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4302669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agga%C3%B1%C3%B1a%20Sutta | Aggañña Sutta | Aggañña Sutta is the 27th sutta of the Digha Nikaya collection (Pāli version). The sutta describes a discourse imparted by the Lord Buddha to two brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha, who left their family and vanna to become monks. The two brahmans are insulted and maligned by their own caste for their intention to become members of the Sangha. The Buddha explains that vanna(class) and lineage cannot be compared to the achievement of morality practice and the Dhamma, as anyone from the four vannas can become a monk and reach the state of Arahant. Then, he explains about the beginning of the Earth and the birth of social order and its structure, including the vannas. The Buddha emphasizes the message of universality in the Dhamma and how the Dhamma is the best of all things.
The Beginning
The Sutta begins when the Buddha is staying in Savitri, in the temple donated by Visakha, the mother of Migara. At that time, two brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha, are training with the monks (bhikkhu) and aim to be a member of the Sangha. As usual in the evening, the Buddha rises from his meditation and strolls in the open yard near his dwelling. Vasettha sees his Teacher strolling, tells his friend, Bharadvaja, and suggests that they meet the Buddha to see if they can hear a Dhamma exposition from the Buddha.
They both approach the Buddha and after some formal proprieties, the Buddha asks the two if they received insults and denigration when they left their class and layman's life in order to join the order.
Vasettha and Bharadvaja answer that they did receive a 'flood of insults'. They say that the other Brahmans maintain that the Brahman class is the best, as the Brahmins are of high social status and authority, pure-bred, have radiant complexions, and are born from the mouth of the God Brahma, unlike the other lower castes. So, by the opinion of the other Brahmins, how can Vasettha and Bharadvaja leave this good class and status, thus joining together with fraudulent ascetics with shaven heads from other classes, lower in status as they are born from the feet of Brahma?
To this remark, the Buddha tells them that the Brahmans have indeed forgotten about their past if they said such things. The fact is that the women in the Brahman class can get pregnant, give birth, and take care of their children. But the Brahmans still say that they are born from the Mouth of the God Brahma and other (classes) are born from Brahma's feet. Thus, the Brahmans words are untrue. The Buddha said that the Brahmans are not speaking truthfully and they will reap a bad result from their own deeds.
The Buddha then elaborates that if any of the class does the following deeds: killing, taking anything that is not given, take part in sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough words or nonsense, greedy, cruel, and practise wrong beliefs (miccha ditthi); people would still see that they do negative deeds and therefore are not worthy of respect. They will even get into trouble from their own deeds, whatever their class (Khattiya, Brahman, Vessa, Sudda) might be.
While those who refrain from killing, taking anything that is not given, engage in sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough words or nonsense, being greedy, cruel, and practising wrong beliefs (miccha ditthi), will be seen by people as positive and will earn respect from the people and the wise ones. They would be profiting from their deeds, no matter what their caste might be.
Logically, as the four classes can do either negative (demerit) or positive (merit) deeds, so will the wise reject the statement that only the Brahmans are the best class. Why? Because anyone from the four class, if they left the worldly affairs and became a monk, and due to their discipline and struggle, they become Arahant, people who conquered their mind's stains, have done whatever what must be done, have been relieved from the burden, have broken the bondage of birth, achieved freedom, freed due to achieved knowledge, then he is the best among others based on Truth (Dhamma).
The Buddha says, "Dhamma is the best thing for people
In this life and the next as well."
Further, the Buddha proves that Dhamma is indeed the best thing of all things in life. He takes the example of King Pasenadi of the Kosala Kingdom, who has now conquered the Sakyans. The Sakyans revere, praise, and serve him with respect.
But, towards the Buddha, who came from the Sakyan people, King Pasenadi reveres, praises, and serves the Buddha with utmost respect. Even the monarch thinks like this: "The Samaṇa Gotama had perfect birth, while I am not perfect. The Samaṇa Gotama is mighty, while I am weak. The Samaṇa Gotama inspired awe and respect, while I do not. The Samaṇa Gotama is vastly influential and charming, while I only possess small influence." As even the King respects Dhamma, reveres Dhamma, and obeys Dhamma, therefore he bows and praises the Tathagatha.
The Buddha then advises Vasettha that whoever has strong, deep-rooted, and established belief in the Tathagatha, he can declare that he is the child of Bhagavan, born from the mouth of Dhamma, created from Dhamma, and the heir of Dhamma. Therefore, the titles of the Tathagatha are the Body of Dhamma, the Body of Brahma, the Manifestation of Dhamma, and the Manifestation of Brahma.
The Beginning of Life on Earth
In the second part of the Sutta, the Buddha tells the story of how human beings came to dwell on Earth.
The Buddha said that sooner or later, after a very long time, there would come a time when the world shrinks. At a time of contraction, beings are mostly born in the Abhassara Brahma
world. And there they dwell, mind-made, feeding on delight, self-luminous, moving
through the air, glorious — and they stay like that for a very long time. But sooner or
later, after a very long period, this world begins to expand again. At a time of expansion,
the beings from the Abhassara Brahma world, having died from there, are
mostly reborn in this world. Here they dwell, mind-made, feeding on delight, self-luminous,
moving through the air, glorious — and they stay like that for a very long time.
They floated above and around the Earth. At this time, there were not yet seen the Moon and the Sun, there were not yet Night and Day, there were not yet names and identity or female or male. The creatures were only known as creatures.
At that period, Vasettha, there was just one mass of water, and all was darkness, blinding darkness.... And sooner or later, after a very long period of time, savory earth spread itself over the waters where those beings were. It looked just like the skin that forms itself over hot milk as it cools. It was endowed with color, smell, and taste. It was the color of fine ghee or heated butter and it was very sweet, like pure wild honey (1)
Some of the creatures of light (the Abbhasaras) who had curiosity and a greedy nature began to dive and taste the savory Earth's substance. At that moment, the creature found out that it tasted so delicious. Thus, greed started to seep in and it ate the substance voraciously, greedily, also calling its comrades (who were flying above and on earth) to join in the feast. Not long afterwards, the creatures began to eat greedily, and due to the huge amount of the mud substance they could feed on it for a very long time.
As they ate and ate, their luminous body began to be coated by the mud substance, formed a coarser body, then suddenly, the sun and moon were seen, so were the stars, and also Night and Day began on Earth. The logical explanation of this was that the creatures were the self-illuminating, so blinding and luminous that they didn't notice the Sun. The Earth was covered in their light. So, when the materialization took place, the light faded inside their newly conceived 'body' of mud and thus the night and day became apparent to them. Then, as the night and day became apparent, seasons and years also appeared.
Their body was still coarse and roughly shaped. Thus, after a very long time, the mud-like substance began to be exhausted. Then, mushroom-like plants began to grow so fast that they replaced the mud-like ocean. The creatures began to devour them as well, and they also found it delicious, like sweet honey and milk. Their body hardened more and details began to turn finer.
After another very long time, the mushrooms also began to be exhausted, replaced by cassava or turnip-like plants. They also began to devour them night and day, and thus they began to notice differences amongst them. As the changes of their bodies varied between each other, the concept of difference arose. The concepts of the beautiful and the ugly were born. The beautiful scorns the ugly and they became arrogant because of their appearance.
Then, after the turnips, the earth was grown with rice plants. The first rice plants were without husk and kernels. The sweet and honey-like rice flourished seeds abundantly. The people consumed them for a very long time. But there are people who became greedy and lazy. They took more rice than they needed for one day's meals. They began to take two, four, eight, and sixteen days' of rice reserves as they were too lazy to take rice every day. Owing to this, many other creatures began to store and hoard the rice. The generation time for rice plants became slower and slower. Usually, it took only one night for the plant to grow and be ready to be consumed, but by the karmic power the plant began to grow more and more slowly. Also the rice grew in kernels and husks, scattered, which the creatures must work, nurse, maintain, harvest, and cook in order to obtain the white rice.
By this time, the body of the creatures had become finely evolved. There was already the distinction between male and female. The man became preoccupied with women and vice versa. Then, as they were deeply attracted to each another, passion and desire was aroused, and they engaged in sexual relationships. The people who saw a couple engaged in sexual activity scolded them, and usually the couple were forbidden from entering the village for a certain period of time. Owing to this, the indulgent couples built closed dwellings where they indulged in sexual activity.
The Birth of Social Order
In the third part, the Buddha explained about the origin of vannas(classes), their titles, and their order in the society system which were still rigidly effective in Buddha's time.
The Khattiya Class (Rulers)
The rice plants, as mentioned earlier, began to grow in separate plots and people began to divide lands and tend each other's cluster of rice fief. They became preoccupied in tending their own field. Then, as the evil and greed were aroused, there were people who begin stealing others' crops. At first, the others only warned the culprit and the culprit promised that he would never repeat it again. But when it was repeated several times, the people began punishing him with fist, stones, and then sticks. That is the origin of punishment forms.
Then, people began to think that they were too busy to heed every crime and abuse that happened in their society. They grieved on the rising of evil amongst their people. But most of their time had already been invested in tending their fief. So, they appointed someone to rectify what is right and what is wrong, give warnings to those who need it, give punishment to those who deserve it, and in return, they will give him a share of their rice.
So, they went to the fairest, ablest, most likeable, and most intelligent person and appointed him to do the judging and passing out sentences on the reward of a share of rice. The appointed person thus agreed and the people bestowed upon him the title : 'Maha Sammata' meaning: The People's Choice. Then, they bestowed also the second title: 'Khattiya' meaning the 'Lord of the Rice Field', and finally the third title: 'Raja' which means 'Who gladdens people with Dhamma (or Truth)'.
This order was created by the people's wish and need, based on the Dhamma and not from others. The Buddha stated again that Dhamma is indeed the best of all things.
The Brahman Class
Then, amongst the people, some of them begin to think like this: "Evil deeds have risen amongst us, such as: theft, lies, murders, sexual abuses, punishment, and banishment. Now let us set aside evil, unuseful, and impolite things." The word Brahmans came, as it meant: "They who put aside Evil and unwholesome things" (1).
They set up retreats and huts in the forests and meditated there. They came to the city at morning and evening only to gather food and after finishing gathering food, they returned to their huts and meditations. People noticed this and 'Those who meditated' were called 'Jhayanti' or 'Jhayaka'.
There are other people, who can't meditate or dwell in huts in the forest. So, they settled in the cities, did not meditate, but compiled books. The people called them 'Ajjhayaka' which meant 'They who don't meditate'. At first the Ajjhayaka were viewed lower than Jhayaka but in the Buddha's time, the Ajjhayaka had been viewed higher in status than the Jhayakas.
The Vessa (Traders) and the Sudda (Hunters)
Among the people who had settled and had family, some began to adopt various trades.
The remainder of these people preferred the work of hunting. The Shudra caste came from the word 'Shudra' which means: 'They Are Base Who Live By The Chase' [1].
All of the vannas from Khattiya, Brahman Vessa, and Sudda originated from these people, and not from others; in accordance to the Dhamma and not by others.
The Ascetics
But from the four vannas, there were people who were not satisfied with their living, left their home and became celibate ascetics. These are the origin of the fifth class formed from all the four class' people who left their lay life and became an ascetic.
Buddha's Conclusion
The Buddha then concluded his discourse to Vasettha and Bharadvaja:
(Due to the governance of Dhamma which became the root of all class and people) anyone, from any the class, who did demerit and wrongdoings, lived a bad life of speech, thoughts, views, and wrongdoings, they would end up after their death, in the realm of sufferings, hell, loss, and torture.
But anyone, from any class, who did merit and good deeds, lived a good life of speech, thoughts, and deeds; had the right view, after their death, they would end in the realm of happiness and heaven.
Anyone, from any class, who did both merit and demerit, lived a good and bad life of speech, thoughts, and deeds; had either a right or a bad view, after their death, they could end in the realm of suffering or the realm of joy.
Anyone, from any class, who lived a life of disciplined deeds, speeches, thoughts, who had trained and developed himself in the seven factors of Enlightenment, then he would attain the eradication from the (stains/dust/dirt/filth) of mind in this current life.
Anyone, from four classes, who became a bhikku (Monk), arahant, who had eradicated stains of Mind, had done what must be done, had relieved himself from burden, who had attained freedom, who had broken the bondage of birth, who had been freed due to knowledge; then they would be declared as the best from all of them, in accordance to the Truth (Dharma) and not from the basis of not Truth (adhamma).
The Buddha quoted, "Dharma is the best thing for people
In this life and the next as well."
The Buddha quoted the verses of Brahma Sandakumara:
"The Khattiya is the best among those who maintain their lineage; He with knowledge and conduct is best of gods and men."
then, the Buddha asserted that the verse is indeed true, according to the Dhamma, profitable, and true.
The Khattiya’s best among those who value clan; He with knowledge and conduct is best of gods and men."
Thus the discourse ended with Vasettha and Bharadvaja rejoicing in hearing the words of Buddha.
Digging Deeper Into the Sutta
While the story of the world's beginning is considered a myth, on the other hand, the Buddhist doctrine requires a constant sceptical approach, where one must see and prove it before one believes it (ehipassiko). However, the profound insight of the Buddha in two major fields: science (cosmology) and social structure's origin indeed was revolutionary in his era.
On the science part, Buddha implied the theory of the Evolution of the Universe, where it is said to shrink and then expand in repeated cycles.
While on the social science part, the Buddha's words implied the equality of origin in the human race, whether by their sex, appearance, or by other categories which were founded later based on physiological differences. Buddha also emphasized that the social structure is formed voluntarily, based on righteousness and necessity, not based on Divine command as some theories stated.
The Monarchy is also formed voluntarily, and the people elect the most righteous and capable person, which implied the Democracy concept. The Monarch accepts a 'share of rice' as his reward to rectify the social order, which is the origin of voluntary reward which evolves into the taxation concept. However, the Buddha states that the Monarch is regarded worthy not because of his divine right but due to his righteousness in deeds.
The Buddha's message was clear, however, that the best thing in the world is Truth (Dhamma) and everything is created, measured, and valued based on Truth and not from something other.
According to Richard Gombrich, the sutta gives strong evidence that it was conceived entirely as a satire of Hindu claims regarding the divine nature of the varnashrama, showing that it is nothing but a human convention. According to Gombrich, the Buddha satirizes the Vedic "Hymn of the Cosmic Man" and etymologizes "reciter of the Veda" so as to make it mean "non-meditator" instead. Not all scholars agree with Gombrich's interpretation and his view is not unanimous.
Among those who disagree is Suwanda H J Sugunasiri, a Canadian Buddhist scholar, who most recently has presented a novel interpretation of the Sutta. Rejecting the view that the Sutta is a ‘satire’ (Gombrich) or ‘good humoured irony’ (Collins), he shows how “the Discourse is a historically and scientifically accurate characterization of the cyclical cosmic process” [2]. He compares the stages of cosmic, vegetation, human and linguistic evolution as indicated by the Buddha with those in western theory, beginning with 13.5 billion years ago of the Big Bang and ending with 150,000 years when ‘anatomically modern humans’ appear. The Big Bang, in this interpretation, marks not the beginning of the Evolutionary phase but the ending of the earlier Devolutionary phase, when there appears seven suns (as in a different Sutta), symbolic of intense heat. A critical point in Sugunasiri’s reconstruction of the Buddha’s universe is the novel take on the Abhassaras - as photons, translating the term Abhassara literally as ‘hither-come-shining arrow’ (ā + bhas + sara). In an expanded study, Sugunasiri points to two other Suttas (Brahmajala and Patika) in which the Buddha presents dimensions of the cosmic process. He also shows how the Buddha cuts through the Vedic myth of creation referred to in Gombrich.
Notes
Further reading
Collins, Steven, “ The Discourse on What is Primary (Aggañña Sutta), An annotated Translation”, Journal of Indian Philosophy 21, 301-393.
Suwanda H J Sugunasiri, PhD, 2014, Dhamma Aboard Evolution: A Canonical Study of Aggañña Sutta in relation to Science, Toronto: Nalanda Publishing Canada.
External links
Pali Text
The Aggañña Sutta in original Pali SuttaCentral
Translations
The Origin of the World, translation by Bhikkhu Sujato
On Knowledge of Beginnings, translation by unknown translator
Essays
Religions and Human Rights: Buddhism vs Brahminism an excerpt of a monograph by Nalin Swaris.
Digha Nikaya
Creation myths
Buddhism and evolution |
4302692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle%20in%20the%20Square%20Theatre | Circle in the Square Theatre | The Circle in the Square Theatre is a Broadway theater at 235 West 50th Street, within the basement of Paramount Plaza, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The current Broadway theater, completed in 1972, is the successor of an off-Broadway theater of the same name, co-founded around 1950 by a group that included Theodore Mann and José Quintero. The Broadway venue was designed by Allen Sayles; it originally contained 650 seats and uses a thrust stage that extends into the audience on three sides. The theater had 751 seats .
The Circle in the Square Theatre was named for its first location at 5 Sheridan Square in Greenwich Village, which opened in February 1951 and was operated as a theater in the round. During the 1950s and 1960s, the theater became what Women's Wear Daily described as the "center of Off-Broadway". The Sheridan Square theater was closed temporarily between 1954 and 1955 and was demolished in 1960. The company then moved to 159 Bleecker Street, known as Circle in the Square Downtown; that location continued to operate until about 1995. In addition to its Sheridan Square and Bleecker Street locations, the Circle hosted shows at other locations such as Ford's Theatre and the Henry Miller's Theatre.
The Gershwin Theatre and the Circle in the Square's Broadway house were built as part of Paramount Plaza (originally known as the Uris Building). The Circle's Broadway house opened on November 15, 1972, and operated as a nonprofit subscription-supported producing house for the next 25 years. The theater typically presented three or four shows per year in the 1970s and 1980s, but, by the 1990s, the theater had a $1.5 million deficit. Following an unsuccessful attempt to appoint new leadership in 1994, the company filed for bankruptcy in 1997. The theater reopened in 1999, now operating as an independent commercial receiving house. The Circle in the Square Theatre School, a drama school within Paramount Plaza, is associated with the Circle in the Square Theatre.
Design
The Circle in the Square Theatre is in the basement of Paramount Plaza. It was designed by Allen Sayles, with a lighting system designed by Jules Fisher. The Circle operates its own venue, which was originally known as the Circle in the Square–Joseph E. Levine Theatre. It is one of Paramount Plaza's two theaters, the other being the much larger Gershwin Theatre on the second floor. Paramount Plaza's two venues, along with the Minskoff and American Place theaters, were constructed under the Special Theater District amendment of 1967 as a way to give their respective developers additional floor area. The space is accessed via escalators from street level, as well as via stairs.
The theater was built with a capacity of 650 seats; , the theater has 751 seats. The space was originally meant as an off-Broadway house with fewer than 500 seats, but the Circle's artistic director Theodore Mann and its managing director Paul Libin increased the capacity by relocating columns and replaced steps with ramps. Originally, the theater was decorated with red seats, and it had a red-and-gray carpet in a checkerboard pattern. The Circle's symbol, a cube, was incorporated into the design of the carpet and the light. The top of the auditorium contains soundproof panels, which minimized noise from police horses when the theater opened. A soundproof control booth was placed at the rear of the auditorium.
The Circle contains a thrust stage, with seats surrounding it on three sides, similar to the venue's off-Broadway predecessors. It is one of two Broadway houses with a thrust stage; the other is Lincoln Center's Vivian Beaumont Theater. Because of the stage's unconventional design, theatrical critics negatively reviewed it, while directors had difficulty staging productions there. Conversely, the design allowed the audience to be extremely close to the stage, as there were only ten rows of seats. According to Mann, the design of the current Circle in the Square was based on the predecessor theaters. These, in turn, were based on a recommendation from theater critic Brooks Atkinson, who had told Mann: "When you walk in the door, you should see the stage—that should predominate—not the audience."
Off-Broadway predecessors
The Circle in the Square was founded by Theodore Mann, José Quintero, Jason Wingreen, Aileen Cramer, Emily Stevens, and Edward Mann, all of whom were members of the Loft Players. The theater's founders were in their mid-20s and were described by The New York Times as having "little training, less experience, and no reputation in the theater". Sources disagree on when the organization was founded, but it may have been established in 1949 or 1950. The founding team wished to establish a "center dedicated to the development and presentation of all the arts". The team could not afford to open their theater in Manhattan's high-rent Theater District. Upon the recommendation of Mann's father Martin M. Goldman, the team opted for a location in Greenwich Village, which had a myriad of empty theaters.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the theater became what Women's Wear Daily described as the "center of Off-Broadway", largely staging revivals at a time when traditional Broadway theaters presented experimental shows. Mel Gussow of The New York Times similarly described the original Circle as being within "the heartbeat of Off-Broadway" in Sheridan Square. Over the years, actors such as Colleen Dewhurst, Geraldine Page, Jason Robards, Bradford Dillman, Dustin Hoffman, George Segal, George C. Scott, and James Earl Jones starred in the company's productions. In addition, the theater attracted such directors as Michael Cacoyannis, William Ball, and Alan Arkin. The Circle tended to stage productions by well-known playwrights such as Tennessee Williams, Eugene O'Neill, Jean Giraudoux, Dylan Thomas, and Jules Feiffer.
5 Sheridan Square
The first Circle in the Square Theatre was at 5 Sheridan Square (also known as the Greenwich Village Inn), a former nightclub in Greenwich Village. The Circle's founders signed a 10-year lease on the building. When the team signed the lease in 1951, they had $320 between them, including $300 that they had earned from operating a summer theater in Woodstock, New York. The Circle's founders raised $7,500, and Goldman formed Onyx Restaurants Inc. to lease the inn on behalf of the team, which was responsible for paying $1,000 a month in rent. The inn occupied a pair of brownstone residences. The first-floor living and dining rooms in one of the residences had been converted to a rectangular dance floor, while the three stories above the dance floor included 15 rooms. There was a bar in the rear of the dance floor, as well as a kitchen in the basement. Due to the inn's configuration, the theater's founders decided to operate the Circle as a theater in the round, wherein the audience surrounded the stage (a converted dance floor). The theater, and the eponymous company, derived their name from the facility's layout and its location at Sheridan Square.
The theater was planned to open in November 1950, but the opening was delayed by two and a half months due to difficulties in securing a theatrical license. Ultimately, the Circle's founders were only allowed a cabaret license. The theater's first production was the play Dark of the Moon, which opened in February 1951. At the time, the off-Broadway industry was still relatively obscure and was not covered by mainstream newspapers. Mann, Quintero, and all actors were paid a flat salary of $20 per week. The Circle became more popular after theatrical critic Brooks Atkinson praised the Circle's production of Williams's Summer and Smoke in 1952. Mann said Atkinson's review prompted guests to line up for tickets during July, at a time when theaters traditionally closed in the summer due to a lack of air conditioning. Quintero directed some of the theater's most popular early productions, including The Grass Harp, American Gothic, and O'Neill's The Iceman Cometh and Long Day's Journey into Night. Notwithstanding the success of Summer and Smoke, the theater lost money during its first several years.
City officials closed the 5 Sheridan Square location in March 1954 because the venue did not comply with fire-safety regulations and because the space was only licensed as a cabaret. At the time, the Circle was described as one of the "most popular Off-Broadway theaters". During the 1954–1955 season, the Circle temporarily relocated to Broadway houses such as the 48th Street Theatre and the 46th Street Theatre. After Mann filed plans to renovate the theater in April 1955, city officials approved the theater's reopening. When the venue reopened on June 1, 1955, it was rebranded as the Circle in the Square Cabaret. It continued to host popular theatrical performances, such as Cradle Song, Children of Darkness, and Our Town. In July 1959, Mann, Quintero, and Leigh Connell announced that they had to relocate by that October because the building's owner was planning to redevelop the site. At the time of the announcement, the Circle had presented 18 shows, mostly revivals of plays, at 5 Sheridan Square. The old location remained open until January 8, 1960, and the inn was demolished the same year.
159 Bleecker Street
At the end of August 1959, Mann, Quintero, and Connell leased space at 159 Bleecker Street in Greenwich Village, which at the time was occupied by the Amato Opera Company. The structure had been constructed in 1917 and had been used for various purposes over the years, including a movie theater. Starting in October 1959, the group rebuilt the space as a circle-in-the-round theater, similar in arrangement to the original location. To comply with Off-Broadway regulations, the theater had 199 seats. Unlike the Sheridan Square location, the Bleecker Street theater had adequate space for dressing rooms. The newer space had higher ceilings, and it did not have support columns that obstructed patrons' views, as the Sheridan Square theater did. The new location, known as Circle in the Square Downtown, opened on January 9, 1960, with Our Town; the play's cast had given their last performance at 5 Sheridan Square the day before. The first new production at the Bleecker Street location, was a revival of Jean Genet's The Balcony which opened the same year.
By the early 1960s, the Circle had staged several box-office flops and was in debt. Nonetheless, upon the theater's tenth anniversary in 1961, the New York Herald Tribune reported that Mann and Quintero were purchasing the Bleecker Street building, at a time when Off-Broadway theaters were in high demand. Quintero had directed 17 of the Circle's 21 plays at that point. Ultimately, Quintero decided to resign from the Circle by 1963, preferring to work as a freelance producer. Paul Libin was hired as the Circle in the Square's managing director the same year. This era also saw the Circle's longest-lasting production, The Trojan Women, which ran from 1963 to 1965. The company had staged 47 off-Broadway and 10 Broadway productions by its 20th anniversary in 1971.
Even though the company's Broadway theater opened in 1972, the Bleecker Street location continued to host off-Broadway shows through the late 1970s. In 1994, the Circle Repertory Company took over the Circle in the Square Downtown. Developers announced plans to raze the Bleecker Street theater in 2004. The venue was demolished in 2005 and replaced with a nine-story apartment building.
Other locations
The Circle in the Square took a one-year lease on the Henry Miller's Theatre, a Broadway theater, beginning in August 1968. The company's productions at the Henry Miller's were presented under the name "Circle in the Square on Broadway". Even though the Henry Miller's was a Broadway theater, the Circle's productions there were ineligible for the Tony Awards because the Circle was a repertory company. The company only ran two shows at the venue, both of which were flops, before its lease was terminated. Those two productions were The Cuban Thing, followed by Morning, Noon and Night, a trio of one-act plays. When the Circle's lease was terminated in January 1969, Mann and Libin were already in the process of developing their own theater on Broadway.
The Circle began staging productions at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., in 1968. The Circle's productions in Washington, D.C., were initially successful, contrasting with the theatrical company's failure on Broadway. The company's productions at Ford's included revivals of such plays as Moon for the Misbegotten, and Ah, Wilderness!, and Arsenic and Old Lace. However, the company's offerings were ultimately constrained by the fact that the managers of Ford's Theatre were selective about what constituted "acceptable audience entertainment". The Washington's Ford's Theatre Society sought to take over operation of Ford's Theatre in 1971, prompting the Circle to sue the society. The Circle lost the lawsuit and severed its partnership with Ford's in September 1971, citing large financial losses.
Broadway theater history
In September 1967, Uris Buildings Corporation leased the site of the Capitol Theatre on Broadway, between 50th and 51st Streets, for 100 years. Uris announced it would build an office tower and a Broadway theater on the site; initially, the corporation only proposed a single theater, which later became the Gershwin Theatre. In October 1967, the New York City Planning Commission (CPC) proposed the Special Theater District Zoning Amendment, which would directly allow theaters in One Astor Plaza and the Uris Building. The New York City Board of Estimate approved the amendment that December.
The Uris Buildings Corporation agreed in February 1968 to build a second theater in the basement upon the CPC's request. The new theater was originally supposed to be an experimental theater with 300 to 375 seats. Richard Weinstein, the head of the CPC's Lower Manhattan office, asked Mann whether he was interested in occupying the Uris Building's second theater. Mann initially was uninterested in relocating to a theater with such small capacity, but he changed his mind after seeing that the space could fit 650 seats, large enough to qualify as a Broadway theater. The CPC approved the new theaters the same year, as did the Board of Estimate. Lease negotiations between Mann and Percy Uris had been completed by January 1969, and Mann and Libin formed the for-profit Thespian Theater Inc., which subleased the smaller theater to the Circle. The Circle's Broadway theater was intended as a "more elegant" version of the off-Broadway house, although the company was initially unsure whether it would retain its off-Broadway location. Mann believed that the development of relatively small Broadway theaters, such as the Circle's, would allow "more specialized plays" to be produced, as compared with larger and older theaters.
1970s
The venue in Paramount Plaza's basement opened for inspection on October 2, 1972. The Broadway house was named the Circle in the Square–Joseph E. Levine Theatre, for Joseph E. Levine, a longtime benefactor of the Circle. Prior to the Broadway house's opening, the theater hosted a gala on October 26, 1972. featuring several actors who had performed at the Circle's off-Broadway locations. The Levine Theatre hosted its first performance, a revival of Mourning Becomes Electra, on November 15, 1972. In the months after the Circle's Broadway house opened, it hosted numerous performers whose portraits were hung in the lobby. Twelve thousand people were paying for annual subscriptions to the Broadway house by the beginning of 1973. Unlike at other Broadway theaters, the Circle tended to host multiple opening nights for each show. Headliners were paid a flat rate of $1,000 a week, less than in comparable Broadway theaters.
During the Broadway house's first two seasons, the Circle staged productions such as Medea, Here Are Ladies, Uncle Vanya, The Waltz of the Toreadors, and The Iceman Cometh in 1973, as well as The American Millionaire and Scapino in early 1974. Despite its early popularity, the theater could only earn up to $35,000 per week, and it relied heavily on grants. By March 1974, the theater was in danger of closing due to a shortfall of nearly $200,000. The musical Look, Homeward, as well as all shows during the 1973–1974 season, would have been canceled. The Circle announced in April 1974 that it would not close, having raised the necessary funds, including emergency grants, nearly $34,000 in individual donations, and even a grant from rival producer Joseph Papp. The success of Scapino, which featured Jim Dale, was also cited as a factor in the theater's survival.
For 1974–1975, the Circle staged The National Health, Where's Charley?, All God's Chillun Got Wings, and Death of a Salesman. The following season, the theater hosted Ah, Wilderness!, The Glass Menagerie, The Lady from the Sea, and Pal Joey. The Circle celebrated its 25th anniversary on March 8, 1976, which New York City mayor Abraham Beame proclaimed as Circle in the Square Day. The same year, at the 30th Tony Awards, the company received a Special Tony Award "for twenty-five continuous years of quality productions". For 1976–1977, the Circle continued its tradition of staging four Broadway shows per season, and the Levine Theatre hosted The Days in the Trees, The Night of the Iguana, Romeo and Juliet, and The Importance of Being Earnest. The Circle also saw revivals of four plays in 1977–1978: Tartuffe, Saint Joan, 13 Rue de l'Amour, and Once in a Lifetime. The first two plays in 1978–1979 were revivals of The Inspector General and Man and Superman. During the second half of the season, the Circle presented two new plays: Spokesong by Stewart Parker and Loose Ends by Michael Weller.
1980s
Due to recurring financial issues that nearly prompted the theater company to declare bankruptcy, the Circle delayed the start of its 1979–1980 season to February 1980, extending the run of Loose Ends to cover the gap. Consequently, the season was planned to have three plays, the first two of which were Major Barbara and Past Tense. The final play, The Makropulos Affair, was replaced with The Man Who Came to Dinner on relatively short notice. For 1980–1981, the Circle returned to presenting four plays: The Bacchae, John Gabriel Borkman, The Father, and Scenes and Revelations. The Circle had originally planned to stage Hamlet after The Bacchae, but Hamlet had been replaced with Borkman due to scheduling conflicts. The theater next hosted Candida in late 1981, followed by Macbeth, Eminent Domain, and Present Laughter in 1982. The theater hosted other events during the 1980s, including tributes to playwrights Eugene O'Neill and William Saroyan.
Libin began selling annual subscriptions via telemarketing around 1983, amid increasing difficulties in obtaining subscribers. The Circle hosted three plays in 1983: The Misanthrope, The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial, and Heartbreak House. A revival of The Iceman Cometh was canceled during that year because of budget overruns. The Circle also hosted revivals of the plays Awake and Sing and Design for Living in 1984. The next year, the theater hosted the plays The Loves of Anatol, Arms and the Man, and The Marriage of Figaro, as well as Robert Klein's comedy series The Robert Klein Show!. The Circle also hosted three plays in 1986: the Steppenwolf Theatre Company's revival of The Caretaker, the original production of The Boys in Autumn, and a revival of You Never Can Tell.
In 1987, the Circle hosted Second Stage Theater's revival of the play Coastal Disturbances, which featured Annette Bening and Timothy Daly and ran for ten months. This was followed the next year by revivals of the plays A Streetcar Named Desire, Juno and the Paycock, and The Night of the Iguana, as well as An Evening with Robert Klein, another comedy series by Klein. The original English production of Yehoshua Sobol's play Ghetto ran for only 33 performances in early 1989, It was followed that September by an adaptation of the musical Sweeney Todd with Bob Gunton and Beth Fowler, which lasted for 189 performances.
1990s
Early 1990s
Libin stepped down as the theater's managing director in 1990. The Circle hosted two plays that year: the American premiere of the Russian play Zoya's Apartment, as well as a revival of The Miser. This was followed in 1991 by Taking Steps, Getting Married, and On Borrowed Time. By 1991–1992, the theater faced an increasingly severe financial crisis. In the first half of 1992, the theater hosted the play Search and Destroy, followed by two plays that concurrently starred Al Pacino: a revival of Salome and the original production of Ira Lewis's Chinese Coffee. Pacino had to scale back his appearances in Salome and Chinese Coffee after straining his vocal cords; as a result, these productions only broke even. The musical Anna Karenina, originally planned for 1991–1992, was generally negatively reviewed when it opened at the beginning of the next season. By then, the theater was running at a significant loss; after Anna Karenina closed, Mann tried to save money by keeping the set of Anna Karenina in place. Many of the theater's productions in the 1990s had been commercially unsuccessful.
By November 1992, the theater had a $1.3 million deficit, prompting managing director Robert A. Buckley to fire 10 of the 25 staff members and postpone the start of the 1992–1993 season by four months. Buckley resigned shortly afterward, and George A. Elmer was hired as the new managing director. The theater had only about 8,500 subscribers at the time. The Circle operated at a loss of $1.5 million, in large part because of its overdependence on box-office revenue. That March, the theater canceled two plays by Molière due to a lack of funds. Libin, who remained involved with the Circle's operation, advised Mann to separate the finances of the theater and its associated school; an unnamed former employee told The New York Times that the theater was "living off the school". As a result, the school was separated from the theater in 1993. The school assumed the lease of the theater space, then subleased the space back to the theater.
The only show that the Circle hosted in 1993 was Wilder, Wilder, Wilder, a trio of Wilder plays that lasted for 44 performances. Afterward, the Circle was dark for over a year; a planned engagement of the play Belmont Avenue Social Club during late 1993 had been canceled. Many of the Circle's board members blamed Mann for selecting shows that did not appeal to audiences and claimed that he was too focused on a "theatrical community that was rooted in the past". As a direct consequence, the Circle had failed to compete with newer nonprofit theater companies such as Second Stage Theater, Lincoln Center Theater, or the Manhattan Theatre Club. The number of subscribers had decreased to about 5,400 by 1994.
New leadership
Harvey Seifter took over as the theater's executive director in March 1994. The Circle's artistic managers sought to revive the theater by establishing a $500,000 production fund, hiring a second artistic director to assist Mann, and creating partnerships with other theatrical companies. Josephine Abady was hired as the second artistic director in August 1994; she was to take over as the theater's sole artistic director when Mann stepped down. Abady planned to book both revivals and newer plays at the theater, and she wished to attract additional subscribers to compete with other nonprofit theaters. Although the Circle had received millions of dollars in grants during that season, Abady estimated that it would take eight years for the Circle to record a net profit. The Circle also started offering discounted tickets to attract younger patrons, since, at the time, the median subscriber was 53 years old.
The theater reopened with three plays during 1994–1995: The Shadow Box, Uncle Vanya, and The Rose Tattoo. During the 1995–1996 season, the theater hosted the plays Garden District, Holiday, Bus Stop, and Tartuffe. By then, the Circle had 7,000 subscribers. Nonetheless, many of the theater's board members were unhappy with Abady's leadership, as the theater's debt had increased by $241,000 during that season. Libin and Mann also challenged the way Abady handled the theater's finances. That August, Pacino returned to the theater in Hughie. Hughie was initially supposed to have fewer regular performances than previews, but the play was extended several times, ultimately running until November 1996.
Bankruptcy
On July 24, 1996, Mann announced that he would resign, although he and Abady would remain as artistic directors until Hughie closed. The same day, the theater's acting president Theodore R. Sayers announced that the theatrical company had filed for bankruptcy. At the time, the theater had $1.5 million in debt, in addition to $2 million in unpaid taxes. The company hired Gregory Mosher as its new producer in September 1996, and Circle officials simultaneously asked Abady to resign. Mosher and executive producer M. Edgar Rosenblum attempted to attract a wider audience by selling discounted tickets to anyone who purchased $37.50 annual memberships; they gave away about 12,000 memberships this way. Mosher also scrapped the proposed 1996–1997 season and announced plans to stage the play Stanley, which had been successful on London's West End. Stanley opened in February 1997 and was moderately successful, running for two months.
Mosher, who admired the Circle's thrust stage, had wanted to stage a revival of the Odyssey for 1997–1998. Sayers resigned from his position in May 1997. By then, observers expressed concerns that the theater had not announced any plays for the upcoming season. The theater's board voted to suspend operations on June 17, 1997, when Mosher and Rosenblum both resigned. A major factor in this decision was the theater's inability to pay back taxes, Investment banker Wilbur Ross Jr., a consultant for the theater, said at the time that the theater was unlikely to reopen unless it paid off its $1.5 million debt, as well as a $1.8 million lien that the Internal Revenue Service had placed on the theater. The next month, the theater's creditors attempted to secure a new operator; this was complicated by the fact that Mann and Libin had also claimed control of the theater's lease. Abady sued two of the theater's board members in early 1998, claiming that her termination was a breach of contract.
A federal bankruptcy judge ruled in May 1998 that Libin and Mann could retain control of the Circle. Subsequently, the men began looking for tenants; by August 1998, there were rumors that the Manhattan Theatre Club, which was looking for a Broadway house, would move into the space. Ultimately, the Circle was reorganized as an independent commercial receiving house, making it one of the few independent Broadway theaters at the time. The theater was scheduled to reopen for the 1998–1999 season with Tennessee Williams's Not About Nightingales, which opened in February 1999. Quintero died several hours after the theater reopened; the theater hosted an event in his honor a few months later. During late 1999, the theater space was leased to HBO, which used the space for taping The Chris Rock Show.
21st century
In early 2000, the theater hosted Sam Shepard's play True West, which ran for 154 performances. This was followed later that year by a revival of the musical The Rocky Horror Show, which ran through early 2002. The play Metamorphoses, which opened at the Circle in March 2002, ran for 401 performances over the next year. The theater next staged Yasmina Reza's comedy Life (x) 3 in 2003 and Bryony Lavery's drama Frozen in 2004. The Circle's next production, the musical comedy The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee, had over 1,100 performances from 2005 to 2008. After the success of that musical, the Circle hosted the musical Glory Days, which closed after a single performance on May 6, 2008. The next year, the Circle hosted a revival of Alan Ayckbourn's musical comedy The Norman Conquests.
The William Gibson play The Miracle Worker ran at the Circle for 28 performances in early 2010, followed the same year by the Eric Simonson play Lombardi. The Circle next staged the musical Godspell, which opened in November 2011 and ran for several months. It was followed by two relatively short-lived shows: the musical Soul Doctor, which had 66 performances in late 2013, and the play Bronx Bombers, which ran for less than a month in early 2014. The Circle also hosted two more successful plays in 2014: Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill and The River, both of which recouped their production costs. The theater then hosted the musical Fun Home, which opened in 2015 and ran for more than a year, and the musical In Transit, which opened in 2016 and lasted 181 performances. At the end of the decade, the Circle hosted two musical revivals: Once on This Island, which ran from November 2017 to January 2019, and an adaptation of Oklahoma!, which ran from April 2019 to January 2020.
The theatre temporarily closed on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It reopened on September 23, 2021, with previews of Chicken & Biscuits, which ran through November 2021. Next, the Circle hosted a revival of the play American Buffalo, which ran from April to July 2022. By then, the Circle was the only remaining Broadway theater that was not operated by either a nonprofit company or a large organization. The musical KPOP opened at the theater in November 2022, but it lasted for only two weeks. This is planned to be followed in September 2023 by a limited engagement of the concert Melissa Etheridge: My Window.
School
The Circle in the Square Theatre School is a drama school associated with the Circle in the Square Theatre; it is the only accredited conservatory attached to a Broadway theater. The school was established in 1961 and is housed within Paramount Plaza at 1633 Broadway. The school was split from the theater itself in 1993 and has operated as a nonprofit since then. The school has also participated in student exchange programs. Over the years, the school's alumni have included Kevin Bacon and Philip Seymour Hoffman.
Notable productions
Off-Broadway
This list only includes shows performed at the Circle in the Square's Sheridan Square and Bleecker Street theaters, not those performed by the company at other theaters. Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.
1952: Summer and Smoke
1955: La Ronde
1956: The Iceman Cometh
1959: Our Town
1958: The Quare Fellow
1962: Under Milk Wood
1963: Desire Under the Elms
1963: The Trojan Women
1965: The White Devil
1966: Eh?
1967: Drums in the Night
1967: Iphigenia in Aulis
1968: A Moon for the Misbegotten
1969: Little Murders
1970: Boesman and Lena
1972: We Bombed in New Haven
1973: The Hot l Baltimore
1978: I'm Getting My Act Together and Taking It on the Road
1981: American Buffalo
1982: Greater Tuna
1984: To Gillian on Her 37th Birthday
1987: Oil City Symphony
1990: The Rothschilds
Broadway
This list only includes shows performed at the Circle in the Square's Paramount Plaza theater, not those performed by the company at other theaters. Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.
1972: Mourning Becomes Electra
1973: Medea
1973: Uncle Vanya
1973: The Waltz of the Toreadors
1973: The Iceman Cometh
1974: Scapino
1974: The National Health
1974: Where's Charley?
1975: All God's Chillun Got Wings
1975: Death of a Salesman
1975: Ah, Wilderness!
1975: The Glass Menagerie
1976: Geraldine Fitzgerald in Songs of the Street
1976: The Lady from the Sea
1976: Pal Joey
1976: The Night of the Iguana
1977: Romeo and Juliet
1977: The Importance of Being Earnest
1977: Tartuffe
1977: Saint Joan
1978: 13 Rue de l'Amour
1978: Once in a Lifetime
1978: The Inspector General
1978: Man and Superman
1980: Major Barbara
1980: The Man Who Came to Dinner
1980: The Bacchae
1980: John Gabriel Borkman
1981: The Father
1981: Candida
1982: Macbeth
1982: Present Laughter
1983: The Misanthrope
1983: The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial
1983: Heartbreak House
1984: Awake and Sing
1984: Design for Living
1985: Arms and the Man
1985: The Marriage of Figaro
1985: The Robert Klein Show!
1986: The Caretaker
1986: You Never Can Tell
1987: Coastal Disturbances
1988: A Streetcar Named Desire
1988: An Evening with Robert Klein
1988: The Night of the Iguana
1988: The Devil's Disciple
1989: Ghetto
1989: Sweeney Todd
1990: The Miser
1991: Taking Steps
1991: Getting Married
1991: On Borrowed Time
1992: Salome
1992: Anna Karenina
1993: Three productions by Thornton Wilder
1994: The Shadow Box
1995: Uncle Vanya
1995: The Rose Tattoo
1995: Garden District
1995: Holiday
1996: Bus Stop
1996: Tartuffe
1996: Hughie
1997: Stanley
1999: Not About Nightingales
2000: True West
2000: The Rocky Horror Show
2002: Metamorphoses
2003: Life (x) 3
2004: Frozen
2005: The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee
2008: Glory Days
2009: The Norman Conquests
2010: The Miracle Worker
2010: Lombardi
2011: Godspell
2013: Soul Doctor
2014: Bronx Bombers
2014: Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill
2014: The River
2015: Fun Home
2016: In Transit
2017: Once on This Island
2019: Oklahoma!
2021: Chicken & Biscuits
2022: American Buffalo
2022: KPOP
See also
List of Broadway theaters
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Circle in the Square papers, 1906-2004 held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Profile of the Circle in the Square Theatre (with seating chart) at NY Tix.com
Circle in the Square Photographs at Special Collections Dept., University Library, University of California, Davis
1951 establishments in New York City
1972 establishments in New York City
Broadway theatres
Special Tony Award recipients
Theatres completed in 1951
Theatres completed in 1972 |
4302949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay%20Buchholz | Clay Buchholz | Clay Daniel Buchholz (born August 14, 1984) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, Arizona Diamondbacks, and Toronto Blue Jays. Buchholz made his MLB debut with the Red Sox in . In his second major league start, he pitched a no-hitter, becoming the third MLB pitcher since 1900 to throw a no-hitter in his first or second start and the first Red Sox rookie to throw one. He was a two-time MLB All-Star.
High school
Raised in Lumberton, Texas, Buchholz played baseball for the local youth baseball leagues, and then for the Lumberton High School Raiders.
College career
Buchholz began his college career in 2004 at McNeese State University. He was subsequently dismissed from the McNeese baseball team after stealing 29 laptop computers from a middle school and selling them on the McNeese State University campus.
Buchholz then transferred to Angelina College. In 2005, while competing for the Roadrunners, Buchholz appeared in 15 games, winning 12 and losing 1. His 1.05 ERA, seven complete games, and 129 strikeouts all stand as team records (through the 2010 season). He was also named an All-American in 2005.
Professional career
Minor leagues
Buchholz was drafted by the Red Sox in the supplemental first round of the 2005 draft. The Red Sox obtained their supplemental pick, the 42nd overall, as compensation for losing free agent Pedro Martínez to the New York Mets.
Buchholz pitched innings for the Lowell Spinners of the New York–Penn League, compiling a record of 0–1 with 45 strikeouts in 15 starts. He then pitched for the Wilmington Blue Rocks (Class-A Advanced) and the Greenville Drive (Class-A). Between the two teams, Buchholz struck out 140 and walked 33 in 119 innings while going 11–4.
Buchholz started his first spring training game in 2007 against the Tampa Bay Rays. He pitched innings, gave up seven hits and three runs, and recorded three strikeouts. While competing for the Portland Sea Dogs in 2007, Buchholz played in fifteen games, winning seven and losing two. His success led to his selection for the All-Star Futures Game at AT&T Park.
Buchholz was promoted to the Pawtucket Red Sox, the Triple-A affiliate of the Red Sox, on July 8, 2007. He finished the Triple-A season with a 1–3 record while recording 55 strikeouts, 13 walks, and a 3.96 era over eight starts in Triple-A innings.
Boston Red Sox (2007–16)
2007 season
Buchholz made his major league debut with the Boston Red Sox against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim on August 17, 2007, at Fenway Park. The Sox won the game 8–4 and he picked up the win, going six innings and giving up four runs (three earned). After the game, however, Buchholz was optioned to the Sox' Triple-A team in Pawtucket. "I got my feet wet", he said to a reporter. "I hope I can come back in September and help out."
Before Buchholz' first major league start, Red Sox manager Terry Francona said: "This kid can come up and pitch a no-hitter, and he's going to go back down... If he throws a no-hitter I may send him back with a present. But he's going back."
No-hitter
In only his second career major league start on September 1, 2007, he became the first Boston Red Sox rookie to throw a no-hitter when he blanked the Baltimore Orioles 10–0. He threw 115 pitches, struck out nine, walked three, and hit Nick Markakis. After the game, Buchholz told the media, "It's amazing. That's all I can say… I'm in a blur right now." According to the Elias Sports Bureau, Buchholz became the third pitcher since 1900 to pitch a no-hitter in his first or second major league start. Bobo Holloman did it in his first start on May 6, 1953, for the St. Louis Browns at home against the Philadelphia Athletics, and Wilson Álvarez did it in his second start on August 11, 1991, for the Chicago White Sox at Baltimore.
Buchholz became the 11th Red Sox pitcher to throw a no-hitter in Fenway Park history, and the 17th in Red Sox history.
Following the game, general manager Theo Epstein and manager Terry Francona each independently confirmed that they had spoken by phone to each other in the seventh and eighth innings concerning Buchholz' pitch count. He had not thrown more than 98 pitches in a game all year, and was threatening to significantly exceed that total if he finished the game. Epstein reported that in no way would Buchholz have been allowed to face a batter after reaching 120 pitches, expressing concern about excessive pitches potentially damaging such a young and inexperienced arm. Buchholz finished the game with 115 pitches, allowing Francona to escape what would have been an unpleasant decision to remove a pitcher from the game in which he was throwing a no-hitter.
Buchholz' no-hitter was the third of a record-setting four caught by Jason Varitek. The first two were for Hideo Nomo and Derek Lowe (in which the final score was also 10–0); the fourth was Jon Lester's on May 19, 2008, against the Kansas City Royals, which was also the first no-hitter in major league play after Buchholz's.
Shut down
Buchholz pitched in two more games after the no-hitter, earning a win while pitching three innings of relief at Baltimore on September 6, and taking a loss after a start of innings at Toronto on September 19.
When Buchholz experienced shoulder fatigue, Red Sox management made a decision to shut him down for 2007. Buchholz was left off the postseason roster as the Red Sox eventually won the 2007 World Series in a four-game sweep over the Colorado Rockies. In spite of this, he was awarded a World Series ring by the Red Sox.
2008 season
Red Sox pitching coach John Farrell stated that Buchholz would most likely be in line for 180–190 innings in the 2008 season. On May 15, Buchholz was placed on the 15-day disabled list as the result of a torn fingernail. He was optioned to Triple-A Pawtucket following the injury, and remained there for several weeks to work on his fastball. On July 11, he was recalled to Boston and was part of their regular pitching rotation, though he did not record a single win after his return. On August 20, as the Red Sox were trying to sweep the Orioles, the team that Buchholz had no-hit the preceding year, he gave up a 4–0 lead by allowing three runs in the second inning and two more in the third. He was removed after only pitching innings. In his previous start, he had only lasted three innings. In 2008, the Red Sox were 3–12 in Buchholz' fifteen starts. After the game, Buchholz was demoted to Double-A Portland. Buchholz stated "I've never had a streak like this", and "I've never been one to say the pressure was too much for me, but I've felt like I've had a lot of weight on my shoulders just trying to be perfect and trying to do everything as well as I could to help this team win". Following the 2008 season, Buchholz pitched in the Arizona Fall League.
2009 season
Following spring training, Buchholz was optioned to Triple-A Pawtucket.
In his eighth start at Pawtucket in 2009, Buchholz took a perfect game into the ninth inning against the Louisville Bats, but it was denied after a leadoff single; ultimately, he pitched a one-hit shutout.
After a July 12 win before the All-Star break, Red Sox manager Terry Francona announced that Buchholz would be activated to pitch against the Toronto Blue Jays on July 17, in order to give more time off to the starters who were in the All-Star game. Buchholz went on to win the game, pitching innings, allowing four hits with one run, while walking three and striking out three. It was his first major league win since May 2, 2008.
The Red Sox pitching staff floundered in the second half of the year. Tim Wakefield, Josh Beckett and Lester were the only dependable starters in the first half (John Smoltz, Daisuke Matsuzaka and Brad Penny all had losing records). While Lester remained effective in the second half, Beckett began to struggle, and when All-Star Tim Wakefield was placed on the disabled list, Buchholz replaced him in the rotation. Buchholz' pitching down the stretch played a large role in helping the Red Sox make it into the playoffs (along with a strong return from Matsuzaka). He finished the season 7–4 with a 4.21 ERA and 68 strikeouts in 16 starts.
2010 season
Buchholz delivered a strong first half of the 2010 season. On the strength of his 10–4 record, and a 2.45 ERA, he was selected to the American League All-Star Team. In the month of June, Buchholz went 3–1 with a 1.84 ERA, including a five-hit shutout at Baltimore on June 4 — his first shutout since his 2007 no-hitter, which, coincidentally, was also against Baltimore. On the road in the season's first half, he went 5–1 with a 1.70 ERA. Though earning a spot on the roster, Buchholz was not called upon to pitch in the All-Star Game; he pulled a hamstring June 26 during an interleague game against the San Francisco Giants and was placed on the disabled list.
He made his first start after his stint on the DL on July 21 against Gio González of the Oakland Athletics, pitching four innings, giving up five earned runs, with two strikeouts and three walks in a 6–4 loss. Buchholz returned to his pre-injury form after the start in Oakland by going 4–0 in August with a 1.03 ERA and winning the AL pitcher of the month award. Buchholz finished the season with a 17–7 record and 2.33 ERA, thereby finishing second in ERA to Félix Hernández. Buchholz finished sixth in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award, also won by Hernandez.
2011 season
Buchholz began the season as the number three starter in the Red Sox rotation. On April 10, Buchholz signed a four-year contract extension, worth nearly $30 million. On June 16, he went on the disabled list unexpectedly and in August it was reported that he had a stress fracture in his back. He then missed the rest of the season. In 2011, Buchholz made 14 starts going 6–3 with a 3.48 ERA.
2012 season
Buchholz started the 2012 season 8–2, winning four consecutive decisions. However, he was placed on the 15-day disabled list after he was hospitalized with a "gastrointestinal situation", stated then-manager Bobby Valentine. On August 16, Buchholz pitched an immaculate inning against the Baltimore Orioles in the sixth inning. He went on to win the game 6–3 in eight innings of work. On June 26, he was diagnosed with esophagitis, an inflammation that damages tissues of the esophagus. For the 2012 year, Buchholz made 29 starts with an 11–8 record and a 4.56 ERA.
2013 season
On April 14, Buchholz took a no-hitter into the top of the eighth inning against the Tampa Bay Rays before allowing a hit. Buchholz went on to finish the month of April with a 5–0 record, followed by picking up his sixth win in his first start of May. This made his ERA in those six starts 1.01, to go with a win in every appearance. In April he was named Pitcher of the Month along with Matt Harvey. Buchholz had a 9–0 record until being placed on the disabled list on June 18 due to a neck strain that had been bothering him since June 9, causing him to be out until September 10. Buchholz won 3 of his 4 starts after returning from injury, finishing the regular season with a record of 12–1. In the postseason, Buchholz made 4 starts despite re-aggravating his shoulder injury and won the World Series for the first time in his career when the Red Sox defeated the St. Louis Cardinals in six games.
2014 season
Buchholz struggled to start the 2014 season, posting a 7.02 ERA through two months. He finished the year with an 8–11 record and a league-worst 5.34 ERA. He was the only pitcher on the Red Sox Opening Day rotation not to be traded.
2015 season
Buchholz made his first Opening Day start for the Red Sox on April 6 against the Philadelphia Phillies. He ended the season with a 7–7 record in 18 starts, compiling an ERA of 3.26 and a WHIP of 1.21 with 107 strikeouts. Once again, his season was cut short by injury.
2016 season
Buchholz made his first start on April 6 against the Cleveland Indians, receiving a no decision after giving up 5 runs in 4 innings. After a loss on May 26 against the Colorado Rockies, with a record of 2–5 and an ERA of 6.35, the Red Sox announced that he would be moved to the bullpen. After three scoreless relief appearances, he was moved back into the rotation. On July 2, Buchholz gave up 6 runs (3 of them earned) in innings against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, a game the Red Sox would go on to lose 21–2. With that loss, his record was 3–9 for the season, and two days later the Red Sox announced that he would again be moved to the bullpen. He next pitched on July 21, and made a total of eight relief appearances before returning to the rotation for three starts in August. He then returned to the bullpen for three more relief appearances, then returned to the rotation in September for five starts. In his final eight starts of the year, he had a record of 4–0 plus four no decisions. For the season, Buchholz made a total of 37 appearances, including 21 starts, with an ERA of 4.78 in innings pitched, and a win–loss record of 8–10. He tied for the major league lead in grand slams allowed, with three.
Philadelphia Phillies
On December 20, 2016, Buchholz was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for minor league second baseman Josh Tobias.
2017 season
Buchholz made his debut with the Phillies on April 6, giving up four runs in five innings and getting a no decision against the Cincinnati Reds, followed by innings against the New York Mets on April 11, when he gave up six runs and took the loss. On April 12, it was announced that Buchholz had a partial tear in the flexor-pronator mass of his right arm. On April 18, Buchholz underwent surgery on his right forearm to repair the flexor tendon, expected to require four to six months of recovery.
Kansas City Royals
On March 19, 2018, Buchholz signed a minor league deal with the Kansas City Royals. He recorded a 1–0 record with 9 strikeouts in 3 games for the Double-A Northwest Arkansas Naturals and the Triple-A Omaha Storm Chasers. The Royals released Buchholz on May 1.
Arizona Diamondbacks
On May 5, 2018, after opting-out of his minor league deal with the Royals, Buchholz signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks. He was assigned to the Triple-A Reno Aces upon signing.
2018 season
Two weeks after signing with the Diamondbacks, manager Torey Lovullo announced that Buchholz would start on May 20, against the New York Mets. Buchholz went on to pitch well against the Mets in his first start since April 2017, pitching five innings of one run ball, striking out two and walking one, while ultimately receiving a no decision. On August 16, he pitched a complete-game against the San Diego Padres, yielding only a solo home run to Hunter Renfroe. Buchholz finished the season 7–2 in 16 starts. He posted an ERA of 2.01 in innings.
Toronto Blue Jays
On March 5, 2019, Buchholz signed a one-year, $3 million contract with the Toronto Blue Jays. Buchholz recorded a 2–5 record and 6.56 ERA in 12 appearances with Toronto and became a free agent after the year.
Scouting report
Buchholz throws a four-seam fastball (90–94 mph) topping out at 96 and has reached 99 in the past, a two-seam fastball (89–93), a cutter (87–91), a curveball (75–79), and a straight changeup (78–81). Since 2010, he has not thrown a slider (78–81). In 2012, he threw a handful of splitters to left-handed hitters, but the pitch was thrown just 2% of the time the whole season. His most commonly thrown pitch when ahead in the count is his 11–5 curveball. His repertoire does not vary greatly between left-handers and right-handers. Buchholz has never compiled large strikeout totals, but his changeup does have a high whiff rate of 45%.
