192), Rhode Island (4,923), Illinois (3,313), California (2,564), New Jersey (2,115), Pennsylvania (2,002), and Michigan (1,371). The largest Armenian American communities at that time were located in New York City; Fresno; Worcester, Massachusetts; Boston; Philadelphia; Chicago; Jersey City; Detroit; Los Angeles; Troy, New York; and Cleveland.
According to estimates, around 77,980 Armenians lived in the United States by 1919. An unprecedented number of Armenians entered the country in 1920, when the newly established Soviet Union forcefully annexed the First Republic of Armenia, but the Immigration Act of 1924, that restricted immigration from southern and eastern Europe as well as Asia, barred many other Armenians from emigrating to the United States. Most of the post-World War I immigrants were women and children, in contrast to the prewar immigration, which was predominantly young and male. Like Italians, for whom this practice was known as campanilismo, Armenian communities were often formed by people from the same village or town in the Ottoman Empire. This practice almost entirely disappeared after World War II.
In total, 81,729 Armenians entered the United States from 1899 to 1931, according to the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
Second wave of immigration
A new wave of Armenian immigrants moved in the late 1940s, including Soviet Armenian prisoners of war who were able to make their way westward after being freed from Nazi camps. The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 allowed people displaced during the World War II to immigrate to the US. From 1944 to 1952, 4,739 Armenians migrated to the United States, many with the help of George Mardikian's American National Committee to Aid Homeless Armenians (ANCHA).
However, the true second wave of immigration did not begin until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished national origins quotas. After the passage of that act, Armenians from the Soviet Union, Turkey, Lebanon, Iran, and other Middle Eastern countries began migrating in large numbers, many fleeing political instability in their host countries. In the 1950s, most Armenian immigrants in the United States were from Soviet Armenia and Turkey. The Istanbul pogrom in 1955 frightened the local Turkish Armenian population, which looked to the West for a safe and more prosperous life.
Soviet Armenians, on the other hand, were mostly genocide survivors who never fully integrated into Soviet life after their repatriation in the 1940s. The large-scale emigration of Soviet Armenians, mainly to Western countries, began in 1956. About 30,000 Soviet Armenians entered the country from 1960 to 1984, and another 60,000 moved throughout the late 1980s, during the Perestroika era. The total number of Soviet Armenian emigrants from 1956 to 1989, over 80% of them to the United States, is estimated at 77,000.
The 15-year-long Lebanese Civil War that started in 1975 and the Iranian revolution of 1979 greatly contributed to the influx of Middle Eastern Armenians to the United States. The Armenian communities in these Middle Eastern countries were well established and integrated, but not assimilated, into local populations. Armenians in Lebanon and Iran are even represented in the parliaments as ethnic minorities. Many lived in luxury in their former countries, and more easily handled multilingualism, while retaining aspects of traditional Armenian culture. This wave of newcomers revitalized the Armenian American community, especially in the Los Angeles area, where most second-wave Armenian immigrants settled. In 1970 about 65,000 Armenians resided in Southern California, and two decades later, in 1989, the number of Armenian Americans was estimated at 200,000. Although the 1980 US Census put the number of Armenians living in Los Angeles at 52,400, of which 71.9% were foreign born: 14.7% in Iran, 14.3% in the USSR, 11.5% in Lebanon, 9.7% in Turkey, 11.7% in other Middle Eastern countries (Egypt, Iraq, Palestine, etc.), and the rest in other parts of the world.
The New York Times estimated 500,000 Armenian-Americans in the 1980s, including 50,000 in the New York metropolitan area.
Contemporary period
Immediately before and continuing into the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union, waves of Armenians from Armenia and other former Soviet republics arrived for political reasons and economic opportunities, settling in older established Armenian communities across the country. The 1988 Armenian earthquake and the energy crisis in Armenia during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War caused an estimated number of 700,000 Armenians to leave the country, most of whom ended up in Russia, still others in the United States, and some in Europe. Annually, on average, 2,000 people from Armenia migrated to the US since 1994, not including ethnic Armenians from Middle Eastern countries. According to the 2000 US Census, there were 65,280 Armenian-born people in the United States. Almost 90% had moved in the previous two decades (57,960) and lived in California (57,482). According to the 2011 American Community Survey, there were 85,150 Armenian-born people in the United States, about 20,000 more than in 2000. The Armenian-born population grew to 101,757 by 2019. Meanwhile, Armenian immigration from the Middle East continues, contributing to California's distinction of having, by far, the highest Armenian American population of any state.
According to Dr. Anny Bakalian, "country of birth and childhood socialization, generation, and even cohort effect are important variables in understanding the behavior and attitudes of people of Armenian descent". The main subgroups of foreign-born Armenian Americans are Hayastantsis (Armenians from Armenia), Parskahays (Armenians from Iran), and Beirutsis (Armenians from Beirut, Lebanon). A 1990 University of California, Los Angeles, study showed that, by education and occupation, native-born and Iranian-born Armenians "tend to have the highest socioeconomic status... while those from Turkey have the lowest", although Turkish Armenians boast the highest rate of self-employment. In 1988, The New York Times article claimed that Middle Eastern Armenians prefer to settle in Glendale, California, while Armenian immigrants from the Soviet Union were attracted to Hollywood, Los Angeles.
Armenians from Lebanon, where they had effectively established an active community, are more politicized, while Turkish Armenians are mostly connected with the Armenian Apostolic Church. About 1/3 of all Turkish Armenians in America are self-employed. A group of Armenian Americans from Istanbul founded the Organization of Istanbul Armenians (OIA) in 1976, which claimed over 1,000 members in Southern California as of 2011. Iranian Armenians are known for fast integration into American society; for example, only 31% of Armenian Americans born in Iran claim not to speak English well.
Armenian American criminal organizations have received widespread media attention, such as during the 2010 Medicaid fraud. However, in the city of Glendale, California, where Armenians compose 27% of city's total population, only 17% of the crime in the city were committed by Armenians in 2006.
According to the 2000 US Census, there were 385,488 Americans of Armenian ancestry at that time. The 2017 American Community Survey estimate found 485,970 Americans with full or partial Armenian ancestry. Higher estimates, of 800,000 to 1,500,000, are offered by many Armenian and non-Armenian organizations, media and scholars. The German ethnographer Caroline Thon puts their number at 800,000, a number also offered by Dr. Harold Takooshian of Fordham University. Prof. Dennis R. Papazian of University of Michigan–Dearborn claimed that there were 1,000,000 people of Armenian ancestry living in the US. Armenian Mirror-Spectator, the German news website Spiegel Online, and The New York Review of Books reported the estimate of 1,200,000, while the World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, U.S. News & World Report, and Los Angeles Times put the number at 1,400,000. The Armenian National Committee of America, The Armenian Weekly, The Armenian Reporter, and Reuters offer the highest number, at around 1,500,000 Armenian Americans.
Geographic distribution
Most Armenian Americans are concentrated in major urban areas, especially in California and the Northeast, and to a lesser extent in the Midwest. The highest concentrations of Americans of Armenian ancestry are in Los Angeles, New York, and Boston. According to the 2000 Census, the states with largest Armenian populations were California (204,631), Massachusetts (28,595), New York (24,460), New Jersey (17,094), Michigan (15,746), Florida (9,226), Pennsylvania (8,220), Illinois (7,958), Rhode Island (6,677), and Texas (4,941).
California
The first Armenian arrived in California in 1874 and settled in Fresno. Fresno and the Central Valley in general were the center of California Armenian community, but in the later decades, especially since the 1960s, when significant number of Middle Eastern Armenians arrived in the United States, Southern California attracted more and more Armenians.
Los Angeles and the surrounding area is, by far, the most crowded Armenian community in the United States. It holds a little less than half of all Armenians living in the US, making it one of the most populous Armenian communities outside of Armenia. The estimated numbers of Armenians of Southern California vary greatly: 250,000, 350,000, 400,000, 450,000, 500,000, although the 2000 census reported 152,910 Armenians in Los Angeles County. Just eleven years later, the 2011 American Community Survey one-year estimates put the number of Armenians in Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana area 214,618, about 29% growth from 2000. The city of Los Angeles itself had an Armenian population of 64,997 in 2000. Several districts of Los Angeles have high concentrations of Armenians, particularly in San Fernando Valley: North Hollywood, Van Nuys, and Encino. On 6 October 2000, a small community in East Hollywood was named Little Armenia by the Los Angeles City Council. The city council file on the adoption states that "the area contains a high concentration of Armenian businesses and residents and social and cultural institutions, including schools, churches, social, and athletic organizations".
Glendale, just a few miles away from Downtown Los Angeles, has a population of about 200,000, of which, according to some estimates, 40% is Armenian. According to the 2000 Census, 53,840 people, or 27% of the population, identified themselves Armenian in Glendale. Glendale also home to the highest percentage of people born in Armenia. Other than Glendale and Los Angeles proper, significant Armenian populations reside in Burbank (8,312), Pasadena (4,400), Montebello (2,736), Altadena (2,134), and La Crescenta-Montrose (1,382). The Armenian Genocide Martyrs Monument, the oldest and largest Armenian Genocide memorial in the United States, is located in Montebello.
Dr. Seta Kazandjian described the community in her 2006 dissertation as follows:
Fresno, California, was the first major Armenian community in the Western United States. It was a major destination for early Armenian immigrants from the Ottoman Armenia, many of whom were engaged in agriculture. Armenians were the largest minority group in Fresno County. The city is also widely known as the birthplace of William Saroyan, many of whose stories are set there. Today, an estimated number of about 40,000 Armenian live in Fresno. According to the 2000 Census, 9,884 Armenians lived in Fresno County at the time. The area around the Holy Trinity Church is called Old Armenian Town.
The Northern Californian Armenian population is not as populous as the Southern portion of the state. Armenians are mostly concentrated in and around the cities of San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland. The 2000 Census reported only 2,528 Armenians in San Francisco, but Hayk, the Ubiquitous Armenian, stated that "the actual number is probably much higher, since the census is usually lower than actuals".
Northeast
Armenians came to the Northeastern United States fleeing ethnically motivated violence starting around 1890. When the Hood Rubber Company (later joined with B.F. Goodrich) opened in Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1896, Armenian, Syrian, Greek, and Italian immigrants made Hood Rubber the biggest producer of rubber soles in the United States, and thus made Watertown, MA, the first center of Armenian America.
New York was also a destination for Armenian immigrants in the early 20th century. The area between East 20th Street, Lexington Avenue, and First Avenue, where a compact Armenian population lived and Armenian shops existed, was called "Little Armenia" until the 1960s. The area was mentioned in 1914 book Our Mr. Wren: The Romantic Adventures of a Gentle Man by Sinclair Lewis (the 1930 Nobel Prize Winner). Today, according to estimates, there are 150,000 Armenians in the Tri-State area. Queens is home to some 50,000 Armenian Americans, Manhattan has 10,000 Armenian population centered in Gramercy Park, Kips Bay, and Murray Hill, where St. Vartan Armenian Cathedral is.
Stepan Zadori, a Hungarian Armenian, is the first known Armenian to come to Boston, The Armenian community in Boston was not founded until the 1880s. Today, estimates say that Armenians number from 50,000 to 70,000 in the Greater Boston area. The Armenian Heritage Park, dedicated to the victims of the Armenian genocide, was opened in downtown Boston on May 22, 2012. Watertown, Massachusetts, is the center of Boston Armenians, where according to estimates about 8,000 people of Armenian origin reside, though the 2000 Census put the number only at 2,708. Worcester, Massachusetts, was also a major center for Armenian immigrants in the early part of the twentieth century. The Armenian Library and Museum of America is located in Watertown. The National Association for Armenian Studies and Research (NAASR) is located in Belmont, and "starting in early 2018, NAASR will undertake top-to-bottom renovations...to transform it into a welcoming hub and first-class Armenian Studies research center for scholars and myriad others, Armenians and non-Armenians alike". Other towns in the area with significant Armenian populations are Worcester (1,306), Belmont (1,165), Waltham (1,091), and the city of Boston (1,080).
Other major northeastern cities with significant Armenian populations include Philadelphia and Providence. Like other Armenian communities in America, Armenian communities in these cities have their roots in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Currently, Philadelphia holds about 15,000 Armenian American population and over 7,000 live in Providence. There is also a small Armenian community in Portland, Maine; this community was founded in 1896 and is currently represented by the Armenian Cultural Association of Maine (ACAME). One of the ACAME's first projects (in 2003) was to build a monument dedicated to the victims of the Armenian genocide, located at the intersection of Cumberland Avenue and Franklin Arterial in Portland.
Other communities
Other sizable Armenian American communities exist in the Midwest and in the South, but in much smaller numbers than the Northeastern states and California.
The early Armenian immigrants in Detroit were mostly laborers. In later decades, particularly since the 1960s, Middle Eastern Armenians immigrated to Michigan. The Armenian community has been described as "highly educated, professional and prospering". Today, they number about 22,000. Chicago's Armenians also first settled in the city in the late 19th century in small numbers, but it increased through the 20th century, reaching about 25,000 by today. As of 2003 more than 8,000 Armenian Americans lived in Washington, D.C. The Armenian Genocide Museum of America is also located in the capital. Since the turn of the century there been a trend towards an increase in number of Armenians living outside of traditional settlement areas. For instance, the number of Armenians in Nevada increased from 2,880 in 2000 to 5,845 in 2010, Florida from 9,226 to 15,856, and Texas from 4,941 to 14,459.
The Pacific Northwest has a growing Armenian community as well, primarily centered around the Seattle Metropolitan area, which consists anywhere from 6,000 to 8,000 Armenian Americans, along with a church. Many of the Armenian Americans in Washington State immigrated to the area in the 1990s and have since established a sizable community, especially in and around the Eastside.
The Salt Lake City, Utah area has about 2,000 Armenians.
Culture
Language
As of 2000, 53% of the Armenians living in the United States speak the Armenian language. For comparison, about 6% of Italian Americans, 32% of Greek Americans, and 70% of Albanian Americans speak their ancestral language.
The Armenian language has two distinct standardized forms: Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian, both widely spoken among the Armenian American community. Armenians from Lebanon, Turkey, Syria, and few other countries speak the Western dialect, which was spoken in Turkish (Western) Armenia, the eastern regions of Turkey with historical Armenian presence. Eastern Armenian is primarily spoken in Armenia and Iran, though the Iranian Armenians have their own dialect; in the United States, speakers of Eastern Armenian are primarily immigrants from the former Soviet Union, who mostly arrived during the 1990s, or their children. Furthermore, Western and Eastern Armenian use two different spellings. In Armenia, the reformed orthography is used, while most Armenians in the diaspora (including Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and Iran) use the classical orthography.
Between 1910 and 1970, the language of only the foreign-born population in the United States was taken into account. In 1910, the number of Armenian speakers in the US was 23,938. It grew up to 37,647 in 1920, 51,741 in 1930, 40,000 in 1940, 37,270 in 1960, and 38,323 in 1970. According to the 1980 US Census, 100,634 people in the nation spoke Armenian, 69,995 of them were foreign-born. The 1990 US Census revealed 308,096 people of Armenian ancestry at the time and 149,694 people who indicated Armenian as their native language. A majority of Armenian-speakers (115,017) were foreign-born.
According to the 2000 US Census, there were 385,488 ethnic Armenians living in the United States, and 202,708 people identified Armenian as 'Language Spoken at Home'. The overwhelming majority of Armenian-speakers lived in California (155,237). Other states with significant number of Armenian-speakers were New York (8,575) and Massachusetts (8,091). About 2/3 of Armenians speakers call Los Angeles County home. The 2009–2013 American Community Survey estimates put the number of Armenian-speakers at 237,840.
A 2007 study showed that 16% of Armenians born in Lebanon, 29% in Armenia (including Soviet Armenia), 31% in Iran, and 36% in Turkey are not proficient in English. Many foreign-born Armenians are multilingual, speaking at least one language other than Armenian and English. For instance, Armenians from Armenia or the rest of the former Soviet Union might know Russian, those from Lebanon and Syria may know Arabic and French, almost all Iranian Armenians speak Persian, and Istanbul Armenians speak Turkish.
A 1999 paper delivered by Bert Vaux described Armenian as "severely endangered" in the United States.
Education
Early Armenian immigrants were one of the most literate ethnic groups to enter the US with 76% literacy. In comparison, 46% of southern Italians, 74% of Eastern European Jews and 99% of Finns were literate. As of 2007, 41% of US-born Armenians had at least a 4-year college degree. The rate is lower for foreign-born Armenians.
The first Armenian Sunday school in the US was founded in the late 1880s in New York by Barsegh Vardukyan. Since the 1960s many Armenian bilingual schools have been established in communities throughout the country. Ferrahian Armenian School, founded in 1964, is the oldest Armenian daily school in America. Besides this, there are over 100 Armenian schools that operate on weekends only. Mashdots College in Glendale, founded in 1992, is the only Armenian higher education institution in the country.
Armenian Americans constitute a highly educated community. Of the 339,732 Armenian Americans who are 25 or above, 26% are with a college degree, and 26.1% hold a bachelor's degree.
Religion
Most Armenian Americans are adherents of the Armenian Apostolic Church, the largest Oriental Orthodox church in the United States. It possesses over 90 churches throughout the nation. It was reported that 80% of Armenian Americans are Armenian Apostolic, 10% are Protestant (mostly Armenian Evangelical), and 3% are Armenian Catholic.
The Armenian Apostolic Church is the oldest national church in the world, and had a major role in protecting the Armenian identity through the centuries of foreign domination. Many Armenian communities in the country are concentrated around churches that serve as community centers. The first Armenian Apostolic church in America, named Church of Our Savior, was built in 1891 in Worcester. The American Diocese of the Church was established in 1898 by Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian. In 1916 there were 34 Armenian parishes with 27,450 members with a predominantly male population. The top states with Armenian church followers were Massachusetts, Michigan, California and New York. The Western Diocese was established in 1927.
After the Soviets took over Armenia in 1920, the Armenian American community was divided into two camps: one supporting Soviet Armenia (mostly members of the Hunchak and Ramgavar parties), another one against it (mostly made up of ARF members). During the 1933 World's Fair, Leon Tourian, the primate of the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church of America, refused to give a speech because the Armenian tricolor of the 1918–1920 Republic was hanging behind him, while Etchmiadzin, the seat of the Catholicos of All Armenians, was in Armenia that was then part of the Soviet Union and used a different flag. This upset the Dashnak members present in the ceremony. The conflict reached a crisis on 24 December 1933, when several members of ARF assassinated Archbishop Tourian during the Christmas Eve service in New York's Holy Cross Armenian Apostolic Church.
On October 12, 1957, during the peak of the Cold War, a number of parishes of the Armenian Apostolic Church in America, which were unaffiliated since 1933, came together under the Holy See of Cilicia with the headquarters in Lebanon, close to the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. After the World War II, Archbishop Tiran Nersoyan led the church through a second founding, which saw the framing of by-laws to govern the diocese, the creation of a nationwide youth organization. the initiation of a project to build an Armenian cathedral in Manhattan and the entry of the Armenian Church into the ecumenical movement. The middle 1950s saw an uptick in immigration and a building boom of Armenian churches, with new communities proliferating across the US. A generation of leaders born in America also began to exert itself. The first American-born Armenian priest was ordained in 1956. In 1961, St. Nersess Armenian Seminary was established in Illinois (later, it would move to New York). A spirit of renewed vigor was embodied by Archbishop Torkom Manoogian, who governed the diocese as primate from 1966 to 1990. The period saw a large influx of Armenian immigrants. These developments refocused the priorities of the Armenian Church in America. The need for humanitarian relief to the Armenian homeland, as well as outreach to refugees settling throughout the US (concentrated in New York and Los Angeles), led to the creation of the Fund for Armenian Relief—through which the church delivers material and medical aid to Armenia.
Today, more than 120 Armenian parish communities exist on the continent, with two-thirds operating as fully organized churches with sanctuaries. Archbishop Khajag Barsamian is primate of the Eastern Diocese (since 1990); Archbishop Hovnan Derderian of the Western Diocese (since 2003). The dioceses maintain strong connections to the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, and the current Supreme Patriarch, Karekin II, the 132nd Catholicos of All Armenians.
Armenian Evangelical form the second largest denomination among Armenian Americans, with 1 out of 10 being a follower. As of 1993 there were 28 Armenian Protestant Churches. A small number of Armenian Americans are followers of the Armenian Catholic Church. Their number is estimated to be around 25,000. In 1990 there were 6 Armenian Catholic Churches in the United States.
Media
The first Armenian-language newspaper in the US, named Aregak (Արեգակ, "Sun"), was published in Jersey City in 1888. Over 300 newspapers have been published since then. Today, numerous Armenian newspapers (both in Armenian and English) are published throughout the country. Asbarez (Ասպարէզ, "Arena") is the only daily, published in Los Angeles since 1908. Hairenik (Հայրենիք, "Fatherland") is published since 1899 in Boston. Both are affiliated with the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Other notable weeklies include The Armenian Weekly, Armenian Mirror-Spectator, Nor Hayastan (Նոր Հայաստան, "New Armenia"), The Armenian Reporter.
Traditions
Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine in general, is popular among Armenian Americans. A number of restaurants function in the Los Angeles area and other locations with high concentration of Armenian-Americans. Zankou Chicken, a family-owned chain of Armenian and Middle-Eastern fast casual restaurants within the Los Angeles area, is among the most famous Armenian restaurants.
Tens of amateur Armenian folk dance ensembles have been founded in the United States in the last decades.
Homenetmen, an Armenian Revolutionary Federation-affiliated sports organization, is very active in the United States, also engaged in scouting. The Western US branch of Homenetmen holds the Navasartian Games in the Los Angeles area every summer since 1975. Today, it brings together more than 6,000 athletes from 300 teams, 2,000 scouts. More than 35,000 people come to watch the event.
Politics
Early period
All three of the major Armenian political parties of the late 19th century and early 20th century – the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (also known as the ARF or Dashnaktsutyun), the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party (Hunchak) and the Armenakan Party (later referred to as Ramgavar) established a presence in the United States shortly after their respective founding; with each running their own newspaper directed at the diaspora community in North America: Hairenik and Asbarez by Dashnaks and Baikar by Ramgavars. After the Bolsheviks invaded and annexed Armenia in 1920, Ramgavars and Hunchaks formed a coalition supporting Soviet Armenia, while the ARF, which had been the ruling party of the Republic of Armenia from 1918 to 1920, remained anti-Soviet in the diaspora. The 1988 Spitak earthquake and the Karabakh movement brought the separate groups of the Armenian community together.
Armenian lobby
The Armenian American community has been described as the "most influential" Armenian community in the world, though smaller in size than the one in Russia. The Armenian American lobby is one of the most influential ethnic lobbies in the United States. The Armenian Assembly of America (AAA) and the Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) have as their main lobbying agenda the pressing of Congress and the US president for the reduction of economic and military assistance to Turkey and efforts to include reaffirmation of a genocide by Ottoman Turkey in 1915. According to one scholar, the political clout of the Armenian community in the United States "countervails the powerful big-oil lobby in Washington that promotes Azeri interests".
According to Shawn Dorman, the author of Inside a US embassy, the main goal of Armenian lobby is the "persuasion of US Congress to favor Armenian interests, especially to recognize the Armenian genocide". She then claims that "it had significant role in the United States providing financial support to Armenia. From 1992 to 2010 the US provided nearly $2 billion, the highest per capita amount for a post-Soviet state." Fund for Armenian Relief is a humanitarian organization providing long-term programs focusing on human development. Armenia Fund raises millions of dollars every year for infrastructural development in Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh.
In 1992, Dr. Dickran Kouymjian of the California State University, Fresno, stated:
Armenian genocide
The official recognition of the Armenian genocide by the US federal government was seen one of the most vital steps in international and full recognition of the 1915–1923 events. Many Armenians think that the United States has the ability to force Turkey to recognize the past and pay Armenians and Armenia their reparations, that includes (for some) the return of the so-called Wilsonian Armenia to the Republic of Armenia.
Several official US documents describe the events as "genocide" (1975, 1984, 1996); President Ronald Reagan also described the events as "genocide" in a speech on 22 April 1981. On 4 March 2010, the U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs recognized the massacres of 1915 as "genocide". Also, 49 of the 50 US states have made individual proclamations recognizing the events of 1915 to 1923 as genocide.
Armenian Americans gather in multiple towns and cities every year on 24 April for the recognition of the Armenian genocide. The largest of such gatherings occurs in the Los Angeles area. The Armenian National Institute lists 30 Armenian Genocide memorials in the United States; the oldest one is Montebello Genocide Memorial, which was completed in 1965. Khachkars across America were erected in honor of the 1.5 million victims of the Genocide. Recently, the Armenian Heritage Park was opened in Boston, MA.
In 2021, the United States formally recognized the Armenian genocide.
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh
Between 19 to 20 September 2023, the Azerbaijani military launched a large-scale attack on the majority Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which led to a mass exodus of about 80% of the region's population. In Los Angeles, members of the Armenian community used a trailer truck to block a major freeway for several hours to draw attention to the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh on 19 September, causing major traffic jams. In this event and several other protests around the same time, they called on US president Joe Biden to withdraw support and impose sanctions against Azerbaijan, and provide humanitarian aid to Nagorno-Karabakh. Actress Kim Kardashian, who is of Armenian descent, called on US President Joe Biden "to stop another Armenian genocide" on social media.
Notable people
Armenians in the United States have attained success and prominence in diverse areas, including business, politics, entertainment, sciences, sports, and the arts.
Arts and entertainment
Rouben Mamoulian was a film and theater director, and also known as co-producer of the first feature film (Becky Sharp, 1935) to use the three-strip Technicolor process. Sev Ohanian is a film screenwriter and producer of Searching, Fruitvale Station, and Run.
Armenian Americans have found a lot of success in the field of entertainment. Singer Cher (born Cherilyn Sarkisian). The metal band System of a Down is composed of four Armenian members of the diaspora: Serj Tankian, Daron Malakian, Shavo Odadjian, and John Dolmayan. Composer Alan Hovhaness, born to an Armenian father and a Scottish-American mother, "wrote more than 400 pieces, among them 67 symphonies of varying quality". Sebu Simonian, one of two founders of the band Capital Cities, is Lebanese Armenian. Ross Bagdasarian Sr. (known by the moniker David Seville) created Alvin and the Chipmunks. In 1959, at the First Grammys, he won 2 awards: Best Recording for Children and Best Comedy Performance. Mike Conners (born Krekor Ohanian) is the actor who starred in the long-running TV series Mannix, for which he earned a Golden Globe award in 1970. His acting career spanned over 6 decades.
Numerous Armenian musicians have been successful in American pop culture. Los Angeles is considered one of the main centers of Armenian music production of the last decades. Armenian-born singers that have lived or live in the United States include rock singer pop singers Harout Pamboukjian and Armenchik.
Andrea Martin, comedian and film and television actor, best known as a regular on the Canadian television comedy show SCTV, and as Aunt Voula in My Big Fat Greek Wedding and My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2, is from a paternal and maternal, Armenian-American family.
Reality TV show star Kim Kardashian is a controversial figure among Armenians. Her father, Robert Kardashian, was an attorney in the O. J. Simpson murder case, and her sisters, Khloe Kardashian and Kourtney Kardashian, and brother Rob Kardashian are also reality television stars.
Literature
Armenian American literature constitutes a diverse body of literature that incorporates American writers of Armenian ancestry. Encompassing a cross section of literary genres and forms, Armenian American writers often incorporate some common themes (e.g., the Armenian genocide) while maintaining very personal literary styles. The New York-based Ararat Quarterly, published since 1959, has been a major venue for Armenian American writing. Ararat is published in English by the AGBU and also includes works by Armenian writers around the world in translation. Prominent Armenian American writers include William Saroyan, Leon Surmelian, A. I. Bezzerides, Michael Arlen, Marjorie Housepian Dobkin, and others. Second generation Armenian American writers include Peter Balakian, Nancy Kricorian, Carol Edgarian, Michael J. Arlen, Arthur Nersesian, Micheline Aharonian Marcom, Hrag Vartanian, and others.
Visual arts
Sculptor Haig Patigian, painter Hovsep Pushman, and most notably, Arshile Gorky (born Vosdanig Adoian) are among the best known American artists of Armenian origin. Other notable figures include sculptor Reuben Nakian, painters John Altoon, Edward Avedisian, Charles Garabedian, Ludwig Mactarian, and Arman Manookian.
In the field of the contemporary art and performance, some notable American artist of Armenian heritage include Nina Katchadourian, Eric Bogosian, Tabboo! (aka Stephen Tashjian), Peter Sarkisian, Aram Jibilian, Linda Ganjian, Dahlia Elsayed, Emil Kazaz, Andrew Ohanesian, and others.
Larry Gagosian is a major art dealer, who owns the Gagosian Gallery. In 2011, the British magazine ArtReview placed Gagosian fourth in their annual poll of "most powerful person in the art world". Syria-born Hrag Vartanian is the founder and editor-in-chief of the art journal Hyperallergic.
Academia, sciences and medicine
Vartan Gregorian, born in Iran, was president of Brown University and the New York Public Library, as well as president of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. He was a recipient the National Humanities Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Lawyer Gregory H. Adamian served as president of Bentley University from 1970 to 1991, during which he oversaw dramatic growth of the university.
Aram Chobanian served as president of Boston University from 2003 to 2005.
Richard Hovannisian is a historian and professor emeritus at UCLA.
Khachig Tölölyan, born in Syria, was a professor of English and Comparative Literature at Wesleyan University and is considered a founder of the academic discipline of diaspora studies.
Daron Acemoglu, a Turkish-born economist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is one of the most cited economists in the world.
Raymond Damadian, a recipient of the National Medal of Technology, had a significant contribution to the invention of the MRI.
Christina Maranci is the Arthur H. Dadian and Ara Oztemel Professor of Armenian Art and Architecture at Tufts University.
Jack Kevorkian was a controversial pathologist and euthanasia activist, commonly known as "Dr. Death", whose parents were Armenian immigrants. His father, Levon, was born in the village of Passen, near Erzurum, and his mother, Satenig, was born in the village of Govdun, near Sivas.
Dr. Moses Housepian, an Armenian-American physician born in the Armenian village of Kessab in Syria, was a medical relief worker in Russian Armenia during the Armenian genocide. His son, Dr. Edgar Housepian, was a neurosurgeon, educator, and co-founder of the Fund for Armenian Relief.
Biologist Ardem Patapoutian, an Armenian-American born in Lebanon, has won 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch" (jointly with David Julius)
Politicians
A number of Armenians have entered into politics. The first Armenian to hold a high position office was Republican Steven Derounian, a Bulgarian-born Armenian, represented New York from 1953 to 1965 in the House of Representatives. George Deukmejian became the Republican governor of California in 1983 and left the office in 1991. Previously he had served as state assemblyman (1963–1967), state senator (1967–1979), and California Attorney General (1979–1983). A number of Armenian Americans have been elected to state legislatures, especially in California. In Massachusetts, George Keverian served as a representative in the State House, eventually becoming its speaker from 1985 to 1991.
Paul Robert Ignatius served as the US Secretary of the Navy from 1967 to 1969 in the Lyndon Johnson's administration. Ken Khachigian was the chief speechwriter for President Ronald Reagan. He is also known for Reagan's characterization of 1915 events as "genocide" in 1981. Diplomat Edward Djerejian was the US ambassador in Syria then Israel in the 1990s. Harry Tutunjian was the Republican mayor of Troy, New York, from 2003 to 2012. Bill Paparian was elected to the Pasadena City Council in 1987 and became mayor in 1995.
Joe Simitian had been a California state senator since 2004, while Paul Krekorian was elected to the Los Angeles City Council in 2010 from District 2, where the Armenian population of Los Angeles is concentrated. Currently, two congresswoman of Armenian ancestry, Anna Eshoo and Jackie Speier, are in the office, both Democrats from California.
A small number of Armenian Americans moved to Armenia in the early 1990s, some becoming notable in their ancestral homeland. Raffi Hovannisian, a Fresno-born third-generation Armenian American lawyer, moved to Armenia in 1991 and soon was appointed the first foreign minister of Armenia, where he remained until 1992. Today, Hovannisian is a major opposition figure in Armenia and the leader of the Heritage party. Sebouh (Steve) Tashjian, a California Armenian originally from Jerusalem, served as Minister of Energy, while Lebanese-born Gerard Libaridian, a Boston-based historian, was President Levon Ter-Petrosyan's adviser.
Military
Jeffrey L. Harrigian served as commander of United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa in 2019–2022.
Monte Melkonian, a native of California, was a prominent leader of Armenian forces during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. He was posthumously awarded with National Hero of Armenia title.
During World War II, about 18,500 Armenians served in the armed forces of the United States. A number of them were decorated for their service, including Col. Ernest Dervishian, a native of Virginia, who was awarded the Medal of Honor. US Marine Harry Kizirian is considered the most decorated soldier of the state of Rhode Island. Another Marine captain, Victor Maghakian, is considered one of the most decorated American soldiers of the war. The highest-ranking Armenian-American during World War II was Brigadier General Haig Shekerjian (who had previously served in the Pancho Villa Expedition and as an American military attache in the Middle Eastern theater of World War I). He was appointed commanding general of Camp Sibert, Alabama , which was used extensively as the main training camp for chemical warfare troops, and remained in that position until 1945. Shekerjian also gave numerous speeches during the war encouraging Americans of Armenian descent to enlist.
The highest ranking Armenian American to serve in the United States Army is Major General Stephen J. Maranian of Natick, Massachusetts, who served between 1988 and 2023. Maj. Gen. Maranian is a veteran of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and served as the Commandant of the United States Field Artillery School, Commandant of the United States Army War College and later as the Commanding General of the 56th Artillery Command.
Several major figures in the Armenian national liberation movement of the early 20th century lived and/or died in the United States. Among them, were Andranik Ozanian, a military commander who is considered a national hero among Armenians, who lived in Fresno, California, from 1922, and died in California in 1927. Another notable military commander, Garegin Nzhdeh, lived in Boston, Massachusetts, from 1933 to 1937, where he founded the Armenian Youth Federation. Drastamat Kanayan (Dro), the Defense Minister of Armenia from 1918 to 1919, lived in America after World War II and was shortly arrested for collaborating with the Nazis. His funeral ceremony was held in Trinity Church in the City of Boston in 1956. Shahan Natalie, a Dashnak activist, organized the Operation Nemesis in the early 1920s, during which numerous Armenian Genocide perpetrators were murdered. From 1910 to 1912 he studied at the Boston University and died in Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1983.
Sports
Perhaps the best-known American athlete of Armenian descent is tennis player, former no. 1, Andre Agassi. Armenian-born chess players Tatev Abrahamyan and Varuzhan Akobian have represented the US in Chess Olympiad. The first ever Armenian Olympic medalist, Hal Haig Prieste, won a bronze medal diving in 1920 Antwerp Games. The US women's national water polo team won 2010 World Cup and 2012 Olympics under the coaching of Adam Krikorian. Zach Bogosian is the first NHL player of Armenian descent. Coach Jerry Tarkanian built the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), into a "national powerhouse in college basketball" and was included in the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2013. Former WWE and ROH World Heavyweight Champion, Seth Rollins, is of Armenian descent on his father's side. Major league pitchers Steve Bedrosian and his son, Cam Bedrosian, are of Armenian descent.
Business
Some notable Armenian Americans in business include the founder of Masco Alex Manoogian, the Mugar family (owner of Star Market chain of supermarkets in New England), Kevork Hovnanian, founder of Hovnanian Enterprises, Avedis Zildjian, the founder of Zildjian Company (the world's largest cymbal manufacturer), Gerard Cafesjian, and Alexis Ohanian (founder of the internet service Reddit). Kirk Kerkorian, known as "the father of the megaresort", was claimed to be the richest man in Los Angeles prior to his death in 2015. Born to Armenian parents in Fresno, Kerkorian had provided over $1 billion for charity in Armenia through his Lincy Foundation. It was established in 1989, and was particularly focused on helping to rebuild northern Armenia after the 1988 Spitak earthquake. The foundation was dissolved in 2011, after 22 years of activity. Christmas Tree Shops, a chain of small stores, was founded by Charles Bilezikian and his wife.
Miscellaneous
Other notable Armenian Americans include astronaut James P. Bagian, who became the first Armenian to travel into space in 1989. It is claimed that he took the Armenian tricolor flag to space with him.
Other notable Armenian Americans also include: Oscar H. Banker (inventor of automatic transmissions for automobiles), and Luther Simjian (inventor of automated teller machines).
Armenian organizations
Armenian Assembly of America – Organization promoting awareness of Armenian issues
Armenian Church Youth Organization of America – Promotes sports amongst Armenian American youth.
Armenia Fund – Los Angeles based fundraising organization for capital improvements in Armenia
Armenian General Benevolent Union – A non-profit Armenian organization founded in Cairo, Egypt; it moved its headquarters to New York City following the onset of World War II.
Armenian lobby in the United States – The umbrella term for the broad coalition of organizations and individuals which coalesces to influence US policy on Armenia
Armenian National Committee of America – The largest grassroots Armenian-American organization in the United States
Armenian Professional Society – Armenian-American professional association founded in 1958 to advance fellowship and education
Armenian Relief Society – a nonsectarian, philanthropic entity benefitting the humanitarian, social and educational needs of both Armenians and non-Armenians. It is a non-governmental organization and has operates in 27 countries, including the United States.
Armenian Students Association – Encourages the educational pursuits of Armenian-Americans.
Armenian Youth Federation United States Chapters – The youth arm of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation's US chapters
Children of Armenia Fund – Foundation set up to reduce rural poverty in Armenia
Fund for Armenian Relief – A New York City-based Humanitarian organization which provides short-term emergency relief and long-term programs focusing on child protection, economic development, education, health, care, and social services
See also
Armenian diaspora
Armenia–United States relations
List of Armenian Americans
Wilsonian Armenia
References
Bibliography
Aleksandra Ziolkowska-Boehm, The Polish Experience Through World War II: A Better Day Has Not Come, Foreword: Neal Pease; Lanham MD: Lexington Books, 2013, ; 2015, .
Further reading
Apkarian-Russell, Pamela E. Armenians of Worcester. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2000.
Jordan, Robert Paul and Harry Naltchayan. The Proud Armenians, National Geographic 153, no. 6 (June 1978), pp. 846–873.
Anthony P. Mezoian. The Armenian People of Portland, Maine. (Durham, New Hampshire: University of New Hampshire, 1985
Mirak, Robert. "Armenians." in Thernstrom, Stephan; Orlov, Ann; Handlin, Oscar, eds. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Harvard University Press, , (1980) pp 136–49. Online
Takooshian, Harold. "Armenian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 151–164. online
Armenian-American history
American
European-American society
Middle Eastern American
American people of Middle Eastern descent |
4277819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.%20Hick%20and%20Sons | B. Hick and Sons | B. Hick and Sons, subsequently Hick, Hargreaves & Co, was a British engineering company based at the Soho Ironworks in Bolton, England. Benjamin Hick, a partner in Rothwell, Hick and Rothwell, later Rothwell, Hick & Co., set up the company in partnership with two of his sons, John (1815–1894) and Benjamin Jr (1818–1845) in 1833.
Locomotives
The company's first steam locomotive Soho, named after the works was a goods type, built in 1833 for carrier John Hargreaves. In 1834 an unconventional, gear-driven four-wheeled rail carriage was conceived for Bolton solicitor and banker, Thomas Lever Rushton (1810–1883). The engine was the first 3-cylinder locomotive and its design incorporated aerodynamic turned iron wheel rims with plate discs as an alternative to conventional spokes. The 3-cylinder concept evolved into Hick's experimental horizontal boiler A 2-2-2 locomotive about 1840, adopting the principle features of the vertical boiler engine. The A design appears not to have been put into production.
More locomotives were built over the 1830s, some for export to the United
States including a Fulton for the Pontchartrain Railroad in 1834, New Orleans and Carrollton for the St. Charles Streetcar Line in New Orleans in 1835 and a second New Orleans for the same line in 1837. A 10 hp stationary engine was supplied to the Carrollton Railroad Company in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, for ironworking purposes, but damaged by fire in 1838. Two tender locomotives Potomak and Louisa were delivered to the Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad and a third, Virginia to the Raleigh and Gaston Railroad in North Carolina during 1836.
Between 1837 and 1840 the company subcontracted for Edward Bury and Company, supplying engines to the Midland Counties Railway, London and Birmingham Railway, North Union Railway, Manchester and Leeds Railway and indirectly to the Grand Crimean Central Railway via the London and North Western Railway in 1855. Engines were built for the Taff Vale Railway, Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, Cheshire, Lancashire and Birkenhead Railway, Chester and Birkenhead Railway, Eastern Counties Railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, North Midland Railway, Paris and Versailles Railway and Bordeaux Railway.
In 1841 the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway successfully used American Norris locomotives on the notorious Lickey Incline and Hick built three similar locomotives for the line. Between 1844 and 1846 the firm built a number of "long boiler" locomotives with haystack fireboxes and in 1848, four s for the North Staffordshire Railway. In the same year, the company built Chester, probably the earliest known prototype of a 6-wheel coupled } goods locomotive.
Aerodynamic Disc Wheel
Benjamin Hick's wheel design was used on a number of Great Western Railway engines including what may have been the world's first streamlined locomotive; an experimental prototype, nicknamed Grasshoper, driven by Brunel at , c.1847. The 10 ft disc wheels from GWR locomotives Ajax and Hurricane were lent to convey the statue of the Duke of Wellington to Hyde Park Corner in London.