Awards and honors
Carolina League Pitcher of the Week (August 21–27, 2006)
Red Sox Minor League Pitcher of the Month (August 2006)
2006 Red Sox Minor League Pitcher of the Year
Red Sox Minor League Pitcher of the Month (May 2007)
2007 Futures Game All-Star
2007 Eastern League All-Star
Eastern League Pitcher of the Week (June 25 – July 1, 2007)
Pitched a no-hitter (September 1, 2007)
2007 American League Player of the Week
MLB.com TYIB Single Game Performance of the Year (December 13, 2007)
2× MLB All-Star (2010, 2013)
American League Pitcher of the Month (August 2010)
2013 World Series champion
Charity work
Buchholz regularly supported the Jimmy Fund charity while a Red Sox. In November 2006, when he was Red Sox minor-league pitcher of the year, Buchholz was announced as a member of the New Stars for Young Stars team. In 2010, he was named Jimmy Fund Co-Captain with Tim Wakefield. He signed on for the same role in 2011. He and Wakefield were the 2011 Spokesplayers for the Rally Against Cancer.
In March 2011, he partnered with Charity Wines to release his own wine label under the Longball Cellars brand. Proceeds from sales of his ChardonClay Chardonnay support the Jimmy Fund and Dana-Farber. He partnered with former teammate Jon Lester, who also released a Charity Wine, called CabernAce, to raise money for the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center.
Personal life
On November 14, 2009, he married Lindsay Clubine, a model on the TV show Deal or No Deal who was featured in People magazine's "100 Most Beautiful People." They have three children together: two daughters and a son. In 2020, he and his wife filed a lawsuit against Crestbrook Insurance Company after their Austin, Texas, home was demolished due to the presence of mold, with the couple claiming the insurance company refused to cover the cost of damages, that their infant son needed medical attention after sleeping in a mold-infested room, and that they refused to relocate the family to a temporary home.
Buchholz was introduced to Clubine by Donald Trump at an event Trump hosted after a UFC fight in Anaheim, CA in 2008. Their wedding was held at Trump National Golf Club in Rancho Palos Verdes, CA; Trump did not attend but "footed a significant bulk of the tab."
He is a distant relative of former Major League Baseball pitcher Taylor Buchholz.
See also
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
People from Nederland, Texas
People from Lumberton, Texas
Baseball players from Texas
American League All-Stars
Boston Red Sox players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Toronto Blue Jays players
Angelina Roadrunners baseball players
McNeese Cowboys baseball players
Lowell Spinners players
Wilmington Blue Rocks players
Greenville Drive players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Portland Sea Dogs players
Scottsdale Scorpions players
Northwest Arkansas Naturals players
Omaha Storm Chasers players
Reno Aces players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players |
4303206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Canadian%20dollar | History of the Canadian dollar | Canada has an extensive history with regard to its currencies. Prior to European contact, indigenous peoples in Canada used items such as wampum and furs for trading purposes, which continued when trade with Europeans began. During the period of French colonization, coins were introduced, as well as one of the first examples of paper currency by a western government. During the period of British colonization, additional coinage was introduced, as well as banknotes. The Canadian colonies gradually moved away from the British pound and adopted currencies linked to the United States dollar. With Confederation in 1867, the Canadian dollar was established. By the mid-20th century, the Bank of Canada was the sole issuer of paper currency, and banks ceased to issue banknotes.
Canada began issuing its own coins shortly after Confederation. In the 20th century, Canada has issued many commemorative coins into circulation, temporarily replacing current coinage designs. There also exists a long history of numismatic coin issues.
Indigenous peoples and trade
The original inhabitants of Canada were the First Nations and Inuit who traded in goods on a bartering basis. Various items played the role of currency, such as copper, wampum and beaver pelts. Wampum belts, made of numerous tiny shells, were used by indigenous peoples in eastern Canada to measure wealth and as gifts. Wampum belts were also used as currency during the early colonial period, and were recognised as legal tender in the early Dutch and British colonies.
Indigenous peoples also traded furs with European traders for trade goods such as weapons, cloth, food, silver items, and tobacco. During the long period of the fur trade, the beaver pelt was universally accepted as a medium of exchange by indigenous peoples and European traders alike, to the point that beaver pelts, called "Made Beavers", were used as a unit of account by the Hudson's Bay Company, to establish consistent pricing of all its trade goods.
The Ojibwe in eastern Canada were noted for mining and trade in copper. Special objects, such as copper shields, had special economic and social value. The Haidas of the west coast used copper shields as a measure of status and wealth.
New France: 1608–1763
Chronic shortage of coins
With the foundation of Quebec in 1608, French settlement and trade began. The early French colonists bartered goods and also used French coins. The basic unit of currency was the denier or penny. Twelve deniers made a sol or sou, and twenty sols made a livre of New France. However, there was a recurring problem: there was never enough hard currency. Even though the French government sent silver coins from France, such as the "double tournois", the coins tended to be taken out of circulation by merchants, who used them to pay their taxes and buy European goods, as well as hoarding the coins for personal financial security. To deal with the shortage, the French government authorized the use of coins limited to New France, the monnoye du pays. These coins had an assigned value higher than coins used in France (the monnoye de France) but the New France coins were not successful because they had no value outside the colony. Spanish-American coins minted in Mexico, such as the piastre, would sometimes come in through secret trade. The colonial government adopted a practice of over-stamping these coins with a fleur-de-lys and a Roman numeral indicating the weight of silver, and thus value. The over-stamped coins were then permitted to circulate.
Playing card money
By 1685, the coin shortage had grown so severe that colonial authorities resorted to using playing cards as currency.
The first issue of playing card money was by Intendant Jacques de Meulles. In 1685, he needed to pay soldiers for their services in a recent campaign. His funds, both government and personal, were exhausted, and he did not want to borrow money at the rate offered by merchants. Instead, he issued three denominations of playing card money (15 sols, 40 sols, and 4 livres). Playing cards were marked with the amount on the back and were given to soldiers as compensation. They were redeemed three months later, when more coins became available.
Although in the form of a promissory note, namely a promise by the colonial government to pay the soldiers when more coinage was available, the playing cards began to circulate as a medium of exchange. This was the first issue of paper money by a Western government. The card money did not meet with the approval of the French government, which was concerned that the cards were too easily counterfeited, and discouraged the colonial authorities from issuing the card money. Nonetheless, even when more coins did arrive from France, the cards continued to be used. The Intendant issued more card money the next year, 1686, with further issues in later years. The Governor, Louis de Buade de Frontenac, gradually saw the value of the paper currency and agreed to the expanded use, but as time went by, the use of card money contributed to a rise of inflation. In 1717, the colonial government withdrew all card money from circulation, redeeming the cards at 50% of their face value, and burning the cards.
The withdrawal of card money did not solve the problem of a chronic shortage of coinage. In 1722, the government introduced copper coins, but they were not well received. The lack of coinage contributed to a recession.
In 1729, the continued shortage of coinage led to the reintroduction of card money, this time with the approval of the French government. The amount of new card money was initially strictly controlled and the card money was redeemable as bills of exchange in France. This approach reduced the need to transport coinage across the Atlantic. Although referred to as "card money", this issue did not actually use playing cards, but rather plain card stock. The colonial government also issued promissory notes payable by the treasury, termed ordonnances de paiement which also circulated as currency. However, given the state of the French finances, the government relied increasingly on treasury bills to finance the wars. By 1760, the treasury notes totalled 30million livres, and the amount of paper money circulating in the colony was fifteen times greater than in 1750.
The new card money and the ordonnances de paiement were initially successful. However, the gradual deterioration of the finances of the French government over the first half of the 18th century and the expenses of the Seven Years' War with Britain triggered a rapid increase in the amount of paper money in circulation in the 1750s. That in turn meant that inflation became a problem, as noted by Governor Montcalm in a dispatch to the French government. The declining confidence in the paper money meant coinage was increasingly hoarded, an application of Gresham's law. The paper money issued by the colonial government continued to depreciate, especially once the French government suspended redemption of the card money until after the end of the war with Britain.
French coinage
The French government continued to ship coinage to the colonies in the 18th century, such as the gold Louis d'or.
Although in short supply, French coinage continued to circulate in the 18th century, such as the 15- and 30-deniers. These gold coins, known as the mousquetaire, were meant to pay soldiers and civil servants but did not stay in circulation very long. The name is believed to have come from the cross on the reverse of the coins, which resembled the crosses on the cloaks of the legendary musketeers.
Another coinage that was used was the sol (sou). The sol was equivalent to the size of a 20th-century one-cent coin and was produced between 1738 and 1756. The Sol was rated at 12 deniers. The double sol was produced until 1764, although large shipments to Quebec and Cape Breton ended in 1756. The double sol was rated at 24 deniers.
End of French rule
French rule came to an end with the conquest of Quebec by the British in 1760. The value of the card money and the ordonnances de paiement plummeted, since their value had come from the promise by the French government that they could be redeemed for coinage. Under the Treaty of Paris, 1763, the French government agreed to continue to redeem the paper money, and three years later introduced a series of government debentures to replace the paper money. However, the state of France's government finances was poor, and by 1771 the debentures were essentially worthless. After New France fell, the card money and ordonnances were redeemed at only one-quarter of their face value. As a result, the habitants of Quebec were left with a deep distrust of paper money which lasted for generations.
British colonial rule: 1760–1825
Shortage of currency
The shortage of currency continued under British rule. Although historical economists disagree on the reasons for the shortage, the effect was that a wide variety of foreign coinage and paper instruments, such as colonial Treasury bills and notes from different merchants, were used in commercial transactions. One account from Nova Scotia in 1820 illustrates the confusion caused by the lack of unified currency: a customer in a market bought vegetables costing six pence, and paid with a £1 Nova Scotian Treasury note. His change back consisted of ninety-three separate items: eight paper notes from different merchants, ranging in value from 5 shillings to 7 1/2 pence; one silver coin; and eighty-four copper coins.
Colonial governments could be imaginative in domesticating foreign currencies. For example, in 1808, officials in Prince Edward Island punched out the centres of Spanish-American dollars, creating the "holey dollar". The two pieces were each used as coins, with values of one shilling and five shillings.
Units of account and rating systems
Because of the variety of currencies that were used, two measures were needed for order and consistency in financial accounting: units of account and "ratings" system. By general agreement, all accounts were usually kept in one currency, and coins and bills from other systems were notionally converted to that system for bookkeeping purposes. That step required a generally accepted conversion system, or "rating" of other currencies, typically based on their weight and the value of the precious metal they contained. The colonies all initially used the British system of "Pounds, shillings and pence" as the unit of account, but there was variation in the rating system. Each colonial government established rating systems to value the wide variety of foreign currencies that came into use.
The two most important rating systems were the Halifax rating and the York rating. The Halifax rating set the value of a Spanish dollar at five shillings. This value was actually six pence higher than the value of the Spanish dollar at that time. The higher rating was chosen to encourage the continued circulation of the Spanish dollar and to discourage people from melting the dollars down for their bullion value. The Halifax rating came into use shortly after the colony of Nova Scotia was established in 1749, and was confirmed by a statute of the Legislature of Nova Scotia in 1758. Although the British government disallowed the Nova Scotia legislation, the Halifax rating continued to be widely used in the Maritime colonies and eventually in Lower Canada.
The York rating was named after New York, where it had been adopted during the colonial period. The York rating set the value of a Spanish dollar at eight shillings. The York rating was introduced in Upper Canada by United Empire Loyalists. Although Upper Canada formally adopted the Halifax rating by legislation in 1796, the York rating continued to be used, apparently up until the union of Upper and Lower Canada in the Province of Canada in 1841.
Government treasury bills
Colonial governments began to experiment in paper treasury bills, often when needed to finance government expenses. The first Canadian colony to do so was Prince Edward Island (at that time known as the Island of St. John). In 1790, the colonial government issued £500 in treasury notes, in values up to £2. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island all issued treasury bills in the early years of the 19th century.
During the War of 1812, the British Army issued a series of "Army bills", redeemable for government bills of exchange at London, with eventually £1.5million issued. All of those bills were redeemed in currency by 1816, which helped build confidence in government paper money.
The Colony of British Columbia also issued paper money in the 1850s, denominated in pounds and later in dollars.
Banks and bank notes
As the level of commercial sophistication rose in the colonies, banks began to be founded. The banks then began to issue bank notes, with the first from the Montreal Bank (now the Bank of Montreal) in 1817, shortly after it was incorporated. Other banks, such as the Bank of Upper Canada, the Bank of New Brunswick, the Bank of Nova Scotia and the Bank of Prince Edward Island, followed suit, issuing their own bank notes.
The right to issue bank notes was a valuable one. The notes amounted to an interest-free loan to the bank, which only became due if the holder of a note presented it to the bank to redeem it in coinage. The bank notes were only redeemable at the branches of the bank which issued them. Although the bank notes were generally well received by the populace, they could trade at a discount when they were far away from a bank branch where they could be redeemed.
The notes issued by banks in Upper and Lower Canada tended to be denominated in both pounds and dollars, while the bank notes in the Atlantic provinces tended to be in pounds only. This difference reflected the greater commercial ties which Upper and Lower Canada had with the United States, while the Atlantic colonies mainly traded with Britain, less with the United States.
Some merchants also issued paper notes which exchanged as currency. In Lower Canada, they were often referred to as "Bons", from the opening words "Bon pour", French for "Good for".
Tokens
In addition to issuing bank notes, some banks as well as merchants began to issue trade tokens. Although they had no legal status, they were accepted as currency on a local basis. The tokens were mainly imported from England. The banks in Lower Canada cooperated in issuing tokens to improve their reliability. One of the tokens they produced had the arms of Montreal on one side, and an image of a habitant on the other. These tokens were nicknamed "Papineaus", named after Louis-Joseph Papineau, who was the leader of the 1837 rebellion in Lower Canada and who was well known for wearing habitant clothing almost as uniform. These tokens are more commonly known today as Habitant tokens.
The two major fur-trading companies, the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company also issued trade tokens, which were used in their extensive trading networks. The Hudson's Bay Company tokens were based on the "Made beaver" pelts which had been used as a medium of exchange.
From the British pound to the Canadian dollar: 1825–1867
During the mid-19th century, there was a policy disagreement between the British and the colonial governments. The British wanted all the colonies to continue to use sterling, to facilitate trade within the Empire. The Canadian colonies, both in the east and British Columbia, increasingly favoured linking their currencies to the US dollar, given the strong local trade links. Eventually, the local trade won out and the Canadian colonies migrated to currencies linked to the US dollar.
One feature of the regulation of coinage at this time was fixed exchange rates. The colonial and imperial legislation set fixed exchange rates for coins, often based on their weight as bullion.
British Order-in-council of 1825
The issue first arose in 1825, when the British government passed an imperial Order-in-council which was designed to encourage the circulation of sterling coinage throughout the British Empire, including the Canadian colonies. The Order-in-council actually had the reverse effect in the Canadas, driving out what little sterling specie coinage did actually circulate. This was because the rating of one Spanish dollar to four shillings and four pence sterling that was contained in the order-in-council did not represent a realistic comparison between the silver content in the Spanish dollar as compared to the gold content in the British gold sovereign. When Britain passed remedial legislation in 1838, the British North American colonies were excluded from its provisions due to recent rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada.
Colonial pounds
Each of the colonies had their own currencies. Although modelled on the British system of pounds-shillings-pence, the exact value of each currency could vary, depending on the legislation of each colony. There was the Canadian pound, used in Upper and Lower Canada, and then the Province of Canada; the New Brunswick pound; the Newfoundland pound; the Nova Scotian pound; and the Prince Edward Island pound. They were all gradually replaced with decimal systems of currency linked to the US and Spanish dollars.
Province of Canada pound, 1841
Following the union, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating. The provincial legislation set exchange rates for a new Canadian pound: one pound, four shillings and four pence Canadian was equal to one pound sterling. Described the other way, the new Canadian pound was worth sixteen shillings, five and three-tenths pence sterling. The legislation also set the rate for the new Canadian pound against the US dollar, setting the legal tender value of the American gold eagle at two pounds, ten shillings Canadian (i.e. the Canadian pound was worth four US dollars). The legislation also set the exchange rates for the Canadian pound against the French franc, the old Spanish, Mexican and Chilean doubloons, and other Latin American currencies. British currency, US gold and silver coins, and Spanish dollars were all considered legal tender.
Movement towards the dollar and decimal currency
Throughout the 1850s, the imperial and colonial governments debated the issue of colonial currency. The imperial government favoured a system where all colonies used currency based on sterling, which could be either British currency or local colonial currency tied to sterling, including a decimalised currency. The colonial governments increasingly favoured a decimal monetary system based on the United States dollar, because of the practical implications of the increasing trade with the neighbouring United States.
In June 1851, representatives of the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia met in Toronto to discuss the introduction of a joint decimal currency. The Government in London agreed in principle to a decimal coinage but held out the hope that the colonies would adopt a sterling unit under the name 'Royal'.
Province of Canada
Following the 1851 conference, the government of the Province of Canada under the leadership of Co-Premier Francis Hincks began to move towards decimal currency. The provincial Parliament passed an act to introduce a pound sterling unit in conjunction with decimal fractional coinage. The idea was that the fractional values would correspond to exact values of fractions of the US dollar. The Preamble to the statute expressed the hope that the decimal currency could "...hereafter be advantageously made common to all the Provinces of British North America, as being simple and convenient in itself, and well calculated to facilitate their commercial intercourse with other parts of this continent". The authorities in London delayed implementation of the act on technical grounds. A related statute passed in the same session continued the statutory exchange rates for British and US currency used in Canada.
As a compromise between basing the currency on sterling or on the US dollar, in 1853 the Parliament of the Province of Canada enacted a statute to introduce the gold standard into the province, based on both the British gold sovereign and the American gold eagle coins. The gold sovereign was legal tender at a rating of £1 equal to $4.8666 Canadian, and the $10 eagle was rated at $10 Canadian. No coinage was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was made legal tender, and all other silver coins were demonetized, although they continued to circulate. Dollar transactions were legalized. Since the New Brunswick and Canadian statutes had adopted the same conversion rates, their two currencies were now compatible, fixed at par with the US dollar.
The trend towards decimalization continued, and in 1857 the Province of Canada provided that all public accounts were to be kept in dollars and cents. The next year, 1858, the first Canadian decimal coins were released. Minted at the Royal Mint in London, they were issued in the name of "Canada", with an effigy of Queen Victoria on the obverse. The coins were in denominations of one-cent, five-cents, ten-cents, twenty-cents and fifty-cents.
New Brunswick
In 1852, the year following the Toronto conference, New Brunswick passed a similar statute as the Canadian statute, establishing "pounds, shillings and pence" as the government unit of account, but also setting both British coinage and US coinage as legal tender. The statute also authorized the provincial government to obtain a new supply of coins. New Brunswick ordered a supply of coins from the Royal Mint in London in 1860, but because of the demand faced by the Mint, the first shipment of New Brunswick coins did not arrive until 1862.
Nova Scotia
In 1860, Nova Scotia adopted a system of decimalization, and set the exchange rates for British currency as well as other coins. The provincial government was authorised to obtain coins in cents, and the unit of account for the government was to be in dollars and cents. All court judgments were to be issued in dollars and cents. However, since the Nova Scotia legislation set the exchange rate as £1 equal to $5, the Nova Scotia system was not compatible with the Canadian and New Brunswick systems, which gave a slightly lower value to the pound. Nova Scotia also ordered coins from the Royal Mint in 1860, but like New Brunswick, the first shipment of Nova Scotia coins did not arrive until 1862.
Newfoundland
Prior to 1865, Newfoundland used the Newfoundland pound, equal in value to the pound sterling. In 1865, Newfoundland switched to a decimal system, the Newfoundland dollar, and started to release its own coinage, in denominations of one-cent, five-cent, ten-cent, twenty-cent and two-dollar coins. The Newfoundland decimal coinage represented fractions of the Spanish dollar that was used in British Guiana. This had the benefit of making one penny sterling exactly equal to two new Newfoundland cents, which was seen as a compromise between those who wanted Newfoundland to adopt the British system and those who wanted Newfoundland to adopt the United States system. However, it meant that the Newfoundland dollar was worth slightly more than the Canadian dollar (one Newfoundland dollar was worth 1.014 Canadian dollars), so the Newfoundland and Canadian currencies were not easily convertible.
Although the Newfoundland government issued coinage, it left the issue of bank notes to the two private banks in Newfoundland: the Union Bank and the Commercial Bank. By the late 19th century, both of those banks were badly managed and in very weak financial condition. When there was a downturn in the cod industry, the banks failed on Monday, December 10, 1894, known as Black Monday. Both banks closed their doors permanently that day and their notes became worthless, triggering a financial crisis on the island. The Government of Newfoundland passed legislation guaranteeing payment on the bank notes of the two insolvent banks, but at depreciated values. The Government also introduced legislation to set the value of the Newfoundland dollar the same as the Canadian dollar. Canadian banks moved in quickly following the crash, in 1894 and early 1895. The net effect was that the Newfoundland monetary system became integrated with the Canadian system.
British Columbia
In 1867, the Colony of British Columbia enacted a statute to implement decimal currency based on the United States dollar. The statute provided that all government accounts would be kept in dollars and cents and established rates of exchange for the various coins then in circulation, at the rate of £1 equal to $4.85. The legislation repealed similar legislation enacted a few years earlier by the former colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia prior to their union.
Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island shifted to decimal currency in 1871, with the dollar replacing the Prince Edward Island pound. By statute, dollars and cents were adopted as the unit of account for the colonial government. The statute also set the exchange rate between sterling and the dollar at £1 equal to $4.8666. The colonial government was authorized to arrange for the printing of notes denominated in dollars, and the issuance of copper coins in cents.
Province of Canada government notes
Proposal for a central bank, 1841
In 1841, the first Governor General of the new Province of Canada, Lord Sydenham, proposed the creation of a provincial central bank. He suggested that the province establish a bank which would have exclusive power to issue bank notes. The first issue would be for £1million in provincial notes, but denominated in dollars. The notes would be backed by a combination of gold held by the province (25% of the value of the notes issued) and provincial government securities. The private banks would lose their power to issue bank notes. The proposal would have the double effect of providing a stable provincial currency, and also providing a guaranteed revenue source for the provincial government, estimated at £30,000 per year, from seigniorage.
The proposal had the support of Francis Hincks, who chaired a parliamentary committee to study the proposal, but the proposal faced strong opposition. The private banks lobbied against it, fearing the loss of profits if their power to issue bank notes was eliminated. There were also fears expressed that the new bank would make credit tighter, making it harder to borrow money. A third concern was that it would place too much power in the hands of the government. Ultimately, the committee rejected the proposal.
Province of Canada notes
In the 1850s, there were several bank failures which shook confidence in the security of banknotes in the Province of Canada: first the Colonial Bank and the International Bank in 1859, followed soon afterwards by the collapse of the Bank of Clifton and the Bank of Western Canada. The bank failures made their notes worthless, and the resulting scandal increased pressure on the government for greater bank regulation. In 1860, the provincial Minister of Finance, Alexander Tilloch Galt, proposed that the government issue bank notes, replacing notes issued by the private banks. The banks, fearing a loss of profits, opposed the proposal and the Government quickly withdrew it.
Six years later, the proposal re-surfaced, this time driven by the government's need for money. It was having trouble raising loans either in Canada or in Britain and decided to issue provincial government notes as a way to raise money. The Provincial Notes Act authorized the Province to issue notes up to the value of $8million, backed partly by gold and partly by government debentures. They were redeemable in either Toronto or Montreal. Unlike Galt's proposal six years earlier, the private banks were not required to give up their power to issue bank notes, although they were offered financial inducements to do so. Any bank which did so could then act at the government's banker and its notes were deemed to be government notes. Only the Bank of Montreal did so, enabling it to act as the government's note issuer. It resumed issuing its own notes five years later.
The initial issue was based on Bank of Montreal notes, over-printed with "Province of Canada". The first issue by the Province itself was on January 1, 1867, just half a year before Confederation. The Province of Canada notes served as the basis for the notes later issued by the new country.
The 1867 issue consisted of a one-dollar note, featuring Samuel de Champlain and Jacques Cartier, with the provincial coat-of-arms; a two-dollar note, featuring Britannia and allegorical figures; a five-dollar note, featuring Queen Victoria, an indigenous woman, a lion and a ship under sail; a ten-dollar note, featuring Columbus, symbols of transportation, and beavers; a twenty-dollar note, featuring Albert Edward, Prince of Wales and his wife Alexandra, Princess of Wales, as well as beavers building a dam; and a fifty-dollar note featuring Mercury, the Roman god of commerce.
Confederation, 1867
Canada was created in 1867 by the British North America Act, 1867 (now the Constitution Act, 1867). A federation, it originally had four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The federal Parliament was assigned exclusive jurisdiction over "Coins and Currency", as well as "Banking, Incorporation of Banks, and the Issue of Paper Money". This resulted in major changes to the monetary system in the new country, with control over coinage and bank notes centralised in Ottawa.
Currency Acts
In 1868, the federal Parliament enacted the first Currency Act. It provided for the possibility that Canada might give its dollar exactly the same value as the United States dollar, but in the meantime, the pre-Confederation values for currency were maintained. The dollars circulating in Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick continued to circulate at the same value, while the Nova Scotia dollars continued to circulate in Nova Scotia at their higher, pre-Confederation value. This situation continued for three more years, until Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act. It provided that Nova Scotia would now use the same dollar as the rest of Canada, based on the pre-Confederation dollar. The value of the dollar continued to be set by reference to the British sovereign and the American eagle, at the rate of 4.8666 Canadian dollars equal to £1, and ten Canadian dollars equal to the ten-dollar American eagle, the same rates as set in the 1853 Province of Canada legislation.
The Uniform Currency Act applied automatically to Manitoba upon its admission to Confederation, but did not apply to British Columbia and Prince Edward Island when they joined. In 1881, Parliament passed an Act extending the Uniform Currency Act to those two provinces.
Dominion notes and bank notes
In 1868, the federal Parliament also enacted the Dominion Notes Act, to authorize the issue of government bank notes. The act was similar to the Provincial Notes Act from the Province of Canada, and the existing Province of Canada notes were continued as dominion notes. The government notes were referred to as "Dominion notes", using the term then used for the federal government, to distinguish them from bank notes issued by the chartered banks. The dominion notes were partially backed by gold. For the first $5million in notes, the federal government was required to have gold reserves for twenty per cent of the value of the notes. The next $3million issued notes were required to be backed by gold reserves of twenty-five percent of the value of the notes.
In 1871, the federal Parliament also passed a new Bank Act which replaced all the pre-Confederation banking legislation and created a uniform system of banking regulation for the new country. One important change was that the banks could not issue low-denomination bank notes, initially being limited to notes in denominations of four dollars and over. This limit was raised to five dollars in 1881. Only the federal government could issue low value denominations. The federal government also issued high denomination notes to facilitate large transfers of cash between the banks.
First Canadian coins
In 1867, the federal government planned to issue its own coinage, in denominations of one cent, five cents, ten cents, twenty-five cents, and fifty cents. The coins were similar to the coins of the Province of Canada, with the difference that the twenty-five cent coin replaced the twenty-cent coin of the provincial currency. The twenty-cent coin had never been popular, as Canadians were used to the US twenty-five cent coin, which circulated freely in the Province. The coins did not actually enter circulation until they arrived from the Royal Mint in London in 1870. The government did not issue the one-cent coin until 1876, given the amount of pre-Confederation pennies that were still in circulation.
One issue the government faced was the large amount of United States and, to a lesser extent, British silver coins which were circulating in Ontario and Quebec. The problem was that the coins were over-rated: their face values were greater than their bullion value. Banks would only accept them at a discount, while farmers and merchants found they had to take them at par value. The difference in values affected the farmers and merchants, and also had the effect of crowding the government one-dollar and two-dollars notes out of circulation. The solution was to collect the US and British coins and export them, while providing that in the future, their par value would be fixed by statute at only 80% of their face value. Francis Hincks, back in office as federal Minister of Finance, worked with bankers led by William Weir to successfully repatriate the silver coins to the United States and Britain.
There was a similar issue with copper coinage. Prior to Confederation, a large variety of copper coins had circulated: pennies issued by the provincial governments, US and British coppers, low-value tokens issued by private banks or merchants, even brass buttons in some cases. Working with the banks, the federal government gradually had all of the pre-Confederation and foreign pennies removed from circulation. In 1876, the Canadian one-cent coin finally was issued.
First Canadian notes
The new Canadian government issued its first notes in 1870. The first issue was in denominations of twenty-five cents (nicknamed a "shinplaster"), one dollar and two dollars. The twenty-five cent note featured Britannia, the one-dollar note featured Jacques Cartier, and the two-dollar note featured General James Wolfe and the Marquis de Montcalm.
The twenty-five cent note was issued as a temporary expedient, while the government waited for a shipment of twenty-five cent coins from the Royal Mint in London. However, the twenty-five cent note proved so popular that it continued in circulation for the next sixty-five years, with new versions in 1900 and 1923.
In 1871, the federal government issued notes for five hundred dollars and one thousand dollars, featuring Queen Victoria on the five hundred-dollar note and an allegorical female figure with the arms of Canada on the one thousand-dollar note. In 1872, the government issued a fifty dollar note, featuring Mercury, the Roman god of commerce, and a one hundred-dollar note, featuring the Centre Block of the Parliament buildings. A two-dollar note was issued in 1878, featuring the Governor General, the Earl of Dufferin. This was followed in 1882 by a four-dollar note featuring the then Governor general, the Marquess of Lorne.
Chartered bank notes
Under the new Bank Act passed in 1871, the chartered banks were limited to issuing notes in denominations of four dollars and over. To avoid using the one- and two-dollar notes issued by the government, some banks took to issuing notes in odd denominations, such as six-dollar and seven-dollar notes. This meant that they could carry out transactions without having to obtain the government notes, and maximize the circulation of their own notes.
The government closed off this loophole in 1880. By an amendment to the Bank Act, Parliament provided that the banks could only issue notes in denominations of five dollars and higher, and also only in multiples of five dollars.<ref>An Act to amend "An Act relating to Banks and Banking", and to continue for a limited time the charters of certain Banks to which the said Act applies," Statutes of Canada 1880, c. 22, s. 12.</ref> The amendment Act also provided, for the first time, that the bank notes were a first charge on the assets of a bank, in case of insolvency. In 1890, the banks were required to operate redemption offices for their notes across the country, which meant that bank notes no longer traded at a discount if they were far from a branch of the bank.
Dominion "Bank legal" Notes
In 1896, the federal government began to issue large denomination notes whose usage was restricted to the chartered banks. Their purpose was to assist the banks in maintaining their reserves of Dominion notes, as required by the Bank Act, and also to assist the banks in settling their cash balances with each other. The notes stated on their face that they were "Legal tender note for use by Banks only", which led to their common name, "Bank legals". Bank legals ceased to be issued after the establishment of the Bank of Canada.
The issues were as follows:
1896: denominations of five hundred dollars (featuring the Marquess of Lorne), one thousand dollars (Queen Victoria), and five thousand dollars (John A. Macdonald);
1901: denominations of one thousand dollars (featuring Lord Roberts) and five thousand dollars (Queen Victoria);
1918: denominations of five thousand dollars (featuring Queen Victoria) and fifty thousand dollars (King George V and Queen Mary);
1924: denominations of one thousand dollars (featuring Lord Roberts), five thousand dollars (Queen Victoria), and fifty thousand dollars (King George V and Queen Mary).
Establishment of the Royal Canadian Mint
During the British colonial period, the colonies were generally prohibited from minting their own coins. They obtained them by purchase from the Royal Mint in London. After Confederation, the first Canadian coins were also minted in London, but the possibility of a Canadian mint began to be raised in public debates.
Under the British Coinage Act, 1870, the British government could establish branches of the Royal Mint in overseas British possessions. In 1901, the Canadian Parliament passed an Act to pay for the expenses of a local branch of the Royal Mint, up to $75,000 annually, upon the establishment of a branch by the British government. In 1907, the British government established a branch of the Royal Mint at Ottawa, to be operated at the expense of the Canadian government, by means of a royal proclamation under the Coinage Act, 1870.
At the formal opening of the Ottawa branch of the Royal Mint on January 2, 1908, the Governor General, Earl Grey, struck the first coin minted in Canada: a silver 50 cent piece, bearing the effigy of King Edward VII. The second coin struck was a one cent piece. As a branch of the Royal Mint, the Ottawa Mint was authorized to mint gold sovereigns, with the same legal status as sovereigns issued by the Royal Mint in Britain. In 1911, the Ottawa branch produced over 256,000 sovereigns.
In 1931, the Canadian government took over full control of the Ottawa branch of the Royal Mint, renaming it the Royal Canadian Mint and bringing it under the authority of the Minister of Finance. The British government accordingly repealed the status of the Mint as a branch of the Royal Mint.
Relationship to the gold standard
When first created in 1868, the Canadian dollar was partially backed by gold. Under the Dominion Notes Act, the government was required to have gold reserves of up to twenty per cent of the value of the first five million dollars of notes issued, rising to twenty-five per cent of the value of the next three million dollars issued. This followed the similar requirement which had been in place for the Province of Canada dollar since 1854.
The combination of the gold standard, the fixed value of the Canadian dollar to both the pound sterling and the US dollar, and the lack of any controls on the export of gold meant that the federal government did not have much ability to implement monetary policy. As a result, Canada experienced several periods of rapid economic contraction and expansion in the period between the establishment of Canadian currency and the outbreak of World War I. In the days immediately prior to the outbreak of the war in August 1914, withdrawals from banks increased dramatically and there was a fear of bank runs, as depositors demanded gold or government notes rather than bank notes. The federal government took steps to stabilise the banks, including ending the convertibility of notes to gold for the duration of the War. Instead, the bank notes acquired status as legal tender. Canada was off the gold standard. As well, the federal government authorised the Minister of Finance to act as a lender of last resort to the banks to ensure their stability, one of the first steps towards the establishment of a central bank. Although it was widely expected that Canada would return to the gold standard after the War, it was not until 1926 that the government did so.
Following the return to the gold standard, British and United States gold coins, government of Canada notes, and Canadian coins were legal tender. Bank notes ceased to be legal tender. However, the return was short-lived. Britain went off the gold standard in September 1931, during the depths of the Great Depression. Canada followed suit by prohibiting export of gold on October 31, 1931, unofficially taking Canada off the gold standard. A year and a half later, the federal government ended the convertibility of government notes for gold. It was expected to be a temporary measure until the world economic situation improved, but Canada has never returned to the gold standard.
Establishment of the Bank of Canada
Creation and functions of the Bank
As the Great Depression continued in Canada, pressure grew on the federal government to take greater control over the economy, including monetary policy. Criticisms were levelled at the federal Treasury Board and Deputy Minister of Finance, who administered the Finance Act, suggesting that they were not sufficiently skilled in monetary policy. In response, the federal government in 1933 set up the Royal Commission on Banking and Currency to study the functioning of the Finance Act and to make recommendations about the establishment of a central bank.Powell, pp. 47–49. The commission, chaired by Lord Macmillan, reported later that year and recommended the establishment of a central bank, by a 3–2 division. The proposal had broad support from the two main political parties, but was opposed by the Canadian banks on monetary policy grounds, and also because of concern about loss of profits if they could no longer issue bank notes.
The federal government acted on the recommendation and passed the Bank of Canada Act in 1934. It came into force on March 11, 1935. The Bank was given an array of powers, including custodian of the gold reserves of the government, lender of last resort to chartered banks, and issuer of notes on behalf of the government. The Dominion Notes Act and the Finance Act, which had assigned these functions to the Minister of Finance, were repealed. The Bank's mandate was summarised in the preamble to the act:
WHEREAS it is desirable to establish a central bank in Canada to regulate credit and currency in the best interest of the economic life of the nation, to control and protect the external value of the national monetary unit and to mitigate by its influence fluctuations in the general level of production, trade, prices and employment, so far as may be possible within the scope of monetary action, and generally to promote the economic and financial welfare of the Dominion;
One former Deputy Governor of the Bank of Canada has stated that the Bank implements this mandate in three ways: "first, by keeping inflation low, stable, and predictable; second, by supporting a safe and efficient financial system; and third, by issuing money that is safe from counterfeiting and readily accepted".
First issue of Bank of Canada notes
On March 11, 1935, the first day of its operation, the Bank issued its first series of notes. There were ten notes in the 1935 series, primarily featuring members of the Royal Family:
a one-dollar note, featuring King George V;
a two-dollar note, featuring Queen Mary;
a five-dollar note, featuring Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII);
a ten-dollar note, featuring Mary, Princess Royal;
a twenty-dollar note, featuring Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II);
a twenty-five-dollar note, featuring King George and Queen Mary;
a fifty-dollar note, featuring Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI);
a one hundred-dollar note, featuring Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester;
a five hundred-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister John A. Macdonald;
a thousand-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier.
The previous Dominion notes, issued by the Minister of Finance, were rapidly withdrawn from circulation.
The 1935 series was the only Bank of Canada series to include a twenty-five-dollar note and a five hundred-dollar note. The twenty-five-dollar note was a special commemorative note, for the twenty-fifth anniversary of George V's accession to the throne. The five hundred-dollar note was a carry-over from the former government notes, which had included a five hundred-dollar note since 1871, to facilitate transfers of large sums between the banks. No subsequent series has had a note of the same denomination. The 1935 series was also the only Bank of Canada series issued separately in English and in French. All series since then have been bilingual. To deter counterfeiting, the Bank regularly issues new series, replacing the old ones. There have been seven more series since the initial 1935 series: (1937, 1954, 1970, 1986, 2001, 2011), and the eighth series released in 2018.
Gradual elimination of chartered bank notes
As the Bank of Canada became established, the federal government gradually reduced the power of the chartered banks to issue their own bank notes. In 1935, the banks were given ten years to reduce their notes in circulation to twenty-five per cent of their paid-up capital.Bank Act, Statutes of Canada 1934, c. 24, s. 61. A revision to the Bank Act in 1944 provided that the banks could not issue or reissue notes after the end of 1944, except outside Canada.Bank Act, Statutes of Canada 1944, c. 30, s. 61 The last note issued by a chartered bank for use in Canada was a five-dollar note issued by the Royal Bank of Canada in 1943. The old banknotes were gradually withdrawn from circulation. In 1953, the last remaining power to issue banknotes, for use outside Canada, was abolished and the Bank of Canada became the sole issuer of Canadian notes.
Fixed and floating exchange rates
Since Canada has gone off the gold standard, it has fluctuated between fixed and floating exchange rates. The Canadian dollar currently has a floating exchange rate, since 1970.
Great Depression
As part of the reforms associated with the creation of the Bank of Canada and the economic difficulties of the Great Depression, Parliament also passed the Exchange Fund Act in 1935. The purpose of this Act was to create a fund, derived from the profits of the Bank of Canada, which would enable the government and the Bank to "aid in the control and protection of the external value of the Canadian monetary unit", i.e. to maintain the Canadian dollar at a certain rate against other currencies, if needed. However, the government did not use this power initially, allowing the dollar to float against other currencies.
World War II and aftermath
The situation changed in the immediate run-up to World War II. Both the pound sterling and the Canadian dollar began to slip against the United States dollar in August 1939, as war began to seem inevitable. Britain imposed exchange controls in early September. Canada followed in mid-September, imposing exchange controls under the War Measures Act, which gave extensive powers to the federal Cabinet.
The government fixed the value of the Canadian dollar against the pound sterling ($4.43 buying and $4.47 selling) and also against the US dollar ($1.10 () buying and $1.11 () selling). The government also imposed strict currency controls on exchanges with foreign currencies, particularly the United States dollar. Those measures lasted throughout the war, with some changes to the fixed exchange rates.
After the war ended, the government maintained the fixed rates and exchange controls for some years. However, that was balanced out by an unofficial exchange rate established by US markets, which triggered an extensive debate about the merits of a policy of floating exchange rates.
Floating rates: 1950–1962
In 1950, the federal government decided to switch to a policy of floating exchange rates, while maintaining the restrictions on currency exchanges. The rationale was a concern about an increase in inflation if the Canadian dollar continued to be fixed against the US dollar, as was required by the Bretton Woods agreement. The decision to switch to a floating rate called into question the need for restrictions on currency exchanges, and those restrictions were gradually lifted during 1951. At the end of 1951, the exchange restrictions were abolished entirely. Canada stayed on a floating exchange rate for twelve years, in spite of urgings from the International Monetary Fund to return to the fixed rate system under Bretton Woods.
Fixed rates: 1962–1970
In 1961, a major policy disagreement occurred between the Governor of the Bank of Canada, James Coyne, and the government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker. The Governor favoured keeping the exchange rate floating, coupled with a restrictive monetary policy. He came under criticism for that approach, since Canada was going through a period of high unemployment and low inflation.
The Diefenbaker government favoured a return to fixed rates within the Bretton Woods system and a more expansionary monetary policy. The dispute escalated until Coyne resigned his position. The government introduced legislation to provide for a fixed rate, within a permitted range.
Both the economic situation and the political controversies contributed to downwards pressure on the dollar. The Canadian government and the Bank of Canada negotiated with other countries and central banks for supports for the dollar. The government found it necessary to intervene in the money markets in support of the dollar.
Floating rates: 1970 onwards
In 1970, rising inflation and inflow of foreign exchange led to pressures on the dollar. The government was concerned that massive and expensive interventions in the foreign exchange market would be required to maintain the dollar within the fixed rate band. In May 1970, the government announced that it would allow the dollar to float. Although the decision was criticised by the International Monetary Fund, which continued to favour the Bretton Woods approach, within three years all major currencies were floating against the United States dollar. The Canadian dollar has had a floating exchange rate ever since.
Duguay, a former Deputy Governor of the Bank of Canada, has stated that a flexible exchange rate favours a trading nation such as Canada, which produces commodities and also manufactured goods. He argues that a flexible exchange rate facilitates economic adjustment by sending important price signals to producers and consumers, encouraging prompt adjustments to changing economic circumstances. It also permits the Bank to adopt monetary policies which focus on controlling domestic inflation.
Current designs for coins and notes
Coins
Canada's current coinage dates to 1937, when the Mint introduced new designs for the coins. The new coins replaced the old designs which dated back to 1858, when the Province of Canada introduced its first coinage. The 1858 coinage had featured the monarch on the obverse of all coins, with a wreath of maple leaves surmounted by a crown on the reverse. The 1937 re-design continued to feature the monarch on the obverse of all coins, but introduced new patterns for the reverse of each coin:
One-cent (penny): two maple leaves;
Five-cent (nickel): a beaver;
Ten-cent (dime): the schooner Bluenose;
Twenty-five cent (quarter): a caribou;
Fifty-cent (half-dollar): Canadian coat of arms.
These designs were all the work of Emanuel Hahn. With the exception of the withdrawal of the penny, these designs continue to be the basic features of Canadian coinage.
This series of coins was augmented in 1987 by the introduction of a new one-dollar coin, featuring a loon on the reverse, designed by Robert-Ralph Carmichael. The coin quickly became known as the "loonie", which in turn has become a nickname for the Canadian dollar generally.
The loonie was followed by the introduction of a two-dollar coin in 1996, designed by Brent Townsend. The two-dollar coin quickly acquired its own nickname, the "toonie".
The effigy of the monarch on the coins was originally based on dies provided by the Royal Mint in London, first for King George VI and then for Queen Elizabeth II. The effigy of George VI was designed by Humphrey Paget. However, given the length of the Queen's reign, four different versions of her effigy have been used, updated with her age: 1953, 1965, 1990 and 2003. The 1953 and 1965 effigies were designed for the Royal Mint, by British artists: Mary Gillick and Arnold Machin. The Canadian coins using these effigies are similar to those used on other Commonwealth coins of those periods. The 1990 and 2003 effigies were designed by Canadian artists: Dora de Pedery-Hunt designed the 1990 effigy, and Susanna Blunt designed the 2003 effigy.
Although these designs are the basic pattern for the coinage, the Mint regularly introduces commemorative coins, either for the entire series of coins, or on individual coins. Those commemorative issues are normally for a limited time period.
Notes
The current complete series of notes, known as the Frontier Series, is the seventh series of notes issued by the Bank of Canada. It consists of five notes:
a five-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier
a ten-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister John A. Macdonald
a twenty-dollar note, featuring Queen Elizabeth II
a fifty-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King
a one hundred-dollar note, featuring Prime Minister Robert Borden
The different denominations of the Frontier Series were released individually, starting in 2011. The notes are made of polymer, rather than paper, and contain a number of anti-counterfeiting measures, such as holographic features and transparent sections.
A new eighth series of notes began release in 2018. only one note in the new series has been released, a ten-dollar note featuring Viola Desmond.
Withdrawn coins and notes
All of the previous Dominion notes issued by the Minister of Finance, and notes of all former series issued by the Bank of Canada, are gradually withdrawn from circulation when a new series issues. That process can take some time. For example, the Minister of Finance only issued one series of one-hundred-dollar Dominion notes, in 1871. The last time a $100 Dominion note was turned into the Department of Finance was in 1918.
In addition to that routine withdrawal from circulation, there have been other withdrawals when a coin or note no longer serves a purpose:
the penny was withdrawn from circulation in 2013, because its value had depreciated so much it did not serve any true commercial purpose. Change for cash transactions is now rounded up or down to the nearest five cent.
there has only been one twenty-five-dollar note, the Silver Jubilee note marking George V's twenty-fifth year on the throne, issued in the 1935 series. It was withdrawn from circulation on an ongoing basis.
there has only been one five hundred-dollar note issued by the Bank of Canada, in the 1935 series. The five hundred-dollar denomination was a hold-over from the Dominion notes formerly issued by the Minister of Finance, and has not been repeated. Almost all of the 1935 five hundred-dollar notes have been withdrawn.
the last one-dollar note was issued in the Scenes of Canada series, starting in 1969–70 and continuing until the Birds of Canada series began in 1986. There was no one-dollar note in the Birds of Canada series because of the introduction of the one-dollar coin in 1987, which entirely replaced the one-dollar note.
the last two-dollar note was issued in the Birds of Canada series, starting in 1986 and continuing until the Canadian Journey series began in 2001. There was no two-dollar note in the Canadian Journey series because of the introduction of the two-dollar coin in 1996, which entirely replaced the two-dollar note.
the last one thousand-dollar note was issued in the Birds of Canada series, starting in 1986. It was not included in the subsequent series because it was no longer needed for large cash transactions, in light of the growth of electronic transactions. In 2000, the Bank of Canada announced that the one thousand-dollar note was being withdrawn from circulation, on the recommendation of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Increasingly, the thousand-dollar note was being used in criminal transactions, such as money laundering and organised crime.
Notes from previous series continue to be legal tender when in circulation. However, in the 2018 Budget, the government announced it intends to introduce legislation to change to the status of some withdrawn notes: the one-thousand dollar note, the twenty-five-dollar note, the two-dollar note and the one-dollar note will no longer be legal tender, but could still be exchanged at banks for current notes at full value.
See also
History of Canada
References
Bibliography
Robert Chalmers, A History of Currency in the British Colonies (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1893), pp. 184, 425.
W. K. Cross, Charlton's Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins (60th ed.), (Toronto: Charlton Press, 2005).
R.J. Graham (ed.), Canadian Government Paper Money'' (30th ed.), (Toronto: Charlton Press, 2018).
A.B. McCullough, "Currency Conversion in British North America, 1760–1900", (1983) 16 Archivaria 83.
James Powell, A History of the Canadian Dollar (Ottawa: Bank of Canada, 2005).
External links
History
Dollar
Canada Dollar
Financial history of Canada |
4303333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiegel%20%28US%20retailer%29 | Spiegel (US retailer) | Spiegel was an American direct marketing retailer founded in 1865 by Joseph Spiegel. Spiegel published a catalog, like its competitors Sears and Montgomery Ward, which advertised various brands of apparel, accessories, and footwear, as well as housewares, toys, tools, firearms, and electronics. Their company brands included Newport News, Shape FX, and Old Kraftsman, among others. They also operated brick-and-mortar stores.
Spiegel delivered its first mail order catalog in 1905 and by 1925, the retailer had 10 million customers. Spiegel's buyers, who went to Paris fashion shows, introduced American women to European fashion trends.
After encountering financial difficulty in the early 2000s, the company was purchased by Patriarch Partners and focused on women's style and fashion products. The catalog was eventually discontinued in favor of digital marketing. In 2019, the company website was removed without notice and the company ceased to operate.
History
Early years
For the first 100 years of its history, Spiegel was primarily a family business. The company was founded in 1865 by German-Jewish entrepreneur Joseph Spiegel, the son of a German Rabbi and younger brother of Union Army Colonel Marcus M. Spiegel. After spending the final few months of the Civil War in a Confederate prison camp, Joseph Spiegel settled in Chicago, where his brother-in-law, Henry Liebenstein, ran a furniture business. With Liebenstein's assistance, Joseph Spiegel opened J. Spiegel and Company, a small home furnishings retail operation located on Wabash Avenue in Chicago's loop.
In 1871, however, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed most of the area's business district, including the Spiegel store. After the fire, Joseph Spiegel and a partner named Jacob Cahn rebuilt the business, and by 1874 the company was prospering again under the leadership of the two men. Cahn retired from the business in 1879. In 1885 Spiegel began running regular advertisements in several Chicago newspapers, and the following year the company moved to a larger building on State Street. Joseph Spiegel's two oldest sons, Modie Spiegel and Sidney Spiegel, were brought into the business during this time.
Spiegel issued its first catalogs in 1888. The catalogs were made available to potential customers who lived outside the city. Because a mail order system did not yet exist, the catalogs served instead to lure people into the downtown store. By 1892, however, the business had taken a turn for the worse, as many customers were slow to pay for their purchases. With debts mounting, the company went bankrupt. At Modie Spiegel's urging, the company reinvented itself as Spiegel House Furnishings Company of Chicago in 1893. The principal difference was that the new company, like many others in the furniture business, sold on credit. The decision to offer installment plans, and the timing of the decision, made possible Spiegel's expansion over the next several decades.
Expansion in the early 1900s
The new Spiegel was more successful, and in 1898 a branch store was opened on Chicago's South Side. Another South Side branch went into operation three years later. The company's slogan"We Trust the People!"reflected its emphasis on credit merchandising. In 1903, Joseph Spiegel's third son, Arthur, entered the business with a plan to develop mail-order operations for Spiegel. After a couple of years of lobbying, Arthur convinced the company hierarchy to open a mail-order department, and in 1905, Spiegel became the first company to offer credit through the mail. The new service was reflected by the addition of a word to the company motto, which began to read: "We Trust the PeopleEverywhere!" This and the fact they did not charge interest on extended credit helped increase their business substantially.
In 1906, Spiegel's mail-order sales were near $1million. To handle the success of the mail order operation, a new companySpiegel, May, Stern, and Companywas formed, allowing the Spiegel House Furnishings Company to devote its limited resources to conventional retailing, rather than assume the debts associated with building up the mail order segment. Arthur was named president of the new company. In 1909, Spiegel introduced the teddy bear to the American consumer, for the first time nationwide, by offering it in its mail-order catalog. The Ideal Toy Company partnered with Spiegel to launch this successful toy venture, and Spiegel for many years gifted its employees teddy bears to mark the company's anniversary.
Spiegel began to diversify its line of products after 1910, offering apparel for the first time in 1912. After a couple of unsuccessful partnerships with independent clothing manufacturers, Spiegel, May, Stern and Company began offering its own line of women's apparel. The "Martha Lane Adams" line—named after its fictional designer—was so successful that it quickly became a wholly owned subsidiary of Spiegel, May, Stern, and Company and earned its own catalog. Martha Lane Adams' sales grew to nearly $2million by 1916. That same year, Arthur Spiegel died of pneumonia at age 32.
In 1926, company executive Ed Swikard introduced a promotional idea involving Congoleum floor covering. Swikard engineered a mailing to more than nine million residences, offering a pre-cut Congoleum package at a low cost. Customer response was such that company sales reached a record $16million for the year, with a net profit of $4million. In 1928, Spiegel, May, Stern and Company went public, and although the Spiegel family retained a controlling interest, Spiegel stock prices reached $118 per share in 1928.
Great Depression
The Great Depression hurt Spiegel's business. In 1930, Spiegel's stock dropped to seven cents per share. The following year, the Spiegel family began gradually liquidating their retail furniture business. By 1932, the last Spiegel furniture store in Chicago closed its doors.
After experiencing considerable economic losses in the early years of the Depression, Spiegel entered a period of growth and profits beginning in 1933. During this time, M.J. Spiegel, son of Modie, took over the leadership of the company. Spurred again by the company's aggressive marketing of their "easy credit without interest" policy, sales rose from $7.1million in 1932 to more than $56million by 1937. Furthermore, a $300,000 net loss was transformed into $2.5million in profits. When sales began to plateau in 1938, Spiegel shifted attention to consumers in a higher income bracket. The company began adding popular brand names with national reputations to its catalog.
World War II and 1950s
The onset of World War II was financially disastrous for Spiegel. As much domestic manufacturing had shifted to wartime production, many of their popular catalog products were no longer available in significant quantities. A labor shortage also affected the company's operations, and when the U.S. government discouraged buying on credit, Spiegel management had to discard its popular "No Charge for Credit" policy. In 1942 and 1943 combined, the company lost $3.8million. In 1944, in hopes of reversing the trend, Spiegel began to open retail outlets once again, hoping to mimic the success of Sears, Roebuck & Co., and Montgomery Ward. The same year, Spiegel also acquired 46 Sally dress shops in Illinois and several other regional chains were purchased over the next few years. By 1948, Spiegel was operating 168 retail stores featuring a wide range of merchandise, including clothing, furniture, electronics, housewares, and auto supplies.
After initial success in brick-and-mortar retail, the costs of retail operations began to outweigh the benefits. By the mid-1950s, Spiegel was again focusing on mail-order sales on credit. Although nearly all of the company's retail outlets were sold off by 1954, several catalog shopping centers were retained so that customers could ask questions and place orders in person with company representatives. The following year, Spiegel unveiled its Budget Power Plan, a liberal policy under which customers were offered a line of credit sometimes as high as $1,000, with very low monthly payments. The idea was to add as many names as possible to the Spiegel customer list. The company also widely expanded its range of products offered in the catalogs, including outdoor power equipment such as mowers and tillers, personal watercraft under the name Brooklure, and musical instruments using the Old Kraftsman name.
1960s and 1970s
By 1960, sales greater than $200million and nearly two million people held Spiegel credit accounts. In addition, Spiegel began selling pets. In 1965, after a century of operation as a family business, Spiegel was purchased by Beneficial Finance Company. Spiegel stockholders received shares of Beneficial stock, and Spiegel became a wholly owned subsidiary of Beneficial.
Spiegel benefited from television exposure and advertising in the form of prizes given away on several game shows, most notably The Hollywood Squares, The Price Is Right, and Let's Make a Deal. Announcers emphasized Spiegel's large catalog offerings in on-air promotional announcements and included Spiegel's Chicago zip code, 60609. Often these programs would award contestants gift certificates of a certain dollar amount toward catalog items, giving winners the flexibility to choose their own prize.
During the early 1970s, several charges were leveled against Spiegel by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission regarding some of the company's marketing tactics. In 1971, the FTC accused Spiegel of failing to adequately disclose credit terms in some of its statements and catalog ads. The company also was cited for its handling of credit life insurance policies, as well as for offering free home trials without informing customers that credit approval was required before a product would be shipped. Moreover, in 1974, the FTC charged that Spiegel's debt collection policies treated customers unfairly. Most of the complaints brought by the FTC during this period were settled by changes in company practices, and serious action by the government was generally avoided.
Rising interest rates in the mid-1970s made financing credit accounts costly. Also during that time, Spiegel began encountering significant competition from discount stores such as Kmart, which were rapidly establishing a national presence. In 1976, to help turn the company around, Beneficial hired Henry "Hank" Johnson, a veteran of the mail order operations of Montgomery Ward and Avon. One of Johnson's first moves was to streamline company management. Dozens of executives were fired, and overall employment numbers were reduced by half over the next five years, from 7,000 in 1976 to 3,500 in 1981. Johnson also closed Spiegel's remaining catalog stores.
Johnson changed Spiegel's image to that of a "fine department store in print." Accordingly, the Spiegel catalog was completely revamped; low-budget items were replaced by upscale apparel and accessories for career women. Merchandise bearing designer labels began appearing in 1980, when the company introduced a line of Gloria Vanderbilt products.
New direction in the 1980s
Catalog sales in general boomed during the early 1980s. Spiegel's sales began to grow 25 to 30 percent a year. Although Spiegel still ranked fourth in catalog sales during this time, trailing Sears, JCPenney, and Montgomery Ward, the company's strategies were being followed closely by its larger competitors.
In 1982, Beneficial sold Spiegel to Otto-Versand GmbH, a large, private West German company prominent in catalog sales. Between 1982 and 1983, Spiegel's revenue increased from $394million to $513million, and the company's pre-tax profits more than doubled, reaching $22.5million in 1983. The following year, control of Spiegel was transferred from Otto-Versand itself to members of its controlling family, the Ottos. Under new ownership, Spiegel's transformation into an outlet for higher-end products continued.
In 1984, Spiegel began distributing specialty catalogs in addition to its four primary catalogs; 25 of these specialty catalogs were in circulation by 1986, featuring Italian imports, plus-sized clothing, and other specialty items. That year, Spiegel mailed a total of 130million catalogs, for $100million, and company sales surpassed the $1billion mark for the first time.
In 1987, six million shares of nonvoting stock were sold to the public, marking the first time since 1965 that Spiegel was not completely privately held. In 1988, Spiegel acquired Eddie Bauer, Inc., a retail chain specializing in sportswear and outdoor equipment from General Mills. Eddie Bauer, which also maintained a catalog operation, had annual sales of $260million. In the first year following the acquisition, the chain was expanded from 60 to 99 stores.
By 1989, Spiegel had become the number three catalog retailer in the United States, with a total circulation of about 200million catalogs, including 60 different specialty catalogs, and an active customer base of five million.
New additions in the early 1990s
In 1990, Spiegel acquired First Consumers National Bank (FCNB), which began issuing credit cards and statements to Spiegel and Eddie Bauer customers. That year, the company engaged in an aggressive advertising campaign for career women featuring actress Candice Bergen, who portrayed a career woman on the popular situation comedy "Murphy Brown." The campaign also featured a specialty catalog promoted by Bergen, emphasizing the inconvenience of department store shopping and the relative ease of shopping by catalog.