Examples using wood paneling as streamlining are applied to the 16 ft flywheel and rope races of a Hick Hargreaves and Co. 120hp non-condensing Corliss engine, Caroline installed new at Gurteen's textile manufactorary, Haverhill, Suffolk in 1879.
Disc wheels and wheel fairings have been used for armoured cars, aviation, drag racing, Land speed record attempts, Land speed racing, motor racing, motorcycle speedway, wheelchair racing, icetrack cycling, velomobiles and bicycle racing, particularly track cycling, track bikes and time trials.
Engineering drawings
Hick Hargreaves collection of early locomotive and steam engine drawings represents one of the finest of its kind in the world. The majority were produced by Benjamin Hick senior and John Hick between 1833-1855, they are of significant interest for their technical detail, fine draughtsmanship and artistic merit. The elaborate finish and harmonious colouring extends from the largest drawings for prospective customers to ordinary working drawings and records for the engineer.
Works like this influenced the contemporary illustrators of popular science and technology of the time like John Emslie (1813-1875), their aesthetic quality stems from a romantic outlook in which science and poetry were partners.
The drawings are held by Bolton Metropolitan Borough Archives and the Transport Trust, University of Surrey.
Hick, Hargreaves & Co
After the death of Benjamin Hick in 1842, the firm continued as Benjamin Hick & Son under the management of his eldest son, John Hick; his second son, Benjamin Jr left the company after a year of its founding for partnership in a Liverpool company about 1834, possibly George Forrester & Co. In 1840 he filed a patent governor for B. Hick and Son using an Egyptian winged motif, that featured on the front page of Mechanics' Magazine. Hick's third and youngest son William (1820–1844) served as an apprentice millwright, engineer in the company from 1834 and a 'fitter' from 1837, he was listed as an iron founder in 1843 with his eldest brother John, but died the next year.
In 1845 John Hick took his brother-in-law John Hargreaves Jr (1800–1874) into partnership followed by the younger brother William Hargreaves (1821–1889) in 1847. John Hargreaves Jr left the firm in April 1850 before buying Silwood Park in Berkshire.
The following year B. Hick and Son exhibited engineering models and machinery at The Great Exhibition in Class VI. Manufacturing Machines and Tools, including a 6 horse power crank overhead engine and mill-gear driving Hibbert, Platt and Sons' cotton machinery and a 2 hp high-pressure oscillating engine driving a Ryder forging machine. Both engines were modelled in the Egyptian Style. The company received a Council Medal award for its mill gearing, radial drill mandrils and portable forges. The B. Hick & Son London office was at 1 New Broad Street in the City.
One of the Great Exhibition models, a 1:10 scale 1840 double beam engine built in the Egyptian style for John Marshall's Temple Works in Leeds, is displayed at the Science Museum and considered to be the ultimate development of a Watt engine. A second model, apparently built by John Hick and probably shown at the Great Exhibition, is the open ended 3-cylinder A 2-2-2 locomotive on display at Bolton Museum. Bolton Museum holds the best collection of Egyptian cotton products outside the British Museum as a result of the company's strong exports, particularly to Egypt. Leeds Industrial Museum houses a Benjamin Hick and Son beam engine in the Egyptian style c.1845, used for hoisting machinery at the London Road warehouse of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway.
Locomotive building continued until 1855, and in all some ninety to a hundred locomotives were produced; but they were a sideline for the company, which concentrated on marine and stationary engines, of which they made a large number.
B. Hick and Son supplied engines for the paddle frigates Dom Afonso by Thomas Royden & Sons and Amazonas by the leading shipbuilder in Liverpool, Thomas Wilson & Co. also builders of the Royal William; the screw propelled Mediterranean steamers, Nile and Orontes and the SS Don Manuel built by Alexander Denny and Brothers of Dumbarton. The Brazilian Navy's Afonso rescued passengers from the Ocean Monarch in 1848 and took part in the Battle of The Tonelero Pass in 1851; the Amazonas participated in the Battle of Riachuelo in 1865.
The company made blowing engines for furnaces and smelters, boilers, weighing machines, water wheels and mill machinery. It supplied machinery "on a new and perfectly unique" concept together with iron pillars, roofing and fittings for the steam-driven pulp and paper mill at Woolwich Arsenal in 1856. The mill made cartridge bags at the rate of about 20,000 per hour, sufficient to supply the entire British army and navy. The intention was to manufacture paper for various departments of Her Majesty's service.
Steel boilers were first produced in 1863, mostly of the Lancashire type, and more than 200 locomotive boilers were made for torpedo boats into the 1890s. The Phoenix Boiler Works were purchased in 1891 to meet an increase in demands.
Bolton Steam Museum hold a 1906 Hick, Hargreaves and Co. Ltd. Lancashire boiler front-plate, previously installed at Halliwell Mills, Bolton.
The company introduced the highly efficient Corliss valve gear into the United Kingdom from the United States in about 1864 and was closely identified with it thereafter; William Inglis being responsible for promoting the high speed Corliss engine. About 1881 Hick, Hargreaves received orders for two Corliss engines of 3000 hp, the largest cotton mill engines in the world. Hargreaves and Inglis trip gear was first applied to a large single cylinder 1800 hp Corliss engine at Eagley Mills near Bolton and the company received a Gold Medal for its products at the 1885 International Inventions Exhibition. An 1886 Hick, Hargreaves and Co. inverted, vertical single cylinder Corliss engine with Spencer Inglis valve gear, used to run Ford Ayrton and Co.'s spinning mill, Bentham until 1966 is preserved under glass at Bolton Town Centre.
Mill gearing was a speciality including large flywheels for rope drives, one example of 128 tons being 32 ft in diameter and groved for 56 ropes. Turbines and hydraulic machinery were also manufactured. Many of the tools were to suit the specialist work, with travelling cranes to take 15 to 40 tons in weight, a large lathe, side planer, slotting machine, pit planer and a tool for turning four 32 ft rope flywheels simultaneously. The workshops also featured an 80ton hydraulic riveting machine. For the ease of shipping and transportation, Soho Iron Works had its own railway system, traversed by sidings of the London North Western Railway (LNWR). Inglis, who lived in Bolton was a neighbour of LNWR's chief mechanical engineer, Francis Webb.
The company was renamed Hick, Hargreaves and Company in 1867; John Hick retired from the business in 1868 when he became a member of parliament (MP), leaving William Hargreaves as the sole proprietor. On the death of John Hick's nephew Benjamin Hick in 1882, a "much respected member of the firm", active involvement of the Hick family ceased. William Hargreaves died in 1889 and, under the directorship of his three sons, John Henry, Frances and Percy, the business became a private limited company in 1892.
In 1893 the founder's great grandson, also Benjamin Hick started an apprenticeship, followed by his younger brother Geoffrey about 1900.
Diversification
About 1885 Hick Hargreaves & Co became associated with Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti during the reconstruction of the Grosvenor Gallery and began to manufacture steam engines for power generation including those of Ferranti's Deptford Power Station, the largest power station in the world at the time.
In 1908 the company was licensed to build uniflow engines. From 1911 the company began the manufacture of large diesel engines, however these did not prove successful and were eventually discontinued. Boiler production finished in 1912. During World War I the company was involved in war work, producing 9.2 inch then 6 inch shells for the Ministry of Munitions, mines and a contract with Vickers to produce marine oil engines for submarines, under licence for the Admiralty.
In the early hours 26 September 1916, the works were targeted by Zeppelin L 21; a bomb missed passing through the roof of nearby Holy Trinity Church.
The company's recoil gear for the Vickers 18 pounder quick firing gun was so successful that by war's end a significant part of the factory was devoted to its production. Civil manufacture was not suspended entirely and in 1916 the firm began making Hick-Bréguet two-stage steam jet air ejectors and high vacuum condensing plant for power generation, including a contract with Yorkshire Electric Power Company. Hick Hargreaves production greatly expanded as centralised power generation was adopted in Great Britain, by the formation of the Central Electricity Board (CEB) in 1926.
In the search for new markets after the war the firm invested in machinery to produce petrol engines and other car components, entering a contract with Vulcan Motor & Engineering Co of Southport for 1000 20 hp petrol engines, but work discontinued in 1922 when Vulcan became bankrupt, with only 150 completed.
Following the arrival of electrical engineer Wyndham D'arcy Madden from Stothert & Pitt in 1919, Hick Hargreaves was re-organised to include a sales department responsible for advertising, supervised by Madden who in succession was appointed Managing Director in 1922, serving until 1963.
Trained at Faraday House Engineering College, from outside the Hargreaves family circle and established conventions of the industrial regions, Madden ensured the business was run economically during the difficult times ahead. The readiness to adapt was crucial to success during the interwar period; he realised that marketing the firm's specialities was as important to the design and manufacture of its products.
As the steam turbine replaced reciprocating steam engines, the company required a skilled engineer to produce a design of its own; in 1923 former principal assistant to the Chief Turbine Designer of English Electric, George Arrowsmith was appointed as Hick Hargreaves' Chief Turbine Designer; development continued and by 1927 the firm's engine work was principally steam turbines for electricity generating stations, becoming a major supplier to the CEB. Three of the nine turbines produced were supplied to Fraser & Chalmers for installation at Ham Halls power station. Arrowsmith was appointed Chief Engineer and a director of Hick Hargreaves in 1928. A 1923 Hick Hargreaves Co. Ltd. condenser, coupled to an English Electric Company turbogenerator built by Dick, Kerr & Co., set No. 6 in operation at the Back o' th' Bank power station, Bolton until 1979, is displayed at the Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester.
During the 1930s, the company acquired the records, drawings and patterns of four defunct steam engine manufacturers: J & E Wood, John Musgrave & Sons Limited, Galloways Limited and Scott & Hodgson Limited. As a consequence it made a lucrative business out of repairs and the supply of spare parts during the Great Depression. Large stationary steam engines were still used for the many cotton mills in the Bolton area until the collapse of the industry after World War II.
3 and 4-cylinder triple expansion marine steam engines were built during the 1940s, post-war the company expanded its work in electricity generation, again becoming a major supplier to the CEB and branched out into food processing, oil refining and offshore oil equipment production, continuing to supply vacuum equipment to the chemical and petrochemical industries. Between 1946 and 1947 it supplied vacuum pumps to Vickers Armstrongs for the Barnes Wallis designed Stratosphere Chamber at Brooklands, built to investigate high-speed flight at very high altitudes.
By the early 1960's Hick Hargreaves established itself in the practical application of nuclear energy, supplying de-aerating equipment for the early atomic power stations at Calder Hall, Chapelcross and Dounreay, and the complete feed heating system, condensing plant and steam dump condensers for Hunterston.
The company received orders for the ejectors, de-aerators and dump condensers for the prototype advanced gas cooled reactor at Windscale and a commission to design the condensing plants and feed systems for the first 175.000 KW Japanese Atomic Power Station at Tokai Mura.
About 1969 the firm's 1930s corporate identity was brought up to date with a logo, while Madden's established and successful marketing of specialities continued; during 1974 Hick Hargreaves promoted its achievements and support of industrial archaeology with an exhibition of B. Hick and Son locomotive drawings, emphasising its response to changing industrial developments since the nineteenth century.
In 2000 Hick Hargreaves' products included compressors, blowers, refrigeration equipment, deaerators, vacuum ejectors and liquid ring vacuum pumps.
Soho Iron Works
Between the 1840s and 1870s, the firm had its own Brass Band, "John Hick's Esq, Band," known as the Soho Iron Works Band with a uniform of "... rich full braided coat, black trousers, with two-inch gold lace down the sides and blue cap with gold band," who would play airs through the streets of Bolton.
Ownership changes
In 1968, the Hargreaves family sold their shares to Electrical & Industrial Securities Ltd which became part of TI Group, and subsequently Smiths Group.
Smiths Group sold Soho Iron works to Sainsbury's and it closed in 2002. Two switchgear panels; the works clock, and a pair of cast iron gateposts with Hick's caduceus logo were preserved by the Northern Mill Engine Society. The 170 year old firm's records were deposited with Bolton library.
In 2001, BOC bought the business from Smiths Group and relocated the offices to Wingates Industrial Estate in Westhoughton, and subsequently to Lynstock Way in Lostock, as part of Edwards. Some of the manufacturing equipment was transferred to their lower cost facility in Czechoslovakia.
Mills powered by Hick, Hargreaves engines
Textile Mill, Chadderton
Cavendish Mill, Ashton-under-Lyne
Century Mill, Farnworth
Pioneer Mill, Radcliffe
See also
Bradford Colliery
James Cudworth
Fred Dibnah
Helmshore Mills Textile Museum
House-built engine
Redevelopment of Mumbai mills
Thomas Pitfield
Wadia Group
Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills
References
Bibliography
External links
Golburn Historic Waterworks Museum: B. Hick and Son horizontal Corliss engine built for Bell's Creek gold mine, Araluan, New South Wales 1866
Forncett Industrial Steam Museum: Hick, Hargreaves and Co. 50 hp Corliss girder bed engine 1873 (No.303), used to power Gamble's lace factory, Nottingham
Lucien Alphonse Legros - eldest son of Alphonse Legros, entered Hick, Hargreaves works in 1887.
The Clyde Built Ships: Empire Ridley 1941 (Ministry of War Transport), HMS Latimer 1943 (Petroleum Warfare Department)
Tyne built ships: Empire Grey 1944 (Ministry of War Transport)
Tyne built ships: Landing Ship, Tank (LST) 3001 1945 (Royal Navy)
Frederick Clover LST (3): 1946 (War Office), 1952 (Atlantic Steam Navigation Company)
Tyne built ships: Zarian 1947 (United Africa Company)
Edwards Limited
Manufacturing companies established in 1833
British companies established in 1833
1833 establishments in England
Engineering companies of the United Kingdom
Engineering companies of England
Engine manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Boilermakers
Millwrights
Hick
Steam engine manufacturers
Machine tool builders
Electrical engineering companies
Nuclear technology companies of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Bolton
History of Bolton
Industrial Revolution |
4278088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent%20use%20registration | Concurrent use registration | A concurrent use registration, in United States trademark law, is a federal trademark registration of the same trademark to two or more unrelated parties, with each party having a registration limited to a distinct geographic area. Such a registration is achieved by filing a concurrent use application (or by converting an existing application to a concurrent use application) and then prevailing in a concurrent use proceeding before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ("TTAB"), which is a judicial body within the United States Patent and Trademark Office ("USPTO"). A concurrent use application may be filed with respect to a trademark which is already registered or otherwise in use by another party, but may be allowed to go forward based on the assertion that the existing use can co-exist with the new registration without causing consumer confusion.
The authority for this type of registration is set forth in the Lanham Act, which permits concurrent use registration where the concurrent use applicant made a good-faith adoption of the mark prior to the registrant filing an application for registration. Such registrations are most commonly achieved by agreement of the parties involved, although the USPTO must still determine that no confusion will be caused.
Statutory basis
The authority of the USPTO to issue a concurrent use registration is set forth in the Lanham Act, section 2 (d), enacted in 1947 and coded at , which states in relevant part:
Through these provisions, the Act effectively places three requirements on marks for which a later applicant seeks a concurrent use registration:
1) the later applicant must have used the mark in commerce prior to the time that the earlier registrant filed its application for registration, unless the senior registrant consents to the junior user's registration;
2) the later applicant's use in commerce must have been lawful
3) concurrent use of the marks must not result in a likelihood of confusion.
The statute essentially codifies the [[Tea Rose-Rectanus doctrine|Tea Rose-Rectanus doctrine]], established by the United States Supreme Court in two cases decided in 1916 and 1918. The Court had established in those cases that a junior user of a mark that is geographically remote from the senior user of the mark may establish priority over a senior user's claim to the mark in the junior user's area.
Any party may voluntarily limit the geographic scope of its application while conceding the rights of another party to a different geographic territory. A concurrent use application may not be filed based on a party's intent to use a mark, but must rely on actual use in commerce. The concurrent use application must identify all other parties who are entitled to use the mark, and provide the names and addresses of the parties identified. Instead of making the usual assertion that no other party has the right to use the mark, the applicant must assert that no other party "except as specified in the application" has such a right.
Where two or more geographically unrestricted applications are pending at the same time, and no registration has yet been issued, the USPTO will proceed with the earliest application, and put all later applications on hold pending a determination on the earliest.
Use in commerce prior to an adverse filing for registration
By the terms of the Act, the critical dates with respect to concurrent registration are the date of the applicant's first use and the earliest filing date of any other registrant. In other words, as the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Manual of Procedure ("TBMP") states, "an application seeking concurrent registration through a concurrent use proceeding normally must assert a date of first use in commerce prior to the earliest application filing date of the application(s)... involved in the proceeding."
The Lanham Act requires that an Applicant's use in commerce must have been lawful. The TTAB (and its predecessor, the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals ("CCPA")) has read this to mean that the applicant's use must not have infringed another party's use at the time that applicant adopted its mark. Therefore, one potential pitfall facing applicant is that "[g]enerally, concurrent rights arise when a party, in good faith, and without knowledge of a prior party's use in another geographic area, adopts and uses the same or similar mark for the same or similar goods or services within its own geographic area."
The mere fact that an applicant's use was geographically remote from a registrant or other opposer's use does not establish good faith, as "courts have generally held that the remote use defense... is unavailable where the junior user adopts a substantially identical mark in a remote geographic area with full knowledge of the senior user's prior use elsewhere." However, the TTAB has also previously held that "mere knowledge of the existence of the prior user should not, by itself, constitute bad faith."
Likelihood of confusion
The factors under which the TTAB evaluates the likelihood of confusion were established in In re E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., and are commonly referred to as the "du Pont factors".
The thirteen du Pont factors are:
(1) The similarity or dissimilarity of the marks in their entireties as to appearance, sound, connotation and commercial impression.
(2) The similarity or dissimilarity and nature of the goods or services as described in an application or registration or in connection with which a prior mark is in use.
(3) The similarity or dissimilarity of established, likely-to-continue trade channels.
(4) The conditions under which and buyers to whom sales are made, i.e. "impulse" vs. careful, sophisticated purchasing.
(5) The fame of the prior mark (sales, advertising, length of use).
(6) The number and nature of similar marks in use on similar goods.
(7) The nature and extent of any actual confusion.
(8) The length of time during and conditions under which there has been concurrent use without evidence of actual confusion.
(9) The variety of goods on which a mark is or is not used (house mark, "family" mark, product mark).
(10) The market interface between applicant and the owner of a prior mark:
(a) a mere "consent" to register or use.
(b) agreement provisions designed to preclude confusion, i.e. limitations on continued use of the marks by each party.
(c) assignment of mark, application, registration and good will of the related business.
(d) laches and estoppel attributable to owner of prior mark and indicative of lack of confusion.
(11) The extent to which applicant has a right to exclude others from use of its mark on its goods.
(12) The extent of potential confusion, i.e., whether de minimis or substantial.
(13) Any other established fact probative of the effect of use.
In many instances, only a few of the categories will be applicable to the facts of the case before the TTAB.
Procedure to acquire
The procedures to acquire such a registration are set forth in the TBMP Chapter 1100. They are initiated when a concurrent use application is submitted to the USPTO, which will initiate a concurrent use proceeding to determine if the applicant is entitled to such registration. An existing application that has been denied registration because of a conflict with an existing mark may be converted into a concurrent use application against that existing mark. In either case, the applicant must assert that its mark was used in commerce before the owner of the existing registration, called the "senior registrant", had filed its own application for registration. The applicant must also demonstrate that the marks can both be used in their specific geographic areas without causing a likelihood of confusion.
The USPTO will contact the senior registrant to inform that party of the claim against their mark. The proceeding in which the respective rights of the parties are determined is like a trial in which the applicant must submit evidence showing that the applicant had adopted the mark in good faith, that the applicant had adopted the mark prior to the senior registrant's date of registration, and that the confusion is not likely. The senior registrant may present evidence to the contrary, in order to prevent the loss of control over the use of the registered mark in the applicant's claimed territory. Both parties may take discovery in the form of requests for admission, interrogatories, requests for production, and depositions. As with a regular trial, the TTAB may be called upon to resolve disputes over whether discovery requests are overbroad, and whether discovery responses are inadequate.
The senior registrant in such a proceeding has ample incentive to oppose the grant of a concurrent use registration, because a registered trademark is presumed to apply throughout the entire United States. Thus, the grant of a concurrent use registration carves out some geographic territory from the senior registrant's exclusive control.
As 15 U.S.C. § 1052 (d) indicates, a concurrent use registration may also be issued "when a court of competent jurisdiction has finally determined that more than one person is entitled to use the same or similar marks in commerce." As a matter of right, the TTAB will issue such a registration pursuant to a court order that an applicant has the right to use its mark in certain geographic area. Where a court has issued such an order, a concurrent use proceeding is not needed, as evidence has already been taken in the court proceeding, and the rights of the parties have already been determined.
Most concurrent use proceedings result in a legal settlement between the parties. Frequently, one party will surrender its concurrent use claim and instead receive a trademark license from the other party. In other situations, each party may agree to geographic limitations on its use of the mark at issue, which the TTAB will honor if the settlement stipulates to facts which show that no confusion is likely. A benefit of such an agreement is that the parties can agree to terms beyond the scope of the TTAB's decision, such as specific restrictions on time and place of advertising, or modifications to the appearance of either mark. However, irrespective of the agreement reached, the TTAB must still make an independent finding that no consumer confusion is likely to result from the concurrent use registration. Even if both parties assert that no confusion is likely, the TTAB may still make findings of fact which demonstrate that confusion is likely, and deny registration to the junior user of the mark.
A pivotal factor in assessing the likelihood of confusion in such a circumstance "is whether the parties whose marks are in question have agreed, in some form, to memorialize methods of avoiding confusion." In that case, the court held that such an agreement "is viewed in light of the parties' interests and the prevailing marketplace", further stating:
Furthermore, the issuance of concurrent use registrations need not prevent either party from engaging in advertising or other activities which might result in the incidental publication of one registrant's mark in the territory of the other registrant. In the Amalgamated Bank case, the Federal Circuit found acceptable a term in the agreement that "nothing in this agreement will preclude Amalgamated New York from conducting advertising which might enter in the State of Illinois or from dealing with customers who happen to be located in the State of Illinois." Courts have similarly held that a concurrent use registration does not curtail either party from advertising over the Internet, particularly where the junior user includes a disclaimer of some form on their website.
Geographic divisions
A concurrent use registration can be very detailed in the geographic divisions laid down. It may, for example, allow one party to own the right to use a mark within a fifty-mile radius around a handful of selected cities or counties, while the other party owns the right to use the same mark everywhere else in the country. It may even divide the rights to use a mark within a particular city by reference to roads or other landmarks in that city.
The TTAB succinctly describes its territorial analysis in Weiner King, Inc. v. Wiener King Corp.:
The TTAB has found that in concurrent use proceedings, "[t]he area for which registration is sought is usually more extensive than the area in which applicant is actually using the mark." "As a general rule, a prior user of a mark is entitled to a registration covering the entire United States limited only to the extent that the subsequent user can establish that no likelihood of confusion exists and that it has concurrent rights in its actual area of use, plus its area of natural expansion."
Between lawful concurrent users of the same mark in geographically separate markets, the senior registrant has the right to maintain his registration for at least those market areas in which it is using the mark. However, the senior registrant does not always maintain the right to use the mark in territories not yet occupied by either party. In Pinocchio's Pizza, for example, the first applicant (but the junior user of the mark in commerce) owned one small restaurant in Maryland and had expressed no plans for expansion, while the second applicant (but senior user of the mark in commerce) owned multiple restaurants in Texas and was planning aggressive expansion. The TTAB held that "purpose of the statute is best served by granting [the second] applicant a registration for the entire United States except for registrant's trading area." The TTAB therefore restricted the first applicant's registration to permit exclusive use in Maryland, and within 50 miles of the first applicant's restaurant in areas crossing into other states.
Furthermore, although the general rule provides that the entire United States should be covered by the respective registrations, it is permissible for parties to a proceeding to resolve the issue of territorial rights in a way that leaves some part of the country uncovered entirely. In a contested proceeding In re Beatrice Foods Co.'', the court held that the senior user of a mark was entitled to a registration covering the entire United States, outside of the junior user's area of actual use. However, the court went on to say:
The few courts that have considered the antitrust implications of concurrent use registration have determined that it does not raise any violation of antitrust laws. Although it is considered a violation of such laws for companies to agree to divide up geographic territories for the sale of goods, concurrent use agreements dividing up trademark territories are specifically provided for by Congress. Furthermore, even with such an agreement in place, a company can still sell competing products in the trademark territory of another company, so long as the intruding party sells that product under a different mark.
Impact
The availability of concurrent use registration is not commonly invoked, even where the applicant might stand an excellent chance of demonstrating the existence of geographically distinct markets. Proceedings before the TTAB, like proceedings before any court, can be expensive and time-consuming. A contested concurrent use proceeding may last for two or three years before the resolution of a claim, and the outcome will remain uncertain until the end. The outcome of the proceeding will then be subject to an appeal before the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, or to a collateral challenge in a United States District Court.
Perhaps the most notable instance of a continuing concurrent use registration is that of Holiday Inn. Although the national chain owns numerous trademark registrations, there is one registration for an unrelated "Holiday Inn" which is "restricted to the area comprising the town of Myrtle Beach, S.C.". The Myrtle Beach hotel had used that name since the 1940s, and initiated a concurrent use proceeding in 1970. While this proceeding was pending, the national chain commenced an action in the United States District Court. The concurrent use proceeding was suspended during the pendency of the federal litigation, which resulted in a judgment in 1973 authorizing the Myrtle Beach hotel to use a distinctive, noninfringing Holiday Inn service mark within the Town of Myrtle Beach. The concurrent use proceeding resumed, and in 1976, the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals awarded the Myrtle Beach hotel a federal trademark registration.
Even where a concurrent use registration is issued, the parties may eventually come to an agreement under which one party will surrender its registration. In some instances, a party will simply happen to cease using the mark in favor of a new brand name, and the registration will lapse. In other cases, the larger company will eventually acquire the smaller.
A final note is that concurrent use registration was devised before the advent of the Internet, which serves to diminish geographic distinctions between sellers. John L. Welch, a Harvard-educated attorney who writes a well-known blog on the proceedings of the TTAB, has noted that "vigorously contested proceedings may well make it clear that concurrent use registrations are, in this Internet Age, a dying breed".
References
Sources
Trademark Manual of Examining Procedure, § 1207.04, "Concurrent Use Registration".
Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Manual of Procedure, Chapter 1100, "Concurrent Use Proceedings".
United States trademark law
Trademark law |
4278960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nans%C5%8D%20Satomi%20Hakkenden | Nansō Satomi Hakkenden | Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (; ), commonly known as Satomi Hakkenden () or simply Hakkenden (), is a Japanese epic novel (yomihon) written and published over twenty-eight years (1814–42) in the Edo period, by Kyokutei Bakin. Set in the Muromachi period, the story follows the adventures and mishaps of eight fictional warriors born across the Kantō region, who gradually discover their shared origin as "spirit-children" of a Satomi princess and unite in Nansō as loyal defenders of her clan.
The novel, consisting of 98 chapters printed in a total of 106 booklets, is considered the largest novel in the history of Japanese Literature. Bakin, in his 70s by the time the work was completed, had gone blind before finishing the tale, and dictated the final parts to his daughter-in-law Michi Tokimura. Along with Ueda Akinari's Ugetsu Monogatari, it is considered a masterpiece of gesaku literature, and one of the classics of Japanese historical fiction.
The title Hakkenden has been translated as The Eight Dog Chronicles, Tale of Eight Dogs, or Biographies of Eight Dogs.
Synopsis
Hakkenden is a long, dense work told from multiple perspectives - described by translator Glynne Walley as "huge and unwieldy, almost comically so". However, it can be divided into three main arcs - a prologue leading up to the Dog Warriors' birth, the stories of the individual Dogs as they encounter one another, and a final war between the Satomi and their assembled foes. The latter segment is often excluded from modern abridged editions of the novel.
An Ill-Considered Jest [Chapters 1-14]
A battle at Shimōsa Province claims the lives of most of the Satomi clan. The young heir Yoshizane escapes to the neighbouring province of Awa, where two districts have recently been conquered by the tyrannical Sadakane. Lords Maro and Anzai of the other districts have met to plan action against Sadakane, but spurn Yoshizane's aid. He then encounters the loyalist samurai Takayoshi, and together they launch a rebellion which ousts Sadakane and places Yoshizane in control of his territories.
As the criminals are rounded up for execution, Sadakane's wife Tamazusa lays a curse on her captors: for Takayoshi who wished for her death, he shall die by the blade and have his family line come to an end. And for the ever-noble Satomi, his descendants shall become as depraved as dogs. Shortly after, Yoshizane rewards Takayoshi with stewardship of a castle, but seized by the curse he commits seppuku rather than profit from his liege's death. In his last moments he discovers that he has a son named Daisuke, who shall inherit his lands in his stead.
Yoshizane marries and has two children - a daughter named Fuse and a son named Jirotaro. However, Fuse is born weak and cries often. In response to their prayers, the spirit of En no Gyōja gifts Fuse a set of 108 prayer beads marked with the Eight Confucian Virtues which soothe her symptoms.
Years later, Yoshizane learns of a magnificent dog in his territory that was nursed by a wild tanuki after its mother's death - he purchases the animal as a family pet, naming it Yatsufusa ("Eight Bunches") after its distinctive peony-like markings.
When Fuse is seventeen, Lord Anzai (having previously absorbed the Maro lands) turns on the Satomi, besieging their castle and apparently killing Daisuke. Yoshizane jokingly offers Yatsufusa his daughter's hand in marriage if he would only bring him the man's head, and the next day he finds that this has come true. Despite recognising the curse at work, the Satomi reluctantly honour their word. Fuse and Yatsufusa retreat to a cave atop Mount To, but Fuse remains chaste and spends all her days meditating upon the Lotus Sutra. In time Yatsufasa learns enough from her readings to develop a moral compass, rejecting Tamazusa's will. The curse still takes effect even without Yatsufusa's participation, impregnating Fuse with his children; however, due to the dog's change of heart and the lack of any physical vector, the children manifest as bodiless spirits who carry the potential for nobility.
Daisuke, revealed to have been in hiding, attempts to redeem himself by climbing Mount To and shooting Yatsufusa dead. However, Fuse also suffers a mortal wound. Yoshizane arrives soon after, and the pair witness Fuse slit her stomach to release eight spirits. These spirits then flow into the eight large beads of her necklace - Filial Piety, Justice, Loyalty, Faith, Brotherhood, Benevolence, Wisdom and Etiquette - which snap off and scatter to the winds. In penance for his deeds, Daisuke becomes a monk; changing his name to Chudai, he takes up the remains of Fuse's necklace and sets off to find the missing beads and reassemble it.
Inception
Bakin performed his research for the novel by referencing war tales about the Satomi clan and the Hōjō clan such as Satomiki (里見記), Satomi Kyudaiki (里見九代記) and Hojo Godaiki (:ja:北条五代記). While the Shogenjikō Setsuyōshū attests the existence of a historical "Eight Dog Warriors" in service of the Satomi clan, their lives are not detailed, nor have they been found in any other known records of the time, making the veracity of their existence unclear. In the preface Bakin humorously claims that the true story of the Dog Warriors was revealed to him in a dream, but that he had forgotten most of the details by the time he wrote it down.
The narrative was heavily inspired by Chinese vernacular fiction, especially Water Margin, which had been translated and published in Japan at the beginning of the 18th century. The novel's inciting incident, where Satomi Yoshizane jokingly offers his daughter's hand in marriage to the family dog, is modelled after the tale of the dog Panhu from the Chinese In Search of the Supernatural, which is noted both by Bakin in the preface and by the characters in-story.
Themes
Hakkenden's main themes are loyalty, clan honor, Bushido, Confucianism, and Buddhist philosophy.
Bakin most frequently referred to Nansō Satomi Hakkenden's genre as Haishi (commonly translated as petty history, or people's history), a Chinese genre of vernacular historical fiction. Bakin often stated that the primary purpose of the novel was to encourage virtue and chastise vice, which was central to the novel's plots and character archetypes; likening himself to the authors of Haishi in that he used entertaining stories to entice less-educated readers, who would, in turn, be taught morals through allegory. As a work of gesaku, however, the novel also contains tacit social commentary, and often plays with traditional concepts relating to gender and morality.
Hakkenden translator Glynne Walley has argued that, while the novel's effort to teach morals is clearly present (as examined in his own treatise Good Dogs), Bakin's presentation of it as a moralist work was partly a result of societal stigma against samurai producing and consuming "low-brow" fiction. In Walley's view, scholarship of the novel often focuses overmuch on this aspect while ignoring its context as a commercial serial similar to modern superhero fiction - one that uses the protagonists' commitment to easily-understood virtues to thrill its audience with the sight of larger-than-life heroes triumphing over dastardly villains.
Publication History
Installments of Hakkenden followed an idiosyncratic naming pattern, with many volumes, booklets and individual chapters being divided into multiple sections (using the common 上 / 中 / 下 notation for opening, middle and conclusion). The ninth and final volume of the story developed multiple levels of subdivisions over the course of its release, becoming comparable in length to the first eight parts combined.
The first volume bears the reduced title Satomi Hakkenden on its cover, and the expanded Nansō Satomi Hakkenshiden on its endpaper (specifying the Tale of Eight Dog Warriors rather than Eight Dogs); it is also labelled , as opposed to the that might be expected.
Volume prefaces and colophons include advertisements for upcoming titles, medicines from Bakin's family pharmacy, and in later installments products from other manufacturers such as cosmetics.
Legacy
Although only a limited number of copies of the books themselves were printed, the tale was retold through various mediums, including oration and live performance, leading to its popularity among many social classes at the time. Kabuki plays based on Hakkenden were often performed, and ukiyo-e depicting kabuki actors playing the roles of eight warriors were also popular.
Hakkenden, and Bakin's work at large, maintained much of its popularity amongst common people throughout the 19th century, but drew some academic criticism in the Meiji era for its didacticism and one-dimensional characters, as novelists and scholars sought to modernize Japan's literary style. Notably, in literary reformer Tsubouchi Shōyō's influential book Essence of the Novel, published 1885–1886, Bakin is lauded for both his style and his role in popularizing novels, but imitation of Bakin's work is cited as a widespread problem among novelists of the time.
In the 20th century Hakkenden became a strong influence on manga works, particularly those based on adventure quests. For example it influenced Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball (1984) and Rumiko Takahashi's Inuyasha (1996), which both have plots about the collection of magical crystals or crystal balls, the latter also starring a human/dog hybrid similar in origin to the Dog Warriors.
Hakkenden would also shape common storytelling conventions of the JRPG genre; in addition to its emphasis on the dynamics of a growing party over the strength and agency of a lone hero (which has precedent in earlier tales like Momotarō), it popularised the idea of unaware heroes who learn of their destiny over the course of the story. An example of this influence can be found in Shin Megami Tensei: Digital Devil Saga (2004), where the characters unlock powers from their demonic heritage which both reflect their personalities and are accompanied by a distinguishing mark appearing on their bodies.
Literature
Teisō Fujo Hakkenshi (1834-1848)
Koi no Yatsufuji: Dansō Satomi Hakkenden (1837), a parody.
Setsubai Kōtan: Inu no Soushi (1848-1881) is a simplified gōkan edition of the novel by Ryuutei Senka.
Kanayomi Hakkenden (1848-1867), a competing gōkan edition of the novel.
Hakkenden Gojitsudan (1853-1857) - roughly "Hakkenden: The Sequel", a novel by one of the authors of Kanayomi Hakkenden which centres on the Dog Warrior's children and grandchildren.
Ninpō Hakkenden (1964), part of Futaro Yamada's Ninpōchō series, features descendants of the original Eight Dog Warriors.
Shin Satomi Hakkenden (1982) is a retelling of the story.
Hakkenden (1983) by Futaro Yamada, planned as the second entry in a "Hakkenden trilogy" begun by his earlier Ninpō Hakkenden.
Shōnen Hakkenden (1988, 2006)
Yōseiki Suikoden (1990-1995) features a group of antagonists called the "Habyōshi" (Eight Cat Warriors) modelled on the Hakkenshi.
Fusé Gansaku: Satomi Hakkenden (2010) by Kazuki Sakuraba, set during Hakkenden'''s publication, purports that Bakin based his story on an actual tribe of murderous werewolf-like beings called fuse, descendants of a Princess Fuse who willingly ran away with Yatsufusa and lived as an animal in order to escape her cruel family.
Television
Satomi Hakkenden (1964), produced by Fuji TV
Satomi Hakkenden (1964), produced by NET
Shin Hakkenden (1973), a puppet-based adaptation
Denshi Sentai Denjiman (1980), a series which established many conventions of the long-running Super Sentai franchise, is reported to have taken inspiration from Hakkenden. This includes replacing the unified taskforce protagonists of earlier installments with a team of strangers brought together by destiny.
Corrector Yui (1999) is a magical girl anime with motifs drawn from the 70s Shin Hakkenden series.
Shin Hakkenden (1999), an animated series distinguished from similarly-named adaptations by its spelling .
Fukaku Kugure: Hakkenden 2001 (2000)
Satomi Hakkenden (2006)
Hakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East (2013), a partial animated adaptation of the manga of the same name.
Film
Hakkenden (1913)
Satomi Hakkenden (1937)
Tonchinkan Hakkenden (1953)
Sorcerer's Orb (1954) - Japanese title "Satomi Hakkenden"
You'un Satomi Kaikyoden: Zengo-hen (1956)
Satomi hakken-den (1959)
Message from Space (1978), which transplants the story to space opera
Legend of the Eight Samurai (1983), an adaptation of the novel Shin Satomi Hakkenden and in Japan titled simply "Satomi Hakkenden".
The Hakkenden (1990), an OVA.
Fuse Teppō Musume no Torimonochō (2012), an animated adaptation of Fusé Gansaku: Satomi Hakkenden which mixes the horror stylings of the 2010 novel with elements of the original Hakkenden in order to recast it as a supernatural romance.
Wolf Children (2012) is the story of a human/wolf couple modelled after Fuse and Yatsufusa, also featuring a number of supporting characters named after the Dog Warriors or their corresponding virtues.
Saber + Zenkaiger: Super Hero Senki (2021) features characters from the Kamen Rider and Super Sentai franchises becoming trapped in the story of Hakkenden.
Theatre
The novel has also been adapted into kabuki theatre several times.
In August 2006, the Kabuki-za staged a performance.
Comic Books
Dragon Ball (1984) uses Fuse's beads as the basis of the titular Dragon Balls, a collection of seven crystal spheres with different markings which can be brought together to summon a wish-granting dragon. After use, the balls scatter in a manner similar to the scene of the Dog Warriors' birth.
Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (1985) by Motoyama Hazuki
Hakkenden (1989-2005)
MANGA Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (1991-1992)
X (1992) took inspiration from Hakkenden for its ensemble cast, consisting of characters from creator CLAMP's previous works.
Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (1993)
Yatsufusa Koi Shou (1994) by Shinohara Udou
Hakkenden: Eight Dogs of the East (2005) is a shoujo manga based on the story.
Hakkenshi (2005), a work by Okamura Kenji focused on the character of Inuzuka Shino.
Sengoku Satomi Hakkenden: Episode Zero (2009) by Tatsuya Egawa.
Manga de yomu: Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (2015), focused on the character of Inue Shinbei.
Eight Dogs (2016) is a comic based on the unofficial sequel novel Ninpō Hakkenden, published in Comic Ran Twins.
Video Games
Yōma Ninpōchō (1986) is an arcade shooter game inspired by the 1983 Shin Satomi Hakkenden film.
Idol Hakkenden (1989), a visual novel for the Famicom where eight idol singers assemble in a similar manner to the Dog Warriors.
Makai Hakkenden Shada (1989), an action RPG for the PC Engine with gameplay similar to the Ys series, developed by Data East.
Satomi Hakkenden (1989), a role-playing game for the Famicom developed by Alpha Denshi and published by SNK.
Shin Satomi Hakkenden: Hikari to Yami no Tatakai (1989), a role-playing game for the Famicom developed by Micronics and published by Toei, based on the 1982 novel Shin Satomi Hakkenden and its film adaptation. It features the gimmick of allowing the player to start as any one of the Eight Dog Warriors in different locations across the map, with the goal of eventually uniting the entire party.
Romancing SaGa (1992) features a nonlinear story of eight player characters who exist in the same world, the number being chosen in reference to the similar storytelling of Hakkenden.
Ōkami (2006) features a story arc in which the player character is recruited by a woman named Fuse to collect the "Satomi Power Orbs" from eight trained dogs who serve her family.
In Fate/Grand Order the novel forms the basis of the Jun/July 2022 event Nanmei Yumihari Hakkenden, starring a Kyokutei Bakin who became a Heroic Spirit with powers based on elements of his magnum opus.
Translations
A complete reprinting in ten volumes is available in the original Japanese, as well as various modern Japanese translations, most of them abridged. Only a few chapters have been translated into English, Chapter 25 by Donald Keene, and Chapters 12, 13, and 19 by Chris Drake.
In 2021 the first volume of an intended complete translation (Glynne Walley's Eight Dogs, or "Hakkenden" Part One – An Ill-Considered Jest) was published by Cornell University Press, consisting of the first fourteen chapters of the story (spanning the original Volume 1 and part of Volume 2). A second volume, His Master's Blade, is in production.
See also
Jiraiya
Murasame
Sanada Ten Braves
Seven Samurai Water Margin ("Suikoden")
References
Citations
Works cited
Kyokutei Bakin (1819) "Shino and Hamaji". In Keene, Donald (Ed.) ([1955] 1960) Anthology of Japanese Literature: from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century, pp. 423–428. New York, NY: Grove Press.