The company began to expand its retail outlet operations based on lines from its catalogs. Spiegel stores included "For You From Spiegel," which offered plus-sized women's apparel, and Crayola Kids, providing a line of children's apparel first launched in 1991. Despite these innovations, the company's growth stagnated due to the national economic recession, and earnings declined sharply in 1991. Slight gains were realized the following year as Spiegel's revenue topped $2billion. Eddie Bauer performed particularly well, having grown to 265 stores.
In August 1993, Spiegel announced its purchase of Newport News (formerly Avon Fashions), a catalog company specializing in moderately-priced women's clothing. Later that year, Spiegel published a new specialty catalog, EStyle, a partnership between Spiegel and Ebony magazine featuring a clothing line aimed at African-American women. The same year, Sears discontinued its catalog sales operation and Spiegel and other specialty catalog retailers moved quickly to assume the leadership role and increase their share of the market.
Spiegel reported total revenues of $2.6billion in 1993. Sales at Eddie Bauer stores reached $1billion that year, bolstered by 30 new locations. Between Spiegel and Eddie Bauer, 81 different catalogs, with a total circulation of more than 313million, were distributed in 1993. The company's specialty retail stores also performed well in 1993, generating $840million in sales.
Innovations in the mid-1990s
In 1994, Spiegel formed a joint venture with Time Warner Entertainment to create two home shopping services for cable television. One of the services was named "Catalog1," and was planned as a one-channel showcase for a roster of numerous upscale catalog retailers, each of which would sell its goods using innovative entertainment-style shows. Participants in Catalog1 in 1994, besides Spiegel and Eddie Bauer were The Bombay Company, Crate & Barrel, The Nature Company, Neiman Marcus, The Sharper Image, Viewer's Edge, and Williams Sonoma. The channel was tested in five markets that year: Rochester, New York; Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Nashua, New Hampshire; Columbus, Ohio; and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Spiegel also teamed up with Lillian Vernon, Lands' End, and other catalogers in 1994 to create a CD-ROM catalog. The company formed a partnership with MCI Communications Corporation that was aimed at increasing both companies' customer bases. MCI began offering a $35 Spiegel gift certificate to any customer who changed their long-distance telephone service to MCI. MCI also offered an additional $20 certificate to any customer who remained an MCI user for at least six months. Around this time, Spiegel considered entering the electronic shopping market through an online service such as America Online. This was realized in 1995 but at the expense of the year-old Catalog1 venture. By this time, Catalog1 had begun airing in three more test markets, raising its total presence to eight cities. Time Warner and Spiegel decided, however, there was a greater potential gain in launching a website for Catalog1 and capitalizing on the increasing popularity of the Internet. Accordingly, they scaled back their cable television operation and began working on a home page through Time Warner's popular Pathfinder site.
Spiegel also initiated an entrance into the Canadian market in 1995 and planned to distribute its catalog there by the spring of 1996. Previous strong Eddie Bauer business in Canada aided the company's decision to move in on a larger scale, as did the company's good distribution agreements in Canada. Eddie Bauer was also performing well in Japan, where the company had built many retail stores throughout the previous few years.
The year 1996 marked the most profitable year in Eddie Bauer's history, and Spiegel's revenues benefited. Eddie Bauer's merchandise was popular enough that the company encountered issues with out-of-stock merchandise occurrencesa direct result of high consumer demand. Eddie Bauer also made headlines in 1996 when it introduced "Balance Day" to its employees, which was an extra day off per year. The addition demonstrated the company's commitment to providing innovative benefits to its workers, and employees began referring to it as "call in well day." The company made an effort to find ways to offer its single workers benefits that were equal to those offered to its workers with families.
Late 1990s
Spiegel achieved $3.06billion in 1997 revenue, with approximately $1.8billion of that stemming from its Eddie Bauer operations. Regardless of Eddie Bauer's contribution to its parent company, however, the subsidiary had a difficult fiscal year. Following the increase in demand for its products in 1996, the company overproduced and overstocked in 1997. In addition, the newer Eddie Bauer merchandise offerings were not as popular as the prior year's; thus the company was left with an oversupply of merchandise. In the August 17, 1998, issue of the Puget Sound Business Journal, Eddie Bauer's president and CEO, Rick Fersch, commented on the company's problems: "We were overplanned, overstocked, overstyled, overcoloredand it was over warm (last winter) and that meant trouble."
The year 1998, brought additional challenges for Eddie Bauer and, subsequently, for Bauer's parent company. Warmer than usual winter weather, brought about by a highly publicized weather phenomenon known as El Nino, once again hurt Bauer's sales figures. Spiegel's overall revenues for the year dropped to $2.94billion as a result.
Spiegel set out to halt its downward spiral and achieve profitability again. The company redesigned its main catalog, which in prior years had become something of an amalgam of differingand often conflictingitems and images. The company created a catalog solely to target the working woman and organized its main catalog so as not to place $1,000 designer outfits adjacent to $20 casual shirts, for example. Eddie Bauer also launched efforts to get itself back on track.
By the end of the year, Spiegel announced they had improved earnings. Although its revenue decreased during 1998, the company turned a profit and achieved positive cash flow, according to a fiscal year-end document released by Spiegel in early 1999. Eddie Bauer's performance disappointed again during the year, but Spiegel's other subsidiary catalog, Newport News, posted solid results.
2000–2019
After years of shrinking economic fortunes, the company suffered large financial losses and changed ownership three times within the early 2000s. In 2003, Spiegel filed for bankruptcy and reorganization under the bankruptcy code. This included closing 60 Eddie Bauer stores. The following year, a group headed by Golden Gate Capital Partners and Pangea Holdings Ltd., purchased the Spiegel and Newport News catalog businesses. At the same time, the existing, reorganizing company retained its Eddie Bauer unit and eventually assumed the subsidiary name as the company name. From 2004, the Spiegel catalog and the women's fashion catalog Newport News operated under the name Spiegel Brands, Inc.
In 2008, Spiegel was sold again to an investment group led by Granite Creek Partners. In June 2009, Spiegel was sold again to private equity fund Patriarch Partners, LLC, and then operated under the name Spiegel LLC, having done business from 2009 to 2012 as Signature Styles, LLC and Artemiss LLC respectively. Spiegel's headquarters were then moved to New York City from Chicago. In 2012, the leadership at Spiegel was replaced when the company discontinued its print catalog in favor of digital marketing.
In 2016, Spiegel announced it would become the first American fashion digital catalog to feature a transgender model on its cover when Arisce Wanzer was selected. At the same time, some other Patriarch Partner companies had begun abruptly shutting down without notice. Several lawsuits were ultimately filed against Patriarch and civil-fraud allegations were leveled by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
Ultimately, during the winter of 20192020, Spiegel's website was removed and the company abruptly ceased operations.
References
External links
spiegel.com, archive of original site at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine.
Clothing retailers of the United States
Retail companies established in 1865
Clothing companies established in 1865
Retail companies disestablished in 2019
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2003
1865 establishments in Illinois
Clothing companies based in New York City
Privately held companies based in New York (state)
Clothing brands of the United States
Spiegel family |
4303386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall%20Auxier | Randall Auxier | Randall E. Auxier (born August 7, 1961) is a professor of philosophy and communication studies at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, a musician, environmental activist, union advocate, and candidate (2018) for the United States House of Representatives, nominated by the Green Party in the 12th Congressional District of Illinois. He is a radio host for WDBX Carbondale since 2001, a widely read author of popular philosophy, and also a co-founder and co-director of the AIPCT (The American Institute for Philosophical and Cultural Thought).
Born in Leitchfield, Kentucky, Auxier is the younger of two children, the son of a veterinarian, Charles David Auxier (1931-) and a professional church musician, Eileen Gunter Auxier (1933-2016). Educated in the public schools of Memphis, Tennessee, he grew up during and was deeply affected by, the civil rights movement. He was one of the many students who were bused to integrated schools by court orders that resulted from Brown v. Board of Education. Auxier was in first grade when Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated, and the event had a continual impact on him and the region he lived in.
In philosophy, Auxier specializes in classical American thought, process metaphysics and theology, intensive logics, aesthetics, philosophical anthropology, and the philosophy of culture, of science, of religion, and of education. He teaches and writes on Giambattista Vico, Immanuel Kant, Georg Hegel, J.J. Bachofen, Charles Peirce, Henri Bergson, Josiah Royce, William James, John Dewey, Alfred North Whitehead, Ernst Cassirer, Susanne Langer, Charles Hartshorne, Jaakko Hintikka, Arthur Danto, and Umberto Eco.
Education and career
Auxier attended Graves Road Elementary School (1967–73), Graceland Junior High School (1973–76), and Hillcrest High School (1976-79), all belonging to the Memphis City Schools. Court ordered busing commenced in January 1973, and Auxier remained (by his own choosing) in public schools while most of his white schoolmates were sent to all-white private schools. Auxier attended Memphis State University (now called the University of Memphis) from 1979 to 1981, majoring in Criminal Justice. He left school in the fall of 1981, playing bass guitar and singing professionally in several local bands. He returned to Memphis State in the fall of 1984 and received an undergraduate degree in philosophy and criminal justice (magna cum laude) in 1986. He was awarded an assistantship at Memphis State to pursue a master's degree in philosophy, and began teaching in 1987. The MA was completed in 1988. He went on to receive a fellowship and assistantship to pursue doctoral work at Emory University, completing the Ph.D. in 1992. His dissertation examined the theories of signs and symbols that applied to the language of metaphysics, discussing principally the works of Cassirer, Langer, Peirce, and Eco.
In the fall of 1992 he became assistant professor and chair (1992–97) of the philosophy department at Oklahoma City University, and was the founding director of the OCU Institute of Liberal Arts (1994–99). While at OCU, he also taught philosophy courses for several years at the nearby public high school Classen School of Advanced Studies. In 2000, he accepted a position at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, in the philosophy department, where he remains. While he maintains his affiliation with the philosophy department at SIUC, his primary assignment moved to the department of communications studies in the fall of 2017.
In 2016, Auxier was a visiting professor at the American Studies Center of the University of Warsaw, and in 2017 and 2018, he was visiting professor of philosophy in the Institute of Philosophy of the university or Warsaw.
The Pluralist
Auxier's interest in philosophical personalism led him to become editor of The Personalist Forum in 1997. The original publisher, Mercer University Press, dropped the publication that year, and Auxier was obliged to raise funds to keep the publication afloat until 2005, when the University of Illinois Press took on the publishing responsibilities for the journal. It was at this time that the title of the journal changed to The Pluralist and gained monetary support from both Oklahoma State University and Southern Illinois University Carbondale. At that time John Shook and Scott Gelfand from OSU became co-editors. After five years of publishing under the new name, The Pluralist became the official journal of the Society for the Advancement of American Philosophy in 2010. After this transition, Auxier continued to edit the journal until 2012.
The Library of Living Philosophers
In 2001, Auxier was appointed editor of the Library of Living Philosophers, the third in its history, following series founder Paul Arthur Schilpp (1938–1981), and Lewis Edwin Hahn (1981–2001). This series is important to scholars because it provides an opportunity to critics and supporters of a valuable philosophical figure to address the thinker, while still alive, regarding any problems or ambiguities that may have arisen around his or her thought over the course of his or her career. The central thinker then responds to these questions or concerns, and, thus, the volume provides the opportunity for a final and definitive discussion regarding the thought of a world-renowned contemporary philosopher. The series has a highly esteemed reputation as a fine scholarly publication, and it is known for its impeccable editing.
During his editorship, Auxier worked with and completed volumes on Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2001), Marjorie Grene (2003), Jaakko Hintikka (2006), Michael Dummett (2007), Richard Rorty (2010), and Arthur C. Danto (2013). Figures whose volumes were completed after 2013 but for which Auxier was principal editor include Hilary Putnam and Umberto Eco. He initiated a volume on Julia Kristeva which is in progress.
The American Institute for Philosophical and Cultural Thought
In November 2016, in response to the decision of Southern Illinois University Carbondale to dismiss all staff and cease all projects of the Center for Dewey Studies, Auxier, along with John R. Shook and Larry A. Hickman (Director Emeritus of the Center for Dewey Studies) founded the American Institute of Philosophical and Cultural Thought. It is a federal 501 (c) (3) private foundation and is registered in the State of Illinois as a charitable organization. AIPCT dedicated to the continuation of the work of the Dewey Center, to the greatest extent possible, as well as to a broad range of other cultural and scholarly activities. It holds some 30,000 volumes specialized in American thought along with the papers of a number of distinguished philosophers and theologians of the 20th century. There are regular programs, seminars, public lectures, as well as fellowships and grants for long-term research and residency. AIPCT is affiliated with several scholarly organizations, including the Institute of American Religious and Philosophical Thought and the Foundation for the Philosophy of Creativity and works closely with the Special Collections Research Center of the Morris Library at Southern Illinois University Carbondale.
Works
Auxier has authored or co-authored many lectures and presentations around the United States and in other countries, has written many scholarly articles, book chapters, encyclopedia entries, and translations. He edited numerous books. Subjects on which he has published range from John Dewey and Alfred North Whitehead to the limits of evolution, biker bars, and rock music. His recent work includes Time, Will and Purpose: Living Ideas from the Philosophy of Josiah Royce, (Open Court 2013); Metaphysical Graffiti: Deep Cuts in the Philosophy of Rock (Open Court 2017), and, with Gary L. Herstein, The Quantum of Explanation: Whitehead's Radical Empiricism (Routledge, 2017). Auxier's journalism includes articles and book reviews for the Carbondale Nightlife and the Carbondale Times, and he authored articles and fiction for Empirical Magazine while it was operating. Auxier writes a regular blog for Radically Empirical, an online magazine that features essays and commentary on current and literary affairs. Auxier's creative works also include short stories, occasional poetry, and three music CDs.
Auxier's areas of specialization are American philosophy, post-Kantian continental philosophy, process and systematic philosophy/theology, history of philosophy, metaphysics, moral philosophy, theology, political theory, and philosophy of education. He has been awarded the Jacobsen Prize in Process Metaphysics from the International Society for Universalism and the Douglas Greenlee Prize from the Society for the Advancement of American Philosophy.
Metaphysics and formal philosophy
Auxier defends a version of process-relational metaphysics called “analogical realism.” Built from his theory of analogy first articulated in his 1992 dissertation, he argues that the language of metaphysics should be divided into operational language and functional language. The former is “semiotic” and the latter “symbolic.” Semiotic metaphysical language is synchronic and derives from a prior act of spatialization in the symbolic domain. Semiotic, operational language analogizes terms by extracting relations between base term pairings that find comparison or contrast in the relations of their analogate pairings (i.e., four-term analogies that reveal relations of relations along three axes). These may be expressed as ordered pairs for some purposes, but the semiotic system of reasoning is non-monotonic and yields to W.V. Quine's critiques of under-determination and radical translation. The mode of reasoning is extensional in semiotics and can be articulated (incompletely) in extensional logics of the sort devised by Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred North Whitehead. Symbolic language in metaphysics conveys meaning through three-term analogies in which a single base term is concretely differentiated through concrete, temporal processes. Such processes are brought to language by poetic insight which provide the “basis phenomena” (Cassirer's term) of human experience. These primal symbols are active and uncompletable, corresponding to “ideas” where signs correspond to “concepts,” a distinction drawn from Immanuel Kant's terminology. Symbol creation and symbolic consciousness operates first in mythic and expressive and exclusively social sensus communus. Symbols grow into cultures that increasingly refine themselves through sameness and difference, and symbols are the basis of any concrete, temporal consciousness, including historical consciousness. Auxier holds that symbolic reasoning is expressive, emotive, diachronic, and largely unreflective (capable even of falling below the threshold of conscious thought). Semiotic reasoning, by contrast, is largely reflective, cognitive, representational, and synchronic.
Auxier's theories of actuality, potentiality, and possibility derive from these distinctions. He argues that possibility should be thought of (hypothetically) as uncreated and unaffected by temporal passage. The same constellations of possibilities retain their intensive modes of order regardless of whether one constellation becomes an ingressing collection and informs what is actual. The same order is available, and in part intelligible to human beings, whether they are “might-have-beens” or “might be's” and are indifferent to actuality. Potency is possibility limited by past actuality and wholly included in the constellations of possibility. Potency is defined as those immanent orderings of possibility not yet eliminated by present actuality. Potency draws its form from those collections of possibility that exemplify constellations whose status relative to actuality is “might-be.” Auxier argues that possibility is immediately experienced by human beings, and that its form is inferred by means of contrast with the experience of the “egress” of possibility. Actuality is cognized only indirectly.
Method and logic
Auxier is a radical empiricist in method, following James, Bergson, and Whitehead. Radical empiricists hold that experience as human beings have it includes all the relations needed to bring it into adequate, applicable, and logically rigorous form. Radical empiricism requires that disjunctive and conjunctive relations be treated as equiprimordial, and insists that nothing in experience shall be excluded from philosophical consideration, even where its place in experience is not yet clear to us. The philosophical orientation of radical empiricism also forbids that a viewpoint may rely upon “transempirical or unempirical support for its assertions. Purely a priori or supernatural notions can be entertained as possibilities, but may form no part of the basis for a philosophy. Radical empiricism embraces fallibilism and the primacy of open-ended, non-monotonic, intensive reasoning. Auxier holds that the largely extensive forms of reasoning that characterize spatialized sign-operations are guided by reflective norms of thinking overlap with but are not identical to the norms of temporal, functional symbol-thinking. Symbolic thinking rarely yields to reflective norms except through long practice and habituation, and most reflective norms that establish criteria for evaluating good semiotic thinking are irrelevant to high-functioning symbol-thinking. One does not persuade a person of the value of a course of thinking by means of reflective norms, which are emotionally sterile. Persuasion requires the use of symbol functions.
Thus, Auxier's work in logic focuses on the relation between reflective and active thinking. Intensive logic is treated as the ground of all extensional logic, and extensional logic (along with all mathematical thinking above basic counting) is grounded in rearrangements of operational sign relations. Infinitely many extensional schemes are possible of the basis of intensive symbol functions, but all are well encompassed by the four-term semiotic schema Auxier provides. He treats Bergson's qualitative calculus and Whiteheads genetic and coordinate analyses as exemplars of his sign-theory. Auxier favors and teaches the analytical syllogistics of Delton Thomas Howard as a normative formalization of active thinking, and Susanne Langer's logic as an imaginative formalization of spatialized thinking, when removed from metaphysics and treated as a separate system of extensional thinking. Auxier emphasizes the role of imagination in symbol creation in line with Kantian and neo-Kantian theories, such as Cassirer's.
Philosophy of culture
Auxier's theories in the philosophy of culture derive from the ideas of Giambattista Vico, Kant, F.W.J. Schelling, J.J. Bachofen, Friedrich Nietzsche, Cassirer and a number of post-humanist critics, such as Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida. He holds that culture is not defined by any single source, such as language, but from multiple sources of experience that are continuous with the animal world, and even the “worlds” of plants and temporal processes that are non-biological. He argues that the organization of the cosmos in the broadest sense already includes not only the potentiality for life, but also for precisely the organizations of energies that characterize human life as dedicated to the creation of symbols and signs, as well as the modes of response we call “consciousness.” Thus, culture is an activity of animals (including but not limited to humans) in concert with and embedded form of potencies already characteristic of the physical universe and the modes of order it currently exhibits. Auxier follows Cassirer in holding that the human consciousness of the development of culture is conditioned by symbol creation, which proceeds along at least three fundamental lines: myth, language, and objectivating consciousness. But Auxier disagrees with Cassirer's emphasis upon the symbol as the criterion of difference between human and animal cognition, and argues that animals not only possess symbolic consciousness, but that human culture is unimaginable with the contributions of animal conscious, including human consciousness in its animal functions. Auxier also holds that consciousness wholly devoid of reflection may exist, although it would not exist in such a way as to preclude reflection in some remote temporal development.
Auxier holds that mythic consciousness endures as human culture is increasingly refined and is never far from the basis of human thinking. He holds that most human thinking is communal, embodied, and active, while individual thinking is most often a pathology of symbolic consciousness. Auxier opposes both old-style humanism and every form of individualism. The individual is not the inevitable and crowning jewel of cultural development, contrary to the views of Cassirer, Dewey and other classical liberals. Rather, the active, embodied community is the primary achievement of cultural activity. Auxier does not accept views of Western superiority or triumphalism as defensible philosophically. He holds that valuable life and fully human development is evident in traditional human life and that the individualism of the Western world is a tragic development. Here his views accord with those of Whitehead and Josiah Royce.
Auxier writes widely on popular culture and defends the aesthetic and philosophical importance of so-called “low culture,” such as jazz, blues and rock music, popular television and cinema, and best-selling fiction. He uses the vehicle of popular culture to explain and illustrate his more formal philosophical views, especially regarding aesthetics, ethics, and politics. Auxier sees popular culture as continuous with high culture and generally to be preferred over high culture as livelier and more important to the community as a whole.
Ethics and political philosophy
In ethics and political philosophy, Auxier is a personalist who follows primarily the views of Royce, Borden Parker Bowne, Edgar Sheffield Brightman, and Martin Luther King Jr. Given that all human experience comes in the personal form, it is unproblematic to reason upon the assumption of the existence and value of persons. He does not assert that the impersonal does not exist or that person is the only value in the universe, only that all moral reasoning relevant to forming a moral philosophy is in fact conditioned by its source in the personal form of experience. Auxier holds that communities are persons in a more concrete and more enduring sense that are biological individuals. Individuals draw their personalities from the active nurture of their communities, but also come to transcend that activity and grow in directions not determined by the various agencies and institutions of their community of origin. The highest value of the community and the aim of social life is the fullest available determination of “the beloved community” (Royce, King), which is wholly actual in the present, but left vague by the unwillingness of the community to act on it. Auxier understands the beloved community upon the transcendental logic of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of “the general will”: that in every social circumstance there exists an optimal course of action, and that course of action is the general will (what people would each and all choose if they could discern it). The beloved community is the general will, Auxier holds. He allows that corporations and other historical institutions are indeed persons, but often dysfunctional persons whose community values and structures beget alienated and pathological individuals.
Auxier holds, contrary to classical liberalism, that politics is a subdivision of ethics and cannot be divorced from human moral life. He holds that the dignity of personality is the highest value in the field of values humans are capable of recognizing, and includes the ani mal and plant worlds as forms of existence that exemplify in some degree, however slight, personality. Auxier insists that humans are morally obliged to remain open to the possibility that personality characterizes the whole order of the cosmos, not just the portion regarded as living or human, and must consider that possibility in forming and enacting their ethical (including political) values. Auxier is a communitarian and sympathizes with the ideas of such classical conservatives as David Hume, Adam Smith, and Edmund Burke, insofar as they agree that meaningful change is always slow, what happens to the least in the community happens to the whole community, that economic development must include in its very conception the entire community. He holds with Royce and Gifford Pinchot that conservation of nature is the basis of democratic life and that whatever damages nature also damages democracy. He holds that communities which produce independent individuals will both benefit from that process and suffer from the inevitable betrayals that strong individuals choose, in their tragic isolation.
Auxier teaches and advocates a version of nonviolence that derives from both King and Mohandas Gandhi. He argues that almost every problem confronted by human beings, individually and collectively, are solved without the use of violence and that therefore resorting to violence is an aberration in human experience. This is why it requires justifications that always rely upon the logic of exceptionalism. Auxier argues that one hundred percent of human problems can be solved without violence and that the use of violence never genuinely solves any human problem.
Aesthetics
Auxier holds that aesthetic feeling is the basis for both meaning and symbol creation. He defends a view of images that draws from Bergson's account in Matter and Memory (1898). The movement of images is prior to the experience of them by localized, temporal centers of action (including human selves). A prehended feeling (or fundamental relation) is responded to by other feeling, each creating a fleeting presentational space that arrests the encounter of images. Through the creation of increasingly deep presentational spaces, images accrue histories of feelings and responses, building intensive histories of achievement. In the higher phases of this process, with intensities within intensities many times embedded in increasingly complex and temporally delicate spaces of presentation, reversions of feeling begin to create leaps between and among spatialized repositories of past feeling. To traverse these spaces, immediate encounters with possibility must be tapped to give form to a relation across primal presentational spaces. The active over-determination of images, their restriction within a unified space, is a condition for these leaps among base images (this is Auxier's interpretation of Cassirer's basis phenomena, joined to a Whiteheadian theory of symbolic reference). The over-determination of an image comes at the cost of “error” in Whitehead's sense of the word, which is the cost of transmuting temporal processes into spatial relations.
The process of active thinking in human beings is a process of error by over-determination of images. The formation of symbols from fundamental feeling is the process of determination, but it can be carried out without full conceptualization. Symbols are fundamentally open and infinitely interpretable. Concepts are always erroneous over-determinations of feeling carried out as a condition of conforming the symbols to the requirements of reflection. Symbols are made into signs and signs are the basic units of reflective activity. The creative arrangement of signs follows a kind of reflective intuition (Bergson) or secondary reflection (Gabriel Marcel) that provides a feeling of creative power that is basic to the creation of art. Auxier rejects the idea that genuine art can be created without reflection. The experience of aesthetic space in reflective intuition is also the basis of the human recognition of beauty in nature. The feeling is, as Kant described, one of feeling as if nature's balanced asymmetries were already adapted to the forms of human sensation, and for the delight of the cognizing person. The development and deployment of symbols for the stimulation of the senses in accordance with the forms of reflective intuition is the basic activity of all artists, according to Auxier.
Auxier has argued that music has a singular place in the formation of both human feeling and human culture. He follows the aesthetic theory of Susanne Langer in this regard, but departs from her understanding of the relation of time with rhythm and feeling, especially where Langer fails to recognize the complementarity between her views of image and Bergson's views. For Auxier the musical images are fundamentally hybrid units existing both in rhythmic repetition and acoustic space. The space is, as Langer asserts, virtual, but it is more than a “semblance” or “primary illusion.” The experience of the egress of possibility in musical experience is what forms the auditory image and then leaves behind not a sound but a tone. The existence of the tone requires reflection both to create and to hear, and is thoroughly virtual. However, the unheard context of the tone egresses and constitutes the ground of the intelligibility of the tone. Auxier holds that visual images are much more complex and mediated, by comparison, and that the most likely hypothesis about our experience of visual images and the virtual space in which they exist for our perception, is that humans learned to create this space by generalizing from their experience of the contrast between sounds and tones. Tones are concrete symbols. Musical notes are semiotic determinations of these tones.
Philosophy of science
Auxier applies his metaphysics, logic, ethics and aesthetics to the critique of science by opposing reductionist and model-centric versions of scientific knowledge. He defends the principle of evolution but writes against Darwinism and other narrow versions of the science. Where evolutionary science crosses into making philosophical claims unsupported by the science itself, Auxier calls scientific theorists back toward humbler conclusions that genuinely carry scientific warrant. He also writes against Einstein's philosophical conclusions drawn from the theory of General Relativity, which Auxier regards as primarily a philosophical rather than a scientific theory. Auxier favors open and temporalist ideas in science, and sympathizes with the physics of the quantum vacuum and the evolutionary theories that see continuity between the physical creation of spaces of life and biological developments along particular lines.
Auxier's theory of the quantum of explanation, developed with Gary L. Herstein, holds that all explanation (especially scientific explanation) depends upon a structure, called “the quantum” (following Whitehead's usage) drawn from concrete reality and hypothesized as an irreducible unit for the purposes of some determinate inquiry. While Auxier and Herstein are realists in science, they are realists about this quantum, which they hold to be basic to the structure of both cognition and understanding. The quantum is, in Auxier's view, an overdetermined image modeled precisely and carefully to serve as the exact unit which is irreducibly present in the whole which is to be explained. Explanation thus moves from the analysis of a presupposed coordinate whole by means of a genetic specification of the order immanent in the quantum. Thus, all scientific knowledge proceeds by a kind of mereotopology, by the creation of s suitable space of explanation and a re-enactment of its primary characters according to the complex features immanent in the quantum. The ability to identify and describe a quantum for these purposes is a kind of talent that some people possess as a refinement of their aesthetic reflective intuition. Thus, scientific genius is no less aesthetic in character than artistic genius, in Auxier's view.
Theology and philosophy of religion
Auxier holds that theology must be done in accordance with the methods and norms of philosophy and that even when theology is the source of new methods and forms of analysis (for example, Duns Scotus's theory of transcendentals or Friedrich Scheiermacher's hermeneutics), these methods and forms must be judged according to philosophical rather than theological norms. Thus, while religious practice in no ways depends upon theology, theology is completely dependent at the level of norms and methods (not content) on philosophy. Good theology must therefore be first and foremost philosophically sound. Theology takes on at the level of faith the assumption of the existence of divinity, of revelation, and of the reality of the good. Upon these three suppositions, theology may proceed along paths that philosophy does not travel. With Royce Auxier holds that doing philosophy does depend upon an act of philosophical faith in the intelligibility to us of the universe, but this requires no idea of divinity, revelation, or the good; it requires only an idea of the whole, of insight into that whole, and of the better and worse, not of good or evil.
Auxier defends a pluralistic and culturally embedded ideal of human religious life, holding that ritual, which is found in the animal world in full continuity with the human world, viewed as a version of animality. Auxier argues that myth is superadded to ritual as an independent companion to it, making a second aesthetic level tinged with reflection available to humans who enact rituals. He rejects the claim that myth developed to explain ritual as an overly reductive and unknowable hypothesis. Auxier argues that the experience we call “religious” in the higher phases of experience is not reducible either to aesthetic or to cognitive experience and is a distinctive and nearly universal characteristic of human life.
Auxier holds that religious experience can be engendered both through the repetition of rituals and through the experience of novelty (in nature or other cultures), but the novelty must be integrated into the familiar patterns in order for the feeling of value it carries to be retained. Thus Auxier believes that the religious community in which a human being is raised becomes the basis for the integration of future religious experiences that are not explicit in the experience of that community. His theology would generally be identified as liberal and Protestant, but along the Arminian and Wesleyan lines of Protestantism. Auxier commonly criticizes Calvinist views in his writings, sometimes quite harshly.
Politics and activism
Beginning with his musical explorations during his residence in Atlanta, Auxier became active in environmental causes and simultaneously in politics. These activities included protesting the First Gulf War, and every subsequent war the US has prosecuted, as well as various other forms of social injustice and oppression. His commitment to nonviolence, environmental conservation, and community localism has led him to participate, organize, speak, and perform music at hundreds of events and for many causes. He visited the imprisoned to spread music in Oklahoma and Illinois, as well as visiting nursing homes and homes for the developmentally disabled, most often as a musician.
Auxier joined the Illinois Education Association in 2000 and was elected to the Departmental Representatives Council, supporting the SIU Faculty Association during collective bargaining cycles of 2001 and 2003. In 2006 Auxier was drafted to join the bargaining team for the SIUC FA and served in that role through the completion of the 2006-2010 agreement. Resuming this role for the 2010-2014 contract, Auxier was among the leaders of the SIUCFA that went on strike, November 3–9, 2011. The strike successfully produced a new agreement. the Illinois Educational Labor Relations Board later adjudicated the administration and Board of Trustees of SIUC of bargaining in bad faith, bringing about the strike, and required them to pay a 1.7 million dollar settlement. Auxier testified at these proceedings and assisted the claimant's legal team, the Illinois Education Association. Auxier remains as an active member of the IEA.
In 2000 Auxier joined the Green Party, Shawnee Chapter. As an environmentalist he fought road development, Walmart and other issues in the community, challenging local government and business interests over development plans. Auxier spoke from his radio show, wrote for local papers, spoke and played at rallies and meetings, and participated in the electoral efforts of the Green Party. In 2016, Auxier ran as a recognized Green Party candidate for Jackson County Board, District 3, and received 6% of the vote, establishing the Green Party in that district. In October 2017 Auxier was caucused, in Nashville, Illinois, as the recognized candidate of the Shawnee Green Party to run for US Congress, 12th District of Illinois, where the Green Party is an established party by state electoral requirements. His candidacy became official December 4, 2016 and has been endorsed by the Illinois Green Party.
Publications
Books
The Quantum of Explanation: Whitehead's Radical Empiricism, co-author (2017)
The Philosophy of Umberto Eco, co-editor (2017)
Metaphysical Graffiti: Deep Cuts in the Philosophy of Rock, author (2017)
The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam, co-editor (2015)
Time, Will and Purpose: Living Ideas from the Philosophy of Josiah Royce, author (Open Court, 2013)
The Philosophy of Arthur C. Danto, co-editor (Open Court, 2013)
The Philosophy of Richard Rorty, co-editor (Open Court, 2010)
Bruce Springsteen and Philosophy: Darkness on the Edge of Truth, co-editor, contributor (Open Court, 2008)
The Wizard of Oz and Philosophy: Wicked Wisdom of the West, co-editor, contributor (Open Court, 2008)
The Philosophy of Michael Dummett, co-editor (Open Court, 2007)
The Philosophy of Jaakko Hintikka, co-editor (Open Court, 2006)
The Philosophy of Marjorie Grene, co-editor (Open Court, 2003)
The Philosophy of Seyyed Hossein Nasr, co-editor (Open Court, 2001)
Critical Responses to the Philosophy of Josiah Royce, editor (Thoemmes Press, 2001)
Hartshorne and Brightman on God, Process, and Persons: The Correspondence, co-editor, contributor (Vanderbilt University Press, 2000)
Journals
Eidos: A Journal for Philosophy of Culture, deputy chief editor (2017–present)
SUNY Series in American Philosophical and Cultural Thought, co-editor (2016–present)
The Library of Living Philosophers, editor (2001-2013)
The Pluralist, editor (2006-2012)
The Personalist Forum, editor (1997-2006)
References
External links
Auxier's Curriculum Vita
Faculty profile
Auxier's academia.edu page
Official website of The Pluralist
Website of the Library of Living Philosophers
Open Court Library of Living Philosophers
A Dialogue on Bergson
Imagination and Historical Knowledge in Vico
The River: A Vichian Dialogue on Humanistic Education
God, Process, and Persons
Straussian Descendant? The Historicist Renewal
Susanne Langer on Symbols and Analogy
Auxier at Radically Empirical
AIPCT founding interview
AIPCT Daily Egyptian interview
Auxier interview on faculty strike
1961 births
Living people
University of Memphis alumni
Emory University alumni
Oklahoma City University faculty
Southern Illinois University faculty
People from Leitchfield, Kentucky
Candidates in the 2018 United States elections |
4303879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%20Public%20Schools%20Community%20District | Detroit Public Schools Community District | Detroit Public Schools Community District (DPSCD) is a school district that serves Detroit, Michigan and high school students in Highland Park, Michigan. The district, which replaced the original Detroit Public Schools (DPS) in 2016, provides services to approximately 50,000 students, making it the largest school district in the state. The district has its headquarters in the Fisher Building of the New Center area of Detroit.
The school district has experienced extensive financial difficulties over a series of years. From 1999 to 2005, and from 2009 to the reorganization in 2016, the district was overseen by a succession of state-appointed emergency financial managers.
History
The district was established in 1842, and has grown with the city. Some of the schools in the district began as part of other school districts, including Greenfield Township and Springwells Township districts, as the areas these districts covered were annexed to the city of Detroit.
The district operated schools serving Detroit's large immigrant population including Italians, Poles, and Jews as well as African Americans who fled the south. Everett and its principal M. M. Rose served a predominantly African American school population. Bishop School served many Jewish students as well as Africans Americans such as Cora Brown.
In 1917, the board membership was changed from ward-based to at-large elections.
In 1999, the Michigan Legislature removed the locally elected board of education amid allegations of mismanagement and replaced it with a 7-member reform board. Six board members were appointed by the mayor and one appointed by the state superintendent of public instruction. The elected board of education returned following a city referendum in 2005. The first election of the new eleven member board of education, with four chosen at-large and seven by district, occurred on November 8, 2005. At the time the district's enrollment was slowly increasing and it had a $100 million surplus .
Before the district occupied the Fisher Building, its headquarters were in the Macabees Building in Midtown Detroit. The district paid the owner of the Fisher Building $24.1 million in 2002 so the district could occupy five floors in the building. This was more than the owner of the Fisher Building paid to buy the building one year earlier. The district's emergency financial manager, Robert Bobb, said in 2009 that he was investigating how the school board agreed to the lease in the Fisher Building. Reginald Turner, who served on Detroit School Board from 2000 to 2003, said that he was told that it would be less expensive to occupy the Fisher Building than it would to remodel the Maccabees Building.
In November 2004 an election in Detroit was held since the state takeover was sunsetting. On a 66% margin the voters agreed to return to having an elected school board. The board was selected in November 2005 and began its term in January 2006. The final full year that the board was in full control was the 2007–2008 fiscal year. By that time DPS had a $200 million deficit. The district's deficit was $369.5 million by the end of the 2007–2008 fiscal year, and its long-term debt was $1.5 billion.
In January 2009 Governor of Michigan Jennifer Granholm installed Robert Bobb as the emergency manager of DPS. She used Public Act 72 to appoint an emergency manager. In May 2011, Roy Roberts was appointed DPS's emergency manager by Governor Rick Snyder. By the time Roberts was appointed the DPS deficit was $686.5 million. In September 2011, a new statewide district, Education Achievement Authority, was to take over some of Detroit's failing schools as selected by the emergency manager with up to 16 expected. The deficit was $763.7 million by the end of the 2013–2014 fiscal year, and at that time its long-term debt was $2.1 billion. On January 13, 2015, Darnell Earley was appointed as the new emergency manager for the school district by Snyder.
Highland Park Community High School of Highland Park Schools closed in 2015, and at that time DPS assumed responsibility for high school education of students in Highland Park, Michigan.
From 1999 to 2016 the State of Michigan controlled DPS for all except three years, when the elected DPS board was in control.
By January 2016 various DPS teachers made complaints about health and safety issues at DPS schools. DPS teachers were striking in various "sickouts" that resulted in schools closing. At that time DPS staff members were uploading images of poor conditions at DPS schools to Twitter, using the tag @teachDetroit.
In 2016 a hearing was scheduled for Norman Shy of Franklin, owner of Allstate Sales, a DPS vendor of school supplies. The associated court filings reflect a total of 12 DPS principals and 1 administrator allegedly conspired with Shy in a scheme to fill their own wallets by approving invoices for supplies the schools never received. The alleged corruption started in 2002 and did not end until January 2015. For over 13 years, Shy billed DPS $5 million with $2.7 million feeding the corruption ring. The principals and administrator received kickbacks of more than $900,000.
In 2016 the Michigan Legislature created the Detroit Public Schools Community District to replace the original Detroit Public Schools, which exists to repay debts. It had 45,000 students in 2017. The new district will have an elected board.
Student achievement
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP)
In 2007, Education Week published study that claimed that Detroit Public School's graduation rate was 24.9%. Groups including state and local officials said that the study failed to take into account high school students who leave the district for charter schools, other school districts or who move out of the area. Detroit Public Schools claim that in 2005–2006 the graduation rate was 68 percent and expected it to hold constant in 2006–2007. On February 14, 2009, the Detroit Free Press reported that United States Secretary of Education Arne Duncan had concern over the quality of education Detroit children were receiving. A spokesman later stated that Duncan had no specific plans for Detroit. The students in Detroit's public schools perennially score at the bottom compared to other large urban school systems.
Cass Technical High School, Renaissance High School, and Detroit School of Arts rank highly both statewide and nationally. However, at many schools some students still do not meet adequate yearly academic progress requirements. Students that fail to meet those requirements struggle in both language and mathematics.
A team of DPS students from Western International High School and Murray-Wright High School took second place out of 552 teams from 25 countries in a robotics competition in Atlanta, Georgia. DPS students, most notably Bates Academy students, did well at the 42nd annual Academic Olympics in Eatonton, Georgia, winning many honors. The Duffield elementary and middle school chess teams both finished first in the 2007 statewide competition, and performed well in the national competition. At a previous Annual National Academic Games Olympics, DPS students won 25 individual and 20 team first place awards.
Charter schools
Detroit has a public charter school system with about 54,000 Detroit students (2009–10). When charter school and Detroit Public Schools enrollments are combined, the total number of children in public schools in Detroit has increased. If growth trends continue, Detroit's charter schools enrollment will outpace the Detroit Public Schools by 2015. Officials at the Detroit Public Schools and Detroit Federation of Teachers oppose the expansion of charter schools.
The Thompson Educational Foundation financed a new University Preparatory Academy High School, and provides yearly scholarships on condition of meeting student performance goals. Follow up studies of the University Prep Academy class of 2007 shows that at least 90% went on to college, 83% of those who attended a four-year university re-enrolled for a second year, and 57% of those who attended a two-year college re-enrolled for a second year, beating national re-enrollment averages. However, these scores are below high performing DHS schools with selective enrollment such as Bates Academy, Burton International and Renaissance High School.
There have been significant calls for the Detroit Public Schools to cooperate more with charters, including renting unused schools to charters. In May 2008, the DPS board renewed contracts with six charter schools for two years. DPS leases some closed school buildings to charter school operators.
Leadership
Superintendent
In March 2007, the DPS board removed Superintendent William Coleman and replaced him with Connie Calloway. Lamont Satchel was named as Interim Superintendent. Coleman was still paid for the remainder of his contract.
Connie Calloway was removed after 18 months after accusations by the school board that she was behaving unprofessionally and exercising poor judgment. She later won a lawsuit for wrongful termination, and termination without due process in retaliation for filing a whistle-blowing lawsuit when the treasurer reported ongoing misappropriation of more than 77 million dollars per year in funds intended for the children of Detroit.
Past superintendents include Warren E. Bow, Kenneth S. Burnley, Charles Ernest Chadsey, Duane Doty, and John M. B. Sill.
Emergency financial manager
The District was under a state-appointed Emergency Manager from 2009 to 2017. The Emergency Manager has powers to make unilateral changes. All financial decisions have been made by the Emergency Manager.
From 2009 to 2011, DPS finances were managed by Robert Bobb who was appointed by former Governor Jennifer Granholm, and from 2011 to January 2015, by Roy Roberts who was appointed by Governor Rick Snyder. In January 2015, Governor Snyder appointed Darnell Earley as Roberts' successor. Earley resigned in February 2016 in the wake of criticism of his decision, when he was Emergency Manager over Flint, Michigan, to switch that city's water supply to the Flint River, resulting in the Flint water crisis.
As of March 2016, financial matters are under the control of a Transition Manager appointed by Governor Snyder, retired bankruptcy judge Steven Rhodes.
Dr. Nikolai Vitti was appointed as Superintendent of Detroit Public Schools Community District on May 23, 2017, on a five-year contract. In his first year, Dr. Vitti worked closely with the Detroit Board of Education to implement a 100-day plan that culminated with the development of a new Strategic Plan that focuses on raising student achievement, transforming the district's culture, improving staffing, developing the whole child, and ensuring financial responsibility. Before arriving in Detroit, Dr. Vitti led Duval County Public Schools (DCPS), the 20th largest school district in the nation with approximately 130,000 enrolled students in 200 schools, and a fiscal budget of $1.7 billion. During his four and a half years at DCPS, the district ranked among the first to fourth highest performing urban districts in the nation on the National Assessment for Education Progress.
Current Board of Education
Departments
Office of college & Career Readiness – 3rd Floor, Albert Kahn Building
2012 changes
Schools closing
See: List of closed public schools in Detroit
On February 9, 2012, Emergency Financial Manager Roy Roberts announced the following school closings:
1. Burton Elementary School: Students will be reassigned to the new $21.8-million Mackenzie PK-8 School building on the old Mackenzie High School site.
2. Detroit City High School: Students will be reassigned to schools with existing Second Chance programs.
3. Detroit Day School for the Deaf: Students will be reassigned to schools with hearing-impaired programs.
4. O.W. Holmes Elementary-Middle School: Students will be reassigned to the new $22.3-million Munger PK-8 School. The new facility includes a two-story student arcade that will function as a dining court, student center and school square.
5. Kettering High School & Kettering West Wing: Students at Kettering High School will be reassigned to Denby, Pershing, Southeastern or King high schools. Students enrolled at Kettering West Wing will be reassigned to schools with existing special education programs.
6. Mae C. Jemison Academy: Students will be reassigned to Gardner Elementary School or Henderson Academy.
7. Maybury Elementary School: Students will be reassigned to either Earhart Elementary-Middle School or Neinas Elementary School.
8. Parker Elementary-Middle School: Students will be reassigned to the new $21.8-million Mackenzie PreK-8 School, which will include a large open media center. The building design will focus on student safety and will be environmentally responsible.
9. Robeson Early Learning Center: Kindergarten classrooms at Robeson will be reassigned to the main Paul Robeson, Malcolm X Academy building. All pre-K programs will relocate to Palmer Park Preparatory Academy, which has a surplus Pre-K capacity.
10. Southwestern High School: Students will be reassigned to either Western International or Northwestern high schools.
Schools being replaced with new buildings
Mumford High School: The new $50.3-million Mumford High School is the largest school construction project in the district's bond program. The 239,900-square-foot high school will accommodate about 1,500 students and also will have a community health clinic.
Burton International: Is replaced by the Burton Theater which reopened as Cass City Cinema the end of 2011. The building also includes a montessori nursery, artist studios and law offices.
Schools consolidating
Crockett High School and Finney High School were consolidated into a $46.5-million, 221,000-square-foot high school being constructed at the site of Finney High School. It was named East English Village Preparatory Academy and accommodates up to 1,200 students. Students in grades 10–12 from Finney and Crockett high schools attend the new school, while 9th grade are required an entrance-admissions exam. If accepted, students must maintain a GPA of 2.5.
Farwell Elementary-Middle School and Mason Elementary School will consolidated and renamed Mason Elementary-Middle School. The current Mason Elementary School building has closed, and all students currently enrolled at Mason will be offered enrollment at the new site. New students residing in the Mason Elementary School boundary will be assigned to either the new Mason Elementary-Middle School or Nolan Elementary-Middle School.
Langston Hughes Academy and Ludington Magnet Middle School will consolidate and be named Ludington Middle School but will use the Langston Hughes Academy building.
Ethelene Crockett Academy was named after Dr. Crockett, the wife of the late Congressman George Crockett. Beloved historic leaders in Detroit, the name was changed by the first emergency manager ( actually by Governor Snyder) to Benjamin Carson Academy.
Finney High School, named after abolitionist Jared Finney, was renamed East English Village Academy by the emergency manager.
Barbara Jordan Elementary School, named after the Black congresswoman, was renamed Palmer Park Academy.
Davis Aerospace, named after Tuskegee Airman Benjamin Davis, moved in 2013.
Finances
On December 8, 2008, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Mike Flanagan determined the district's inability to manage its finances and declared a financial emergency. Michigan Governor Jennifer Granholm appointed Robert Bobb as the emergency financial manager of Detroit Public Schools in 2009. His contract dictated a one-year tenure. The school district began selling 27 previously closed school buildings. On March 3, 2009, Bobb estimated that DPS's current year deficit would be greater than $150M, and requested early payments from the state to meet payroll. He declared that additional outside auditors would be required to properly assess the district's financial situation.
Twenty million dollars of the March 2009 debt was owed to the district's pension system. The DPS school board complained in 2009 that the deficit of $65 million for 2007–2008 school year was caused by accounting irregularities, including fringe benefits and paying teachers off of the books. Much of the deficit was discovered by outside auditors hired by former district Superintendent Connie Calloway in 2008.
The 2008–2009 edition of the Michigan Department of Education's ranking of Michigan Public School financial data showed the mean Detroit Public School teacher's salary stood at $71,031, more than 14% higher than the state average of $62,237. During the same period, the Michigan cohort graduation rate was 80.1%, while Detroit Public Schools' cohort graduation rate was 67.39%, 16% lower than the state average.
Demographics
In the 1970s DPS had 270,000 students. In 2014 the 2016 projected enrollment for DPS was 40,000.
As of January 2013 about 49,900 students attend Detroit Public Schools. As of that year about 9,000 of them, over 18%, have an Individualized Education Program (IEP) plan required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of the federal government. At the same time, the state average is 12%. In 2012 about 17% had IEPs.
As of 2014 DPS had 6,092 students classified as bilingual, speaking over 30 languages. They included 4,972 Spanish speakers, 522 Bengali speakers, 258 Arabic speakers, 34 Romanian speakers, 29 Hmong speakers, and 277 students speaking other languages.
In the 2019–20 school year the racial makeup was 82% black, 14% Hispanic, 3% white and 1% Asian.
Dress code
Detroit Public Schools created a district-wide uniform dress code for students effective on May 11, 2006, for all students in grades Kindergarten through 12. This includes mandatory identification badges. Parents may opt their children out of the dress code for medical, religious, or financial reasons. Several schools, including Bates Academy and Malcolm X Academy, had uniform dress codes before the start of the district-wide policy.
Digital programs
On February 4, 2010, the Detroit Public Schools announced that it wants to digitize all its teaching and learning as part of the comprehensive plan to accelerate student achievement, within five years. Barbara Byrd-Bennett, the district's chief academic and accountability auditor, said the district is investing in high-tech tools to equip all 6th- to 12th-graders with computers and digitize all curriculum, textbooks and lessons plans district-wide. The $15 million product is part of a $40 million contract with Boston's Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, which marks the largest single deal for the book publisher.
The first step will be interactive Web-based portal called Learning Village that would be fully functioning by fall 2010. The Learning Village program will give DPS the ability to digitize its textbooks, curriculum and lesson plans. Teachers will have access to students' assessment results and prospective lesson plans to more quickly diagnosis struggling students. Parents can log into the system to track their students' progress, print additional worksheets and view cumulative test results for a teacher's entire class. The purpose of the Learning Village tool is to serve as a unified portal to connect students, teachers, parents and principals, and deliver real-time learning. DPS will also use $14.2 million in federal stimulus and Title I dollars for netbooks for all 36,000 students and 4,000 teachers in grades 6–12 for access to technology to support hands-on learning. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is setting up a Detroit-based office with at least 13 employees for technical support, training and outreach. Detroit is the company's largest client.
Schools
See also
Government of Detroit
The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System
"A National Disgrace"
References
External links
Detroit Public Schools
District boards of education in the United States
1842 establishments in Michigan
School districts established in 1842 |
4304472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%20Saga | Metal Saga | Metal Saga, known in Japan as , is a post-apocalyptic role-playing video game developed by Success and published by Atlus and Success.
Metal Saga is the fifth game in the Metal Max series and the first one to reach the United States. Like the previous games in the series, it follows an open, non-linear style of gameplay. The game received a mixed reception for its unconventional gameplay and dated graphics.
Gameplay
The game mechanics are similar to that of most role-playing video games. Players travel between points of interest on an overworld map, during which point in time they can be attacked by randomly encountered foes. Within towns, players can rest, repair vehicles, sell items, and other typical activities. The "dungeons" in the title are usually caves or abandoned buildings. Such hostile locations are relatively small, with much of their complexity being due to their maze-like nature (and the lack of an auto-mapping feature).
Combat is individually turn-based, utilizing a staggered initiative system (e.g., characters on foot are faster than those in tanks). Any canine member of the party acts on his or her own, automatically attacking foes at random. For the remaining characters, players choose among a limited number of actions. While characters do have some skills which can be used during combat, these cost money to use (rather than using a separate mana/skill point pool) and often cannot be used when within a tank. As a result, skills are not necessarily as attractive as in other such games. Although certain weapons are clearly intended to be used against certain foes, characters cannot change arms or armor during combat.
Tanks
All of the characters, with the exception of the dogs, can be placed within tanks to further improve their combat performance. While fighting from within a tank, characters use the on-board weapons instead of their hand weapons, and suffer damage to the tank, rather than to their person. This provides an additional layer of defense, in that characters can exit the tank and continue to fight if the tank becomes inoperable. When not in combat, one additional tank can be towed and used to store spare parts or used as a spare vehicle.
There are a total of 15 tanks in the game. While the game uses the term "tank" to refer to all such vehicles, several of them are not actually tanks. These include a fire truck (complete with ladder) and a bus. Nonetheless, most of the tanks are more traditional, such as a German Panzer, or two anti-aircraft tanks. While the different tank models are generally similar in practice, they each have slightly different innate characteristics.
The tanks can not only be equipped, but also customized on a very sophisticated level. Players select and purchase primary guns (referred as MAIN—limited in ammunition), secondary guns (referred as SUB or Sub Gun—unlimited ammunition) and special-purpose weaponry (referred as SE or Special Equipment—very limited in ammunition). Each item includes a weight value, with the tank's engine only able to drive a certain total amount of weight. As such, a balance must be struck, since every unit of weight not used for weaponry can be used to add additional armor tiles. Furthermore, money can be spent to modify each part of the tank, e.g., to increase the amount of ammunition which a given weapon carries (again at the cost of a further weight increase).
Vehicle parts are categorized into several different categories:
Chassis: The vehicle chassis. This is the outer casing that holds everything together. Different chassis offer different levels of protection and speed (FAVs will offer less protection but the highest speed, whereas main battle tanks will offer the highest degree of defense at a lower mobility).
Engine: The engine determines the maximum loadout for the vehicle. The lower the rating, the less tonnage that the engine can handle. Engines do not affect the mobility of the vehicle.
C Unit: The computer unit enables vehicles to be handled by a single crew member. Without it, the vehicle cannot function, as it combines various aspects of vehicle controls, such as weapons systems, so that a single crew can operate the vehicle. It is mentioned by one of the NPCs in the game that a vehicle can be operated without a C Unit although that would require three people to operate the vehicle. C Units also provide additional defenses for the vehicle, which is combined with the defensive rating of the chassis to form the total amount of defense rating of the vehicle.
Accessories: Accessories are optional components for vehicles that are not required for the vehicles to operate. They range from Teleporters, which allow the players to travel between towns and get them out of hostile area (such as tunnels and dungeons crawling with enemies) to decorative decals to special add-ons which, when combined with special ability of the player, can damage the enemy (for example, dozer blades).
Weapons: Although vehicles can function without any weapons mounted, the vehicles will not be able to attack the enemy effectively, if at all. Many of the weapons have distinct capabilities. For example, anti-tank main guns offer the most balanced attributes in terms of firepower, range and accuracy, while anti-aircraft main guns allow for very accurate and reliable engagement of low-altitude airborne opponents. Others include MLRS mounts that can reach out and hit enemies that are out of range for other weapons, CIWS for devastating counter against enemies that are flying at high-altitude, huge rockets that can damage enemies even through the toughest defenses, beam weapons for hitting cloaked enemies, and other various weapons that allow for the vehicles to become tremendous force-multipliers to the player.
Armor tiles: Armor tiles are the first line of protective layer for the vehicle. Armor tiles will absorb a limited amount of damage before being worn out and prevent other internal components mentioned above from being damaged by enemy attacks. Although effective against most attacks, it will not protect the components against specialized attacks that are designed to either bypass or penetrate the armor, such as enemy armor-piercing warheads or intense freezing temperature. Armor tiles can be replenished on the field by using armor tile kits, or in repair shops.
Some vehicles can mount special designated weapons while others cannot; for example, Flakpanzers Wirbelwind and Gepard can mount anti-aircraft main guns, but cannot mount anti-tank main guns, while main battle tanks and other AFVs can mount anti-tank main guns while being unable to mount anti-air main guns.
Tanks can also be equipped with teleportation devices, which allow the entire party to instantly exit an indoor area or travel to a previously visited town.
The list of the vehicles that can be "owned" by the player is as follows:
Buggy (Dune buggy)
Demag (Sd.Kfz. 250)
Mosquito (Wiesel 1)
Gepard (Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer Gepard)
Wild Bus (armored passenger bus)
Panzer (Sturmgeschütz IV)
Barbarossa (Panzerkampfwagen IV Ausf. H)
Tiger (Panzerkampfwagen V Ausf. E Tiger I)
Wirbelwind (Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer IV Wirbelwind)
Rodina (T-34/76)
Abrams (M1 Abrams)
Leopold (Leopard 2A5/6)
Type Zero (Type 90)
Lulubel (M3 Lee)
Rommel (Jagdpanther)
Fire Truck (Fire Truck)
S Tank (Stridsvagn 103)
Merkava (Merkava Mk. IV)
Maus (Panzerkampfwagen VIII Maus)
Furthermore, there are other vehicles of same designs but fixed specifications that can be "rented" from various rental shops inside the towns.
A miscellaneous vehicle includes the Cargo Ship which lets players roam across the huge lake in middle of the map.
Plot
Setting
The title takes place in a post-apocalyptic world, though presenting a less serious take on the genre, compared to the harsher representations seen in role-playing games such as Final Fantasy VI or Fallout, or movies such as Mad Max or Nausicaa. The environment of Metal Saga seems to be relatively unscathed, with a generally healthy ecosystem and no apparent areas of radioactive contamination, perhaps since the apocalypse (referred to as the Great Destruction) happened in the first place in an attempt to destroy humanity to actually save the planet. Rather than focusing extensively on mutants and ruffians, many of the enemies encountered are merely machines gone haywire. As a result, scavenging such machines and using scavenged parts to build equipment appear to be common activities.
Additionally, the game includes a good dose of militaristic qualities, with most of the game's battles being fought from within tanks, or other tank-like armored vehicles. In essence, the game has very little storyline and mostly non-linear gameplay. Like its predecessors, one may choose to take on whichever informal quests one wants, or none at all, but cannot choose to slaughter the entire population of a town on a whim. The title features more than half a dozen possible endings, several of which can be obtained less than an hour into the game. One ending can even be obtained minutes into the game, making it the shortest possible RPG.
Characters
Players can organize a team of up to four characters: the main hero (the "Hunter"), a Mechanic, a Soldier and a mechanized dog. Players are free to choose their own party from the available characters and to switch between them during the game. There are two mechanics in the game, three fighters (one of these is hidden, and can only join during the later parts of the game) and four dogs. Most of the characters in the game have some unique dialogue and further story development during certain side quests.
During the game, players frequently have the option to purchase home furnishings and gifts which can be sent to both playable and non-playable (female) characters. These generally have no effect on gameplay.
Here is the list of the playable characters:
Syu (his name is not mentioned in the English version): The Hunter of the group, and also the main character.
Misha (called Mika in the Japanese version): One of the Mechanics in the game. Can repair vehicles. She is Kiriya's little sister, although not blood-related.
Kiriya: The second Mechanic in the game. Can repair vehicles. He is Misha/Mika's big brother, although not blood-related. Kiriya's real father is the Disassembler, one of the bounties you fight during the game. If the player defeats him with Kiriya in party, a chain of events will occur, with Kiriya finding a picture of him as a young boy with the Disassembler, Kiriya leaving the party and going back to his home, and rejoining the party upon visiting him in his room.
Charlene (called Shirley in the Japanese version): One of the Soldiers in the game. Specializes in firearms and can wield guns that other characters cannot use.
Rashid: The second Soldier in the game. Specializes in melee weapons and can wield swords and other cutting weapons that other characters cannot use.
Alpha: The third and hidden Soldier in the game. She is a cyborg. Cannot wield any weapons, but can use its internal weapons system to devastate almost any opponents encountered. If she dies in battle a certain number of times, she can be brought to Dr. Palm to be manufactured into a very powerful tank part.
Furthermore, there are four different breeds of dogs, each with their unique combat and non-combat abilities, such as beam weaponry and medical kits. The breeds are Shiba Inu, (nicknamed as Shiba) St. Bernard, (nicknamed as Bernie) Boston Terrier (nicknamed as Terry) and Tosa.
Synopsis
While the game is mostly non-linear with multiple endings, the primary plot arc is revealed by travelling from the east side of the map to the west, culminating near the final fortress-city of Hell's Keep located in the western desert. During the journey, the protagonist, a newly-starting hunter (default name "Syu", though only mentioned in the Japanese version), encounters a legendary Hunter "Scarlett", who assists him with one of his early bounties and introduces him to bounty hunting. He also meets Rosa Beldaire, a wealthy heiress who collects tanks and becomes Syu's rival, and a mysterious man named Alex who, along with his cohorts Bonnie and Clyde, appear to be searching for something among several ruins in the world.
After reaching the frontier town of Alice One in the central region of the map, Syu's father Eddy, a famous bounty hunter, puts Syu in contact with Leon, a researcher who has discovered evidence of a pre-Great Destruction facility codenamed, "Ziggurat". Visiting Leon's office later results in Syu finding Scarlett searching Leon's room for information, but she accidentally injures Syu's arm in the encounter, requiring him to receive a cybernetic replacement. After the player visits a certain number of cities, Leon is attacked by Bonnie and Clyde, who ransack his house; he informs Syu that they took his information on Ziggurat, and gives Syu the facility's location near the city of Hell's Keep, in the world's western desert.
Syu travels to Ziggurat, revealing it to be a massive missile silo containing an intact ICBM from before the Great Destruction. Eddy, who arrived prior, reveals that Alex is attempting to re-activate the facility and launch the missile, but he has been injured fighting the tower's defenses, and tasks Syu with finishing the job. Fighting past Bonnie, Clyde, and the defenses, Syu encounters Alex, who reveals he is actually an android built by "Noah", the supercomputer which caused the original Great Destruction in an attempt to destroy humanity to prevent an ecological disaster. Alex explains that, after Noah's defeat, he was given the directive to finish what Noah had started, and that he intends to launch the intact ICBM and start a nuclear holocaust; Syu defeats Alex and destroys the missile as it is launching. Afterwards, Syu, his team, and Eddy return home to recover, where Syu may choose whether to continue bounty hunting, or retire, though afterwards he may elect to continue their adventures.
Development
Since the first game was published in 1991 by Data East, the series was famous for having a "high degree of freedom". However, in 2003, Data East became bankrupt, and the trademark "Metal Max" was registered by Shinjuku Express, so this entry of the series had to use a new trademark — "Metal Saga". The series' producer, Hiroshi Miyaoka was not involved in the development from the beginning and said: "I can't make anymore with Metal Max, I thought it was really dying".
The game was published in June 2005 in Japan; and in March 2006, a "Best" version of the game was published and was cheaper than the original. The game received a Lite/Demo version that was published in North America in April 2006.
Reception
Although the game's sense of humor, music and solid hours of gameplay won it some positive marks, the overall impression of the title was decidedly mediocre. Reviewers scoffed at the dated graphics, lack of plot, and missing feeling of progression. As a result, a considerable amount of time was often spent by reviewers and gamers alike simply wandering around, trying to figure out what to do next. While the game had all the classic trappings for the genre, complete with its own quirky style, it seemed to lack the polish required to stand-out. GameSpot noted that "Metal Saga has the makings of a good role-playing game, but there's nothing to tie it all together".
In Japan, Metal Saga received a respectable 30 out of 40 from Famitsu magazine. Media Create reported that it was the top selling game in Japan during its week of release at 63,219 copies. By the end of 2005, the Japanese version of the game had sold 99,374 copies in the region.
Sequels
There are four sequels of Metal Saga, none of them released in western world. The first sequel Metal Saga: Season of Steel was released in 2006 for the Nintendo DS and follows the story of the first Metal Max. The second sequel is a cellphone game and released in 2007. The third sequel, Metal Saga New Frontier, was an online browser game released in 2010. The fourth sequel is Metal Saga: The Ark of Wastes.
References
External links
Official Atlus Metal Saga website
Japanese official website
Metal Saga at IGN
Metal Saga at RPGamer
Role-playing video games
Atlus games
Metal Max
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Success (company) games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Satoshi Kadokura
2005 video games
Single-player video games |
4304658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinal%20gradients%20in%20species%20diversity | Latitudinal gradients in species diversity | Species richness, or biodiversity, increases from the poles to the tropics for a wide variety of terrestrial and marine organisms, often referred to as the latitudinal diversity gradient. The latitudinal diversity gradient is one of the most widely recognized patterns in ecology. It has been observed to varying degrees in Earth's past. A parallel trend has been found with elevation (elevational diversity gradient), though this is less well-studied.
Explaining the latitudinal diversity gradient has been called one of the great contemporary challenges of biogeography and macroecology (Willig et al. 2003, Pimm and Brown 2004, Cardillo et al. 2005). The question "What determines patterns of species diversity?" was among the 25 key research themes for the future identified in 125th Anniversary issue of Science (July 2005). There is a lack of consensus among ecologists about the mechanisms underlying the pattern, and many hypotheses have been proposed and debated. A recent review noted that among the many conundrums associated with the latitudinal diversity gradient (or latitudinal biodiversity gradient) the causal relationship between rates of molecular evolution and speciation has yet to be demonstrated.
Understanding the global distribution of biodiversity is one of the most significant objectives for ecologists and biogeographers. Beyond purely scientific goals and satisfying curiosity, this understanding is essential for applied issues of major concern to humankind, such as the spread of invasive species, the control of diseases and their vectors, and the likely effects of global climate change on the maintenance of biodiversity (Gaston 2000). Tropical areas play prominent roles in the understanding of the distribution of biodiversity, as their rates of habitat degradation and biodiversity loss are exceptionally high.
Patterns in the past
The latitudinal diversity gradient is a noticeable pattern among modern organisms that has been described qualitatively and quantitatively. It has been studied at various taxonomic levels, through different time periods and across many geographic regions (Crame 2001). The latitudinal diversity gradient has been observed to varying degrees in Earth's past, possibly due to differences in climate during various phases of Earth's history. Some studies indicate that the gradient was strong, particularly among marine taxa, while other studies of terrestrial taxa indicate it had little effect on the distribution of animals.
Hypotheses for pattern
Although many of the hypotheses exploring the latitudinal diversity gradient are closely related and interdependent, most of the major hypotheses can be split into three general hypotheses.
Spatial/Area hypotheses
There are five major hypotheses that depend solely on the spatial and areal characteristics of the tropics.
Mid-domain effect
Using computer simulations, Colwell and Hurt (1994) and Willing and Lyons (1998) first pointed out that if species’ latitudinal ranges were randomly shuffled within the geometric constraints of a bounded biogeographical domain (e.g. the continents of the New World, for terrestrial species), species' ranges would tend to overlap more toward the center of the domain than towards its limits, forcing a mid-domain peak in species richness. Colwell and Lees (2000) called this stochastic phenomenon the mid-domain effect (MDE), presented several alternative analytical formulations for one-dimensional MDE (expanded by Connolly 2005), and suggested the hypothesis that MDE might contribute to the latitudinal gradient in species richness, together with other explanatory factors considered here, including climatic and historical ones. Because "pure" mid-domain models attempt to exclude any direct environmental or evolutionary influences on species richness, they have been claimed to be null models (Colwell et al. 2004, 2005). On this view, if latitudinal gradients of species richness were determined solely by MDE, observed richness patterns at the biogeographic level would not be distinguishable from patterns produced by random placement of observed ranges called dinosures(Colwell and Lees 2000). Others object that MDE models so far fail to exclude the role of the environment at the population level and in setting domain boundaries, and therefore cannot be considered null models (Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002; Hawkins et al. 2005; Zapata et al. 2003, 2005). Mid-domain effects have proven controversial (e.g. Jetz and Rahbek 2001, Koleff and Gaston 2001, Lees and Colwell, 2007, Romdal et al. 2005, Rahbek et al. 2007, Storch et al. 2006; Bokma and Monkkonen 2001, Diniz-Filho et al. 2002, Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002, Kerr et al. 2006, Currie and Kerr, 2007). While some studies have found evidence of a potential role for MDE in latitudinal gradients of species richness, particularly for wide-ranging species (e.g. Jetz and Rahbek 2001, Koleff and Gaston 2001, Lees and Colwell, 2007, Romdal et al. 2005, Rahbek et al. 2007, Storch et al. 2006; Dunn et al. 2007) others report little correspondence between predicted and observed latitudinal diversity patterns (Bokma and Monkkonen 2001, Currie and Kerr, 2007, Diniz-Filho et al. 2002, Hawkins and Diniz-Filho 2002, Kerr et al. 2006).
Geographical area hypothesis
Another spatial hypothesis is the geographical area hypothesis (Terborgh 1973). It asserts that the tropics are the largest biome and that large tropical areas can support more species. More area in the tropics allows species to have larger ranges and consequently larger population sizes. Thus, species with larger ranges are likely to have lower extinction rates (Rosenzweig 2003). Additionally, species with larger ranges may be more likely to undergo allopatric speciation, which would increase rates of speciation (Rosenzweig 2003). The combination of lower extinction rates and high rates of speciation leads to the high levels of species richness in the tropics.
A critique of the geographical area hypothesis is that even if the tropics is the most extensive of the biomes, successive biomes north of the tropics all have about the same area. Thus, if the geographical area hypothesis is correct these regions should all have approximately the same species richness, which is not true, as is referenced by the fact that polar regions contain fewer species than temperate regions (Gaston and Blackburn 2000). To explain this, Rosenzweig (1992) suggested that if species with partly tropical distributions were excluded, the richness gradient north of the tropics should disappear. Blackburn and Gaston 1997 tested the effect of removing tropical species on latitudinal patterns in avian species richness in the New World and found there is indeed a relationship between the land area and the species richness of a biome once predominantly tropical species are excluded. Perhaps a more serious flaw in this hypothesis is some biogeographers suggest that the terrestrial tropics are not, in fact, the largest biome, and thus this hypothesis is not a valid explanation for the latitudinal species diversity gradient (Rohde 1997, Hawkins and Porter 2001). In any event, it would be difficult to defend the tropics as a "biome" rather than the geographically diverse and disjunct regions that they truly include.
The effect of area on biodiversity patterns has been shown to be scale-dependent, having the strongest effect among species with small geographical ranges compared to those species with large ranges who are affected more so by other factors such as the mid-domain and/or temperature.
Species-energy hypothesis
The species energy hypothesis suggests the amount of available energy sets limits to the richness of the system. Thus, increased solar energy (with an abundance of water) at low latitudes causes increased net primary productivity (or photosynthesis). This hypothesis proposes the higher the net primary productivity the more individuals can be supported, and the more species there will be in an area. Put another way, this hypothesis suggests that extinction rates are reduced towards the equator as a result of the higher populations sustainable by the greater amount of available energy in the tropics. Lower extinction rates lead to more species in the tropics.
One critique of this hypothesis has been that increased species richness over broad spatial scales is not necessarily linked to an increased number of individuals, which in turn is not necessarily related to increased productivity. Additionally, the observed changes in the number of individuals in an area with latitude or productivity are either too small (or in the wrong direction) to account for the observed changes in species richness. The potential mechanisms underlying the species-energy hypothesis, their unique predictions and empirical support have been assessed in a major review by Currie et al. (2004).
The effect of energy has been supported by several studies in terrestrial and marine taxa.
Climate harshness hypothesis
Another climate-related hypothesis is the climate harshness hypothesis, which states the latitudinal diversity gradient may exist simply because fewer species can physiologically tolerate conditions at higher latitudes than at low latitudes because higher latitudes are often colder and drier than tropical latitudes. Currie et al. (2004) found fault with this hypothesis by stating that, although it is clear that climatic tolerance can limit species distributions, it appears that species are often absent from areas whose climate they can tolerate.
Climate stability hypothesis
Similarly to the climate harshness hypothesis, climate stability is suggested to be the reason for the latitudinal diversity gradient. The mechanism for this hypothesis is that while a fluctuating environment may increase the extinction rate or preclude specialization, a constant environment can allow species to specialize on predictable resources, allowing them to have narrower niches and facilitating speciation. The fact that temperate regions are more variable both seasonally and over geological timescales (discussed in more detail below) suggests that temperate regions are thus expected to have less species diversity than the tropics.
Critiques for this hypothesis include the fact that there are many exceptions to the assumption that climate stability means higher species diversity. For example, low species diversity is known to occur often in stable environments such as tropical mountaintops. Additionally, many habitats with high species diversity do experience seasonal climates, including many tropical regions that have highly seasonal rainfall (Brown and Lomolino 1998).
Historical/Evolutionary hypotheses
There are four main hypotheses that are related to historical and evolutionary explanations for the increase of species diversity towards the equator.
The historical perturbation hypothesis
The historical perturbation hypothesis proposes the low species richness of higher latitudes is a consequence of an insufficient time period available for species to colonize or recolonize areas because of historical perturbations such as glaciation (Brown and Lomolino 1998, Gaston and Blackburn 2000). This hypothesis suggests that diversity in the temperate regions has not yet reached equilibrium and that the number of species in temperate areas will continue to increase until saturated (Clarke and Crame 2003). However, in the marine environment, where there is also a latitudinal diversity gradient, there is no evidence of a latitudinal gradient in perturbation.
The evolutionary speed hypothesis
The evolutionary speed hypothesis argues higher evolutionary rates due to shorter generation times in the tropics have caused higher speciation rates and thus increased diversity at low latitudes. Higher evolutionary rates in the tropics have been attributed to higher ambient temperatures, higher mutation rates, shorter generation time and/or faster physiological processes, and increased selection pressure from other species that are themselves evolving. Faster rates of microevolution in warm climates (i.e. low latitudes and altitudes) have been shown for plants, mammals, birds, fish and amphibians. Bumblebee species inhabiting lower, warmer elevations have faster rates of both nuclear and mitochondrial genome-wide evolution. Based on the expectation that faster rates of microevolution result in faster rates of speciation, these results suggest that faster evolutionary rates in warm climates almost certainly have a strong influence on the latitudinal diversity gradient. However, recent evidence from marine fish and flowering plants have shown that rates of speciation actually decrease from the poles towards the equator at a global scale. Understanding whether extinction rate varies with latitude will also be important to whether or not this hypothesis is supported.
The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time
The hypothesis of effective evolutionary time assumes that diversity is determined by the evolutionary time under which ecosystems have existed under relatively unchanged conditions, and by evolutionary speed directly determined by effects of environmental energy (temperature) on mutation rates, generation times, and speed of selection. It differs from most other hypotheses in not postulating an upper limit to species richness set by various abiotic and biotic factors, i.e., it is a nonequilibrium hypothesis assuming a largely non-saturated niche space. It does accept that many other factors may play a role in causing latitudinal gradients in species richness as well. The hypothesis is supported by much recent evidence, in particular, the studies of Allen et al. and Wright et al.
The integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis
The integrated evolutionary speed hypothesis argues that species diversity increases due to faster rates of genetic evolution and speciation at lower latitudes where ecosystem productivity is generally greater. It differs from the effective evolutionary time hypothesis by recognizing that species richness generally increases with increasing ecosystem productivity and declines where high environmental energy (temperature) causes water deficits. It also proposes that evolutionary rate increases with population size, abiotic environmental heterogeneity, environmental change and via positive feedback with biotic heterogeneity. There is considerable support for faster rates of genetic evolution in warmer environments, some support for a slower rate among plant species where water availability is limited and for a slower rate among bird species with small population sizes. Many aspects of the hypothesis, however, remain untested.
Biotic hypotheses
Biotic hypotheses claim ecological species interactions such as competition, predation, mutualism, and parasitism are stronger in the tropics and these interactions promote species coexistence and specialization of species, leading to greater speciation in the tropics. These hypotheses are problematic because they cannot be the ultimate cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient as they fail to explain why species interactions might be stronger in the tropics.
An example of one such hypothesis is the greater intensity of predation and more specialized predators in the tropics has contributed to the increase of diversity in the tropics (Pianka 1966). This intense predation could reduce the importance of competition (see competitive exclusion) and permit greater niche overlap and promote higher richness of prey. Some recent large-scale experiments suggest predation may indeed be more intense in the tropics, although this cannot be the ultimate cause of high tropical diversity because it fails to explain what gives rise to the richness of the predators in the tropics. Interestingly, the largest test of whether biotic interactions are strongest in the tropics, which focused on predation exerted by large fish predators in the world's open oceans, found predation to peak at mid-latitudes. Moreover, this test further revealed a negative association of predation intensity and species richness, thus contrasting the idea that strong predation near the equator drives or maintains high diversity. Other studies have failed to observe consistent changes in ecological interactions with latitude altogether (Lambers et al. 2002), suggesting that the intensity of species interactions is not correlated with the change in species richness with latitude. Overall, these results highlight the need for more studies on the importance of species interactions in driving global patterns of diversity.
Synthesis and conclusions
There are many other hypotheses related to the latitudinal diversity gradient, but the above hypotheses are a good overview of the major ones still cited today. It is important to note that many of these hypotheses are similar to and dependent on one another. For example, the evolutionary hypotheses are closely dependent on the historical climate characteristics of the tropics.
The generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient
An extensive meta-analysis of nearly 600 latitudinal gradients from published literature tested the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient across different organismal, habitat and regional characteristics. The results showed that the latitudinal gradient occurs in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems, in both hemispheres. The gradient is steeper and more pronounced in richer taxa (i.e. taxa with more species), larger organisms, in marine and terrestrial versus freshwater ecosystems, and at regional versus local scales. The gradient steepness (the amount of change in species richness with latitude) is not influenced by dispersal, animal physiology (homeothermic or ectothermic) trophic level, hemisphere, or the latitudinal range of study. The study could not directly falsify or support any of the above hypotheses, however, results do suggest a combination of energy/climate and area processes likely contribute to the latitudinal species gradient. Notable exceptions to the trend include the ichneumonidae, shorebirds, penguins, and freshwater zooplankton. Also, in terrestrial ecosystems the soil bacterial diversity peaks in temperate climatic zones, and has been linked to carbon inputs and the microscale distribution of aqueous habitats.
Data robustness
One of the main assumptions about latitudinal diversity gradients and patterns in species richness is that the underlying data (i.e., the lists of species at specific locations) are complete. However, this assumption is not met in most cases. For instance, diversity patterns for blood parasites of birds suggest higher diversity in tropical regions, however, the data may be skewed by undersampling in rich faunal areas such as Southeast Asia and South America. For marine fishes, which are among the most studied taxonomic groups, current lists of species are considerably incomplete for most of the world's oceans. At a 3° (about 350 km2) spatial resolution, less than 1.8% of the world's oceans have above 80% of their fish fauna currently described.
Conclusion
The fundamental macroecological question that the latitudinal diversity gradient depends on is "What causes patterns in species richness?". Species richness ultimately depends on whatever proximate factors are found to affect processes of speciation, extinction, immigration, and emigration. While some ecologists continue to search for the ultimate primary mechanism that causes the latitudinal richness gradient, many ecologists suggest instead this ecological pattern is likely to be generated by several contributory mechanisms (Gaston and Blackburn 2000, Willig et al. 2003, Rahbek et al. 2007). For now, the debate over the cause of the latitudinal diversity gradient will continue until a groundbreaking study provides conclusive evidence, or there is general consensus that multiple factors contribute to the pattern.
See also
Asynchrony of Seasons Hypothesis
Biodiversity
Biomass (ecology)
Biomes
Effective evolutionary time
Evolution
Extinction
Latitude
Primary production
Speciation
Species richness
Tropics
Lists of organisms by population
References
References
Bibliography
Brown, J. H., and M. V. Lomolino. 1998. Biogeography. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland.
Clarke, A., and J. A. Crame. 2003. The importance of historical processes in global patterns of diversity. Pages 130-151 in T. M. Blackburn and K. J. Gaston, editors. Macroecology Concepts and Consequences. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
Gaston, K. J., and T. M. Blackburn. 2000. Pattern and processes in macroecology. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
Rosenzweig, M. L. 2003. How to reject the area hypothesis of latitudinal gradients. Pages 87–106 in T. M. Blackburn and K. J. Gaston, editors. Macroecology: Concepts and Consequences. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Biodiversity
Ecology |
4304957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20architecture%20schools | List of architecture schools | This is a list of architecture schools at colleges and universities around the world.
An architecture school (also known as a school of architecture or college of architecture), is a professional school or institution specializing in architectural education.
Africa
Algeria
Département d'architecture de l'université Benyoucef Benkhedda Algiers
Département d'architecture de l'université Amar Telidji de Laghouat
Département d'Architecture de l'université L'arbi Ben Mhidi Oum El Bouaghi
Département d'architecture de l'université Med Khieder de Biskra
Département d'Architecture de Sétif
Département d'architecture du centre universitaire L'Arbi Tbessi de Tébessa
École Polytechnique d'Architecture et d'Urbanisme (EPAU) d'Alger
Institut d'architecture de Batna
Institut d'architecture et d'urbanisme de l'université Saad Dahleb Blida
Institut d'architecture de Mostaganem
Institut d'architecture de Tizi-Ouzou
Institut d'architecture de Tlemcen (Université d'Abou Bakr Belkaid, faculté des sciences de l'ingénieur), Tlemcen
Institut d'Architecture et d'Urbanisme (IAUC) de Constantine
Cameroon
École Supérieure Speciale d'Architecture du Cameroun (ESSACA) Yaoundé
Université de Douala, Institut des Beaux-Arts.
Université de Dschang, Institut des Beaux-Arts de Foumban.
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Institut Supérieure d'Architecture Et d'Urbanisme (I.S.A.U), Gombe, Kinshasa
Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism of the Université Catholique de Bukavu (UCB), Bukavu, South Kivu
Université Panafricaine du Congo (U.PA.C), Mongafula, Kinshasa
Académie des Beaux Arts (A.B.A), Gombe, Kinshasa
Universite Kongo (U.K), Mbanza-ngungu, Kongo Central
Universite Nouveaux Horizons (U.N.H), Lubumbashi, Haut-Katanga
Université de Notre-Dame du Kasai (U.KA), Kananga, Kasaï-Central
Institut national des bâtiments et travaux publics (INBTP) de Ngaliema, Kinshasa
Ghana
Department of architecture, Faculty of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah Un of Science and Technology, Kumasi
Department of architecture of the Faculty of Art and built engineering,university of Ghana, Accra
Egypt
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Al Azhar University, Cairo and Qena
Department of Architecture in the German University (GUC), Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering (HTI), 10th of Ramadan City
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Abbaseya, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport, Cairo and Alexandria
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Ismailia
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Assiut University, Assiut
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Behira Higher Institute, BHI, Kilo 47 Alexandria, Cairo Desert Road
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Benha University, Shoubra
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo Higher Institute, CHI, New Cairo, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, El Shorouk Academy, Cairo, El Shorouk
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University, Mattareya, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Higher Technological Institute (HTI), 10th of Ramadan City
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University, Menoufia
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Misr International University, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Misr University for Science and Technology (MUST), 6 October City
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology, Maadi
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, MSA University, 6 October City, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Pharos University in Alexandria, Alexandria
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Fine Arts, Alexandria University, Alexandria
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Fine Arts, Helwan University, Zamalek, Cairo
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Fine Arts, Minia University, Minia
Department of Architecture, School of Engineering, Université Française d'Égypte, Cairo
Department of Architecture, School of Engineering, Future University in Egypt, FUE, Cairo
Department of Construction and Architectural Engineering American University in Cairo, (AUC), Kattameya, Helwan
Department of Architecture of the Faculty of Engineering, British University in Egypt, Sherouq
Kenya
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, School of Architecture and Building Sciences, Department of Architecture
Technical University of Kenya, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Architecture and Environmental Design
Technical University of Mombasa, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Department of Building and Civil Engineering
University of Nairobi, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Design
Libya
Benghazi University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Benghazi
Omar Al-Mukhtar University, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Architecture and Planning, Derna, Al Fatah branch, Derna
University of Tripoli, School of Applied Sciences, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Tripoli
Mauritius
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Nantes Mauritius (ENSA Nantes Mauritius), UNICITI, Quatre Bornes
Ucsi University /Jr School Port Louis
Morocco
Ecole d'Architecture de Casablanca, Casablanca
Ecole Nationale d'Architecture, Rabat
Ecole Supérieure de Design e des Arts Visuels Casablanca, Casablanca
Ecole Nationale d'Architecture de Fès, Fez
Nigeria
Universities
Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State
Abubakar Tafawa Ballewa University, Bauchi State
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State
Anambra State University of Science and Technology, Anambra State
Bells University of Technology, Ota, Ogun State
Crescent University, Abeokuta, Ogun State
Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State
Cross River University of Technology, Cross River State
Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu State
Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Beneu State
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State
Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State
Federal University of Technology Yola, Adamawa State
Imo State University, Imo State
Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ipo Arakeji and Ikejì-arakeji, Osun State
Kano University of Science and Technology, Kano State
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomosho, Oyo State
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife Osun State
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-iwoye, Ogun State
Oluwatomisin Olamide Adeshiyan University, Lekki, Lagos State
River State University of Science and Technology, Npkolu, River State
University of Benin, Benin, Edo State
University of Jos, Jos, Plateau State
University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State
University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State
Polytechnics
Abia State Polytechnic, Aba, Abia State
Crown Polytechnic, Odo, Ekiti State
Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State
Federal Polytechnic Bida, Niger State
Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, Ogun State
Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo State
Federal Polytechnic Oko, Anambra State
Kogi State Polytechnic, Kogi State
Kwara State polytechnic, Ilorin, Kwara State
Osun State Polytechnic, Iree, Osun State
Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos State
Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Ogun State
The Oke-Ogun Polytechnic, Saki, Oyo State
The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Oyo State
Yaba College of Technology, Lagos State, Nigeria
Institute
Ogun State Institute of Technology (formerly, Gateway Polytechnic) Igbesa, Ogun State
South Africa
Sudan
Faculty of Architecture, College of Engineering, University of Khartoum, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, Autocratic University, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, National Ribat University, Khartoum
College of Engineering Sciences, Department of Architecture and Planning, Omdurman Islamic University
Faculty of Architecture, Future University Khartoum, Khartoum
Department of Architecture, University of Science and Technology, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, National University, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, University of Medical Sciences and Technology, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, AlMughtaribeen University, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Engineering, The University of Bahri, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, Department of Engineering, Sudan International University, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, University of Garden City, Khartoum
Faculty of Architecture, Sharg El Neil College, Khartoum
Tanzania
Ardhi University
University of Dar es Salaam
Mbeya University Of Science and Technology
Togo
Ecole Africaine des Métiers d'Architecture et d'Urbanisme (EAMAU) à Lomé
Tunisia|Tunisie
, Department of Architecture
Uganda
College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, Makerere University, Kampala
Faculty of the Built Environment, Uganda Martyrs University, Nkozi
Faculty of lands and architecture, Kyambogo University
Zimbabwe
Faculty of the Built Environment, National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo
Asia
Bangladesh
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University Department of Architecture, Gopalganj
Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Dhaka
Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture & Planning, Chittagong
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science & Technology University Department of Architecture, Dinajpur
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture & Planning Khulna
Khulna University, Discipline of Architecture, School of Science, Engineering & Technology, Khulna
Military Institute of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Pabna University of Science & Technology, Department of Architecture, Pabna
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Rajshahi
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture, School of Applied Sciences & Technology, Sylhet
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
American International University Bangladesh, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Bangladesh University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Brac University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Daffodil International University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Leading University, Department of Architecture, Sylhet
North South University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Premier University, Chittagong, Department of Architecture, Chittagong
Primeasia University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Shanto-Mariam University of Creative Technology, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Sonargaon University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Southeast University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
Stamford University, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
State University of Bangladesh, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
University of Asia Pacific, Department of Architecture, Dhaka
China
Chongqing University, Architecture and Construction College, Shapingba, Chongqing
Fuzhou University, College of Architecture, Fuzhou
Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT) School of Architecture, Harbin, Heilongjiang
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Wuhan
South China University of Technology (SCUT), School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Guangzhou
Southeast University (SEU), School of Architecture, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province
Suzhou University of Science and Technology, School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Suzhou, Jiangsu
Tianjin University (TJU), School of Architecture, Tianjin
Tongji University, College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Shanghai
Tsinghua University (THU), School of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Beijing
Xi'an Jiaotong Liverpool University (XJTLU), Department of Architecture (XLarch), Suzhou, Jiangsu
Xi'an Jiaotong University, Department of Architecture, Xi'an
Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, School of Architecture, Xi'an
Zhejiang University, College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province
Zhengzhou University, School of Architecture, Zhengzhou
Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Hangzhou
Inner Mongolia University Of Technology, School of Architecture, Hohhot
Hong Kong
These are the only three universities offering accredited Master of Architecture for architect professional registration.
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, School of Architecture, Hong Kong, founded in 1992
The University of Hong Kong, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Hong Kong, founded in 1950
Chu Hai College of Higher Education, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Department of Architecture, Hong Kong, founded in 1949
India
School of Planning and Architecture, Delhi
VIT School of Architecture (V-SPARC), Vellore offers Master of Architecture Programme
National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan
National Institute of Technology Trichy, Tamil Nadu
Chandigarh College of Architecture, Chandigarh
Bharati Vidyapeeth, Pune
Department of architecture, Central university of Rajasthan, Ajmer
Department of Planning & Architecture, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur
Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala
Department of Architecture, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal
Faculty of Architecture, PES University, Bangalore
Noble Architecture College, Junagadh (Gujarat)
Ernad Knowledge City College of Architecture, Malappuram (Kerala)
East West School of Architecture, Bangalore
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur
Academy of Architecture, Mumbai
Academy of Architecture, Rachana Sansad, Mumbai
Aditya College of Architecture, Mumbai
Allana College of Architecture, Pune
Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Lucknow
Asian school of architecture and design innovations, Kochi
Axis institute of architecture, kanpur
Anna University School of Architecture and Planning, Chennai
APEEJAY School of Architecture and Planning, Greater Noida
B. V. Bhoomaraddi College of Engineering and Technology, Hubli, Karnataka, Dept of Architecture
Balwant Sheth School of Architecture, NMIMS University, Mumbai
BGS School of Architecture and Planning, Bangalore
Bharath Architecture Department, Selaiyur, Chennai
BKPS College of Architecture, BKPS, Pune, Maharashtra
C.A.R.E. School of Architecture, Tiruchirapalli
College of Architecture, Trivandrum (CAT)
College of Engineering & Technology, Bhubaneswar, Orissa
CSIIT School of Planning and Architecture, Secunderabad
Cumins College, Pune
D.C. Patel School of Architecture, Arvindbhai Patel Institute of Environmental Design, Sardar Patel University, Anand
Dark School of Architecture
Dayanand Sagar Institutes, School of Architecture, Bangalore (Chiranjith)
Dehradun Institute of Technology, Dehradun, Uttrakhand
Department of Architecture, Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur, West Bengal
Department of Architecture, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand
Department of Architecture, BMSCE, Bangalore
Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala
Department of Architecture, DBSCR University of Science and Technology, Murthal, Sonepat
Department of Architecture, Jadavpur University, Kolkata
Department of Architecture, Madhav Institute of Technology and Science, Gwalior, India
Department of Architecture, Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda, Gujarat
Department of Architecture, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla
Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh
Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology, Patna, Bihar
Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology Trichy
Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal
Department of Architecture, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala
Department of Architecture, ZHCET, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
Dignity College of Architecture, Durg
Dr. Bhanubhen Nanavati College of Architecture for Women (Pune)
Dr. D.Y. Patil College of Architecture, Nerul, Navi Mumbai
Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Faculty of Architecture, CEPT University, Ahmedabad
Faculty of Architecture, Gautam Buddha Technical University, Lucknow
Faculty of Design, School of Interior Design, CEPT University, Ahmedabad
Sir J.J. College of Architecture, University of Mumbai, Mumbai
Hindustan University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Holy Crescent College of Architecture Alwaye, Kerala
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Uttarakhand
Integral Institute of Architecture
Indubhai Parekh School of Architecture, Rajkot, Gujarat
IES College of Architecture, Mumbai.
Jawaharlal Nehru Architecture and Fine Arts University, Hyderabad
Kalasalingam School of Architecture, Kalasalingam University, Krishnankoil, Virudhunagar District/Tamil Nadu/India
K S School of Architecture, Bangalore
K.R. Mangalam School of Architecture & Planning, New Delhi
Kamla Raheja Vidyanidhi Institute for Architecture and Environmental Studies, Mumbai
Lokmanya Institute of Architecture and Design Studies, Mumbai
Lovely School of Architecture and Design (LSAD), Lovely Professional University, Punjab
L.S.Raheja School of Architecture, Mumbai
M.E.S School of Architecture, MES College of Engineering, Kuttipuram, Kerala
M.S. Ramaiah School of Architecture, Bangalore
Manipal University, Manipal
marg institute of design and architecture swarnabhoomi
Marian College of Architecture and Planning, Kazhakkuttom, Trivandrum
Masterji College of Architecture, Vattinagulapally, Hyderabad
Measi Academy of Architecture, Chennai
MBS School of Planning and Architecture, Dwarka sector 9, New Delhi
McGan's Ooty School of Architecture, Ooty, Tamil Nadu
MEASI Academy of Architecture, Chennai, Tamil Nadu
National Institute of Technology Calicut
National Institute of Technology Raipur, Chhattisgarh
National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Om Institute of Architecture and Design, Hisar, Haryana
Papni School of Architecture, Sriperumbudur Taluk, Kanchipuram District, Tamil Nadu.
Pillai's College of Architecture, New Panvel, Navi Mumbai
Piloo Modi College of Architecture, ABIT, Cuttack, Orissa
Prahar School of Architecture (PSA), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Purvanchal Institute of Architecture & Design, Gorakhpur, U.P.
R.V. College of Architecture, Bengaluru
Rajalakshmi School of Architecture Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Thandalam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
Rizvi College of Architecture, Mumbai
Raffles Design International, Mumbai
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, SVIT Vasad
Sasi Creative School of Architecture, Coimbatore
Sathyabama University, Chennai
School of Architecture, Dr. M.G.R Educational and Research Institute University, Chennai
School of Architecture, Government College of Engineering, Trichur, Kerala
School of Architecture, Meenakshi College of Engineering (SOA, MCE), Chennai
School of Architecture, Vadodara Design Academy, Vadodara
School of Architecture & Design, Faculty of Design, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur
School of Architecture and Landscape Design, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Jammu and Kashmir
School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal
School of Architecture and Planning, Periyar Maniammai University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada
SCMS School of Architecture (SSA), Cochin, Kerala
Sinhgad College of Architecture (SCOA), Pune
Smt. Premalatai Chavan College of Architecture, Karad, Maharashtra
Sri Venkateshwara College of Architecture, Hyderabad
SRM School of Architecture, Chennai
Sunder Deep College of Architecture, Ghaziabad
Surya School of Architecture (SSA), Chandigarh
Sushant School of Art and Architecture, Gurgaon
TVB School of Habitat Studies, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
University Institute of Architecture (UIA) Chandigarh University, Mohali
University School of Architecture and Planning (USAP) GGSIPU, Delhi
University School of Architecture and Planning (USAP) GGSIPU, Delhi
The University School of Design, Manasagangothri, Mysore
Vastu Kala Academy College of Architecture, New Delhi
Vidya Pratishthan's School of Architecture (VPSOA), Baramati, Pune
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, Maharashtra
Viva School of Architecture, Virar (East), Thane, Maharashtra
School of Architecture ( VSPARC), VIT University, Vellore.vit.ac.in
Indonesia
Atma Jaya University, Yogyakarta
Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung
Binus University, Jakarta
Brawijaya University, Malang
Diponegoro University, Semarang
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta
Hasanuddin University, Makasar
Indonesia University of Education, Bandung
Lambung Mangkurat University, Banjarmasin
Palangkaraya University, Palangka Raya
Pancasila University, Jakarta
Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung
Sam Ratulangi University, Menado
Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta
Sepuluh November Institute of Technology, Surabaya
Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang
Tadulako University, Palu
Tanjung Pura University, Pontianak
Tanri Abeng University, Jakarta
Tarumanagara University, Jakarta
Trisakti University, Jakarta
Universitas Islam Indonesia, Yogyakarta
University of Indonesia, Jakarta
University of North Sumatra, Sumatra Utara
Udayana University, Denpasar, Bali
Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang, Jawa Timur
Mercu Buana University, Meruya, Jakarta
Iran
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran
Art, Architecture University, Department of Architecture
Azad Bam University
Azad Kerman University
Azad Mashad University, Art & Architecture University, Department of Architecture, Mashad
Azad Shiraz University
Azad Tehran University, Art & Architecture University, Department of Architecture, Tehran
Azad University, South Tehran Branch
Eshragh University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Bojnourd
Hafez Higher Education Institute of Shiraz
Imam Khomeini International University, Architecture, Urbanism, Qazvin
Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tehran
Islamic Azad University (Anar branch) Department of Architecture
Islamic Azad University, Mashhad
Islamic Azad University of Khorasgan (Isfahan)
Islamic Azad University of Noor
Islamic Azad University of Qazvin (QIAU)
Islamic Azad University of Bandar Anzali (IAU Anzali)
Islamic Azad University of Shahrood
Islamic Azad University of Zanjan (AZU)
Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch
Persian Gulf University of Bushehr
Shahid Bahonar Technical College of Shiraz
Shahrood University of Technology, Faculty of Architectural Engineering and Urbanism
Shiraz university, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Shiraz
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz
Shahid Rajaee University
Tabriz Islamic Art University (TIAU), Faculty of Art & Architecture, Tabriz
Tarbiat Modares University, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Architecture, Tehran
Technical and Vocational University
University of Art, Faculty of Urbanism and Architecture, Department of Architecture
University of Guilan, Architecture, Urbanism, Urban Design and Planning, Rasht
University of Isfahan (Isfahan Art), Architecture, Urbanism, Urban Design and Planning
University of Mazandaran, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Architecture, Babolsar,
University of Science and Culture (USC), Faculty of Art and Architecture
University of Tehran, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Architecture, Tehran
University of Urmia, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Department of Architecture
Yazd University, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Yazd
Iraq
Bayan University, Department of Architecture Engineering, Erbil, Kurdistan
Cihan University, Department of Architecture Engineering, Erbil, Kurdistan
Ishik University, Architecture Department, Erbil, Kurdistan
Koya University, Department of Architectural Engineering, Koy Sanjaq, Kurdistan
Nahrain University, Department of Architectural Engineering, Baghdad
Nawroz University, Department of Architecture, Duhok, Kurdistan
Salahaddin University, Architectural Engineering Department, Erbil, Kurdistan
University of Babylon, College of Engineering, Babylon
University of Baghdad, Architecture Engineering Department, Baghdad
University of Basrah, Architectural Department, Basra
University of Duhok, School of Engineering, Department of Architecture. Duhok, Kurdistan
University of Mosul, Department of Architectural Engineering, Mosul
University of Sulaymaniyah, Architectural Engineering, Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan
University of Technology, Department of Architectural Engineering, Baghdad
University of Wasit, Architecture Engineering Department, Kut
Uruk University College, Architectur Department, Baghdad
Israel
Ariel University, School of Architecture, Ariel
Bezalel Academy of Art and Design, Department of Architecture, Jerusalem
Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Haifa
Tel Aviv University, Yolanda and David Katz Faculty of the Arts, David Azrieli School of Architecture, Tel Aviv
Wizo School of design, The Neri Bloomfield School of Design and Education, Haifa
Japan
Universities and junior colleges in Japan with a Department of Architecture.
National universities
Chiba University Faculty of Urban Environmental Systems, Department of Environmental Planning, Department of Architecture
Hiroshima University Faculty of Architecture (Program of the four species)
Hokkaido University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental and Social System Architecture
Kagoshima University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kobe University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kumamoto University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kyoto Institute of Technology, Science part craft engineering modeling region, Kyoto
Kyoto University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Architectural Systems, Kyoto
Kyushu Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Social architecture construction course
Kyushu University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture / Faculty of Arts (formerly Kyushu Institute of Design), Department of Environmental Design
Mie University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Muroran Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Systems Engineering construction, Division of Architecture
Nagasaki University Faculty of Engineering Department of the structure
Nagoya Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Architecture & Design Department
Nagoya University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Social and Environmental Studies Course Architecture
Nara Women's University Faculty of Environmental Studies life living environment, Department of Housing course
National University Corporation Tsukuba University of Technology Department of Architecture hearing section
Niigata University Faculty of Engineering Department of Construction of Architecture
Oita University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering course architecture welfare
Osaka University Faculty of Engineering, Architectural Engineering and Environmental Engineering, Department of General In addition to Earth
Saga University Faculty of Science and Technology of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Architecture and Urban Design Course
Shimane University Faculty of General Science and Technology Department of Materials and Process
Shinshu University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tohoku University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture Sendai
Tokyo Institute of Technology (TokyoTech), Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture Tokyo
Tokyo National University of Fine Arts Faculty of Fine Arts Department of Architecture
Toyohashi University of Technology Faculty of Engineering Department of Construction
University of Fukui, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Building & Construction
University of the Ryukyus Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture course construction environment
University of Tsukuba Science and Technology group (or social engineering <Urban Planning> College of Engineering Systems <Engineering Environment and Development>), main major design group specializing in art school <architectural design, environmental design>
University of Tokyo, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Department of Urban Engineering Tokyo
University of Toyama Faculty of Arts and Culture, Department of Arts and Design building science course
Utsunomiya University Faculty of Engineering Department of Construction of Architecture course
Wakayama University Faculty of Systems Engineering, Department of Environmental Systems
Yamaguchi University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Kansei Engineering Design Course of the human space
Yokohama National University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Construction of Architecture
Public universities
Akita Municipal Junior College of Arts and Crafts Department of Industrial Design
Akita Prefectural University Faculty of Systems Science and Technology Department of Architecture and Environment Systems
Gifu City Women's College Interior Design Course, Department of Kansei architecture design vocational life design
Iwate Prefectural University College of Life Science, Department of Life Science
Kanazawa College of Art Faculty of Arts and Crafts Design Department of Environmental Design course
Kyoto Prefectural University Faculty of Life and Environmental Department of Environmental Design, Landscape Design, Architecture, Living Environment course and life course
Maebashi Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture (Day), Department of Integrated Design (Night)
Miyagi University Faculty of Project, Department of Design and Information Design, Course of Space Design
Nagoya City University Faculty of Arts and city Department of Environmental Design
Okayama Prefectural University School of Design Department of Design
Osaka City University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Environmental Urban Engineering, Graduate School, Life Sciences Division, Department of the living environment
Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Faculty of Symbiotic Science Course, Department of Environmental Symbiosis residential environment
Sapporo City University Faculty of Design Department of Design, Space Design Course
Tokyo Metropolitan University Faculty of Urban Environment, Department of Architecture and Urban urban environment course
University of Hyogo (Hyogo Prefectural University) Faculty of Human Environment Department of the human environment (course plan living space and conservation course creative living environment course environmental analysis)
University of Kitakyushu Faculty of International Environmental Engineering, Department of Environmental Space Design KitaKyushu
The University of Shiga Prefecture Environmental Sciences Department of Environmental Design, Department of
Private universities
Hokkaido and Tohoku
Dohto University Faculty of Fine Arts Department of Architecture
Hachinohe Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Design, Department of ansei Design, Course of Housing design sensibility
Hokkai Gakuen University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Hokkaido Institute of Technology Faculty of creation space architecture department (from 2008)
Koriyama Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design, Department of Human Life
Tohoku Bunka Gakuen University Faculty of Science and Technology (living from Department of Environmental Planning Department of Environmental Design, human, 2008 Department of Environmental Design )
Tohoku Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tohoku University of Art and Design Faculty of Engineering and Design, Department of Environmental Design
Tokai University (Asahikawa Campus, formerly Hokkaido Tokai University), Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Environment Design, Arts course architecture Town Planning course, Sapporo
Kanto
Ashikaga Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Bunka Women's University Faculty of Art, Department of Housing Architectural Design Course
Chiba Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Urban Environment
Hosei University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Institute of Technologists (Monotsukuri University) Faculty of craft skill, Department of Construction course cities and architecture course architecture and interior design course wooden building finishing course
Japan Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design dwelling Department of Architecture and Environment Design Course
Jissen Women's University Faculty of living environment architecture design course
Kanagawa University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kanto Gakuin University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture/Faculty of Human Environment Department of Environmental Design
Keio University Faculty of Science and Technology System Design Engineering (Hiyoshi Campus) and the Faculty of Environmental Information, Department of Information Design (Shonan-Fujisawa Campus)
Kogakuin University
Faculty of Architecture, Town Planning Department (established in April 2011), Department of Architecture, Department of Architecture and Design: restructuring and reorganization to "Faculty of Architecture" in April 2011, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Part 1, Department of Architecture and Urban Design
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture Part 2 (night)
Kokushikan University Faculty of Architecture Department of Design from the Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Science and Engineering, architectural changes to the system
Komazawa Women's University Faculty of Humanities, Department of molding space
Kyoei Gakuen Junior College Department of Housing
Kyoritsu Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design Department of Architecture and Design
Meiji University Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Architecture
Meikai University Faculty of Real Estate, Department of Real Estate, Environmental Design Course
Meisei University Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Architecture
Musashino Art University Faculty of Art, Department of Architecture
Musashino University Faculty of Environmental Studies, Department of Environment Living Environment course
Nihon University
College of Bioresource Science, Department of Biological and Environmental (Fujisawa Campus, Kanagawa)
College of Engineering, Department of Architecture (Koriyama Campus, Fukushima)
College of Fine Arts, Department of Design, Architecture Design Course (Ecoda Campus, Tokyo)
College of Production Engineering, Department of Architecture (Mimomi Campus, Chiba)
College of Science and Technology, School of Architecture, School of Marine Engineering Building (Tokyo Surugadai Campus and Chiba Funabashi Campus)
Junior College Department of Design, Architecture and life (Funabashi Campus, Chiba)
Nippon Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Shibaura Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Department of Architectural Engineering (Mita Campus, Tokyo) Faculty of Systems Engineering, Department of Environmental Systems (Saitama Campus)
Showa Women's University Faculty of Life Sciences Division, Department of Architecture course living environment, the design area, Department of Interior Architecture and Design, College of cultural creation
Tama Art University Faculty of Art, Department of Environmental Design Department of Design, Space Design, Faculty of plastic expression field
Tokai University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Design Department of Architecture and Design
Tokyo City University (formerly Musashi Institute of Technology), Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tokyo Denki University Faculty of Future Science, Department of Architecture
Tokyo Polytechnic University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tokyo University of Science Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Part 1, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Part 2 (Iidabashi Campus, Tokyo), Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Architecture (Noda Campus, Chiba)
Tokyo Zokei University (Tokyo University of Art and Design) Faculty of Art and Design, Department of Interior Design, interior architecture major area
Toyo University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture/Faculty of Life human Design, Department of Environmental Design
Waseda University School of Creative Science and Technology, Department of Architecture
Chubu
Aichi Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering Course of the Department of Architecture, Urban and Environmental Studies Course of Architecture and Environment
Aichi Konan College Department of Life Science, interior and architecture course
Aichi Sangyo University Art School Department of Architecture, Department of Architecture in Ministry of Education and Communication
Aichi Shukutoku University Faculty of Contemporary Social Studies, Department of Urban and Environmental Design, Course of modern society
Chubu University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Daido University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Fukui University of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Building Construction
Gifu Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design Department of Life Sciences
Kanazawa Institute of Technology Faculty of Architecture Building and Environment, Department of Architecture and Urban Design
Meijo University Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture
Nagaoka Institute Of Design Faculty of Art, Department of Architecture and Environmental Design
Nagoya Zokei University (Nagoya University of Art and Design) Art College, Department of Design, Architecture and Design Course space
Niigata Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Shizuoka University of Art and Culture School of Design, Department of molding space
Sugiyama Jogakuen University life science unit Department of living and Environmental Design
Kinki
BAIKA Women's University Faculty of Modern Human Living, Environment Department
Kansai University Faculty of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kinki University
Faculty of Architecture Department of Architecture (established in April 2011: restructuring and reorganization to Faculty of Architecture in April 2011, Faculty of Science and Technology Department of Architecture)
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Industrial Science and Technology Department of Architecture and Design (Kyushu Campus)
Literary department seminar and spatial design: Architecture, Department of Art and Design course
Kio University Faculty of Health Sciences Department of healthy living human environmental design course
Kobe Design University School of Design, Department of Architecture & Environmental
Kwansei Gakuin University Faculty of Policy Management, urban policy field
Kyoto Seika University, Faculty of Design, Department of Architecture, Kyoto
Kyoto Tachibana University Faculty of Modern Business, Department of Urban Design, Tourism and Urban design course Interior and Architecture course,
Kyoto University of the Arts Faculty of Arts, Department of Environmental Design, Architecture Design Course/Ministry of Education Department of Design, Architecture Design Course
Kyoto Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design, Department of formative life
Mukogawa Women's University Faculty of living environment, Department of Architecture
Osaka Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Department of Space Design
Osaka Sangyo University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Design, Architecture, from the Department of Environmental Design (renamed in April 2008) living environment from the Department of Urban and Environmental Department, Faculty of Human Environment (renamed in April 2008)
Osaka Shoin Women's University College of liberal arts, Department of Interior Design
Osaka University of Arts Faculty of Arts, Department of Architecture
Osaka University of Human Sciences Faculty of Human Sciences, Department of Environment and Architectural Design
Otemae Junior College Department of Housing Comprehensive System Design Life
Ritsumeikan University Faculty of Science and Technology Urban Systems Engineering, Department of Architecture and Urban Design
Setsunan University Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture
Takarazuka University of Art and Design School of Art, Department of Industrial Design, Architectural Design Course and Interior Design Course
Tezukayama University Faculty of Modern Life Design, Department of Dwelling Space
Chugoku, Shikoku and Kyushu
Daiichi Institute of Technology (first technical university) Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Fukuoka University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Fukuyama University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Hiroshima Jogakuin University Life Sciences Faculty, Department of Design and living information
Hiroshima Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Studies Department of Environmental Design
Hiroshima International University Faculty of Design, Department of Housing (Social and Environmental Sciences)
Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare Faculty of Management, Department of Design, Health and Welfare
Kochi University of Technology Faculty of Social Systems Engineering
Kurume Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering, Department of Building Facilities
Kwassui Women's College Faculty of Life Healthy Life, Department of Design
Kyushu Kyoritsu University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Kyushu Sangyo University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Department of housing and interior design
Kyushu Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design, Department of Human Life
Matsuyama Shinonome Junior College Department of Life Sciences School of Life Design
Mimasaka University of Life Sciences Faculty, Welfare, Department of Environmental Design course architecture welfare
Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Nippon Bunri University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture and Design
Nishinippon Institute of Technology School of Design, Department of Architecture
Okayama University of Science Faculty of Information Technology, Department of Architecture
Sojo University Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tohwa University Faculty of Environmental Design Engineering course architectural, interior design of residential
Tokai University (Kumamoto Campus, formerly Kyushu Tokai University), School of Industrial Engineering, Department of Architecture
Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Human Life, Department of Housing
Tottori University of Environmental Studies Faculty of Environmental Information, Department of Environmental Design
Yasuda Women's University Faculty of Human Sciences and Design, Department of life Design
Jordan
Jordan University of Science and Technology, College of Architecture and Design, Ar Ramtha.
University of Jordan, Department of Architecture,all programs of the school of engineering of The University of Jordan are available on this link, Amman.
Laos
National University of Laos, Faculty of Architecture, Vientiane capital city
Souphanouvong University, Faculty of Architecture, Luangprabang world heritage city
Lebanon
American University of Beirut, Faculty of Architecture, Beirut
Beirut Arab University, Faculty of Architecture, Debbieh
Lebanese American University, Faculty of Architecture, Beirut
Académie libanaise des Beaux-Arts, Faculty of Architecture
Lebanese University, Institute des Beaux Arts, Department of Architecture
Notre Dame University–Louaize, Faculty of Architecture, Louaize
Université Saint-Esprit de Kaslik, Department of Architecture, Kaslik
Université Saint-Joseph, Ecole d'Architecture, Beirut
Malaysia
ALFA International College, School of Architecture, Subang Jaya, Selangor
Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur (IUKL), School of Architecture and Built Environment, Kajang
International Islamic University of Malaysia Kulliyyah (Faculty) of Architecture and Environmental Design, Gombak, Selangor
International University College of Technology Twintech, Faculty of Built Environment (FABE), Department of Architecture, Bandar Sri Damansara, Kuala Lumpur
Limkokwing University, Faculty of Built Environment (FABE), Department of Architecture, Cyberjaya
Linton University College, Department of Architecture, Mantin, Negeri Sembilan
MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Department of Architecture, Shah Alam, Selangor, Sri Iskandar, Perak
National University of Malaysia (UKM), Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Department of Architecture, Bangi, Selangor
Port Dickson Polytechnic, Architectural Unit, Department of Civil Engineering, Port Dickson, Negeri Sembilan
Putra University, Malaysia (UPM), Faculty of Design and Architecture (FRSB), Serdang, Selangor
Taylor's University, School of Architecture, Building and Design (SABD), Petaling Jaya
Tunku Abdul Rahman University College (TARUC), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment (FEBE), Kuala Lumpur
University College Sedaya International (UCSI) Department of Architecture Cheras, Kuala Lumpur
University of Malaya (UM), Faculty of the Built Environment (FBE), Kuala Lumpur
University of Science, Malaysia (USM), School Of Housing, Building And Planning (HBP), Architecture Department. Minden, Penang
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Faculty of Built Environment (FAB), Department of Architecture, Skudai, Johor Bahru
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science (LKC FES), Department of Architecture & Sustainable Design, Sungai Long, Selangor
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment (FKAB), Department of Architecture, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan
Oman
Caledonian College of Engineering
Higher College of Technology
Sultan Qaboos University
Pakistan
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
CECOS University of Information Technology and Emerging Sciences, Department of Architecture, Peshawar
University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Department of Architecture, Abbottabad
Punjab
Beaconhouse National University Department of Architecture, School of Architecture and Design, Lahore
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Department of Architecture, Islamabad
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Department of Architecture, Lahore
National College of Arts, Department of Architecture, Lahore
National College of Arts, Department of Architecture, Rawalpindi
National University of Sciences and Technology, School of Art, Design and Architecture, Islamabad
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Department of Architecture
University of the Punjab, Department of Architecture, College Of Art and Design, Lahore
University of South Asia, Department of Architecture (Accreditation on hold), Lahore
University of Lahore, Department of Architecture, Lahore
Sindh
Dawood University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Karachi
Indus Valley School of Art and Architecture, Department of Architecture, Karachi
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Centre of Excellence in Art and Design (Accreditation on hold), Jamshoro
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Jamshoro
NED University of Engineering and Technology, Department of Architecture, Karachi
University of Karachi, Architecture Program at Department of Visual Studies, Karachi
Philippines
Luzon
Adamson University (AdU), College of Architecture
Don Honorio Ventura Technological State University (DHVTSU), College of Engineering and Architecture, Bacolor, Pampanga
Bulacan State University (BulSU), College of Architecture and Fine Arts, Malolos City
Cebu Institute of Technology – University (CIT-U), College of Engineering and Architecture, Cebu City
Central Colleges of the Philippines (CCP), College of Architecture
De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde (DLS-CSB), College of Architecture
De La Salle University–Dasmariñas (DLSU-D), College of Engineering Architecture and Technology, Dasmariñas
Eulogio "Amang" Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology (EARIST), College of Architecture and Fine Arts
Far Eastern University (FEU), Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts (IARFA)
FEATI University, College of Architecture
Manuel L. Quezon University (MLQU), School of Architecture
Mapúa Institute of Technology (MIT), School of Architecture, Industrial Design and the Built Environment
National University (NU), College of Architecture
Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology (NEUST), College of Architecture
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM), College of Architecture and Urban Planning
Polytechnic University of the Philippines, College of Architecture and Fine Arts (PUP-CAFA)
Rizal Technological University (RTU), College of Engineering and Industrial Technology
Saint Louis University (SLU), Otto Hahn School of Engineering and Architecture, Baguio
Technological Institute of the Philippines-Manila (TIP-Manila) and Quezon City (TIP-QC) College of Architecture and Engineering
Technological University of the Philippines-Manila (TUP-Manila) College of Architecture and Fine Arts
University of the Assumption (UA), College of Engineering and Architecture, City of San Fernando, Pampanga
University of Baguio (UB), College of Engineering and Architecture, Baguio
University of the Cordilleras (UC-BCF), College of Engineering and Architecture, Baguio
University of Pangasinan (UPANG), College of Architecture, Dagupan
University of the Philippines Diliman (UP-D), College of Architecture
University of Saint Anthony (USANT), College of Engineering and Architecture and Technology, San Miguel, Iriga City
University of Santo Tomas (UST), College of Architecture
Visayas and Mindanao
La Consolacion College–Bacolod (LCCB), School of Architecture, Fine Arts and Interior Design, Bacolod
Mindanao University of Science and Technology (MUST), College of Engineering and Architecture, Lapasan, Cagayan de Oro
Silliman University (SU), College of Engineering and Design, Department of Architecture, Dumaguete
University of Mindanao (UM), College of Architecture and Fine Arts, Davao City
University of the Philippines Mindanao, UPMin, B.S. Architecture Program, Davao City
University of San Agustin (USA), College of Engineering and Architecture, General Luna, Iloilo City
University of San Carlos (USC), College of Architecture and Fine Arts, Cebu City
Western Mindanao State University, College of Architecture, Zamboanga City
Western Visayas College of Science and Technology, College of Engineering and Architecture, Iloilo City
Saudi Arabia
King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Environmental Design, Jeddah
Effat University, Faculty of Architecture & Design, Jeddah https://www.effatuniversity.edu.sa/English/Academics/Undergraduate/CoAD/Pages/default.aspx
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, College of Environmental Design, Dhahran
King Faisal University, College of Architecture and Planning, Dammam
King Saud University, College of Architecture and Planning, Riyadh
Qassim University, College of Architecture and Planning, Buraidah
Umm al-Qura University, College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Makkah
University of Dammam, College of Architecture and Planning, Dammam
iLines Architecture, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
Singapore
National University of Singapore (NUS), School of Design and Environment (SDE), Department of Architecture
Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD) Department of Architecture and Sustainable Design.