Kyokutei Bakin (1819) "Fusehime at Toyama Cave," "Fusehime's Decision," "Shino in Otsuka Village," "Hamaji and Shino". Translated by Chris Drake in Haruo Shirane (Ed.) (2002) Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology 1600–1900'', pp. 885–909. New York: Columbia University Press.
Further reading
External links
Original text of Nansō Satomi Hakkenden, first 30 chapters as of 2006 (Japanese)
The Hakkenden Hakuryu-Tei website and the complete Japanese version
The Legend of the Eight Samurai Hounds, English translation in progress since September 2015
19th-century Japanese novels
Edo-period works
Japanese novels adapted into plays
Japanese serial novels
Japanese novels adapted into films |
4279040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20Travis | Walter Travis | Walter J. Travis (January 10, 1862 – July 31, 1927) was an American amateur golfer during the early 1900s. He was also a noted golf journalist and publisher, an innovator in all aspects of golf, a teacher, and golf course architect.
Golfing career
Travis was born in Maldon, Australia. He arrived in New York City in 1886 as a 23-year-old representative of the Australian-based McLean Brothers and Rigg exporters of hardware and construction products. Travis married Anne Bent of Middleton, Connecticut, on January 9, 1890, and later that year, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Shortly after their wedding, Travis and his wife moved into their new home in Flushing, New York, where they would live until their move to Garden City, on Long Island, in 1900.
In 1896, while traveling in England, Travis learned that his Niantic Club friends of Flushing, New York, were intent on creating a new golf club. He was scornful of the idea but, wishing to keep up with his friends, he purchased a set of golf clubs to take with him on his return to the United States. As he said, "I first knelt at the shrine of the Goddess of Golf" in October 1896 on the Oakland links, just three months before his 35th birthday. Within a month of hitting his first golf shot, Travis earned his first trophy by winning the Oakland Golf Club handicap competition. Travis became, in his words, "an infatuated devotee" of the game. He dedicated himself to the study of instructional books written by Horace Hutchinson, Willie Park, Jr., and others. He practiced relentlessly. Within a year, Travis won the Oakland Golf Club championship with a score of 82.
In 1898, Travis entered his first U.S. Amateur and lost to Findlay S. Douglas in the semi-final match. By this time, he had caught the attention and respect of fellow competitors and, because of his late start in the game, Travis was respectfully referred to as "The Old Man" or "The Grand Old Man". Driven by his intense and compulsive dedication to the game, Travis was soon the country's top amateur golfer, winning the U.S. Amateur in 1900, 1901, and 1903. In 1904, he became the first player from America to win the British Amateur, a feat that would not be duplicated for another 22 years even with "wholesale assaults and single attempts to duplicate" his feat by great amateur golfers such as Jerome Travers, Francis Ouimet, and Bobby Jones. The news of Travis's British victory sparked a surge of interest in the game of golf throughout the United States.
In 1904, champion British golfer Harold Hilton described Travis: "In style, the American champion is essentially what may be termed a made golfer, for his is a style which by the wildest stretch of imagination could not be called ornate. Still, it boasts useful attributes; it is business-like and determined, and is one in which no energy is wasted. Like all golfers who really scored a success at the game, he keeps the right elbow well in to the right side, holding the hands very low, like Messrs. Hutchings, Fry and G. F. Smith—three of the best examples of golfers who have risen to eminence while lacking the advantage of playing the game in their youth. The swing of the club is not long—in fact, it might be termed a three-quarter swing—but it is sufficient to get a free action with the wrist, and although Mr. Travis does not obtain an abnormal carry, he nevertheless gets a long roll on the ball, and against the wind in particular he is beyond the average as a driver, especially as he appears to have mastered the art of the scientific hooking."
Among his other major victories as an amateur golfer were the following: Three North and South Amateurs at Pinehurst, and four Metropolitan Golf Association Championships. When Travis won his fourth MGA Championship, in 1915, at the age of 53, he beat 28-year-old Jerome Travers in the final match. Just the year before, Travers had eliminated Travis in the semi-finals of the U.S. Amateur. With declining health diminishing his skills, Travis announced his retirement from competitive golf in 1916.
Overall, "Travis competed in 17 consecutive U.S. Amateurs from 1898 to 1914, compiling a 45-14 record, earning medalist honors three consecutive years (1900-02), and losing to the eventual champion on five occasions. He competed in six U.S. Opens between 1902 and 1912 and was low amateur five times and tied for third low amateur the other." Travis placed second in the 1902 U.S. Open Championship.
In the January 28, 1922 issue of The American Golfer, the following response was given to a query about "How many tournaments Mr. Travis has won, counting in every variety?":
"Our opinion is that Mr. Travis has won more low gross, low net and open tourneys than any other living golfer. He was practically unbeatable for a stretch of six years from 1898 to 1904 during which time he played in double or triple the number of events entered by either John Ball or Chick Evans. A guess at the number of his trophies would place it over five hundred and perhaps nearer to a thousand. In 1901, Travis was national champion and in 1915 he was again the Metropolitan champion. His southern victories were numerous."
In a 1927 Golf Illustrated article, titled "The Figures Prove It", author John Kofoed offered the following match-play records of noted amateur players in major events:
(Source):
"% Won" figures added to the Kofoed data.
Tournament wins
"This list does not include Travis's countless victories in noted club invitationals or championships, such as his 9 wins in the Garden City Golf Club's Spring Invitational that is now known as the Travis Memorial, nor his countless victories at Lakewood CC's Spring and Fall tourneys that attracted a large field of golfers from the metropolitan area.
1900 U.S. Amateur, Metropolitan Amateur
1901 U.S. Amateur
1902 Metropolitan Amateur
1903 U.S. Amateur
1904 The Amateur Championship, North and South Amateur
1906 South Florida Open
1909 Metropolitan Amateur
1910 North and South Amateur
1911 North and South Amateur
1912 North and South Amateur
1913 North and South Amateur
1913 Cuban Amateur
1913 South Florida Open Low Amateur
1914 Cuban Amateur
1914 South Florida Open Low Amateur
1914 Metropolitan Amateur
1915 Southern Florida Low Amateur
1916 Southern Florida Low Amateur
Major championships
Amateur wins (4)
Results timeline
Travis did not play in the Masters Tournament (not founded until 1934) or the PGA Championship (professionals only).
M = Medalist
LA = Low amateur
DNP = Did not play
WD = Withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place
R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in match play
Green background for wins. Yellow background for top-10
Sources: U.S. Open and U.S. Amateur, 1904 Open Championship, 1904 Amateur Championship
Contributions to golf
Travis was a prolific writer who wrote extensively on a variety of golf topics, and was published in the leading sports magazines of the time. His first book, Practical Golf, published in 1901, received rave reviews from The New York Times (6/14/1901) for its depth, thoroughness, and clarity as a reference book. Practical Golf dealt with a variety of topics, including golfing techniques, golf equipment, construction of golf courses, the design and placement of hazards, rules of golf, and conduct of golf competitions. His chapter on "Handicapping" was first published in the July 1901 issue of Golf, and described as "the authoritative treatise on handicapping" of its era. A second book, The Art of Putting, was released in 1904.
In 1908, Travis founded and published The American Golfer magazine. The American Golfer was widely regarded as the most influential golf magazine of its time. Travis, and other authors, used it as an effective voice for their views. Travis stayed at the helm of "The American Golfer" as editor until he turned it over to Grantland Rice in the spring of 1920, and severed his connection with the magazine by the end of 1920.
Travis was not hesitant about trying new equipment in his efforts to improve his game. He was the first to win a major event using the Haskell rubber-cored golf ball—the 1901 U.S. Amateur. As reported in the Travis biography, "The Old Man", Travis had "dabbled with predecessors of the Haskell ball, but kept his involvement under wraps until shortly before the tournament" and he "had developed a feel for this type of ball with practice and was not afraid to debut it at the championship". As Labbance reports, "Travis's bold move had not only prompted a change in golf balls but a change in golf as well". It sounded the death knell for the gutta-percha ball, created the need for inserts in the face of wooden clubs to prevent splitting, and soon led to calls for the lengthening of golf courses due to the longer shots made possible by the Haskell.
Travis was innovative in his approach to golf course design. In a Practical Golf chapter on hazards, Travis was critical of the ubiquitous and, to him, unappealing cross-bunkers that stretched all the way across the fairway at predictable intervals. Rather, he argued for more strategically and visually appealing bunkers placed along the edges of fairways, stating, "Hazards arranged somewhat upon the lines indicated, rather than slavishly following the system adopted on the great majority of our courses, would, I think, make the game vastly more interesting, and more provocative of better golf all around."
Many other innovative steps were taken by Travis throughout his career. His use of the Schenectady center-shafted putter in his British Amateur victory attracted considerable comment and controversy. Some six years later, the Royal and Ancient would issue a ban on all mallet-headed putters, including the Schenectady. Travis conducted careful experiments with varying lengths of driver shafts, often using a driver with a shaft as long as 50 inches in his search for greater distance off the tee. At his home course, Garden City Golf Club, Travis installed smaller sized cups on the practice green to help hone the accuracy of his putting.
Though he was innovative with his equipment, and practiced incessantly, Travis disdained the notion of physical training after his first trial of abstaining from smoking and drinking during an 1897 tournament. He reported that he "putted like a baby", and would never again depart from his usual habits.
Throughout his career as a journalist, Travis produced numerous comprehensive and detailed golf instructional essays. Given the reputation he earned as an outstanding putter, it was natural that many of his articles dealt with his well-proven principles of putting. In one of his earliest articles, Travis wrote "The sum of it all is, that my experience shows conclusively that the really good putter is largely born, not made, and is inherently endowed with a good eye and a tactile delicacy of grip which are denied the ordinary run of mortals. At the same time, less favored players may, by the adoption of methods which stood the test of actual experience, materially improve their game." His effectiveness as an instructor was demonstrated in the following example:
In 1916, while observing a 14-year-old Bobby Jones, Travis is reported to have commented that Jones' putting methods were "faulty". There are accounts that suggest that young Jones held Travis in high esteem and eagerly agreed to meet Travis the following morning at 8 am for a putting lesson. Unfortunately, Jones and his party awoke late and were over an hour behind schedule. When they arrived, Travis had left. The lesson did not occur until years later, when Travis suggested a change in Jones's grip, altered his stance and recommended a longer and more sweeping stroke. A key point was to try to "drive an imaginary tack into the back of the ball". There are some who have expressed the opinion that the Travis putting lesson helped Jones to become one of the great putters of all time.
The Schenectady Putter
The Schenectady Putter and Walter Travis will be linked together forever in the history of golf. The Schenectady Putter was invented by Arthur F. Knight, a General Electric engineer, who created a model reflecting his ideas in the summer of 1902 at his home course, Mohawk Golf Club in Schenectady, NY. It is noteworthy that Devereux Emmet, the designer of Mohawk Golf Club, was the first golfer of note to be shown Mr. Knight's new aluminum putter while he was visiting Mohawk. Emmet asked to take the putter with him back to his home course, Garden City Golf Club, where he proposed to "play with it, show it at Garden City and at Myopia and will then send it back to you". It is reported that "A day or two later Mr. Knight received a telegram from Mr. W. J. Travis ordering a putter like Mr. Emmet's, and one was hurriedly made and forwarded". Later, a second putter was sent to Travis which was declared "the best putter I have ever used." Travis used this putter to finish second in the U.S. Open Championship held at Garden City Golf Club. "Within a week thereafter, Mr. Knight received over one hundred letters from prominent golfers asking for a putter like Mr. Travis's". Knight was not prepared for such a response and was particularly concerned about what to call it. It is reported that he was "anxious to call it the 'Travis' putter'." He arranged a meeting with Mr. Emmet and Mr. Travis. Emmet had consistently referred to it as the "Schenectady Putter" and Travis agreed that Schenectady would be "a more suitable and lasting name for the putter than his own, in which view Mr. Knight rather reluctantly concurred." After his initial success with the Schenectady Putter in 1902, Travis used the putter to win the 1903 U.S. Amateur and then, of course, the 1904 British Amateur. The putter became an instant commercial success.
Schenectady putters, marked "Patent Applied For", were produced prior to its patent on March 24, 1903. The Schenectady Putter was among the "centered-shafted, mallet-headed implements" that were banned by Royal and Ancient Golf Club Committee on the Rules of golf in 1910, in response to a request from a golf club in New Zealand. The R&A's ban included the Schenectady Putter. There is no evidence that Travis's use of the Schenectady to win the 1904 British Amateur contributed to this controversial ruling, though the myth persists. The ruling became controversial because, for the first time, an R&A ruling was not wholly adopted by the United States Golf Association. The USGA agreed with the banning of mallet-headed clubs but ruled that the Schenectady Putter, and other center-shafted putters did not fall within this category. The R&A ban on center-shafted putters was finally removed in 1951.
Long after he had retired from active competition, Travis agreed to a match with an old opponent, Findlay S. Douglas, to support the war effort of the Red Cross. The match was held at Garden City Golf Club. Following the match, Travis donated his Schenectady Putter to the Red Cross fund-raising auction. A member of Garden City Golf Club, Lewis Lapham, had the winning bid of $1,700 and immediately donated the Schenectady to Garden City Golf Club where it would remain for the next 34 years. In 1952, it was taken from the club, and never returned.
Golf course design
Travis became a student of the layout and design features of golf courses early in his golfing career as the result of trips to Great Britain. In late 1901, Travis wrote an article, published in the Bulletin of the USGA, titled, "Impressions of British Golf". He observed that in "England and Scotland ... you have golf—golf in its best and highest form". He referred to the "radical difference in their physical configurations in relation to our courses." He was impressed with the lack of trees, the number and placement of bunkers, the natural undulations of the greens, and the quality of turf. In a later article, Travis presented his ideas for the design of a "first class" golf course. In this article, Travis emphasized the importance of soil that provides natural drainage, land that is more or less undulating—neither flat nor hilly ... but a judicious blending of the two extremes and trees of any kind are non-existent—as they should be, and holes should be so laid out as to provide for the playing of every conceivable sort of stroke, with every club in one's bag. He noted, diversity of play should be the aim of the architect of a first-class course.
Some have characterized Travis as a "penal designer". However, a careful study of his writings leads to the conclusion that he was a firm believer in "thinking" and "strategic" golf; with the golfer given opportunities to avoid difficulty with well-considered and executed shots.
Travis's first project as a golf course architect was his collaboration with John Duncan Dunn in the 1899 design of Ekwanok Country Club in Vermont. However, much of Travis's early acclaim and notoriety as a golf course designer may be traced to his extensive remodeling of the Garden City Golf Club's Devereux Emmet course, that was unveiled when Garden City Golf Club hosted the 1908 U.S. Amateur Championship. In all, nearly 50 golf courses bear his mark, either as an original design, or as a remodeling project. Other Travis-designed courses that still exist include: Camden Country Club, Cape Arundel Golf Club, Country Club of Scranton, Country Club of Troy, Cherry Hill Club, Garden City Country Club, East Potomac Golf Links, Granliden on Sunapee (9 holes), Jekyll Island Golf Club (Great Dunes), Lochmoor Club (assisted John Sweeney), Lookout Point Country Club, North Jersey Country Club, Onondaga Golf and Country Club, Orchard Park Country Club, Pennhills Club, Round Hill Club, Stafford Country Club, The Golf Club at Equinox, Westchester Country Club (West, South and Short courses), White Beeches Golf & Country Club, and Yahnundasis Golf Club.
Noted courses that were extensively redesigned by Travis include: Canoe Brook Country Club (North Course), Columbia Country Club (with Harban and White), Grand Mere Golf Club in Quebec, Country Club of Buffalo (now Grover Cleveland Golf Course), Sunningdale Country Club, Lakewood Country Club, Country Club of New Canaan, Louisville Country Club, Poland Spring Golf Club, Stamford Golf club, and Westchester Hills Golf Club. Through consultations, he influenced the design of: Pinehurst No. 2, National Golf Links of America, Pine Valley Golf Club, and Cobbs Creek Muni. Through Travis's consultations with the original designers, several noted courses reflect his influence, including Pine Valley Golf Club, National Golf Links of America, and Pinehurst No. 2. Following his restoration of Hollywood Golf Club in 2021, golf architect Brian Schneider presented Walter Travis design elements in this interview.
Travis could lay claim to being the first "U.S. Open Doctor" with his remodeling of the Country Club of Buffalo and Columbia Country Club courses just prior to their hosting the U.S. Open in 1912 and 1921, respectively. Travis remained active as a designer to the end, making a last visit to inspect the construction of his course at the Country Club of Troy a month before his death on July 31, 1927.
Death and legacy
Travis died in Denver, Colorado on July 31, 1927. His induction into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1979 was in recognition of his legacy as the first three-time champion in the U.S. Amateur Championship and the first non-Brit to win the British Amateur Championship. His willingness to experiment led to landmark changes in the landscape of golf equipment, especially his use of the Haskell golf ball to win the 1901 U.S. Amateur Championship. His most enduring legacy may be the many premier golf courses he designed or remodelled throughout his career. Four Travis-designed or redesigned courses are regularly included in Golfweek's rankings of America's top 100 "Classic" courses: Country Club of Scranton, Ekwanok Country Club (assisted John Duncan Dunn), Westchester Country Club's West course, Hollywood Golf Club (redesigned Mackie's work), and Garden City Golf Club (remodeled Emmet's work).
In 2019, Travis was inducted into the New York State Golf Association's Hall of Fame.
In 1999, Golf World magazine ranked Travis second in its Top Ten List of Underrated Golf Course Architects''.
References
External links
The Walter J. Travis Society
Australian male golfers
American male golfers
Amateur golfers
Golf course architects
World Golf Hall of Fame inductees
Golfers from New York (state)
Emigrants from the British Empire to the United States
People from Maldon, Victoria
1862 births
1927 deaths
Sportsmen from Victoria (state) |
4279132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc%20the%20Lad%20III | Arc the Lad III | Arc the Lad III is a tactical role-playing video game developed by ARC Entertainment and published by Sony Computer Entertainment exclusively for the PlayStation.
Gameplay
The gameplay moves away from the more tactical aspects present in its predecessors, more like that of Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest. The battles have been scaled down as well as making the party size 4 rather than 5 and the battles get a new card-based summoning system.
Plot
This story starts years after the Great Disaster (the global disasters from Arc the Lad II), on the island of Eteru. Alec, a young man from a small farm town, Sasha Village, aspires to become a Hunter, just like the man who saved him during the Great Disaster. When his village is attacked by bandits, he and his quirky friend Lutz must run to the nearest town, Itio, and hire a Hunter to save the village. On the way to the town, they encounter monsters and realize they get a rush when fighting and also feeling a power within themselves. After the village is saved, Alec decides to leave and become a Hunter; Lutz naturally tags along.
To become a Hunter, Alec must collect the Ghost Dream Crystal in a nearby cave. With Lutz's help, Alec finds the crystal and officially becomes a Hunter. After taking enough jobs, Alec and Lutz eventually take on a job that lets them leave Eteru Island. A boat takes them to the next continent, Forestamore. There they meet Theo, a young Cardist who can turn monsters into cards like his mother. He joins them and together they meet Lieza (from Arc the Lad II), who is now running a monster ranch with Paundit. They also encounter Sharon, a woman from the Academy, who can control monsters with a machine. With Lieza's help, the trio rides a Flying Fire to their next destination, North Sularto.
Upon landing in North Sularto, they meet a spunky gunslinger named Cheryl. They also take note of how destroyed North Sularto became from the Great Disaster, having landed in a giant junk heap. Making their way to Society Village, a town dedicated to restoring the world, Alec completes his job by delivering a strange orb found back in Forestamore. The trio then heads to Gislem, a notoriously poor and equally dangerous city. It seems the Academy has been kidnapping people and it appears Shu (from Arc the Lad II) is helping. After a failed attempt of the kidnapping of Cheryl, Cheryl joins the party. A path to South Sularto opens up.
After taking some jobs in Testa, the group meets Tosh, the protector of the city and its precious Water Orb (Tosh being from Arc the Lad). The Academy steals the Orb from the village and Tosh, shocked from seeing his friend Shu with the enemies, decides to join Alec and crew and get back the Orb. Because of the lack of water in the desert town of Testa, the villagers travel to Gislem, where they temporarily live.
Learning that a secret Academy base is hidden in an old airship, the group makes their way inside, only to find it crawling with enemy robots. Halfway through, the group finds Shu, who reveals that he was really trying to infiltrate the Academy's plans. Having taken the Orb, Tosh returns to Testa and Shu joins Alec to get to the bottom of this. After defeating an Academy employee in a giant robot, Shu leaves the group.
Afterwards, a new job opens up: Society Village needs to deliver information to the giant library in Jiharta. Taking the job, Alec and his friends take a boat to Jiharta. They quickly learn of an uproar in the Hunter's Guild and investigate: someone has stolen a water controlling scroll from the nearby Amaidar Temple. After speaking to Iga (Arc the Lad character), the party and Marsia, a young spellcaster from the Spell Institute who knows the thief personally, discover the thief, Tikva, is working for the Academy.
Alec and his party find the Academy and Tikva at the Romastor, conducting a water controlling experiment with the scroll and some machinery. After the experiment, the Academy members dismiss Tikva, who becomes angry at not being recognized as helpful. Galdo, a spear wielding Academy member previously seen in the secret base, was watching the experiment and now intervenes. Alec and crew attack, surprising Galdo that they can even scratch him. He teleports away and Tikva is taken bake to Amaidar Temple. As punishment, Iga forcesg him to join the temple and become a monk, much to the surprise of everyone. Marsia then decides to join Alec on his adventure.
After settling a few jobs in Jiharta, Iga then wish to deliver a letter to his friend named Leshalt in Parute, which makes Alec and crew had to cross the ocean again. In Parute, they came across the main city, Paltos, and learned that an annual tournament's opening ceremony was commencing. The first prize of the tournament being a goddess statue attached with an Aura stone. It appears that the Academy had set a base there too, with Sharon in charge. After the opening ceremony, Alec found Leshalt and consult him about the Academy. After making a promise that he'll help in any way he can, Leshalt send the team back, only to bump into his grumpy brother, Velhart, who was arguably the best swordsman in Parute and second the best warrior only to Gruga of Brakia (the same from Arc the Lad II).
After some time pass, a job order came from the committee of the tournament. It is to safeguard the prize kept inside a nobleman's house in Parute city. As predicted, the Academy did come and wish to snatch the prize. A battle ensues and Alec emerges victorious. The chairman of the committee is none other than Gruga himself, after taking advice from Leshalkt to keep the statue in the Rochefort's manor and had Alec's party to guard it. Not long after the incident, a job came from Leshalt in order to ask Alec to safeguard the Aura stone on the statue and keep it in the safe beneath the item society building. Then Leshalt told Alec that he might know who's the mastermind behind the academy. It appears that it was his old colleague from the time of the disaster. After Alec and his party leave the house, the Professor (leader of the academy), whose name later revealed to be Ludwig, and Sharon enter Leshalt's retreat. The professor's trying to ask Leshalt to join his cause, which he decline. He then go as far as to detain Leshalt as he would be an obstacle for his goal.
Back in the city, Alec is trying to convince Gruga to handing him the prize. But Gruga told Alec that he should win the tournament to get the prize and enlist him in the battle. Much to their surprise, Velhart suddenly ask for admittance of the tournament as a participant. Seeing how Velhart used to say that he won't participate without Gruga in the line makes Alec and his friend curious about the sudden change of heart. In the tournament, Alec battles a lot of worthy opponent, starting from Leegle, a hunter he asked to protect his village from bandits at the beginning of the story, to Velhart, as the best swordsman in Parute, and eventually won all the matches.
When the prize was about to be given to Alec, Velhart suddenly snatches the statue and run away. Alec and crew pursue him only to see that Velhart has aligned himself with the academy. They followed Velhart to the academy's headquarter in Parute desert. Upon reaching there, they learn that Velhart is actually trying to steal the goddess statue to save his brother Leshalt from the academy's captive. They set to double the aura stone Velhart brought, and the process was halted by Leshalt, which causes him to be killed by Seville of the Academy. Enraged by his brother's murder, Velhart join forces with Alec to chase off the Professor only to find out he had escaped.
After much depression and sorrow, Velhart buries his brother in the lot by his retreat and set off for the rest of the journey with Alec. The aura stone is then secured and brought to the item society's safe as Leshalt wished. Moments after, the Guildmaster send a word through his manager that he wishes to meet Alec. He order Alec and his crews to find the Academy's headquarters in a place called Ragnark, which is known as Romalia till the disaster. Using the hovercraft found in the Cariote cave sealed by the guild itself, they travel to Ragnark.
As was told, Ragnark used to be the source of the Great Disaster when it was still called Romalia. Alec and his crews arrive at Ragnark and infiltrate the city of Felator in order to find clues about the headquarters. After stealing a lab coat from a resting scientist, Alec sneak into the branch building of Academy and found out that the chief was Sharon. He overheard Sharon and Seville talking about a mysterious energy reading from what they had been researching and she require an escort to headquarter. Alec and his crews followed her through the White Bone Forest and Midoro Swamp to the main building of the Academy located north of Felator. There, they saw a melting alloy gate and Marsia presumes that someone is using an unbelievably powerful ignition technology, since she herself is unable to melt an alloy that thick. They are then confronted by the guards and accidentally learned that they are not the only intruders in the facility.
As they battle their way to the top of the building where the Professor, Sharon and Seville is, they are halted by the Fear Crimson, a fusion of a dragon and machine. Seville refers that it was their crown creation and was perfected due to the help by a cardist they captured in Forestamore, which is none other than Theo's mother herself. When asked where is she, Seville implied that on the day Fear Crimson was perfected, she just died. He then lock the team in for a battle with the abominable machine. Though Alec's team emerges victorious, the Fear Crimson then set itself to self-destruct and is about to catch the team in the explosion, when Elc's timely arrival and his Flame Shield prevented that. The Professor, Lugwig and Sharon argued over whatever or not to continue with harassing the power source locked away within the lake. Elc takes Alec up to the roof where they confront the Professor and Sharon. Ludwig used Sharon as a shield against Elc so he couldn't unleash his Fire Power at him. From the roof, they witness the revival of the Sky Castle as the lake's was being vaporized.
Upon seeing the desecrated town beneath the vaporizing lake, Alec's memory recall the past where the moment he was saved by a hunter in the fire. It was in Romalia. When thinking a way to get to the Sky Castle, he spots saw the Hien by the bottom of the lake. Elc decided to stay by the Hien to start repairing the airship so it can be used to fly to the Sky Castle. Meanwhile, Elc ask Alec to report to the Guildmaster and suggest that Alec go find Gogen the magic master to find a way to re-seal the Dark One as he predicted that the Academy will at least managed to release the Dark One.
At the guild, The Guildmaster promotes Alec to a hunter of a status like Elc and Shu, which act directly under the essentials of the guild. After being promoted, Alec directs the guild to find Gogen. He is then discovered to be residing in an ancient ruin in a cape in Jiharta. After passing several riddles and tricks made by Gogen, they meet the old man himself and by their surprise, hearing him said that the Dark One can't be re-sealed, as the ark was destroyed by Andel and the lineage of Bravery and Goddess (respectively Arc and Kukuru) has expire. An idea cross by Lutz mind to create a new ark, and is heavily rejected by Gogen since it is an impossible task for men. But the team made their commitment to save the world therefore made Gogen tell them how to craft a new ark. It was told to be made of Eternal Steel, Eternal Tree, Eternal Ice and Eternal Flame. After that, one must be blessed by the guardians before the ark could be created. So the team set off to the guild master to learn the whereabouts of those four sacred relic.
The first to be found was Eternal Steel, since it is somewhere in Parute. They search the Cariote cave but found nothing. The next place to go will be the Museum in Paltos, since there is a lot of ancient weapons and armors displayed there. The clerk in the Museum told them that none of the weapons or armors of display was made by a material that ancient, but he points them to a clue of someone who might wield a weapon that ancient. It is Matheus, a master swordsman of the old time. The clerk told the team a story in which the undefeated Matheus was cheated by a fellow fighter to take the Great Mystic Sword for himself. He then point them to the old battle arena, which reside in the Digarta Wilds, to meet the Ghost of the cheating warrior, since he was unsatisfied for winning by cheating and haunts the arena with guilt and lust for power. Since Velhart is the best swordsman known in Parute, he challenged him over the Great Mystic Sword. But the Ghost Warrior is more than a match to Velhart and beat him almost single-handedly. After considering what lacks of Velhart, they pay Gruga a visit to consult the matter. Gruga tell Velhart that all he need to do is to change his point of view, which Velhart take as an insult. He then point Velhart to some "strong-willed" people that might help him. Starting from the arena host, that has been practicing for his ability, to Raia, the receptionist girl of the arena, which has a large passion to be a world-class singer. Alec's team then confronted by Shante, which came all the way from Eteru isle to fetch Raia for her bar. She then ask Velhart if he has corrected his point of view. Velhart then realized that the Ghost Warrior was the same as he was being, hungry for more power and glory. After correcting his point of view and his judgment, he once again challenged the Ghost Warrior and emerged victorious. Velhart then receive fragments of Eternal Steel after laying the Warrior's spirit to rest.
The second to be found is the Eternal Tree, which is in the temple ruin where Theo receive his power as a cardist. After arriving at the temple, they are once again confronted by the spirit of Nol and confirmed that the temple did house the Eternal Tree, though only the roots remain. After they succeeded in calming the guardian of the temple with the help of Lieza, her monsters and Poco, they head into the depth of the earth to search for the relic. On their way, Theo heard a cry for help from a seedling monster and decided to help him. The monster then said that he's a part of the "Mother's Tree". With the guidance of the seedling, they reach the Eternal Tree's root only to find it was badly decomposed and was eaten by Rootybus, a centipede-like monster that has an extremely strong regenerative technique. Proving impossible to beat it in the current state, the team withdraw for the moment. While thinking of a way to stop its regenerative ability, the seedling monster asked Theo to cardish him as he say that he has the power to stop Rootybus' regenerative ability. When Theo replied that once he used his card he will die, the seedling said that he can't die, for he is eternal. Having faith to that, Theo cardished the little monster and used him at Rootybus, which caused him to change shape into a scorpion-like monster. That made his regenerative ability rendered useless and the team make a short work of it. As they wonder if the roots will be enough to use, Theo searched for the little monster and found a seed on the floor. Recalling the little monster's word, Theo hurried to the surface and planted the seed. The seed grows into a giant tree in a matter of seconds and bear fruits similar to the shape of the seedling monster. The tree shed a branch for Theo and they receive the Eternal Tree's branch at last.
The third item was the Eternal Ice, which is said to be located in Jiharta. Alec's team reach Jiharta by hovercraft and head straight to the Amaidar Temple to consult Iga concerning the matter. Iga told the youngster that the Eternal Ice might be located in a place called the Ice Gallery, where the cavern is always frozen while the rest of Jiharta is warm. The team head into the Gallery and find a solid ice-made wall at the end of gallery. Each of them try their weapons on the wall and not even a scratch was found on it. When Marsia tried her Heat Shell spell, it won't even melt. So they decided to go to the magic institute in Rushart to ask Salubari of any magic strong enough to break it. As they turn their back, a pair of glowing red eyes was seen to watch them from behind the ice wall. At the institute, Salubari told them that their only chance was the Giga Plasma spell, the strongest spell known to the magic masters. In order to master the spell, one must have the essence of all the elements and beat the elemental wizards. Feeling unconfident of herself, Marsia decided to ask Sania (from Arc the Lad II) in Paysus city to replace her in learning Giga Plasma. When they set to find Master Harzan of Amaidar who knows about the location of Light and Dark wizard, they was told by Tikva that he is training on top of Mount Amaidar. But in fact, The Light and Dark wizard was actually one wizard with mastery of both elements and has died for sometimes without a successor. Tikva set to be the wizard with the help of Harzan and Iga, as he has the potential to be one. This makes Marsia realize how many people are willing to sacrifice for her and decided to face the wizards herself. At the institute, the elemental wizards have been assembled by Salubari takes Marsia's challenge by full force and eventually beaten by Marsia. As they leave the room, Tikva stormed in and ask Marsia for an immediate battle, which Marsia won over. After beating all the elemental wizards, Marsia receive the Giga Plasma as her new collection of spells, and use it to destroy the Ice Wall. But by destroying the Ice wall, they released an ancient creature guarding the Gallery known as the Cliff Giant. Capable of creating ice golems and summon massive tornadoes makes this beast a hard-to-beat opponent. After settling the business, they took a shard of Eternal Ice and depart to find the final piece of relic.
The final piece of material, the Eternal Flame was located somewhere on North Sularto, but the guild doesn't know its exact location. The guild suggest that an amnesia merchant named Chongara (the same as Arc the Lad) knows its location. They set to find a cure of his amnesia and find it costs about 1 million gold. So they decided to find another way to cure his amnesia. Marsia thinks of a way and uses her Land Ax spell to cause a shock to his head, which restores his memory. According to Chongara, the smoking volcano cave on North Sularto is the house of the flame that never sleeps. When they reach the heart of the mountain, they found the Eternal flame on top of a mini volcano with unstable reaction that could cause it to erupt and spew hot magma any time. Cheryl had an idea of making a lava-hardening gun from the weapon society and something to house the flame to transport. When they arrive at the item society, it appears that the mysterious object they found on Forestamore has been fixed and given a propeller and a handle so it could carry at least one person. That solves the problem of how they would cross the lake of fire surrounding the flame. Meanwhile, as Elnan of the item society works on something to carry the flame, Alec's teams go on a search of a missing material needed to build the gun for hardening lava. They found out that Gudan of Gislem know the location of it and set to find him in danger dome. Alec agreed to give all his money and items as long as Gudan is willing to tell him where the material is. This makes Gudan wonders about the action and he presume that the second of the Great Disaster might happen if they didn't get the calm nut, so he give the information for free. They head to Kutao temple in search of the calm nut and found some monsters was holding it. After making short work of them, they return to the society village to collect their items of need and head to the lake of fire. Upon reaching the shore of the lake, as Lutz uncover the flying object he receive from Elnan, it turns out that the object was actually Diekbeck (what remained of him after the disaster). He agrees to help the young ones to save the world. After crossing the lake, Lutz climb the volcano as Cheryl use the Stone gun to temporary freeze the lava to protect Lutz. After getting the flame, a sudden eruption throw Lutz off the ledge and landed hard in front of his friends. Cheryl cry over him and pleaded him not to die, only to find that he was joking on them. When they were leaving, Lutz try to find Diekbeck and find him on the lava, unable to move. He told him that he was happy to help their cause and ask them to protect the world, but not before he gave them a monster card of himself and christen them "The Brave Ones".
Back at the guildmaster's office, the team was thinking to go and find Gogen and ask him the whereabouts of the guardians when suddenly Gogen himself appears before them. He told them that the guardians now resides upon a massive structure called the Ghost Dream Crystal in Eteru Isle. So, the team move to Eteru and once again head into the Trial Cave. At the crystal, a voice was heard that the one was going to talk to the guardians must leave their earthly body behind, with no guarantee to be able to return safely. Alec's boldness and kindness makes him step forward and stun his friends to the ground so they won't be able to stop him from going. After leaving his body and enter the Crystal Chamber, he was greeted by Arc and Kukuru, telling him that they had been watching his journey since he got his hunter's crest. The guardians then shows themselves before Alec and give him their blessing to create the ark. After several calls from his friends, Alec then returned to the material world and told his friends to lay the material in a line. Together, they watch anxiously as the new ark was magically created before their eyes.
Taking the new ark, they all return to the Guildmaster's office and prepare themselves for the final battle. The guild itself has received word from Elc that he has finished reassembling the Hien back and it is now ready to fly. Alec and Elc reach the sky castle. After fighting through the castle, they eventually defeat Seville and Galdo. As they reach the professor, he arrogantly shrugged off everyone's warnings and eventually releases the Dark One. The group used the new Ark against it but nothing happened. A joint effort by Sharon, a redeeming Lugwig and Elc pushes back the Dark One from escaping, leaving the remaining group to fight. After a fierce fight, the Dark One tries to tempt the group by offering its power to restore the world. None of them took its offer; they had resolved that they can rebuild their world by their own means and with that, the new Ark began to activate. Realizing what caused this and focusing on the good, the heroes managed to seal it in the new Ark once and for all.
In the aftermath, Lugwig acknowledges his flawed direction with the Academy; Sharon offered to help Lugwig make amends for the harm he caused. Each member of the group goes off to resume their lives: Anriette (if you take on a series of jobs related to her) returns home and now enjoys being more independent. Velhart visits his brother's grave, stating that the threat is over. Marisa returns to the Spell Institute and become a teacher. Theo goes to Lieza's ranch to work with the monsters there. Cheryl visits the new Eternal Tree, thinking about the hope of a new life in a new world. Alec and Lutz return home to Sasha Village as heroes.
Reception
An RPGFans review criticises this game as being the "weakest Arc The Lad game yet". It says that the game lacks a good plot, the gameplay is too slow and drawn out, and the soundtrack of the game being lackluster.
References
Other websites
1999 video games
Arc the Lad
Japan-exclusive video games
PlayStation (console) games
PlayStation (console)-only games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Masahiro Andoh
Single-player video games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Tactical role-playing video games |
4279208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer%20file%20sharing | Peer-to-peer file sharing | Peer-to-peer file sharing is the distribution and sharing of digital media using peer-to-peer (P2P) networking technology. P2P file sharing allows users to access media files such as books, music, movies, and games using a P2P software program that searches for other connected computers on a P2P network to locate the desired content. The nodes (peers) of such networks are end-user computers and distribution servers (not required).
The early days of file-sharing were done predominantly by client-server transfers from web pages, FTP and IRC before Napster popularised a windows application that allowed users to both upload and download with a freemium style service. Record companies and artists called for its shutdown and FBI raids followed. Napster had been incredibly popular at its peak, spawning a grass-roots movement following from the mixtape scene of the 80's and left a significant gap in music availability with its followers. After much discussion on forums and in chat-rooms, it was decided that Napster had been vulnerable due to its reliance on centralised servers and their physical location and thus competing groups raced to build a decentralised peer-to-peer system.
Peer-to-peer file sharing technology has evolved through several design stages from the early networks like Gnutella, which popularized the technology in several iterations that used various front ends such as Kazaa, Limewire and WinMX before Edonkey then on to later models like the BitTorrent protocol. Microsoft uses it for Update distribution (Windows 10) and online video games use it as their content distribution network for downloading large amounts of data without incurring the dramatic costs for bandwidth inherent when providing just a single source.
Several factors contributed to the widespread adoption and facilitation of peer-to-peer file sharing. These included increasing Internet bandwidth, the widespread digitization of physical media, and the increasing capabilities of residential personal computers. Users are able to transfer one or more files from one computer to another across the Internet through various file transfer systems and other file-sharing networks.
History
Peer-to-peer file sharing saw its first wave of popularity after the introduction of Napster, a file sharing application that used P2P technology.
The central index server indexed the users and their shared content. When someone searched for a file, the server searched all available copies of that file and presented them to the user. The files would be transferred directly between private computers (peers/nodes). A limitation was that only music files could be shared. Because this process occurred on a central server, however, Napster was held liable for copyright infringement and shut down in July 2001. It later reopened as a pay service.
After Napster was shut down, peer-to-peer services were invented such as Gnutella and Kazaa. These services also allowed users to download files other than music, such as movies and games.
Technology evolution
Napster and eDonkey2000 both used a central server-based model. These systems relied on the operation of the respective central servers, and thus were susceptible to centralized shutdown. Their demise led to the rise of networks like Limewire, Kazaa, Morpheus, Gnutella, and Gnutella2, which are able to operate without any central servers, eliminating the central vulnerability by connecting users remotely to each other. However, these networks still relied on specific, centrally distributed client programs, so they could be crippled by taking legal action against a sufficiently large number of publishers of the client programs. Sharman Networks, the publisher of Kazaa, has been inactive since 2006. StreamCast Networks, the publisher of Morpheus, shut down on April 22, 2008. Limewire LLC was shut down in late 2010 or early 2011. This cleared the way for the dominance of the Bittorrent protocol, which differs from its predecessors in two major ways. The first is that no individual, group, or company owns the protocol or the terms "Torrent" or "Bittorrent", meaning that anyone can write and distribute client software that works with the network. The second is that Bittorrent clients have no search functionality of their own. Instead, users must rely on third-party websites like Isohunt or The Pirate Bay to find "torrent" files, which function like maps that tell the client how to find and download the files that the user actually wants. These two characteristics combined offer a level of decentralization that makes Bittorrent practically impossible to shut down. File-sharing networks are sometimes organized into three "generations" based on these different levels of decentralization. Illegal darknets, including networks like Freenet, are sometimes considered to be third-generation file-sharing networks.
Peer-to-peer file sharing is also efficient in terms of cost. The system administration overhead is smaller because the user is the provider and usually the provider is the administrator as well. Hence each network can be monitored by the users themselves. At the same time, large servers sometimes require more storage and this increases the cost since the storage has to be rented or bought exclusively for a server. However, usually peer-to-peer file sharing does not require a dedicated server.
Economic impact
There are ongoing discussion about the economic impact of P2P file sharing. Norbert Michel, a policy analyst at The Heritage Foundation, said that studies had produced "disparate estimates of file sharing's impact on album sales".
In the book The Wealth of Networks, Yochai Benkler states that peer-to-peer file sharing is economically efficient and that the users pay the full transaction cost and marginal cost of such sharing even if it "throws a monkey wrench into the particular way in which our society has chosen to pay musicians and re-cording executives. This trades off efficiency for longer-term incentive effects for the recording industry. However, it is efficient within the normal meaning of the term in economics in a way that it would not have been had Jack and Jane used subsidized computers or network connections".
A calculation example:
with peer to peer file sharing:
with casual content delivery networks:
Music industry
The economic effect of copyright infringement through peer-to-peer file sharing on music revenue has been controversial and difficult to determine. Unofficial studies found that file sharing had a negative impact on record sales. It has proven difficult to untangle the cause and effect relationships among a number of different trends, including an increase in legal online purchases of music; illegal file-sharing; drop in the prices of compact disks; and the closure of many independent music stores with a concomitant shift to sales by big-box retailers.
Film industry
The Motion Picture Association (MPAA) reported that American studios lost $2,373 billion in 2005 (equivalent to $ billion in ) representing approximately one third of the total cost of film piracy in the United States. The MPAA's estimate was doubted by commentators since it was based on the assumption that one download was equivalent to one lost sale, and downloaders might not purchase the movie if illegal downloading was not an option. Due to the private nature of the study, the figures could not be publicly checked for methodology or validity. In January 2008, as the MPAA was lobbying for a bill which would compel Universities to crack down on piracy, it was admitted by MPAA that its figures on piracy in colleges had been inflated by up to 300%.
A 2010 study, commissioned by the International Chamber of Commerce and conducted by independent Paris-based economics firm TERA, estimated that unlawful downloading of music, film and software cost Europe's creative industries several billion dollars in revenue each year. A further TERA study predicted losses due to piracy reaching as much as 1.2 million jobs and €240 billion in retail revenue by 2015 if the trend continued. Researchers applied a substitution rate of ten percent to the volume of copyright infringements per year. This rate corresponded to the number of units potentially traded if unlawful file sharing were eliminated and did not occur. Piracy rates for popular software and operating systems have been common, even in regions with strong intellectual property enforcement, such as the United States or the European Union.
Public perception and usage
In 2004, an estimated 70 million people participated in online file sharing. According to a CBS News poll, nearly 70 percent of 18- to 29-year-olds thought file sharing was acceptable in some circumstances and 58 percent of all Americans who followed the file sharing issue considered it acceptable in at least some circumstances. In January 2006, 32 million Americans over the age of 12 had downloaded at least one feature-length movie from the Internet, 80 percent of whom had done so exclusively over P2P. Of the population sampled, 60 percent felt that downloading copyrighted movies off the Internet did not constitute a very serious offense, however 78 percent believed taking a DVD from a store without paying for it constituted a very serious offense.
In July 2008, 20 percent of Europeans used file sharing networks to obtain music, while 10 percent used paid-for digital music services such as iTunes. In February 2009, a survey undertaken by Tiscali in the UK found that 75 percent of the English public polled were aware of what was legal and illegal in relation to file sharing, but there was a divide as to where they felt the legal burden should be placed: 49 percent of people believed P2P companies should be held responsible for illegal file sharing on their networks and 18 percent viewed individual file sharers as the culprits.
According to an earlier poll, 75 percent of young voters in Sweden (18-20) supported file sharing when presented with the statement: "I think it is OK to download files from the Net, even if it is illegal." Of the respondents, 38 percent said they "adamantly agreed" while 39 percent said they "partly agreed". An academic study among American and European college students found that users of file-sharing technologies were relatively anti-copyright and that copyright enforcement created backlash, hardening pro-file sharing beliefs among users of these technologies.
Communities in P2P file sharing networks
Communities have a prominent role in many peer to peer networks and applications, such as BitTorrent, Gnutella and DC++. There are different elements that contribute to the formation, development and the stability of these communities, which include interests, user attributes, cost reduction, user motivation and the dimension of the community.
Interest attributes
Peer communities are formed on the basis of common interests. For Khambatti, Ryu and Dasgupta common interests can be labelled as attributes "which are used to determine the peer communities in which a particular peer can participate". There are two ways in which these attributes can be classified: explicit and implicit attributes.
Explicit values are information that peers provide about themselves to a specific community, such as their interest in a subject or their taste in music. With implicit values, users do not directly express information about themselves, albeit, it is still possible to find information about that specific user by uncovering his or her past queries and research carried out in a P2P network.
Khambatti, Ryu and Dasgupta divide these interests further into three classes: personal, claimed and group attributes.
A full set of attributes (common interests) of a specific peer is defined as personal attributes, and is a collection of information a peer has about him or herself. Peers may decide not to disclose information about themselves to maintain their privacy and online security. It is for this reason that the authors specify that "a subset of...attributes is explicitly claimed public by a peer", and they define such attributes as "claimed attributes". The third category of interests is group attributes, defined as "location or affiliation oriented" and are needed to form a...basis for communities", an example being the "domain name of an internet connection" which acts as an online location and group identifier for certain users.
Cost reduction
Cost reduction influences the sharing component of P2P communities. Users who share do so to attempt "to reduce...costs" as made clear by Cunningham, Alexander and Adilov. In their work Peer-to-peer File Sharing Communities, they explain that "the act of sharing is costly since any download from a sharer implies that the sharer is sacrificing bandwidth". As sharing represents the basis of P2P communities, such as Napster, and without it "the network collapses", users share despite its costs in order to attempt to lower their own costs, particularly those associated with searching, and with the congestion of internet servers.
User motivation and size of community
User motivation and the size of the P2P community contribute to its sustainability and activity. In her work Motivating Participation in Peer to Peer Communities, Vassileva studies these two aspects through an experiment carried out in the University of Saskatchewan (Canada), where a P2P application (COMUTELLA) was created and distributed among students. In her view, motivation is "a crucial factor" in encouraging users to participate in an online P2P community, particularly because the "lack of a critical mass of active users" in the form of a community will not allow for a P2P sharing to function properly.
Usefulness is a valued aspect by users when joining a P2P community. The specific P2P system must be perceived as "useful" by the user and must be able to fulfil his or her needs and pursue his or her interests. Consequently, the "size of the community of users defines the level of usefulness" and "the value of the system determines the number of users". This two way process is defined by Vassileva as a feedback loop, and has allowed for the birth of file-sharing systems like Napster and KaZaA. However, in her research Vassileva has also found that "incentives are needed for the users in the beginning", particularly for motivating and getting users into the habit of staying online. This can be done, for example, by providing the system with a wide amount of resources or by having an experienced user provide assistance to a less experienced one.
User classification
Users participating in P2P systems can be classified in different ways. According to Vassileva, users can be classified depending on their participation in the P2P system. There are five types of users to be found: users who create services, users who allow services, users who facilitate search, users who allow communication, users who are uncooperative and free ride.
In the first instance, the user creates new resources or services and offers them to the community. In the second, the user provides the community with disk space "to store files for downloads" or with "computing resources" to facilitate a service provided by another users. In the third, the user provides a list of relationships to help other users find specific files or services. In the fourth, the user participates actively in the "protocol of the network", contributing to keeping the network together. In the last situation, the user does not contribute to the network, downloads what he or she needs but goes immediately offline once the service is not needed anymore, thus free-riding on the network and community resources.
Tracking
Corporations continue to combat the use of the internet as a tool to illegally copy and share various files, especially that of copyrighted music. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) has been active in leading campaigns against infringers. Lawsuits have been launched against individuals as well as programs such as Napster in order to "protect" copyright owners. One effort of the RIAA has been to implant decoy users to monitor the use of copyrighted material from a firsthand perspective.
Risks
In early June 2002, Researcher Nathaniel Good at HP Labs demonstrated that user interface design issues could contribute to users inadvertently sharing personal and confidential information over P2P networks.
In 2003, Congressional hearings before the House Committee of Government Reform (Overexposed: The Threats to Privacy & Security on File Sharing Networks) and the Senate Judiciary Committee (The Dark Side of a Bright Idea: Could Personal and National Security Risks Compromise the Potential of P2P File-Sharing Networks?) were convened to address and discuss the issue of inadvertent sharing on peer-to-peer networks and its consequences to consumer and national security.
Researchers have examined potential security risks including the release of personal information, bundled spyware, and viruses downloaded from the network. Some proprietary file sharing clients have been known to bundle malware, though open source programs typically have not. Some open source file sharing packages have even provided integrated anti-virus scanning.
Since approximately 2004 the threat of identity theft had become more prevalent, and in July 2008 there was another inadvertent revealing of vast amounts of personal information through P2P sites. The "names, dates of birth, and Social Security numbers of about 2,000 of (an investment) firm's clients" were exposed, "including [those of] Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer." A drastic increase in inadvertent P2P file sharing of personal and sensitive information became evident in 2009 at the beginning of President Obama's administration when the blueprints to the helicopter Marine One were made available to the public through a breach in security via a P2P file sharing site. Access to this information has the potential of being detrimental to US security. Furthermore, shortly before this security breach, the Today show had reported that more than 150,000 tax returns, 25,800 student loan applications and 626,000 credit reports had been inadvertently made available through file sharing.
The United States government then attempted to make users more aware of the potential risks involved with P2P file sharing programs through legislation such as H.R. 1319, the Informed P2P User Act, in 2009. According to this act, it would be mandatory for individuals to be aware of the risks associated with peer-to-peer file sharing before purchasing software with informed consent of the user required prior to use of such programs. In addition, the act would allow users to block and remove P2P file sharing software from their computers at any time, with the Federal Trade Commission enforcing regulations. US-CERT also warns of the potential risks.
Nevertheless, in 2010, researchers discovered thousands of documents containing sensitive patient information on popular peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, including insurance details, personally identifying information, physician names and diagnosis codes on more than 28,000 individuals. Many of the documents contained sensitive patient communications, treatment data, medical diagnoses and psychiatric evaluations.
Copyright issues
The act of file sharing is not illegal per se and peer-to-peer networks are also used for legitimate purposes. The legal issues in file sharing involve violating the laws of copyrighted material. Most discussions about the legality of file sharing are implied to be about solely copyright material. Many countries have fair use exceptions that permit limited use of copyrighted material without acquiring permission from the rights holders. Such documents include commentary, news reporting, research and scholarship. Copyright laws are territorial- they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific state unless that state is a party to an international agreement. Most countries today are parties to at least one such agreement.
In the area of privacy, recent court rulings seem to indicate that there can be no expectation of privacy in data exposed over peer-to-peer file-sharing networks. In a 39-page ruling released November 8, 2013, US District Court Judge Christina Reiss denied the motion to suppress evidence gathered by authorities without a search warrant through an automated peer-to-peer search tool.
Curtailing the sharing of copyrighted materials
Media industries have made efforts to curtail the spread of copyrighted materials through P2P systems. Initially, the corporations were able to successfully sue the distribution platforms such as Napster and have them shut down. Additionally, they litigated users who prominently shared copyrighted materials en masse. However, as more decentralized systems such as FastTrack were developed, this proved to be unenforceable. There are also millions of users worldwide who use P2P systems illegally, which made it impractical to seek widespread legal action. One major effort involves distributing polluted files into the P2P network. For instance, one may distribute unrelated files that has the metadata of a copyrighted media. This way, users who downloads the media would receive something unrelated to what they have been expecting.
See also
Anonymous P2P
Comparison of file-sharing applications
Disk sharing
File sharing in Canada
File sharing in Japan
File sharing timeline (peer to peer and not)
Friend-to-friend or F2F
List of P2P protocols
Open Music Model
Privacy in file sharing networks
Private P2P
Public domain
Torrent poisoning
Trade group efforts against file sharing
Warez
References
Internet terminology
Intellectual property law
de:Filesharing |
4279209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Door-in-the-face%20technique | Door-in-the-face technique | The door-in-the-face technique is a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. The respondent is then more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request, than if that same request is made in isolation. The DITF technique can be contrasted with the foot-in-the-door (FITD) technique, in which a persuader begins with a small request and gradually increases the demands of each request. Both the FITD and DITF techniques increase the likelihood a respondent will agree to the second request.
Classic experiment
In a classic experiment investigating the effectiveness of the DITF technique, researchers separated participants into three groups. In group 1, experimenters asked participants to volunteer to counsel juvenile delinquents for two hours a week for two years (large request). After their refusal, the group was asked to chaperone juvenile delinquents on a one-day trip to the zoo (small request). Group 2 was given only the small request. In group 3, the experimenter described the large request but asked the participants to perform the small request. 50% of the participants in group 1 agreed to the small request, compared to 17% in group 2 and 25% in group 3. Because compliance for the small request was significantly larger for group 1 than group 2, the DITF technique was successful. Compliance for the small request was also significantly larger for group 1 than group 3, which demonstrates that mere exposure to the more extreme task does not affect compliance as significantly.
A 2020 study published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology replicated the findings of Cialdini's original 1975 experiment.
Mechanisms
An important topic in DITF research involves whether the DITF technique is effective because of reciprocal concessions or social responsibility. The reciprocal concessions explanation is more common and involves reciprocity, or the need for a respondent to comply to the smaller second request because the persuader is compromising from the initial request. The social responsibility explanation involves internal standards of the importance of helping others that make the respondent feel they must comply to the second smaller request. Other explanations of the DITF effect involve maintaining a positive self-presentation and reducing guilt.
Reciprocal concessions and social responsibility
Support for social responsibility
Two studies comparing reciprocal concessions with social responsibility explanations found evidence for social responsibility related to helping. In the first study, participants read DITF scenarios and then rated whether certain terms were relevant to these situations or not. These terms either referred to helping or to bargaining. In the second study, participants rated the similarity of a DITF interaction to four other situations: helping a friend, negotiating with a friend, helping a stranger, and negotiating with a stranger. The DITF scenarios used in both studies were taken from previous research and shown to be very effective in influencing compliance. Overall, findings indicate that participants felt DITF interactions were more closely related to helping than bargaining. This supports the social responsibility explanation of the DITF technique because social responsibility is related to helping one's self, while reciprocal concessions is related to negotiating.
Support for both social responsibility and reciprocal concessions
Research investigating reciprocal concessions and in-group-out-group biases found both reciprocal concessions and in-group context to be important in the DITF technique. In-groups are groups that a person feels that they belong to, while out-groups are ones that a person does not belong to and might perceive negatively. This study employed two different types of confederates, in-group confederates who dressed and acted like college students and out-group confederates who dressed and acted more formally. The in-group confederates introduced themselves as university students, while the out-group confederates introduced themselves as private business school students. All of the participants in this study went to the same university as the in-group confederates. The confederates either made a large request then a smaller one, a smaller request alone, or offered the participant a choice of both requests. Results show greater compliance to the second smaller request for the in-group confederates compared to out-group confederates, but there was still a DITF effect in the out-group context. Participants were most likely to comply to requests from those within their social groups, yet they still had increased compliance to the smaller second request for people outside of their social groups. The researchers suggest that this is evidence for reciprocal concessions because the influence of social group and the DITF effect work independently of each other, therefore, there must be another explanation for DITF that does not involve in-group-out-group biases. The researchers fail to mention the social responsibility explanation, however.
Sufficiency of explanations
Another study comparing reciprocal concessions with social responsibility found neither explanation to be sufficient. This study employed confederates who asked for donations door-to-door. Participants were either given a large, moderate, or small request initially. The large request involved 10 hours of volunteering for several weeks, the moderate request involved a $30.00 donation, and the small request involved a donation of any amount. The confederate gave the smaller request after an initial large or moderate one. Participants then filled out a questionnaire that asked about the respondent's perceived obligation to comply, perceptions of negotiation and/or helping in the situation, and whether the respondent was friends with the confederate. Results show that participants were more likely to comply for friends than strangers, the DITF technique had greater compliance overall than a small request alone, and the DITF technique had larger increases in compliance for strangers. Findings regarding social responsibility and reciprocal concessions were inconclusive, with high correlations between perceptions of negotiation and guilt as well as guilt and obligation. The researchers suggest that both of the explanations work together in the DITF effect.
Self-presentation
In a similar study looking at differences between friends and strangers using the DITF technique, the DITF technique was more effective in increasing compliance for friends than strangers, which is contrary to other research findings. The researcher explains the results as evidence for the importance of self-presentation when friends use the DITF technique. They suggest that the respondents' need to present themselves well to their friends motivates compliance to the second request.
Guilt reduction
Research on the influence of guilt indicates that it plays an important role in the effectiveness of the DITF technique. Participants began the study by filling out a questionnaire related to demographics and health. The experimenter then told the participant he or she was finished with the experiment. As the participant was leaving, the experimenter asked the participant to record meals for the next three months as a part of a larger study on health. After refusal, the experimenter then made a second smaller request for the participant to record their meals for four days. There was a control condition that only received the second smaller request. Participants were assigned to one of four groups: high guilt induction and high guilt reduction, high guilt induction and low guilt reduction, low guilt induction and high guilt reduction, and low guilt induction and low guilt reduction. The high guilt induction statement indicated that the rejection of the first request would have negative effects on the study, while the low guilt induction statement indicated that the rejection of the first request would not really have negative effects on the study. The high guilt reduction statement indicated that the second request would be equally helpful as the first, while the low guilt reduction statement indicated that the second request would not be as helpful as the first. Researchers measured both verbal and behavioral compliance to the smaller second request. Findings indicate a significant increase in both types of compliance for the high guilt induction, high guilt reduction condition. There was no DITF effect for the other conditions because compliance to the second request was the same as compliance for the control condition. According to the researcher, this suggests that guilt is the sole explanation for the effectiveness of the DITF technique.
Recent research
Metacommunication
In a study looking at the DITF technique, researchers found that DITF requests that required metacommunication in the responses had higher rates of compliance than requests that did not. The researchers define metacommunication as establishing social boundaries. This is important because the DITF technique often involves strangers making extreme requests, which might elicit a response that requires metacommunication. For example, a person may use metacommunication to indicate that it is inappropriate that a stranger make such an extreme request. This study included four different groups: one starting with a large request and including a metacommunicative statement, one starting with a large request and excluding a metacommunicative statement, one with only a smaller request and including a metacommunicative statement, and one with only a smaller request and excluding a metacommunicative statement. For all of the groups a confederate asked participants to fill out a questionnaire about campus activities. The large request required a few hours, while the smaller one required 20 minutes. In the groups that started with a large request, the confederate followed up with the smaller one after a refusal. The requests with metacommunication included a sentence stating, "This is kind of awkward. There is something else I'd like to ask of you, but tell me if even this seems inappropriate between strangers" prior to filling out the 20-minute questionnaire (p. 92). Results show significantly greater compliance to requests that included the metacommunicative statement. The researchers suggest that the explicit statement regarding social boundaries makes participants comply to avoid engaging in metacommunicative conflict.
Reverse psychology
Research investigating reverse psychology showed that participants used the DITF technique in their everyday lives. They also use other reverse psychology tactics, such as FITD. There were two studies that looked at participants' own experiences using reverse psychology, which these researchers refer to as strategic self-anticonformity. The first study consisted of an open-ended questionnaire that asked participants about instances in which they used strategic self-anticonformity. The second study asked about specific instances of different types of strategic self-anti-conformity, like DITF and FITD. Findings indicate that most of the participants could provide examples of their own use of reverse psychology tactics and that a likely explanation for this is a need for social reassurance.
Monetary solicitation
A study looking at behavioral, not just verbal, compliance to donate money found that the DITF technique was effective. The study involved male and female confederates who ordered lemonade at a restaurant and engaged in conversation before the male announced loudly that he was leaving to buy a part for his bicycle. After he left the female confederate expressed aloud that the male did not pay and asked the participant sitting near her to pay the total bill. In the DITF condition, the female confederate asked if the participant would pay part of the bill after a refusal to pay the total bill from every participant. In the control condition the female confederate only made the second smaller request. The DITF technique yielded significantly more behavioral compliance than the control, which shows that the DITF technique works for more than just verbal agreement.
Retail
A study looking at the DITF technique in retail found that it was very effective in increasing sales. In this study the experimenter sold cheese to people walking past a hut in the Austrian Alps. The experimenter rotated between five conditions: a DITF condition in which the experimenter first tried to sell two pounds of cheese at eight euros and then one pound of cheese at four euros, a DITF condition with an emphasis on concession in which the experimenter said that two pounds was probably too much anyway, a DITF condition with an emphasis on credibility of the experimenter, who wore traditional clothes and spoke in a mountain dialect, a DITF condition with both an emphasis on concession and credibility, and a control condition in which the experimenter only made the smaller second request. Results show increased compliance for the second request in all of the DITF conditions compared to the control. The DITF condition with an emphasis on concession and credibility had the largest increase in compliance. The researchers suggest that the DITF technique could be useful in other retail settings.
Researchers investigated the DITF technique in a restaurant setting and found that it is effective if there is no delay between the first and second requests. Waitresses were instructed to ask randomly selected restaurant patrons whether they wanted dessert at the end of their meals. If the participant refused, the waitress then either immediately asked if the participant wanted tea or coffee or waited three minutes to ask. Findings indicate increased compliance to the second request for the immediate condition but not the delayed one. The researchers suggest that these results have significant implications for the restaurant industry, particularly the importance of servers' timing when the restaurant is busy.
Academics
In a study looking at compliance techniques for children to complete academic work, researchers found that the DITF technique was most effective. The study had three groups of 2nd grade participants: the FITD, DITF, and control groups. The FITD group was asked by one teacher to do an easy 15-question worksheet and then asked 15 minutes later by another teacher to complete a 20-question worksheet. The DITF group was initially asked to complete a 100-question worksheet. After refusal, the group was asked to do 20 of the questions. The control group was asked to complete a 20-question worksheet. The researchers looked at compliance as well as students' mathematical ability, quality of work, and amount of help needed. Results show that the DITF technique was effective in increasing compliance rates compared to the FITD and control conditions. The DITF group also needed less adult help to complete the worksheet. Overall, the researchers suggest that DITF can be a useful technique to get students to do their academic work.
Technology
Research on the DITF effect in internet fundraising indicates that the DITF technique works in an electronic context. This study looked at donations for children victims of mine injuries. The homepage of the website provided pictures of children with injuries. In the control condition, the homepage asked for donations and redirected participants to a page with a picture and several links to outside charitable organizations. In the DITF condition, the homepage asked participants to help the children in the photographs. The link redirected participants to a page that asked them to spend several hours a week finding people to donate to the site. There were links to respond to the question on the page. After a refusal, the participants were redirected to the same page as the control group, which had links to outside charities. The researcher measured numbers of clicks on these links, not actual donations. Results show that participants in the DITF condition were more willing to click on the outside links than those in the control condition. The researcher highlights that these results indicate DITF technique can be effective in electronic contexts.
In a study investigating the effectiveness of the FITD and DITF techniques in a virtual world, researchers found that both techniques worked to increase compliance. The study occurred in a virtual world called "There.com", where users create avatars to interact with other users' avatars. In the DITF condition, the experimenter approached another user's avatar and asked for a moderate request, which involved taking a screenshot of 50 different locations. After refusal, the experimenter gave the smaller request, which was to take one screenshot. In the FITD condition, the experimenter started with the smaller request and then gave the moderate one. The control condition involved only the smaller request. For half of the participants, the experimenter's avatar was dark-skinned and for the other half the avatar was light-skinned. Findings indicate that both the FITD and DITF techniques increased compliance to the second request compared to the control condition, although the DITF technique was less effective for the dark-skinned avatar. There was no skin color effect for the FITD condition. The researchers suggest that these results illustrate social carryover from real-life to the virtual world.
DITF vs. FITD
A meta-analysis of findings from 22 studies comparing the DITF and FITD techniques indicated that there were no significant differences in effectiveness of the two techniques. Overall, they both produced similar rates of compliance across many studies that employed comparable target requests.
Combining DITF and FITD
In a set of studies about compliance methods, the researcher found evidence for the effectiveness of the "foot-in-the-face" (FITF) technique, which combines the DITF and FITD techniques. The FITF technique involves two moderately difficult requests that are equally demanding.
Study 1: Confederates asked one group of participants to read temperature and another to read air pressure. Regardless of whether the participants complied with the first request, they were given a second one. One group read temperature first and the other air pressure. Results show that participants were more likely to agree to the second request following the first than the second request in isolation, regardless of whether it was to read the temperature or air pressure. There were participants who complied with both requests, but there were also participants who complied to the second, but not the first request.
Study 2: This study was very similar to the first, except one group was given the second request immediately after the first, while another group was given the second request two to three days after the first. The requests were to complete a questionnaire or to tape record a section out of a book. Findings indicate that the delay between requests was more effective for participants who complied to the first request, while the immediate request was more effective for those who rejected the first request.
Study 3: This study used the same requests from the study 2. Confederates made the second request immediately to participants who rejected the first but waited two to three days for those who complied with the first request. Results show that overall there was significantly greater compliance to the second request and that participants who agreed to the first were more likely to agree to the second than those who rejected the initial request.
These three studies provide evidence to support the effectiveness of the FITD technique because it increased compliance in all three experiments. The researcher suggests that the FITD technique may be preferable to DITF because it does not place as much pressure on people to comply.
See also
Foot-in-the-door technique
Ambit claim
Bait-and-switch
Compliance (psychology)
Framing effect (psychology)
Low-ball
Overton window
References
Persuasion techniques |
4279513 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Custer | John Custer | John Custer (born October 30, 1962) is an American record producer and musician. He produced the Grammy-nominated "Drowning in a Daydream" by Corrosion of Conformity and their fourth album, Deliverance, which is a gold album. Additionally, he has produced #1 songs on the Billboard charts and The Album Network charts as well as Hall of Fame inducted albums in national and world-wide music press. In 2014, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Carolina Music Awards. He has been called the "Indestructible Godfather of the NC Music Industry".
Early life
Custer is from Cary, North Carolina, the son of Janine and Donald Custer—who worked for the United States Secret Service and CIA respectively—and moved to Cary to work for the military-industrial complex part of IBM in the Research Triangle Park. Custer describes his parents as "more than cosmopolitan folk", exposing him to a wide range of musical styles. He had an early passion for music and would play his father's "forbidden guitar" every chance he could."
His early musical influences include Herb Albert and the Tijuana Brass, Marvin Gaye, Ricki Lee Jones, Queen, Sex Pistols, and The Clash. The North Carolina band Nantucket was also an inspiration to Custer. In 2017, he told writer David Manconi, "I remember being at a party, seeing their records, and my jaw dropping. They were real albums on a real record label with real artwork and all that—and from here! It made you think that things were possible…."
Custer graduated from Cary High School in 1981. After high school, he joined the Theatrics, a band that played the Southeastern Circuit, (Maryland down to Florida), playing covers so they could slide–in original material. He also met his first music mentor, drummer Kenny Soule from the bands PKM and Nantucket.
Around the age of 22 years, Custer moved to New York City and worked as a session guitarist at the Vision Sound Studios, providing guitar tracks for national television commercials such as Coca–Cola, Ford, Jovan, Mazda, Revlon, and VH1. Custer says commercial work was "nothing but pressure" because "you'd get one shot".
Back from New York In 1986, Custer played guitar in the Raleigh area band Four Hard Men with bassist Steev Adams (Pressure Boys, The Hanks), Tony Bowman on keyboards, and Chris Jenson on drums. Another configuration of this group was called Three Hard Men with Custer on guitar, Adams on bass, and Kenny Soule on drums. Over the years, Custer played with a number of short–lived bands: John Custer and Kevin, John Custer and the Malcolm Baldridge Memorial Rhythm Section, John Custer and Asylum Hill, Teresa Williams & John Custer, and his own John Custer Band. In 1990, Custer joined Jake Ferrell in a reboot of the band Subliminal Surge.
Custer met Byron McCay, former guitarist of Subliminal Surge and founder/owner of JAG Studios in Raleigh. McCay had soured on the music business, but was invigorated by Custer, saying "Custer was a guitar whiz, one of the first locals to crack the Eddie Van Halen's supersonic code".
At age 25, Custer began producing and developing original artists at JAG Studios. He produced a four-song cassette for the Raleigh band, The Distance, in 1989. One reviewer of The Distance's recordings noted, "Producer John Custer creates a madcap roller derby of ringing guitar riffs" on one track, and "crisp, clear aural onslaught' on another. Custer also produced a rap song for comedian Rich Hall, his own original music for the WRAL–TV's Rob and Bill's Talk Show, and demo tapes for the Raleigh bands Cry of Love, and Automatic Slim.
Career
Corrosion of Conformity
Custer's first major project was producing the album Blind (Relativity Records, 1991) for the Raleigh punk thrash band Corrosion of Conformity (later COC). Decibel notes, "Allowing the North Carolinians ample space to find their proverbial groove was fledgling producer John Custer. When Corrosion of Conformity entered Baby Monster Studios in NYC in 1990, they were a full-on heavy metal outfit, and Custer was, to a large degree, the group's sonic tactician." COC bassist Mike Dean seems to agree, stating, "We were dabbling in metal. When [we] got up with John Custer and started really refining that stuff for Blind, that's when something really awesome started happening." An AllMusic review praised Blind as "simply one of the most important heavy rock albums of the decade".
COC ended up on the major label Columbia Records because Sony/Columbia acquired half–ownership of the COC's first label Relativity. Since Blind, Custer has produced numerous COC albums, including Deliverance (Columbia, 1994), Wiseblood (Columbia, 1996), America's Volume Dealer (Sanctuary Records, 2000), In the Arms of God (Sanctuary Records, 2005), Corrosion of Conformity (Candlelight Records, 2012), Megalodon EP (Scion Audio/Video, 2012), and IX (Candlelight Records, 2014).
When Wiseblood was released, one reviewer noted, "It is producer John Custer who bears the brunt of the sound's synergy... A finer sound and recording wizard cannot be had." COC member Reed Mullin said, "He [Custer ] contributes an enormous amount of stuff that isn't written in the liner notes. A lot of the writing credits are his… He's the king. He's the fifth member." The COC track "Drowning in a Daydream" from Wiseblood was nominated for a Grammy Award in 1997 for Best Metal Performance.
After the band had worked with Custer on four albums, COC frontman Pepper Keenan was asked why they had continued to work with this producer. Keenan replied: I've talked to some really big producers and they don't know as much as John Custer. I'll bet my life on it. He's amazing but he hates the record companies. He hates dealing with egos. He's been asked to do a bunch of big things and he's like, "No f----n' way!" He is truly a musician/producer. He's like the Daniel Lanois of our little circle and he does not want to put up with that s--t. It's about songwriting, it's about getting the tones on tape and not being scared to take chances. A lot of bands, the only reason they're asking him to do 'em is 'cause they've heard COC records, but they don't understand that COC put their ass on the line to do these records and John Custer's not going to babysit somebody 'cause they want to have a certain sound. You've got to want to do that and write those things.When recording America's Volume Dealer, Custer says, "It was our first foray into ProTools, which is digital recording. We'd made everything else on tape. We got hooked on gadgets. It was a mistake to record them in that format. …We thought, 'Now we can make it sound awesome!' And it sounded less than awesome." In his review of COC's Megalodon, Rob Grissom said, "The legendary and immortal John Custer has once again produced another hardcore masterpiece and seemingly assumes his majestic role as the maestro of the North Carolina music scene."
Some of Custer's high-profile collaborations for COC projects include working with Warren Haynes (The Allman Brothers Band, Gov't Mule) who played slide guitar on "Stare Too Long," James Hetfield (Metallica) who sang backup vocals on "Man or Ash", and Stanton Moore (Galactic) who played drums on the album In the Arms of God.
Cry of Love
In 1993, Custer produced the album Brother for Cry of Love. Cry of Love received a recording contract with Sony (later Columbia) after submitting their demo produced by Custer to the North Carolina Music Showcase in 1992. Brother was recorded over four weeks at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Alabama. One reviewer called Brother'''s sound "loose and live". The band's guitarist Audley Freed said, "John is just a brilliant guy. He's not the anal type who will make you do 75 takes and then cut the tape up to slice together the final version. He's a very good hybrid of feel and meticulousness…John is great at letting things happen."
On the September 4, 1993, Brother premiered at number 36 on the Billboard' Heartseeker Chart for new acts. Brother's first single, "Peace Pipe," went to No. 1 on Billboard Rock Radio Chart, and stayed there four weeks. "Bad Thing", one of several songs on Brother co-written with Custer, went No. 1 on the Album Network Chart and No. 2 the Billboard Rock Radio Chart. Billboard named "Peace Pipe" one of the Top 50 AOR Songs of All Time.
Custer also produced and mixed Cry of Love's second album, Diamonds & Debris, which was released in 1997 by Columbia.
DAG
With COC and Cry of Love both signed to Columbia, Custer was hired by the label for artist development, giving him what he calls "a pathway to the A&R department". Custer's hand-picked funk–creation DIG (later DAG) was quickly signed by Columbia because of a Custer–produced a demo tape consisting of just one song. The band changed its name to DAG after discovering a preexisting band in New Jersey named DIG. DAG included drummer Kenny Soul (Nantucket, PKM), along with three members of the Raleigh band Mr. Potatohead: keyboard/vocalist Doug Jervey, guitarist Brian Dennis, and bassist/vocalist Bobby Patterson. Custer was a fifth member of sorts, writing the majority of the group's songs.
DAG origins stem from Custer attending a performance of the Raleigh, North Carolina cover band Mr. Potatohead. Custer said, "When I saw them for the first time, they were nailing this 45 [Earth, Wind & Fire's 'Shining Star'] I had when I was 9 years old and it was perfect. So this music was something we had in common…that's when I got this idea for this." Custer's concept for DAG was to record old-school funk, but with original songs rather than covers.
DAG's first release, Righteous (1994) was recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio, with Custer producing, writing or co-writing the tracks. Because of the timeline suggested by Columbia and the newness of the band, Custer says the songs were written on the spot, in the studio. True to its inspiration of 1970s funk, Righteous featured guest performances by Roger Hawkins of the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section and jazz trumpeter Jeremy Davenport. The first reviews of Righteous were "glowing," praising its "undiluted funk." Vibe magazine hailed the album as "one of the best funk records since 1978. DAG's debut, Righteous, is definitely some of the most ass-grinding grooves you've heard since back in the day." Other releases by DAG and Custer include Apartment 635 (Columbia 1998) and A Guide to Groovy Lovin' (Columbia 1998).
Other projects
While working in artist development for Columbia, Custer produced the album Din of Ecstasy for singer–songwriter Chris Whitley in 1995, and wrote the song "Ha Ha Ha" with Sass Jordan's for her 1997 album Present (1997). Custer was shortlisted to produce the next Aerosmith album, but really wanted to help bands in North Carolina. Custer said, "Arrowsmith does not need me, but I thought there were some bands from here [North Carolina] that should have been the biggest thing ever." As a result, he decided to stay in North Carolina and see what he could make happen.
Custer worked on Some Get Lucky (Lalo Records, 1994), the first album of Larry Hutcherson (Backsliders). He also co-produced Invisible and Bullet Proof (Hal Jalikakik,1995) for Automatic Slim.
In 1998, Custer produced the album The Brothers' Love and Movie for the band Hipbone from Chapel Hill. Custer also produced Gran Torino Two (26.2 Music, 1999) for Knoxville's Gran Torino. Chris Ford, Gran Torino's lead singer, said the band brought in "hip producer John Custer to improve its sound".
Raleigh quintet Dolo got Custer to produce their self–titled album Dolo (Really Big Record, 2000). Dolo was led by Bill Guandolo—of the Rob and Bill Talk Show that featured original music by Custer. For this project, Guandolo again turned to Custer who wrote seven of the album's ten songs. Custer says, "Dolo is a real poppy thing."
In 2004, Custer recorded COC's Mike Dean's vocals for the track "Access Babylon" on Probot's self–titled album. Probot is an all-star project of Dave Grohl (Nirvana, Foo Fighters). Recording the track at JAG Studios, Dean said, "It took all of 90 minutes."
In 2008, Custer produced Bull City Syndicate's first album, You Make Me Feel. Custer co–wrote their track "Bull City Groove." Custer also produced two albums by the Burlington, North Carolina band, Jive Mother Mary―the EP Jive Mother Mary (2009) and the LP All Fall Down (2009). In In 2012, Custer produced 3PLAY, the third recording of The Will McBride Group. Custer also produced Eugene, Oregon's The Sawyer Family's third album of "gruangabilly" .The Burning Tree (Scary As Hell Music, 2008), and their fourth album Sawyer Family (Ghost Owl Records, 2015).
Burlington-based BIG Something are Custer's current funk–rock "protegees." He produced their album Songs from the Middle of Nowhere (2010) which was #1 on the Jambands.com radio charts for several week. Custer and BIG Something also worked together on the albums Big Something (2013), Truth Serum (2014), Tumbleweed (2017), and The Otherside (2018). When asked what it was like working with Custer as a producer, BIG Something replied, "It forced us to grow as artists and musicians…It was like getting schooled by a Rock 'n' Roll Jedi master."
Some of Custer's newest projects include producing the albums for the bands Army of the Dog and The Confessor, both from Raleigh, as well as vocalist Nico Arte.
Music
In 2000, Custer created the pop-oriented band Brown with Reed Mullen (COC) on lead vocals and guitar, drummer Marvin Levy (The Veldt), bassist Des White (The Veldt), and keyboardist Michael Thrower (Darkstar), Custer says, "We all play basketball together―that's how this started. Then one night instead of hoops, we played music. It worked out, so we kept doing it." Brown recorded a five–track, self-released EP called Satellite, but said they had 35 other songs ready to record. Caitlyn Cary (vocals/fiddle for Whiskeytown, Tres Chicas, and solo) recorded a song with Brown. Mullen says, "I'm doing Brown because Custer and Mikey are my best friends, I've always wanted to play with them, and this is the funnest thing I have done in my life. We can go in all sorts of directions with it." However, in 2002, Brown announced that it was changing its name because there is another the band with that name in New Jersey. Furthermore, Custer said, "The band has become a heavy rock band now. It's no longer a poppy, singles–type thing…so we're gonna kinda start all over again―new name, new tunes."
In 2001, Custer played lead guitar for the band Mother Soul. In 2002, he played in the on-stage band for the Raleigh Ensemble Players' version of the musical Hedwig and the Angry Inch, with a reviewer noting that the band "are well rehearsed".
As of 2019, Custer is scoring a movie about a funk band, and working on his own opera that will feature singers from Raleigh choirs.
Soundtracks
Custer has produced several tracks that were used in major film soundtracks:
"Big Problems" by Corrosion of Conformity appears in Clerks starring Kevin Smith.
"Mano de Mono" by Corrosion of Conformity appears in The Fan starring Robert De Niro.
"Sweet Little Lass", performed by DAG and written by Custer, is featured in Bad Boys starring Will Smith.
"As" performed by DAG and co-written by Custer, appears in Robert Altman's Ready to Wear starring Kim Basinger and Sophia Loren.
Recognition
In 1993, Custer's original music for WRAL–TV's Rob and Bill Talk Show, including "Grease of the Week" and "Welcome Back to Rob and Bill", was nominated a regional Emmy Award.
In 1997, "Drowning in a Daydream" from COC's Wiseblood was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance.
Custer was recognized by the John Lennon Songwriting Contest for co-writing and producing Gran Torino's "Moments with You" which won the award for the Best Pop Song of the Year in 2000.
Produced by Custer, Big Something's Songs from the Middle of Nowhere won the Home Grown Music Network's Album of the Year 2010; BIG Something also won the award for New Band.
In 2013, Big Something's self–titled album, produced by Custer, won Album of the Year awards from Angelica Music, Endless Boundaries Radio, and the Home Grown Music Network.
Custer was featured on the cover of 3 Dot Mag in January 2014. 3 Dot'' dubbed him as, "The Indestructible Godfather of North Carolina Music Industry".
In 2014, Custer received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the Carolina Music Awards.
In January 2019, Metallica played the song "Lovely Jane" which was written by Custer, at their concert in Raleigh, North Carolina.
Equipment
In a 2019 interview, Custer named his favorite equipment of all time:
Acoustic Guitar — Taylor
Amp — Vox, the old one with sand in the back
Bass — an old, old Fender Precision Bass
Compression — Blackface 1176
Console — Magic Shop Neve
Drum — old, old Slingerlands
Drum Machine — Roland 707 (but he hasn't seen one in 25 years)
Electric Guitar — Stratocaster
Guitar Speaker Cabinet — Orange Amps
Piano — off-brand baby grand in the New York studio
Reverb — Lexicon
Synthesizer — Moog Prodigy
V-8 Amplifier — SS7
Vocal Mic — B & B Studios of Carrboro, N.C.'s version of U87
Personal
In 2013, Custer was in a car accident and died for five minutes. He lives in Raleigh, North Carolina.
Discograpy
References
External links
John Custer interview by Stacey Cochran for The Artist's Craft
John Custer interview on The Wac Stern, 2012
John Custer podcast interview, 2012
1962 births
Living people
People from Cary, North Carolina
American record producers
American rock musicians
American male songwriters
American rock songwriters
People from Raleigh, North Carolina
Guitarists from North Carolina
20th-century American musicians
American session musicians
Candlelight Records artists
Columbia Records artists
Sanctuary Records artists
A&R people |
4279584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Replacements%20%28TV%20series%29 | The Replacements (TV series) | The Replacements is an animated television series that aired on Disney Channel from July 28, 2006, to March 30, 2009. 52 episodes were produced.
Premise
The opening sequence explains that two siblings, Todd and Riley, lived in what used to be an orphanage with their birth parents' fate unrevealed. While cleaning the floors, they stumbled across a Fleemco comic book containing an ad for the Fleemco phone. They mail-ordered the ad and $1.98 for the phone—which allows them to replace any person or animal they desire—and in the process they got new parents: a British secret agent named Agent K and a professional daredevil named Dick Daring. Whenever Todd and Riley want to replace someone undesirable, they call Conrad Fleem on the Fleemco phone via a large button. Fleemco immediately replaces the person with someone whom the siblings prefer. The series follows their misadventures as they attempt to better their lives by replacing unwanted people, with said attempt usually backfiring and both learning a lesson about appreciating what they already have.