South Korea
Ewha Womans University,[EA] Department of Architecture, ELTEC College of Engineering, Seoul
Hanyang University, Department of Architecture, College of Architecture, Seoul
Hongik University, Department of Architecture, College of Architecture, Seoul
Konkuk University, Department of Architecture, College of Architecture, Seoul
Konkuk University, [GSAKU] Graduate School of Architecture, Seoul
Kookmin University, [SAKU] Department of Architecture, College of Architecture, Seoul
Korea National University of Arts (K-ARTS), School of Visual Arts, Seoul
Korea University (KU), Department of Architecture, Seoul
Kyunghee University (KHU), Department of Architecture, Yongin
Myongji University (MJU), College of Architecture, Yongin
Seoul National University (SNU), Department of Architecture, Seoul
Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Department of Architecture, Seoul
University of Seoul, Department of Architecture, College of Urban Sciences, Seoul
University of Ulsan (Ulsan Institute of Technology, UIT), School of Architecture, Ulsan
Wonkwang University (WKU), Department of Architecture, Iksan
Yonsei University (YU), Department of Architectural Engineering, Seoul
Sri Lanka
City School of Architecture (CSA), Colombo
University of Moratuwa (UoM), Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Moratuwa
University of Kelaniya (UOK), Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Kelaniya
Taiwan
Chinese Culture University, College of Environmental Design, Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Taipei
Chung Hua University, College of Architecture and Planning, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Hsinchu
Chung Yuan Christian University, College of Design, Department of Architecture, Zhongli
Feng Chia University, School of Architecture, Taichung City
Ming Chuan University, School of Design, Department of Architecture, Taipei
National Cheng Kung University, College of Planning & Design, Department of Architecture, Tainan City
National Chiao Tung University, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Graduate Institute of Architecture, Hsinchu
National Quemoy University, Department of Architecture, Kinmen County
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture, Taipei City
Tamkang University, College of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Danshui District, New Taipei City
Tunghai University, Department of Architecture, Taichung City
Thailand
Assumption University (AU), The International University in Thailand, School of Architecture, Suwannaphumi, Bangkok
Bangkok University (BU), Faculty of Architecture, Pathum Thani
Chiang Mai University (CMU), Faculty of Architecture, Chiang Mai
Chulalongkorn University (CU), Faculty of Architecture, INDA (International Program in Design and Architecture) Bangkok
Kasem Bundit University (KBU), Faculty of Architecture, Bangkok
Kasetsart University (KU), Faculty of Architecture, Bang Khen, Bangkok
Khon Kaen University (KKU), Faculty of Architecture, Khon Kaen
King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL), Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, Lat Krabang, Bangkok
King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT/Bangmod), School of Architecture and Design, Thung Khru, Bangkok
Maejo University (MJU), Faculty of Architecture and Environmental Design, Sansai, Chiang Mai
Mahasalakarm University (MSU), Faculty of Architecture Urban Design and Creative Arts, Mahasalakarm
Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (RMUTT), Faculty of Architecture, Pathum Thani
Rangsit University (RSU), Faculty of Architecture, Rangsit
Silpakorn University (SU), Faculty of Architecture, Bangkok
Sripatum University (SPU), Faculty of Architecture, Bangkok
Thammasat University (TU), Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Pathum Thani
United Arab Emirates
Abu Dhabi University, Department of Architecture and Design, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Abu Dhabi
American University in Dubai, Department of Architecture
Ajman University of Science and Technology, College of Architectural Engineering, Ajman
American University of Sharjah, College of Architecture, art and Design, Sharjah
Canadian University of Dubai, College of Architecture, Dubai
United Arab Emirates University, Department of Architectural Engineering, Al Ain
University of Sharjah, College of Architectural Engineering, Sharjah
Vietnam
Hanoi Architectural University, Hanoi
Ho Chi Minh City Architecture University, Ho Chi Minh City
Hue University of Sciences, Faculty of Architecture, Huế
National University of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Hanoi
Van Lang University, Ho Chi Minh city
Ton Duc Thang University, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department Of Architecture, Ho Chi Minh City
Europe
Albania
Albanian University
Epoka University, Department of Architecture
International school of Architecture and Urban Policies, POLIS University
Universiteti Politeknik i Tiranës, Departamenti i Arkitekturës dhe Urbanistikës
Austria
Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, Architektur, Vienna
University for Continuing Education Krems, Department for Building and Environment, Krems an der Donau
Graz University of Technology (TU Graz), Faculty of Architecture, Graz
University of Applied Arts Vienna, School of Architecture, Vienna
University of Art and Design Linz, Department the architecture programme, Linz
University of Innsbruck, Fakultät für Architektur, Innsbruck
TU Wien, Fakultät für Architektur und Raumplanung, Vienna
Belgium
French Community of Belgium
The following is a list of French-speaking architectural schools in Belgium:
Architecture
University of Louvain (UCLouvain)
Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning, Brussels, Tournai and Louvain-la-Neuve
School of Urbanism and Territorial Planning, Louvain School of Engineering, Louvain-la-Neuve
University of Liège (ULiège)
Faculty of Architecture, Liège
Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Gembloux
Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Faculty of Architecture, Ixelles
University of Mons (UMons), Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Mons
Institut Saint-Luc, Higher Institute for Urbanism and Urban Renovation (ISURU), Brussels
Architectural engineering
University of Louvain (UCLouvain)
Faculty of Architecture, Architectural Engineering and Urban Planning, Brussels, Tournai and Louvain-la-Neuve
Louvain School of Engineering, Louvain-la-Neuve
University of Liège (ULiège), School of Engineering, Liège
Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), École polytechnique de Bruxelles, Brussels
University of Mons (UMons), Faculty of Engineering, Mons
Interior architecture
Saint-Luc Institutes Brussels, Saint-Luc Brussels School of Arts (ESA), Brussels
Saint-Luc Liège School of Arts, Liège
City of Liège School of Arts, Liège
Arts2 School of Arts, Mons
ENSAV La Cambre, Brussels
Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Bruxelles (ARBA-ESA), Brussels
Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Tournai, Tournai
Flemish Community|Flemish Community of Belgium
The following is a list of Dutch-speaking architectural schools in Belgium:
Architecture
University of Antwerp (UA), Faculty of Design Sciences, Antwerp
Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (KU Leuven), Faculty of Architecture, Schaerbeek and Ghent
Hasselt University (UHasselt), Faculty of Architecture and Arts, Hasselt
Architectural engineering
Ghent University (UGent), Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent
Katholieke Universiteit te Leuven (KU Leuven), Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Leuven
Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Faculty of Engineering, Ixelles
Bosnia and Herzegovina
International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture and Social Science, Sarajevo
University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Banja Luka
University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Sarajevo
Bulgaria
Higher School of Civil Engineering (VSU) "Lyben Karavelov", Sofia
New Bulgarian University, Sofia
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia
Varna Free University "Chernorizets Hrabar", Varna
Croatia
University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy, Split
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb
Cyprus
Cyprus School of Architecture, Cyprus College of Art, Lemba.
Eastern Mediterranean University, Faculty of Architecture, Famagusta
Frederick University, School of Architecture, Fine and Applied Arts, Department of Architecture, Nicosia
Neapolis University, School of Architecture and Environmental Sciences, Paphos
University of Cyprus, School of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Nicosia
University of Nicosia, School of Humanities, Social Science & Law, Department of Architecture, Nicosia
Czech Republic
Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design, Department of architecture, Prague
ARCHIP, Architectural Institute in Prague, Prague
Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Brno
Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Architecture, Prague
Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Architecture, Liberec
Denmark
Aarhus School of Architecture, Aarhus
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Estonia
Estonian Academy of Arts, Tallinn
Finland
Aalto University
Tampere University of Technology
University of Oulu, Department of Architecture, Oulu
France
Architecture schools in France are called ENSA: École nationale supérieure d'architecture.
École d'architecture de la ville et des territoires à Marne-la-Vallée, Champs-sur-Marne
École de Chaillot, La cité de l'architecture et du patrimoine, Palais de Chaillot, Paris
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Clermont-Ferrand, Clermont-Ferrand
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Grenoble, Grenoble
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Lyon, Lyon
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Marseille-Luminy, Marseille
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Montpellier, Montpellier
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Nancy, Nancy
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Nantes, Nantes
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Normandie, Rouen
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Paris-Belleville, Paris
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Paris-La Villette (ENSAPLV), Paris
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Paris-Malaquais, Paris
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Paris-Val de Seine, Paris
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Rennes Rennes, Brittany
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Saint-Étienne, Saint-Étienne
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Strasbourg, Strasbourg
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Toulouse, Toulouse
École nationale supérieure d'architecture de Versailles, Versailles
École nationale supérieure d'architecture et de paysage de Bordeaux, Bordeaux
École nationale supérieure d'architecture et de paysage de Lille, Lille
École nationale supérieure des arts et industries de Strasbourg, INSA de Strasbourg, Strasbourg
École spéciale d'architecture (ESA), Paris
Institut national des sciences appliquées de Strasbourg, Strasbourg
Confluence Institute for Innovation and Creative Strategies in Architecture, Paris
Paris School of Architecture (PSA), Paris
Germany
Architecture schools in Germany can be part of art academies, technical universities or universities of applied sciences.
Greece
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Engineering, School of Architecture, Thessaloniki
Democritus University of Thrace, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architectural Engineering, Xanthi
National Technical University of Athens (Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο), School of Architecture, Athens
Technical University of Crete, Department of Architecture, Chania
University of Patras, School of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Patras
University of Thessaly, School of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Volos
University of Ioannina, School of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Ioannina
Hungary
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Architecture, Budapest
Moholy-Nagy University of Art and Design, Faculty of Architecture, Budapest
Nyugat-Magyarországi Egyetem, Faipari Mérnöki Kar, Sopron
Széchenyi István University, Faculty of Architectural Design, Győr
Szent István University, Ybl Miklós Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Budapest
University of Debrecen, Faculty of Technology, Debrecen
University of Pécs, Pollack Mihály Faculty of Technology, Pécs
Iceland
Iceland Academy of Arts, Department of Design & Architecture, Reykjavík
Ireland
Architecture Schools in the Republic of Ireland
Architecture Schools in Northern Ireland (United Kingdom)
Queen's University Belfast, School of Natural and Built Environment, Belfast,
Ulster University, Belfast School of Architecture, Belfast
Italy
Latvia
Riga Technical University
Rigas International School of Economics and Business Administration
Lithuania
Kaunas University of Technology
Vilnius Academy of Arts
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Moldova
Technical University of Moldova, Urbanism and Architecture Faculty; http://utm.md/en/
Netherlands
Amsterdam School of the Arts, Amsterdam Academy of Architecture, Amsterdam
ArtEZ, Arnhem Academy of Architecture, Arnhem
Berlage Institute, Postgraduate Laboratory of Architecture, Rotterdam
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Delft
Eindhoven University of Technology, Department of Architecture, Building and Planning, Eindhoven
Maastricht University, Faculty of Humanities & Sciences, Department of Architecture, Maastricht
The Rotterdam Academy of Architecture and Urban Design, Rotterdam
North Macedonia
The Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Architecture
State University of Tetovo, Applied Sciences Faculty
University American College Skopje, Faculty of Architecture and Design
Norway
Godkjente arkitektskoler:
Bergen School of Architecture, Bergen
Norwegian University of Science and Technology Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art, Trondheim
Oslo School of Architecture and Design, Oslo
Poland
Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University (Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego), Faculty of Architecture and Fine Arts, Kraków
Białystok Technical University (Politechnika Białostocka), Faculty of Architecture, Białystok
Gdańsk University of Technology (Politechnika Gdańska), Faculty of Architecture, Gdańsk
Kielce University of Technology (Politechnika Świętokrzyska), Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Kielce
Lublin University of Technology (Politechnika Lubelska), Faculty of Architecture, Lublin
Poznań University of Technology (Politechnika Poznańska), Faculty of Architecture, Poznań
Silesian University of Technology (Politechnika Śląska), Faculty of Architecture, Gliwice
Tadeusz Kościuszko University of Technology (Politechnika Krakowska), Kraków
Technical University of Łódź, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, Łódź
University of Arts in Poznań (Uniwersytet Artystyczny w Poznaniu), Faculty of Architecture and Design, Poznań
University of Economy Bydgoszcz (Wyższa Szkoła Gospodarki (WSG)), Architecture und Town Planning, Bydgoszcz
Warsaw University of Technology (Politechnika Warszawska), Faculty of Architecture, Warszawa
West Pomeranian University of Technology (Zachodniopomorski Uniwersytet Technologiczny), Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Szczecin
Wroclaw University of Technology (Politechnika Wrocławska), Faculty of Architecture, Wrocław
Portugal
Escola de Arquitectura da Universidade do Minho
Escola Superior Artística do Porto, Arquitectura, Porto
Escola Superior Gallaecia (ESG), Arquitectura, Vila Nova de Cerveira
Escola Universitária das Artes de Coimbra
Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa (ISCTE), Department of Architecture, Lisbon
Lusíada University of Porto (ULP), Faculty of Architecture and Arts (FAAULP), Porto
Technical University of Lisbon (UTL), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Lisbon
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa Luís de Camões
Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI), Arquitectura Covilhã
Universidade Lusíada de Lisboa, School of Architecture and Arts, Lisbon
Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias
University of Coimbra (UC), Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FCTUC), Department of Architecture, Coimbra
University of Évora (UE), Department of Architecture, Évora
University of Porto (UP), Faculty of Architecture (FAUP), Porto
Technical University of Lisbon (UTL), Faculty of Architecture (FA), Lisbon
Porto Academy Porto Academy
Romania
Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucharest
University of Oradea, Facultatea de Architectură şi Construcţii, Oradea
Polytechnic University of Timișoara, Facultatea de Arhitectură, Timișoara
Spiru Haret University, Facultatea de Arhitectură, Bucharest
Universitatea Tehnică Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de Arhitectură, Cluj-Napoca
Universitatea Tehnică "Gheorghe Asachi", Facultatea de Arhitectură, Iaşi
Russia
Institute of Architecture & Art, Rostov-on-Don
MArchI, Moscow Architectural Institute – State Academy
Moscow Architecture School MARCH
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering – Institute of Construction and Architecture, Moscow
Novosibirsk State University of Architecture, Design and Arts
Pacific National University, Faculty of Architecture & Design, Khabarovsk
Russian Academy of Arts, Department of Architecture
Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Saint-Petersburg
State University of Land Use Planning, Faculty of Architecture
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building, Tomsk
USAAA, Ural State Academy of Architecture and Arts, Ekaterinburg
Vologda State Technical University, Department of Architecture and Urban Design, Vologda
Serbia
State University of Novi Pazar, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Pazar
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Niš
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad
University of Prišina, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Kosovska Mitrovica
Slovakia
Academy of Fine Arts and Design in Bratislava, Department of Architecture, Bratislava
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Architecture, Bratislava
Technical University of Košice, Faculty of Arts, Košice
Slovenia
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Ljubljana
University of Maribor, Faculty of Civil Engineering (Department of Architecture), Maribor
Spain
Architecture schools in Spain are called ETSA: "Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura" in Spanish, or "Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura" in Catalan.
Andalucía;
International School of Metaphoric Architecture, Málaga
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Granada, Granada
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Málaga, Málaga
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla
Castilla-La Mancha;
Escuela de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo
Castilla y León;
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad IE (Segovia)
Catalunya;
Barcelona Institute of Architecture (BIArch)
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura de Barcelona de la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura de la Universitat de Girona, Girona
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura de la Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura de la Universitat Ramon Llull – La Salle, Barcelona
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura de la Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus
Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura del Vallès de la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Sant Cugat del Vallès
Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia, Barcelona
Metropolis Master in Architecture and Urban Culture (Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya/Centre de Cultura Contemporània de Barcelona)
Galicia;
Escola Técnica Superior de Arquitectura da Coruña, A Coruña
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria;
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Gran Canaria
Madrid;
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad Alfonso X, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad Camilo José Cela, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad CEU San Pablo, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad IE, Madrid/Segovia
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, Madrid
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de Madrid
Navarra;
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona
País Vasco;
Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad del País Vasco, San Sebastián
Valencia;
Escuela Superior de Enseñanzas Técnicas, Arquitectura, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera
Polytechnic University of Valencia (UPV), School of Architecture (ETSAV), Valencia
University of Alicante, Department of Architectural Constructions, Alicante
Sweden
Chalmers University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Gothenburg
Lund University, Department of Architecture, Lund
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Architecture and Built Environment, Stockholm
Umeå School of Architecture (UMA), Umeå
Switzerland
Turkey
Abant Izzet Baysal University Department of Architecture, Bolu
Abdullah Gül University, Department of Architecture, Kayseri
Akdeniz University, Fine Arts Faculty Department of Architecture, Antalya
Antalya International University, School of Fine Arts and Architecture, Antalya
Bahçeşehir University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Beykent University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir
Gazi University, Faculty of Architecture, Ankara
Gediz University, Department of Architecture, İzmir
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Istanbul
Istanbul Arel University, Faculty of engineering and Architecture, Istanbul
Istanbul Bilgi University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Istanbul Kültür University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Istanbul Medipol University, Fine Arts Design and Architecture, Istanbul
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
İzmir Institute of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir
İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Architecture, Izmir
Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Trabzon
Maltepe University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Ankara
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Selçuk University, Department of Architecture, Konya
TED University, Faculty of Architecture, Ankara
Trakya University, Faculty of Architecture, Edirne
Yaşar University, Faculty of Architecture,Izmir
Yeditepe University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Istanbul
Yıldız Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul
Ukraine
Donbasska State Academy of Construction and Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Makiivka
Kharkiv National Academy of Urban Economy, Townplanning Faculty, Kharkiv
Kharkiv State Technical University of Construction and Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Kharkiv
Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture, Architectural Faculty, Kyiv
National Academy of Fine Arts and Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Kyiv
National Academy of Nature Conservation and Resort's Construction, Architectural-Construction Faculty, Simferopol
National University "Lvivska Politechnika", Institute of Architecture, Lviv
Odesa State Academy of Construction and Architecture, Architectural and Art's Institute, Odesa
Poltava National Technik University, Architectural Department, Poltava
Prydniprovska State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Dnipro
United Kingdom
England
Anglia Ruskin University, Department of Engineering and Built Environment, Chelmsford
Architectural Association School of Architecture, London
Arts University Bournemouth, School of Architecture, Bournemouth
Bartlett School of Architecture, Faculty of the Built Environment, University College London, London
Birmingham City University, Birmingham School of Architecture and Design, Birmingham
Canterbury School of Architecture, University for the Creative Arts, Canterbury
Coventry University, School of Architecture, Coventry
De Montfort University, The Leicester School of Architecture, Leicester
Falmouth University, School of Architecture Design and Interiors.
Hull College, Hull School of Art and Design, Hull
Kent School of Architecture, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent
Kingston University, School of Architecture and Landscape, London
Leeds Beckett University, Faculty of Arts, Environment and Technology, Leeds
Liverpool John Moores University, Faculty of Media, Arts and Social Science Liverpool
London Metropolitan University, School of Art, Architecture and Design, London
London School of Architecture, London
London South Bank University, Architecture and Design, South Bank, London
Newcastle University, Newcastle University School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Newcastle upon Tyne
Northumbria University, Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Newcastle upon Tyne
Norwich University of the Arts, School of Architecture, Norwich
Nottingham Trent University (NTU), School of Architecture, Design and the Built Environment, Nottingham
Oxford School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford
Ravensbourne University London, Department of Architecture, Greenwich Peninsula, London
Royal College of Art, School of Architecture, London
The Manchester School of Architecture, Manchester
Sheffield Hallam University, Department of Architecture and Planning, Sheffield
University of the Arts London, Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design
University of Bath Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Bath
University of Brighton
University of Cambridge, Department of Architecture, Cambridge
University of Central Lancashire, The Grenfell-Baines School of Architecture, Preston
University of East London, School of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, London
University of Greenwich, Department of Architecture and Landscape, London
University of Huddersfield, School of Art, Design and Architecture, Huddersfield
University of Lincoln, Lincoln School of Architecture, Lincoln
University of Lancaster, Lancaster School of Architecture, Lancaster
University of Liverpool, Liverpool University School of Architecture, Liverpool
University of Nottingham, Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Nottingham
University of Plymouth, School of Architecture, Design and Environment, Plymouth
University of Portsmouth, UK
University of Reading, School of Architecture, Reading, Berkshire
University of Sheffield, Sheffield School of Architecture, Sheffield
University of the West of England, Faculty of the Built Environment, Frenchay Campus, Bristol
University of Westminster, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Marylebone, London
Northern Ireland
Queens University of Belfast, School of Architecture
The University of Ulster Architecture, School of Architecture, Belfast
Scotland
Dundee School of Architecture, University of Dundee, Dundee
ESALA, Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art (University of Glasgow), Glasgow
Robert Gordon University, The Scott Sutherland School of Architecture, Aberdeen
University of Strathclyde, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, Strathclyde
Wales
Centre for Alternative Technology, Graduate School of the Environment, Machynlleth
University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Faculty of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, Swansea
Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University, Cardiff
North America
Canada
Alberta
University of Calgary School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Calgary
British Columbia
University of British Columbia School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Vancouver
Manitoba
University of Manitoba Faculty of Architecture, Winnipeg
Nova Scotia
Dalhousie University (formerly Technical University of Nova Scotia) Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Halifax
Ontario
Carleton University, Azrieli School of Architecture and Urbanism, Ottawa
Laurentian University, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Architecture, Greater Sudbury
Toronto Metropolitan University, Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Applied Science, Toronto
University of Toronto, John H. Daniels Faculty of Architecture, Landscape and Design, Toronto
University of Waterloo, School of Architecture, Cambridge
Quebec
McGill University School of Architecture, Montreal
Université de Montréal, Faculté de l'aménagement, Montréal
Université Laval, École d'Architecture, Faculté d'aménagement, d'architecture et des arts visuels
Mexico
CEDIM, Centro de Estudios Superiores de Diseño de Monterrey, S.C., Departamento de Arquitectura
Instituto Superior de Arquitectura y Diseño (ISAD), Chihuahua, Mexico
ITESM, Carrera de Arquitectura
ITESO, Instituto Tecnologico de Estudios Superiores de Occidente
UDG, Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de Arte, Arquitectura y Diseño
UG, Universidad de Guanajuato, Departamento de Arquitectura
UIA, Universidad Iberoamericana, Departamento de Arquitectura
UNAM, Facultad de Arquitectura, Mexico City
UADY, Faculty of Architecture – Facultad de Arquitectura, Mérida, Yucatán
UANL, Univestidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Arquitectura
UA, Universidad Anáhuac Mexico Norte, Departamento de Arquitectura
Universidad Autonoma the Guadalajara (UAG)
Universidad de las Americas Puebla (UDLAP), Departamento de Arquitectura
Universidad de Monterrey, Universidad de Monterrey, Departamento de Arquitectura
Puerto Rico
Escuela de Arquitectura de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Puerto Rico, Ponce, Puerto Rico
United States
Central America
Costa Rica
Costa Rica Institute of Technology, Escuela de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Campus San José, San José
Universidad Autónoma de Centro América, Curridabat
Universidad Central de Costa Rica, Escuela de Ingenierías y Arquitectura, Barrio Escalante
Universidad Creativa de Costa Rica
University of Costa Rica, Escuela de Arquitectura, San José
Universidad de las Ciencias y el Arte, facultad de Diseño, San José
Universidad Hispanoamericana, Escuela de Arquitectura, Barrio Escalante
Universidad Interamericana, Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, Heredia, Costa Rica|Heredia
Universidad Internacional de las Américas, Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, San José
Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura
Universidad Latinoamericana de las Ciencias y la Tecnología, Facultad de Ingenierías y Arquitectura, Escuela de Arquitectura
Universidad Veritas, Escuela de Arte, Diseño y Arquitectura
Cuba
Instituto Superior Politecnico de Julio Antonio Mella
Jose Antonio Echeverria Higher Technical University
Universidad Central Marta Abreu de las Villas, Facultad de Arquitectura
Dominican Republic
Pontifica Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra
Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo
Universidad Católica Nordestana
Universidad Central del Este
Universidad Dominicana O & M
Universidad Iberoamericana
Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Ureña
Universidad Tecnológica de Santiago
Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Exactas
Universidad Católica del Cibao
El Salvador
Universidad Albert Einstein
Universidad Católica de El Salvador
Universidad Centroamericana José Simeon Cañas
Universidad de El Salvador
Universidad de Oriente
Universidad Dr. José Matías Delgado
Universidad Francisco Gavidia
Universidad Gerardo Barrios
Universidad Politécnica de El Salvador
Universidad Tecnológica de El Salvador
Guatemala
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala
Universidad del Istmo
Universidad Francisco Marroquín
Universidad Mariano Galvez
Universidad Mesoamericana
Universidad Rafael Landívar
Honduras
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Campus Tegucigalpa
Universidad José Cecilio Del Valle
Universidad Católica de Honduras
Universidad de San Pedro Sula
Universidad Tecnologica Centroamericana
Centro de Diseño, Arquitectura y Construcción (CEDAC)
Nicaragua
Universidad Católica REDEMPTORIS MATER
Universidad Centroamericana
Universidad del Valle
Universidad Iberoamericana de Ciencia y Tecnología
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería
Panama
Columbus University, Escuela de Arquitectura
Isthmus, Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño de América Latina y el Caribe
Quality Leadership University
Universidad Católica Santa María la Antigua, Escuela de Diseño
Universidad de Panamá, Facultad de Arquitectura, Escuela de Arquitectura
Universidad Autónoma de Chiriquí, Facultad de Arquitectura http://www.unachi.ac.pa
Universidad Interamericana de Panamá, Facultad de Ingenierías y Arquitectura, Escuela de Arquitectura
Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Escuela de Ingenierías
South America
Argentina
Universidad Argentina John F. Kennedy, Escuela de Arquitectura, Buenos Aires
Universidad Blas Pascal, Facultad de Arquitectura, Córdoba
Universidad Católica de Córdoba, Facultad de Arquitectura, Córdoba
Universidad Católica de La Plata, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño, La Plata
Universidad Católica de Salta, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Salta
Universidad Católica de Santa Fe, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño, Santa Fe
Universidad de Belgrano, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Belgrano
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Urbanismo, Buenos Aires
Universidad de Flores, Facultad de Planeamiento Socio-Ambiental, Buenos Aires, Cipolletti
Universidad de Mendoza, Facultad de Arquitectura, Urbanismo y Diseño, Mendoza/
Universidad de Moron, Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño, Arte y Urbanismo, Moron
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Arquitectura, Urbanismo y Diseño, Córdoba
Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, La Plata
Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Facultad de Arquitectura, Urbanismo y Diseño, Mar Del Plata
Universidad de Palermo, Facultad de Arquitectura, Buenos Aires
Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Facultad de Arquitectura, Planeamiento y Diseño, Rosario
Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Facultad de Arquitectura, San Juan
Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Tucumán
Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Urbanismo, Santa Fe
Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo Resistencia, Chaco
Universidad Torcuato di Tella, Escuela de Arquitectura y Estudios Urbanos, Buenos Aires
Brazil
Centro Universitário Belas Artes de São Paulo, CUBASP, São Paulo
Centro Universitário Izabela Hendrix, Belo Horizonte
Escola da Cidade, AEAUSP, São Paulo
Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, PUC-RS
Universidade de Brasília, UnB, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Brasília
Universidade de Fortaleza, UNIFOR, Fortaleza
Universidade de São Paulo, USP, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, São Paulo
Centro Universitário Filadélfia – UNIFIL, Londrina, Paraná,
Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, UNISINOS
Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Campinas
Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL)
Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho, UNESP
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, UFMG, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Belo Horizonte
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, UFPE
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina- UFSC
Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU)
Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV)
Universidade Federal do Ceará, UFC, Curso de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Fortaleza
Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, UFES
Universidade Federal do Pará, UFPA
Universidade Federal do Paraná, UFPR
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, UFRJ, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Rio de Janeiro
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS
Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, UPM, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, São Paulo
Universidade São Francisco, USF, Curso de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Itatiba
Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, UTFPR
Chile
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Estudios Urbanos
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseño
Universidad Católica del Norte Escuela de Arquitectura
Universidad de Chile Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Santiago
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María Departamento de Arquitectura
Colombia
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño
Universidad Catolica de Colombia, Facultad de Arquitectura, RIBA Accredited Program, Bogota
Universidad de America, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Bogota
Universidad de Boyacá, Facultad de Arquitectura y Bellas Artes, Programa de Arquitectura, Especialización en Diseño Urbano, Maestría en Urbanismo, Tunja, Boyacá
Universidad de Ibagué, Facultad de Humanidades, Programa de Arquitectura
Universidad de La Salle, Colombia, Universidad de La Salle, Facultad Facultad de Ciencias del Hábitat, Bogota
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Faculatad de Artes, Escuela de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Bogota
Universidad Piloto De Colombia, Faculdad de Arquitectura y Artes, Programa de Arquitectura
Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño, Medellín
Arquitectura
Universidad San Buenaventura, Facultad de Arquitectura
Universidad Santo Tomas, Facultad de Arquitectura, Tunja
Universidad de los Andes, Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de arquitectura y diseno, Bogotá
University of Valle, Facultad de Artes Integradas, Escuela de Arquitectura, Cali
University la Gran Colombia, Facultad de arquitectura, Bogotá
Ecuador
Central University of Ecuador, School of Architecture and Urbanism, Quito
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Artes, Quito
Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño Guayaquil
Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador, Facultad de Arquitectura
Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño Interior, Cumbaya, Quito
Perú
Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Applicadas, Facultad de Arquitectura, Lima
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Lima
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería Facultad de Arquitectura, Urbanismo y Artes, Lima
Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco Facultad de Arquitectura y Artes Plásticas, Cusco
Universidad Ricardo Palma, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo
Uruguay
Universidad de la República, Facultad de Arquitectura, Montevideo
Universidad ORT, Facultad de Arquitectura, Montevideo
Venezuela
Instituto Universitario Politecnico Santiago Mariño, Maracaibo, Cabimas, Ciudad Ojeda, Barinas, Mérida, San Cristobal, Caracas, Valencia, Maracay, Barcelona, Maturín, Puerto Ordaz y Porlamar, Facultad De Arquitectura
Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de la Universidad Central de Venezuela en Caracas
Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad Santa María en Caracas
Escuela de Arquitectura de la Universidad Simon Bolivar en Caracas
Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de la Universidad de Los Andes en Mérida
Facultad de Arquitectura y Diseño de la Universidad del Zulia en Maracaibo
Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de la Universidad de Carabobo en Valencia
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
Unitec New Zealand, architecture and landscape, Auckland
University of Auckland, National Institute of Creative Arts and Industries, School of Architecture and Planning, Auckland
Victoria University of Wellington, School of Architecture, Wellington
Ara Institute of Canterbury, Bachelor of Architectural Studies (Architectural Technology), Christchurch
References
External links
vitruvio.ch Architectural schools in the world
Top Architecture Universities in the UK
World's best architecture schools |
4304965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity%20in%20Japan | Christianity in Japan | Christianity in Japan is among the nation's minority religions in terms of individuals who state an explicit affiliation or faith.
In 2022, there were 1.9 million Christians in Japan. In the early years of the 21st century, between less than 1 percent and 1.5% of the population claimed Christian belief or affiliation.
Although formally banned in 1612 and today critically portrayed as a foreign "religion of colonialism", Christianity has played a role in the shaping of the relationship between religion and the Japanese state for more than four centuries. Most large Christian denominations, including Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Orthodox Christianity, are represented in Japan today.
Christian culture has a generally positive image in Japan. The majority of Japanese people are, traditionally, of the Shinto or Buddhist faith. The majority of Japanese couples, about 60–70%, are wed in 'nonreligious' Christian ceremonies. This makes Christian weddings the most influential aspect of Christianity in contemporary Japan.
Etymology
The Japanese word for is a compound of kirisuto (キリスト) the Japanese adaptation of the Portuguese word for Christ, Cristo, and the Sino-Japanese word for , as in Bukkyō (仏教, Japanese for Buddhism).
History
Missionaries and early expansion
The first appearance of Christianity in Japan was the arrival of the Portuguese Catholics in 1549. Navarrese missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Japan with three Japanese Catholic converts intending to start a church in Japan. The local Japanese people initially assumed that the foreigners were from India and that Christianity was a new "Indian faith". These mistaken impressions were due to already existing ties between the Portuguese and India; the Indian state of Goa was a central base for Portuguese India at the time, and a significant portion of the crew on board their ships were Indian Christians.
Later on, the Roman Catholic missionary activities were exclusively performed by Jesuits and mendicant orders, such as the Franciscans and Dominicans. Francis Xavier (who would later be canonized a Catholic saint for his missionary work), Cosme de Torres (a Jesuit priest), and Juan Fernández were the first who arrived in Kagoshima hoping to bring Christianity to Japan. Xavier and the Jesuit order were held in good esteem, and his efforts seem to have been rewarded with a thriving community of converts. At baptism, these converts were given Portuguese "Christian names" and forced to adopt Western cultural habits. This practice contributed to suspicions that the converts were in reality foreign agents working to subvert the local social order.
The earliest success Christianity witnessed in Japan occurred in Kyushu. Conversions of local warlords like Ōmura Sumitada, Arima Yoshisada, and Ōtomo Sōrin led to the conversion of many of their subjects. The conversion of several elites in the area was likely due to the decentralized nature of the Sengoku period where warlords vied for control among themselves. This power vacuum led some warlords to believe that being more open to external sources of power and legitimacy as a possible method to gain an advantage. As several daimyos and their subjects converted to Christianity, the destruction of Buddhist and Shinto temples and shrines would often accompany it, with the Jesuits also contributing to the destruction and persecutions. Buddhist monks and Shinto priests would face persecution by being forcefully evicted out of their religious sites, be forced to marry, or forced to convert.
Perceived threat to Japan
Under Oda Nobunaga, the Jesuits enjoyed the favor of his regency. The successor of Oda, Toyotomi Hideyoshi at first protected Christianity, however later changed his policy with the publishing of the Bateren Edict, banning missionary activities. After conquering Kyushu, Hideyoshi visited Hakozaki and came to believe that Jesuits were selling Japanese people as slaves overseas, Christians were destroying shrines and temples, and people were being forced to convert to Christianity, resulting in the aforementioned edict. Alessandro Valignano, on 14 December 1582 wrote a letter to Governor-General of the Philippines Francisco de Sande Picón stating that it would be impossible to conquer Japan by military power and converting Japan to Christianity was the most important task of church. Scholars also theorise that Hideyoshi believed the true mission of the Christian missionaries was to convert the Japanese population to Christianity, overthrow the government, and turn it into a colony.
In 1637, Matsukura Katsuie misgoverned his territory and imposed a high tax onto people and oppressed Christians. This, combined with famine, led to the Shimabara Rebellion. First it was a peasant movement, but later Christians joined the rebellion, resulting in Ieyasu's ban on Christianity. This was the largest rebellion in the history of Japan and convinced the Shogunate that Christianity was a threat to them, causing them to isolate Japan from the outside world for almost 250 years.
Persecution under the Shogunate
Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. During Toyotomi rule especially, foreign missionaries were killed in Japan, some by (Japanese-style) crucifixion; most famously, the twenty-six martyrs of Japan were tortured and crucified on crosses outside Nagasaki to discourage Christianity in 1597. (Hideyoshi nonetheless showed favor to daimyō who had converted, such as Konishi Yukinaga.) Following a brief respite as Tokugawa Ieyasu rose to power and pursued trade with the Portuguese powers, there were further persecutions and martyrdoms in 1613, 1630, 1632 and 1634.
The Tokugawa shoguns eradicated Christianity in Japan via murder, persecution and decrees. In 1638, an estimated 37,000 people (mostly Christians), were massacred after the Christian-led Shimabara Rebellion. In 50 years, the crackdown policies of the shoguns reduced the number of Christians to near zero.
By this point, after the Shimabara Rebellion, the remaining Christians had been forced to publicly renounce their faith. Many continued practicing Christianity in secret, in modern times becoming known as the . These secret believers would often conceal Christian iconography in closed shrines, lanterns or inconspicuous parts of buildings. For example, Himeji Castle has a Christian cross on one of its 17th-century roof tiles, in place of a mon, indicating that one of its occupants was a secret Christian.
Drawn from the oral histories of Japanese Catholic communities, Shūsaku Endō's historical novel Silence provides detailed fictionalised accounts of the persecution of Christian communities and the suppression of the Church.
Opening of Japan
Captain Herbert Clifford was an officer in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars and the founder of the Loochoo Naval Mission (1843). Clifford worked with missionary the Rev. Bernard Jean Bettelheim, who was the first Christian missionary to Okinawa.
After Japan was opened to greater foreign interaction in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. After the Meiji Restoration, freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching.
Culture
Japan remains one of the most secular nations in the world according to the World Values Survey.
Christianity in Japan is spread among many denominational affiliations. In the early 2000s, 70 percent of Japanese churches had an average attendance of less than 50, though membership was often almost double this figure.
Holidays
The celebration of selected Christian holidays has gained popularity in Japan since the Second World War – primarily as commercial events, but with also an emphasis on sharing time with loved ones, either significant others or close family.
Except in Japan's minority Christian communities, Easter is not typically marked by any special form of celebration.
Christmas in Japan is celebrated on a much larger scale as a commercial and secular festival, but again is not an official public holiday. Christmas lights, Santa Claus, parties, gift exchanges, and eating Western-inspired Christmas foods, especially Kentucky Fried Chicken and strawberry shortcake, are all familiar features of this event. Many Christians have criticized this as a commercialization of the holiday, being contrary to the teachings of Jesus Christ. In Japan rather than being a family or religious occasion, Christmas is seen as a time to spend with friends or a significant other. Christmas Eve is celebrated as a couple's holiday on which romantic gifts are exchanged.
St. Valentine's Day in Japan is also celebrated, but the normal Western cultural traditions are often reversed – women give men a gift of chocolate, and on White Day, one month later, the favor is returned. Gifts are not exclusive to romantic relationships; women exchange gifts most frequently between one another and will occasionally give male co-workers chocolate, although this latter exchange is often referred to as an obligation gift. It is not as common for couples to go out on dates together; that element seems to be reflected in Christmas Eve instead.
Expression
Christian weddings have become prominent as an alternative (or addition) to traditional Shinto ceremonies. This is partially due to the successful missionary efforts of Japanese Christian churches and commercial endeavors. Architecturally resembling churches, wedding chapels have sprung up across Japan to meet the needs of Japanese who do not join Christian churches but still desire the ceremony.
Major denominations
Catholicism
Catholicism in Japan operates in communion with the worldwide Catholic Church under the authority of the Pope in Rome. In 2021 there were approximately 431,100 Catholics in Japan (0.34% of the total population), 6,200 of whom are clerics, religious and seminarians. Japan has 15 dioceses, including three metropolitan archdioceses, with 34 bishops, 1,235 priests, and 40 deacons spread out across 957 churches (parishes, quasi-parishes, mission stations, and assembly centres). The patron saints of Japan are Francis Xavier and Peter Baptist.
When Francis Xavier arrived in Japan in 1549 as the first Catholic missionary to the archipelago, Catholicism was Japan's first contact with organized Christianity. The Catholic Church remained the only major source of Christianization in Japan until the fall of the shogunate in 1867 and the Meiji restoration of 1868. The Society of Jesus started the initial missions, joined later on by the less cautious Franciscan order. Twenty Catholic missionaries operated in Japan by 1570. Nagasaki became the center of Japanese Catholicism, and maintained close cultural and religious ties to its Portuguese origins. These ties were severed once Christianity was outlawed in the early-17th century; at this point, Catholicism went underground, its rites preserved by the Kakure Kirishitan, or "hidden Christians", who continued practicing their faith in secret private devotion.
The samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga led a diplomatic mission, accompanied by over one hundred Japanese Christians and twenty-two samurai, to see Pope Paul V. Hasekura arrived in Acapulco, Mexico (then New Spain) in 1614; and would then travel to Spain. After meeting with King Philip III, Hasekura was baptized as a Catholic under the name Felipe Francisco de Fachicura. After traveling to France and Rome, Hasekura returned to Japan in 1620 and was forced to renounce his adopted religion after Christianity was banned.
A multitude of Japanese Catholics were brutally tortured and killed for their faith, thus becoming martyrs. Many of these martyrs have been canonized, and their liturgical memorial is celebrated each year on February 6 in honor of their fidelity to "Christ and his Church" unto death.
In 1981 Pope John Paul II paid a visit to Japan, during which he met with Japanese people, the clergy, and Catholic lay-people, held Holy Mass in the Korakuen Stadium (Tokyo), and visited the Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima, the Hill of Martyrs in Nagasaki, town of the Immaculate founded by St. Maximilian Kolbe in Nagasaki, and other places. Pope Francis also visited Japan in 2019.
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy is a minor religion in Japan. The current primate of Japan is vacant. The primate's seat is the Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Chiyoda, Tokyo. Founded in 1891, the cathedral has been known as Nikolai-do in honor of its founder Nicholas Kasatkin. The cathedral serves as the seat of the national primate of Japan and continues to be the main center of Orthodox Christian worship in Japan.
Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church to Hakodate, Hokkaidō as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament and some other religious books (Lenten Triodion, Pentecostarion, Feast Services, Book of Psalms, Irmologion) into Japanese. The Patriarchate of Moscow glorified (that is, canonized as a saint) Nicholas in 1970; he is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles. His commemoration day is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky, appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm during the Russian Revolution, was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000.
The Ecumenical Patriarchate is also present with the Greek Orthodox Exarchate of Japan under the Orthodox Metropolis of Korea.
Protestantism
James Curtis Hepburn, M.D., LL.D. (March 13, 1815 – June 11, 1911) was the first Presbyterian missionary to Japan, arriving in 1859, the same year as the first ordained representatives of the Anglican Communion, the Rev., later Bishop, Channing Moore Williams, founder of Rikkyo University, Tokyo, and the Rev. John Liggins of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.
Hepburn went to Japan initially as a medical missionary with the American Presbyterian Mission opening a clinic in Kanagawa Prefecture, near present-day Tokyo. He later founded the Hepburn School, which developed into Meiji Gakuin University, and wrote a Japanese–English dictionary. In the dictionary's third edition, published in 1886, Hepburn adopted a new system for romanization of the Japanese language (Rōmajikai). This system is widely known as Hepburn romanization because Hepburn's dictionary popularized it. Hepburn also contributed to the Protestant translation of the Bible into Japanese. Hepburn returned to the United States in 1892. On March 14, 1905, Hepburn's 90th birthday, he was awarded the decoration of the Order of the Rising Sun, third class. Hepburn was the second foreigner to receive this honor.
Divie Bethune McCartee was the first ordained Presbyterian minister missionary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract translated into Japanese was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865 McCartee moved back to Ningbo, China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan reopened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period.
The post-World War II years have seen increasing activity by evangelicals, initially with North American influence, and some growth occurred between 1945 and 1960. The Japanese Bible Society was established in 1937 with the help of National Bible Society of Scotland (NBSS, now called the Scottish Bible Society), the American Bible Society, the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Other Christian
Jehovah's Witnesses
In 2020, the number of Jehovah's Witnesses was 212,683 active publishers, united in 2,964 congregations; 273,856 people attended annual celebration of Lord's Evening Meal in 2020. Before 1945 they were banned in Japan. Many Jehovah's Witnesses were jailed; one of them, Katsuo Miura, was in the Hiroshima prison during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
As of year-end 2009, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) reported 29 stakes, 14 districts, 163 wards, 125 branches, 7 missions, and 3 temples in Japan. As of July 2016, there are 128,216 members. The LDS Church was established in Japan in 1901 when the first LDS Church missionaries arrived on August 12, 1901. Among them was Heber J. Grant, at the time a member of the Quorum of the Twelve, and later the 7th President of the Church.
As of March 15, 2011 there were over 630 LDS missionaries serving in the church's six missions in Japan.
Art and media
Christian art in Japan dates back to the 16th century, with traditional shrines and Japanese artwork depicting the Christian faith within Japan. When Christianity was illegal in Japan, the local Christians developed distinctive forms of Christian art, literature, and cultural practices.
Christian media is prevalent within the popular culture of Japan, despite its relatively small Christian population. Superbook was a mainstream anime during the 1980s, and it remains a popular Christian media franchise worldwide. Because of this Christianity remains a popular topic in manga and anime, including Trigun and Saint Young Men. Gospel and contemporary Christian music are part of popular music in the country, the largest Christian music festival in the country is the Sunza Rock Festival, which is where many of Japan's CCM artists and bands perform.
International Christian University is the alma mater of several Japanese media professionals, including Kaz Hirai, the former chairman of Sony. Sony owns several Christian media studios and outlets, including the Pure Flix streaming service.
See also
Religion in Japan
Notes
References
External links |
4305070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Western%20civilization | History of Western civilization | Western civilization traces its roots back to Europe and the Mediterranean. It is linked to ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Medieval Western Christendom which emerged during the Middle Ages and experienced such transformative episodes as the development of Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, and the development of liberal democracy. The earliest concept of Europe as cultural sphere (instead of simple geographic term) appeared during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, which reflected to the territories of the Western Christianity. However "European" as cultural term did not include the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century. The civilizations of Classical Greece and Ancient Rome are considered seminal periods in Western history. Major cultural contributions also came from the Christianized Germanic peoples, such as the Franks, the Goths, and the Burgundians. Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire and he is referred to as the "Father of Europe." Contributions also emerged from pagan peoples of pre-Christian Europe, such as the Celts and Germanic pagans as well as some significant religious contributions derived from Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism stemming back to Second Temple Judea, Galilee, and the early Jewish diaspora; and some other Middle Eastern influences. Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, which throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. (There were Christians outside of the West, such as China, India, Russia, Byzantium and the Middle East). Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern Americas and Oceania, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries in many ways.
Following the 5th century Fall of Rome, Europe entered the Middle Ages, during which period the Catholic Church filled the power vacuum left in the West by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, while the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire) endured in the East for centuries, becoming a Hellenic Eastern contrast to the Latin West. By the 12th century, Western Europe was experiencing a flowering of art and learning, propelled by the construction of cathedrals, the establishment of medieval universities, and greater contact with the medieval Islamic world via Al-Andalus and Sicily, from where Arabic texts on science and philosophy were translated into Latin. Christian unity was shattered by the Reformation from the 16th century. A merchant class grew out of city states, initially in the Italian peninsula (see Italian city-states), and Europe experienced the Renaissance from the 14th to the 17th century, heralding an age of technological and artistic advance and ushering in the Age of Discovery which saw the rise of such global European empires as those of Portugal and Spain.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, the Age of Revolution emerged from the United States and France as part of the transformation of the West into its industrialised, democratised modern form. The lands of North and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand became first part of European empires and then home to new Western nations, while Africa and Asia were largely carved up between Western powers. Laboratories of Western democracy were founded in Britain's colonies in Australasia from the mid-19th centuries, while South America largely created new autocracies. In the 20th century, absolute monarchy disappeared from Europe, and despite episodes of Fascism and Communism, by the close of the century, virtually all of Europe was electing its leaders democratically. Most Western nations were heavily involved in the First and Second World Wars and protracted Cold War. World War II saw Fascism defeated in Europe, and the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as rival global powers and a new "East-West" political contrast.
Other than in Russia, the European empires disintegrated after World War II and civil rights movements and widescale multi-ethnic, multi-faith migrations to Europe, the Americas and Oceania lowered the earlier predominance of ethnic Europeans in Western culture. European nations moved towards greater economic and political co-operation through the European Union. The Cold War ended around 1990 with the collapse of Soviet-imposed Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the 21st century, the Western World retains significant global economic power and influence. The West has contributed a great many technological, political, philosophical, artistic and religious aspects to modern international culture: having been a crucible of Catholicism, Protestantism, democracy, industrialisation; the first major civilisation to seek to abolish slavery during the 19th century, the first to enfranchise women (beginning in Australasia at the end of the 19th century) and the first to put to use such technologies as steam, electric and nuclear power. The West invented cinema, television, radio, telephone, the automobile, rocketry, flight, electric light, the personal computer and the Internet; produced artists such as Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Leonardo da Vinci, Beethoven, Vincent van Gogh, Picasso, Bach, and Mozart; developed sports such as soccer, cricket, golf, tennis, rugby and basketball; and transported humans to an astronomical object for the first time with the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon Landing.
Antiquity: before AD 500
The Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages: 500–1000
While the Roman Empire and Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the Byzantine Empire centered at Constantinople in the East, Western civilization suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476. Gradually however, the Christian religion re-asserted its influence over Western Europe.
After the Fall of Rome, the papacy served as a source of authority and continuity. In the absence of a magister militum living in Rome, even the control of military matters fell to the pope. Gregory the Great (c 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. A trained Roman lawyer and administrator, and a monk, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook and was a father of many of the structures of the later Roman Catholic Church. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he looked upon Church and State as co-operating to form a united whole, which acted in two distinct spheres, ecclesiastical and secular, but by the time of his death, the papacy was the great power in Italy:
According to tradition, it was a Romanized Briton, Saint Patrick who introduced Christianity to Ireland around the 5th century. Roman legions had never conquered Ireland, and as the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Christianity managed to survive there. Monks sought out refuge at the far fringes of the known world: like Cornwall, Ireland, or the Hebrides. Disciplined scholarship carried on in isolated outposts like Skellig Michael in Ireland, where literate monks became some of the last preservers in Western Europe of the poetic and philosophical works of Western antiquity.
By around 800 they were producing illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells. The missions of Gaelic monasteries led by monks like St Columba spread Christianity back into Western Europe during the Middle Ages, establishing monasteries initially in northern Britain, then through Anglo-Saxon England and the Frankish Empire during the Middle Ages. Thomas Cahill, in his 1995 book How the Irish Saved Civilization, credited Irish Monks with having "saved" Western Civilization during this period. According to art historian Kenneth Clark, for some five centuries after the fall of Rome, virtually all men of intellect joined the Church and practically nobody in western Europe outside of monastic settlements had the ability to read or write.
Around AD 500, Clovis I, the King of the Franks, became a Christian and united Gaul under his rule. Later in the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire restored its rule in much of Italy and Spain. Missionaries sent from Ireland by the Pope helped to convert England to Christianity in the 6th century as well, restoring that faith as the dominant in Western Europe.
Muhammed, the founder and Prophet of Islam was born in Mecca in AD 570. Working as a trader he encountered the ideas of Christianity and Judaism on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire, and around 610 began preaching of a new monotheistic religion, Islam, and in 622 became the civil and spiritual leader of Medina, soon after conquering Mecca in 630. Dying in 632, Muhammed's new creed conquered first the Arabian tribes, then the great Byzantine cities of Damascus in 635 and Jerusalem in 636. A multiethnic Islamic empire was established across the formerly Roman Middle East and North Africa. By the early 8th century, Iberia and Sicily had fallen to the Muslims. By the 9th century, Malta, Cyprus, and Crete had fallen – and for a time the region of Septimania.
Only in 732 was the Muslim advance into Europe stopped by the Frankish leader Charles Martel, saving Gaul and the rest of the West from conquest by Islam. From this time, the "West" became synonymous with Christendom, the territory ruled by Christian powers, as Oriental Christianity fell to dhimmi status under the Muslim Caliphates. The cause to liberate the "Holy Land" remained a major focus throughout medieval history, fueling many consecutive crusades, only the first of which was successful (although it resulted in many atrocities, in Europe as well as elsewhere).
Charlemagne ("Charles the Great" in English) became king of the Franks. He conquered Gaul (modern day France), northern Spain, Saxony, and northern and central Italy. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule, his subjects in non-Christian lands like Germany converted to Christianity.
After his reign, the empire he created broke apart into the kingdom of France (from Francia meaning "land of the Franks"), Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom in between (containing modern day Switzerland, northern-Italy, Eastern France and the low-countries).
Starting in the late 8th century, the Vikings began seaborne attacks on the towns and villages of Europe. Eventually, they turned from raiding to conquest, and conquered Ireland, most of England, and northern France (Normandy). These conquests were not long-lasting, however. In 954 Alfred the Great drove the Vikings out of England, which he united under his rule, and Viking rule in Ireland ended as well. In Normandy the Vikings adopted French culture and language, became Christians and were absorbed into the native population.
By the beginning of the 11th century Scandinavia was divided into three kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, all of which were Christian and part of Western civilization. Norse explorers reached Iceland, Greenland, and even North America, however only Iceland was permanently settled by the Norse. A period of warm temperatures from around 1000–1200 enabled the establishment of a Norse outpost in Greenland in 985, which survived for some 400 years as the most westerly outpost of Christendom. From here, Norseman attempted their short-lived European colony in North America, five centuries before Columbus.
In the 10th century another marauding group of warriors swept through Europe, the Magyars. They eventually settled in what is today Hungary, converted to Christianity and became the ancestors of the Hungarian people.
A West Slavic people, the Poles, formed a unified state by the 10th century and having adopted Christianity also in the 10th century but with pagan rising in the 11th century.
By the start of the second millennium AD, the West had become divided linguistically into three major groups. The Romance languages, based on Latin, the language of the Romans, the Germanic languages, and the Celtic languages. The most widely spoken Romance languages were French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish. Four widely spoken Germanic languages were English, German, Dutch, and Danish. Irish and Scots Gaelic were two widely spoken Celtic languages in the British Isles.
High Middle Ages: 1000–1300
Art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Western Europe's first "great age of civilisation" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote: "every branch of life – action, philosophy, organisation, technology [experienced an] extraordinary outpouring of energy, an intensification of existence". Upon this period rests the foundations of many of Europe's subsequent achievements. By Clark's account, the Catholic Church was very powerful, essentially internationalist and democratic in its structures and run by monastic organisations generally following the Rule of Saint Benedict. Men of intelligence usually joined religious orders and those of intellectual, administrative or diplomatic skill could advance beyond the usual restraints of society – leading churchmen from faraway lands were accepted in local bishoprics, linking European thought across wide distances. Complexes like the Abbey of Cluny became vibrant centres with dependencies spread throughout Europe. Ordinary people also trekked vast distances on pilgrimages to express their piety and pray at the site of holy relics. Monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art and providing stark contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture and believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clark calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".
By the year 1000 feudalism had become the dominant social, economic and political system. At the top of society was the monarch, who gave land to nobles in exchange for loyalty. The nobles gave land to vassals, who served as knights to defend their monarch or noble. Under the vassals were the peasants or serfs. The feudal system thrived as long as peasants needed protection by the nobility from invasions originating inside and outside of Europe. So as the 11th century progressed, the feudal system declined along with the threat of invasion.
In 1054, after centuries of strained relations, the Great Schism occurred over differences in doctrine, splitting the Christian world between the Catholic Church, centered in Rome and dominant in the West, and the Orthodox Church, centered in Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. The last pagan land in Europe was converted to Christianity with the conversion of the Baltic peoples in the High Middle Ages, bringing them into Western civilization as well.
As the Medieval period progressed, the aristocratic military ideal of Chivalry and institution of knighthood based around courtesy and service to others became culturally important. Large Gothic cathedrals of extraordinary artistic and architectural intricacy were constructed throughout Europe, including Canterbury Cathedral in England, Cologne Cathedral in Germany and Chartres Cathedral in France (called the "epitome of the first great awakening in European civilisation" by Kenneth Clark). The period produced ever more extravagant art and architecture, but also the virtuous simplicity of such as St Francis of Assisi (expressed in the Prayer of St Francis) and the epic poetry of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. As the Church grew more powerful and wealthy, many sought reform. The Dominican and Franciscan Orders were founded, which emphasized poverty and spirituality.
Women were in many respects excluded from political and mercantile life, however, leading churchwomen were an exception. Medieval abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots: "They treated with kings, bishops, and the greatest lords on terms of perfect equality;. . . they were present at all great religious and national solemnities, at the dedication of churches, and even, like the queens, took part in the deliberation of the national assemblies...". The increasing popularity of devotion to the Virgin Mary (the mother of Jesus) secured maternal virtue as a central cultural theme of Catholic Europe. Kenneth Clark wrote that the 'Cult of the Virgin' in the early 12th century "had taught a race of tough and ruthless barbarians the virtues of tenderness and compassion".
In 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to re-conquer the Holy Land from Muslim rule, when the Seljuk Turks prevented Christians from visiting the holy sites there. For centuries prior to the emergence of Islam, Asia Minor and much of the Mid East had been a part of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires. The Crusades were originally launched in response to a call from the Byzantine Emperor for help to fight the expansion of the Turks into Anatolia. The First Crusade succeeded in its task, but at a serious cost on the home front, and the crusaders established rule over the Holy Land. However, Muslim forces reconquered the land by the 13th century, and subsequent crusades were not very successful. The specific crusades to restore Christian control of the Holy Land were fought over a period of nearly 200 years, between 1095 and 1291. Other campaigns in Spain and Portugal (the Reconquista), and Northern Crusades continued into the 15th century. The Crusades had major far-reaching political, economic, and social impacts on Europe. They further served to alienate Eastern and Western Christendom from each other and ultimately failed to prevent the march of the Turks into Europe through the Balkans and the Caucasus.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, many of the classical Greek texts were translated into Arabic and preserved in the medieval Islamic world, from where the Greek classics along with Arabic science and philosophy were transmitted to Western Europe and translated into Latin during the Renaissance of the 12th century and 13th century.
Cathedral schools began in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education, some of them ultimately evolving into medieval universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation; and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research The Italian University of Bologna is considered the oldest continually operating university.