Episodes
Characters
Main
Todd Bartholomew Daring (voiced by Nancy Cartwright) is Riley's 11-year-old younger brother. Todd is the lazy, troublemaking, and selfish one of the siblings. He and Riley are the adopted children of K and Dick Daring. Todd usually uses the Fleemco phone to replace people for selfish purposes. He is best friends with Jacobo and Shelton. One episode revealed he has a talent for singing. Todd loves the Monkey Cop movie series and playing the GameCone (a parody of Nintendo GameCube) video game console. He hates school, learning, and reading, which forces him to replace the librarian in another episode. His catchphrases are "Don't judge me" and "Sweet." In "Ratted Out" for the first time, Todd sings the second verse to "My Rat Buddy" at the end of the episode. In season 2, Todd still has feelings for Sierra after the one-time bond between the two in a parody of the Star Trek fan club. In the episode "Tasumi Unmasked," Todd formed his single band and battles against the mailman for his "Game Cone 4".
Riley Eugene Daring (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is Todd's 13-year-old older sister. She is the kinder, more caring, and reliable sibling who enjoys school. She generally uses the Fleemco phone to replace mean or unfair adults who do not take her seriously. She is a girly girl who enjoys equestrianism, Hornet Hive Scouts (a Girl Scout-type of youth group), and pretty much any form of sugar. She has an imaginary unicorn friend named Rainbow Jumper and gets a B average in school. At one point, she was part of the journalism staff at school. She has a crush on Johnny Hitswell, and they became a couple in season 2, but Johnny breaks up with her because of her controlling attitude in "Heartbreak in the City." Riley claims she is over him, despite many people who claim otherwise. Riley, contrary to her caring and thoughtful demeanor, is often prone to jealousy. In "She Works Hard For The Movie," it's revealed Riley has an Aunt named Debbie, and her middle name is Eugene.
Karen Mildred "Agent K" Daring (voiced by Kath Soucie) resembles Emma Peel. She is the siblings' adoptive British mother and is a 6'1''-tall superspy. From an outside view, it may seem she doesn't care for her kids or husband, but in fact, she loves them devotedly, even though she may express it through a recording or videotape. If something seems unfair, she fixes it very quickly. She is also bad at cooking. Her career as a spy has caused her paranoia. In the episode Abra K Dabra!, it is revealed that she has stage fright and that her middle name is Mildred. She also habitually thinks all her chores are secret missions. She plays classical violin, which Riley hates, and it puts Dick to sleep. K once took karate lessons from the evil Master Pho (Master Foe) to bust his secret evil bank-robbing karate gang. Even though she's just as logical as C.A.R. (albeit less sarcastic and violent), she seems to favor Dick over him. Even though both Dick and Agent K have contrasting personalities, they still seem to be very much in love and care for Riley and Todd as their children. Her mother is also a secret agent.
Richard Marion "Dick" Daring (voiced by Daran Norris) is the siblings' adoptive father and the world-greatest daredevil. He is a semi-former stunt artist and is constantly working on new tricks. His appearance resembles that of Evel Knievel. He is also very immature and owns a teddy bear known as "Evel Bearnievel." He thinks that C.A.R. is his best friend, though C.A.R. doesn't see it that way. Dick bought Riley a mule named Prince Cinnamon Boots instead of a horse like she wanted. Like Todd, Dick isn't smart at all. In "The Spy Who Wasn't Riley," we learn that Dick has coulrophobia and tries to force Todd to be a stunt man instead of a circus clown for his career. It is also revealed in one episode that he is a better cook than K. His catchphrase is "Look out below!"
C.A.R.T.E.R. (also known as C.A.R.) (voiced by David McCallum) is the high-tech family car with a British accent (like Agent K). He can do just about anything but is not always preparing to do something for the family, especially not for Dick. He often calls Dick a twit but is often indifferent to him. He never lets Dick drive him (presumably under the assumption that Dick's daredevil habits would wreck him) and scare Dick using "The Oslo Option," which consists of C.A.R.T.E.R. pulling out a large spinning buzzsaw blade from his hood. The family usually refers to him as simply C.A.R., which is most likely a parody of K.I.T.T. from Knight Rider. C.A.R also resembles the Mach Five from Speed Racer. In the episode Tasumi Unmasked, C.A.R used to be a one-man-band player but was kicked out for not being perfect. They destroyed his instruments. Also, in this episode, he had a goatee, possibly real or not. He is sarcastic, humorous, and violent.
Conrad Fleem (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is the mysterious owner of the Fleemco company. He processes Todd and Riley's requests whenever they call him. He has a very long mustache. His face is never shown until the episode "Irreplaceable," where he reveals himself as Todd & Riley's red-headed uncle.
Supporting
Tasumi (voiced by Lauren Tom) is Riley's Japanese-American best friend, who has a crush on Jacobo, as revealed in one episode when she kissed him. Tasumi's crush on Jacobo is also hinted at in "The Truth Hurts" when she passes on a note in the classroom that asks Jacobo if she liked him and was crushed when he signed maybe. She wears a pink metal suit which resembles RoboCop, but she no longer wears it during season 2. She claims her family is part of a crime-fighting team. (parody of Power Rangers/Super Sentai). She also has a list of people she hates. Riley is either on or off it. In the episode "Best friends For-Never?" it appears Riley first meets Tasumi in a broom closet when she was new at school and tried to get to homeroom but got lost. Tasumi was in the broom closet because she split her armor and was embarrassed, but Riley fixed it with the duct tape her father made her carry. In the episode "Tasumi Unmasked", it is revealed that Tasumi is in fact a Japanese pop star. She moved to Pleasant Hills in order to escape the constant adoration of her fans and live a peaceful life, as Pleasant Hills was voted as the least culturally aware town in the world and she believed that no one would recognize her. However, in order to make sure that no one recognized her, she wore a costume from a popular anime and used details from that anime in order to get a new history. That is the reason she always referred to things such as fighting giant monsters and so forth, but in reality, she never did anything of that sort. When her fans found out about this, she moved back to Japan for two weeks to record a new album until Riley replaced her band members with orangutans and she got kicked out by her new orangutan members because she has thumbs (even though orangutans do have thumbs). She came back to Pleasant Hills with Riley and no longer wears her metal suit, dumping it in the garbage. Under her metal suit, Tasumi has long black hair and a pretty face complete with a beauty mark. She wears a blue wig with her metal suit. She also has a brother named Roku.
Abbey Willson (voiced by Erica Hubbard in season 1 and Tempestt Bledsoe in season 2) is Riley's other African-American best friend. Even though she hates the popular girls such as Sierra, she is seen wanting to be a part of them so bad, and habitually tells Sierra she is cool, even though she doesn't mean to. It also seems that her parents are rich. She sometimes can be hypocritical. She has a younger sister named Tiffany who dated Todd in the episode "A Little Tiff".
Jacobo Jacobo (HA-CO-BO) (voiced by Candi Milo) is Todd's Mexican-American best friend (though his shirt has the colors of the flag of Spain). He has a funny-looking mouth. Jacobo loves mystery books and has a secret talent for singing. He has a crush on Agent K and is always trying to win her affections, even in the episode "Irreplaceable," when he begins to date Tasumi.
Shelton Gunnar Klutzberry (voiced by Jeff Bennett impersonating Jerry Lewis) is Todd's other best friend and the stereotypical nerd at school. He is afraid of girls, and once had a relationship with Celebrity Starr. He also has an imaginary girlfriend named Zelda (since an imaginary girlfriend is all that he can handle). He often thinks of himself as cool and calls the others nerds. He becomes very muscular and handsome when he takes his glasses off, but this is not to his advantage because he cannot use contacts, and has to have heavy glasses (which causes him to appear weak and scrawny). He always seems to be where ever Todd and Riley are. He sometimes just wants to be part of a popular group. In one episode he is seen to have a giant pet tortoise. In another he and his whole family are stated to be Jewish. His voice and mannerisms are mostly similar to the famous comedian Jerry Lewis's character from the movie "The Nutty Professor". When he speaks of characteristics or actions, he clarifies them by saying "with the" and adding a list of adjectives and effects (etc. "Victory is mine... with the winning, and the accomplishing, and the rubbing it in your face!"). When he gets hurt, he usually says "Hoigle!"
Buzz Winters (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is a wannabe bully and is Todd's nemesis. He usually makes silly jokes then laughs at them saying "Good one Buzz!" and "I got to start writing these down!" Although he is normally a bully in some episodes they have put their differences aside and even become friends. Deep down Buzz is jealous of Todd and Riley because their father is cooler than his is, as Buzz's father used to be the coolest in the neighborhood until Todd and Riley came along. On more than one account Buzz has been mistaken for a wild boar, although, both times, this was by Dingo McGee, on "Field Trippin'" and "Volcano Island". He also has a taste for crabgrass. Like Todd, Buzz hates school, and habitually cheats. He has many secrets including his love of the theater, and what he calls his only two shames, small feet, and ice skating.
Donny Rottweiler (voiced by Jess Harnell) is a professional bully who is much taller than Todd, but still attends his school. He is Buzz's mentor and Todd's other nemesis, feared because of his giant size.
Johnny Hitswell (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is the subject of Riley's affection and her middle school sweet heart. Even though every girl in the school is all over him, he tends to always ignore them, except for his annual Kumquat Day card readings. He enjoys basketball and baseball, and plays on the same baseball team as Todd and Riley. It is true that he likes Riley, because he asked her out on a date and then kissed her. But in season 2, he starts dating Riley as boyfriend and girlfriend. In the second season, Johnny breaks up with Riley for being to controlling after she followed him all the way to New York with Abby and Tasumi. He once stated in a later episode that she could be smothering as she was in a conversation with her friends. By the end of the series, he really admits that he wants to get back together with Riley, but he says this while talking to her robot duplicate, and it is never shown if he and Riley do get back together.
Sierra McCool (voiced by Tara Strong) is the popular girl at school, and is Riley's nemesis. She is constantly competing with Riley for the affections of Johnny Hitswell. In the second season, when Riley and Johnny become a couple, her crush on him persists, and her aim becomes to break them up so she can be Johnny's girlfriend. She has her own posse (Jennifer and Claudia) and a huge, conceited ego. She is seen to have another side in which, she is infatuated with a Star Trek parody mentioned, which Todd also likes. This advances a bond between the two, which doesn't last long when she becomes a cheerleader again. It is mentioned in the series finale that she gets her own Fleemco Phone. She has long black hair in pigtails.
Principal Cutler (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is the Inuit principal of George Stapler Middle School. Since he is originally from Alaska, he allows school on major snow days until Todd and Riley changed it one time. He is also very cheap and cares about money over the students, the school, and the faculty (he saves money for a vacation on Tahiti).
Prince Cinnamon Boots (voiced by Daran Norris) is the Daring Family's pet mule. He was originally given to Riley by her father when she asked for a show horse. PCB has many talents but is often forgotten by his family after Dick says "I keep thinking we're forgetting something."
Shelly Klutzberry (voiced by Candi Milo) is Shelton's older sister who has fewer appearances than her brother. She resembles her brother but does never change appearance when her glasses are taken off. In "Late Night with Todd and Riley" she is first mentioned as Shelton's sister and also we learn she loves Dustin Dreamlake. Though never mentioned, she presumably already had her bat mitzvah.
Jennifer (voiced by Lauren Tom) and Claudia (voiced by Erica Hubbard or Tempestt Bledsoe) are two blonde-haired twin girls who are usually seen with Sierra McCool. In the episode, "The Insecurity Guard" from the first season, a common gag was for the two girls to be commenting on what they are wearing when Todd falls in a mud puddle next to them, ruining their clothes.
Recurring
Phil Mygrave (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is Dick's stunt coordinator and brother and Riley and Todd's uncle. He is not very good with measurements, as he doesn't use proper units of measurements, rather just "tweaking the thingy on the whatchimacallit a smidge". He has also been married several times, and has poor advice for maintaining a relationship. He was twice replaced by Riley, first when Riley felt that his setting up of Dick's stunts were unprofessional and dangerous, and nearly ruins Dick's career by making all his stunts too safe, and second when Riley tried to get Dick a better love coach, and almost ended up costing Dick his stunt secrets. His name is a play on the phrase "fill my grave", referring to his shoddy assembly of Dick's stunts, a fact only noticed by C.A.R.T.E.R.
Agent B (voiced by Carolyn Seymour) is Agent K's mother and Todd and Riley's grandmother. She is the headmistress of the Royal Academy of Spies. She seems to not get along with K before the episode "London Calling", but in the episode they reconcile and B becomes a loving grandmother to Riley and Todd.
Agent G (voiced by Michael York) is Agent K's father and Todd and Riley's grandfather. He is the chief inventor of the Royal Academy of Spies, and gave cool presents to Todd and Riley in the episode "London Calling". He scared Dick when he saw the five clones of Agent G, claiming that no one would like 5 fathers-in-law.
Gordo Glideright (voiced by Bruce Campbell) is Dick's stunt rival. He is always trying to steal Dick's stunt secrets. He once had Phil Mygrave as his stunt coordinator, and injured himself. He also tried to steal Dick's stunt secrets during his time as Dick's love coach.
Dustin Dreamlake (voiced by Jason Marsden) is a parody of pop star Justin Timberlake. Riley's idol. He danced at Riley's 13th birthday party/Also on the holiday special.
Ace Palmero (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) – Local news reporter of Pleasant Hills, he always refers to himself as "I, Ace Palmero". A recurring gag involves only his profile being shown on TV with the camera changing whenever he turns to face it.
Dr. Hans Herkmer (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a scientist who works for the space program. He worked with Dick Daring in becoming a Space pilot in "Space Family Daring". He also was his replacement stunt coordinator in "Jumping Mad", and almost ruined his career as a stuntman by making all of Dick's stunts too safe, and replacing him with a monkey.
Amanda McMurphy (voiced by Candi Milo) is a hard-hitting investigator reporter who helped Riley with the school newspaper. She also got the story on how Todd's rat was able to reverse the aging process. She eventually found out about Riley and Todd's Fleemco phones and asked them to replace her because she was tired of working for the George Stapler Middle School.
Fabian Le'Tool (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is a professional male hairstylist who gives Riley a full makeover for a dance. He also prepares Todd's hair for a press conference about Todd's reversing the aging process. There is usually a running gag that reveals the fact he wears a wig (even by himself).
Davey Hunkerhoff (voiced by Zac Efron) is a super hot lifeguard (and a younger spoofed version of David Hasselhoff) that Riley used to make Johnny Hitswell jealous in the episode "Davey Hunkerhoff" when he refused to notice her. However, he actually had feelings for Riley, which inevitably led to complications between the two.
Skye Blossoms (voiced by Tara Strong) is a prevalent replacement. A hippie who refuses to judge people and believes the answers to all of your questions are "what you feel the answer is."
Mr. Vanderbosh (voiced by Rob Paulsen) is Riley's stern teacher who sent Riley to double detention after she accidentally ripped his pants, and later gave her a quadruple detention. He also sent Riley and Tasumi to the guidance office in "Best friends For-Never". He's usually mean at times.
The Kelpmans (voiced by Chip Chinery and Mary Elizabeth McGlynn) are next-door neighbors to the Darings. They were once replaced on Halloween by the Zupecks. It turned out that they worked on developing ice creams which made them too busy to prepare any Halloween decorations.
Lady Lady (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is a professional wrestler who settled Tasumi and Riley's feud for Todd in "Best Friends For-Never?" She is married to the Canadian knucklehead in "Serf's Up" before being interrupted by a mean guest "Abraslam Lincoln" for unknown reasons. Also appeared as one of Dr. Scorpius' minions in "Irreplaceable".
Wrestler Announcer (voiced by Jim Cummings) announces the wrestling matches since Riley and Tasumi's end-of-friendship argument in "Best friends For-Never". He announced Lady Lady's Marriage to Canadian Knucklehead in "Serf's Up".
Celebrity Starr (voiced by Miley Cyrus in the first appearance and Jessica DiCicco in the second appearance) – This celebrity was first found replacing Shelton's imaginary girlfriend, Zelda because Shelton had defended Riley when Sierra put a love note in Riley's locker saying it was from Shelton. Riley felt poor and had Zelda replaced with Celebrity who liked nearsighted nerds. She became so annoying that Shelton broke up with her. Even with that she vowed to never let him go causing him to lose his glasses making him a "complete hottie", which wasn't her mood and she broke up with him. In contrary to all that there was gossip going around that Shelton broke up with her, which he did. She returned to get revenge on the young nerd by making a movie to dehumanize him. She ended up casting Todd in hopes to pursue him. In the end, Todd turned her plan around and protected his friend. She instead made a movie to make fun of Todd. Also appeared as one of Scorpius' minions in "Irreplaceable".
Zephremiah and Silent Joe (both voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) are a pair of twins that are friends of Todd's. They were both in Todd's boy choir. Zephremiah apparently likes sports. His twin brother, Silent Joe, is apparently sensitive and rarely talks and communicates by grunting. Joe only talks in "Boyzroq!" when he and his brother are arguing about which one is the sensitive one.
Splatter Train is a fictional character in a recurring horror movie throughout the show. One of these times is when Todd has a sleepover and shows a scary movie with this character in it, (I think I can, I think I can, splatter you!), and another is in Riley's flashback where she was on a date with Johnny Hitswell at the movies.
Tiny Evil (voiced by Jason Marsden) – Enemy of Agent K. He is first mentioned in "Riley's Birthday" when Agent K convinced Dustin Dreamlake to sing at her party by telling him that she needed his help capturing "the cleverly disguised spy known as Tiny Evil". Is never actually seen until a much later episode, ("Canadian Fakin'"), where he pretended to be a boy from Canada in order to infiltrate Agent K's secret room of weapons and use them against her, on Dr. Scorpius' orders.
Doctor Skorpius (voiced by Dave Wittenberg) – Archenemy of Agent K and the main antagonist of the series. "Doctor" is not his title, but his first name, as shown on the address label of his "Window Washer Weekly" magazine in "The Spy Who Wasn't Riley" (Mr. Doctor Skorpius, 1 Secret Mountaintop Way). He has a scorpion tail-shaped beard and is usually seen trying to take over the world in some way. He is also known for speaking with a lisp. In "The Spy Who Wasn't Riley,", he tried to destroy Antarctica with a giant laser cannon. In another episode, he was seen relaxing on a beach that Todd and Riley happened to be on at the time. In "The Rizzle", Todd finds out that he needs glasses, but Agent K thinks he has been infected with "Dr. Scorpius' Genetically Crafted Island Eye-Fog".
Goober (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker and T-Bone (voiced by Jess Harnell) are radio DJs whom Todd idolizes. Throughout the show, they will make random appearances where they host radio contests, etc. Usually these contests will involve the Party Peacock in some way. They were replaced by Buzz Winters in the episode "Phone-less In Pleasant Hills" when he found Riley's Fleemco phone.
Buck Spikes (voiced by John DiMaggio) is a tough baseball coach who replaced Todd and Riley's old coach, Pops. Buck keeps pushing kids to the limit, and when they strike out, he cruelly throws them into a cage. Buck does not appear until the series finale, "Irreplaceable," as one of Dr. Scorpius' minions.
'Puter Dude 13 (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a "cool and mysterious recluse" (he's really a nerd) who runs the online interactive game, Fleemster. He was only seen in one episode where he met Todd and Riley after Todd got too obsessed with Fleemster.
Heather Hartley is the "Her Girl" for Teen Swoon Magazine. She has an outrageous hairstyle and usually carries around her pet turtle on a leash. According to Tasumi, "she was on the cover because she was famous, but she was famous for being on the cover". Anyway, she was replaced by Riley after she finally got sick of everyone at her school emulating her, only to become the new Her Girl herself.
Petrov (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is another enemy of Agent K. Has appeared in a few episodes where he is usually opposed by Agent K and promptly apprehended by her.
Dr. Clonemaster is yet another Agent K rival. He was seen only in the episode, "The Means Justify the Trend", in a flashback of Agent K. The cause of this flashback was Riley attempting to confide in her mother about everyone in her school dressing just like Heather Hartley, (see above). After Riley told her about this, she fears that the evil Dr. Clonemaster is up to his same tricks again, and promptly leaves to fight him.
Dingo McGee (voiced by Jeff Bennett and Carlos Alazraqui) is the replacement sent by Fleemco when Todd got sick of an archaeologist treating them like babies on a field trip in the episode "Field Trippin'". He's an adventurous, usually reckless, explorer who plays the didgeridoo. He also returned in a later episode where he hosted the popular TV show, Volcano Island, in which the families of Buzz Winters, Shelton Klutzberry, and Todd and Riley Daring all competed. He descends from Australia.
Robo Fleem SGX (voiced by Diedrich Bader) is a giant security robot that replaced the incompetent security guard at Todd's school in "The Insecurity Guard". However, the robot later went crazy and tried to destroy Riley when she tried to return it to Fleemco. This robot is the reason where George Washington Middle School became George Stapler Middle School, because it threatened to kill a teacher if she didn't say Todd was right the George Stapler was the first president of the United States. Its head also makes cameo appearances in the School in the episodes "Ratted Out" and "She Works Hard for the Movies". Another one was manufactured by Dr. Scorpius in "Irreplaceable" to destroy Todd's friends.
Mrs. Shusher (voiced by Tara Strong) is the shush-happy librarian at George Stapler Middle School. Todd got sick of her forcing everyone to be quiet, and later replaced her with a librarian who was the complete opposite of her. She returned later in the episode when her replacement was returned by Todd and Riley.
Gammazor, Mecha-Gammazor, and Grammazor – All rumored enemies of Tasumi. There are pictures of them on her "list" whenever she brings it out and threatens to put Riley on it. They both possibly descend Godzilla, Mecha-Godzilla, and as a running gag, Grammazor which only appeared in the episode "Tasumi Unmasked".
Garth (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is the school janitor that is constantly being replaced by Todd and (more often) Riley when they need a quick replacement. Garth is not very enthusiastic about his job and is fully lazy. He is also not very intelligent but seems to know that whenever he inconveniences the Darings, he gets to go somewhere nice (usually). He is also the leader of the school Smite Club and was also one of Doctor Scorpius's minions in "Irreplaceable."
Mrs. Fragile (voiced by Kath Soucie) is a replacement who is very fragile. She becomes very upset when Buzz pronounces her name "fragile" instead of "Frah-heel-leh." She also becomes upset when she thinks Riley and Tasumi are acting dumb to take advantage of the substitute teacher.
Locations
Pleasant Hills is a typical US town where the show is set.
The Fun O' Sphere is a very cool and popular hangout for kids like Todd and Jacobo. It features an arcade and an international food court. Todd had his German teacher replaced in order to be allowed to go there in the episode "German Squirmin'". In another episode, Buzz bet Todd 100 Fun O' Sphere prize tickets if Todd's dad could beat his dad in the Pleasant Hills Septathalon. Todd then has a vision of him buying a giant T-Rex with his prize tickets.
Volcano Island is a very popular reality show where the biggest celebrities, (including Heather Hartley, Ace Palmero, Dustin Dreamlake, and Celebrity Starr) all battle for survival. In a later episode, the Winters, Klutzberry, and Daring families all competed on Volcano Island in a special family edition of the show.
Camp Notalottadoe is a camp with a pretty self-explanatory name that Todd and Riley go to in Season Two of the show. Riley is made a camp counselor and given power over Todd, Shelton, and Buzz, but exploits this power and goes out for a night with other camp counselors, an action that leads to the aforementioned kids getting lost in the woods.
Obrich Gardens is the local zoo in Pleasant Hills which is looked down upon by Riley as it is full of animals shoved into extremely narrowed cages. She later replaces Hiram Smeck, a worker at this zoo (who was very underpaid), which only leads to more trouble as a result. She releases all the animals, and the remainder of the episode was spent getting them back. At the end of the episode, they went to the man in charge of the zoo, Mr. Rottswillow, who, after some coaxing, agreed to let the animals roam free on his golf course instead.
The Royal Spy Academy is a school located in England where people learn how to be spies. This school was attended by Agent K, and is run by her mother, Agent B. Todd and Riley secretly enrolled in this school when Agent K's father took C.A.R. back to London with him in the episode "London Calling". They later took part in a high-speed chase to get the Spyclopedia back from Clive, C.A.R.'s evil replacement, when it was taken from the Royal Spy Academy.
Fleemco is a company founded in 1989 by Colonel Cadmus K. Fleem, which is run today by Conrad Fleem. Fleemco is known for its many consumer products, such as FleemSol, Fleemer steamer, OxiFleem detergent, Fleem Brite toothpaste, Fleem Dream mattresses, FleemPod MP3 player, FleemDows computers, Fleem Star Line, which operates the steamship Fleemtanic, and Fleemsoft fabric softener. It is also known for its many online websites, including Fleemster, Fleemsody, FleemBay, and Fleembly But by far the most distinguishing characteristic of Fleemco is its ability to replace any given person at any given time, depending on the preference of its customers, of course. However, a customer must have a FleemTel cellphone in order to access this Fleemco service.
George Stapler Middle School is the school that both Todd and Riley attend. It used to be called George Washington Middle School, however the name was changed in the episode "The Insecurity Guard" when Todd's Robo Fleem SGX intimidated his teacher into stating that George Stapler was in fact the first president of the United States' real name instead of George Washington.
Le Petit Fromage is a French restaurant where Riley went with Johnny Hitswell on a date. Todd's parents later forced him to replace the American waiters there with real waiters from France in an attempt to make Riley's date absolutely perfect. However, this didn't turn out so well, as the French waiters never showed up, and Todd and his parents therefore had to disguise themselves as the waiters instead. The restaurant's name means "small cheese" in French.
Carlos & Ed's Tacos is a fast food restaurant that is first seen in "The Rizzle" when Todd imagines himself as having glasses. In his imagination, the sun reflects off his glasses and melts different letters off this sign so that it reads "Closed". It is again seen in "A Buzzwork Orange" in the flashback where Jacobo and Buzz meet.
Uncle Scorpion's Taco Shack is a restaurant in Spain. Agent K travels here as she believes that this is a cleverly disguised hideout of Dr. Scorpius.
Pleasant Pop Popcorn is another restaurant in Pleasant Hills that Todd destroyed with the heat vision coming from his gigantic glasses (only in his imagination, of course).
Broadcast
The series ran originally from July 28, 2006, to March 30, 2009, on Disney Channel in the United States. Although the series originally aired episodes on Saturdays at 8:00pm EST, it was moved to Mondays at 5:00pm EST. The show was taken completely off the air on August 27, 2011, after being aired for the last time on ABC Kids prior to its cancellation.
The Replacements was shown on Disney Channel UK and Ireland, Family Channel in Canada, Disney Channel Spain, Disney Channel (Latin America), and Disney Channel Mexico.
Availability
The entire series of The Replacements is available on iTunes. Disney+ only has season 1 available; season 2 is absent from the service for unknown reasons and has yet to be added.
References
External links
2000s American animated television series
2006 American television series debuts
2009 American television series endings
ABC Kids (TV programming block)
American children's animated comedy television series
Animated television series about orphans
Animated television series about siblings
Animated television series about children
Anime-influenced Western animated television series
Disney Channel original programming
English-language television shows
Television series by Disney Television Animation
Television series by Rough Draft Studios
Television shows set in Washington (state) |
4279706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifying%20Discourses%20in%20Diverse%20Spirits | Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits | Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits (, also known as Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits) is a book, by Søren Kierkegaard, published on March 13, 1847. The book is divided into three parts just as Either/Or was in 1843 and many of his other discourses were. Kierkegaard had been working toward creating a place for the concepts of guilt and sin in the conscience of the single individual. He discussed the ideas generated by both Johann von Goethe and Friedrich Hegel concerning reason and nature. This book is his response to the ideas that nature and reason are perfect.
The first part of the book is a challenge to those who say they are not guilty of anything. Kierkegaard plays the questioner and asks tough questions throughout the text, such as, "What is patience? Is not patience the courage that freely takes upon itself the suffering that cannot be avoided?" "Are you now living in such a way that you are aware of being a single individual and thereby aware of your eternal responsibility before God." "Is not evil, just like evil people, at odds with itself, divided in itself?" "What is it to be more ashamed before others than before oneself but to be more ashamed of seeming than being?" "Should not he who planted the ear hear? But is not the opposite conclusion just as beautiful and convincing: Should not he whose life is sacrificing love believe that God is love?" "What means do you use to perform your work; is the means just as important to you as the end, just exactly as important?"
The second part has to do with the idea that nature is perfect. He goes back to Job as he did in his Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1843. He says, "The silent friends did not compare Job with themselves—this did not happen until their respect (in which they silently held him) ceased and they broke the silence in order to attack the sufferer with speeches, but their presence prompted Job to compare himself with himself. No individual can be present, even though in silence, in such a way that his presence means nothing at all by way of comparison. At best, this can be done by a child, who indeed has a certain likeness to the lilies of the field and the birds of the air." "God isolated the human being, made every human being this separate and distinct individual, which is implied in the unconditional character of those first thoughts. The individual animal is not isolated, is not unconditionally separate entity; the individual animal is a number and belongs under what that most famous pagan thinker has called the animal category: the crowd. The human being who in despair turns away from those first thoughts in order to plunge into the crowd of comparisons makes himself a number, regards himself as a beast, no matter whether he by way of comparison is distinguished or lowly. But with the lilies the worried one is isolated, far away from all human or, perhaps more correctly, inhuman comparisons between individuals."
The third part deals with the concept of the abstract and the concrete examples. Kierkegaard wrote of individuals known only as A and B in his first book, Either/Or. He then made them less abstract by making A into the Young Man in Repetition (1843) and B into his guide, the psychiatrist Constantin Constantius. The same day that he published Repetition he published Fear and Trembling which showed Abraham as an individual who was alone with God as he considered whether to follow his commands. He continued writing until he came to the concrete human being named Christ and wrote about the joy there is in following Christ. He's not against the ethics of Hegel or the aesthetics of Goethe but thinks that following Christ is the one thing needful. And that double-mindedness is the beginning of the sickness of the spirit for the single individual.
Structure
The book begins with a dedication just as some of his Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses did, however, this book is not dedicated to his father, but to “That Single Individual”. He published these discourses and later wrote a longer dedication called The Crowd is Untruth where he wrote: This, which is now considerably revised and enlarged, was written and intended to accompany the dedication to "that single individual," which is found in "Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits." Copenhagen, Spring 1847.
Walter Lowrie translated The Point of View of My Work as an Author by Kierkegaard in 1939, 1962 and included My Activity as a Writer by Soren Kierkegaard (1851) in the book. Here Kierkegaard wrote, "I attached myself again religiously to "that individual", to whom the next essential work (after the Concluding Postscript) was dedicated. I refer to Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits, or rather the first part of that book which is an exhortation to confession. Perhaps nobody noticed it the first time I employed the category "that individual", and nobody paid much attention to the fact that it was repeated in stereotyped form in the preface of every number of the Edifying Discourses. Religiously speaking, there is no such thing as a public, but only individuals; for religion is seriousness and seriousness is the individual."
This book has a preface and Kierkegaard has said to pay attention to the prefaces in his book of the same name. The book also has a dedication. Here is the first half of his preface. Kierkegaard thinks an individual must bring the occasion (the need) along with them to become the learner.
On the Occasion of a Confession
On the Occasion of a Confession was a postscript to the first section of Three Discourses on Imagined Occasions (On the Occasion of a Confessional Service). This section has also been titled Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing.
Kierkegaard asks how an individual can find out if they are on the "right" path in life. Confession and repentance before God is his answer with a warning about double-mindedness. If a single individual were to ask themself all the questions asked in this section and try to discover all the evasions used to keep from acting single-mindedly, that person would discover that it is very difficult to say I am innocent. In Works of Love (1847) he asks his reader to "Imagine an enthusiast who enthusiastically wills only one thing and enthusiastically wants to sacrifice everything for the good." Here he is writing about the inwardness of prayer. He says,
He asks, "What does the conscience want to emphasize by means of the awareness that you are a single individual?" (Hong p. 132) He answers this way: To will, in the decision, to be and to remain with the good is truth's brief expression for willing to do everything, and in this expression the equality is maintained that recognizes no distinction with regard to that more essential diversity of life or of the human condition: to be acting or to be suffering, since the one who is suffering can, in the decision, also be with the good. …. With respect to the highest, with respect to willing to do everything, it makes no difference at all, God be praised, how big or how little the task. Oh, how merciful the eternal is to us human beings! Soren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, Hong p. 79–80
Later, in Works of Love, Kierkegaard sums up the essence of what it means to have a pure heart using a metaphors from Archimedes and the New Testament.
What we Learn from the Lilies in the Field and from the Birds in the Air
The first discourse (To Be Contented with Being a Human Being) deals with comparison and choice and how to trust God with the choice once made. He may have been echoing Goethe's Propylaen in which Goethe had written "The youth, when Nature and Art attract him, thinks that with a vigorous effort he can soon penetrate into the innermost sanctuary; the man, after long wanderings, finds himself still in the outer court. Such an observation has suggested our title. It is only on the step, in the gateway, the entrance, the vestibule, the space between the outside and the inner chamber, between the sacred and the common, that we may ordinarily tarry with our friends." Kierkegaard writes about nature differently than Goethe but similarly because both see Nature as teachers of humankind and Kierkegaard wrote very much about "the inner being," the soul.
Kierkegaard wrote a great story about a lily and a naughty bird. It begins like this:
The second discourse deals with diverting oneself from worries by "learning from the bird how glorious it is to be a human being." David F. Swenson translated several of Kierkegaard's discourses which were published in 1958 through the efforts of Paul L Holmer. Kierkegaard wrote of The Glory of Our Common Humanity. This was the second of three discourses that were all based on the text from Matthew 6 verses 24 to the end. It was titled How Glorious It Is to Be a Human Being by Howard V Hong when he translated Kierkegaard's book in 1993.
The structure of the three discourses about the lilies and the birds is as follows: the first is esthetic, the second ethical, the third religious. Journal and Papers of Soren Kierkegaard VIII A 1 1847
Kierkegaard writes about the gift given to human beings that nature doesn't have, conscience. With the use of conscience we can know about time and the future. Something nature cannot know. He sums the human ability to love and the distinctiveness of nature up in Works of Love, which he published four months later.
The third discourse was titled What Blessed Happiness is Promised in Being a Human Being by Howard V Hong. Kierkegaard is constantly stressing the importance there is in being a human being instead of a beast in the field because you have been given the gift of choice. "A choice. My listener, do you know how to express in a single word anything more glorious! If you talked year in and year out, could you mention anything more glorious than a choice, to have choice! It is certainly true that the sole blessing is to choose rightly, but certainly choice itself is the glorious condition." Kierkegaard began writing about this choice in his first book Either/Or where he wrote first as the aesthetic and then as the ethicist. Hegel thinks that history and philosophy should come afterwards and explain events. Kierkegaard thinks its better to come beforehand.Only one word more concerning the desire to teach the world what it ought to be. For such a purpose philosophy at least always comes too late. Philosophy, as the thought of the world, does not appear until reality has completed its formative process, and made itself ready. History thus corroborates the teaching of the conception that only in the maturity of reality does the ideal appear as counterpart to the real, apprehends the real world in its substance, and shapes it into an intellectual kingdom. When philosophy paints its grey in grey, one form of life has become old, and by means of grey it cannot be rejuvenated, but only known. The owl of Minerva takes its flight only when the shades of night are gathering.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Philosophy of Right translated by SW Dyde Queen's University Canada 1896 edition Preface xxxHang yourself, you will regret it; do not hang yourself, and you will also regret that; hang yourself or do not hang yourself, you will regret both; whether you hang yourself or do not hang yourself, you will regret both. This, gentlemen, is the sum and substance of all philosophy. It is only at certain moments that I view everything acterno modo, as Spinoza says, but I live constantly aeterno modo. There are many who think that they live thus, because after having done the one or the other, they combine or mediate the opposites. But this is a misunderstanding: for the true eternity does not lie behind either/or, but before it. Hence, their eternity will be a painful succession of temporal moments, for they will be consumed by a two-fold regret.
Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or part I, Swenson p. 37–39It is a sign of a well brought up child to be inclined to say it is sorry without too much pondering whether it is in the right or not, and it is likewise a sign of a high-minded person and a deep soul if he is inclined to repent, if he does not take God to court but repents and loves God in his repentance. Without this, his life is nothing, only like foam. Indeed, I assure you that if my life through no fault of my own were so interwoven with sorrows and sufferings that I could call myself the greatest tragic hero, could divert myself with my affliction and shock the world by naming it, my choice is made: I strip myself of the hero's garb and the pathos of tragedy; I am not the tormented one who can be proud of his sufferings; I am the humbled one who feels my offense; I have only one word for what I am suffering—guilt, only one word for my pain—repentance, only one hope before my eyes—forgiveness. And if it proves to be difficult for me to do—oh, then I have only one prayer. I would throw myself upon the earth and appeal from morning till night to the heavenly power who rules the world for one favor, that it might be granted me to repent, for I know only one sorrow that could bring me to despair and plunge everything into it—that repentance is an illusion, an illusion not with respect to the forgiveness it seeks but with respect to the imputation it presupposes.
Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or part II, Hong p. 237–238Spiritually understood, temporality and eternity are two magnitudes that are to be weighed. But in order to deliberate the person in turn must be a third party or have a third position in relation to the two magnitudes. This is the choice: he weighs, he deliberates, he chooses. Here, however there is never any chance that the two magnitudes weigh equally much, which can of course happen with a scale, it indicates the relation as one of equality. No, praise God, that can never happen, because properly understood the eternal already has a certain overweight and the person who refuses to understand this can never begin really to deliberate. So a person deliberates before he begins.
Soren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits, 1847, Hong p. 306–307
Kierkegaard stresses not only having a choice but learning how to use it. He concludes, "But then in his sadness out there with the lily and the bird the worried one did indeed acquire something other than his worry to think about; he began to consider what blessed happiness is promised in being a human being. Then let the lily wither and let its loveliness become indiscernible; let the leaf fall to the ground and the bird fly away; let it become dark on the fields—God's kingdom does not change with the seasons! So let the rest be needed for a long time or a short time, let all these things have their moment when they are lacking or possessed, their moment is a subject of discussion until in death they are eternally forgotten—God's kingdom is still that which is to be sought first but which ultimately will also last through all eternities, and "if that which will be abolished was glorious, that which remains will be more glorious,: and if it was hard to live in want, then it must indeed be only an easier separation to die to want!
The Gospel of Sufferings
A.S Aldworth and W.S. Ferrie from Cambridge University translated The Gospel of Sufferings in 1955. The following is from his introduction.
Now he begins to write of the meaning and joy there is in following Christ. It wasn't the first thing he wrote about but he did write about learning, over time, to follow Christ and while learning to also learn to confess, repent and accept as well as give forgiveness. His emphasis has been on seeking God's kingdom first (Matthew 6:33) and learning to be "silent before God".
His first three texts are from Luke 14:27 Whoever does not carry his cross and come after me cannot be my disciple. Matthew 11:30 My yoke is beneficial, and my burden light. and It is said of him the Lord Jesus Christ: Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he suffered Hebrews 5:8. Acts 5:41 Kierkegaard writes about why it might not be so great to have the "distinction" of being an apostle. they went away joyful because they had been deemed worthy to be scorned for the sake of Christ's name. He concluded this way:
Kierkegaard compared a pound of gold and a pound of feathers. He views the pound of feathers as a lesser weight because of the value of gold compared to feathers. He then asks the reader to decide if a pound of temporality is equal to a pound of eternity. Feathers and gold and temporality and eternity and numbers all have value in this world. He has seven different discourses in this third section. He seems to be using religious numbers generally while writing but always referring to Christianity specifically.
Kierkegaard seems to have fulfilled his goal presented in Concluding Unscientific Postscript, where he said it had become clear to him that people had forgotten what it means to be religious (confession and repentance before God) and had also forgotten what it means to be a human being and had therefore also forgotten what it means to try to become a Christian. He put it this way.
Criticism
Edifiying Discourses in Diverse Spirits, also Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits was published on March 13, 1847, and is one of the first books in Søren Kierkegaard's second authorship. His first authorship included all of his books up to and including Two Ages: A Literary Review which was published March 30, 1846. He had just published his Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments on February 27, 1846. He wrote both pseudonymous books as well as books signed by his own name. His Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses were all signed by Soren Kierkegaard as author while other books, such as, Either/Or, Repetition, and The Concept of Anxiety were published under pseudonyms. Howard V. Hong says the book had no record of sales and was not reprinted in Kierkegaard's lifetime.
Previously Kierkegaard had published his own books through two different bookstores, Bookdealer P. G. Philipsen Three Upbuilding Discourses, 1843 and C.A. Reitzel's, Printed by Biance Luno Press Repetition. This book was published "on an honorarium basis" through another Danish book publisher, Reitzel Forlag. The publishing cost was minimum.
The first section was translated into English in 1938 by Douglas V. Steere and titled Purity of Heart Is To Will One Thing. Steere also wrote the introduction to David F Swenson's 1946 translation of Works of Love. Howard V. and Edna H. Hong translated all the discourses and Princeton University Press published them in 1993. Scholars generally paid more attention to his pseudonymous writings than his discourses.
Harold Victor Martin published Kierkegaard, the Melancholy Dane (1950) and had this to say about this book:
Robert L Perkins of Stetson University edited The International Kierkegaard Commentary Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits in 2005. This book presents scholarly perspectives from people interested in the writings of Soren Kierkegaard. He states that A.S. Aldworth and W.S. Ferrie published Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits in three parts Purify your Hearts (1937), Consider the Lilies (1940) and Gospel of Suffering (1955), the 1955 edition was reprinted in an American edition in 1964. Gospel of Sufferings and The Lilies of the Field were translated by David F Swenson and Lillian Marvin Swenson in 1948. Perkin's book is in External Links below.
Douglas V. Steere wrote a lengthy introduction to his 1938 publication of the first part of Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits. Purify your Heart of 1937 became Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing in the hands of Steere in 1938. He says Eduard Geismar (1871–1939), the Danish scholar, said of the book, "It seems to me that nothing that he has written has sprung so directly out of his relationship with God as this address. Anyone who wishes to understand Kierkegaard properly will do well to begin with it."
Steere wrote Doors Into Life in 1948 and devoted his fourth chapter to Kierkegaard and Purity of Heart. He said, "In a strangely universal way, Kierkegaard is both ancient and modern, both a fierce desert prophet and a metropolitan sophisticate who is all too well schooled in the artifices of modern life to be deceived by them."
Geismar lectured on Kierkegaard at Princeton University in 1936. He wrote the following about this book,
Howard V Hong translated the wrote book in 1993 along with his wife Edna H Hong. It was translated again in 2005. Hong's 1993 introduction surmised that Kierkegaard perhaps published 500 copies of this book during his lifetime.
Three Discourses on Imagined Occasions & Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits were reviewed together in 1994 by Karl Dusza for First Things Magazine He wrote:
Kierkegaard wrote about the expectation of the Christian. The difference Christ made in the world is that he took away the burdens of the Christian. Kierkegaard wrote much about the consciousness of sin and wrote about the difference Christianity makes.
James Collins, from Saint Louis University, wrote the following about Kierkegaard's Gospel of Suffering in 1953. "Find a point which is under fire by an atheist of the nineteenth century and which is also defended by a seventeenth century man of faith and you have found an incontrovertibly religious belief. Such is the case with suffering, which is a scandal to a Feuerbach and a matter of glory to a Pascal, but to both a distinguishing note of the Christian mode of existence. In the degree that it promotes a meditative inwardness, Christianity makes us aware of God's supreme goodness and our own distance from, and hostility towards, His holiness. A religious sense of one's own sinfulness leads neither to morbid despair nor to rationalization. It issues in a voluntary acceptance of suffering as a way of atoning for sin to God, the just judge, and a way of approaching closer to God the redeemer. In a series of discourses entitled The Gospel of Suffering, Kierkegaard establishes the relation between guilt, suffering, and the triumph of faith, much after the manner of Luther's dialectical treatment of the theme of the sinner as a believer."
Notes
References
Sources
Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits translated by Howard V & Edna H Hong. Princeton University Press, 1993.
Hong, Howard V. & Edna H. The Essential Kierkegaard. Princeton University Press, 2000.
D. Anthony Storm's Commentary on Discourses
External links
Purity of Heart Steere translation – whole text in English
Purity of Heart Is to Will One Thing by Sören Kierkegaard Translator's Introduction by Douglas V. Steere 1938
The Glory of Our Common Humanity David F Swenson's translation of How Glorious It Is to Be a Human Being from What We Learn From the Lilies in the Field and From the Birds of the Air
The Joy in the Thought That it is not the Way Which is Narrow, but the Narrowness Which is the Way David F Swenson's translation of The Joy of it That it Is Not the Road That Is Hard but That Hardship Is the Road published 1958 from The Gospel of Sufferings, Christian Discourses
The Road is the How Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits published in 1847, Hong's p. 289 Audio Reading
Clifford Williams The Divided Soul: A Kierkegaardian Exploration 2009 - A Study of Purity of Heart
Silvia Walsh - On Becoming a Person of Character Discussion of Kierkegaard's views on Christianity
Robert L. Perkins International Kierkegaard Commentary Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits Mercer University Press, 2005
Chronology of Kierkegaard's works from Kierkegaard Internet Resources
1847 books
Books by Søren Kierkegaard
Christian literature
Ethics books
Suffering
Psychology books
Existentialist books |
4279761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce%20Pearl | Bruce Pearl | Bruce Alan Pearl (born March 18, 1960) is an American college basketball coach who is currently the head coach of the Auburn Tigers men's basketball team. He previously served in the same position for the Tennessee, Milwaukee, and Southern Indiana. Pearl led Southern Indiana to a Division II national championship in 1995, during which he was named Division II Coach of the Year by the National Association of Basketball Coaches.
In Division I, his teams have won four conference championships and three conference tournament championships, and qualified for ten NCAA tournament appearances and one Final Four. Pearl is the second-fastest NCAA coach to reach 300 victories, needing only 382 games to reach this mark (Roy Williams needed 370 games at Kansas to reach this milestone).
Pearl was named Coach of the Year by Sporting News in 2006 and was awarded the Adolph Rupp Cup in 2008. He also served as the head coach for the Maccabi USA men's basketball team that won the gold medal at the 2009 Maccabiah Games.
Personal life
A native of Boston, Pearl attended Sharon High School in Sharon, Massachusetts. He is one of the few Division I basketball coaches who never played high school basketball, even at the junior varsity level (being the only head coach in the 2022 NCAA tournament with that distinction); a shoulder injury while playing football in his first year of high school prevented him from further pursuing sports as a player. Pearl is a 1982 graduate of Boston College, where he served as the manager of the men's basketball team.
Pearl is Jewish. His Hebrew name is Mordechai, after Queen Esther’s uncle Mordechai from the Jewish holiday of Purim. Pearl was the first president of the Jewish Coaches Association, and in 2019 became the fifth Jewish head basketball coach to lead a team to the Final Four. The Algemeiner named Pearl one of 100 people positively influencing Jewish life in 2022.
Coaching career
Pearl has also been the head coach at Tennessee, Milwaukee and, prior to that, at Southern Indiana, where he won a Division II national championship. He also served as an assistant coach at Stanford and at Iowa under then-head coach Tom Davis.
Against division rival Kentucky and in-state rival Vanderbilt, Pearl chose to wear a brightly colored orange jacket in honor of the late UT coach Ray Mears. Pearl also wore the jacket during the 2009 SEC Men's Tournament Final.
Assistant Coach (1982–1992)
Pearl served as an assistant coach at both Stanford from 1982 to 1986 and at Iowa from 1986 to 1992 under Coach Tom Davis. Davis had served as head coach at Boston College from 1977 to 1982 and Pearl had served as his team student-manager.
Pearl/Thomas incident (1988–1989)
During the 1988–89 basketball season, Pearl, then an assistant coach at Iowa, was at the center of a recruiting scandal involving Illinois. Both Illinois and Iowa were recruiting Deon Thomas, a top high school player from Chicago. Pearl lost this recruiting battle when Thomas committed to Illinois. Thereafter, Pearl called the high school student and recorded a phone conversation with Thomas, which may have been illegal depending on where Pearl originated the call. (Illinois requires prior consent of all participants to monitor or record a phone conversation according to Ill. Rev. Stat. Ch. 38, Sec. 14–2; Iowa, where Pearl was coaching at the time, only requires one party's consent to record a phone conversation.) During the conversation, Pearl asked Thomas if he had been offered an SUV and cash by Illinois assistant coach Jimmy Collins, and Thomas seemed to indicate that he had. Pearl then turned over copies of the tapes to the NCAA, accompanied by a memo describing the events. During the subsequent NCAA investigation, Thomas denied the allegations and said the story was false, that he was agreeing with Pearl only to try to get rid of him. Thomas later passed a polygraph test in which he denied Pearl's accusation of Illinois's offering cash and a car. The NCAA did not find Illinois guilty of any wrongdoing relating to Thomas's recruitment, finding that the purported evidence provided was not "credible, persuasive and of a kind on which reasonably prudent persons rely in the conduct of serious affairs." Because the investigation uncovered other violations, however, including Illinois's third major violation in six years, the NCAA cited Illinois with a "lack of institutional control" charge and implemented several recruiting restrictions and a one-year postseason ban.
When Pearl and Collins were both head coaches for four years in the Horizon League, the two men never engaged in the traditional postgame handshake, reportedly due to lingering feelings over the incident. When Thomas was asked about forgiving Pearl in a 2005 interview, he was quoted as saying, "It's hard to forgive a snake." Thomas went on to become the University of Illinois's all-time leading scorer.
Southern Indiana (1992–2001)
In 1992, Pearl got his first head-coaching job, at Southern Indiana. He inherited a Screaming Eagles team that had won just 10 games in the previous season. Pearl posted a 22–7 record in his first season, and led the Eagles to nine straight NCAA D-II tournaments in addition to winning four Great Lakes Valley Conference titles.
In 1994, USI finished with a 28–4 record en route to a loss in the D-II championship game; in 1995, the Eagles won 29 games and claimed the D–II championship behind national Player of the Year Stan Gouard. A team from the GLVC played for the National Championship every year after his first season at USI. Pearl was named the NABC Division II coach of the year after his national championship. He left USI with a 231–46 record over nine years.
Milwaukee (2001–2005)
Despite Pearl's success at turning Southern Indiana into a major power, it took him almost a decade to return to Division I; reportedly, he was blackballed by the Division I college coaching fraternity for his role in inadvertently revealing violations at Illinois by submitting a different accusation.
Pearl took over as head coach of Milwaukee in 2001. In just four seasons, he compiled 86 wins (including a school-record 26 in 2005, and a new Horizon League record for winning percentage) and led Milwaukee to their first NCAA tournament appearances in 2003 and 2005. Pearl led them to the Horizon League tournament title in both of those years. He also led the school to its first ever NIT bid, as well as its first-ever NCAA D–I postseason victory, in 2004. Milwaukee's 2005 NCAA Tournament run capped the best season in school history, as the Panthers won both the regular season and conference tournament titles, defeating the Detroit Titans in the championship game. Using an intense full-court press, the Panthers scored two upsets in three days over Alabama and Boston College en route to the Sweet Sixteen, where they fell to eventual national runner-up Illinois. The Panthers finished their season 26–6 and were ranked in the coaches poll at the end of the season for the first time ever (#23). Pearl left UWM after the 2005 season, his fourth, as the Horizon League's leader in all-time winning percentage (51–13, 79.7%).
Tennessee (2005–2011)
2005–06
On March 28, 2005, Pearl was named as the new head coach at Tennessee, succeeding Buzz Peterson. Tyler Smith had signed with the Vols under Peterson, but decided not to attend Tennessee. Jamont Gordon went to conference rival Mississippi State. Smith opted for a season of prep school before heading to Iowa, though later transferred to Tennessee and became a starter. Pearl stirred up more controversy when he released Matthew Dotson from his scholarship.
Expectations were low for the Vols in Pearl's first season. Having lost their two leading scorers from a team that had been just 14–17 the previous season, Tennessee was picked to finish fifth in the six-team Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. The season started off well, however, and Tennessee entered the national rankings in December, when it routed then No. 2-ranked Texas, 95–78.
The Vols went on to lead the SEC East for virtually the entire season, with other highlights being a win over Kentucky at Rupp Arena and two wins over eventual national champion Florida. But after entering the AP Top 10 in February, the team lost six of its last nine games and dropped to a ranking of 18th. Although Tennessee won the SEC East, it was upset in the second round of both the SEC and NCAA tournaments, the latter as a no. 2 seed. The team's 22–8 record was one of the best in school history. Following the season, Pearl drew accolades from national recruiting services for signing one of the nation's best recruiting classes, featuring three top-50 recruits in Duke Crews, Wayne Chism and Ramar Smith.
2006–07
On January 22, 2007, Pearl attended a Lady Vols game with his upper body painted orange. He and a few of his players spelled out "V-O-L-S" (Pearl was the "V"). Pearl stood in front of the student section and cheered for the Lady Vols as they came out. Pearl's actions brought national media attention to the Tennessee program, and highlighted efforts to support women's collegiate athletics. Lady Vols basketball coach Pat Summitt returned the favor on Senior Night for the men's team on February 27, 2007. Before the game, Summitt came out as a cheerleader, complete with uniform, and she led the crowd in a rendition of Rocky Top. The seventh-largest crowd in school history also witnessed Pearl's squad rout the then No. 4-ranked defending and eventual national champions Florida Gators.
Pearl's team went on to finish tied for second in the SEC East with Vanderbilt, earning a No. 5 seed in the NCAA tournament. The Vols crushed Long Beach State by 35 points in the first round, then rallied to upset Virginia to reach Pearl's second Sweet 16. The Vols were defeated in the next round by the nation's top-ranked Ohio State Buckeyes, losing by a point though the Volunteers led the majority of the game. Tennessee's 24 wins were then ranked third in the program's history. Pearl was rumored as a candidate for the head coaching position at Iowa, but indicated on March 27, 2007, that he was not interested in leaving Tennessee.
2007–08
On February 23, 2008, Pearl led the second-ranked Vols into in-state, undefeated rival Memphis to play the # 1 ranked Tigers. After a back and forth, emotionally heated contest, Tennessee defeated Memphis 66–62, handing Memphis its first loss of the season and its first home loss in 47 games. The win also cemented UT with a # 1 rank the following week—the first #1 ranking in the school's 100-year basketball history. One day after the rankings were posted, however, the # 1 Vols were upset by the Vanderbilt Commodores 72–69.
On March 5, 2008, Pearl's team defeated the Florida Gators 89–86 to claim Tennessee's first outright SEC Regular Season Championship in 41 years. On March 16, 2008, Tennessee was chosen as a #2 seed in the East region of the 2008 NCAA basketball tournament. Pearl's Volunteers advanced to the semifinals (Sweet 16) of the East Regional, beating Pearl's former Horizon League rival and 7-seed Butler in the second round. They ended their season losing to the Louisville Cardinals by a score of 79–60. The 31 total victories that season are the most in school history.
2008–09
December 3, 2008, marked a significant date for Pearl as he was able to win his 400th game by defeating UNC-Asheville. In doing so, Pearl became the 6th-fastest basketball coach to ever reach the 400 mark and 2nd-fastest among active head coaches (behind Roy Williams). The night was also very important for the Tennessee basketball program. It marked the 35th consecutive victory at home for Pearl and the Vols, beating the previous streak of 33 wins, which extended from January 2, 1966, to February 24, 1968. In addition, Tyler Smith recorded the school's first ever triple-double when he had 12 points, 10 assists and 10 rebounds. In March Pearl would lead the Vols to their first SEC Tournament Final in 20 years, where they would lose in a controversial finish to Mississippi State. The Vols went on to earn a 9 seed in the NCAA tournament where they were eliminated by Oklahoma State 77–75 on March 20, 2009. UT announced that they and Pearl just agreed to a six-year extension for Pearl to stay with the university.
2010–11
On November 17, 2009, Pearl was able to record victory number 100 at Tennessee, the second fastest UT coach to reach the century mark, as his team defeated UNC-Asheville 124–49. The 124-point total was the most ever scored by Tennessee in a regular season game. Tennessee's 34 assists also set a school record and its 16 3-pointers tied another.
On January 10, 2010, Tennessee defeated the #1 ranked Kansas Jayhawks in Knoxville, 74–68. This was the first time that Tennessee defeated a #1 ranked team at Thompson–Boling Arena.
On February 27, 2010, Tennessee defeated the #2 ranked Kentucky Wildcats in Knoxville, 74–65, cementing the Vols (all 5 years that Pearl has coached) for its 5th straight NCAA tournament appearance.
On Bruce Pearl's 50th birthday, March 18, 2010, Tennessee defeated San Diego State in the first round of the NCAA basketball tournament by a score of 62–59. The Vols followed this victory with a second round defeat of Ohio, 83–69, to advance to the Sweet 16 for the third time in four years and Pearl's fourth Sweet 16 in six years.
On March 26, 2010, the Tennessee Volunteers advanced to their first Elite 8 in school history with a 76–73 defeat of the Ohio State Buckeyes. On March 28, the Volunteers narrowly missed a trip to the Final Four, losing 70–69 to the Michigan State Spartans in the Midwest Regional Final in St. Louis.
Early in the 2010–11 season Tennessee beat nationally ranked Villanova and Pittsburgh, reaching a 7–0 record and #7 AP ranking. However, controversy from an NCAA investigation took its toll on the team. The Vols went only 4–8 in their last 12 games. After limping to an 8–8 conference record, Tennessee was blown out by 30 points in the second round of the 2011 NCAA tournament by Michigan. This was the largest margin of defeat in the history of the NCAA tournament between a #8 and #9 seed. As it turned out, this would be the last game Pearl would coach at Tennessee.
NCAA investigation
In the summer of 2008, Pearl invited high school junior Aaron Craft and members of his family to a cookout at his Knoxville home while Craft was on an unofficial visit to Tennessee. At the cookout, Pearl said that Craft wasn't allowed to be there under NCAA rules, but encouraged all those in attendance not to tell anyone about it. When the NCAA began an investigation of the affair, Pearl not only lied about the cookout, but also told Craft's father to lie as well.
On September 10, 2010, Pearl acknowledged the violations in the Craft affair, and also admitted lying about it to the NCAA. As a result, Tennessee imposed sanctions on Pearl and his entire staff including $1.5 million in salary reduction over the coming five years and a delayed retention bonus. His off-campus recruiting was also restricted completely from September 4, 2010, to September 23, 2011. On November 20, 2010, the SEC ordered Pearl to sit out Tennessee's first eight SEC games.
After finding out about additional NCAA violations, as well as a violation of the school's substance abuse policy by a player, Tennessee fired Pearl on March 21, 2011—three days after the Vols' blowout loss to Michigan.
On August 23, 2011, Pearl was given a three-year show-cause penalty for lying to the NCAA, effective until August 23, 2014. This meant that the sanctions imposed on Pearl would remain in force if he was hired by an NCAA member school within that period. Specifically, he was prohibited from engaging in any "recruiting activities", which meant he could not contact recruits, although he could evaluate talent during that period. If a school chose to hire him and challenged the NCAA restrictions, it had to appear before the NCAA Committee on Infractions and "show cause" for why the sanctions imposed on Pearl should not follow him to that school. In imposing the penalty, the NCAA said that Pearl's lies turned what would have been a minor case into a major one. His assistant coaches were also given one-year show-cause orders, in effect until August 23, 2012.
On August 30, 2011, Pearl accepted a position as Vice President of Marketing for Knoxville wholesaler H. T. Hackney.
Auburn (2014–present)
Pearl was named Auburn's head basketball coach on March 18, 2014, replacing Tony Barbee. At the time he was hired, he still had five months remaining on his show-cause order for violations at Tennessee. As a result, he could not have contact with recruits during the summer recruiting period, but could evaluate them. Pearl was greeted by 100-plus fans when he arrived at the Auburn University Regional Airport that afternoon. Pearl was formally introduced as Auburn's 20th head basketball coach at a press conference in Auburn Arena that evening. On the opportunity, Pearl said, "I’m humbled and blessed to be back in the game that I love. I don’t know how long it will take, but it’s time to rebuild the Auburn basketball program, and bring it to a level of excellence so many of the other teams on campus enjoy. I’m thrilled to join the Auburn family and appreciative of this opportunity and the challenge that awaits." Pearl signed a 6-year contract worth $2.2 million per year with a $100,000 annual escalator.
Pearl won his first game as Auburn's head coach on November 14, 2014, against his former school, Milwaukee, 83–73. Despite failing to finish with a winning record for the first time in his career as a head coach, Pearl's first two seasons at Auburn were not without some significant wins. He led Auburn to the SEC tournament semifinals in 2015 as a 13 seed, and ended Auburn's 18-game losing streak to Kentucky in 2016. He earned his 500th career win as a head coach on January 18, 2017, after defeating LSU, 78–74.
Before Pearl's fourth season at Auburn, his associate head coach Chuck Person was arrested on charges of corruption and bribery. Auburn elected to hold sophomores Austin Wiley and Danjel Purifoy out of games due to eligibility concerns raised over the FBI investigation. Pearl was cited as being uncooperative with Auburn's internal investigation of the program at first, though school president Steven Leath and Pearl have since come to an understanding of expectations for the investigation. Despite the scrutiny both internally and externally and losing two players due to the investigation, Pearl led the 2017–18 team to its best record since 1999 while winning the SEC regular season championship. A player, Bryce Brown, credits the recent team success to Pearl's taking them to Italy to build team 'chemistry', opponent preparation by Pearl, and the head coach's strong belief in each player.
In 2019, Pearl's team tied for 4th in the conference and won the SEC Conference tournament by beating Tennessee handily in the championship game 84–64, giving Auburn their 2nd tournament championship. In the 2019 NCAA tournament, Pearl's Auburn team narrowly defeated #12 seed New Mexico State 78–77 in the first round. Auburn subsequently topped #4 seed Kansas 89–75 to advance to its first Sweet Sixteen appearance in 16 years. Auburn then beat #1 seed North Carolina 97–80 to advance to the Elite Eight, before defeating #2 seed Kentucky 77–71 in overtime to advance to Auburn's first ever Final Four. Auburn became only the second team in NCAA history to defeat the three winningest programs in college basketball history, Kansas, North Carolina, and Kentucky in the same season. Auburn lost to Virginia in the Final Four, 63–62.
The 2020 season would be successful for Pearl and the Tigers with the team finishing second in the SEC with a 25-6 record prior to the cancellation of the season due to COVID-19.
2022 was a historic season for Pearl and Auburn, Pearl led the Tigers to the programs first ever #1 ranking in the AP Poll. The Tigers would win the SEC regular season championship and set a program record for regular season wins but would fall in the Round of 32 to Miami. Following the season, Pearl led the Tigers to make draft history as well. Auburn poward forward Jabari Smith Jr. was selected number three overall in the 2022 NBA draft, making him the highest draft pick in program history. Auburn center Walker Kessler was also selected in the first round at pick twenty-two, marking the first time that Auburn has had multiple players taken in the first round.
Also during the 2022 season, Pearl signed an eight-year, $50.2 million contract extension. The new deal went into effect after the season and keeps Pearl at Auburn until 2030 at a $5.4 million base salary that increases by $250,000 each year.
Pearl's current record at Auburn is .
Head coaching record
^a Auburn was ineligible for postseason play in 2021 after imposing sanctions due to former assistant coach Chuck Person's involvement in the 2017–18 NCAA Division I men's basketball corruption scandal.
Footnotes
References
External links
Bruce Pearl's memo to the NCAA
1960 births
Living people
21st-century American Jews
American men's basketball coaches
Auburn Tigers men's basketball coaches
Basketball coaches from Massachusetts
Boston College alumni
Boston College Eagles men's basketball coaches
College basketball announcers in the United States
College basketball controversies in the United States
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Iowa Hawkeyes men's basketball coaches
Jewish American sportspeople
Milwaukee Panthers men's basketball coaches
NCAA sanctions
People from Sharon, Massachusetts
Southern Indiana Screaming Eagles men's basketball coaches
Sportspeople from Boston
Stanford Cardinal men's basketball coaches
Tennessee Volunteers basketball coaches |
4280070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Fayette%20Expressway | Mon–Fayette Expressway | The Mon–Fayette Expressway is a partially-completed tolled freeway that is planned to eventually link Interstate 68 near Morgantown, West Virginia with Interstate 376 near Monroeville, Pennsylvania. The ultimate goal of the highway is to provide a high speed north–south connection between Morgantown and the eastern side of Pittsburgh while revitalizing economically distressed Monongahela River Valley towns in Fayette and Washington counties, serving as an alternative to Interstate 79 to the west, as well as relieving the PA 51 alignment from Pittsburgh to Uniontown.
Although it is being built to Interstate Highway standards, there is debate as to whether or not the freeway will become part of the Interstate Highway System. At least one proposal was to give it the Interstate 97 designation (unrelated to the existing I-97 in Maryland), while others have been to make it a spur route of I-68. In the interim, the highway uses state highway designations instead, as it does not parallel an existing U.S. Route for its entire length, though it does parallel and at times run concurrent with U.S. Route 40 and U.S. Route 119 for portions of its length. The route, in its three jurisdictions, uses the number 43 for familiarity, and is thus known as West Virginia Route 43 (WV 43), Pennsylvania Route 43 (PA 43), and PA Turnpike 43. Most of the route is maintained by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission, while the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation maintains small portions of the highway near Uniontown, and the West Virginia Division of Highways maintains the short section in West Virginia. Despite the numerous agencies overseeing the highway, it is one continuous highway.
South of Jefferson Hills, the Mon–Fayette Expressway is complete. Construction to complete the highway to Duquesne began on May 22, 2023, with plans existing to extend the road further to Monroeville.
Route description
West Virginia
The Mon–Fayette Expressway begins at a diamond interchange with I-68 in Cheat Lake in Monongalia County, West Virginia, heading north as a four-lane freeway signed as WV 43. The highway passes near some residential development and comes to an interchange with Bowers Lane that provides access to County Route 857. Following this, WV 43 curves northeast and runs through forested areas, turning to the north.
Pennsylvania
The Mon–Fayette Expressway crosses the state line into Pennsylvania, where it becomes PA Turnpike 43, which is maintained by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission (PTC). The freeway heads through Springhill Township in Fayette County, passing through forested areas with some fields. The first interchange in the state is at Gans Road, which provides access to US 119 to the west and PA 857 to the east.
Here, PA Turnpike 43 becomes a toll road and continues northeast through more rural areas, where it crosses into Georges Township and comes to a diamond interchange with Rubles Mill Road that accesses PA 857 a short distance to the east. Past this interchange, the highway comes to the Fairchance mainline toll plaza before it curves north and then northwest. The route passes to the west of an industrial park before reaching an interchange with Big Six Road which provides access to US 119 and PA 857.
At this point, the Mon–Fayette Expressway becomes toll-free and maintained by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT), signed as PA 43. The roadway continues through farmland and woodland as it bypasses Fairchance to the west. Farther north, PA 43 comes to an interchange with US 119 and the northern terminus of PA 857, at which point the road becomes US 119. PA 43 continues as an unsigned concurrency with US 119 for around Uniontown, with a sign saying that PA 43 traffic should follow signs for US 119 through Uniontown. A short distance later, US 119 and the unsigned PA 43 cross together into South Union Township and reach an interchange with the US 40 freeway, at which point US 40 merges with US 119 and the unsigned PA 43, joining the concurrency. The three routes bypass Uniontown to the west on the freeway, running between farmland and woods to the west and residential neighborhoods to the east. The highway comes to a diamond interchange with Walnut Hill Road, where it curves northwest and passes near more homes. US 40/US 119/unsigned PA 43 curves northeast and reaches a trumpet interchange providing access to PA 21 in a commercial area. A short distance later, the freeway comes to an interchange with the western terminus of US 40 Business, at which point US 40 splits to the northwest. US 119 and the unsigned PA 43 continue northeast on the freeway into North Union Township, where they run between rural areas to the northwest and residential areas to the southeast. The unsigned concurrency ends as PA Turnpike 43, again a toll road maintained by the PTC, splits from US 119 at an interchange that also serves PA 51.
The Mon–Fayette Expressway heads northwest through rural areas with some nearby development. The highway reaches a diamond interchange with Old Pittsburgh Road which provides connections to US 40 and PA 51. Past this interchange, the tollway crosses into Menallen Township and runs through a mix of farmland and woodland. Farther northwest, PA Turnpike 43 comes to an interchange at Keisterville-Upper Middletown Road, which provides access to US 40 to the southwest. The Mon–Fayette Expressway enters Redstone Township, where it reaches the Redstone mainline toll plaza. The highway continues northwest through rural land and comes to a diamond interchange with US 40. Following this, the toll road heads northwest through rural areas to the south of Brownsville, crossing the Dunlap Creek into Luzerne Township. Here, PA Turnpike 43 reaches the Telegraph Road exit and curves to the northwest.
The Mon–Fayette Expressway crosses the Monongahela River on the Mon–Fayette Expressway Bridge into Centerville in Washington County, where it curves north and comes to an interchange with PA 88. At this point, the road becomes toll-free again, though still owned by the PTC and signed PA Turnpike 43. PA 88 also joins the freeway for a short concurrency, with the road heading northeast through forested areas. The highway comes to a cloverleaf interchange with US 40, at which point PA 88 splits to the east to follow US 40 and PA Turnpike 43 continues northeast on the Mon–Fayette Expressway, entering California. The road continues through fields and woods, reaching an interchange with Malden Road that provides access to PA 88 Truck. The tollway continues north through dense woodland, bypassing the center of California to the west. The median widens as the highway comes to the exit for Elco Hill Road, after which it once again becomes a toll road. The median narrows again as PA Turnpike 43 curves northwest and comes to the California mainline toll plaza. A short distance later, the Mon–Fayette Expressway enters Fallowfield Township and comes to a cloverleaf interchange serving I-70.
Past this interchange, the toll road winds north through more woodland and reaches a diamond interchange at Coyle Curtain Road, which provides access to the communities of Charleroi and Donora to the east. PA Turnpike 43 heads into Carroll Township and makes a sharp curve to the west, continuing through more rural areas. The tollway curves north again near a mine and comes to the PA 136 exit. The Mon–Fayette Expressway crosses the Mingo Creek Viaduct into Union Township and continues north through wooded areas with some fields and mines. Farther north, the highway comes to a diamond interchange serving Finleyville-Elrama Road. Past this interchange, PA Turnpike 43 curves to the northeast. The tollway enters Jefferson Hills in Allegheny County, where it continues through more rural areas. The toll road reaches the Jefferson Hills mainline toll plaza and continues northeast, with the median widening and the road narrowing to one lane in each direction as it comes to a bridge over PA 51. The Mon–Fayette Expressway continues a short distance to its current northern terminus, where the traffic lanes turn west as Jefferson Boulevard and head to PA 51.
Tolls
The Mon–Fayette Expressway is a toll road for most of its length, and utilizes all-electronic tolling using toll-by-plate (which uses automatic license plate recognition to take a photo of the vehicle's license plate and mail a bill to the vehicle owner) or E-ZPass. Unlike the Pennsylvania Turnpike mainline and the Northeast Extension, which uses long-distance tickets, the Mon–Fayette Expressway collects fixed tolls at regular intervals. In addition, auxiliary toll plazas exist on certain on- and off-ramps. In 2008, the PTC retrofitted all toll plazas to accept E-ZPass, and Express E-ZPass lanes are available at the newer toll plazas.
The Mon–Fayette Expressway has four mainline toll barriers located in Fairchance, Redstone, California, and Jefferson Hills. , the Fairchance and California barriers charge $4.40 using toll-by-plate and $1.80 using E-ZPass for passenger vehicles while the Redstone and Jefferson Hills barriers charge $5.30 using toll-by-plate and $2.70 using E-ZPass for passenger vehicles. There are also ramp toll plazas at the northbound exit and southbound entrances at exit 4, 15, and 18, the southbound exit and northbound entrance at exits 22 and 26, and the northbound exit and southbound entrance at exits 39, 44, and 48. The ramp tolls cost $3.20 using toll-by-plate and $1.40 using E-ZPass for passenger vehicles.
All-electronic tolling was planned to be implemented on the Mon–Fayette Expressway, along with the remainder of the Pennsylvania Turnpike system, in the later part of 2021. However, in March 2020 the switch was made early as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
In West Virginia, legislators have flip-flopped a few times regarding whether their section will be a toll road. When tolls were first proposed, West Virginia had planned to work with the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission to collect tolls at the existing Pennsylvania mainline plaza, but this plan was not accepted by the West Virginia Legislature. Instead, West Virginia planned to construct a toll plaza north of Goodwin Hill Road. West Virginia officials also contemplated whether to use all-electronic tolling or a more traditional tolling scheme. In the end, tolling plans were scrapped by West Virginia's legislature. Rejection resulted from concerns related to camera enforcement, billing, and operational costs. However, West Virginia reserves the right to levy tolls in the future if these issues are settled.
History
Early history
The Mon–Fayette Expressway was originally proposed in the 1950s as a way to link the coke- and steel-producing towns situated in the Monongahela River Valley, thus providing a supplement to existing rail and river passages. Running along the existing PA Route 48, the highway was initially referred to as “New 48” and right-of-way clearance began in the early 1970s. PennDOT initiated construction in 1973, and the first segment opened in 1977. This segment consisted of a partial cloverleaf interchange at U.S. Route 40 and a stretch of four-lane highway that spurred south of the new interchange toward Fredericktown. Despite severe financial constraints, PennDOT built the remainder of the ramps at the U.S. 40 cloverleaf along with a separate stretch of highway near California in the early 1980s.
Limited funding caused the project to be placed on hiatus in the early 1980s. During this time, the coke and steel industry that originally inspired the route experienced an economic downturn and near collapse. Rather than cancel the project, local leaders touted it as a means of stimulating the distressed economy; providing a link from the City of Pittsburgh to West Virginia along which manufacturing facilities and other industry could be located. The project was redesignated as the Mon–Fayette Expressway, a portmanteau of Monongahela River Valley and Fayette County, two of the areas the new road would connect. The project was designed to be completed in phases with the most controversial segment, PA 51 to Pittsburgh, scheduled to be completed last.
Chadville Demonstration Project
In 1985, the Mon–Fayette Expressway project was transferred to the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission (PTC) under Act 61 legislation. While PennDOT assessed preliminary engineering and right-of-way options in the 1970s and early 1980s, the PTC accelerated design work and began unveiling detailed plans in earnest by the late 1980s. Funding appropriated through the PTC allowed construction to resume in 1988, and on October 12, 1990, the entire stretch from U.S. Route 40 to Interstate 70 opened to traffic. Initially, the PTC did not have adequate funding to construct new sections, but Representative Austin Murphy secured congressional funds that directed PennDOT to build a stretch of the expressway south of Uniontown. Aside from being part of a larger project, the new segment was designed to provide high speed access between the Uniontown bypass, Fairchance, and a new business park. This section, dubbed the Chadville Demonstration Project, opened in November 1992.
The section of the highway from US 40 to I-70 was signed PA 43 Toll until 2000.
Mason-Dixon Link
In the early 1990s, the Pennsylvania General Assembly dedicated a portion of state fuel excise tax revenue to the PTC. This new revenue stream initially provided the funding to complete an section from the southern terminus of the Chadville Demonstration Project to the West Virginia state line as well as a section from the Interstate 70 interchange to Pennsylvania Route 51 in Jefferson Hills. On March 1, 2000, most of the section between the Chadville Demonstration Project and the West Virginia state line opened to traffic.
J. Barry Stout Expressway
Named formally for the PA State Senator who pushed to expand the state's highway system, the J. Barry Stout Expressway segment connects Interstate 70 with Route 51. Construction began in 1995 and the entire segment from Interstate 70 to Route 51 was open by April 12, 2002. The Joe Montana Bridge, named after the Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback who grew up in the immediate area in nearby Monongahela, Pennsylvania, is located along the route.
Uniontown-to-Brownsville
In 2006, construction began on a stretch connecting the oldest section of the expressway near Fredericktown to the northern terminus of the Chadville Demonstration Project. Known locally as the "Uniontown-to-Brownsville Project," limited funding necessitated a two-phased approach to completion. The first phase involved construction of an section of expressway running parallel to a hazardous stretch of U.S. Route 40 between Brownsville and Uniontown. Phase 1 opened on October 23, 2008. The second phase consisted of a section that connects first phase of this project to the oldest portion of the expressway near Fredericktown, as well as the Mon–Fayette Expressway Bridge crossing the Monongahela River. Additionally, the second phase includes a directional T interchange at U.S. Route 119 in Uniontown. On December 13, 2010, the U.S. 119 interchange opened to traffic, and the remainder of Phase 2 opened with a soft launch on July 16, 2012. A formal ribbon-cutting ceremony was held on August 2, 2012. Completion of Phase 2 brought an uninterrupted stretch of highway between I-68 and the current northern terminus at Pennsylvania Route 51 in Jefferson Hills, Pennsylvania.
West Virginia Route 43
In West Virginia, construction commenced in 2000 but progressed slowly due to limited funding. By the end of 2003, only the Rubles Run Bridge and two pieces of highway totaling little more than were completed. Over the next few years, construction inched ahead. By 2009, the Morgan Run Bridge was finished, and local roads near Cheat Lake were re-built to accommodate the expressway. The final contracts to build the Cheat Lake and Interstate 68 interchanges were respectively awarded in December 2008 and July 2009, partly as a result of an ARRA fund infusion. On July 11, 2011, officials in West Virginia opened their section of the Mon–Fayette Expressway. Likewise, the PTC opened the southernmost in Pennsylvania, which sat unused for over a decade. Noteworthy features on the West Virginia section include two high-level bridges, along with the I-68 interchange, which is a hybrid design that utilizes both high-speed ramps and at-grade intersections. A second phase for this interchange is planned, but that project will not be undertaken until traffic volumes merit. If the second phase is built, the I-68 interchange will be upgraded to a directional T.
Future
The remaining of highway in Allegheny County between PA 51 and I-376 has yet to be constructed. After a review of several alternative alignments designated by colors (green, yellow, orange, and blue), a series of public meetings hosted by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission sought feedback from residents likely affected by the expressway's construction. The preferred route was identified as running parallel to PA 837 through the communities of Clairton and Duquesne, crossing over the Monongahela River near Kennywood Park, and then continuing along the northern side of the river through Braddock, Rankin, and Glen Hazel, finally connecting to I-376 at Oakland. A western spur would be located near the crossing and continue north through Turtle Creek and Monroeville to I-376 in Wilkins. The addition of the spur allows for an alternative to I-376 that would bypass the often congested Squirrel Hill Tunnel. The western spur would have continued the PA Turnpike 43 routing while the eastern spur would have continued the PA Turnpike 576 routing from the routes' planned junction approximately south of Finleyville Elrama Road. Kennywood acquired nearly of property for a potential expansion of the park on the condition that the leg to Monroeville is built.
After environmental clearances were obtained and right-of-way acquisition had begun, the project was placed on hold due to lack of funding. Current estimates for this section are in the neighborhood of $3.6 billion and funding has not been identified. A public-private partnership was explored but nothing feasible resulted. It is unlikely that any new construction will commence in the near future unless a new tax is imposed or private funding identified, although funding was secured for the section of PA Turnpike 576 in between Interstate 79 and its current eastern terminus at US 22, bringing hope for an eventual completion of the Mon–Fayette Expressway.
In July 2013, the Allegheny County portion of the expressway was again the subject of news articles indicating that a change in approach may be taken. This revised approach would allow for completion of the expressway to Monroeville. The spur to Pittsburgh would not be constructed but rather the East Busway would be extended to Monroeville to allow for park and ride into downtown Pittsburgh. Another option currently being considered is to open the Busway to high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) traffic.
In May 2013, a raise in the oil tax cap in Pennsylvania was proposed in the Pennsylvania General Assembly to fund additional transportation projects, including completing the Mon–Fayette Expressway and the Southern Beltway, as part of a larger transportation bill to help fund projects in the state. Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett signed a modified version of the bill into law, known as Act 89, on November 25, 2013, after much debate in the General Assembly that nearly killed the bill before it was passed. Act 89, which local politicians acknowledged that without passage would have killed the remaining segments of the Mon–Fayette Expressway, is expected to provide funding to complete the Southern Beltway all the way to the Mon–Fayette Expressway and provide a little less than half of the $2.2 billion (as of December 2013) needed to complete the Mon–Fayette Expressway, as well as the option for P3 funding. It was also acknowledged that like the Uniontown-to-Brownsville Project, the final leg may be built in multiple phases in order to preserve funding for other projects in the state. The second leg of the Southern Beltway, which will proceed in construction as had already been announced, will be the first portion of the two highways that will be built with the new funding available, with a planned opening to I-79 in 2019.
In December 2014, it was reported that the Mon–Fayette Expressway and the Southern Beltway might get additional funding through foreign investors who obtain an EB-5 visa in exchange for investing at least $500,000 for public projects. The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission will use EB-5 funding for the Pennsylvania Turnpike/Interstate 95 Interchange Project first before determining if it will use such funding for other projects.
On June 18, 2015, the PTC announced that the segment for the Mon–Fayette Expressway from Jefferson Hills to Monroeville will receive some Act 89 funding and will return to the design phase. The other leg of the Mon–Fayette Expressway into Pittsburgh was officially canceled outright, citing cost and local opposition. It is currently unclear whether this road will be designated PA Turnpike 43 or PA Turnpike 576.
In March 2018, the PTC released its plans for the expressway from PA 51 in Jefferson Hills to PA 837 in Duquesne. This section is currently in the final design phase , with construction expected to begin in 2024. Construction on the section of the expressway between PA 837 in Duquesne and I-376 in Monroeville is expected to follow, but may be delayed due to funding shortfalls resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic.
In May 2019 a proposal was made for an expressway to run from the Mon–Fayette Expressway to PA 885 near the Glenwood Bridge. In March 2021, a PTC engineer said that preliminary work on the Mon–Fayette Expressway from Jefferson Hills to PA 837 would begin after the projected completion of the Southern Beltway later that year. The PTC was in the process of acquiring 256 land lots in the Mon–Fayette Expressway's right-of-way, including condemning some land in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania, that belonged to Kennywood amusement park. In June 2021, PTC officials told Pennsylvania state legislators that construction on the section to Duquesne could begin as early as 2022. The first construction contract to build the section between PA 51 and Coal Valley Road in Jefferson Hills is expected to be awarded by the end of 2022 while construction on the portion of road from Coal Valley Road to Camp Hollow Road in West Mifflin is expected to begin in 2023. Work on the segment to Duquesne was projected to continue through 2027.