Philosophy in the High Middle Ages focused on religious topics. Christian Platonism, which modified Plato's idea of the separation between the ideal world of the forms and the imperfect world of their physical manifestations to the Christian division between the imperfect body and the higher soul was at first the dominant school of thought. However, in the 12th century the works of Aristotle were reintroduced to the West, which resulted in a new school of inquiry known as scholasticism, which emphasized scientific observation. Two important philosophers of this period were Saint Anselm and Saint Thomas Aquinas, both of whom were concerned with proving God's existence through philosophical means. The Summa Theologica by Aquinas was one of the most influential documents in medieval philosophy and Thomism continues to be studied today in philosophy classes. Theologian Peter Abelard wrote in 1122 "I must understand in order that I may believe... by doubting we come to questioning, and by questioning we perceive the truth".
In Normandy, the Vikings adopted French culture and language, mixed with the native population of mostly Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock and became known as the Normans. They played a major political, military, and cultural role in medieval Europe and even the Near East. They were famed for their martial spirit and Christian piety. They quickly adopted the Romance language of the land they settled in, their dialect becoming known as Norman, an important literary language. The Duchy of Normandy, which they formed by treaty with the French crown, was one of the great large fiefs of medieval France. The Normans are famed both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture, and their musical traditions, as well as for their military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers established a kingdom in Sicily and southern Italy by conquest, and a Norman expedition on behalf of their duke led to the Norman Conquest of England. Norman influence spread from these new centres to the Crusader States in the Near East, to Scotland and Wales in Great Britain, and to Ireland.
Relations between the major powers in Western society: the nobility, monarchy and clergy, sometimes produced conflict. If a monarch attempted to challenge church power, condemnation from the church could mean a total loss of support among the nobles, peasants, and other monarchs. Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, one of the most powerful men of the 11th century, stood three days bare-headed in the snow at Canossa in 1077, in order to reverse his excommunication by Pope Gregory VII. As monarchies centralized their power as the Middle Ages progressed, nobles tried to maintain their own authority. The sophisticated Court of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II was based in Sicily, where Norman, Byzantine, and Islamic civilization had intermingled. His realm stretched through Southern Italy, through Germany and in 1229, he crowned himself King of Jerusalem. His reign saw tension and rivalry with the Papacy over control of Northern Italy. A patron of education, Frederick founded the University of Naples.
Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Henry V left his mark with a famous victory against larger numbers at the Battle of Agincourt, while Richard the Lionheart, who had earlier distinguished himself in the Third Crusade, was later romanticised as an iconic figure in English folklore. A distinctive English culture emerged under the Plantagenets, encouraged by some of the monarchs who were patrons of the "father of English poetry", Geoffrey Chaucer. The Gothic architecture style was popular during the time, with buildings such as Westminster Abbey remodelled in that style. King John's sealing of the Magna Carta was influential in the development of common law and constitutional law. The 1215 Charter required the King to proclaim certain liberties, and accept that his will was not arbitrary — for example by explicitly accepting that no "freeman" (non-serf) could be punished except through the law of the land, a right which is still in existence today. Political institutions such as the Parliament of England and the Model Parliament originate from the Plantagenet period, as do educational institutions including the universities of Cambridge and Oxford.
From the 12th century onward inventiveness had re-asserted itself outside of the Viking north and the Islamic south of Europe. Universities flourished, mining of coal commenced, and crucial technological advances such as the lock, which enabled sail ships to reach the thriving Belgian city of Bruges via canals, and the deep sea ship guided by magnetic compass and rudder were invented.
Late Middle Ages: 1300–1500
A cooling in temperatures after about 1150 saw leaner harvests across Europe and consequent shortages of food and flax material for clothing. Famines increased and in 1316 serious famine gripped Ypres. In 1410, the last of the Greenland Norseman abandoned their colony to the ice. From Central Asia, Mongol invasions progressed towards Europe throughout the 13th century, resulting in the vast Mongol Empire which became the largest empire of history and ruled over almost half of the human population and expanded through the world by 1300.
The Papacy had its court at Avignon from 1305 to 1378 This arose from the conflict between the Papacy and the French crown. A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon; all were French, and all were increasingly under the influence of the French crown. Finally in 1377 Gregory XI, in part because of the entreaties of the mystic Saint Catherine of Sienna, restored the Holy See to Rome, officially ending the Avignon papacy. However, in 1378 the breakdown in relations between the cardinals and Gregory's successor, Urban VI, gave rise to the Western Schism — which saw another line of Avignon Popes set up as rivals to Rome (subsequent Catholic history does not grant them legitimacy). The period helped weaken the prestige of the Papacy in the buildup to the Protestant Reformation.
In the Later Middle Ages the Black Plague struck Europe, arriving in 1348. Europe was overwhelmed by the outbreak of bubonic plague, probably brought to Europe by the Mongols. The fleas hosted by rats carried the disease and it devastated Europe. Major cities like Paris, Hamburg, Venice and Florence lost half their population. Around 20 million people – up to a third of Europe's population – died from the plague before it receded. The plague periodically returned over the coming centuries.
The last centuries of the Middle Ages saw the waging of the Hundred Years' War between England and France. The war began in 1337 when the king of France laid claim to English-ruled Gascony in southern France, and the king of England claimed to be the rightful king of France. At first, the English conquered half of France and seemed likely to win the war, until the French were rallied by a peasant girl, who would later become a saint, Joan of Arc. Although she was captured and executed by the English, the French fought on and won the war in 1453. After the war, France gained all of Normandy excluding the city of Calais, which it gained in 1558.
Following the Mongols from Central Asia came the Ottoman Turks. By 1400 they had captured most of modern-day Turkey and extended their rule into Europe through the Balkans and as far as the Danube, surrounding even the fabled city of Constantinople. Finally, in 1453, one of Europe's greatest cities fell to the Turks. The Ottomans under the command of Sultan Mehmed II, fought a vastly outnumbered defending army commanded by Emperor Constantine XI — the last "Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire" — and blasted down the ancient walls with the terrifying new weaponry of the cannon. The Ottoman conquests sent refugee Greek scholars westward, contributing to the revival of the West's knowledge of the learning of Classical Antiquity.
Probably the first clock in Europe was installed in a Milan church in 1335, hinting at the dawning mechanical age. By the 14th century, the middle class in Europe had grown in influence and number as the feudal system declined. This spurred the growth of towns and cities in the West and improved the economy of Europe. This, in turn helped begin a cultural movement in the West known as the Renaissance, which began in Italy. Italy was dominated by city-states, many of which were nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire, and were ruled by wealthy aristocrats like the Medicis, or in some cases, by the pope.
Renaissance and Reformation
The Renaissance: 14th to 17th century
The Renaissance, originating from Italy, ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. The merchant cities of Florence, Genoa, Ghent, Nuremberg, Geneva, Zürich, Lisbon and Seville provided patrons of the arts and sciences and unleashed a flurry of activity.
The Medici became the leading family of Florence and fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua. Greatest artists like Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Giotto, Donatello, Titian and Raphael produced inspired works – their paintwork was more realistic-looking than had been created by Medieval artists and their marble statues rivalled and sometimes surpassed those of Classical Antiquity. Michelangelo carved his masterpiece David from marble between 1501 and 1504.
Humanist historian Leonardo Bruni, split the history in the antiquity, Middle Ages and modern period.
Churches began being built in the Romanesque style for the first time in centuries. While art and architecture flourished in Italy and then the Netherlands, religious reformers flowered in Germany and Switzerland; printing was establishing itself in the Rhineland and navigators were embarking on extraordinary voyages of discovery from Portugal and Spain.
Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. Secular thinkers like Machiavelli re-examined the history of Rome to draw lessons for civic governance. Theologians revisited the works of St Augustine. Important thinkers of the Renaissance in Northern Europe included the Catholic humanists Desiderius Erasmus, a Dutch theologian, and the English statesman and philosopher Thomas More, who wrote the seminal work Utopia in 1516. Humanism was an important development to emerge from the Renaissance. It placed importance on the study of human nature and worldly topics rather than religious ones. Important humanists of the time included the writers Petrarch and Boccaccio, who wrote in both Latin as had been done in the Middle Ages, as well as the vernacular, in their case Tuscan Italian.
As the calendar reached the year 1500, Europe was blossoming – with Leonardo da Vinci painting his Mona Lisa portrait not long after Christopher Columbus reached the Americas (1492), Amerigo Vespucci proofed that America is not a part of India, the Portuguese navigator Vasco Da Gama sailed around Africa into the Indian Ocean and Michelangelo completed his paintings of Old Testament themes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome (the expense of such artistic exuberance did much to spur the likes of Martin Luther in Northern Europe in their protests against the Church of Rome).
For the first time in European history, events North of the Alps and on the Atlantic Coast were taking centre stage. Important artists of this period included Bosch, Dürer, and Breugel. In Spain Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, other important works of literature in this period were the Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer and Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory. The most famous playwright of the era was the Englishman William Shakespeare whose sonnets and plays (including Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth) are considered some of the finest works ever written in the English language.
Meanwhile, the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia continued their centuries-long fight to reconquer the peninsula from its Muslim rulers. In 1492, the last Islamic stronghold, Granada, fell, and Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. Iberia's Jewish and Muslim minorities were forced to convert to Catholicism or be exiled. The Portuguese immediately looked to expand outward sending expeditions to explore the coasts of Africa and engage in trade with the mostly Muslim powers on the Indian Ocean, making Portugal wealthy. In 1492, a Spanish expedition of Christopher Columbus found the Americas during an attempt to find a western route to East Asia.
From the East, however, the Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent continued their advance into the heart of Christian Europe — besieging Vienna in 1529.
The 16th century saw the flowering of the Renaissance in the rest of the West. In the Kingdom of Poland, astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus deduced that the geocentric model of the universe was incorrect, and that in fact the planets revolve around the sun. In the Netherlands, the invention of the telescope and the microscope resulted in the investigation of the universe and the microscopic world. The father of modern science Galileo and Christiaan Huygens developed more advance telescopes and used these in their scientific research. The father of microbiology, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek pioneered the use of the microscope in the study of microbes and established microbiology as a scientific discipline. Advances in medicine and understanding of the human anatomy also increased in this time. Gerolamo Cardano partially invented several machines and introduced essential mathematics theories. In England, Sir Isaac Newton pioneered the science of physics. These events led to the so-called scientific revolution, which emphasized experimentation.
The Reformation: 1500–1650
The other major movement in the West in the 16th century was the Reformation, which would profoundly change the West and end its religious unity. The Reformation began in 1517 when the Catholic monk Martin Luther wrote his 95 Theses, which denounced the wealth and corruption of the church, as well as many Catholic beliefs, including the institution of the papacy and the belief that, in addition to faith in Christ, "good works" were also necessary for salvation. Luther drew on the beliefs of earlier church critics, like the Bohemian Jan Hus and the Englishman John Wycliffe. Luther's beliefs eventually ended in his excommunication from the Catholic Church and the founding of a church based on his teachings: the Lutheran Church, which became the majority religion in northern Germany. Soon other reformers emerged, and their followers became known as Protestants. In 1525, Ducal Prussia became the first Lutheran state.
In the 1540s the Frenchman John Calvin founded a church in Geneva which forbade alcohol and dancing, and which taught God had selected those destined to be saved from the beginning of time. His Calvinist Church gained about half of Switzerland and churches based on his teachings became dominant in the Netherlands (the Dutch Reformed Church) and Scotland (the Presbyterian Church). In England, when the Pope failed to grant King Henry VIII a divorce, he declared himself head of the Church in England (founding what would evolve into today's Church of England and Anglican Communion). Some Englishmen felt the church was still too similar to the Catholic Church and formed the more radical Puritanism. Many other small Protestant sects were formed, including Zwinglianism, Anabaptism and Mennonism. Although they were different in many ways, Protestants generally called their religious leaders ministers instead of priests, and believed only the Bible, and not Tradition offered divine revelation.
Britain and the Dutch Republic allowed Protestant dissenters to migrate to their North American colonies – thus the future United States found its early Protestant ethos – while Protestants were forbidden to migrate to the Spanish colonies (thus South America retained its Catholic hue). A more democratic organisational structure within some of the new Protestant movements – as in the Calvinists of New England – did much also to foster a democratic spirit in Britain's American colonies.
The Catholic Church responded to the Reformation with the Counter Reformation. Some of Luther and Calvin's criticisms were heeded: the selling of indulgences was reined in by the Council of Trent in 1562. But exuberant baroque architecture and art was embraced as an affirmation of the faith and new seminaries and orders were established to lead missions to far off lands. An important leader in this movement was Saint Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuit Order) which gained many converts and sent such famous missionaries as Saints Matteo Ricci to China, Francis Xavier to India and Peter Claver to the Americas.
As princes, kings and emperors chose sides in religious debates and sought national unity, religious wars erupted throughout Europe, especially in the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Charles V was able to arrange the Peace of Augsburg between the warring Catholic and Protestant nobility. However, in 1618, the Thirty Years' War began between Protestants and Catholics in the empire, which eventually involved neighboring countries like France. The devastating war finally ended in 1648. In the Peace of Westphalia ending the war, Lutheranism, Catholicism and Calvinism were all granted toleration in the empire. The two major centers of power in the empire after the war were Protestant Prussia in the north and Catholic Austria in the south. The Dutch, who were ruled by the Spanish at the time, revolted and gained independence, founding a Protestant country. The Elizabethan era is famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Sir Francis Drake. Her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability and helped forge a sense of national identity. One of her first moves as queen was to support the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor of what was to become the Church of England.
By 1650, the religious map of Europe had been redrawn: Scandinavia, Iceland, north Germany, part of Switzerland, Netherlands and Britain were Protestant, while the rest of the West remained Catholic. A byproduct of the Reformation was increasing literacy as Protestant powers pursued an aim of educating more people to be able to read the Bible.
Rise of Western empires: 1500–1800
From its dawn until modern times, the West had suffered invasions from Africa, Asia, and non-Western parts of Europe. By 1500 Westerners took advantage of their new technologies, sallied forth into unknown waters, expanded their power and the Age of Discovery began, with Western explorers from seafaring nations like Portugal and Castile (later Spain) and later Holland, France and England setting forth from the "Old World" to chart faraway shipping routes and discover "new worlds".
In 1492, the Genovese born mariner, Christopher Columbus set out under the auspices of the Crown of Castile (Spain) to seek an oversea route to the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean. Rather than Asia, Columbus landed in the Bahamas, in the Caribbean. Spanish colonization followed and Europe established Western Civilization in the Americas. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama led the first sailing expedition directly from Europe to India in 1497–1499, by the Atlantic and Indian oceans, opening up the possibility of trade with the East other than via perilous overland routes like the Silk Road. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer working for the Spanish Crown (under the Crown of Castile), led an expedition in 1519–1522 which became the first to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean and the first to cross the Pacific. The Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth (Magellan was killed in the Philippines).
The Americas were deeply affected by European expansion, due to conquest, sickness, and introduction of new technologies and ways of life. The Spanish Conquistadors conquered most of the Caribbean islands and overran the two great New World empires: the Aztec Empire of Mexico and the Inca Empire of Peru. From there, Spain conquered about half of South America, all of Central America and much of North America. Portugal also expanded in the Americas, attempting to establish some fishing colonies in northern North America first (with a relatively limited duration) and conquering half of South America and calling their colony Brazil. These Western powers were aided not only by superior technology like gunpowder, but also by Old World diseases which they inadvertently brought with them, and which wiped out large segments of the Amerindian population. The native populations, called Indians by Columbus, since he originally thought he had landed in Asia (but often called Amerindians by scholars today), were converted to Catholicism and adopted the language of their rulers, either Spanish or Portuguese. They also adopted much of Western culture. Many Iberian settlers arrived, and many of them intermarried with the Amerindians resulting in a so-called Mestizo population, which became the majority of the population of Spain's American empires.
Other European colonial powers followed in their wake, most prominently the English, Dutch, and French. All three nations established colonies through North and South America and the West Indies. English colonies were established on Caribbean islands such as Barbados, Saint Kitts and Antigua and on North America (largely through a proprietary system) in regions such as Maryland, Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Dutch and French colonization efforts followed a similar pattern, focusing on the Caribbean and North America. The islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten gradually came under Dutch control, while the Dutch established the colony of New Netherland in North America. France gradually colonized Louisiana and Quebec during the 17th and 18th centuries, and transformed its West Indian colony of Saint-Domingue into the wealthiest European overseas possession in the 18th century through a slave-based plantation economy.
In the Americas, it seems that only the most remote peoples managed to stave off complete assimilation by Western and Western-fashioned governments. These include some of the northern peoples (i.e., Inuit), some peoples in the Yucatán, Amazonian forest dwellers, and various Andean groups. Of these, the Quechua people, Aymara people, and Maya people are the most numerous- at around 10–11 million, 2 million, and 7 million, respectively. Bolivia is the only country in the Americas with an indigenous majority.
Contact between the Old and New Worlds produced the Columbian Exchange, named after Columbus. It involved the transfer of goods unique to one hemisphere to another. Westerners brought cattle, horses, and sheep to the New World, and from the New World Europeans received tobacco, potatoes, and bananas. Other items becoming important in global trade were the sugarcane and cotton crops of the Americas, and the gold and silver brought from the Americas not only to Europe but elsewhere in the Old World.
As European settlers began to colonize the Americas, numerous cash crop plantations sprung up to accommodate increasing demand in Europe. Initially, the labour source of these plantations came from European indentured servants; however, soon this system was supplemented by enslaved Africans imported by European slavers from Africa to the Americas via the transatlantic slave trade. Roughly 12 million enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas, primarily to the West Indies and South America. Once there, they were primarily forced to work on these plantations in brutal conditions, cultivating crops such as sugar, cotton and tobacco. Together with European trade to Africa and American trade to Europe, this trade was known as the "triangular trade". Slavery continued to underpin the economies of European colonies throughout the Americas until the abolitionist movement and slave resistance led to its abolition in the 19th century.
After trading with African rulers for some time, Westerners began establishing colonies in Africa. The Portuguese conquered ports in North, West and East Africa and inland territory in what is today Angola and Mozambique. They also established relations with the Kingdom of Kongo in central Africa before, and eventually the Kongolese converted to Catholicism. The Dutch established colonies in modern-day South Africa, which attracted many Dutch settlers. Western powers also established colonies in West Africa. However, most of the continent remained unknown to Westerners and their colonies were restricted to Africa's coasts.
Westerners also expanded in Asia. The Portuguese controlled port cities in the East Indies, India, Persian Gulf, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and China. During this time, the Dutch began their colonisation of the Indonesian archipelago, which became the Dutch East Indies in the early 19th century, and gained port cities in Sri Lanka and Malaysia and India. Spain conquered the Philippines and converted the inhabitants to Catholicism. Missionaries from Iberia (including some from Italy and France) gained many converts in Japan until Christianity was outlawed by Japan's emperor. Some Chinese also became Christian, although most did not. Most of India was divided up between England and France.
As Western powers expanded they competed for land and resources. In the Caribbean, pirates attacked each other and the navies and colonial cities of countries, in hopes of stealing gold and other valuables from a ship or city. This was sometimes supported by governments. For example, England supported the pirate Sir Francis Drake in raids against the Spanish. Between 1652 and 1678, the three Anglo-Dutch wars were fought, of which the last two were won by the Dutch. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, England gained New Netherland (which was traded with Suriname and Dutch South Africa). In 1756, the Seven Years' War, or French and Indian War began. It involved several powers fighting on several continents. In North America, English soldiers and colonial troops defeated the French, and in India the French were also defeated by England. In Europe Prussia defeated Austria. When the war ended in 1763, New France and eastern Louisiana were ceded to England, while western Louisiana was given to Spain. France's lands in India were ceded to England. Prussia was given rule over more territory in what is today Germany.
The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon had been the first documented Westerner to land in Australia in 1606 Another Dutchman, Abel Tasman later touched mainland Australia, and mapped Tasmania and New Zealand for the first time, in the 1640s. The English navigator James Cook became first to map the east coast of Australia in 1770. Cook's extraordinary seamanship greatly expanded European awareness of far shores and oceans: his first voyage reported favourably on the prospects of colonisation of Australia; his second voyage ventured almost to Antarctica (disproving long held European hopes of an undiscovered Great Southern Continent); and his third voyage explored the Pacific coasts of North America and Siberia and brought him to Hawaii, where an ill-advised return after a lengthy stay saw him clubbed to death by natives.
Europe's period of expansion in early modern times greatly changed the world. New crops from the Americas improved European diets. This, combined with an improved economy thanks to Europe's new network of colonies, led to a demographic revolution in the West, with infant mortality dropping, and Europeans getting married younger and having more children. The West became more sophisticated economically, adopting Mercantilism, in which companies were state-owned and colonies existed for the good of the mother country.
Enlightenment
Absolutism and the Enlightenment: 1500–1800
The West in the early modern era went through great changes as the traditional balance between monarchy, nobility and clergy shifted. With the feudal system all but gone, nobles lost their traditional source of power. Meanwhile, in Protestant countries, the church was now often headed by a monarch, while in Catholic countries, conflicts between monarchs and the Church rarely occurred and monarchs were able to wield greater power than they ever had in Western history. Under the doctrine of the Divine right of kings, monarchs believed they were only answerable to God: thus giving rise to absolutism.
At the opening of the 15th century, tensions were still going on between Islam and Christianity. Europe, dominated by Christians, remained under threat from the Muslim Ottoman Turks. The Turks had migrated from central to western Asia and converted to Islam years earlier. Their capture of Constantinople in 1453, thus extinguishing the Eastern Roman Empire, was a crowning achievement for the new Ottoman Empire. They continued to expand across the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans. Under the leadership of the Spanish, a Christian coalition destroyed the Ottoman navy at the battle of Lepanto in 1571 ending their naval control of the Mediterranean. However, the Ottoman threat to Europe was not ended until a Polish led coalition defeated the Ottoman at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. The Turks were driven out of Buda (the eastern part of Budapest they had occupied for a century), Belgrade, and Athens – though Athens was to be recaptured and held until 1829.
The 16th century is often called Spain's Siglo de Oro (golden century). From its colonies in the Americas it gained large quantities of gold and silver, which helped make Spain the richest and most powerful country in the world. One of the greatest Spanish monarchs of the era was Charles I (1516–1556, who also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). His attempt to unite these lands was thwarted by the divisions caused by the Reformation and ambitions of local rulers and rival rulers from other countries. Another great monarch was Philip II (1556–1598), whose reign was marked by several Reformation conflicts, like the loss of the Netherlands and the Spanish Armada. These events and an excess of spending would lead to a great decline in Spanish power and influence by the 17th century.
After Spain began to decline in the 17th century, the Dutch, by virtue of its sailing ships, became the greatest world power, leading the 17th century to be called the Dutch Golden Age. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire — often under the corporate colonialism model of the East India and West India Companies. After the Anglo-Dutch Wars, France and England emerged as the two greatest powers in the 18th century.
Louis XIV became king of France in 1643. His reign was one of the most opulent in European history. He built a large palace in the town of Versailles.
The Holy Roman Emperor exerted no great influence on the lands of the Holy Roman Empire by the end of the Thirty Years' War. In the north of the empire, Prussia emerged as a powerful Protestant nation. Under many gifted rulers, like King Frederick the Great, Prussia expanded its power and defeated its rival Austria many times in war. Ruled by the Habsburg dynasty, Austria became a great empire, expanding at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Hungary.
One land where absolutism did not take hold was England, which had trouble with revolutionaries. Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII, had left no direct heir to the throne. The rightful heir was actually James VI of Scotland, who was crowned James I of England. James's son, Charles I resisted the power of Parliament. When Charles attempted to shut down Parliament, the Parliamentarians rose up and soon all of England was involved in a civil war. The English Civil War ended in 1649 with the defeat and execution of Charles I. Parliament declared a kingless Commonwealth but soon appointed the anti-absolutist leader and staunch Puritan Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. Cromwell enacted many unpopular Puritan religious laws in England, like outlawing alcohol and theaters, although religious diversity may have grown. (It was Cromwell, after all, that invited the Jews back into England after the Edict of Expulsion.) After his death, the monarchy was restored under Charles's son, who was crowned Charles II. His son, James II succeeded him. James and his infant son were Catholics. Not wanting to be ruled by a Catholic dynasty, Parliament invited James's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange, to rule as co-monarchs. They agreed on the condition James would not be harmed. Realizing he could not count on the Protestant English army to defend him, he abdicated following the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Before William III and Mary II were crowned however, Parliament forced them to sign the English Bill of Rights, which guaranteed some basic rights to all Englishmen, granted religious freedom to non-Anglican Protestants, and firmly established the rights of Parliament. In 1707, the Act of Union of 1707 were passed by the parliaments of Scotland and England, merging Scotland and England into a single Kingdom of Great Britain, with a single parliament. This new kingdom also controlled Ireland which had previously been conquered by England. Following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, in 1801 Ireland was formally merged with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ruled by the Protestant Ascendancy, Ireland eventually became an English-speaking land, though the majority population preserved distinct cultural and religious outlooks, remaining predomininantly Catholic except in parts of Ulster and Dublin. By then, the British experience had already contributed to the American Revolution.
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and Muslim communities. With its political system the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls "the first constitution of its kind in Europe". Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's constitution enacted revolutionary political principles for the first time on the European continent. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Polish for Commission of National Education, formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education and an important achievement of the Polish Enlightenment.
The intellectual movement called the Age of Enlightenment began in this period as well. Its proponents opposed the absolute rule of the monarchs, and instead emphasized the equality of all individuals and the idea that governments should derive their existence from the consent of the governed. Enlightenment thinkers called philosophes (French for philosophers) idealized Europe's classical heritage. They looked at Athenian democracy and the Roman Republic as ideal governments. They believed reason held the key to creating an ideal society.
The Englishman Francis Bacon espoused the idea that senses should be the primary means of knowing, while the Frenchman René Descartes advocated using reason over the senses. In his works, Descartes was concerned with using reason to prove his own existence and the existence of the external world, including God. Another belief system became popular among philosophes, Deism, which taught that a single god had created but did not interfere with the world. This belief system never gained popular support and largely died out by the early 19th century.
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory. The theory was examined also by John Locke (Second Treatise of Government (1689)) and Rousseau (Du contrat social (1762)). Social contract arguments examine the appropriate relationship between government and the governed and posit that individuals unite into political societies by a process of mutual consent, agreeing to abide by common rules and accept corresponding duties to protect themselves and one another from violence and other kinds of harm.
In 1690 John Locke wrote that people have certain natural rights like life, liberty and property and that governments were created in order to protect these rights. If they did not, according to Locke, the people had a right to overthrow their government. The French philosopher Voltaire criticized the monarchy and the Church for what he saw as hypocrisy and for their persecution of people of other faiths. Another Frenchman, Montesquieu, advocated division of government into executive, legislative and judicial branches. The French author Rousseau stated in his works that society corrupted individuals. Many monarchs were affected by these ideas, and they became known to history as the enlightened despots. However, most only supported Enlightenment ideas that strengthened their own power.
The Scottish Enlightenment was a period in 18th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. Scotland reaped the benefits of establishing Europe's first public education system and a growth in trade which followed the Act of Union with England of 1707 and expansion of the British Empire. Important modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by the philosopher/historian David Hume. Adam Smith developed and published The Wealth of Nations, the first work in modern economics. He believed competition and private enterprise could increase the common good. The celebrated bard Robert Burns is still widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland.
European cities like Paris, London, and Vienna grew into large metropolises in early modern times. France became the cultural center of the West. The middle class grew even more influential and wealthy. Great artists of this period included El Greco, Rembrandt, and Caravaggio.
By this time, many around the world wondered how the West had become so advanced, for example, the Orthodox Christian Russians, who came to power after conquering the Mongols that had conquered Kiev in the Middle Ages. They began westernizing under Czar Peter the Great, although Russia remained uniquely part of its own civilization. The Russians became involved in European politics, dividing up the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Prussia and Austria.
Revolution: 1770–1815
During the late 18th century and early 19th century, much of the West experienced a series of revolutions that would change the course of history, resulting in new ideologies and changes in society. The first of these revolutions began in North America. The Thirteen Colonies of British North America had by this period. The majority of the population was of English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish descent, while significant minorities included people of French, Dutch and German and Africa descent, as well as some Native Americans. Most of the population was Anglican, others were Congregationalist or Puritan, while minorities included other Protestant churches like the Society of Friends and the Lutherans, as well as some Roman Catholics and Jews. The colonies had their own great cities and universities and continually welcomed new immigrants, mostly from Britain. After the expensive Seven Years' War, Britain needed to raise revenue, and felt the colonists should bare the brunt of the new taxation it felt was necessary. The colonists greatly resented these taxes and protested the fact they could be taxed by Britain but had no representation in the government.
After Britain's King George III refused to seriously consider colonial grievances raised at the first Continental Congress, some colonists took up arms. Leaders of a new pro-independence movement were influenced by Enlightenment ideals and hoped to bring an ideal nation into existence. On 4 July 1776, the colonies declared independence with the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, the document's preamble eloquently outlines the principles of governance that would come to increasingly dominate Western thinking over the ensuing century and a half:
George Washington led the new Continental Army against the British forces, who had many successes early in this American Revolution. After years of fighting, the colonists formed an alliance with France and defeated the British at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. The treaty ending the war granted independence to the colonies, which became The United States of America.
The other major Western revolution at the turn of the 19th century was the French Revolution. In 1789 France faced an economical crisis. The King called, for the first time in more than two centuries, the Estates General, an assembly of representatives of each estate of the kingdom: the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility), and the Third Estate (middle class and peasants); in order to deal with the crisis. As the French society was gained by the same Enlightenment ideals that led to the American revolution, in which many Frenchmen, such as Lafayette, took part; representatives of the Third Estate, joined by some representatives of the lower clergy, created the National Assembly, which, unlike the Estates General, provided the common people of France with a voice proportionate to their numbers.
The people of Paris feared the King would try to stop the work of the National Assembly and Paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. On the fourteenth of July 1789 a mob stormed the Bastille, a prison fortress, which led the King to accept the changes. On 4 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. It was the first time in Europe, where feudalism was the norm for centuries, that such a thing happened. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.
At first, the revolution seemed to be turning France into a constitutional monarchy, but the other continental Europe powers feared a spread of the revolutionary ideals and eventually went to war with France. In 1792 King Louis XVI was imprisoned after he had been captured fleeing Paris and the Republic was declared. The Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. His execution on 21 January 1793 led to more wars with other European countries. During this period France effectively became a dictatorship after the parliamentary coup of the radical leaders, the Jacobin. Their leader, Robespierre oversaw the Reign of Terror, in which thousands of people deemed disloyal to the republic were executed. Finally, in 1794, Robespierre himself was arrested and executed, and more moderate deputies took power. This led to a new government, the French Directory. In 1799, a coup overthrew the Directory and General Napoleon Bonaparte seized power as dictator and even an emperor in 1804.
Liberté, égalité, fraternité (French for "Liberty, equality, fraternity"), now the national motto of France, had its origins during the French Revolution, though it was only later institutionalised. It remains another iconic motto of the aspirations of Western governance in the modern world.
Some influential intellectuals came to reject the excesses of the revolutionary movement. Political theorist Edmund Burke had supported the American Revolution, but turned against the French Revolution and developed a political theory which opposed governing based on abstract ideas, and preferred 'organic' reform. He is remembered as a father of modern Anglo-conservatism. In response to such critiques, the American revolutionary Thomas Paine published his book The Rights of Man in 1791 as a defence of the ideals of the French Revolution. The spirit of the age also produced early works of feminist philosophy – notably Mary Wollstonecraft's 1792 book: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire and changing sets of European allies by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to the application of modern mass conscription. French power rose quickly, conquering most of Europe, but collapsed rapidly after France's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. The wars resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and sowed the seeds of nascent nationalism in Germany and Italy that would lead to the two nations' consolidation later in the century. Meanwhile, the Spanish Empire began to unravel as French occupation of Spain weakened Spain's hold over its colonies, providing an opening for nationalist revolutions in Spanish America. As a direct result of the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the foremost world power for the next century, thus beginning Pax Britannica.
France had to fight on multiple battlefronts against the other European powers. A nationwide conscription was voted to reinforce the old royal army made of noble officers and professional soldiers. With this new kind of army, Napoleon was able to beat the European allies and dominate Europe. The revolutionary ideals, based no more on feudalism but on the concept of a sovereign nation, spread all over Europe. When Napoleon eventually lost and the monarchy reinstated in France these ideals survived and led to the revolutionary waves of the 19th century that brought democracy to many European countries.
With the success of the American Revolution, the Spanish Empire also began to crumble as their American colonies sought independence as well. In 1808, when Joseph Bonaparte was installed as the Spanish King by the Napoleonic French, the Spanish resistance resorted to governing Juntas. When the Supreme Central Junta of Seville fell to the French in 1810, the Spanish American colonies developed themselves governing Juntas in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII (upon the concept known as "Retroversion of the Sovereignty to the People"). As this process led to open conflicts between independentists and loyalists, the Spanish American Independence Wars immediately ensued; resulting, by the 1820s, in the definitive loss for the Spanish Empire of all its American territories, with the exception of Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Rise of the English-speaking world: 1815–1870
The years following Britain's victory in the Napoleonic Wars were a period of expansion for Britain as it rebuilt the British Empire. The new United States grew even more rapidly. This period of expansion would help establish Anglicanism as the dominant religion, English as the dominant language, and English and Anglo-American culture as the dominant culture of two continents and many other lands outside the British Isles.
Industrial Revolution in the English-speaking world
Rapid economic growth following the Napoleonic Wars was the continuing product of the ever-expanding Industrial Revolution. The revolution began in Britain, where Thomas Newcomen developed a steam engine in 1712 to pump seeping water out of mines. This engine at first was powered by water, but soon coal and wood were heavily used. The British first learned to use steam power effectively. In 1804, the first steam powered railroad locomotive was developed in Britain, which allowed goods and people to be transported at faster speeds than ever before in history. Soon, large numbers of goods were being produced in factories. This resulted in great societal changes, and many people settled in the cities where the factories were located. Factory work could often be brutal. With no safety regulations, people became sick from contaminants in the air in textile mills for, example. Many workers were also horribly maimed by dangerous factory machinery. Since workers relied only on their small wages for sustenance, entire families were forced to work, including children. These and other problems caused by industrialism resulted in some reforms by the mid-19th century. The economic model of the West also began to change, with mercantilism being replaced by capitalism, in which companies, and later, large corporations, were run by individual investors.
New ideological movements began as a result of the Industrial Revolution, including the Luddite movement, which opposed machinery, feeling it did not benefit the common good, and the socialists, whose beliefs usually included the elimination of private property and the sharing of industrial wealth. Unions were founded among industrial workers to help secure better wages and rights. Another result of the revolution was a change in societal hierarchy, especially in Europe, where nobility still occupied a high level on the social ladder. Capitalists emerged as a new powerful group, with educated professionals like doctors and lawyers under them, and the various industrial workers at the bottom. These changes were often slow however, with Western society as a whole remaining primarily agricultural for decades.
Great Britain: 1815–1870
From 1837 until 1901, Queen Victoria reigned over Great Britain and the ever-expanding British Empire. The Industrial Revolution accelerated, making Britain the most powerful nation. It enjoyed relative peace and stability from 1815 until 1914, this period is often called the Pax Britannica, from the Latin "British Peace". The monarch became more a figurehead and symbol of national identity; actual power was in the hands of the prime minister and the cabinet, and was based on a majority in the House of Commons. Two rival parties were the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The Liberal constituency was made up mostly of businessmen, as many Liberals supported the idea of a free market. Conservatives were supported by the aristocracy and gentry landowners. Control of Parliament switched back and forth between the parties. Overall it was a period of reform. In 1832 more representation was granted to new industrial cities, and laws barring Catholics from serving in Parliament were repealed, although discrimination against Catholics, especially Irish Catholics, continued. Other reforms granted near universal manhood suffrage, and state-supported elementary education for all Britons. More rights were granted to workers as well.
Ireland had been ruled from London since the Middle Ages. After the Protestant Reformation the British Establishment began a campaign of discrimination against Roman Catholic and Presbyterian Irish, who lacked many rights under the Penal Laws, and the majority of the agricultural land was owned by the Protestant Ascendancy. Great Britain and Ireland had become a single nation ruled from London without the autonomous Parliament of Ireland after the Act of Union of 1800 was passed, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In the mid-19th century, Ireland suffered a devastating famine, which killed 10% of the population and led to massive emigration: see Irish diaspora.
British Empire: 1815–1870
Throughout the 19th century, Britain's power grew enormously and the sun quite literally "never set" on the British Empire, for it had outposts on every occupied continent. It consolidated control over such far flung territories as Canada and Jamaica in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand in Oceania; Malaya, Hong Kong and Singapore in the Far East and a line of colonial possessions from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope through Africa. All of India was under British rule by 1870.
In 1804, the Shah of the declining Mughal Empire had formally accepted the protection of the British East India Company. Many Britons settled in India, establishing a rich ruling class. They then expanded into neighbouring Burma. Among the British born in India were the immensely influential writers Rudyard Kipling (1865) and George Orwell (1903).
In the Far East, Britain went to war with the declining Qing dynasty of China when it tried to stop British merchants in China from selling the opium to the Chinese public. The First Opium War (1840–1842), ended in a British victory, and China was forced to remove barriers to British trade and cede several ports and the island of Hong Kong to Britain. Soon, other powers sought these same privileges with China and China was forced to agree, ending Chinese isolation from the rest of the world. In 1853 an American expedition opened up Japan to trade with first the U.S., and then the rest of the world.
In 1833 Britain ended slavery by buying out all the owners throughout its empire after a successful campaign by abolitionists. Furthermore, Britain had a great deal of success attempting to get other powers to outlaw the practice as well.
As British settlement of southern Africa continued, the descendants of the Dutch in southern Africa, called the Boers or Afrikaners, whom Britain had ruled since the Anglo-Dutch Wars, migrated northward, disliking British rule. Explorers and missionaries like David Livingstone became national heroes. Cecil Rhodes founded Rhodesia and a British army under Lord Kitchener secured control of Sudan in the 1898 Battle of Omdurman.
Canada: 1815–1870
Following the American Revolution, many Loyalists to Britain fled north to what is today Canada (where they were called United Empire Loyalists). Joined by mostly British colonists, they helped establish early colonies like Ontario and New Brunswick. British settlement in North America increased, and soon there were several colonies both north and west of the early ones in the northeast of the continent, these new ones included British Columbia and Prince Edward Island. Rebellions broke out against British rule in 1837, but Britain appeased the rebels' supporters in 1867 by confederating the colonies into Canada, with its own prime minister. Although Canada was still firmly within the British Empire, its people now enjoyed a great degree of self-rule. Canada was unique in the British Empire in that it had a French-speaking province, Quebec, which Britain had gained rule over in the Seven Years' War.
Australia and New Zealand: 1815–1870
The First Fleet of British convicts arrived at New South Wales, Australia in 1788 and established a British outpost and penal colony at Sydney Cove. These convicts were often petty 'criminals', and represented the population spill-over of Britain's Industrial Revolution, as a result of the rapid urbanisation and dire crowding of British cities. Other convicts were political dissidents, particularly from Ireland. The establishment of a wool industry and the enlightened governorship of Lachlan Macquarie were instrumental in transforming New South Wales from a notorious prison outpost into a budding civil society. Further colonies were established around the perimeter of the continent and European explorers ventured deep inland. A free colony was established at South Australia in 1836 with a vision for a province of the British Empire with political and religious freedoms. The colony became a cradle of democratic reform. The Australian gold rushes increased prosperity and cultural diversity and autonomous democratic parliaments began to be established from the 1850s onward.
The native inhabitants of Australia, called the Aborigines, lived as hunter-gatherers before European arrival. The population, never large, was largely dispossessed without treaty agreements nor compensations through the 19th century by the expansion of European agriculture, and, as had occurred when Europeans arrived in North and South America, faced superior European weaponry and suffered greatly from exposure to Old World diseases such as smallpox, to which they had no biological immunity.
From the early 19th century, New Zealand was being visited by European explorers, sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers (known as Pākehā) and was administered by Britain from the nearby colony of New South Wales. In 1840 Britain signed the Treaty of Waitangi with the natives of New Zealand, the Māori, in which Britain gained sovereignty over the archipelago. As more Pākehā settlers arrived, clashes resulted and the New Zealand colonial government fought several wars before defeating the Māori. By 1870, New Zealand had a population made up mostly of European descent.
United States: 1815–1870
Following independence from Britain, the United States began expanding westward, and soon a number of new states had joined the union. In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, whose emperor, Napoleon I, had regained it from Spain. Soon, America's growing population was settling the Louisiana Territory, which geographically doubled the size of the country. At the same time, a series of revolutions and independence movements in Spain and Portugal's American empires resulted in the liberation of nearly all of Latin America, as the region composed of South America, most of the Caribbean, and North America from Mexico south became known. At first Spain and its allies seemed ready to try to reconquer the colonies, but the U.S. and Britain opposed this, and the reconquest never took place. From 1821 on, the U.S. bordered the newly independent nation of Mexico. An early problem faced by the Mexican republic was what to do with its sparsely populated northern territories, which today make up a large part of the American West. The government decided to try to attract Americans looking for land. Americans arrived in such large numbers that both the provinces of Texas and California had majority white, English-speaking populations. This led to a culture clash between these provinces and the rest of Mexico. When Mexico became a dictatorship under General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Texans declared independence. After several battles, Texas gained independence from Mexico, although Mexico later claimed it still had a right to Texas. After existing as a republic modeled after the U.S. for several years, Texas joined the United States in 1845. This led to border disputes between the U.S. and Mexico, resulting in the Mexican–American War. The war ended with an American victory, and Mexico had to cede all its northern territories to the United States, and recognize the independence of California, which had revolted against Mexico during the war. In 1850, California joined the United States. In 1848, the U.S. and Britain resolved a border dispute over territory on the Pacific coast, called the Oregon Country by giving Britain the northern part and the U.S. the southern part. In 1867, the U.S. expanded again, purchasing the Russian colony of Alaska, in northwestern North America.
Politically, the U.S. became more democratic with the abolishment of property requirements in voting, although voting remained restricted to white males. By the mid-19th century, the most important issue was slavery. The Northern states generally had outlawed the practice, while the Southern states not only had kept it legal but came to feel it was essential to their way of life. As new states joined the union, lawmakers clashed over whether they should be slave states or free states. In 1860, the anti-slavery candidate Abraham Lincoln was elected president. Fearing he would try to outlaw slavery in the whole country, several southern states seceded, forming the Confederate States of America, electing their own president and raising their own army. Lincoln countered that secession was illegal and raised an army to crush the rebel government, thus the advent of the American Civil War (1861–65). The Confederates had a skilled military that even succeeded in invading the northern state of Pennsylvania. However, the war began to turn around, with the defeat of Confederates at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and at Vicksburg, which gave the Union control of the important Mississippi River. Union forces invaded deep into the South, and the Confederacy's greatest general, Robert E. Lee, surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant of the Union in 1865. After that, the south came under Union occupation, ending the American Civil War. Lincoln was tragically assassinated in 1865, but his dream of ending slavery, exhibited in the wartime Emancipation Proclamation, was carried out by his Republican Party, which outlawed slavery, granted blacks equality and black males voting rights via constitutional amendments. However, although the abolishment of slavery would not be challenged, equal treatment for blacks would be.
The Gettysburg Address, Lincoln's most famous speech and one of the most quoted political speeches in United States history, was delivered at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on 19 November 1863, during the Civil War, four and a half months after the Battle of Gettysburg. Describing America as a "nation conceived in Liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal", Lincoln famously called on those gathered:
Continental Europe: 1815–1870
The years following the Napoleonic Wars were a time of change in Europe. The Industrial Revolution, nationalism, and several political revolutions transformed the continent.
Industrial technology was imported from Britain. The first lands affected by this were France, the Low Countries, and western Germany. Eventually the Industrial Revolution spread to other parts of Europe. Many people in the countryside migrated to major cities like Paris, Berlin, and Amsterdam, which were connected like never before by railroads. Europe soon had its own class of wealthy industrialists, and large numbers of industrial workers. New ideologies emerged as a reaction against perceived abuses of industrial society. Among these ideologies were socialism and the more radical communism, created by the German Karl Marx. According to communism, history was a series of class struggles, and at the time industrial workers were pitted against their employers. Inevitably the workers would rise up in a worldwide revolution and abolish private property, according to Marx. Communism was also atheistic, since, according to Marx, religion was simply a tool used by the dominant class to keep the oppressed class docile.
Several revolutions occurred in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. The goal of most of these revolutions was to establish some form of democracy in a particular nation. Many were successful for a time, but their effects were often eventually reversed. Examples of this occurred in Spain, Italy, and Austria. Several European nations stood steadfastly against revolution and democracy, including Austria and Russia. Two successful revolts of the era were the Greek and Serbian wars of independence, which freed those nations from Ottoman rule. Another successful revolution occurred in the Low Countries. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Netherlands was given control of modern-day Belgium, which had been part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Dutch found it hard to rule the Belgians, due to their Catholic religion and French language. In the 1830s, the Belgians successfully overthrew Dutch rule, establishing the Kingdom of Belgium. In 1848 a series of revolutions occurred in Prussia, Austria, and France. In France, the king, Louis-Philippe, was overthrown and a republic was declared. Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon I was elected the republic's first president. Extremely popular, Napoleon was made Napoleon III (since Napoleon I's son had been crowned Napoleon II during his reign), Emperor of the French, by a vote of the French people, ending France's Second Republic. Revolutionaries in Prussia and Italy focused more on nationalism, and most advocated the establishment of unified German and Italian states, respectively.
In the city-states of Italy, many argued for a unification of all the Italian kingdoms into a single nation. Obstacles to this included the many Italian dialects spoken by the people of Italy, and the Austrian presence in the north of the peninsula. Unification of the peninsula began in 1859. The powerful Kingdom of Sardinia (also called Savoy or Piedmont) formed an alliance with France and went to war with Austria in that year. The war ended with a Sardinian victory, and Austrian forces left Italy. Plebiscites were held in several cities, and the majority of people voted for union with Sardinia, creating the Kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II. In 1860, the Italian nationalist Garibaldi led revolutionaries in an overthrow of the government of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. A plebiscite held there resulted in a unification of that kingdom with Italy. Italian forces seized the eastern Papal States in 1861. In 1866 Venetia became part of Italy after Italy's ally, Prussia, defeated that kingdom's rulers, the Austrians, in the Austro-Prussian War. In 1870, Italian troops conquered the Papal States, completing unification. Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the Italian government or negotiate settlement for the loss of Church land.
Prussia in the middle and late parts of the 19th century was ruled by its king, Wilhelm I, and its skilled chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. In 1864, Prussia went to war with Denmark and gained several German-speaking lands as a result. In 1866, Prussia went to war with the Austrian Empire and won, and created a confederation of it and several German states, called the North German Confederation, setting the stage for the 1871 formation of the German Empire.
After years of dealing with Hungarian revolutionaries, whose kingdom Austria had conquered centuries earlier, the Austrian emperor, Franz Joseph agreed to divide the empire into two parts: Austria and Hungary, and rule as both Emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. The new Austro-Hungarian Empire was created in 1867. The two peoples were united in loyalty to the monarch and Catholicism.
There were changes throughout the West in science, religion and culture between 1815 and 1870. Europe in 1870 differed greatly from its state in 1815. Most Western European nations had some degree of democracy, and two new national states had been created, Italy and Germany. Political parties were formed throughout the continent and with the spread of industrialism, Europe's economy was transformed, although it remained very agricultural.
Culture, arts and sciences: 1815–1914
The 19th and early 20th centuries saw important contributions to the process of modernisation of Western art and Literature and the continuing evolution in the role of religion in Western societies.
Napoleon re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801. The end of the Napoleonic wars, signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States. In 1801, a new political entity was formed, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, thus increasing the number of Catholics in the new state. Pressure for abolition of anti-Catholic laws grew and in 1829 Parliament passed the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, giving Catholics almost equal civil rights, including the right to vote and to hold most public offices. While remaining a minority religion in the British Empire, a steady stream of new Catholics would continue to convert from the Church of England and Ireland, notably John Henry Newman and the poets Gerard Manley Hopkins and Oscar Wilde. The Anglo-Catholic movement began, emphasizing the Catholic traditions of the Anglican Church. New churches like the Methodist, Unitarian, and LDS Churches were founded. Many Westerners became less religious in this period, although a majority of people still held traditional Christian beliefs.
The 1859 publication of On the Origin of Species, by the English naturalist Charles Darwin, provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of human life to the traditional poetic scriptural explanation known as Creationism. According to Darwin, only the organisms most able to adapt to their environment survived while others became extinct. Adaptations resulted in changes in certain populations of organisms which could eventually cause the creation of new species. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a German-Czech Augustinian monk who studied the nature of inheritance in plants. In his 1865 paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically. Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister made discoveries about bacteria and its effects on humans. Geologists at the time made discoveries indicating the world was far older than most believed it to be. Early batteries were invented and a telegraph system was also invented, allowing global communication. In 1869 Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his Periodic table. The success of Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made: The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered. The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as cobalt and nickel, to better classify them into chemical families. At the end of the 19th century, a number of discoveries were made in physics which paved the way for the development of modern physics – including Maria Skłodowska-Curie's work on radioactivity.
In Europe by the 19th century, fashion had shifted away from such artistic styles as Mannerism, Baroque and Rococo and sought to revert to the earlier, simpler art of the Renaissance by creating Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism complemented the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment, which was similarly idealistic. Ingres, Canova, and Jacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists.
Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, so did Romanticism reject the ideas of the Enlightenment and the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists. Romanticism emphasized emotion and nature, and idealized the Middle Ages. Important musicians were Franz Schubert, Pyotr Tchaikovsky, Richard Wagner, Fryderyk Chopin, and John Constable. Romantic art focused on the use of color and motion in order to portray emotion, but like classicism used Greek and Roman mythology and tradition as an important source of symbolism. Another important aspect of Romanticism was its emphasis on nature and portraying the power and beauty of the natural world. Romanticism was also a large literary movement, especially in poetry. Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, Karl Bryullov, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Caspar David Friedrich, Ivan Aivazovsky, Thomas Cole, and William Blake. Romantic poetry emerged as a significant genre, particularly during the Victorian Era with leading exponents including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Burns, Edgar Allan Poe and John Keats. Other Romantic writers included Sir Walter Scott, Lord Byron, Alexander Pushkin, Victor Hugo, and Goethe.
Some of the best regarded poets of the era were women. Mary Wollstonecraft had written one of the first works of feminist philosophy, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman which called for equal education for women in 1792 and her daughter, Mary Shelley became an accomplished author best known for her 1818 novel Frankenstein, which examined some of the frightening potential of the rapid advances of science.
In early 19th-century Europe, in response to industrialization, the movement of Realism emerged. Realism sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. Similarly, while Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism, Realism was a literary as well as an artistic movement. The great Realist painters include Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas (both considered as Impressionists), Ilya Repin, and Thomas Eakins, among others.
Writers also sought to come to terms with the new industrial age. The works of the Englishman Charles Dickens (including his novels Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol) and the Frenchman Victor Hugo (including Les Misérables) remain among the best known and widely influential. The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol (Dead Souls). Then came Ivan Goncharov, Nikolai Leskov and Ivan Turgenev. Leo Tolstoy (War and Peace, Anna Karenina) and Fyodor Dostoevsky (Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Brothers Karamazov) soon became internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as F. R. Leavis have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever. In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in writing short stories and became perhaps the leading dramatist internationally of his period. American literature also progressed with the development of a distinct voice: Mark Twain produced his masterpieces Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. In Irish literature, the Anglo-Irish tradition produced Bram Stoker and Oscar Wilde writing in English and a Gaelic Revival had emerged by the end of the 19th century. The poetry of William Butler Yeats prefigured the emergence of the 20th-century Irish literary giants James Joyce, Samuel Beckett and Patrick Kavanagh. In Britain's Australian colonies, bush balladeers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson brought the character of a new continent to the pages of world literature.
The response of architecture to industrialisation, in stark contrast to the other arts, was to veer towards historicism. The railway stations built during this period are often called "the cathedrals of the age". Architecture during the Industrial Age witnessed revivals of styles from the distant past, such as the Gothic Revival—in which style the iconic Palace of Westminster in London was re-built to house the mother parliament of the British Empire. Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral in Paris was also restored in the Gothic style, following its desecration during the French Revolution.
Out of the naturalist ethic of Realism grew a major artistic movement, Impressionism. The Impressionists pioneered the use of light in painting as they attempted to capture light as seen from the human eye. Edgar Degas, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, were all involved in the Impressionist movement. As a direct outgrowth of Impressionism came the development of Post-Impressionism. Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat are the best known Post-Impressionists. In Australia the Heidelberg School was expressing the light and colour of Australian landscape with a new insight and vigour.
The Industrial Revolution which began in Britain in the 18th century brought increased leisure time, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. The bat and ball sport of cricket was first played in England during the 16th century and was exported around the globe via the British Empire. A number of popular modern sports were devised or codified in Britain during the 19th century and obtained global prominence – these include Ping Pong, modern tennis, Association football, netball and rugby. The United States also developed popular international sports during this period. English migrants took antecedents of baseball to America during the colonial period. American football resulted from several major divergences from rugby, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp. Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith, a Canadian physical education instructor working in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a Frenchman, instigated the modern revival of the Olympic Games, with the first modern Olympics being held in Athens in 1896.
New Imperialism: 1870–1914
The years between 1870 and 1914 saw the expansion of Western power. By 1914, the Western and some Asian and Eurasian empires like the Empire of Japan, Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Qing China dominated the entire planet. The major Western players in this New Imperialism were Britain, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States. The Empire of Japan was the only non-Western power involved in this new era of imperialism.
Although the West had had a presence in Africa for centuries, its colonies were limited mostly to Africa's coast. Europeans, including the Britons Mungo Park and David Livingstone, the German Johannes Rebmann, and the Frenchman René Caillié, explored the interior of the continent, allowing greater European expansion in the later 19th century. The period between 1870 and 1914 is often called the Scramble for Africa, due to the competition between European nations for control of Africa. In 1830, France occupied Algeria in North Africa. Many Frenchman settled on Algeria's Mediterranean coast. In 1882 Britain annexed Egypt. France eventually conquered most of Morocco and Tunisia as well. Libya was conquered by the Italians. Spain gained a small part of Morocco and modern-day Western Sahara. West Africa was dominated by France, although Britain ruled several smaller West African colonies. Germany also established two colonies in West Africa, and Portugal had one as well. Central Africa was dominated by the Belgian Congo. At first the colony was ruled by Belgium's king, Leopold II, however his regime was so brutal the Belgian government took over the colony. The Germans and French also established colonies in Central Africa. The British and Italians were the two dominant powers in East Africa, although France also had a colony there. Southern Africa was dominated by Britain. Tensions between the British Empire and the Boer Republics led to the Boer Wars, fought on and off between the 1880s and 1902, ending in a British victory. In 1910 Britain united its South African colonies with the former Boer republics and established the Union of South Africa, a dominion of the British Empire. The British established several other colonies in Southern Africa. The Portuguese and Germans also established a presence in Southern Africa. The French conquered the island of Madagascar. By 1914, Africa had only two independent nations, Liberia, a nation founded in West Africa by free black Americans earlier in the 19th century, and the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia in East Africa. Many Africans, like the Zulus and Ashanti, resisted European rule, but in the end Europe succeeded in conquering and transforming the continent. Missionaries arrived and established schools, while industrialists helped establish rubber, diamond and gold industries on the continent. Perhaps the most ambitious change by Europeans was the construction of the Suez Canal in Egypt, allowing ships to travel from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean without having to go all the way around Africa.
In Asia, China was defeated by Britain in the First Opium War and later Britain and France in the Arrow War, forcing it to open up to trade with the West. Soon every major Western power as well as Russia and Japan had spheres of influence in China, although the country remained independent. Southeast Asia was divided between French Indochina and British Burma. One of the few independent nations in this region at the time was Siam. The Dutch continued to rule their colony of the Dutch East Indies, while Britain and Germany also established colonies in Oceania. India remained an integral part of the British Empire, with Queen Victoria being crowned Empress of India. The British even built a new capital in India, New Delhi. The Middle East remained largely under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and Persia. Britain, however, established a sphere of influence in Persia and a few small colonies in Arabia and coastal Mesopotamia.
The Pacific islands were conquered by Germany, the U.S., Britain, France, and Belgium. In 1893, the ruling class of colonists in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy of Queen Liliuokalani and established a republic. Since most of the leaders of the overthrow were Americans or descendants of Americans, they asked to be annexed by the United States, which agreed to the annexation in 1898.
Latin America was largely free from foreign rule throughout this period, although the United States and Britain had a great deal of influence over the region. Britain had two colonies on the Latin American mainland, while the United States, following 1898, had several in the Caribbean. The U.S. supported the independence of Cuba and Panama, but gained a small territory in central Panama and intervened in Cuba several times. Other countries also faced American interventions from time to time, mostly in the Caribbean and southern North America.
Competition over control of overseas colonies sometimes led to war between Western powers, and between Western powers and non-Westerners. At the turn of the 20th century, Britain fought several wars with Afghanistan to prevent it from falling under the influence of Russia, which ruled all of Central Asia excluding Afghanistan. Britain and France nearly went to war over control of Africa. In 1898, the United States and Spain went to war after an American naval ship was sunk in the Caribbean. Although today it is generally held that the sinking was an accident, at the time the U.S. held Spain responsible and soon American and Spanish forces clashed everywhere from Cuba to the Philippines. The U.S. won the war and gained several Caribbean colonies including Puerto Rico and several Pacific islands, including Guam and the Philippines. Important resistance movements to Western Imperialism included the Boxer Rebellion, fought against the colonial powers in China, and the Philippine–American War, fought against the United States, both of which failed.
The Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) left the Ottoman Empire little more than an empty shell, but the failing empire was able to hang on into the 20th century, until its final partition, which left the British and French colonial empires in control of much of the former Ottoman ruled Arab countries of the Middle East (British Mandate of Palestine, British Mandate of Mesopotamia, French Mandate of Syria, French Mandate of Lebanon, in addition to the British occupation of Egypt from 1882). Even though this happened centuries after the West had given up its futile attempts to conquer the "Holy Land" under religious pretexts, this fueled resentment against the "Crusaders" in the Islamic world, which along with the nationalisms hatched under Ottoman rule, contributed to the development of Islamism.