In January 2023, the PTC announced that a $1.3 billion expansion of the expressway would begin in 2023. The PTC held a formal groundbreaking ceremony on May 22, 2023.
Exit list
Related roads
In the 1990s, the Mon–Fayette Expressway project was expanded to include another highway, the Southern Beltway. The Southern Beltway is planned to be a high-speed east–west link between the Mon–Fayette Expressway, Interstate 79, U.S. Route 22, Interstate 376, and Pittsburgh International Airport. A section of the beltway between Pittsburgh International Airport/Interstate 376 and U.S. Route 22 opened to traffic in 2006. The new road has been designated as Pennsylvania Route 576. A section between U.S. 22 and I-79 is expected to be open by 2021, with the third section being between I-79 and a section of the Mon–Fayette Expressway near Finleyville, Pennsylvania just south of the current northern terminus.
In order to provide access to certain interchanges within the Uniontown-to-Brownsville project, the PTC had to build several toll-free connectors, the most notable of which extended a four-lane section of U.S. Route 40 near Brownsville, eliminating a forty-year-old freeway stub in the process. Near Uniontown, the PTC constructed a four-lane road, named Northgate Highway, between U.S. Route 40 and Pennsylvania Route 51. In addition, a new connector was added to join Telegraph Road and Bull Run Road in Luzerne Township, potentially opening many acres of land to future development. The aforementioned access roads were necessary to provide access to exits 22, 15, and 26 respectively, but these routes were also designed to improve local connections and accommodate any future economic development in the interchanges' immediate vicinity.
See also
References
External links
Pennsylvania Highways: PA 43
Pennsylvania Highways: PA Turnpike 43
Interstate 79 to Mon/Fayette Expressway Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission
(May 10, 2006)
Mon/Fayette Expressway, Uniontown to Brownsville Project
PA Route 51 to I-376 of the Mon Fayette Expressway
Toll roads in Pennsylvania
Limited-access roads in Pennsylvania
Transportation in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Washington County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Fayette County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Monongalia County, West Virginia
Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission |
4280148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick%20Scott | Rick Scott | Richard Lynn Scott ( Myers; born December 1, 1952) is an American attorney, businessman, and politician serving as the junior United States senator from Florida since 2019. A member of the Republican Party, he was the 45th governor of Florida from 2011 to 2019.
Scott is a graduate of the University of Missouri–Kansas City and the Dedman School of Law at Southern Methodist University. In 1987, after serving in the United States Navy and becoming a law firm partner, he co-founded Columbia Hospital Corporation. Columbia later merged with another corporation to form Columbia/HCA, which eventually became the nation's largest for-profit health care company. Scott was pressured to resign as chief executive of Columbia/HCA in 1997. During his tenure as chief executive, the company defrauded Medicare, Medicaid, and other federal programs. The Department of Justice won 14 felony convictions against the company, which was fined $1.7 billion in what was at the time the largest healthcare fraud settlement in U.S. history. Following his departure from Columbia/HCA, Scott became a venture capitalist and pursued other business interests. In 2009, he founded Conservatives for Patients' Rights.
Scott ran for governor of Florida in 2010. He defeated Bill McCollum in a vigorously contested Republican primary election, and then narrowly defeated Democratic nominee Alex Sink in the general election. Scott was reelected in 2014, defeating former governor Charlie Crist. He was barred by term limits from running for reelection in 2018, and instead ran for the United States Senate.
Scott won the 2018 US Senate election, defeating Democratic incumbent Bill Nelson. The initial election results were so close that they triggered a mandatory recount. The recount showed that Scott had won by 10,033 votes; Nelson then conceded the race. Scott took office following the expiration of his term as governor of Florida on January 8, 2019. He is running for reelection in 2024.
Early life and education
Rick Scott was born Richard Lynn Myers in Bloomington, Illinois, on December 1, 1952. Scott never met his biological father, Gordon William Myers, who was described by Scott's mother, Esther J. Scott (née Fry; 1928–2012), as an abusive alcoholic. Scott's parents divorced in his infancy.
In 1954, Esther married Orba George Scott Jr. (died 2006), a truck driver. Orba adopted Rick, who took his stepfather's surname and became known as Richard Lynn Scott. Scott was raised in North Kansas City, Missouri, the second of five children. His family was lower-middle-class and struggled financially; Esther Scott worked as a clerk at J. C. Penney, among other jobs.
Scott graduated from North Kansas City High School in 1970. He attended community college and enlisted in the United States Navy in 1970. Scott was in the Navy for 29 months and served on the as a radarman.
Scott attended college on the G.I. Bill, and graduated from the University of Missouri–Kansas City with a Bachelor of Science in business administration. He earned a juris doctor degree by working his way through Southern Methodist University. He was licensed by the Texas Bar to practice law on November 6, 1978.
Career
Scott made his first foray into business while working his way through college and law school, initially buying and reviving a failing doughnut shop (the Flavor Maid Do-Nut) by adding workplace delivery instead of relying on foot traffic. He later bought and revived another doughnut shop. After graduating from law school, Scott worked as an attorney at the law firm of Johnson & Swanson in Dallas, Texas.
Columbia Hospital Corporation
In 1988, Scott and Richard Rainwater, a financier from Fort Worth, each put up $125,000 in working capital in their new company, Columbia Hospital Corporation; they borrowed the remaining money needed to purchase two struggling hospitals in El Paso for $60 million. Then they acquired a neighboring hospital and shut it down. Within a year, the remaining two were doing much better. By the end of 1989, Columbia Hospital Corporation owned four hospitals with a total of 833 beds.
In 1992, Columbia made a stock purchase of Basic American Medical, which owned eight hospitals, primarily in southwestern Florida. In September 1993, Columbia did another stock purchase, worth $3.4 billion, of Galen Healthcare, which had been spun off by Humana Inc. several months earlier. At the time, Galen had approximately 90 hospitals. After the purchase, Galen stockholders had 82% of the stock in the combined company, with Scott still running the company.
Columbia/HCA
In April 1987, Scott made his first attempt to buy the Hospital Corporation of America (HCA). While still a partner at Johnson & Swanson, Scott formed the HCA Acquisition Company with two former executives of Republic Health Corporation, Charles Miller and Richard Ragsdale. With financing from Citicorp conditional on acquisition of HCA, the proposed holding company offered $3.85 billion for 80 million shares at $47 each, intending to assume an additional $1.2 billion in debt, for a total $5 billion deal. After HCA declined the offer, the bid was withdrawn.
In 1994, Columbia Hospital Corporation merged with HCA, "forming the single largest for-profit health care company in the country." Scott became CEO of Columbia/HCA. According to The New York Times, "[in] less than a decade, Mr. Scott had built a company he founded with two small hospitals in El Paso into the world's largest health care company – a $20 billion giant with about 350 hospitals, 550 home health care offices and scores of other medical businesses in 38 states."
Fraud investigation and settlement
On March 19, 1997, investigators from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Health and Human Services served search warrants at Columbia/HCA facilities in El Paso and on dozens of doctors with suspected ties to the company. Eight days after the initial raid, Scott signed his last SEC report as a hospital executive. Four months later, the board of directors pressured him to resign as chairman and CEO. He was succeeded by Thomas F. Frist Jr. Scott was paid $9.88 million in a settlement, and left owning 10 million shares of stock then worth more than $350 million. The directors had been warned in the company's annual public reports to stockholders that incentives Columbia/HCA offered doctors could run afoul of a federal anti-kickback law passed in order to limit or eliminate instances of conflicts of interest in Medicare and Medicaid.
During Scott's 2000 deposition, he pleaded the Fifth Amendment 75 times. In settlements reached in 2000 and 2002, Columbia/HCA pleaded guilty to 14 felonies and agreed to a $600+ million fine in what was at the time the largest health care fraud settlement in U.S. history. Columbia/HCA admitted systematically overcharging the government by claiming marketing costs as reimbursable, by striking illegal deals with home care agencies, and by filing false data about use of hospital space. It also admitted to fraudulently billing Medicare and other health programs by inflating the seriousness of diagnoses and to giving doctors partnerships in company hospitals as a kickback for the doctors referring patients to HCA. It filed false cost reports, fraudulently billing Medicare for home health care workers, and paid kickbacks in the sale of home health agencies and to doctors to refer patients. In addition, it gave doctors "loans" never intending to be repaid, free rent, free office furniture, and free drugs from hospital pharmacies.
In late 2002, HCA agreed to pay the United States government $631 million, plus interest, and $17.5 million to state Medicaid agencies, in addition to $250 million paid up to that point to resolve outstanding Medicare expense claims. In all, civil lawsuits cost HCA more than $2 billion to settle; at the time, this was the largest fraud settlement in U.S. history.
Venture capitalist
After leaving Columbia/HCA in 1997, Scott launched Richard L. Scott Investments, based in Naples, Florida (originally in Stamford, Connecticut), which has stakes in health care, manufacturing and technology companies. Between 1998 and 2001, he purchased 50% of CyberGuard Corporation for approximately $10 million. Among his investors was Metro Nashville finance director David Manning.
In 2006, CyberGuard was sold to Secure Computing for more than $300 million. In February 2005, Scott purchased Continental Structural Plastics, Inc. (CSP) in Detroit, Michigan. In July 2006, CSP purchased Budd Plastics from ThyssenKrupp, making CSP the largest industrial composites molder in North America.
In 2005–2006, Scott provided the initial round of funding of $3 million to Alijor.com (named for the first three letters of his two daughters' names), which offered hospitals, physicians, and other health care providers the opportunity to post information about their prices, hours, locations, insurance accepted, and personal backgrounds online. Scott co-founded the company with his daughter Allison.
In 2008, Alijor was sold to HealthGrades. In May 2008, Scott purchased Drives, one of the world's leading independent designers and manufacturers of heavy-duty drive chain-based products and assemblies for industrial and agricultural applications and precision-engineered augers for agricultural, material handling, construction and related applications. Scott reportedly has an interest in a chain of family fun centers/bowling alleys, S&S Family Entertainment, in Kentucky and Tennessee led by Larry Schmittou, a minor league baseball team owner.
America's Health Network (AHN)
In July 1997, Columbia/HCA Healthcare purchased a controlling interest in America's Health Network (AHN), the first 24-hour health care cable channel. They pulled out of the deal on the day of the closing because Scott and Vanderwater were terminated, causing the immediate layoffs of more than 250 people in Orlando. Later that same year, Scott became majority owner of AHN.
In 1998, Scott and Vandewater led a group of investors who gave AHN a major infusion of cash so that the company could continue to operate. By early 1999, the network was available in 9.5 million American homes.
In mid-1999 AHN merged with Fit TV, a subsidiary of Fox; the combination was renamed The Health Network. Later that year, in a deal between News Corp. and WebMD, the latter received half-ownership of The Health Network. WebMD planned to relaunch The Health Network as WebMD Television in the fall of 2000, with new programming, but that company announced cutbacks and restructuring in September 2000, and, in January 2001, News Corp. regained 100% ownership. In September 2001, Fox Cable Networks Group sold The Health Network to its main rival, the Discovery Health Channel, for $155 million in cash plus a 10% equity stake in Discovery Health.
Solantic
Solantic, based in Jacksonville, Florida, was co-founded in 2001 by Scott and Karen Bowling, a former television anchor Scott met after Columbia bought what is now Memorial Hospital in 1995.
Solantic opened its first urgent care center in 2002. It provides urgent care services, immunizations, physicals, drug screening, and care for injured workers. The corporation attracts patients who do not have insurance, cannot get appointments with their primary care physicians, or do not have primary care physicians. Solantic is an alternative to the emergency department care that these types of patients often seek, or for not seeing a doctor at all. In 2006, Scott said that his plans for Solantic were to establish a national brand of medical clinics.
In August 2007, the company received a $40 million investment from a private equity firm and said that it expected to open 35 clinics by the end of 2009, with annual revenues of $100 million once all these clinics were open, compared to $20 million at the time. As of March 2009, Solantic had 24 centers, all in Florida.
Solantic was the target of an employment discrimination suit that claimed that there had been a policy to not hire elderly or obese applicants, preferring "mainstream" candidates. It was settled for an undisclosed sum on May 23, 2007. Scott responded to Salon regarding the claims of discrimination pointing out that "currently 53 percent of Solantic's employees are white, 20 percent black and 17 percent Hispanic."
Pharmaca
In 2003, Scott invested $5.5 million in Pharmaca Integrative Pharmacies, which operates drugstores/pharmacies in the Western United States that offer vitamins, herbal medicine, skin products, homeopathic medicines, and prescriptions.
Other work
In the 1990s, Scott was a partner of George W. Bush as co-owner of the Texas Rangers.
Early political career
Conservatives for Patients' Rights
In February 2009, Scott founded Conservatives for Patients' Rights (CPR), which he said was intended to put pressure on Democrats to enact health care legislation based on free-market principles. As of March 2009, he had given about $5 million for a planned $20 million ad campaign by CPR.
Governor of Florida
Elections
2010
On April 9, 2010, Scott announced his candidacy for the 2010 Republican Party nomination for governor of Florida. He ran against Democratic nominee Alex Sink.
Susie Wiles, former communications chief to Jacksonville Mayor John Peyton, served as Scott's campaign manager, and Tony Fabrizio was his chief pollster. It was reported on May 7 that Scott's campaign had already spent $4.7 million on television and radio ads. His first video advertisement was released to YouTube on April 13.
During the primary campaign, Scott's opponent, Bill McCollum, made an issue of Scott's role at Columbia/HCA. Scott countered that the FBI had never targeted him. Marc Caputo of the Miami Herald contended that a 1998 bill sponsored by McCollum would have made it more difficult to prosecute Medicare fraud cases, and was counter to his current views and allegations. Scott won the August primary with approximately 46.4% percent of the vote to McCollum's 43.4% By the date of the Tampa debate between Scott and Sink (October 25, 2010), Scott had spent $60 million of his own money on the campaign compared to Sink's reported $28 million. Scott campaigned as part of the Tea Party movement.
The Fort Myers News Press quoted Scott as saying he spent roughly $78 million of his own money on the campaign, although other figures indicate he spent slightly over $75 million. He won the general election, defeating Sink by around 68,000 votes, or 1.29%. He took office as the 45th governor of Florida on January 4, 2011.
2014
In October 2011, Scott announced that he would run for reelection in 2014. His political funding committee, Let's Get to Work, had raised $28 million for his campaign as of May 2014.
As of early June 2014, Scott had spent almost $13 million since March on television advertisements attacking former governor Charlie Crist, who then appeared to be the likely Democratic nominee, and who was eventually nominated. The ads resulted in a tightening of the race, mainly due to a decline in Crist's favorability ratings, while Scott's favorability ratings did not increase.
By late September 2014, Scott's television ad spending had exceeded $35 million and in mid-October reached $56.5 million, compared to $26.5 million by Crist. On October 22 it was reported that Scott's total spending had exceeded $83 million and he announced that, having previously said he would not do so, he would invest his own money into the campaign, speculated to be as much as $22 million.
Crist hoped to draw strong support from Florida's more than 1.6 million registered black voters, an effort that was challenging given his previous political career as a Republican. A September 2014 Quinnipiac University poll revealed his support among black voters was 72%, well below the 90% analysts believed he needed to defeat Scott.
Scott and Crist met in an October 15 debate held by the Florida Press Association at Broward College. Scott refused to take the stage for seven minutes because Crist had a small electric fan under his lectern. The incident was dubbed "fangate" by media sources such as Politico. On November 4, 2014, Scott and Carlos Lopez-Cantera won the general election against Crist and Annette Taddeo-Goldstein by 64,000 votes. The Libertarian candidates, Adrian Wyllie and Greg Roe, received 223,356 votes.
Tenure
During Hurricane Irma, Scott led Florida through the largest mass evacuation in U.S. history. Unemployment, taxpayer debt, and crime declined statewide during his tenure. He signed a repeal of Florida's 1985 growth management laws, reduced funding for water management districts, reduced oversight at the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, and supported increased funding for Everglades restoration. Scott supported permanent tax cuts and "focused on job numbers rather than on running state agencies or making sweeping policy changes".
Scott had a 26 percent approval rating in December 2011, the lowest among U.S. governors, but it steadily increased during the rest of his governorship. It stood at 45 percent in August 2015, and at 57 percent in April 2017. In the aftermath of Hurricane Irma later that year, Scott's approval rating saw a high of 61 percent. Shortly before he left office, his ratings had fallen to 47 percent approving and 41 percent disapproving.
Death penalty
In 2013, Scott signed the Timely Justice Act (HB 7101) to overhaul the processes for capital punishment in Florida. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down part of this law in January 2016 in Hurst v. Florida, declaring, in an 8–1 decision, that a judge determining the aggravating facts to be used in considering a death sentence with only a non-binding recommendation from the jury based on a majority vote was insufficient and violated the Sixth Amendment guarantee of a jury trial.
The Florida Legislature passed a new statute to comply with Hurst v. Florida, changing the sentencing method to require a 10-juror supermajority for a sentence of death with a life sentence as the alternative. In October 2016 this new sentencing scheme was struck down by the Florida Supreme Court in a 5–2 ruling, which held that a death sentence must be issued by a unanimous jury. The Florida Supreme Court ruled the law "cannot be applied to pending prosecutions" which means that until the Florida legislature acts, there is no procedure or law allowing a prosecutor to seek the death penalty; but it leaves open the status of sentences passed under the twice-struck down provisions, also left open by the January 2016 United States Supreme Court Hurst decision. The Court granted Hurst a new sentencing hearing after the same Supreme Court decision.
During Scott's tenure, Florida executed more inmates (28) than had been executed under any other governor in the state's history.
Donald Trump
In the 2016 Republican primaries, Scott endorsed Trump after Trump won the Florida primary. Scott chaired a pro-Trump super PAC in the 2016 election. Unlike many other establishment Republicans, Scott praised Trump as tough on terrorism and as an outsider during the 2016 Republican convention.
When Trump "sparred with the Muslim father of a slain U.S. soldier", Scott said "I'm never going to agree with every candidate on what they're going to say". When the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape was publicized, in which Trump spoke of grabbing women "by the pussy", Scott rebuked Trump, saying, "I'm not following politics closely right now, but this is terrible. I don't agree with anyone talking like this about anyone, ever".
Drug testing for welfare recipients
In June 2011, Scott signed a bill requiring those seeking welfare under the federal Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program to submit to drug screenings. Applicants who fail a drug test may name another person to receive benefits for their children.
In an interview with CNN host Don Lemon, Scott said, "Studies show that people that are on welfare are higher users of drugs than people not on welfare" and "the bottom line is, if they're not using drugs, it's not an issue". PolitiFact said this comment was "half true". Government researchers in 1999–2000 reported "that 9.6 percent of people in families receiving some type of government assistance reported recent drug use, compared to 6.8 percent among people in families receiving no government assistance at all."
Preliminary figures from Florida's program showed that 2.5% of applicants tested positive for drugs, with 2% declining to take the test, while the Justice Department estimated that around 6% of Americans use drugs overall. The law was declared unconstitutional, with the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit upholding that ruling in December 2014. The Scott administration declined to appeal the decision to the US Supreme Court.
Economy
In Scott's 2010 gubernatorial campaign, he promised to "run the state like you run a business". In his gubernatorial platform, he pledged to create 700,000 jobs in the state; PolitiFact ruled in 2018 that Scott's job creation pledge was a "Promise Kept".
Under Scott, Florida's job creation far outpaced the rest of the nation, while wages were below-average and poverty rates were above-average. During his tenure as governor, Florida employers created nearly 1.5 million jobs, and the state's employment grew 20.3%, compared to 12.5% growth for the U.S. as a whole. Florida's household income is lower than the national average, with a widening gap. At 15.8%, the state's poverty rate is slightly above the national rate of 14.7%.
Education
In his 2010 gubernatorial campaign, Scott vowed to expand school choice. PolitiFact rated this a "Promise Kept" due to Scott's push to expand school choice as governor. School choice legislation signed by Scott includes the creation of the Hope Scholarship Program, which subsidizes the cost of private school or allows a transfer to another public school for students who were bullied.
In December 2012, Scott announced a plan to encourage students to pursue majors in engineering and science by reducing tuition for some majors.
In 2016, Scott signed a bill allowing parents to pick any public school in the state for their children, regardless of traditional attendance lines or county boundaries.
In 2017, Scott signed a $419 million public school bill that included charter school expansion. The bill was supported by House Republicans, school choice proponents, and conservative political groups and it was opposed by superintendents, school boards, parent groups, and teachers unions.
During the summer of 2017, Scott signed a bill (HB 989 and SB 1210) that would allow any Florida resident to "challenge the use or adoption of instructional materials" in public schools. Proponents of the bill argued that it would allow parents to be more proactive in their child's education. Opponents of the bill argued that it would allow more censorship, especially for scientific topics like global warming and evolution.
Environment
Scott rejects the scientific consensus on climate change, saying "I'm not a scientist". The quote or paraphrases thereof became talking points for some Republican political candidates in the 2014 election campaigns.
When questioned by the press on March 9, 2015, in Hialeah, Florida, Scott did not say whether he believes global warming is a problem or whether Florida's Department of Environmental Protection has made or is making preparations for its potential consequences.
In March 2015, accusations were made that Scott's administration had instructed Department of Environmental Protection officials to avoid the terms "climate change" or "global warming" in official communications. Scott denied that his administration had banned the terms.
Scott cut $700 million from Florida's water management districts over his tenure as governor. The cuts stirred controversy in 2018 when Florida faced a water contamination crisis.
Financial disclosures
In 2017, Donald Hinkle, a Democratic activist and lawyer, filed a lawsuit claiming that Scott had not disclosed sufficient information about his wealth and holdings and may have underestimated his net worth. Scott appealed to a three-judge panel of the First Circuit Court of Appeals. The appeals court granted a writ of prohibition barring the circuit judge from taking any further action in the case. The five-page ruling agreed with Scott that only the Commission on Ethics "has constitutional authority to investigate Mr. Hinkle's complaint."
Gun laws
As of February 2018, Scott had an A+ rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund (NRA-PVF), indicating a record of supporting gun rights. The NRA-PVF endorsed Scott in 2010 and 2014, stating in 2014 that he had "signed more pro-gun bills into law–in one term–than any other governor in Florida history".
In 2011, Scott signed the Firearm Owners' Privacy Act (informally called "Docs vs. Glocks"), which made it illegal for doctors and mental health professionals to ask patients about their gun ownership unless they believed "that this information is relevant to the patient's medical care or safety, or the safety of others." Provisions of the law, including the part forbidding doctors from asking about a patient's gun ownership, were struck down as unconstitutional in 2017 by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit.
On June 9, 2017, Scott signed an expanded version of Florida's stand-your-ground law into law.
In February 2018, after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, Scott stated his support for raising the minimum age to purchase a firearm from 18 to 21; at the time of the shooting, 21 was the minimum age to buy a handgun, but rifles could be purchased at age 18. He also announced his support of a ban on bump stocks. Scott said, "I want to make it virtually impossible for anyone who has mental issues to use a gun", requesting $500 million in funds for mental health and school safety programs. In March 2018, the Florida Legislature passed the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act, which incorporated many of the measures Scott supported. It raised the minimum age for buying firearms to 21, established waiting periods and background checks, provided a program for the arming of some teachers and the hiring of school police, banned bump stocks, and barred potentially violent or mentally unhealthy people arrested under certain laws from possessing guns. In all, it allocated around $400 million. Scott signed the bill into law on March 9. That same day, the National Rifle Association filed a lawsuit in federal court challenging the law's provision banning gun sales to people under 21. NRA spokesperson Marion Hammer said, "We filed a lawsuit against the state for violating the constitutional rights of 18- to 21-year-olds."
Health care
Scott has been a harsh critic of the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare), but in his 2018 Senate campaign stopped harshly criticizing the bill. In 2017, he said that people with preexisting conditions should be protected. In June 2018, when the Trump administration sought to remove provisions of Obamacare protecting people with preexisting conditions, Scott declined to criticize the administration, saying he did not know enough about it to comment.
Scott has taken a number of positions on Medicaid expansion. For much of his first term as governor, he opposed Medicaid expansion in Florida, saying it was too costly. In 2013, he came out in support of Medicaid expansion, and reiterated his support in 2014 when he was up for reelection. After being reelected, Scott reversed his position and adamantly fought against efforts by the Florida Senate to pass Medicaid expansion in 2015. Scott rejected the Medicaid expansion because of his renewed fiscal concerns, saying it is "hard to understand how the state could take on even more federal programs."
Scott has been accused of having fueled an HIV epidemic while governor, by ensuring that Florida returned $54 million in unspent federal HIV-prevention grants and blocking $16 million in CDC grants to Miami-Dade and Broward counties. The effect of this rejection of federal funds combined with Scott's stance on Medicaid expansion has been described as "helping explain why the state’s HIV epidemic became almost peerlessly severe during Scott’s time in office", with the state accounting for 13% of the country's HIV diagnoses in 2017. Scott has opposed most federal grants due to his fiscal conservatism.
Hurricane Irma
Scott's handling of Hurricane Irma boosted his profile in advance of his U.S. Senate campaign, with The Hill writing that his "aggressive approach to Irma, which saw him order an extensive evacuation ahead of the storm and coordinate disaster relief efforts as the storm came ashore, has sent his political stock even higher" and that Scott's "preparedness has impressed Republicans and some Democrats."
An investigation by WFOR-TV found that after Hurricane Irma, Scott ignored existing debris removal contracts and instead issued emergency contracts for hurricane clean-up efforts. Florida state officials sent an email to several companies on September 11 inviting them to hand in bids for debris clean-up by the next day. State officials believed new contracts were needed to speed up the removal process given the severity of Hurricane Irma. On September 13, state officials decided to use the services of MCM and Community Asphalt, firms owned by contributors to the Republican Party and Scott's campaigns. According to the television station, the emergency contracts cost $28 to $30 million more than the existing contracts.
Immigration and refugees
In 2010, Scott ran for governor as an immigration hard-liner. At the time, he favored similar laws as Arizona's controversial Arizona SB 1070 which targeted illegal immigrants, and criticized Florida lawmakers for not being tougher on illegal immigrants. Scott called for police to check individuals' immigration status. By 2014, PolitiFact wrote that Scott had "abandoned promises to get tough on illegal immigration." Over time, he moderated his views on immigration.
In 2011, Scott opposed giving in-state tuition for illegal immigrants, but reversed course in 2014 and signed a bill giving DREAMers in-state tuition in an effort to place limits on how much state institutions can raise tuition each year. In 2013, Scott vetoed legislation that would have given DACA-eligible immigrants the ability to obtain temporary driving licenses. By 2018, he spoke in favor of giving DREAMers a path to citizenship.
In June 2018, Scott opposed the Trump administration family separation policy, which involved separating children from their parents, relatives, or other adults who accompanied them in crossing the border, sending the parents to federal jails and placing children and infants under the supervision of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. In a letter to United States secretary of health and human services Alex Azar, Scott wrote: "I have been very clear that I absolutely do not agree with the practice of separating children from their families. This practice needs to stop now."
Scott's administration awarded Comprehensive Health Services, Inc. (CHSi) a tax incentive package of $600,000 to expand in Cape Canaveral, Florida. CHSi runs the Homestead Temporary Shelter for Unaccompanied Children which detains minor migrants, including those separated from families at the border.
Medical marijuana
After voters approved a constitutional amendment to legalize medical marijuana, Scott signed a bill passed by the legislature which allowed the use of medical marijuana but not smokeable medical marijuana. A judge ruled the ban on smokeable medical marijuana unconstitutional. Scott appealed the decision.
Predictive policing
On September 3, 2020, the Tampa Bay Times released an investigative report into Scott-appointed Pasco County Sheriff Chris Nocco's "predictive policing" program, which relies on unproven algorithms. The program is designed to use counter-terrorism and other military "intelligence" tactics to prevent property damage. Nocco was a Republican insider with limited law enforcement experience at the time he was appointed by Scott, in 2011.
Redistricting amendments
In the 2010 elections, Florida voters passed constitutional amendments banning gerrymandering of congressional and legislative districts. In February 2011, Scott withdrew a request to the United States Department of Justice to approve these amendments, which, according to The Miami Herald, might delay the implementation of the redistricting plan because the Voting Rights Act requires preclearance of state laws likely to affect minority representation. Scott said he wanted to make sure the redistricting was carried out properly.
Several advocacy groups sued Scott in federal court to compel him to resubmit the acts to the Justice Department.
Transportation
On February 16, 2011, Scott rejected $2.3 billion in federal funding to develop high-speed rail between Tampa and Orlando. He cited California's experience with high-speed rail, namely much lower than expected ridership and cost overruns that doubled the final price. In response, a veto-proof majority in the Florida Senate approved a letter rebuking Scott and asking the Department of Transportation to continue funding. On March 1, 2011, two Florida state senators filed a petition with the Florida Supreme Court to compel Scott to accept the rail funds on the grounds that he lacked constitutional authority to reject funds that had been approved by a prior legislature. On March 4, the Florida Supreme Court ruled that Scott's rejection of the rail funds did not violate the Constitution of Florida.
In March 2011, Scott moved to have the Florida Department of Transportation amend its work plan to include $77 million for dredging PortMiami to a depth of 50 feet. Once the port is dredged, Panamax-sized vessels coming through the expanded Panama Canal could load and unload cargo there.
In 2018, Scott reversed course and supported a high-speed rail project between Tampa and Orlando when the company All Aboard Florida sought to get taxpayer-backed funding from state and federal governments. He argued that new budget surpluses following the recession could help fund the project. Scott and his wife had invested at least $3 million in the parent company of All Aboard Florida, which had made donations to Scott's political campaigns.
Voting rights
Scott frequently sought to implement voter IDs as governor, with numerous courts ruling against him in voting rights cases. He signed into law bills that created barriers to registering new voters, limited early voting, ended early voting on the Sunday before Election Day (known as "souls to the polls" in African-American churches), and restricted the ability of ex-felons to restore their voting rights. In 2012, Scott attempted to purge non-citizens from voter rolls just before the election; a court stopped him from doing so, and it was revealed that legitimate voters were on the voter rolls. The Tampa Bay Times noted that under Scott's tenure, Florida had the longest voting lines of any state in the 2012 election. After harsh criticism, he expanded early voting hours, and allowed early voting on the Sunday before Election Day.
In 2016, Scott refused to extend registration deadlines after ordering evacuations due to Hurricane Matthew; courts ultimately extended the deadline. He signed legislation into law that rejected mail ballots where signatures on the ballot envelope did not match signatures in files; in 2016 a court struck down the law. In 2014, Scott blocked a request by the city of Gainesville to use a facility at the University of Florida as a site for early voting. In July 2018, a judge ruled against Scott's prohibition of early voting on campus, saying the ban showed a "stark pattern of discrimination." In 2013, Scott ordered Pinellas County to close down sites where voters could submit mail ballots. In 2012, a court ruled that Scott could not place heavy fines on groups that registered voters but failed to submit the registrations within 48 hours.
Scott rolled back automatic restoration of rights for nonviolent crimes, giving former felons a five- to six-year waiting period before they can apply for a restoration of voting rights. Of the approximately 30,000 applications from former felons to have their voting rights restored during his tenure, Scott approved approximately 3,000. A 2018 investigation by the Palm Beach Post found that during his governorship, Scott restored the voting rights of three times as many white men as black men, and that blacks accounted only for 27% of those granted voting rights despite blacks being 43% of those released from state prisons in the past 20 years. The percentage of blacks among those whose voting rights were restored was the lowest in more than 50 years, and Scott restored a higher share of Republican voting rights than Democrat voting rights than in almost 50 years. A clemency board set up by Scott held hearings on applications, but there were no standards on how to judge the worthiness of individual applications. In March 2017, seven former felons filed a class action lawsuit arguing that the clemency board's decisions were inconsistent, vague and political.
In February 2018, a U.S. District Court described Scott's process as arbitrary and unconstitutional, and ruled that he had to create a new process to restore felons' voting rights. The ruling said that Scott and his clemency board had "unfettered discretion" to deny voting rights "for any reason," and that "to vote again, disenfranchised citizens must kowtow before a panel of high-level government officials over which Florida's governor has absolute veto authority. No standards guide the panel. Its members alone must be satisfied that these citizens deserve restoration." The Brennan Center for Justice described the clemency rules issued by Scott in 2011 as among the most restrictive in the country.
U.S. Senate
Elections
2018
After months of speculation about a potential run, Scott officially announced on April 9, 2018, that he would challenge incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Bill Nelson in the 2018 election.
Scott defeated Rocky De La Fuente in the Republican primary. In the general election, Scott's involvement in a large Medicare fraud case stirred controversy. Scott responded with ads accusing Nelson of having cut Medicare benefits and stolen from Medicare; fact-checkers found that both of Scott's assertions were false. During the campaign, Scott called Nelson a "socialist", an assertion PolitiFact described as "pants-on-fire" false. Scott sought to avoid mentioning Trump and at times criticized or distanced himself from actions of the Trump administration, whereas in the past he had used his friendship with Trump to boost his profile and had been an early and vocal supporter of Trump in 2016. Trump endorsed Scott for Senate.
The initial election results showed Scott leading Nelson by 12,562 votes, or 0.15% of the vote. Under Florida law, a manual recount is triggered if election results show a margin of less than 0.5% of the vote. Both candidates filed lawsuits in connection with the recount. After the recount, Florida elections officials announced on November 18, 2018, that Scott had prevailed. Scott received 50.05% of the vote to Nelson's 49.93%; the margin of victory was 10,033 votes out of 8.19 million votes cast. Nelson then conceded. It was the most expensive Senate race in the nation in 2018. After the race, Scott's Super PAC, New Republican PAC, received criticism from across the political spectrum for its aggressive practices and was the subject of several FEC complaints for multiple violations of federal election law; the Super PAC's finances are chaired by hedge fund billionaire Ken Griffin, who personally donated at least $10 million to the PAC.
Tenure
The Senate term for the 116th Congress began on January 3, 2019, but Scott's term as governor ended on January 8. On December 4, 2018, Scott's office announced that he would finish his term as governor and not resign early. Scott attended the ceremonial swearing-in of his successor as governor, Ron DeSantis, on the morning of January 8, 2019, in front of Florida's historic Old Capitol. Scott left the ceremony early to fly to Washington, D.C., and was sworn in to the Senate by Vice President Mike Pence later that afternoon.
Trump administration
In January 2019, Scott encouraged Trump to declare a national emergency to build a border wall if Congress would not give him the funds to do so. In February 2019, when Trump declared a national emergency, Scott applauded the decision.
In April 2019, amid calls for an American military intervention in Venezuela, Scott said that the Maduro regime was perpetrating a "genocide" and that the U.S. was "not aggressive enough" about the situation. Fact-checkers and experts described Scott's assertion of a genocide as false and misguided. Scott called on the U.S. to position its military assets to be prepared to respond to events in Venezuela.
In May 2020, Scott voted for an amendment co-sponsored by Senators Steve Daines and Ron Wyden that would have required federal intelligence and law enforcement agencies to obtain federal court warrants when collecting web search engine data from American citizens, nationals, or residents under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA).
After Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg died on September 18, 2020, Scott sided with Senator Mitch McConnell and called on her replacement to be voted on before that year's presidential election.
After Donald Trump lost the 2020 presidential election while making false claims of fraud, Scott voted to object to seating the electors from Pennsylvania but voted against the other objection raised for seating the electors from Arizona. Both objections were rejected by the Senate, 92–7 and 93–6, respectively.
Biden administration
In April 2021, Scott ran unopposed for the chairmanship of the National Republican Senatorial Committee and was formally selected on November 10, 2020, succeeding Senator Todd Young.
In March 2021, Scott voted against the American Rescue Plan Act; after it passed, he called upon Florida and other states to reject federal assistance from the package.
In May 2021, Scott voted against creating an independent commission to investigate the 2021 United States Capitol attack.
On March 10, 2022, Scott was one of 31 Republicans to vote against a $1.5 trillion spending bill that included $13.6 billion in military assistance for Ukraine's defense, arguing that it was filled with lawmakers' "pet" projects. On March 17, he was one of more than two dozen Senate Republicans who demanded that President Biden send Ukraine more support.
In August 2022, Scott published an open letter encouraging job seekers not to apply for newly funded positions at the IRS, vowing that Republicans, if they took control of Congress in January 2023, would quickly "defund" those jobs. The letter to job seekers included the statement, "The IRS is making it very clear that you not only need to be ready to audit and investigate your fellow hardworking Americans, your neighbors and friends, you need to be ready and, to use the IRS’s words, willing, to kill them."
On November 14, 2022, Scott announced he would attempt to challenge incumbent Mitch McConnell for the position of Senate Minority Leader in the 118th United States Congress, the first challenge McConnell had faced for the position since winning it in 2006. Scott said, "the status quo is broken and big change is needed" and that Senate Republican leadership needed "to listen to [Republican voters'] calls for action and start governing in Washington like we campaign back at home", in the wake of the party's failure to gain Senate seats in that year's elections. Scott received 10 votes to McConnell's 37, with one senator voting "present". The vote was held by secret ballot; senators who publicly confirmed voting for Scott included Mike Braun, Josh Hawley, Ted Cruz, Ron Johnson, and Lindsey Graham.
Scott was among the 31 Senate Republicans who voted against final passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023.
Notable Senate bills that Scott has sponsored or co-sponsored include the Sunshine Protection Act, which makes daylight saving time in the United States permanent; the PROTECT Kids Act, which cuts federal funding to schools that allow students to change their preferred pronouns and keep their sexual orientation from their parents; the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2022; and the END FENTANYL Act. Scott also expressed support for "automatic" capital punishment of school shooters in the wake of the Covenant School shooting in Nashville.
Plan to Rescue America
On February 22, 2022, Scott released his controversial 11-Point Plan to Rescue America in response to Democratic criticism that Republicans were unwilling to provide any kind of agenda should they win the House and/or Senate that year. Particularly singled out were a proposal that would force all Americans to pay at least some income tax "to have skin in the game" and one that would make all federal legislation sunset within five years. While the latter proposal did not mention any specific legislation, Social Security and Medicare were singled out elsewhere as programs that could be affected. Other proposals in the plan included closing the United States Department of Education, punishing universities that practice affirmative action, stripping all funding from sanctuary cities, completing the Trump wall, reducing the size of the federal government and its workforce, mandatory voter ID, increasing police funding and law and order policies, mandating the Pledge of Allegiance in schools, allowing legal action against social media platforms for deplatforming, banning transgender women from participating in women's sports, banning the supposed teaching of critical race theory, expanding religious freedom, and various attacks on "wokeness" and diversity training.
Democrats, including President Biden, strongly attacked the plan. The Republican response was mixed. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell criticized the provisions on income tax and sunsetting federal legislation, and Senator John Cornyn said the plan "is not an approach embraced by the entire Republican conference" and not something that should be focused on until after the election. Senator Ron Johnson said he supported Scott for releasing his platform and agreed with most of it. Senators Mike Braun and Tommy Tuberville also praised the platform.
On June 8, 2022, Scott released a revision of the plan that replaced the income tax proposal with a proposal not to provide government assistance to "able-bodied Americans under 60 [without] young children or incapacitated dependents" who are not working. He also added a 12th point containing various tax proposals and clarifying that the plan "cuts taxes", in response to Biden's criticisms of his income tax proposal.
Abortion
Scott is pro-life. He supported the overturning of Roe v. Wade in June 2022, saying that Roe v. Wade was "flawed legal reasoning" and that the Supreme Court had defended "human dignity" and federalism.
Committee assignments
Scott has served or is serving on the following committees:
Current
Armed Services
Subcommittee on Airland
Subcommittee on Cybersecurity
Subcommittee on Personnel
Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Subcommittee on Federal Spending Oversight and Emergency Management
Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs and Federal Management
Budget
Aging (Special)
Previous
Commerce, Science and Transportation (served until February 2023)
Caucus
Senate Republican Conference
Net worth and investments
Scott's net worth was estimated at in 2010, $84 million in 2012, and $133 million in 2013. On July 1, 2015, it was reported that Scott's net worth had grown to $147 million, $149 million on December 31, 2016, and $232 million on December 31, 2017. For August 2018, his net worth was estimated at $255 million. Based on financial disclosure reports covering 2020, Business Insider reports that Scott has a minimum net worth of just over $200 million, making him the wealthiest member of Congress.
Creation of "blind trust"
Early in his gubernatorial tenure, Scott said he created a blind trust for his holdings to avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest. In October 2018, The New York Times reported that the trust in question was blind in name only, and that there were various ways in which Scott could know what his precise holdings were. The holdings in question included investments in companies and funds that Scott could have had an impact on through his administration's policies. The trust in question was managed by one of Scott's former personal assistants from before he became governor.
In February 2019, Scott announced that he would no longer keep his holdings in a trust.
Controversial investments
In 2017, Scott and his wife held stocks in firms that did business with the Maduro government in Venezuela and a shipping firm with close ties to Russia. Scott had been a harsh critic of the Maduro regime and chastised companies that invested in Venezuela, saying, "Any organization that does business with the Maduro regime cannot do business with the state of Florida." By 2018, Scott and his wife no longer held stocks in the firms with links to Russia or Venezuela.
In a July 2018 financial disclosure statement, Scott and his wife reported earnings of at least $2.9 million in hedge funds registered in the Cayman Islands, a well-known tax haven. The financial statement said that the assets were held in a blind trust and a 2018 campaign spokesperson said Scott did not have a role in selecting particular investments.