The expanding Western powers greatly changed the societies they conquered. Many connected their empires via railroad and telegraph and constructed churches, schools, and factories.
Great powers and the First World War: 1870–1918
By the late 19th century, the world was dominated by a few great powers, including Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy were also great powers.
Western inventors and industrialists transformed the West in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The American Thomas Edison pioneered electricity and motion picture technology. Other American inventors, the Wright brothers, completed the first successful airplane flight in 1903. The first automobiles were also invented in this period. Petroleum became an important commodity after the discovery it could be used to power machines. Steel was developed in Britain by Henry Bessemer. This very strong metal, combined with the invention of elevators, allowed people to construct very tall buildings, called skyscrapers. In the late 19th century, the Italian Guglielmo Marconi was able to communicate across distances using radio. In 1876, the first telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell, a British expatriate living in America. Many became very wealthy from this Second Industrial Revolution, including the American entrepreneurs Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. Unions continued to fight for the rights of workers, and by 1914 laws limiting working hours and outlawing child labor had been passed in many Western countries.
Culturally, the English-speaking nations were in the midst of the Victorian era, named for Britain's queen. In France, this period is called the Belle Époque, a period of many artistic and cultural achievements. The suffragette movement began in this period, which sought to gain voting rights for women, with New Zealand and Australian parliaments granting women's suffrage in the 1890s. However, by 1914, only a dozen U.S. states had given women this right, although women were treated more and more as equals of men before the law in many countries.
Cities grew as never before between 1870 and 1914. This led at first to unsanitary and crowded living conditions, especially for the poor. However, by 1914, municipal governments were providing police and fire departments and garbage removal services to their citizens, leading to a drop in death rates. Unfortunately, pollution from burning coal and wastes left by thousands of horses that crowded the streets worsened the quality of life in many urban areas. Paris, lit up by gas and electric light, and containing the tallest structure in the world at the time, the Eiffel Tower, was often looked to as an ideal modern city, and served as a model for city planners around the world.
United States: 1870–1914
Following the American Civil War, great changes occurred in the United States. After the war, the former Confederate States were put under federal occupation and federal lawmakers attempted to gain equality for blacks by outlawing slavery and giving them citizenship. After several years, however, Southern states began rejoining the Union as their populations pledged loyalty to the United States government, and in 1877 Reconstruction as this period was called, came to an end. After being re-admitted to the Union, Southern lawmakers passed segregation laws and laws preventing blacks from voting, resulting in blacks being regarded as second-class citizens for decades to come.
Another great change beginning in the 1870s was the settlement of the western territories by Americans. The population growth in the American West led to the creation of many new western states, and by 1912 all the land of the contiguous U.S. was part of a state, bringing the total to 48. As whites settled the West, however, conflicts occurred with the Amerindians. After several Indian Wars, the Amerindians were forcibly relocated to small reservations throughout the West and by 1914 whites were the dominant ethnic group in the American West. As the farming and cattle industries of the American West matured and new technology allowed goods to be refrigerated and brought to other parts of the country and overseas, people's diets greatly improved and contributed to increased population growth throughout the West.
America's population greatly increased between 1870 and 1914, due largely to immigration. The U.S. had been receiving immigrants for decades but at the turn of the 20th century, the numbers greatly increased due partly to large population growth in Europe. Immigrants often faced discrimination, because many differed from most Americans in religion and culture. Despite this, most immigrants found work and enjoyed a greater degree of freedom than in their home countries. Major immigrant groups included the Irish, Italians, Russians, Scandinavians, Germans, Poles and Diaspora Jews. The vast majority, at least by the second generation, learned English, and adopted American culture, while at the same time contributing to that culture by, for example, introducing the celebration of ethnic holidays and foreign cuisine to America. These new groups also changed America's religious landscape. Although it remained mostly Protestant, Catholics especially, as well as Jews and Orthodox Christians, increased in number.
The U.S. became a major military and industrial power during this time, gaining a colonial empire from Spain and surpassing Britain and Germany to become the world's major industrial power by 1900. Despite this, most Americans were reluctant to get involved in world affairs, and American presidents generally tried to keep the U.S. out of foreign entanglement.
Europe: 1870–1914
The years between 1870 and 1914 saw the rise of Germany as the dominant power in Europe. By the late 19th century, Germany had surpassed Britain to become the world's greatest industrial power. It also had the mightiest army in Europe. From 1870 to 1871, Prussia was at war with France. Prussia won the war and gained two border territories, Alsace and Lorraine, from France. After the war, Wilhelm took the title kaiser from the Roman title caesar, proclaimed the German Empire, and all the German states other than Austria united with this new nation, under the leadership of Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
After the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III was dethroned and France was proclaimed a republic. During this time, France was increasingly divided between Catholics and monarchists and anticlerical and republican forces. In 1900, church and state were officially separated in France, although the majority of the population remained Catholic. France also found itself weakened industrially following its war with Prussia due to its loss of iron and coal mines following the war. In addition, France's population was smaller than Germany's and was hardly growing. Despite all this, France's strong sense of nationhood, among other things, kept the country together.
Between 1870 and 1914, Britain continued to peacefully switch between Liberal and Conservative governments, and maintained its vast empire, the largest in world history. Two problems faced by Britain in this period were the resentment of British rule in Ireland and Britain's falling behind Germany and the United States in industrial production.
British dominions: 1870–1914
The European populations of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa all continued to grow and thrive in this period and evolved democratic Westminster system parliaments.
Canada united as a dominion of the British Empire under the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts). The colony of New Zealand gained its own parliament (called a "general assembly") and home rule in 1852. and in 1907 was proclaimed the Dominion of New Zealand. Britain began to grant its Australian colonies autonomy beginning in the 1850s and during the 1890s, the colonies of Australia voted to unite. In 1901 they were federated as an independent nation under the British Crown, known as the Commonwealth of Australia, with a wholly elected bicameral parliament. The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) ended with the conversion of the Boer republics of South Africa into British colonies and these colonies later formed part of the Union of South Africa in 1910 with equal rights for the Boers, who dominated elections.
From the 1850s, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had become laboratories of democracy. By the 1870s, they had already granted voting rights to their citizens in advance of most other Western nations. In 1893, New Zealand became the first self-governing nation to extend the right to vote to women and, in 1895, the women of South Australia also became the first to obtain the right to stand for Parliament.
During the 1890s Australia also saw such milestones as the invention of the secret ballot, the introduction of a minimum wage and the election of the world's first Labor Party government, prefiguring the emergence of Social Democratic governments in Europe. The old age pension was established in Australia and New Zealand by 1900.
From the 1880s, the Heidelberg School of art adapted Western painting techniques to Australian conditions, while writers like Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson introduced the character of a new continent into English literature and antipodean artists such as the opera singer Dame Nellie Melba began to influence the European arts.
Rival alliances
The late 19th century saw the creation of two rival alliances in Europe. Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary formed the Triple Alliance. France and Russia also developed strong relations with one another, due to the financing of Russia's Industrial Revolution by French capitalists. Although it did not have a formal alliance, Russia supported the Slavic Orthodox nations of the Balkans and the Caucasus, which had been created in the 19th century after several wars and revolutions against the Ottoman Empire, which by now was in decline and ruled only parts of the southern Balkan Peninsula. This Russian policy, called Pan-Slavism, led to conflicts with the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires, which had many Slavic subjects. Franco-German relations were also tense in this period due to France's defeat and loss of land at the hands of Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War. Also in this period, Britain ended its policy of isolation from the European continent and formed an alliance with France, called the Entente Cordiale. Rather than achieve greater security for the nations of Europe, however, these alliances increased the chances of a general European war breaking out. Other factors that would eventually lead to World War I were the competition for overseas colonies, the military buildups of the period, most notably Germany's, and the feeling of intense nationalism throughout the continent.
World War I
When the war broke out, much of the fighting was between Western powers, and the immediate casus belli was an assassination. The victim was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, and he was assassinated on 28 June 1914 by a Yugoslav nationalist named Gavrilo Princip in the city of Sarajevo, at the time part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although Serbia agreed to all but one point of the Austrian ultimatum (it did not take responsibility in planning the assassination but was ready to hand over any subject involved on its territory), Austria-Hungary was more than eager to declare war, attacked Serbia and effectively began World War I. Fearing the conquest of a fellow Slavic Orthodox nation, Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary. Germany responded by declaring war on Russia as well as France, which it feared would ally with Russia. To reach France, Germany invaded neutral Belgium in August, leading Britain to declare war on Germany. The war quickly stalemated, with trenches being dug from the North Sea to Switzerland. The war also made use of new and relatively new technology and weapons, including machine guns, airplanes, tanks, battleships, and submarines. Even chemical weapons were used at one point. The war also involved other nations, with Romania and Greece joining the British Empire and France and Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joining Germany. The war spread throughout the globe with colonial armies clashing in Africa and Pacific nations such as Japan and Australia, allied with Britain, attacking German colonies in the Pacific. In the Middle East, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps landed at Gallipoli in 1915 in a failed bid to support an Anglo-French capture of the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. Unable to secure an early victory in 1915, British Empire forces later attacked from further south after the beginning of the Arab revolt and conquered Mesopotamia and Palestine from the Ottomans with the support of local Arab rebels. The British Empire also supported an Arab revolt against the Ottomans that was centered in the Arabian Peninsula.
1916 saw some of the most ferocious fighting in human history with the Somme Offensive on the Western Front alone resulting in 500,000 German casualties, 420,000 British and Dominion casualties, and 200,000 French casualties.
1917 was a crucial year in the war. The United States had followed a policy of neutrality in the war, feeling it was a European conflict. However, during the course of the war many Americans had died on board British ocean liners sunk by the Germans, leading to anti-German feelings in the U.S. There had also been incidents of sabotage on American soil, including the Black Tom explosion. What finally led to American involvement in the war, however, was the discovery of the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany offered to help Mexico conquer part of the United States if it formed an alliance with Germany. In April, the U.S. declared war on Germany. The same year the U.S. entered the war, Russia withdrew. After the deaths of many Russian soldiers and hunger in Russia, a revolution occurred against the Czar, Nicholas II. Nicholas abdicated and a Liberal provisional government was set up. In October, Russian communists, led by Vladimir Lenin rose up against the government, resulting in a civil war. Eventually, the communists won and Lenin became premier. Feeling World War I was a capitalist conflict, Lenin signed a peace treaty with Germany in which it gave up a great deal of its Central and Eastern European lands.
Although Germany and its allies no longer had to focus on Russia, the large numbers of American troops and weapons reaching Europe turned the tide against Germany, and after more than a year of fighting, Germany surrendered.
The treaties which ended the war, including the famous Versailles Treaty dealt harshly with Germany and its former allies. The Austro-Hungarian Empire were completely abolished and Germany was greatly reduced in size. Many nations regained their independence, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The last Austro-Hungarian emperor abdicated, and two new republics, Austria and Hungary, were created. The last Ottoman sultan was overthrown by the Turkish nationalist revolutionary named Atatürk and the Ottoman homeland of Turkey was declared a republic. Germany's kaiser also abdicated and Germany was declared a republic. Germany was also forced to give up the lands it had gained in the Franco-Prussian War to France, accept responsibility for the war, reduce its military and pay reparations to Britain and France.
In the Middle East, Britain gained Palestine, Transjordan (modern-day Jordan), and Mesopotamia as colonies. France gained Syria and Lebanon. An independent kingdom consisting of most of the Arabian peninsula, Saudi Arabia, was also established. Germany's colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific were divided between the British and French Empires.
The war had cost millions of lives and led many in the West to develop a strong distaste for war. Few were satisfied with, and many despised the agreements made at the end of the war. Japanese and Italians were angry that they had not been given any new colonies after the war, and many Americans felt the war had been a mistake. Germans were outraged at the state of their country following the war. Also, unlike many in the United States had hoped for, democracy did not flourish in the world in the post-war period. The League of Nations, an international organization proposed by American president Woodrow Wilson to prevent another great war from breaking out, proved ineffective, especially because the isolationist United States ended up not joining.
Interwar years: 1918–1939
United States in the interwar years
After World War I, most Americans regretted getting involved in world affairs and desired a "return to normalcy". The 1920s were a period of economic prosperity in the United States. Many Americans bought cars, radios, and other appliances with the help of installment payments. Also, many Americans invested in the stock market as a source of income. Movie theaters sprang up throughout the country, although at first they did not have sound. Alcoholic beverages were outlawed in the United States and women were granted the right to vote. Although the United States was arguably the most powerful nation in the post-war period, Americans remained isolationist and elected several conservative presidents during this period.
In October 1929 the New York stock market crashed, leading to the Great Depression. Many lost their life's savings and the resulting decline in consumer spending led millions to lose their jobs as banks and businesses closed. In the Midwestern United States, a severe drought destroyed many farmers' livelihoods. In 1932, Americans elected Franklin D. Roosevelt president. Roosevelt followed a series of policies which regulated the stock market and banks, and created many public works programs aimed at providing the unemployed with work. Roosevelt's policies helped alleviate the worst effects of the Depression, although by 1941 the Great Depression was still ongoing. Roosevelt also instituted pensions for the elderly and provided money to those who were unemployed. Roosevelt was also one of the most popular presidents in U.S. history, earning re-election in 1936, and also in 1940 and 1944, becoming the only U.S. president to serve more than two terms.
Europe in the interwar years
Europe was relatively unstable following World War I. Although many prospered in the 1920s, Germany was in a deep financial and economic crisis. Also, France and Britain owed the U.S. a great deal of money. When the United States went into Depression, so did Europe. There were perhaps 30 million people around the world unemployed following the Depression. Many governments helped to alleviate the suffering of their citizens and by 1937 the economy had improved although the lingering effects of the Depression remained. Also, the Depression led to the spread of radical left-wing and right-wing ideologies, like Communism and Fascism.
In 1919-1921 Polish–Soviet War took place. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 Russia sought to spread communism to the rest of Europe. This is evidenced by the well-known daily order by marshal Tukhachevsky to his troops: "Over the corpse of Poland leads the road to the world's fire. Towards Wilno, Minsk, Warsaw go!". Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles following the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century achieved an unexpected and decisive victory at the Battle of Warsaw. In the wake of the Polish advance eastward, the Soviets sued for peace and the war ended with a ceasefire in October 1920. A formal peace treaty, the Peace of Riga, was signed on 18 March 1921. According to the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, the Polish–Soviet War "largely determined the course of European history for the next twenty years or more. [...] Unavowedly and almost unconsciously, Soviet leaders abandoned the cause of international revolution." It would be twenty years before the Bolsheviks would send their armies abroad to 'make revolution'. According to American sociologist Alexander Gella "the Polish victory had gained twenty years of independence not only for Poland, but at least for an entire central part of Europe.
In 1916, militant Irish republicans staged a rising and proclaimed a republic. The rising was suppressed after six days with leaders of the rising being executed. This was followed by the Irish War of Independence in 1919–1921 and the Irish Civil War (1922–1923). After the civil war, the island was divided. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, while the rest of the island became the Irish Free State. In 1927, the United Kingdom renamed itself the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In the 1920s, the UK granted the right to vote to women.
British dominions in the interwar years
The relationship between Britain and its Empire evolved significantly over the period. In 1919, the British Empire was represented at the all-important Versailles Peace Conference by delegates from its dominions who had each suffered large casualties during the War. The Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, stated that Britain and its dominions were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". These aspects to the relationship were eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 – a British law which, at the request and with the consent of the dominion parliaments clarified the independent powers of the dominion parliaments, and granted the former colonies full legal freedom except areas where they chose to remain subordinate. Previously the British Parliament had had residual ill-defined powers, and overriding authority, over dominion legislation. It applied to the six dominions which existed in 1931: Canada, Australia, the Irish Free State, the Dominion of Newfoundland, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa. Each of the dominions remained within the British Commonwealth and retained close political and cultural ties with Britain and continued to recognize the British monarch as head of their own independent nations. Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Australia and New Zealand did so in 1942 and 1947 respectively. Newfoundland united with Canada in 1949 and the Irish Free State came to an end in 1937, when the citizens voted by referendum to replace its 1922 constitution. It was succeeded by the entirely sovereign modern state of Ireland.
Rise of totalitarianism
The Inter-war years saw the establishment of the first totalitarian regimes in world history. The first was established in Russia following the revolution of 1917. The Russian Empire was renamed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or Soviet Union. The government controlled every aspect of its citizens' lives, from maintaining loyalty to the Communist Party to persecuting religion. Lenin helped to establish this state but it was brought to a new level of brutality under his successor, Joseph Stalin.
The first totalitarian state in the West was established in Italy. Unlike the Soviet Union however, this would be a Fascist rather than a Communist state. Fascism is a less organized ideology than Communism, but generally it is characterized by a total rejection of humanism and liberal democracy, as well as very intense nationalism, with a government headed by a single all-powerful dictator. The Italian politician Benito Mussolini established the Fascist Party (from which Fascism derives its name) following World War I. Fascists won the support of many disillusioned Italians, who were angry over Italy's treatment following World War I. They also employed violence and intimidation against their political enemies. In 1922, Mussolini seized power by threatening to lead his followers on a march on Rome if he was not named prime minister. Although he had to share some power with the monarchy, Mussolini ruled as a dictator. Under his rule, Italy's military was built up and democracy became a thing of the past. One important diplomatic achievement of his reign, however, was the Lateran Treaty, between Italy and the Pope, in which a small part of Rome where St. Peter's Basilica and other Church property was located was given independence as Vatican City and the Pope was reimbursed for lost Church property. In exchange, the Pope recognized the Italian government.
Another Fascist party, the Nazis, would take power in Germany. The Nazis were similar to Mussolini's Fascists but held many views of their own. Nazis were obsessed with racial theory, believing Germans to be part of a master race, destined to dominate the inferior races of the world. The Nazis were especially hateful of Jews. Another unique aspect of Nazism was its connection with a small movement that supported a return to ancient Germanic paganism. Adolf Hitler, a World War I veteran, became leader of the party in 1921. Gaining support from many disillusioned Germans, and by using intimidation against its enemies, the Nazi party had gained a great deal of power by the early 1930s. In 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor, and seized dictatorial power. Hitler built up Germany's military in violation of the Versailles Treaty and stripped Jews of all rights in Germany. Eventually, the regime Hitler created would lead to the Second World War.
In Spain, a Republic was proclaimed in 1931 in the wake of the demise of the Bourbon monarchic regime and its dictatorial solution. In 1936, a military coup d'etat against the republic started the Spanish Civil War, which ended in 1939 with the victory of the rebel side (supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany) and with Francisco Franco as dictator.
Second World War and its aftermath: 1939–1950
The late 1930s saw a series of violations of the Versailles Treaty by Germany, however, France and Britain refused to act. In 1938, Hitler annexed Austria in an attempt to unite all German-speakers under his rule. Next, he annexed a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed to recognize his rule over that land and in exchange Hitler agreed not to expand his empire further. In a matter of months, however, Hitler broke the pledge and annexed the rest of Czechoslovakia. Despite this, the British and French chose to do nothing, wanting to avoid war at any cost. Hitler then formed a secret non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, despite the fact that the Soviet Union was Communist and Germany was Nazi. Also in the 1930s, Italy conquered Ethiopia. The Soviets too began annexing neighboring countries. Japan began taking aggressive actions towards China. After Japan opened itself to trade with the West in the mid-19th century, its leaders learned to take advantage of Western technology and industrialized their country by the end of the century. By the 1930s, Japan's government was under the control of militarists who wanted to establish an empire in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1937, Japan invaded China.
In 1939, German forces invaded Poland, and soon the country was divided between the Soviet Union and Germany. France and Britain declared war on Germany, World War II had begun. The war featured the use of new technologies and improvements on existing ones. Airplanes called bombers were capable of travelling great distances and dropping bombs on targets. Submarine, tank and battleship technology also improved. Most soldiers were equipped with hand-held machine guns and armies were more mobile than ever before. Also, the British invention of radar would revolutionize tactics. German forces invaded and conquered the Low Countries and by June had even conquered France. In 1940 Germany, Italy and Japan formed an alliance and became known as the Axis Powers. Germany next turned its attention to Britain. Hitler attempted to defeat the British using only air power. In the Battle of Britain, German bombers destroyed much of the British air force and many British cities. Led by their prime minister, the defiant Winston Churchill, the British refused to give up and launched air attacks on Germany. Eventually, Hitler turned his attention from Britain to the Soviet Union. In June 1941, German forces invaded the Soviet Union and soon reached deep into Russia, surrounding Moscow, Leningrad, and Stalingrad. Hitler's invasion came as a total surprise to Stalin; however, Hitler had always believed sooner or later Soviet Communism and what he believed were the "inferior" Slavic peoples had to be wiped out.
The United States attempted to remain neutral early in the war. However, a growing number feared the consequences of a Fascist victory. President Roosevelt began sending weapons and support to the British, Chinese, and Soviets. Also, the U.S. placed an embargo against the Japanese, as they continued their war with China and conquered many colonies formerly ruled by the French and Dutch, who were now under German rule. In 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, an American naval base in Hawaii. The U.S. responded by declaring war on Japan. The next day, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The United States, the British Commonwealth, and the Soviet Union now constituted the Allies, dedicated to destroying the Axis Powers. Other allied nations included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and China.
In the Pacific War, British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. The defeat was the worst in British military history. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers alone became prisoners of war. Allied prisoners died in their thousands interned at Changi Prison or working as slave labourers on such projects as the infamous Burma Railway and the Sandakan Death Marches. Australian cities and bases – notably Darwin suffered air raids and Sydney suffered naval attack. U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, based in Melbourne, Australia became "Supreme Allied Commander of the South West Pacific" and the foundations of the post war Australia-New Zealand-United States Alliance were laid. In May 1942, the Royal Australian Navy and U.S. Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the Japanese fleet headed for Australian waters. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy. In August 1942, Australian forces inflicted the first land defeat on advancing Japanese forces at the Battle of Milne Bay in the Australian Territory of New Guinea.
By 1942, German and Italian armies ruled Norway, the Low Countries, France, the Balkans, Central Europe, part of Russia, and most of North Africa. Japan by this year ruled much of China, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and many Pacific Islands. Life in these empires was cruel – especially in Germany, where the Holocaust was perpetrated. Eleven million people – six million of them Jews – were systematically murdered by the German Nazis by 1945.
From 1943 on, the Allies gained the upper hand. American and British troops first liberated North Africa from the Germans and Italians. Next they invaded Italy, where Mussolini was deposed by the king and later was killed by Italian partisans. Italy surrendered and came under Allied occupation. After the liberation of Italy, American, British, and Canadian troops crossed the English Channel and liberated Normandy, France, from German rule after great loss of life. The Western Allies were then able to liberate the rest of France and move towards Germany. During these campaigns in Africa and Western Europe, the Soviets fought off the Germans, pushing them out of the Soviet Union altogether and driving them out of Eastern and East-Central Europe. In 1945 the Western Allies and Soviets invaded Germany itself. The Soviets captured Berlin and Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered unconditionally and came under Allied occupation. The war against Japan continued however. American forces from 1943 on had worked their way across the Pacific, liberating territory from the Japanese. The British also fought the Japanese in such places as Burma. By 1945, the U.S. had surrounded Japan, however the Japanese refused to surrender. Fearing a land invasion would cost one million American lives, the U.S. used a new weapon against Japan, the atomic bomb, developed after years of work by an international team including Germans, in the United States. These atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki combined with a Soviet invasion of many of Japan's occupied territories in the east, led Japan to surrender.
After the war the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union attempted to cooperate. German and Japanese military leaders responsible for atrocities in their regimes were put on trial and many were executed. The international organization the United Nations was created. Its goal was to prevent wars from breaking out as well as provide the people of the world with security, justice and rights. The period of post-war cooperation ended, however, when the Soviet Union rigged elections in the occupied nations of Central and Eastern Europe to allow for Communist victories. Soon, all of Eastern and much of Central Europe had become a series of Communist dictatorships, all staunchly allied with the Soviet Union. Germany following the war had been occupied by British, American, French, and Soviet forces. Unable to agree on a new government, the country was divided into a democratic west and Communist east. Berlin itself was also divided, with West Berlin becoming part of West Germany and East Berlin becoming part of East Germany. Meanwhile, the former Axis nations soon had their sovereignty restored, with Italy and Japan regaining independence following the war.
World War II had cost millions of lives and devastated many others. Entire cities lay in ruins and economies were in shambles. However, in the Allied countries, the people were filled with pride at having stopped Fascism from dominating the globe, and after the war, Fascism was all but extinct as an ideology. The world's balance of power also shifted, with the United States and Soviet Union being the world's two superpowers.
Fall of the Western empires: 1945–1999
Following World War II, the great colonial empires established by the Western powers beginning in early modern times began to collapse. There were several reasons for this. Firstly, World War II had devastated European economies and had forced governments to spend great deals of money, making the price of colonial administration increasingly hard to manage. Secondly, the two new superpowers following the war, the United States and Soviet Union were both opposed to imperialism, so the now weakened European empires could generally not look to the outside for help. Thirdly, Westerners increasingly were not interested in maintaining and even opposed the existence of empires. The fourth reason was the rise of independence movements following the war. The future leaders of these movements had often been educated at colonial schools run by Westerners where they adopted Western ideas like freedom, equality, self-determination and nationalism, and which turned them against their colonial rulers.
The first colonies to gain independence were in Asia. In 1946, the U.S. granted independence to the Philippines, its only large overseas colony. In British India, Mahatma Gandhi led his followers in non-violent resistance to British rule. By the late 1940s Britain found itself unable to work with Indians in ruling the colony, this, combined with sympathy around the world for Gandhi's non-violent movement, led Britain to grant independence to India, dividing it into the largely Hindu country of India and the smaller, largely Muslim nation of Pakistan in 1947. In 1948 Burma gained independence from Britain, and in 1945 Indonesian nationalists declared Indonesian independence, which the Netherlands recognised in 1949 after a four-year armed and diplomatic struggle. Independence for French Indochina came only after a great conflict. After the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the colony following World War II, France regained control but found it had to contend with an independence movement that had fought against the Japanese. The movement was led by the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnamese Communists. Because of this, the U.S. supplied France with arms and support, fearing Communists would dominate South-east Asia. In the end though, France gave in and granted independence, creating Laos, Cambodia, Communist North Vietnam, and South Vietnam.
In the Middle East, following World War II, Britain had granted independence to the formerly Ottoman territories of Mesopotamia, which became Iraq, Kuwait, and Transjordan, which became Jordan. France also granted independence to Syria and Lebanon. British Palestine, however, presented a unique challenge. Following World War I, when Britain gained the colony, Jewish and Arab national aspirations conflicted, followed by a proposal of the UN to divided Mandatory Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Arabs objected, Britain withdrew and the Zionists declared the state of Israel on 14 May 1948.
The other major center of colonial power, Africa, was freed from colonial rule following World War II as well. Egypt gained independence from Britain and this was soon followed by Ghana and Tunisia. One violent independence movement of the time was fought in Algeria, in which Algerian rebels went so far as to kill innocent Frenchmen. In 1962, however, Algeria gained independence from France. By the 1970s the entire continent had become independent of European rule, although a few southern countries remained under the rule of white colonial minorities.
By the close of the 20th century, the European colonial Empires had ceased to exist as significant global entities. Sunset for the British Empire came when Britain's lease on the great trading port of Hong Kong was brought to end, and political control was transferred to the People's Republic of China in 1997. Soon after, in 1999 Transfer of sovereignty over Macau was concluded between Portugal and China, bringing to a close six centuries of Portuguese colonialism. Britain remained culturally linked to its former empire through the voluntary association of the Commonwealth of Nations, and 14 British Overseas Territories remained (formerly known as Crown colonies), consisting mainly of scattered island outposts. Currently, 15 independent Commonwealth realms retain the British monarch as their head of state. Canada, Australia and New Zealand emerged as vibrant and prosperous migrant nations. The once vast French colonial empire had lost its major possessions though a scattered territories remained as Overseas departments and territories of France. The shrunken Dutch Empire retained a few Caribbean islands as constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Spain had lost its overseas possessions, but its legacy was vast – with Latin culture remaining throughout South and Central America. Along with Portugal and France, Spain had made Catholicism a global religion.
Of Europe's empires, only the Russian Empire remained a significant geo-political force into the late 20th century, having morphed into the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact, which, drawing on the writings of the German Karl Marx, established a socialist economic model under Communist dictatorship, which ultimately collapsed in the early 1990s. Adaptations of Marxism continued as the stated inspiration for Governments in Central America and Asia into the 21st century – though only a handful survived the end of the Cold War.
The end of the Western Empires greatly changed the world. Although many newly independent nations attempted to become democracies, many slipped into military and autocratic rule. Amid power vacuums and newly determined national borders, civil war also became a problem, especially in Africa, where the introduction of firearms to ancient tribal rivalries exacerbated problems.
The loss of overseas colonies partly also led many Western nations, particularly in continental Europe, to focus more on European, rather than global, politics as the European Union rose as an important entity. Though gone, the colonial empires left a formidable cultural and political legacy, with English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian and Dutch being spoken by peoples across far flung corners of the globe. European technologies were now global technologies – religions like Catholicism and Anglicanism, founded in the West, were booming in post colonial Africa and Asia. Parliamentary (or presidential) democracies, as well as rival Communist style one party states invented in the West had replaced traditional monarchies and tribal government models across the globe. Modernity, for many, was equated with Westernisation.
Cold War: 1945–1991
From the end of World War II almost until the start of the 21st century, Western and world politics were dominated by the state of tensions and conflict between the world's two Superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. In the years following World War II, the Soviets established satellite states throughout Central and Eastern Europe, including historically and culturally Western nations like Poland and Hungary. Following the division of Germany, the East Germans constructed the Berlin Wall, to prevent East Berliners from escaping to the "freedom" of West Berlin. The Berlin Wall would come to represent the Cold War around the world.
Rather than revert to isolationism, the United States took an active role in global politics following World War II to halt Communist expansion. After the war, Communist parties in Western Europe increased in prestige and number, especially in Italy and France, leading many to fear the whole of Europe would become Communist. The U.S. responded to this with the Marshall Plan, in which the U.S. financed the rebuilding of Western Europe and poured money into its economy. The Plan was a huge success and soon Europe was prosperous again, with many Europeans enjoying a standard of living close that in the U.S. (following World War II, the U.S. became very prosperous and Americans enjoyed the highest standard of living in the world). National rivalries ended in Europe and most Germans and Italians, for example, were happy to be living under democratic rule, regretting their Fascist pasts. In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed, creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. The treaty was signed by the United States, Canada, the Low Countries, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Portugal, Italy, France, and Britain. NATO members agreed that if any one of them were attacked, they would all consider themselves attacked and retaliate. NATO would expand as the years went on, other nations joined, including Greece, Turkey, and West Germany. The Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact, an alliance which bound Central and Eastern Europe to fight with the United States and its allies in the event of war.
One of the first actual conflicts of the Cold War took place in China. Following the withdrawal of Japanese troops after World War II, China was plunged into civil war, pitting Chinese Communists against Nationalists, who opposed Communism. The Soviets supported the Communists while the Americans supported the Nationalists. In 1949, the Communists were victorious, proclaiming the People's Republic of China. However, the Nationalists continued to rule the island of Taiwan off the coast. With American guarantees of protection for Taiwan, China did not make an attempt to take over the island. A major political change in East Asia in this period was Japan's becoming a tolerant, democratic society and an ally of the United States. In 1950, another conflict broke out in Asia, this time in Korea. The peninsula had been divided between a Communist North and non-Communist South in 1948 following the withdrawal of American and Soviet troops. In 1950, the North Koreans invaded South Korea, wanting to united the land under Communism. The UN condemned the action, and, because the Soviets were boycotting the organization at the time and therefore had no influence on it, the UN sent forces to liberate South Korea. Many nations sent troops, but most were from America. UN forces were able to liberate the South and even attempted to conquer the North. However, fearing the loss of North Korea, Communist China sent troops to the North. The U.S. did not retaliate against China, fearing war with the Soviet Union, so the war stalemated. In 1953 the two sides agreed to a return to the pre-war borders and a de-militarization of the border area.
The world lived in the constant fear of World War III in the Cold War. Seemingly any conflict involving Communism might lead to a conflict between the Warsaw pact countries and the NATO countries. The prospect of a third world war was made even more frightening by the fact that it would almost certainly be a nuclear war. In 1949 the Soviets developed their first atomic bomb, and soon both the United States and Soviet Union had enough to destroy the world several times over. With the development of missile technology, the stakes were raised as either country could launch weapons from great distances across the globe to their targets. Eventually, Britain, France, and China would also develop nuclear weapons. It is believed that Israel developed nuclear weapons as well.
One major event that nearly brought the world to the brink of war was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1950s a revolution in Cuba had brought the only Communist regime in the Western Hemisphere to power. In 1962, the Soviets began constructing missile sites in Cuba and sending nuclear missiles. Because of its close proximity to the U.S., the U.S. demanded the Soviets withdraw missiles from Cuba. The U.S. and Soviet Union came very close to attacking one another, but in the end came to a secret agreement in which the NATO withdrew missiles in exchange for a Soviet withdrawal of missiles from Cuba.
The next great Cold War conflict occurred in Southeast Asia. In the 1960s, North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, hoping to unite all of Vietnam under Communist rule. The U.S. responded by supporting the South Vietnamese. In 1964, American troops were sent to "save" South Vietnam from conquest, which many Americans feared would lead to Communist dominance in the entire region. The Vietnam War lasted many years, but most Americans felt the North Vietnamese would be defeated in time. Despite American technological and military superiority, by 1968, the war showed no signs of ending and most Americans wanted U.S. forces to end their involvement. The U.S. undercut support for the North by getting the Soviets and Chinese to stop supporting North Vietnam, in exchange for recognition of the legitimacy of mainland China's Communist government, and began withdrawing troops from Vietnam. In 1972, the last American troops left Vietnam and in 1975 South Vietnam fell to the North. In the following years Communism took power in neighboring Laos and Cambodia.
By the 1970s global politics were becoming more complex. For example, France's president proclaimed France was a great power in and of itself. However, France did not seriously threaten the U.S. for supremacy in the world or even Western Europe. In the Communist world, there was also division, with the Soviets and Chinese differing over how Communist societies should be run. Soviet and Chinese troops even engaged in border skirmishes, although full-scale war never occurred.
The last great armed conflict of the Cold War took place in Afghanistan. In 1979, Soviet forces invaded that country, hoping to establish Communism. Muslims from throughout the Islamic World travelled to Afghanistan to defend that Muslim nation from conquest, calling it a Jihad, or Holy War. The U.S. supported the Jihadists and Afghan resisters, despite the fact that the Jihadists were vehemently anti-Western. By 1989 Soviet forces were forced to withdraw and Afghanistan fell into civil war, with an Islamic fundamentalist government, the Taliban taking over much of the country.
The late 1970s had seen a lessening of tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union, called Détente. However, by the 1980s Détente had ended with the invasion of Afghanistan. In 1981, Ronald Reagan became President of the United States and sought to defeat the USSR by leveraging the United States capitalist economic system to outproduce the communist Russians. The United States military was in a state of low moral after its loss in the Vietnam War, and President Reagan began a huge effort to out-produce the Soviets in military production and technology. In 1985, a new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev took power. Gorbachev, knowing that the Soviet Union could no longer compete economically with the United States, implemented a number of reforms granting his citizens freedom of speech and introducing some capitalist reforms. Gorbachev and America's staunch anti-Communist president Ronald Reagan were even able to negotiate treaties limiting each side's nuclear weapons. Gorbachev also ended the policy of imposing Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. In the past Soviet troops had crushed attempts at reform in places like Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Now, however, Eastern Europe was freed from Soviet domination. In Poland the Round Table Talks between the government and the Solidarity-led opposition led to semi-free elections in 1989 elections in Poland where anti-communist candidates won a striking victory sparked off a succession of peaceful anti-communist revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe known as the Revolutions of 1989. Soon, Communist regimes throughout Europe collapsed. In Germany, after calls from Reagan to Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall, the people of East and West Berlin tore down the wall and East Germany's Communist government was voted out. East and West Germany unified to create the country of Germany, with its capital in the reunified Berlin. The changes in Central and Eastern Europe led to calls for reform in the Soviet Union itself. A failed coup by hard-liners led to greater instability in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet legislature, long subservient to the Communist Party, voted to abolish the Soviet Union in 1991. What had been the Soviet Union was divided into many republics. Although many slipped into authoritarianism, most became democracies. These new republics included Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. By the early 1990s, the West and Europe as a whole was finally free from Communism.
Following the end of the Cold War, Communism largely died out as a major political movement. After the fall of USSR, the United States became the world's only superpower.
Western countries: 1945–1980
United States: 1945–1980
Following World War II, there was an unprecedented period of prosperity in the United States. The majority of Americans entered the middle class and moved from the cities into surrounding suburbs, buying homes of their own. Most American households owned at least one car, as well as the relatively new invention, the television. Also, the American population greatly increased as part of the so-called "baby boom" following the war. For the first time following the war, large of numbers of non-wealthy Americans were able to attend college.
Following the war, black Americans started what has become known as the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. After roughly a century of second-class citizenship following the abolition of slavery, blacks began seeking full equality. This was helped by the 1954 decision by the Supreme Court, outlawing segregation in schools, which was common in the South. Martin Luther King Jr., a black minister from the South led many blacks and whites who supported their cause in non-violent protests against discrimination. Eventually, the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act were passed in 1964, banning measures that had prevented blacks from voting and outlawing segregation and discrimination in the U.S.
In politics, the Democratic and Republican parties remained dominant. In 1945, the Democratic party relied on Southerners, whose support went back to the days when Democrats defended a state's right to own slaves, and Northeasterners and industrial Mid-Westerners, who supported the pro-labor and pro-immigrant policies of the Democrats. Republicans tended to rely on middle-class Protestants from elsewhere in the country. As the Democrats began championing civil rights, however, Southern Democrats felt betrayed, began voting Republican. Presidents from this period were Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter. The years 1945–1980 saw the expansion of federal power and the establishment of programs to help the elderly and poor pay for medical expenses.
By 1980, many Americans had become pessimistic about their country. Despite its status as one of only two superpowers, the Vietnam War as well as the social upheavals of the 1960s and an economic downturn in the 1970s led America to become a much-less confident nation.
Europe
At the close of the war, much of Europe lay in ruins with millions of homeless refugees. A souring of relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union then saw Europe split by an Iron Curtain, dividing the continent between West and East. In Western Europe, democracy had survived the challenge of Fascism and began a period of intense rivalry with Eastern Communism, which was to continue into the 1980s. France and Britain secured themselves permanent positions on the newly formed United Nations Security Council, but Western European empires did not long survive the war, and no one Western European nation would ever again be the paramount power in world affairs.
Despite these immense challenges however, Western Europe again rose as an economic and cultural powerhouse. Assisted first by the Marshall Plan of financial aid from the United States, and later through closer economic integration through the European Common Market, Western Europe quickly re-emerged as a global economic power house. The vanquished nations of Italy and West Germany became leading economies and allies of the United States. So marked was their recovery that historians refer to an Italian economic miracle and in the case of West Germany and Austria the Wirtschaftswunder (German for economic miracle).
Facing a new power balance between the Soviet East and American West, Western European nations moved closer together. In 1957, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, West Germany, Italy and Luxembourg signed the landmark Treaty of Rome, creating the European Economic Community, free of customs duties and tariffs, and allowing the rise of a new European geo-political force. Eventually, this organization was renamed the European Union or (EU), and many other nations joined, including Britain, Ireland, and Denmark. The EU worked toward economic and political cooperation among European nations.
Most European countries became welfare states, in which governments provided a large number of services to their people through taxation. By 1980, most of Europe had universal healthcare and pensions for the elderly. The unemployed were also guaranteed income from the government, and European workers were guaranteed long vacation time. Many other entitlements were established, leading many Europeans to enjoy a very high standard of living. By the 1980s, however, the economic problems of the welfare state were beginning to emerge.
Europe had many important political leaders during this time. Charles de Gaulle, leader of the French government in exile during World War II, served as France's president for many years. He sought to carve out for France a great power status in the world.
Although Europe as a whole was relatively peaceful in this period, both Britain and Spain suffered from acts of terrorism. In Britain, The Troubles saw Irish republicans battle Unionists loyal to Britain. In Spain, ETA, a Basque separatist group, began committing acts of terror against Spaniards, hoping to gain independence for the Basques, an ethnic minority in north-eastern Spain. Both these terrorist campaigns failed, however.
For Greece, Spain and Portugal, ideological battles between left and right continued and the emergence of parliamentary democracy was troubled. Greece experienced Civil War, coup and counter-coup into the 1970s. Portugal, since the 1930s under a quasi-Fascist regime and among the poorest nations in Europe, fought a rearguard action against independence movements in its empire, until a 1974 coup. The last authoritarian dictatorship in Western Europe fell in 1975, when Francisco Franco, dictator of Spain, died. Franco had helped to modernize the country and improve the economy. His successor, King Juan Carlos, transformed the country into a constitutional monarchy. By 1980, all Western European nations were democracies.
British Empire and Commonwealth 1945–1980
Between 1945 and 1980, the British Empire was transformed from its centuries old position as a global colonial power, to a voluntary association known as the Commonwealth of Nations – only some of which retained any formal political links to Britain or its monarchy. Some former British colonies or protectorates disassociated themselves entirely from Britain.
Britain
The popular war time leader Winston Churchill was swept from office at the 1945 election and the Labour Government of Clement Attlee introduced a program of nationalisation of industry and introduced wide-ranging social welfare. Britain's finances had been ravaged by the war and John Maynard Keynes was sent to Washington to negotiate the massive Anglo-American loan on which Britain relied to fund its post-war reconstruction.
India was granted Independence in 1947 and Britain's global influence rapidly declined as decolonisation proceeded. Though the USSR and United States now stood as the post war super powers, Britain and France launched the ill-fated Suez intervention in the 1950s, and Britain committed to the Korean War.
From the 1960s The Troubles afflicted Northern Ireland, as British Unionist and Irish Republican paramilitaries conducted campaigns of violence in support of their political goals. The conflict at times spilled into Ireland and England and continental Europe. Paramilitaries such as the IRA (Irish Republican Army) wanted union with the Republic of Ireland while the UDA (Ulster Defence Association) were supporters of Northern Ireland remaining within the United Kingdom.
In 1973, Britain entered the European Common Market, stepping away from imperial and commonwealth trade ties. Inflation and unemployment contributed to a growing sense of economic decline – partly offset by the exploitation of North Sea Oil from 1974. In 1979, the electorate turned to Conservative Party leader Margaret Thatcher, who became Britain's first female prime minister. Thatcher launched a radical program of economic reform and remained in power for over a decade. In 1982, Thatcher dispatched a British fleet to the Falkland Islands which successfully repelled an Argentine invasion of the British Territory, demonstrating that Britain could still project power across the globe.
Canada
Canada continued to evolve its own national identity in the post-war period. Although it was an independent nation, it remained part of the British Commonwealth and recognized the British monarch as the Canadian monarch as well. Following the war, French and English were recognized as co-equal official languages in Canada, and French became the only official language in the French-speaking province of Quebec. Referendums were held in both 1980 and 1995 in which Quebecers, however, voted not to secede from the union. Other cultural changes Canada faced were similar to those in the United States. Racism and discrimination largely disappeared in the post-war years, and dual-income families became the norm. Also, there was a rejection of traditional Western values by many in Canada. The government also established universal health care for its citizens following the war.
Australia and New Zealand: 1945–1980
Following World War II, Australia and New Zealand enjoyed a great deal of prosperity along with the rest of the West. Both countries remained constitutional monarchies within the evolving Commonwealth of Nations and continued to recognise British monarchs as head of their own independent Parliaments. However, following British defeats by the Japanese in World War II, the post-war decline of the British Empire, and entry of Britain into the European Economic Community in 1973, the two nations re-calibrated defence and trade relations with the rest of the world. Following the Fall of Singapore in 1941, Australia turned to the United States for military aid against the Japanese Empire and Australia and New Zealand joined the United States in the ANZUS military alliance in the early 1950s and contributed troops to anti-communist conflicts in South-East Asia in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. The two nations also established multicultural immigration programs with waves of economic and refugee migrants establishing bases for large Southern European, East Asian, Middle Eastern, and South Pacific islander communities. Trade integration with Asia expanded, particularly through good post-war relations with Japan. The Maori and Australian Aborigines had been largely dispossessed and disenfranchised during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but relations between the descendants of European settlers and the Indigenous peoples of Australia and New Zealand began to improve through legislative and social reform over the post-war period corresponding with the civil rights movement in North America. The Fraser government became a vocal critic of white-minority rule in Apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia, concluding the Gleaeagles Agreement in 1977.
The arts also diversified and flourished over the period – with Australian cinema, literature and musical artists expanding their nation's profile internationally. The iconic Sydney Opera House opened in 1973 and Australian Aboriginal Art began to find international recognition and influence.
Western culture: 1945–1980
The West went through a series of great cultural and social changes between 1945 and 1980. Mass media created a global culture that could ignore national frontiers. Literacy became almost universal, encouraging the growth of books, magazines and newspapers. The influence of cinema and radio remained, while televisions became near essentials in every home. A new pop culture also emerged with rock n roll and pop stars at its heart.
Religious observance declined in most of the West. Protestant churches began focusing more on social gospel rather than doctrine, and the ecumenist movement, which supported co-operation among Christian Churches. The Catholic Church changed many of its practices in the Second Vatican Council, including allowing masses to be said in the vernacular rather than Latin.
The counterculture of the 1960s (and early 1970s) began in the United States as a reaction against the conservative government, social norms of the 1950s, the political conservatism (and perceived social repression) of the Cold War period, and the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam.
With the abolition of laws treating most non-whites as second-class citizens, overt institutional racism largely disappeared from the West.
Although the United States failed to secure the legal equality of women with men (by the failure of Congress to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment), women continued working outside the home, and by 1980 the double-income family became commonplace in Western society. Beginning in the 1960s, many began rejecting traditional Western values and there was a decline in emphasis on church and the family.
Rock and roll music and the spread of technological innovations such as television dramatically altered the cultural landscape of western civilisation. The influential artists of the 20th century often belonged to the new technology artforms.
Rock and roll emerged from the United States from the 1950s to become a quintessential 20th-century art form. Artists such as Elvis Presley, Roy Orbison and Johnny Cash and, later, The Beach Boys developed the new genre in the Southern United States. Cash became an icon of the also newly emerging popular genre of country music. British rock and roll emerged later, with bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones rising to unparalleled success during the 1960s. From Australia emerged the mega pop band The Bee Gees and hard rock band AC/DC, who carried the genre in new directions through the 1970s. These musical artists were icons of radical social changes which saw many traditional notions of western culture alter dramatically.
Hollywood, California became synonymous with film during the 20th century and American Cinema continued a period of immense global influence in the West after World War II. American cinema played a role in adjusting community attitudes through the 1940s to 1980 with seminal works like John Ford's 1956 Western The Searchers, starring John Wayne, providing a sympathetic view of the Native American experience; and 1962's To Kill a Mockingbird, based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel by Harper Lee and starring Gregory Peck, challenging racial prejudice. The advent of television challenged the status of cinema and the artform evolved dramatically from the 1940s through the age of glamorous icons like Marilyn Monroe and directors like Alfred Hitchcock to the emergence of such directors as Stanley Kubrick, George Lucas and Steven Spielberg, whose body of work reflected the emerging Space Age and immense technological and social change.
Western nations: 1980–present
The 1980s were a period of economic growth in the West, though the 1987 Stock Market Crash saw much of the West enter the 1990s in a downturn. The 1990s and turn of the century in turn saw a period of prosperity throughout the West. The World Trade Organization was formed to assist in the organisation of world trade. Following the collapse of Soviet Communism, Central and Eastern Europe began a difficult readjustment towards market economies and parliamentary democracy. In the post Cold War environment, new co-operation emerged between the West and former rivals like Russia and China, but Islamism declared itself a mortal enemy of the West, and wars were launched in Afghanistan and the mid-East in response. The economic cycle turned again with the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, but amidst a new economic paradigm, the effect on the West was uneven, with Europe and United States suffering deep recession, but Pacific economies like Australia and Canada, largely avoiding the downturn – benefitting from a combination of rising trade with Asia, good fiscal management and banking regulation. In the early 21st century, Brasil, Russia, India and China (the BRIC nations) were re-emerging as drivers of economic growth from outside North America and Western Europe.
In the early stages after the Cold War, Russian president Boris Yeltsin stared down an attempted restoration of Sovietism in Russia, and pursued closer relations with the West. Amid economic turmoil a class of oligarchs emerged at the summit of the Russian economy. Yeltsin's chosen successor, the former spy, Vladimir Putin, tightened the reins on political opposition, opposed separatist movements within the Russian Federation, and battled pro-Western neighbour states like Georgia, contributing to a challenging climate of relations with Europe and America. Former Soviet satellites joined NATO and the European Union, leaving Russia again isolated in the East. Under Putin's long reign, the Russian economy profited from a resource boom in the global economy, and the political and economic instability of the Yeltsin era was brought to an end.
Elsewhere, both within and without the West, democracy and capitalism were in the ascendant – even Communist holdouts like mainland China and (to a lesser extent) Cuba and Vietnam, while retaining one party government, experimented with market liberalisation, a process which accelerated after the fall of European Communism, enabling the re-emergence of China as an alternative centre of economic and political power standing outside the West.
Free trade agreements were signed by many countries. The European nations broke down trade barriers with one another in the EU, and the United States, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Although free trade has helped businesses and consumers, it has had the unintended consequence of leading companies to outsource jobs to areas where labor is cheapest. Today, the West's economy is largely service and information-based, with most of the factories closing and relocating to China and India.
European countries have had very good relations with each other since 1980. The European Union has become increasingly powerful, taking on roles traditionally reserved for the nation-state. Although real power still exists in the individual member states, one major achievement of the Union was the introduction of the Euro, a currency adopted by most EU countries.
Australia and New Zealand continued their large multi-ethnic immigration programs and became more integrated in the Asia Pacific region. While remaining constitutional monarchies within the Commonwealth, distance has grown between them and Britain, spurred on by Britain's entry into the European Common Market. Australia and New Zealand have integrated their own economies via a free trade agreement. While political and cultural ties with North America and Europe remain strong, economic reform and commodities trade with the booming economies of Asia have set the South Pacific nations on a new economic trajectory with Australia largely avoiding a downturn in the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 which unleashed severe economic loss through North America and Western Europe.
Today Canada remains part of the Commonwealth, and relations between French and English Canada have continued to present problems. A referendum was held in Quebec, however, in 1980, in which Quebecers voted to remain part of Canada.
In 1990, the white-minority government of the Republic of South Africa, led by F. W. de Klerk, began negotiations to dismantle the system of apartheid. South Africa held its first universal elections in 1994, which the African National Congress (ANC), led by Nelson Mandela, won by an overwhelming majority. The country has since rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations.
Since 1991, the United States has been regarded as the world's only superpower. Politically, the United States is dominated by the Republican and Democratic parties. Presidents of the United States between 1980 and 2006 have been Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Since 1980, Americans have become far more optimistic about their country than they were in the 1970s. Since the 1960s, a large number of immigrants have been coming into the U.S., mostly from Asia and Latin America, with the largest single group being Mexicans. Large numbers from those areas have also been coming illegally, and the solution to this problem has produced much debate in the U.S.
On 11 September 2001, the United States suffered the worst terrorist attack in its history. Four planes were hijacked by Islamic extremists and crashed into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania.
The late-2000s financial crisis, considered by many economists to be the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s, was triggered by a liquidity shortfall in the United States banking system, and has resulted in the collapse of large financial institutions, the bailout of banks by national governments, and downturns in stock markets throughout much of the West. The United States and Britain faced serious downturn, while Portugal, Greece, Ireland and Iceland faced major debt crises. Almost uniquely among Western nations, Australia avoided recession off the back of strong Asian trade and 25 years of economic reform and low levels of government debt.
Evidence of the major demographic and social shifts which have taken place within Western society since World War II can be found with the elections of national level leaders: United States (Barack Obama was elected president in 2009, becoming the first African-American to hold that office), France (Nicolas Sarkozy, a president of France of Hungarian descent), Germany (Angela Merkel, the first female leader of that nation), and Australia (Julia Gillard, also the first female leader of that nation).
Western nations and the world
Following 1991, Western nations provided troops and aid to many war-torn areas of the world. Some of these missions were unsuccessful, like the attempt by the United States to provide relief in Somalia in the early 1990s. A very successful peace-making operation was conducted in the Balkans in the late 1990s, however. After the Cold War, Yugoslavia broke up into several countries along ethnic lines, and soon countries and ethnic groups within countries of the former Yugoslavia began fighting one another. Eventually, NATO troops arrived in 1999 and ended the conflict. Australian led a United Nations mission into East Timor in 1999 (INTERFET) to restore order during that nation's transition to democracy and independence from Indonesia.
The greatest war fought by the West in the 1990s, however, was the Persian Gulf War. In 1990, the Middle Eastern nation of Iraq, under its brutal dictator Saddam Hussein, invaded the much smaller neighbouring country of Kuwait. After refusing to withdraw troops, the United Nations condemned Iraq and sent troops to liberate Kuwait. American, British, French, Egyptian and Syrian troops all took part in the liberation. The war ended in 1991, with the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait and Iraq's agreement to allow United Nations inspectors to search for weapons of mass destruction in Iraq.
The West had become increasingly unpopular in the Middle East following World War II. The Arab states greatly disliked the West's support for Israel. Many soon had a special hatred towards the United States, Israel's greatest ally. Also, partly to ensure stability on the region and a steady supply of the oil the world economy needed, the United States supported many corrupt dictatorships in the Middle East. In 1979, an Islamic revolution in Iran overthrew the pro-Western Shah and established an anti-Western Shiite Islamic theocracy. Following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, most of the country came under the rule of a Sunni Islamic theocracy, the Taliban. The Taliban offered shelter to the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda, founded by the extremist Saudi Arabian exile Osama bin Laden. Al-Qaeda launched a series of attacks on United States overseas interests in the 1990s and 2000. Following the September 11 attacks, however, the United States overthrew the Taliban government and captured or killed many Al Qaeda leaders, including Bin Laden. In 2003, the United States led a controversial war in Iraq, because Saddam had never accounted for all his weapons of mass destruction. By May of that year, American, British, Polish and troops from other countries had defeated and occupied Iraq. Weapons of mass destruction however, were never found afterwards. In both Afghanistan and Iraq, the United States and its allies established democratic governments. Following the Iraq war, however, an insurgency made up of a number of domestic and foreign factions has cost many lives and made establishing a government very hard.
In March 2011, a multi-state coalition led by NATO began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which was taken in response to threat made by the government of Muammar Gaddafi against the civilian population of Libya during the 2011 Libyan civil war.
Western society and culture (since 1980)
In general, Western culture has become increasingly secular in Northern Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. Nevertheless, in a sign of the continuing status of the ancient Western institution of the Papacy in the early 21st century, the Funeral of Pope John Paul II brought together the single largest gathering in history of heads of state outside the United Nations. It is likely to have been the largest single gathering of Christianity in history, with numbers estimated in excess of four million mourners gathering in Rome. He was followed by another non-Italian Benedict XVI, whose near-unprecedented resignation from the papacy in 2013 ushered in the election of the Argentine Pope Francis – the first pope from the Americas, the new demographic heartland of Catholicism.
Personal computers emerged from the West as a new society changing phenomenon during this period. In the 1960s, experiment began on networks linking computers and from these experiments grew the World Wide Web. The internet revolutionised global communications through the late 1990s and into the early 21st century and permitted the rise of new social media with profound consequences, linking the world as never before. In the West, the internet allowed free access to vast amounts of information, while outside the democratic West, as in China and in Middle Eastern nations, a range of censorship and monitoring measures were instigated, providing a new socio-political contrast between east and west.
Historiography
Chicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly.
See also
Outline of the history of Western civilization
Role of Christianity in civilization
History of Europe
Eurocentrism
Media
Civilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark (TV series), BBC TV, 1969
The Ascent of Man (TV series), BBC TV, 1973
References
Further reading
Cole, Joshua and Carol Symes. Western Civilizations (Brief Fifth Edition) (2 vol 2020)
Kishlansky, Mark A. et al. A brief history of western civilization : the unfinished legacy (2 vol 2007) vol 1 online; also vol 2 online
Perry, Marvin Myrna Chase, et al. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society (2015)
Rand McNally. Atlas of western civilization (2006) online
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization (10th ed. 2017_
Bruce Thornton Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization Encounter Books, 2002
Tim Blanning The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648–1815 Penguin Books, 2008
Niall Ferguson Civilization. The West and the rest Penguin Press, 2011
Ian Kershaw To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949 Penguin Books, 2015
Richard J. Evans The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815-1914 Penguin Books, 2017
Ian Kershaw To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949 Penguin Books, 2015
Ian Kershaw The Global Age: Europe 1950–2017 Penguin Books, 2020
Historiography
Allardyce, Gilbert. "The rise and fall of the western civilization course." American Historical Review 87.3 (1982): 695–725. online
Bavaj, Riccardo: "The West": A Conceptual Exploration , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 28 November 2011.
Bentley, Jerry H. "Cross-cultural interaction and periodization in world history." American Historical Review 101.3 (1996): 749–770.
Douthit, Nathan. "The Dialectical Commons of Western Civilization and Global/World History." History Teacher 24#3 (1991), pp. 293–305, online.
Manning, Patrick. "The problem of interactions in world history." American Historical Review 101.3 (1996): 771–782. online
Pincince, John. "Jerry Bentley World History, and the Decline of the 'West'" Journal of World History 25#4 (2014), pp. 631–43, online.
External links
textbooks--online free to read
West
Christendom
Civilizations
Western culture |
4305442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhumi | Sukhumi | Sukhumi (see also other names below) is a city in a wide bay on the Black Sea's eastern coast. It is both the capital and largest city of the Republic of Abkhazia, a partially recognised state widely recognized as a part of Georgia. The city has been controlled by Abkhazia since the Abkhazian war in 1992–93. The city, which has an airport, is a port, major rail junction and a holiday resort because of its beaches, sanatoriums, mineral-water spas and semitropical climate. It is also a member of the International Black Sea Club.