Scott and his wife invested at least $3 million in the parent company of All Aboard Florida, a rail investment company that proposed to build high-speed rail between Orlando and Tampa. In 2018, Scott supported the efforts of the company to build the rail and get taxpayer-financing. He had previously, early in his tenure as governor, rejected $2.3 billion in federal funding to develop high-speed rail between Tampa and Orlando. Scott stated the original project was fiscally irresponsible given the recession, and he supported a public-private partnership approach when the state's finances were in order.
Scott was an investor in the firm Conduent Inc., which was awarded a $287 million Florida contract in 2015 to manage SunPass, the toll program in the state of Florida. Due to glitches in SunPass, motorists were charged bank fees and overdraft charges, and the Florida Department of Transportation was criticized for failing to take action. Scott, a Conduent investor, defended the department's handling of the SunPass controversy.
Personal life
On April 20, 1972, Scott, then aged 19, married his high school sweetheart, Frances Annette Holland (born May 11, 1952), who was also 19 years old. The couple has two daughters and six grandsons. They live in Naples, Florida, and are founding members of Naples Community Church.
Electoral history
Awards and honors
Time magazine, America's 25 Most Influential People, June 1996
Financial World magazine, silver award for the CEO of the Year, 1995
Columbia University School of Nursing, Second Century Award for Excellence in Health Care (1995)
Notes
References
External links
U.S. Senate website
Campaign website
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1952 births
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesspeople
21st-century American politicians
American adoptees
American Christians
American health care chief executives
American venture capitalists
Businesspeople from Florida
Businesspeople from Kansas City, Missouri
Dedman School of Law alumni
Republican Party governors of Florida
HCA Healthcare people
Living people
People from Naples, Florida
People from North Kansas City, Missouri
Politicians from Kansas City, Missouri
Republican Party United States senators from Florida
Texas lawyers
Florida lawyers
United States Navy sailors
University of Missouri–Kansas City alumni |
4280416 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Gillispie | Billy Gillispie | Billy Clyde Gillispie ( ; born November 7, 1959), also known by his initials BCG and Billy Clyde, is an American college basketball and current men's basketball coach at Tarleton State. Gillispie had previously been head coach at UTEP, Texas A&M, Kentucky, and Texas Tech.
After leading both UTEP and Texas A&M to postseason appearances one year after poor seasons, Gillispie became the only college basketball coach to be in charge of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) program with the biggest turnaround in two consecutive seasons. Gillispie was known as an excellent recruiter who managed to put together four straight top-25 recruiting classes. In his three seasons at Texas A&M, the Aggies achieved three consecutive 20-win seasons for the first time in the program's history.
Early years
Gillispie was born November 7, 1959, in Abilene, Texas, the middle child and only boy among five children of Clyde, a cattle truck driver, and Winifred Gillispie. He grew up in Graford, Texas, a town of 494 people located about 65 miles west of Fort Worth. As a child, Gillispie worked as a paperboy, delivering copies of The Fort Worth Press. At Graford High School, Gillispie played point guard for the basketball team and was a standout athlete in his graduating class of 20 students. He attended Ranger College, playing basketball and baseball for them from 1978 to 1980, before transferring to Sam Houston State University to work as a student assistant for their basketball team under coach Bob Derryberry, a former classmate of Gillispie's father. Derryberry moved to Southwest Texas State University (now Texas State University–San Marcos) the following year, and Gillispie accompanied him, spending three years as a graduate assistant. Gillispie received his degree in education from Southwest Texas State in 1983.
Coaching career
Early positions
Gillispie spent the next few years building a coaching resume, spending two years as an assistant high school basketball coach before becoming a head coach at Copperas Cove High School in 1987. From 1987 to 1993, Gillispie held three high school head coaching positions. He was nominated for Texas Association of Basketball Coaches (TABC) high school coach of the year for his 1992–1993 season with Ellison High School in Killeen, Texas, which set school records for winning percentage and points scored and ended the season ranked 4th in the state.
After a year as an assistant coach at South Plains College, in 1994, Gillispie moved to Division I college basketball as an assistant coach and recruiting coordinator at Baylor University under head coach Harry Miller. Miller and Gillispie had coached against each other in the same high school district as late as two years earlier, with Miller at Temple High School. The Baylor Bears' 1996 recruiting class was ranked as high as number six in the nation. After three years at Baylor, Gillispie moved to the University of Tulsa to be an assistant coach under Bill Self. Tulsa reached the elite 8 in the 2000 season. When Self moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Gillispie followed, working as an assistant there for the next two years. During those two seasons, Fighting Illini won back-to-back Big Ten Conference titles for the first time in 50 years, advancing to the Elite Eight in the 2001 NCAA Tournament and to the Sweet 16 in the 2002 NCAA Tournament. With Gillispie's assistance, Illinois landed a top 10 recruiting class in 2002.
Through Gillispie's eight years as an assistant, he was a member of coaching staffs that won five conference championships in six years. As part of Bill Self's staff, he was a member of the only coaching staff in NCAA history to lead two different schools to the Elite Eight in successive seasons.
UTEP
Gillispie was hired as the head coach of the men's basketball team at the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) in 2002.
2002–2003
In his first season as a head coach, the UTEP Miners finished a dismal 6–24. Despite the poor showing, Gillispie put his recruiting expertise to work so that his first recruiting class ranked in the top 25 in the country and included Filiberto Rivera, the 2003 National Junior College Player of the Year, and Omar Thomas, the all-time leading scorer in junior college basketball.
2003–2004
In the exhibition games preceding the 2003–04 season, Gillispie's UTEP Miners defeated the Harlem Globetrotters 89–88, after the Globetrotters had already defeated many college teams including the then-defending national champion, Syracuse Orange. It was the first defeat the Harlem Globetrotters had suffered in 289 games.
Although the Miners were predicted to finish ninth in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) for the 2003–04 season, UTEP instead captured their first conference title in 12 years. The team finished 24–8 and received a bid to the 2004 NCAA tournament. The 18-win improvement was the best in Division I basketball that season, and one of the best in Division I history. As a result of their success, the Miners built a huge home following, ranking first in the NCAA in increased attendance. After his second season with the Miners, Gillispie was named Texas coach of the Year by the TABC and was a finalist for National Coach of the Year honors.
Texas A&M
After two years at UTEP, Gillispie was approached to interview for the head coach position at Texas A&M University, vacant after the forced resignation of Melvin Watkins, whose team had gone 7–21 and failed to win a Big 12 Conference game in the 2003–04 season. Athletic Director Bill Byrne needed to revitalize the program, which had only one winning season in the previous eleven years, and desired a new head coach with the ability to "recruit the heck out of Texas". Gillispie agreed to take the job only after he was sure that the predominantly football-focused school was actually committed to winning, becoming the first native Texan to be the head basketball coach at Texas A&M since J. B. Reid was hired in 1930.
2004–2005
Gillispie asked for a budget large enough to allow them to play confidence-building non-conference schedules, rarely venturing out of Reed Arena in the first two seasons. Using the padded non-conference schedule to their advantage, the Aggies won the first eleven games of Gillispie's debut season before finishing the season 21–10, a fourteen-game improvement over the previous season. Although the Aggies were picked to finish last in the Big 12 Conference, they finished 8–8 in conference play, winning games against the number 9 Texas Longhorns and number 25 Texas Tech Red Raiders on their way to becoming only the third college team to ever finish .500 in league play after being winless the previous season. For the first time in eleven years, the team received a postseason bid. The Aggies' two wins in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) were their first postseason wins in 23 seasons. With the best first-season record of any head basketball coach in Texas A&M history, the Aggies had the most season wins since the 1979–80 team had won 26 games. The Aggies were named the country's most improved team, making Gillispie the only coach in history to lead the most improved team in consecutive seasons. As a result of his success, he was the consensus selection for Big 12 Conference Coach of the Year. and was selected to serve as a court coach at the 2005 USA Men's World University Games Team Trials.
2005–2006
Although the Aggies lost Antoine Wright to the NBA draft following the 2004–05 season, the team did not suffer the predicted drop-off, and actually broke a streak of twenty-five years without being ranked in the poll. The Aggies finished the regular season with a 21–8 record, including a 10–6 conference record and a fourth-place finish in the Big 12, the best finish and most wins for Texas A&M since the formation of the conference in 1996. For the first time since 1987, Texas A&M received a bid to the NCAA tournament. As a twelfth-seeded team, the Aggies upset the Big East Conference champion Syracuse Orange in the first round of the tournament but then lost in the second round to eventual Final Four participant, the LSU Tigers, by the score of 58–57 on a three-pointer that LSU made in the final seconds of the game. Following the season, Gillispie was named the Big 12 Conference Coach of the Year by several major newspapers and was named the Texas College Coach of the Year by the TABC.
2006–2007
The Aggies began the 2006–07 season deemed capable of contending with the Kansas Jayhawks for the Big 12 Conference regular-season crown and were picked to finish second in the Big 12 media and coaches' polls. In their twelfth attempt, on February 3, 2007, Texas A&M became the first Big 12 Conference team in the South Division to beat the Jayhawks at Allen Fieldhouse, moving them into sole possession of first place in the conference standing. Less than forty-eight hours later the Aggies defeated their archrivals, the #25 ranked Texas Longhorns, marking their 21st straight win at home.
The 2006–07 Aggies ended the regular season ranked #7 by the Associated Press and #6 in the ESPN/USA Today Coaches' poll. The Aggies set a school record for most consecutive weeks in the top 25, reaching a school high number 6 ranking. On March 4, 2007, Gillispie was awarded his second Big 12 Conference Coach of the Year award for leading the Aggies to a 13–3 conference record and a second-place finish behind the Kansas Jayhawks. The 2006–07 post-season, the Aggies advanced to the Sweet Sixteen in the NCAA tourney. Their post-season hopes ended with a one-point loss (65–64) to the Memphis Tigers at the Alamodome in San Antonio on March 22, 2007.
Kentucky
Hiring
On April 5, 2007, University of Kentucky athletic director Mitch Barnhart was given permission by Texas A&M to speak with Gillispie about the program's basketball coach opening, vacated by Tubby Smith.
On April 6, 2007, the announcement was made that Gillispie had accepted the position. He drew criticism for the way he left Texas A&M by having alerted the Aggie players of his decision to take the Kentucky job via text message, while en route to the introductory press conference in Lexington.
On April 6, 2007, Gillispie was formally announced as the new head coach of the University of Kentucky by UK athletic director Mitch Barnhart. He fielded questions from the media during a press conference held at UK's new practice facility, the Joe Craft Center. He expressed his excitement and joy to have been given the honor and the opportunity to coach what former Kentucky Wildcats head coach Rick Pitino referred to as the "Roman Empire" of college basketball. "I'm very, very grateful and honored to be here, but we have a lot of work to do." Gillispie became only the sixth head coach in the last 76 years at the school.
Gillispie signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Kentucky on April 6, 2007 which outlined his salary and benefits. The memo also stated that contract negotiations would be concluded with "every reasonable effort" within 60 days. Gillispie and the university never signed a formal contract.
Recruiting
Between April 29 and May 7, 2008, Billy Gillispie made recruiting waves by snagging commitments from five players spread over five different classes, most notably the commitment on May 1 of Thousand Oaks, California 8th-grader Michael Avery. Avery, a member of the class of 2012, gave the University of Kentucky its earliest basketball commitment in the history of the program. The commitment also earned national scrutiny for Coach Gillispie and the university, but there were no violations of the NCAA recruiting rules. During his tenure at Kentucky, Gillispie snagged numerous high-profile recruits. These included three 5-star recruits according to Scout.com (Patrick Patterson, Daniel Orton & Dominique Ferguson) and five 4-star recruits (Alex Legion, DeAndre Liggins, Darius Miller, Kevin Galloway and Jon Hood). Legion later transferred to Illinois early in the 2007–08 season.
2007–2008
Wildcat fans packed Rupp Arena for Big Blue Madness (the first practice of the season and the program's major publicity event) to catch a glimpse of their new coach in action. In his first few months he signed two high-profile recruits, Patrick Patterson and Alex Legion. Patterson had previously been recruited by the Duke Blue Devils, Florida Gators, and Kentucky Wildcats (by former coach Tubby Smith) before signing with Gillispie. Alex Legion would transfer 6 games into his first season at Kentucky. Gillispie's first season got off to a rocky start, being routed 84–68 by unranked Gardner Webb in Rupp Arena in the second game of the season. This loss dropped the Wildcats from the AP Top 25 poll, where they did not return for the remainder of the season. The Wildcats improved their record during conference play, achieving a 12–4 record and on March 11, Gillispie was named Co-Southeastern Conference coach of the year along with Bruce Pearl of the Tennessee Volunteers.
2008–2009
On November 14, 2008 Gillispie's Kentucky team opened the 2008–09 season with another loss at home, this time to the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) Keydets, by a score of 111–103. However, on November 30, 2008, Gillispie led Kentucky to a 54–43 come from behind victory over the West Virginia Mountaineers to win the Findlay Toyota Las Vegas Invitational championship. Although his Wildcats had trailed for the entire game, Billy made halftime adjustments that stymied coach Bobby Huggins' Mountaineers, eventually allowing Kentucky to overcome a 14-point deficit well into the second half – holding the Mountaineers to only 17-second-half points. Although neither team was ranked, the win was considered an upset victory for Coach Gillispie and his Wildcats after the VMI loss and was the first in-season tournament championship win for the University of Kentucky since winning the Great Alaska Shootout in late 1996.
After a 5–0 start in the SEC conference schedule, however, Gillispie's team dropped three straight games to the Ole Miss Rebels, South Carolina Gamecocks and Mississippi State Bulldogs, with the latter two losses coming at home. Some Kentucky fans vociferously booed Gillispie during the Mississippi State game. Kentucky rebounded against the Florida Gators with a 68–65 victory at home. Jodie Meeks hit a contested fade-away three-pointer with less than 5 seconds left to give Kentucky the lead. Nick Calathes had an opportunity to tie the game after being fouled with 0.6 seconds left by Kevin Galloway, but missed all three free throws (the last intentional) to seal the Wildcats' win.
Kentucky also had two lopsided victories over SEC East regular season champion Tennessee. Although Gillispie continued to take the blame for the Wildcats' woes, he was also a victim of some of his youthful and inexperienced recruits' underperformance and the lack of consistent play at the point guard position. Gillispie continued to publicly encourage his players and praise their work ethic despite the team's inconsistent play during the 2008–09 season. Such encouragement manifested itself in Gillispie's public statements about his players after close losses.
Kentucky missed the NCAA Tournament for the first time since 1991, and received a 4th seed in the NIT, defeating UNLV and Creighton in the opening and second rounds before losing to the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in the quarterfinals. Kentucky finished the year with an 8–8 record in conference and 22–14 overall. The record tied for the second-most losses ever in the program's history.
Firing
Gillispie was fired as the Wildcats' head coach on March 27, 2009. Athletic director Mitch Barnhart told Gillispie that his firing was not related to on-court performance, but was due to a general feeling that Gillispie was "not a good fit" for UK. According to Barnhart, the "incompatibility" between Gillispie and UK specifically manifested itself in Gillispie's failure to sign a formal contract two years after his hiring. As mentioned above, Gillispie had coached for two years on a "Memorandum of Understanding," not a contract; UK initially considered it the equivalent of a series of one-year contracts. UK had offered Gillispie a seven-year contract, but Gillispie had never signed it.
Lawsuit and settlement
On May 27, 2009, Gillispie filed a lawsuit against the University of Kentucky Athletic Association for breach of contract and fraud stemming from the firing. The suit was filed in Gillispie's home state of Texas, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas. Gillispie was seeking $6 million, the amount he claimed the university owed him on the remaining years on the deal, punitive damages, attorney fees, and a jury trial. The next day, the university filed a countersuit against Gillispie in Franklin Circuit Court in Frankfort, Kentucky's state capital. In the countersuit, UK sought a judge's order that Gillispie's memorandum of understanding was not a formal contract.
On October 13, 2009, UK and Gillispie agreed to settle the dispute. Under the agreement, Gillispie got $2.98 million while UK paid over $265,000 in mediation costs.
Texas Tech
On March 20, 2011, Gillispie was named the 14th head coach of the Texas Tech Red Raiders. Gillispie replaced Pat Knight after Knight failed to make the NCAA tournament and compiled a 16–42 Big 12 Conference record over his three and a half seasons as head coach. Gillispie was introduced at a press conference on March 23, 2011 at the United Spirit Arena. On February 11, 2012, Gillispie won his first Big 12 game as the coach of the Red Raiders, who beat the Oklahoma Sooners, 65–47. He finished the 2011 season 8–23.
In October 2011, Gillispie exceeded the 20-hour practice limit set by the NCAA. Both Gillispie and assistant coach Bubba Jennings were reprimanded by Texas Tech in January 2012. The secondary violation was reported to the NCAA, and the organization approved the self-imposed penalty of a 12-hour, 20-minute reduction in practice time. The violation was not reported to the public until September 2012, when allegations of misconduct surfaced in the media.
Allegations of player mistreatment
Before the start of the 2012–13 basketball season, allegations surfaced from former and current players accusing Gillispie of mistreatment. Fifteen players departed prematurely in the year after Gillispie arrived, a very high number for a college basketball program in a major conference. Also leaving were two strength coaches and two directors of basketball operations; some 30 persons overall. The allegations include forcing injured players to practice, keeping players Ty Nurse and Dejan Kravic in doubt about their scholarship status, and reneging on promises to potential new coaching staff hires. Shortly after the allegations were initially reported and he was due to meet with athletic director Kirby Hocutt about the allegations, Gillispie was hospitalized for six days with heart-attack like symptoms and high blood pressure after calling EMS. He left the hospital on September 6. Another call to EMS was made September 10, but did not require hospitalization. On September 11, Gillispie took an indefinite medical leave, and checked himself into the Mayo Clinic. He was treated there for 'kidney problems' and 'abnormal headaches', and told to live in a stress-free environment for 30 days. Assistant head coach Chris Walker took over the day-to-day operations of the basketball team.
Departure
On September 20, 2012, Gillispie resigned as head coach at Texas Tech, citing health concerns. His contract was honored through the end of the 2012 calendar year. Walker was named interim coach for the 2012–13 season.
Ranger College
In April 2015, it was announced that Gillispie would become the new basketball coach and athletic director at Ranger College, a junior college and his alma mater.
After using ineligible players and other violations, his 2015–16 Ranger College men's basketball team forfeited all games from that season and were placed on probation by the NJCAA for the 2016 – 2017 season. On December 7, 2016, Gillispie announced his immediate retirement from coaching, citing severe health issues related to his blood pressure. In May 2017, however, Gillispie returned to the sidelines at Ranger.
Tarleton State
On March 30, 2020, Gillispie was named the head coach at Tarleton State, and will guide the team during its transition from Division II to Division I in the Western Athletic Conference.
Personal life
A February 11, 2007, The Dallas Morning News article described Gillispie as a self-professed workaholic during his time at Texas A&M. Despite the fact that he had three assistants who watched opponents' game film and summarized it for him, he sometimes watched as many as fifteen of an opponent's games, often working as late as 2 or 3 a.m. to ensure he had adequate time to devote to the task. He stated that his eight-year marriage ended because he could not find a balance between work and home. With the sheer number of hours he spent working, Gillispie often did not have time to even shop for groceries, once going as long as six months without any food in his refrigerator.
On August 27, 2009, Gillispie was arrested at 2:45 am in Lawrenceburg, Kentucky for driving under the influence. A passenger in the 2009 Mercedes Benz C300, Charles O'Connor, was arrested and charged with alcohol intoxication. According to the police report, an officer saw the vehicle swerving and stopped the driver. The officers who were at the scene smelled a strong odor of alcohol, describing Gillispie's eyes as being red and glassy, with his speech slurred. When asked about his proof of insurance, Gillispie stated that it was in a golf bag in his trunk. He then refused a blood test and a breathalyzer on the scene and was subsequently arrested and taken to the Franklin County jail. Gillispie pleaded not guilty. A judge had scheduled a trial for February 10, 2010 in the case. However, on November 2, 2009, Gillispie changed his plea to guilty under a plea agreement. He was fined $1,028 and must complete an alcohol and drug education course before his Kentucky driver's license can be renewed. He has had two prior DUI arrests, the first in 1999 when he was arrested for driving while intoxicated and improper use of a lane in Tulsa, Oklahoma. He eventually pleaded guilty to a lesser charge of reckless driving. He was arrested again in 2003 in his first year at the University of Texas at El Paso on suspicion of drunken driving, although it was later dismissed based on a lack of evidence.
In September 2009, it was reported that Gillispie had entered an alcohol rehabilitation program and had checked himself into the John Lucas After Care Program in Houston.
Head coaching record
College
Junior college
*31 wins forfeited for 2015–2016. They do count as losses; on court record was 31–7.
References
1959 births
Living people
American men's basketball coaches
Baseball players from Abilene, Texas
Basketball coaches from Texas
Basketball players from Texas
Baylor Bears men's basketball coaches
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
High school basketball coaches in Texas
Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball coaches
Kentucky Wildcats men's basketball coaches
Ranger Rangers baseball players
Ranger Rangers men's basketball coaches
Ranger Rangers men's basketball players
Sportspeople from Abilene, Texas
Texas A&M Aggies men's basketball coaches
Texas State Bobcats men's basketball coaches
Texas State University alumni
Texas Tech Red Raiders basketball coaches
Tulsa Golden Hurricane men's basketball coaches
UTEP Miners men's basketball coaches
Tarleton State Texans men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players |
4280446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Pakistani%20political%20families | List of Pakistani political families | This is a partial listing of prominent political families of Pakistan given in alphabetical order.
Azhar
Mian Muhammad Azhar (Governor of Punjab, 1990-1993, Mayor of Lahore 1987-1991, founder of PMLN-Q)
Hammad Azhar (Previous Finance Minister of Pakistan)
Babar
Nawabzada Nasrullah Khan
Naseerullah Babar
Farhatullah Babar
Bangash
Ghulam Ishaq Khan, President of Pakistan.
Bhuttos
Shah Nawaz Bhutto - The Dewan of Junagadh and the Father of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (Member Bombay Council).
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, son of Shah Nawaz (President (1970–1973); Prime Minister (1973–1977))
Mumtaz Bhutto, cousin of Zulfikar, (chief of Bhutto tribe, former chief minister and Governor of Sindh, Federal Minister of Pakistan)
Nusrat Bhutto, wife of Zulfikar (former minister without portfolio)
Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar (Prime Minister, 1988–1990 and 1993–1996), assassinated December 27, 2007.
Murtaza Bhutto, elder son of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and the brother of former Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto. He was assassinated.
Shahnawaz Bhutto, son of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. He died under mysterious circumstances.
Ameer Bux Bhutto, son of Mumtaz Bhutto, Vice President of Sindh National Front and ex-Member of Sindh Assembly.
Fatima Bhutto, daughter of Murtaza Bhutto.
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, son of Benazir Bhutto and Asif Ali Zardari, party chairman.
Bakhtawar Bhutto Zardari, daughter of Benazir Bhutto and Asif Ali Zardari, Party Chairman
Bukharis
Zulfi Bukhari, Special Assistant to Prime Minister Imran Khan
Altaf Bukhari, Member in the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly
Uzma Zahid Bukhari, Member of the Provincial Assembly of Punjab
Zehra Batool, Member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
Syed Basit Sultan Bukhari, Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan
Ajiaz Hussain Shah Bukhari, Member of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh
Syed Samsam Bukhari, Former Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan
Syed Ata-ul-Muhaimin Bukhari, President of Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam
Syed Yawer Abbas Bukhari, Member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
Nayyar Hussain Bukhari, Senior leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP)
Ejaz Hussain Bukhari, Member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab
Chaudhary Jatt
Ch Muhammad Saqlain (He was elected for the third term as Member, Provincial Assembly of Punjab in general elections 2008 independently. Former MPA is now PTI's candidate for the constituency NA-66 Jhelum-I).
Chaudhry Zahoor Elahi (A parliamentarian who played a major role in the restoration of democracy and human rights in Pakistan)
Chaudhry Shujat Hussain (Prime Minister of Pakistan - 2004)
Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi (Chief Minister of Punjab - October - 2002 to October 2007)
Chaudhry Wajahat Hussain, Former Federal Minister of Human Resources
Chaudhary Moonis Elahi, MNA, Federal Minister for Water Resources
Chaudhary Salik Hussain, MNA, Federal Minister of Board of Investment & Special Initiatives
Chaudhary Hussain Elahi, MNA
Chaudhry Fawad Hussain, Former Federal Minister of Information & Broadcasting
Chaudhary Rajput
Asiya Azeem Chaudhary (She was elected for her second term as Member, National Assembly of Pakistan on August 17, 2022). She was previously Member of the 12th National Assembly of Pakistan from 2002 till 2007.
Chattha Jatt
Hamid Nasir Chattha, Former Speaker of the National Assembly.
Gabol
Allah Bakhsh Gabol, Member Bombay Legislative Assembly 1928, Member Sindh Legislative Assembly 1937 and Mayor of Karachi for two terms.
Nabil Gabol (Grandson of Khan Bahadur Allah Bakhsh and son of Ahmed Khan Gabol), Member Sindh Assembly 1988, 1993, 1997; Member National Assembly 2002, 2008 and Federal Minister for Ports and Shipping.
Gandapur
Inayatullah Khan Gandapur, former chief minister of KPK (1973–1975). Served as KPK finance minister between 1972 and 1973.
Ikramullah Gandapur, former Minister of Agriculture in KPK, important leader in Kulachi area.
Israrullah Khan Gandapur, member of KPK assembly from 2002 to 2013. Served as minister of Law, Parliamentary Affairs, and Human Rights.
Aghaz Ikramullah Gandapur, youngest ever member of KPK assembly, elected in 2018 following death of his father.
Ali Amin Gandapur,Federal Minister for Kashmir Affairs and Gilgit-Baltistan
Gujjars/Chaudhry
Akhtar Ali Vario, Former MNA/MPA/Minister C&W /Minister for Excise /Chairman Standing Committee Narcotics/Chairman District Council Sialkot
Choudhary Khush Akhtar Subhani, Provincial Minister population welfare/Prisons/Housing & Physical Planning/Environmental Planning
Tariq Subhani, MPA
Armaghan Subhani, MNA/ Ex MPA/provincial minister
Adil Pervaiz Gujjar, MPA-PTI, son of Pervaiz Sultan MPA Sammundari, Faisalabad
Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, Former President of Pakistan
Chaudhry Muhammad Jaffar Iqbal, Senior Vice-President of PML-N.
Qamar Zaman Kaira, Former Governor of Gilgit-Baltistan and Minister of Information.
Tanveer Ashraf Kaira, Former Minister of Finance and General Secretary of PPP Punjab.
Shafqat Mehmood, Federal Minister of Education/ E -Information and Petroleum.
Chaudhry Zaka Ashraf, Former Chairman Pakistan Cricket Board and the owner of ZTBL.
Malik Abrar Ahmad, MNA chairman PHA.
Sardar Muhammad Yousuf, Religious minister.
Fayyaz Ul Hassan Chohan, Former Information Minister, Punjab
Chaudhry Amir Hussain, Former Speaker National Assembly
Nawabzada Ghazanfar Ali Gul, Former MNA/Minister
Chaudhry Muhammad Akhlaq, Minister of Special Education, Punjab
Jadoon
Iqbal Khan Jadoon, Former Chief Minister, NWFP
Amanullah Khan Jadoon, Former Minister of Petroleum and Gas.
Kakazai (Loi Mamund)
Ghulam Muhammad, (Governor General Of Pakistan)
Malik Barkat Ali (Politician, Lawyer and Journalist)
Ghulam Ahmad Bilour, Ex-Federal Minister for Railways, Pakistan
Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, National Leader, Khilafat Movement, India, 1930s
Abdul Aleem Khan
Kharal
Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal, Ruler (nawab) of Jhamra, chieftain of the Kharal tribe.
Ghulam Mustafa Khar, Former Governor of Punjab and former Chief Minister of Punjab.
Ghulam Noor Rabbani Khar, Former Member of National Assembly of Pakistan.
Hina Rabbani Khar, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Member of National Assembly of Pakistan.
Malik Ghulam Raza Rabbani Khar, Former Member of National Assembly of Pakistan.
Malik Ghulam Arbi Khar, Former Member of National Assembly of Pakistan
Khalid Ahmed Kharal, Former Federal Minister of Information of Pakistan.
Malik Ghulam Raza Rabbani Khar, Member of National Assembly of Pakistan.
Rai Ghulam Mujtaba Kharal, Former Member of National Assembly of Pakistan.
Rai Usman Khan Kharal, Former Member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab.
Rai Haider Ali Khan Kharal, Former Member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab.
Khattaks
Habibullah Khan Khattak
Ali Kuli Khan Khattak, Military General
Ghulam Faruque Khan
Nasrullah Khan Khattak
Ajmal Khattak
Afrasiab Khattak
Parvez Khattak
Khattar
Nawab Muhammad Hayat Khan CSI, early member of the Punjab legislature in the 19th c
Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, KBE, Premier/CM of the Punjab 1937-1942.
Sir Liaqat Hayat Khan, KCSI, Prime Minister of Patiala state in British India.
Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan, senior political figure and close associate of MA Jinnah.
HE Izzet Hayat Khan, former Pakistani ambassador to Tunisia
Ghulam Sarwar Khan, Minister of Petroleum and (Member National Assembly of Pakistan)
Tahir Sadiq Khan,(Member National Assembly of Pakistan) and former district nazim Attock
Muhammad Zain Elahi, Former (Member National Assembly of Pakistan)
Khokhars
Ghazanfar Ali Khan - Former Minister of Food, Agriculture and Health, Ambassador to Iran 1948-1952, to Turkey 1952-1953, to India 1954-1956 and to Italy 1956-1957.
Riaz Khokhar (Former Foreign Secretary of Pakistan serving from June 2002 to February 2005)
M. Nawaz Khokhar (Former Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan)
Malik Ahmad Khan Bhachar (Member Provisional Assembly of Punjab)
Afzal Khokhar (Member National Assembly of Pakistan)
Malik Saif ul Malook Khokhar (Member National Assembly of Pakistan)
Malik Muhammad Ali Khokhar (Member Provisional Assembly of Punjab)
Mustafa Nawaz Khokhar (Member Senate of Pakistan)
Karam Elahi Bandial (Member Provisional Assembly of Punjab)
Malik Ali Abbas Khokhar (Member Provisional Assembly of Punjab)
Malik Karamat Khokhar (Member National Assembly of Pakistan)
Leghari
Farooq Leghari (ex President of Pakistan)
Jamal Leghari
Awais Leghari
Muhammad Mohsin Khan Leghari
Rafique Haider Khan Leghari
Muhammad Arshad Khan Leghari
Marwats
Habibullah Khan Marwat, Justice of the West Pakistan High Court, first & second Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan, acting President of Pakistan, when the President Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry went abroad, Pakistan's Interior Minister and also Chief Minister of West Pakistan. Was elected to the first ever Legislative Council of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (then North-West Frontier Province NWFP), first as a member and later Deputy Speaker.
Shah Nawaz Khan, ex-Chief Justice of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. He was also Governor of NWFP.
Mazari
Sardar Mir Balakh Sher Mazari ( Tumandar Mazari Tribe(1930-Present), Former Care taker Prime minister of Pakistan)
Shaukat Hussein Mazari (Former MPA, Punjab Assembly, former Deputy-Speaker, former provincial ministerPunjab Assembly)
Sardar Atif Hussein Mazari (Former MPA, Punjab Assembly)
Sardar Saleem Jan Mazari (Former MNA, former Provincial Minister from Sindh and former district Nazim Kashmore)
Sardar Ehsan ur Rehman Mazari ( MNA Kashmore)
Sardar Mir Dost Muhammad Mazari (Former MNA & Minister for water power, MPA & Deputy speaker Punjab assembly)
Mian Family of Baghbanpura
Justice Mian Shah Din, (1868–1918), Elected President of the All-India Muslim League(March 1908), Member of the Simla Deputation in 1906, First Muslim Judge in British India, Poet and Writer.
Sir Mian Mohammad Shafi, KCSI, CIE (1869–1932), one of the founding fathers & President All India Muslim league (Punjab)
Justice Sir Mian Abdul Rashid (29 June 1889 – 6 November 1981), Kt, KCSI, was the first Chief Justice of Pakistan 1947, legal philosopher, one of the founding fathers of Pakistan
Mian Sir Muhammad Shah Nawaz, Politician of Punjab in the 1920s
Mian Iftikharuddin, Politician, owner of Pakistan Times and Daily Imroz, 1947–1962
Begum Jahanara Shahnawaz (1896–1979) politician in Pakistan, first woman to preside over an Asian legislature. Founder All India Women Muslim League in 1935
Mumtaz Shahnawaz (1912-1948) - young woman political activist and author, who died in a tragic plane crash at the age of 35
Mohmand
Muhammad Ali Khan Mohmand
Babar Ali Khan Mohmand
Myer Minhas Rajput
Raja Muhammed Sarfraz Khan, MLC Punjab 1929, MLA 1937-58
Muhammed Akbar Khan, Pakistan's first four star general
Iftikhar Khan, Pakistan's first designated army chief
Iffat Liaqat Ali Khan, Ex- Chairman Task Force Pakistan
Sher Ali Khan, Minister Minerals and Mines Punjab
Raja Riaz Ahmad Khan, Ex-Senior Minister Punjab, MNA
Raja Yassir Humayun Sarfraz, Minister for Higher Education & IT, Punjab
Noon family
Feroz Khan Noon (former Prime Minister of Pakistan, former Foreign Minister of Pakistan, former Chief Minister of Punjab)
Malik Adnan Hayat Noon (former MNA)
Malik Anwar Ali Noon (former MNA)
Malik Amjad Ali Noon (former District Nazim)
Viqar un Nisa Noon (former Federal Minister as well as a prominent social worker)
Rana Muhammad Qasim Noon (Member of National Assembly NA-159 2018-23, MNA 2013-18, Former Minister)
Qazi family
Members of Qazi family (), of Sindh in politics:
Qazi Abdul Majeed Abid (Qazi Abid), a four-time Federal Minister, Sindh Provincial Minister, and son of Qazi Abdul Qayyum
Fahmida Mirza, Speaker of the National Assembly, former Acting President of Pakistan, three-time Member of the National Assembly, and daughter of Qazi Abid
Zulfiqar Mirza, Sindh Provincial Home Minister, former Member of the National Assembly, and nephew of Qazi Abid, Qazi Azam, and Qazi Akbar.
Pir Mazhar Ul Haq, Senior Minister and Education Minister in the Sindh Provincial Cabinet, a three-time Sindh Provincial Minister, and grandson of Qazi Muhammad Akbar
Marvi Mazhar, a former Member of the Provincial Assembly in Sindh and daughter of Pir Mazhar Ul Haq.
Qureshi
Shah Mahmood Qureshi
Mustafa Qureshi
Zain Qureshi
Makhdoom Qureshi
Akhtar Aly Kureshy
Moin Qureshi
Rana
Rana Abdul Rauf, MPA District Bahawal Nagar
Rana Chander Singh, was a Pakistani politician and a federal minister. He was one of the founder members of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan from Umerkot, seven times with PPP between 1977 and 1999
Rana Hamir Singh, a Pakistani politician who has been member of Provincial Assembly of Sindh.
Rana Mashood Ahmad Khan, Deputy Speaker of the Fourteenth Provincial Assembly of the Punjab in Pakistan
Rana Muhammad Iqbal Khan, 16th Speaker of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab, Acting Governor of Punjab in 2011.
Rana Muhammad Afzal
Rana Phool Muhammad Khan, Ex Minister of agriculture, Ministry of Health, Law Minister of Pakistan, Caretaker Chief Minister of Punjab
Rana Sanaullah Khan, 39th Interior Minister of Pakistan
Rana Tanveer Hussain, (Member of National Assembly) (Ex Federal Minister)
Rao
Rao Mohammad Hashim Khan, Member of National Assembly, ex-Chairman Public Accounts Committee
Rao Muhammad Ajmal Khan, Member of National Assembly
Rao Sikandar Iqbal, Ex-Federal Minister
Rao Qaiser Ali Khan, Ex-MNA
Rao Muhammad Afzal Khan, MPA from Sahiwal District Tehsil Depalpur
Rao Jamil Akhtar Khan, Tehsil Nazim Okara
Rao Farman Ali Pakistan Army
Rao Qamar Suleman Pakistan Air Force
Saifullah Khan family
Begum Kulsum Saifullah Khan, member of Majlis-Shoora of General Zia-ul-Haq
Salim Saifullah Khan, Senator of Pakistan, President Pakistan Muslim League
Anwar Saifullah Khan, MPA, Senator, and former federal minister, and son-in-law of President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
Humayun Saifullah Khan, MNA.
Sharif (Butt)
Nawaz Sharif, Ex Prime Minister of Pakistan(exile from country by gen. Musharaf in 1999 thru Martial Law)
Shahbaz Sharif, Prime Minister of Pakistan (exile from country by gen. Musharaf in 1999 thru Martial Law)
Hamza Shahbaz Sharif, Son of Shahbaz Shareef, (Member of National Assembly of Pakistan,Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)
Hussain Nawaz son of Nawaz Sharif (Prime Minister of Pakistan)
Maryam Nawaz, daughter of Nawaz Sharif and wife of Rtd. Captain Safdar
Soomro
Khan Bahadur Allah Bux Soomro, Twice Chief Minister of Sindh
Elahi Bux Soomro, remained Member of National Assembly of Pakistan, Speaker National Assembly of Pakistan, Federal Minister
Rahim Bux Soomro, Minister Sindh
Mohammad Mian Soomro, remained President of Pakistan, Prime Minister of Pakistan, Senate of Pakistan and Governor of Sindh
Swati Family of Mansehra
Swati is the biggest land-owning family of District Mansehra and District Battagram which controls the politics of these two districts dating back to pre-partition India.
Khan Haji Faqeera Khan Swati — MLA of Indian National Congress from Mansehra II in 1937 Indian provincial elections, royal "Khan of Malakpur Village", maternal grandfather of Azam Swati, leader of Khudai Khidmatgar Movement in Hazara
Khan Khudadad Khan Swati, Freedom Fighter of Pakistan Independence Movement, member of All India Muslim league, former Minister of Health West Pakistan and Ex- Chief of Siran Valley.
Babar Saleem Khan Swati (MPA of Mansehra II, current Khan Of Mansehra City)
Azam Khan Swati (Senator, former federal Minister of Railways, former federal minister of Narcotics Control, former federal minister of Science and Technology, current Chief of Sherpur, Mansehra District)
Khan Khudadad Khan Swati (Freedom Fighter of Pakistan Independence Movement, member of All India Muslim league, former Minister of Health West Pakistan and Ex- Chief of Siran Valley Mansehra)
Saleh Muhammad Khan Swati (MNA of Mansehra District)
Laiq Muhammad Swati (He is the Ex-MNA current MPA of Torghar District which was former part of Mansehra District. He is also the younger brother of Azam Swati)
Nawab Zada Wali Muhammad Khan(He remained MPA of Battagram District which was former part of Mansehra District)
Reham Khan Swati (BBC journalist, former wife of Imran Khan, belongs to landlord family of Baffa Mansehra)
Abdul Hakeem Khan Swati (Ex-Governor Khyber Pakhtoon Khwa Province, uncle of Reham Khan, Ex- Khan of Baffa Pakhal)
Waji-Uz-Zaman Khan Swati ( Current royal Chief of Agror Valley, Mansehra)
Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan (Former MLA of Indian National Congress, served as the Interim Minister (sic) for Industries, Freedom fighter and an Active Member of Pakistan Muslim League and former Chief of Sum village, Mansehra)
Haroon Khan Badshah (Member of Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ex-provincial Minister for Agriculture Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa)
Bashir Khan Jehangiri Swati (17th Chief Justice of Pakistan)
Mufti Kifayat Ullah Khan Swati (Ex-MNA Mansehra III, famous religious scholar)
Muhammad Nawaz Khan Swati (current MNA of Battagram)
Abrar Ahmed Swati ( Famous Pakistani Cricketer)
Ghulam Ghaus Hazarvi (Well Known Islamic Scholar and Politician)
Haji Muhammad Yousaf Khan Swati( 8 times elected MPA of Battagram I, Current Khan of Trand Village)
Tanoli
Mir Painda Khan
Nawabzada Salahuddin Saeed Current Nawab of State of Amb
Ibrar Hussain current MPA and ex Forest Minister
Tareen/Tarin
Abdul Majid Khan Tarin, OBE, senior Muslim League figure.
Ayub Khan, ex military dictator, second President of Pakistan (1958 – 1969)
Begum Mahmooda Salim Khan, first female minister in the history of Pakistan
Sardar Bahadur Khan, ex CM and minister
Gohar Ayub Khan, former Speaker of the National Assembly and ex Foreign Minister
Omar Ayub Khan, ex Minister of State for Finance
Jehangir Khan Tareen, ex minister and political leader of the PTI party
Shaukat Tarin, ex Federal Minister for Finance
Yousuf Ayub Khan, politician and businessman
Zardari
Hakim Ali Zardari, the patriarch of Zardari family.
Asif Ali Zardari, son of Hakim Ali Zardari and husband of Benazir Bhutto, President of Pakistan
Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, son of Asif Ali Zardari and Benazir Bhutto, Chairman Pakistan Peoples Party(see also Bhutto family above)
Azra Peechoho, daughter of Hakim Ali Zardari
Faryal Talpur, daughter of Hakim Ali Zardari, Former Nazima Nawabshah District, MNA
Zia-ul-Haq Family
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (President of Pakistan, 1978–1988)
Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq (Member of the National Assembly)
See also
First Families of Pakistan
Politics of Pakistan
References
Pakistan |
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