Sukhumi's history can be traced to the 6th century BC, when it was settled by Greeks, who named it Dioscurias. During this time and the subsequent Roman period, much of the city disappeared under the Black Sea. The city was named Tskhumi when it became part of the Kingdom of Abkhazia and then the Kingdom of Georgia. Contested by local princes, it became part of the Ottoman Empire in the 1570s, where it remained until it was conquered by the Russian Empire in 1810. After a period of conflict during the Russian Civil War, it became part of the independent Georgia, which included Abkhazia, in 1918. In 1921, the Democratic Republic of Georgia was occupied by Soviet Bolshevik forces from Russia. Within the Soviet Union, it was regarded as a holiday resort. As the Soviet Union broke up in the early 1990s, the city suffered significant damage during the Abkhaz–Georgian conflict. The present-day population of 60,000 is only half of the population living there toward the end of Soviet rule.
Toponym
In Georgian, the city is known as Sokhumi (სოხუმი), amongst Samurzakans in Megrelian the city is sometimes referred to as Aqujikha (აყუჯიხა), and in Russian as Сухум (Sukhum) or Сухуми (Sukhumi). The toponym Sokhumi derives from the Georgian word Tskhomi/Tskhumi (ცხომი/ცხუმი), which in turn is supposed to be derived from Svan tskhum (ცხუმ) meaning "hornbeam tree". In Abkhaz, the city is known as Aqwa (Аҟәа) which is believed to derive from a-qwara (а-ҟәара), meaning "stony seashore". According to Abkhaz tradition Aqwa (Аҟәа) signifies water.
Medieval Georgian sources knew the town as Tskhumi (ცხუმი). Later, under Ottoman control, the town was known in Turkish as Suhum-Kale, which was derived from the earlier Georgian form Tskhumi or read to mean "Tskhumi fortress".
The ending -i in the above forms represents the Georgian nominative suffix. The town was officially called Сухум (Sukhum) in Russian until 16 August 1936, when this was changed to Sukhumi (Сухуми). This remained so until 4 December 1992, when the Supreme Council of Abkhazia restored the previous version. Russia also readopted its official spelling in 2008, though Сухуми is also still being used.
In English, the most common form today is Sukhumi, although Sokhumi is increasing in usage and has been adopted by sources including United Nations, Encyclopædia Britannica, MSN Encarta, Esri and Google Maps.
History
The history of the city began in the mid-6th century BC when an earlier settlement of the second and early first millennia BC, frequented by local Colchian tribes, was replaced by the Milesian Greek colony of Dioscurias (). The city is said to have been founded and named by the Dioscuri, the twins Castor and Pollux of classical mythology. According to another legend it was founded by Amphitus and Cercius of Sparta, the charioteers of the Dioscuri. The Greek pottery found in Eshera, further north along the coast, predates findings in the area of Sukhumi bay by a century suggesting that the centre of the original Greek settlement could have been there.
It became busily engaged in the commerce between Greece and the indigenous tribes, importing salt and wares from many parts of Greece, and exporting local timber, linen, and hemp. It was also a prime center of slave trade in Colchis. The city and its surroundings were remarkable for the multitude of languages spoken in its bazaars.
Although the sea made serious inroads upon the territory of Dioscurias, it continued to flourish and became one of the key cities in the realm of Mithridates VI of Pontus in the 2nd century BC and supported his cause until the end. Dioscurias issued bronze coinage around 100 BC featuring the symbols of the Dioskuri and Dionysus. Under the Roman emperor Augustus the city assumed the name of Sebastopolis (). But its prosperity was past, and in the 1st century Pliny the Elder described the place as virtually deserted though the town still continued to exist during the times of Arrian in the 130s. The remains of towers and walls of Sebastopolis have been found underwater; on land the lowest levels so far reached by archaeologists are of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. According to Gregory of Nyssa there were Christians in the city in the late 4th century. In 542 the Romans evacuated the town and demolished its citadel to prevent it from being captured by Sasanian Empire. In 565, however, the emperor Justinian I restored the fort and Sebastopolis continued to remain one of the Byzantine strongholds in Colchis until being sacked by the Arab conqueror Marwan II in 736.
Afterwards, the town came to be known as Tskhumi. Restored by the kings of Abkhazia from the Arab devastation, it particularly flourished during the Georgian Golden Age in the 12th–13th centuries, when Tskhumi became a center of traffic with the European maritime powers, particularly with the Republic of Genoa. The Genoese established their trading port in Tskhumi in the end of 13th century and a Catholic bishopric existed there which is now a titular see. A Genoese consulate was established in 1354 with the consul dispatched from Caffa. In spite of occasional conflicts with the locals, the consulate functioned until 1456. The city of Tskhumi became the summer residence of the Georgian kings. According to Russian scholar V. Sizov, it became an important "cultural and administrative center of the Georgian state. A Later Tskhumi served as capital of the Odishi — Megrelian rulers, it was in this city that Vamek I ( 1384–1396), the most influential Dadiani, minted his coins. Documents of the 15th century clearly distinguished Tskhumi from Principality of Abkhazia. The Ottoman navy occupied the town in 1451, but for a short time. Later contested between the princes of Abkhazia and Mingrelia, Tskhumi finally fell to the Turks in the 1570s. The new masters heavily fortified the town and called it Sohumkale, with kale meaning "fort" but the first part of the name of disputed origin. It may represent Turkish su, "water", and kum, "sand", but is more likely to be an alteration of its earlier Georgian name.
At the request of the pro-Russian Abkhazian prince, the town was stormed by the Russian Marines in 1810 and turned, subsequently, into a major outpost in the North West Caucasus. (See Russian conquest of the Caucasus). Sukhumi was declared the seaport in 1847 and was directly annexed to the Russian Empire after the ruling Shervashidze princely dynasty was ousted by the Russian authorities in 1864. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, the town was temporarily controlled by the Ottoman forces and Abkhaz-Adyghe rebels. After its annexation, Sukhumi became the administrative center of the Sukhumi Okrug of the Kutais Governorate.
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, the town and Abkhazia in general were engulfed in the chaos of the Russian Civil War. A short-lived Bolshevik government was suppressed in May 1918 and Sukhumi was incorporated into the Democratic Republic of Georgia as a residence of the autonomous People's Council of Abkhazia and the headquarters of the Georgian governor-general. The Red Army and the local revolutionaries took the city from the Georgian forces on 4 March 1921, and declared Soviet rule. Sukhumi functioned as the capital of the "Union treaty" Abkhaz Soviet Socialist Republic associated with the Georgian SSR from 1921 until 1931, when it became the capital of the Abkhazian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the Georgian SSR. By 1989, Sukhumi had 120,000 inhabitants and was one of the most prosperous cities of Georgia. Many holiday dachas for Soviet leaders were situated there.
Beginning with the 1989 riots, Sukhumi was a centre of the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, and the city was severely damaged during the 1992–1993 War. During the war, the city and its environs suffered almost daily air strikes and artillery shelling, with heavy civilian casualties. On 27 September 1993 the battle for Sukhumi was concluded by a full-scale campaign of ethnic cleansing against its majority Georgian population (see Sukhumi Massacre), including members of the pro-Georgian Abkhazian government (Zhiuli Shartava, Raul Eshba and others) and mayor of Sukhumi Guram Gabiskiria.
Although the city has been relatively peaceful and partially rebuilt, it is still suffering the after-effects of the war, and it has not regained its earlier ethnic diversity. A relatively large infrastructure reconstruction program was launched in 2019–2020 focusing on the renovation of the waterfront, rebuilding city roads and cleaning city parks. Its population in 2017 was 65,716, compared to about 120,000 in 1989. During summer holidays season its population usually doubles and triples with a large inflow of international tourists.
In 2021, there was unrest in the city.
Population
Demographics
Historic population figures for Sukhumi, split out by ethnicity, based on population censuses:
The Abkhazians were deemed "guilty" from 1877, but officially it was by an order of the tsar of 31 May 1880 that their "guilt" was recognised. Abkhazians were forbidden to settle near the coast (except for the upper classes), or live in Sukhum. The devastated central part of Abkhazia between the rivers Psyrtskha and Kodor became a colonised land-fund of the imperial administration. There was established here a kind of buffer-zone between the Gudauta and Ochamchira Abkhazians. Abkhazians had no right to settle in this part of their own country. Meanwhile, thousands of Armenians, Mingrelians, Greeks, Russians, Estonians, Germans, Moldovans and others who were resettled began from 1879 to take root here in today's Sukhum and Gulripsh districts.
Religion
Most of the inhabitants belong to the Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic Churches, Islam and the Abkhaz traditional religion.
Culture
Main sights
Sukhumi theatres which offer classical and modern performances, with the theatre season lasting from September to June. Several galleries and museums exhibit modern and historical Abkhaz visual art. Sukhumi Botanical Garden was established in 1840 and is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the Caucasus.
Sukhumi houses a number of historical monuments, notably the Besleti Bridge built during the reign of queen Tamar of Georgia in the 12th century. It also retains visible vestiges of the defunct monuments, including the Roman walls, the medieval Castle of Bagrat, several towers of the Kelasuri Wall, also known as Great Abkhazian Wall, constructed between 1628 and 1653 by Levan II Dadiani to protect his fiefdom from the Abkhaz tribes; the 14th-century Genoese fort and the 18th-century Ottoman fortress. The 11th century Kamani Monastery ( from Sukhumi) is erected, according to tradition, over the tomb of Saint John Chrysostom. Some from Sukhumi lies New Athos with the ruins of the medieval city of Anacopia. The Neo-Byzantine New Athos Monastery was constructed here in the 1880s on behest of Tsar Alexander III of Russia.
Northward in the mountains is the Krubera Cave, one of the deepest in the world, with a depth of 2,140 meters.
Education
The city hosts a number of research and educational institutions, including the Abkhazian State University, the Sukhumi Open Institute and about a half a dozen of vocational education colleges. From 1945 to 1954 the city's electron physics laboratory was involved in the Soviet program to develop nuclear weapons. Additionally, the Abkhaz State Archive is located in the city.
Until 19th century young people from Abkhazia usually received their education mainly at religious schools (Muslims at Madrasas and Christians at Seminaries), although a small number of children from wealthy families had opportunity to travel to foreign countries for education.
The first modern educational institutions (both schools and colleges) were established in the late 19th-early 20th century and rapidly grew until the second half of the 20th century. For example, the number of college students grew from few dozens in the 1920s to several thousands in the 1980s.
According to the official statistical data, Abkhazia has 12 TVET colleges (as of 2019, est.) providing education and vocational training to youth mostly in the capital city, though there are several colleges in all major district centers. Independent international assessments suggest that these colleges train in about 20 different specialties attracting between 1200 and 1500 young people annually (aged between 16 and 29) (as of 2019, est.). The largest colleges are as follows:
Abkhaz Multiindustrial College (1959) (from 1959 to 1999 – Sukhumi Trade and Culinary School),
Sukhumi State College (1904) (from 1904 to 1921 – Sukhumi Real School; from 1921 to 1999 – Sukhumi Industrial Technical School),
Sukhumi Art College (1934) (from 1934 to 1966 – Sukhimi Art Studio). This college is also a home for a relatively large collection of local paintings and sculptures accumulated mainly during past 60 years.
Sukhum Medical College (1931)
Higher education in Sukhumi currently is represented by one university, Abkhazian State University, which has a special status in the education system in Abkhazia and it manages its own budget.
Abkhaz State University (1979), has its own campus which is a home for 42 departments organized into 8 faculties providing education to about 3300 students (as of 2019, est.).
Climate
Sukhumi has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), that is almost cool enough in summer to be an oceanic climate (Cfb).
Administration
On 2 February 2000, President Ardzinba dismissed temporary Mayor Leonid Osia and appointed Leonid Lolua in his stead. Lolua was reappointed on 10 May 2001 following the March 2001 local elections.
On 5 November 2004, in the heated aftermath of the 2004 presidential election, president Vladislav Ardzinba appointed head of the Gulripshi District assembly Adgur Kharazia as acting mayor. During his first speech he called upon the two leading candidates, Sergei Bagapsh and Raul Khadjimba, to both withdraw.
On 16 February 2005, after his election as president, Bagapsh replaced Kharazia with Astamur Adleiba, who had been Minister for Youth, Sports, Resorts and Tourism until December 2004. In the 11 February 2007 local elections, Adleiba successfully defended his seat in the Sukhumi city assembly and was thereupon reappointed mayor by Bagapsh on 20 March.
In April 2007, while President Bagapsh was in Moscow for medical treatment, the results of an investigation into corruption within the Sukhumi city administration were made public. The investigation found that large sums had been embezzled and upon his return, on 2 May, Bagapsh fired Adleiba along with his deputy Boris Achba, the head of the Sukhumi's finance department Konstantin Tuzhba and the head of the housing department David Jinjolia. On 4 June Adleiba paid back to the municipal budget 200,000 rubels. and on 23 July, he resigned from the Sukhumi city council, citing health reasons and the need to travel abroad for medical treatment.
On 15 May 2007, president Bagapsh released Alias Labakhua as First Deputy Chairman of the State Customs Committee and appointed him acting Mayor of Sukhumi, a post temporarily fulfilled by former Vice-Mayor Anzor Kortua. On 27 May Labakhua appointed Vadim Cherkezia as Deputy Chief of staff. On 2 September, Labakhua won the by-election in constituency No. 21, which had become necessary after Adleiba relinquished his seat. Adleiba was the only candidate and voter turnout was 34%, higher than the 25% required. Since Adleiba was now a member of the city assembly, president Bagapsh could permanently appoint him Mayor of Sukhumi on 18 September.
Following the May 2014 Revolution and the election of Raul Khajimba as president, he on 22 October dismissed Labakhua and again appointed (as acting Mayor) Adgur Kharazia, who at that point was Vice Speaker of the People's Assembly. Kharazia won the 4 April 2015 by-election to the City Council in constituency no. 3 unopposed, and was confirmed as mayor by Khajimba on 4 May. The 6th convocation of the Sukhumi City Council was elected 13 April 2016.
List of mayors
Transport
Sukhumi is served by the Sukhumi Trolleybus, consisting of 3 Lines.
There is a railway station in Sukhumi, that has a daily train to Moscow via Sochi.
Babushara Airport now handles only local flights due to the disputed status of Abkhazia.
Notable people
Notable people who are from or have resided in Sukhumi:
Anton Alikhanov (1986–present), Russian politician, governor of Kaliningrad Oblast
Alexander Ankvab (1952–present), Abkhaz politician and businessman, Prime Minister of Abkhazia.
Beslan Ajinjal (1974–present), is a former Russian footballer.
Ruslan Ajinjal (1974–present), is a former Russian-Abkhazian footballer.
Otari Arshba (1955–present), Russian politician and member of the State Duma of the Russian Federation.
Hadzhera Avidzba (1917–1997), Abkhazia's first professional pianist.
Meri Avidzba (1917–1986), Abkhaz female pilot who fought during the Great Patriotic War of 1942–1945.
Verdicenan Achba (1825–1889), seventh wife of Sultan Abdulmejid I of the Ottoman Empire.
Sergei Bagapsh (1949–2011), Second President of the Republic of Abkhazia
Guram Gabiskiria (1947–1993), Mayor of Sukhumi and National Hero of Georgia.
Demna Gvasalia (1981–present), Georgian fashion designer.
Fazil Iskander (1929–2016), Russian writer and poet.
Sergey Kiriyenko (1962–present), Russian politician, First Deputy Chief of Staff of the Presidential Administration of Russia.
Vera Kobalia (1981–present), Georgian politician.
Daur Kove (1979–present), current Minister for Foreign Affairs of Abkhazia.
Kokkai Futoshi (1981–present), former professional sumo wrestler.
Siranush Gasparyan, Armenian opera singer born in Sukhum.
International relations
Twin towns — Sister cities
Sukhumi is twinned with the following cities:
Ufa, Russia
Krasnodar, Russia
Tiraspol, Transnistria, Moldova
Cherkessk, Russia
Podolsk, Russia
Volgograd, Russia
Grozny, Russia
Stepanakert, Artsakh/Azerbaijan (disputed)
Arkhangelsk, Russia
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
Sant'Antioco, Italy
Side, Turkey
Managua, Nicaragua
See also
Sukhumi District
List of twin towns and sister cities in Georgia
Notes
References
Sources and external links
GigaCatholic for the titular see, linking to incumbent biographies
UNOMIG photo gallery of Sukhumi
Milesian Pontic colonies
Capitals in Asia
Capitals in Europe
Port cities in Asia
Port cities in Europe
Port cities of the Black Sea
Greek colonies in Colchis
Georgian Black Sea coast
Sukhum Okrug
Populated places in Abkhazia
Populated places established in the 6th century BC |
4305542 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAB%20Marconi%20Radio%20Awards | NAB Marconi Radio Awards | "Marconi Award" links here. Note that in the Netherlands, the radio academy awards are also called Marconi Awards.
The Marconi Radio Awards are presented annually by the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) to the top radio stations and on-air personalities in the United States. The awards are named in honor of Guglielmo Marconi, the man generally credited as the "father of wireless telegraphy". NAB member stations submit nominations. A task force determines the finalists and the Marconi Radio Award Selection Academy votes on the winners, who receive their awards in the fall.
Marconi Radio Awards for 2019
Legendary Station
KRTH-FM Los Angeles, CA
Legendary Station Manager of the Year
Dan Seeman, Hubbard Twin Cities and Hubbard North, St. Paul, MN
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Ryan Seacrest, Premiere Networks
Best Radio Podcast of the Year
"Denied Justice Podcast", WCCO-AM, Minneapolis, MN
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WTOP-FM, Washington, D.C.
Large Market: KSTP-FM, St. Paul, MN
Medium Market: KSRO-AM Santa Rosa, CA
Small Market: KWYO-AM, Sheridan, WY
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Felger & Massarotti, WBZ-FM, Boston, MA
Large Market: Crisco, Dez and Ryan, KSTP-FM, St. Paul, MN
Medium Market: Mike Street, WBTJ-FM, Richmond, VA
Small Market: Scotty and Catryna, KCLR-FM, Columbia, MO
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): KRWM-FM, Bellevue, WA
Classic Hits: WMGK-FM, Philadelphia, PA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KRBE-FM, Houston, TX
College: WRHU-FM, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY
Country: KYGO-FM, Denver, CO
News/Talk: KIRO-FM, Seattle, WA
Religious: KKFS-FM, Sacramento, CA
Rock: WRIF-FM, Detroit, MI
Spanish: KLOL-FM, Houston, TX
Sports: WBZ-FM, Boston, MA
Urban: WHQT-FM, Hollywood, FL
Marconi Radio Awards for 2018
Legendary Station
KKBQ-FM Houston, TX
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Dan Patrick, Premiere Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WSB-AM Atlanta, GA
Large Market: WDBO-FM Orlando, FL
Medium Market: KSRO-AM Santa Rosa, CA
Small Market: WWUS-FM Sugarloaf Key, FL
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Angie Martinez, WWPR-FM, New York, NY
Large Market: Joe Kelley, WDBO-FM, Orlando, FL
Medium Market: Pat Kerrigan, KSRO-AM, Santa Rosa, CA
Small Market: Brian Byers, WSOY-AM, Decatur, IL
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): KSTP-FM St. Paul, MN
Classic Hits: KRTH-FM Los Angeles, CA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KNDE-FM College Station, TX
Country: KCLR-FM Columbia, MO
News/Talk: WTOP-FM Washington, D.C.
Non-Commercial: WPSC-FM Wayne, NJ
Religious: KLTY-FM Dallas, TX
Rock: WMMR-FM Philadelphia, PA
Small Market: WWUS-FM Sugarloaf Key, FL
Spanish: WKAQ-AM San Juan, P.R.
Sports: WEEI-FM Boston, MA
Urban: WWPR-FM New York, NY
Marconi Radio Awards for 2017
Legendary Station
WCBS-AM New York, NY
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rickey Smiley, Reach Media Inc.
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WTOP-FM Washington, D.C.
Large Market: WKRQ-FM Cincinnati, OH
Medium Market: KRMG-FM Tulsa, OK
Small Market: KNDE-FM College Station, TX
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Funkmaster Flex, WQHT-FM, New York, NY
Large Market: Linda Lee, WYCD-FM, Detroit, MI
Medium Market: Steve McIntosh & Ted Woodward, KNSS-FM, Wichita, KS
Small Market: Ken Thomas, WJJY-FM, Brainerd, MN
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Classic Hits: WPBG-FM Peoria, IL
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KRBE-FM Houston, TX
Country: KPLX-FM Dallas, TX
News/Talk: WDBO-FM Orlando, FL
Non-Commercial: WRHU-FM Hempstead, NY
Religious: WLIB-AM New York, NY
Rock: KSHE-FM St. Louis, MO
Small Market: KNDE-FM College Station, TX
Sports: KTCK-FM Dallas, TX
Urban: WHQT-FM Miami, FL
Marconi Radio Awards for 2016
Legendary Station
WINS-AM New York, NY
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Delilah, Premiere Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Large Market: WBAL-AM Baltimore, MD
Medium Market: WHKO-FM Dayton, OH
Small Market: WKDZ-FM Cadiz, KY
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Toucher & Rich, WBZ-FM Boston, MA
Large Market: Brooke & Jubal, KQMV-FM Seattle, WA
Medium Market: Chaz & AJ, WPLR-FM Milford, CT
Small Market: Brent Carl Fleshman, WHUB-FM Cookeville, TN
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WLEN-FM Adrian, MI
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KTXY-FM Columbia, MO
Country: KKBQ-FM Houston, TX
News/Talk: WTOP-FM Washington, D.C.
Classic Hits: KRTH-FM Los Angeles, CA
Religious: KLTY-FM Dallas, TX
Rock: KCMQ-FM Columbia, MO
Spanish: KLOL-FM Houston, TX
Sports: WXYT-FM Detroit, MI
Urban: WHUR-FM Washington, D.C.
Non-Commercial: WSOU-FM South Orange, NJ
Marconi Radio Awards for 2015
Legendary Station
KYW-AM Philadelphia, PA
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Steve Harvey, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WTOP-FM Washington, D.C.
Large Market: KSTP-FM St Paul, MN
Medium Market: KRMG-AM Tulsa, OK
Small Market: WLEN-FM Adrian, MI
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Eric & Kathy, WTMX-FM Chicago, IL
Large Market: Gene & Julie Gates, WRAL-FM Raleigh, NC
Medium Market: Dan Potter, KRMG-AM Tulsa, OK
Small Market: Brian Byers, WSOY-AM Decatur, IL
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WDUV-FM Tampa, FL
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KQMV-FM Seattle, WA
Country: WUBE-FM Cincinnati, OH
News/Talk: WSB-AM Atlanta, GA
Classic Hits: KONO-FM San Antonio, TX
Religious: WPRS-FM Washington, D.C.
Rock: WDRV-FM Chicago, IL
Sports: WFAN-AM New York, NY
Urban: WBLS-FM New York, NY
Non-Commercial: WKAR-FM East Lansing, MI
Marconi Radio Awards for 2014
Legendary Station
WFAN-FM New York, NY
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rush Limbaugh, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: KKBQ-FM Houston, TX
Large Market: WTMJ-AM Milwaukee, WI
Medium Market: WOWO-AM Fort Wayne, IN
Small Market: KFGO Fargo, ND
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Kevin and Bean, KROQ-FM Los Angeles, CA
Large Market: Ryan and Shannon, KSTP-FM St. Paul, MN
Medium Market: Kevin Miller, KIDO-AM Boise, ID
Small Market: Dottie Ray, KXIC-AM Iowa City, IA
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KQKS-FM Denver, CO
Country: KCYY-FM San Antonio, TX
News/Talk: WLW-AM Cincinnati, OH
Oldies: WOGL-FM Philadelphia, PA
Religious: KLTY-FM Dallas, TX
Rock: KROQ-FM Los Angeles, CA
Spanish: KLZT-FM Austin, TX
Sports: WBZ-FM Boston, MA
Urban: WHQT-FM Coral Gables, FL
Non-Commercial: WRHU-FM Long Island, NY
Marconi Radio Awards for 2013
Legendary Station
WBBM-AM Chicago, IL
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Steve Harvey, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major Market: WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Large Market: KSTP-FM St. Paul, MN
Medium Market: KRMG-FM Tulsa, OK
Small Market: WKDZ-FM Cadiz, KY
Personality of the Year by market size
Major Market: Eric & Kathy, WTMX-FM Chicago, IL
Large Market: Cornbread, WIL-FM St. Louis, MO
Medium Market: Brian Byers, WSOY-AM Decatur, IL
Small Market: Monk & Kelly, WGSQ-AM Cookeville, TN
Spanish Format Personality of the Year
Javier Romero, WAMR-FM Miami, FL
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WTMX-FM Chicago, IL
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): WRDW-FM Philadelphia, PA
Country: KKBQ-FM Houston, TX
News/Talk: WBZ-AM Boston, MA
Religious: KLRC-FM Siloam Springs, AR
Rock: WZLX-FM Boston, MA
Spanish: KLOL-FM Houston, TX
Sports: KTCK-FM Dallas, TX
Urban: WVEE-FM Atlanta, GA
Marconi Radio Awards for 2012
Legendary Station
KSTP-FM St. Paul, MN
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Dan Patrick, Direct TV/Premiere Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WTOP-FM Washington, DC
Large: KSON-FM San Diego, CA
Medium: WHO-AM Des Moines, IA
Small: WVAQ-FM Morgantown, WV
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Mike Francesa, WFAN-AM New York, NY
Large: Moon and Staci, KSTP-FM St. Paul, MN
Medium: Jan Mickelson, WHO-AM Des Moines, IA
Small: Scotty and Carissa in the Morning, KCLR-FM Columbia, MO
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KIIS-FM Los Angeles, CA
Country: WYCD-FM Detroit, MI
News/Talk/Sports: WTOP-FM Washington, DC
Oldies: WOGL-FM Philadelphia, PA
Religious: KLTY-FM Dallas, TX
Rock: KINK-FM Portland, OR
Spanish: KMVK-FM Dallas, TX
Sports: WEEI-FM Boston, MA
Urban: WBLS-FM New York, NY
Marconi Radio Awards for 2011
Legendary Station
WTOP-FM Washington, DC
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Ryan Seacrest, Premiere Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WBEB-FM Philadelphia, PA
Large: WCCO-AM Minneapolis, MN
Medium: WDEL Wilmington, DE
Small: WLEN-FM Adrian, MI
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Kevin and Bean, KROQ-FM Los Angeles, CA
Large: Dave Ryan, KDWB-FM Minneapolis, MN
Medium: Van Harden and Bonnie Lucas, WHO-AM Des Moines, IA
Small: Dennis Jon Bailey and Diane Douglas, WIKY-FM, Evansville, IN
Spanish: Edgar "Shoboy" Sotelo, KMVK-FM Dallas, TX
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WMGX-FM South Portland, ME
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KPWR-FM Los Angeles, CA
Country: KYGO-FM Denver, CO
News/Talk/Sports: WSB-AM Atlanta, GA
Oldies: WOMC-FM Detroit, MI
Religious: KNOM-AM Nome, AK
Rock: WAPL-FM Green Bay, WI
Spanish: KLVE-FM Los Angeles, CA
Sports: WBZ-FM Boston, MA
Urban: WHUR-FM Washington, DC
Marconi Radio Awards for 2010
Legendary Station
WBZ-AM Boston, MA
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Scott Shannon, Citadel Broadcasting
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WTOP-FM Washington, DC
Large: KSTP-FM Saint Paul, MN
Medium: KKOB-AM Albuquerque, NM
Small: KFGO Fargo, ND
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Ronn Owens, KGO-AM San Francisco, CA
Large: Doug Wright, KSL-AM Salt Lake City, UT
Medium: Kelly Mac, WJMZ-FM Greenville, SC
Small: Leo Greco, WMT-AM Cedar Rapids, IA
Spanish: Eddie "Piolin" Sotelo, KSCA-FM, Los Angeles, CA
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WMJX-FM Boston, MA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KIIS-FM Los Angeles, CA
Country: WFMS Indianapolis, IN
News/Talk/Sports: WTOP-FM Washington, DC
Oldies: WCBS-FM New York, NY
Religious: WMIT-FM Black Mountain, NC
Rock: WMMR-FM Philadelphia, PA
Spanish: WOJO-FM Chicago, IL
Sports: WFAN-AM New York, NY
Urban: WVEE-FM Atlanta, GA
Marconi Radio Awards for 2009
Hosted by Laura Ingraham, the awards show included a live performance by Brian McKnight, host of "The Brian McKnight Show" and a renowned R&B singer.
Legendary Station
KKOB (770 AM) Albuquerque, NM
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Dave Ramsey, The Lampo Group
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WBEB (101.1 FM) Philadelphia, PA
Large: WIBC (93.1 FM) Indianapolis, IN
Medium: WHO (1040 AM) Des Moines, IA
Small: WJBC (1230 AM) Bloomington, IL
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Matt Siegel, WXKS-FM (107.9 FM) Boston MA
Large: Bill Cunningham, WLW (700 AM) Cincinnati, OH
Medium: Van & Bonnie, WHO (1040 AM) Des Moines, IA
Small: Lacy Neff, WVAQ (101.9 FM) Morgantown, WV
Spanish format Personality of the Year
Alberto Alegre, KSAG (720 AM) San Antonio, TX
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB (101.1 FM) Philadelphia, PA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): WVAQ (101.9 FM) Morgantown, WV
Country: KYGO-FM (98.5 FM) Denver, CO
News/Talk/Sports: WGN (720 AM) Chicago, IL
Oldies: WMXJ (102.7 FM) Miami, FL
Religious: KLTY (94.9 FM) Dallas, TX
Rock: KQRS-FM (92.5 FM) Minneapolis, MN
Spanish: KLVE (107.5 FM) Los Angeles, CA
Sports: WGR (550 AM) Buffalo, NY
Urban: WJMZ-FM (107.3 FM) Greenville, SC
Marconi Radio Awards for 2008
Hosted by Billy Bush.
Legendary Station
WSM-AM, Nashville, TN
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Glenn Beck, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WMAL, Washington, DC
Large: KOA-AM, Denver, CO
Medium: WLAV-FM, Grand Rapids, MI
Small: WGIL-AM, Galesburg, IL
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Ryan Seacrest, KIIS-FM Los Angeles, CA
Large: Kelly, Mudflap & JoJo Turnbeaugh, KYGO-FM Denver, CO
Medium: Tony Gates, WLAV-FM Grand Rapids, MI
Small: George & Katie, WAXX-FM Eau Claire, WI
Spanish format Personality of the Year
Eddie "Piolín" Sotelo, KSCA-FM Los Angeles, CA
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WTMX-FM, Chicago, IL
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): KHKS-FM, Dallas, TX
Country: WFMS-FM, Indianapolis, IN
News/Talk/Sports: KFI-AM, Los Angeles, CA
Oldies: KQQL-FM, Minneapolis, MN
Religious: WMIT-FM, Black Mountain, NC
Rock: WAPL-FM Appleton, WI
Spanish: KSCA-FM, Los Angeles, CA
Sports: WEEI-AM Boston, MA
Urban: WBLS-FM New York, NY
Marconi Radio Awards for 2007
Hosted by Glenn Beck.
Legendary Station
WWL-AM, New Orleans, LA
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Sean Hannity, ABC Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WGN-AM, Chicago, IL
Large: KSTP-FM, Minneapolis, MN
Medium: WWL-AM, New Orleans, LA
Small: WAXX-FM, Eau Claire, WI
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Big Boy, KPWR-FM, Los Angeles, CA
Large: Chuck Collier, WGAR-FM, Cleveland, OH
Medium: Van & Bonnie, WHO-AM, Des Moines, IA
Small: Mike McNamara, KNOX-AM, Grand Forks, ND
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB-FM, Philadelphia, PA
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): WVAQ-FM, Morgantown, WV
Country: WIVK-FM, Knoxville, TN
News/Talk/Sports: WWL-AM, New Orleans, LA
Oldies: WWSW-FM, Pittsburgh, PA
Religious: KLTY-FM, Dallas, TX
Rock: WMMR-FM, Philadelphia, PA
Spanish: KLVE-FM, Los Angeles, CA
Sports: KTCK-AM, Dallas, TX
Urban: WHUR-FM, Washington, DC
Marconi Radio Awards for 2006
Legendary Station
WBEB-FM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
The Bob & Tom Show, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: KGO-AM, San Francisco, California
Large: WEEI-AM, Boston, Massachusetts
Medium: WIVK-FM, Knoxville, Tennessee
Small: KGMI-AM, Bellingham, Washington
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Scott Slade, WSB-AM, Atlanta, Georgia
Large: Tom Barnard, KQRS-FM, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Medium: Brent Johnson, WTCB-FM, Columbia, South Carolina
Small: Lacy Neff, WVAQ-FM, Morgantown, West Virginia
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): KOIT-FM, San Francisco, California
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): WSTW-FM, Wilmington, Delaware
Country: KYGO-FM, Denver, Colorado
News/Talk/Sports: KGO-AM, San Francisco, California
Oldies: WMJI-FM, Cleveland, Ohio.
Religious: KJIL-FM, Meade, Kansas
Rock: WEBN-FM, Cincinnati, Ohio
Spanish: KSCA-FM, Los Angeles, California
Sports: WEEI-AM, Boston, Massachusetts
Urban: WGCI-FM, Chicago, Illinois
Marconi Radio Awards for 2005
Legendary Station
WIBC, Indianapolis, Indiana
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rush H. Limbaugh, Premiere Radio Networks
Station of the Year by market size
Major: WTOP (AM), Washington, DC
Large: WSB-AM, Atlanta, Georgia
Medium: WDBO, Orlando, Florida
Small: WJBC, Bloomington, Illinois
Personality of the Year by market size
Major: Bill Handel, KFI-AM, Los Angeles, California
Large: Lanigan & Malone, WMJI-FM, Cleveland, Ohio
Medium: Don Weeks, WGY-AM, Albany, New York
Small: Ward Jacobson & Cathy Blythe, KFOR-AM, Lincoln, Nebraska
Station of the Year by format
Adult Contemporary (AC): WBEB-FM, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Adult Standards: KJUL-FM, Las Vegas, Nevada
Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR): WSTR-FM, Atlanta, Georgia
Classical: KDFC-FM, San Francisco, California
Country: WIVK-FM, Knoxville, Tennessee
NAC/Jazz: KIFM, San Diego, California
News/Talk/Sports: WIBC, Indianapolis, Indiana
Oldies: KCMO-FM, Kansas City, Missouri
Religious: KLTY-FM, Dallas, Texas
Rock: WFBQ-FM, Indianapolis, Indiana
Spanish: KLVE-FM, Los Angeles, California
Urban: WBLS-FM, New York, New York
Marconi Radio Awards for 2004
Legendary Station
WOR New York, N.Y.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Tom Joyner, Reach Media
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WBEB-FM Philadelphia, Pa.
Large: KYGO-FM Denver, Colo.
Medium: WTMJ-AM Milwaukee, Wis.
Small: KIHR-AM Hood River, Ore.
Personality of the Year by Market Size
Major: Big Boy KPWR-FM, Los Angeles, Calif.
Large: Scott Slade WSB-AM, Atlanta, Ga.
Medium: Jim Turner WDBO-AM, Orlando, Fla.
Small: Terry Cavanaugh WGIL-AM, Galesburg, Ill.
Station of the Year by Format
AC: WLEN-FM Adrian, Mich.
Adult Standards: KABL-AM San Francisco, Calif.
CHR: KPWR-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: WGMS-FM Washington, D.C.
Country: KYGO-FM Denver, Colo.
NAC/Jazz: WNUA-FM Chicago, Ill.
News/Talk/Sports: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
Oldies: WMJI-FM Cleveland, Ohio
Religious: WNNL-FM Raleigh, N.C.
Rock: KFOG-FM San Francisco, Calif.
Spanish: KLQV-FM San Diego, Calif.
Urban: KPRS-FM Kansas City, Mo.
Marconi Radio Awards for 2003
Legendary Station
WABC New York, N.Y.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Sean Hannity, ABC Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KGO San Francisco, Calif.
Large: WMJI Cleveland, Ohio
Medium (tie): WIBC Indianapolis, Ind. and WIVK Knoxville, Tenn.
Small (tie): KLVI Beaumont, Texas and WCRZ Flint, Mich.
Personality of the Year by Market Size
Major: Ronn Owens, KGO San Francisco, Calif.
Large: Preston Westmoreland, KTAR Phoenix, Ariz.
Medium: Greg Garrison, WIBC Indianapolis, Ind.
Small: Jim Kerr, KNCO-AM Grass Valley, Calif.
Station of the Year by Format
AC: KOIT San Francisco, Calif.
CHR: WSTR Atlanta, Ga.
Classical: KDFC San Francisco, Calif.
Country: KPLX Dallas, Texas
News/Talk/Sports: WTMJ Milwaukee, Wis.
Oldies: KCMO-FM Kansas City, Mo.
Religious: KNOM Nome, Alaska
Rock: KQRS Minneapolis, Minn.
Urban: WVAZ Chicago, Ill.
Marconi Radio Awards for 2002
Legendary Station
WSB-AM Atlanta, Ga.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Paul Harvey, "Paul Harvey News and Comment," ABC Radio Network
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WGN Chicago, Ill.
Large: KIRO Seattle, Wash.
Medium: WFMS Indianapolis, Ind.
Small: WKDZ Cadiz, Ky.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Big Boy, KPWR Los Angeles, Calif.
Large: Jim Scott, WLW Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: Cathy Blythe, KFOR Lincoln, Neb.
Small: Al Caldwell, KLVI Beaumont, Texas
Stations of the Year by Format
AC: WLTW New York, N.Y.
Adult Standards: KABL-AM San Francisco, Calif.
CHR: KPWR Los Angeles, Calif.
Country: WFMS Indianapolis, Ind.
News/Talk/Sports: KGO San Francisco, Calif.
Oldies: WMJI Cleveland, Ohio
Religious: KFSH-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Rock: KOZT Fort Bragg, Calif.
Spanish: KGBT-FM McAllen, Texas
Urban: WAMO-FM Pittsburgh, Pa.
Marconi Radio Awards for 2001
Legendary Station
KNIX Phoenix, Ariz.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rick Dees, Premiere Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KGO San Francisco, Calif.
Large: KOGO San Diego, Calif.
Medium: WGY Albany, N.Y.
Small: WICO-FM Salisbury, Md.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Matt Siegel, WXKS-FM Boston, Mass.
Large: Bill Cunningham, WLW Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: Mark Belling, WISN Milwaukee, Wis.
Small: Brian Scott, KTWO Casper, Wyo.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC: WALK-FM Nassau/Suffolk, N.Y.
Adult Standards: WMMB Melbourne, Fla.
CHR: KIIS-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: WGMS Washington, D.C.
Country: KPLX Dallas, Texas
NAC/Jazz: WNWV Cleveland, Ohio
News/Talk/Sports: KKOB-AM Albuquerque, N.M.
Oldies: KCMO-FM Kansas City, Mo.
Religious: WMHK Columbia, S.C.
Rock: WEBN Cincinnati, Ohio
Spanish: KLNO Dallas, Texas
Urban: KPRS Kansas City, Mo.
Marconi Radio Awards for 2000
Legendary Station
WEBN Cincinnati, Ohio
Network Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rush Limbaugh, "The Rush Limbaugh Show," Premiere Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WOMC Detroit, Mich.
Large: KESZ Phoenix, Ariz.
Medium: WOOD-AM Grand Rapids, Mich.
Small: WAXX Eau Claire, Wis.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Mike Francesa and Chris Russo WFAN New York, N.Y.
Large: Jay Gilbert WEBN Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: Jimmy Matis WFBQ Indianapolis, Ind.
Small: Tim Wilson WAXX Eau Claire, Wis.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC: KSTP-FM Minneapolis, Minn.
Adult Standards: KVFD, Fort Dodge, Iowa
CHR: KDWB Minneapoli, Minn.
Classical: WBQQ Kennebunk, Maine
Country: WTQR Winston-Salem, N.C.
NAC/Jazz: WJJZ Philadelphia, Pa.
News/Talk/Sports: WTMJ Milwaukee, Wis.
Oldies: WOMC Detroit, Mich.
Religious: WMBI Chicago, Ill.
Rock: WFBQ Indianapolis, Ind.
Spanish: KLAT Houston, Texas
Urban (tie):WUSL Philadelphia, Pa. and WVEE, Atlanta, Ga.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1999
Legendary Station
KOA Denver, Colo.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Bob Kevoian and Tom Griswold, "The Bob and Tom Show", AMFM Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KGO San Francisco, Calif.
Large: KUDL Kansas City, Mo.
Medium: WFBQ Indianapolis, Ind.
Small: KTTS-FM Springfield, Mo.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Kevin and Bean, KROQ Los Angeles, Calif.
Large: Steve Kelley, KOA Denver, Colo.
Medium: Scott Innes, WYNK-FM Baton Rouge, La.
Small: Scott Kooistra, KYNT Yankton, S.D.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC: KUEL Fort Dodge, Iowa
CHR: WNNK Harrisburg, Pa.
Classical: KFUO-FM St. Louis, Mo.
Country: WDAF Kansas City, Mo.
Oldies: WWSW Pittsburgh, Pa.
NAC/Jazz: KZJZ St. Louis, Mo.
Religious/Gospel: WUGN Midland, Mich.
Rock: WEBN, Cincinnati Ohio
News/Talk/Sports: WBZ Boston, Mass.
Spanish: KLTN Houston, Texas
Urban: WBLX Mobile, Ala.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1998
Legendary Station
WCBS-FM New York, N.Y.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Paul Harvey, ABC Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WBZ-AM Boston, Mass.
Large: WMJI-FM Cleveland, Ohio
Medium: WNNK-FM Harrisburg, Pa.
Small: KRKT-FM Albany, Ore.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Kidd Kraddick, KHKS-FM Dallas, Texas
Large: Mike Murphy, KCMO-AM Kansas City, Mo.
Medium: Tim Burns and Sue Campbell, WNNK-FM Harrisburg, Pa.
Small: John Murphy and George House, WAXX-FM Eau Claire, Wis.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC (tie): KYXY-FM San Diego, CA and WLHT-FM Grand Rapids, Mich.
Adult Standards: KVFD-AM Fort Dodge, Iowa
CHR: KDWB-FM Minneapolis, Minn.
Country: KFKF-FM Kansas City, Mo.
News/Talk/Sports: WCCO-AM Minneapolis, Minn.
Oldies: WBIG-FM Washington, D.C.
Religious/Gospel: WCRF-FM Cleveland, Ohio
Rock: WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Spanish: KGBT-AM/FM McAllen, Texas
Urban/R&B: WVEE-FM Atlanta, Ga.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1997
Legendary Station
KVIL-FM Dallas, Texas
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Dr. Laura Schlessinger, Synergy Broadcasting
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WCBS-FM New York, N.Y.
Large: WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Medium: KKOB-AM Albuquerque, N.M.
Small: KFGO Fargo, N.D.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Don Imus WFAN-AM, New York, N.Y.
Large: Bob Kevoian and Tom Griswold, WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Medium: Van & Bonnie, WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: Bill O’Brian, KRKT-FM Albany, Ore.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC: KVIL-FM Dallas, Texas
Adult Standards: KOGA-AM Ogallala, Neb.
CHR: WNNK-FM Harrisburg, Pa.
Classical: WQXR-FM New York, N.Y.
Country: WSOC-FM Charlotte, N.C.
NAC/Jazz: WLOQ-FM Orlando, Fla.
News/Talk/Sports: KFGO Fargo, N.D.
Oldies: WWSW-AM/FM Pittsburgh, Pa.
Religious/Gospel: WMHK-FM Columbia, S.C.
Rock: WDVE-FM Pittsburgh, Pa.
Spanish: KLVE-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Urban/R&B: WVAZ-FM Chicago, Ill.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1996
Legendary Station
WJR-AM Detroit, Mich.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Paul Harvey, ABC Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WFAN-AM New York, N.Y.
Large: WHAS-AM Louisville, Ky.
Medium: KSSN-FM Little Rock, Ark.
Small: WRGA-AM Rome, Ga.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Hudson and Harrigan, KILT-FM Houston, Texas
Large: Coyote Calhoun, WAMZ-FM Louisville, Ky.
Medium: Bruce Bond, WNNK-FM Harrisburg, Pa.
Small: Michael H. McDougald WRGA-AM, Rome, Ga.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: WLTE-FM Minneapolis, Minn.
Big Band/Nostalgia: WMMB-AM Melbourne, Fla.
CHR: KDWB-FM Minneapolis, Minn.
Classical: WGMS-FM Washington, D.C.
Country: KMPS-AM/FM Seattle, Wash.
Jazz: KPLU-FM Tacoma, Wash.
News/Talk/Sports: WFAN-AM New York, N.Y.
Oldies: WQSR-FM Baltimore, Md.
Religious/Gospel: WMBI-FM Chicago, Ill.
Rock: WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Spanish: KLTN-FM, Houston, Texas
Urban/R&B: WJLB-FM Detroit, Mich.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1995
Legendary Station
KGO-AM San Francisco, Calif.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rush Limbaugh, EFM Media Management
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WBZ-AM Boston, Mass.
Large: WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Medium: WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: WHIZ-AM Zanesville, Ohio
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Jonathon Brandmeier, WLUP-FM Chicago, Ill.
Large: Bob Kevoian and Tom Griswold, WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Medium: Jerry Carr, WMT-AM Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Small: J. Douglas Williams and Becky Myles, KWOX-FM Woodward, Okla.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: KOEL-AM Oelwein, Iowa
Big Band/Nostalgia: KEZW-AM Denver, Colo.
CHR: WNNK-FM Harrisburg, Pa.
Classical: WCLV-FM Cleveland, Ohio
Country: WSIX-FM Nashville, Tenn.
Jazz: WNWV-FM Cleveland, Ohio
News/Talk/Sports: WLS-AM Chicago, Ill.
Oldies: WWSW-AM/FM, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Religious/Gospel: KKLA-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Rock: KROQ-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Spanish: KLOK-AM San Jose, Calif.
Urban/R&B: WVEE-FM Atlanta, Ga.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1994
Legendary Station
KDKA-AM Pittsburgh, Pa.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Don Imus, Westwood One Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WJR-AM Detroit, Mich.
Large: WHAS-AM Louisville, Ky.
Medium: KLBJ-AM Austin, Texas
Small: KUOO-FM Spirit Lake, Iowa
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: J.P. McCarthy, WJR-AM Detroit, Mich.
Large: Coyote Calhoun, WAMZ-FM Louisville, Ky.
Medium: Bobby Byrd, WUSY-FM Chattanooga, Tenn.
Small: Jeffrey Steffen, KEXL-FM Norfolk, Neb.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: WSPT-FM Stevens Point, Wis.
Big Band/Nostalgia: WPEN-AM Philadelphia, Pa.
CHR: WXKS-FM Medford, Mass.
Classical: KING-FM Seattle, Wash.
Country: KSSN-FM Little Rock, Ark.
Jazz: KIFM San Diego, Calif.
News/Talk/Sports: KRLD-AM Dallas, Texas
Religious/Gospel: WVEL-AM Peoria, Ill.
Rock: KQRS-AM/FM Minneapolis, Minn.
Spanish: KBNA-AM/FM El Paso, Texas
Urban/R&B: WROU-FM Dayton, Ohio
Marconi Radio Awards for 1993
Legendary Station
WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Charles Osgood, CBS Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
Large: WCKY-AM Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: KWOX-FM Woodward, Okla.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Dick Purtan, WKQI-FM Detroit, Mich.
Large: Bob Kevoian and Tom Griswold, WFBQ-FM Indianapolis, Ind.
Medium: Jim Zabel, WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: Max McCartney, WBIZ-FM Eau Claire, Wis. and Tony "Wradio" Wright, KWOX-FM Woodward, Okla.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: WHAS-AM Louisville, Ky.
AOR/Classic Rock: WXRT-FM Chicago, Ill.
Big Band/Nostalgia: WOKY-AM Milwaukee, Wis.
Black/Urban: WHRK-FM Memphis, Tenn. and WRKS-FM, New York, N.Y.
CHR/Top 40: KIIS-AM/FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: KLEF-FM Anchorage, Alaska
Country: WWWW-AM/FM Detroit, Mich.
Jazz/New Age KINK-AM/FM Portland, Ore., KSDS-FM San Diego, Calif. and WQCD-FM New York, N.Y.
MOR: WMT-AM Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Oldies: WCBS-FM New York, N.Y.
News/Talk: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
Religious/Gospel: WAVA-FM Arlington, Va.
Spanish Language: KGBT-AM Harlingen, Texas
Marconi Radio Awards for 1992
Legendary Station
WCCO-AM Minneapolis, Minn.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Rush Limbaugh, EFM Media Management
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KGO-AM San Francisco, Calif.
Large: WLW-AM Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: WMT-AM Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Small: KFGO Fargo, N.D.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Don Imus, WFAN-AM New York, N.Y.
Large: Gerry House, WSIX-FM Nashville, Tenn.
Medium: Van and Connie, WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: Wynne Speece, WNAX-AM Yankton, S.D.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: WSB-FM, Atlanta, Ga.
AOR/Classic Rock: KSHE-FM St. Louis, Mo.
Big Band/Nostalgia: WPEN-AM Philadelphia, Pa.
Black/Urban: WVEE-FM Atlanta, Ga.
CHR/Top 40: WBBM-FM Chicago, Ill.
Classical: KDFC-AM/FM San Francisco, Calif.
Country: WSIX-FM Nashville, Tenn.
Jazz/New Age: KIFM San Diego, Calif.
MOR: WCCO-AM Minneapolis, Minn.
News/Talk: KGO-AM San Francisco, Calif.
Oldies: KOOL-FM Phoenix, Ariz.
Religious/Gospel: KNOM-AM, Nome, Alaska
Spanish Language: KWKW-AM Los Angeles, Calif.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1991
Legendary Station
KMOX-AM St. Louis, Mo.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Paul Harvey, ABC Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: WCCO-AM Minneapolis, Minn.
Large: WHAS-AM Louisville, Ky.
Medium: WHO-AM Des Moines, Iowa
Small: KSPN-FM Aspen, Colo.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Mark and Brian, KLOS-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Large: Gary Burbank, WLW-AM Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: C.C. Ryder, KBFX-FM Anchorage, Alaska
Small: Don Munson, WJBC-AM Bloomington, Ill.
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: KOST-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
AOR/Classic Rock: KLOS-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Big Band/Nostalgia: KFRC-AM San Francisco, Calif.
Black/Urban: WRKS-FM New York, N.Y.
CHR/Top 40: KIIS-AM/FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: WFMT-FM Chicago, Ill.
Country: KNIX-FM Phoenix, Ariz.
Jazz/New Age: WNUA-FM Chicago, Ill.
MOR: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
News/Talk: KABC-AM Los Angeles, Calif.
Oldies: WCBS-FM New York, N.Y.
Religious/Gospel: KAAY-AM Little Rock, Ark.
Spanish Language: KCOR-AM San Antonio, Texas
Marconi Radio Awards for 1990
Legendary Station
WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Larry King, Mutual Broadcasting System
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KMOX-AM St. Louis, Mo.
Large: WTIC-AM Hartford, Conn.
Medium: KSSN-FM Little Rock, Ark.
Small: WAXX-FM Eau Claire, Wis.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Don Imus, WFAN-AM New York, N.Y.
Large: Gary Burbank, WLW-AM Cincinnati, Ohio
Medium: Luther Massengill WDEF-AM/FM, Chattanooga, Tenn.
Small: Bobby Owen, KEAN-AM/FM Abilene, Texas
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/EZ: KOST-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
AOR/Classic Rock: WLUP-FM Chicago, Ill.
Big Band/Nostalgia: KFRC-AM San Francisco, Calif.
Black/Urban: WVEE-FM Atlanta, Ga.
CHR/Top 40: KIIS-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: KING-FM Seattle, Wash.
Country: KILT-FM Houston, Texas
Jazz/New Age: WJZZ-FM Detroit, Mich.
MOR Variety/Full Service: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
News/Talk: KABC-AM Los Angeles, Calif.
Oldies: WCBS-FM New York, N.Y.
Religious/Gospel: WAOK-AM Atlanta, Ga.
Spanish Language: WAQI-AM Miami, Fla.
Marconi Radio Awards for 1989
Legendary Station
WLS-AM Chicago, Ill.
Network/Syndicated Personality of the Year
Paul Harvey, ABC Radio Networks
Stations of the Year by Market Size
Major: KNIX-AM/FM Phoenix, Ariz.
Large: WIVK-AM/FM Knoxville, Tenn.
Medium: WBBQ-AM/FM Augusta, Ga.
Small: KBOZ-FM Bozeman, Mont.
Personalities of the Year by Market Size
Major: Ron Chapman, KVIL-AM/FM Dallas, Texas
Large: Bob Steele, WTIC-AM Hartford, Conn.
Medium: Mark Summers, WBBQ-AM/FM Augusta, Ga.
Small: Billie Oakley, KMA-AM Shenandoah, Iowa
Stations of the Year by Format
AC/Soft Rock/Oldies: KVIL-AM/FM Dallas, Texas
AOR/Classic Rock: WMMR-FM Philadelphia, Pa.
Big Band/Nostalgia: KMPC-AM Los Angeles, Calif.
Black/Urban: WVAZ-FM Chicago, Ill/
CHR/Top 40: KPWR-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
Classical: WQXR-FM New York, N.Y.
Country: KNIX-AM/FM Phoenix, Ariz.
EZ Listening/Beautiful Music: KABL-AM/FM San Francisco, Calif.
Jazz/New Age: KTWV-FM Los Angeles, Calif.
MOR/Variety: WGN-AM Chicago, Ill.
News/Talk: KMOX-AM St. Louis, Mo.
Religious/Gospel: KLTY-FM Dallas, Texas
Spanish Language: WQBA-AM/FM Miami, Fla.
See also
Marconi Prize
List of radio awards
References
External links
Marconi Radio Awards at the NAB website
American radio awards
Marconi Radio Awards |
4305777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20South%20Africa | List of birds of South Africa | South Africa is a large country, ranked 25th by size in the world, and is situated in the temperate latitudes and subtropics. Due to a range of climate types present, a patchwork of unique habitat types occur, which contribute to its biodiversity and level of endemism. This list incorporates the mainland and nearshore islands and waters only. The submerged though ecologically important Agulhas Bank is for most part inside its territorial waters. Offshore, South Africa's territory includes the Prince Edward Islands in the Subantarctic Indian Ocean.
This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (English and scientific names) are those of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2022 edition, except that South African spelling is used. Taxonomic changes are on-going. As more research is gathered from studies of distribution, behaviour and DNA, the order and number of families and species may change. Furthermore, different approaches to ornithological nomenclature have led to concurrent systems of classification (see Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and IOU taxonomy).
Unless otherwise noted, the list is that of BirdLife South Africa (BLSA). Notes in the status column are also from this source. Notes of population status, such as "endangered", refer to the worldwide population, not the South African part of it except for endemics. Unless otherwise noted in the "status" column, the species is a resident or regularly-occurring migrant.
"Vagrant" means the species rarely or accidentally occurs in South Africa.
"Endemic" means the species is found only in South Africa.
"SLE endemic" means the species is found only in South Africa and the Kingdoms of Lesotho and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland). Lesotho is surrounded by South Africa and Eswatini nearly so.
This list contains 879 species according to the Clements taxonomy. The BLSA list includes additional entries as species which Clements considers subspecies; some of them are noted. According to BLSA, 18 species are endemic, 20 are SLE endemic, and 11 have been introduced by humans. Clements describes only 15 as endemic and 14 as SLE endemic.
Ostriches
Order: StruthioniformesFamily: Struthionidae
Ostriches are flightless birds native to Africa. They are the largest living species of bird. They are distinctive in appearance, with a long neck and legs and the ability to run at high speeds.
Ducks, geese, and waterfowl
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence, with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.
Guineafowl
Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae
The guineafowl are a family of birds native to Africa. They typically eat insects and seeds, are ground-nesting, and resemble partridges, except with featherless heads.
Pheasants, grouse, and allies
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds consisting of quails, partridges, snowcocks, francolins, spurfowls, tragopans, monals, pheasants, peafowl, and jungle fowls. In general, they are plump and have broad, relatively short wings.
Flamingos
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are large gregarious wading birds found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land.
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Sandgrouse
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small, pigeon-like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Bustards
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Bustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays.
Turacos
Order: MusophagiformesFamily: Musophagidae
The turacos, plantain eaters, and go-away-birds make up the family Musophagidae. They are medium-sized arboreal birds. The turacos and plantain eaters are brightly coloured, usually in blue, green, or purple. The go-away-birds are mostly grey and white.
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners, and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails, and strong legs.
Nightjars and allies
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized ground-nesting nocturnal birds with long wings, short legs, and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves.
Swifts
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang.
Flufftails
Order: GruiformesFamily: Sarothruridae
The flufftails are a small family of ground-dwelling birds found only in Madagascar and sub-Saharan Africa.
Rails, gallinules, and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots, and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps, or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Finfoots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Heliornithidae
Heliornithidae is a small family of tropical birds with webbed lobes on their feet similar to those of grebes and coots.
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged, and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".
Sheathbills
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Chionidae
The two species in this family breed on Antarctica and islands near that continent.
Thick-knees
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The stone-curlews and thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes, and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Stilts and avocets
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Oystercatchers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
Plovers and lapwings
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short thick necks, and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Painted-snipes
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae
Painted-snipe are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly coloured.
Jacanas
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Jacanidae
The jacanas are a group of waders found throughout the tropics. They are identifiable by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk on floating vegetation in the shallow lakes that are their preferred habitat.
Sandpipers and allies
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers, and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Buttonquail
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Turnicidae
The buttonquails are small, drab, running birds which resemble the true quails. The female is the brighter of the sexes and initiates courtship. The male incubates the eggs and tends the young.
Crab-plover
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Dromadidae
The crab-plover is related to the waders. It resembles a plover but with very long grey legs and a strong heavy black bill similar to a tern's. It has black-and-white plumage, a long neck, partially webbed feet, and a bill designed for eating crabs.
Pratincoles and coursers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings, and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings, and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.
Skuas and jaegers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.
Gulls, terns, and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Skimmers are a small family of tropical tern-like birds. They have an elongated lower mandible which they use to feed by flying low over the water surface and skimming the water for small fish.
Tropicbirds
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings.
Penguins
Order: SphenisciformesFamily: Spheniscidae
The penguins are a group of flightless aquatic birds living almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid, and other forms of marine life caught while swimming underwater.
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, with those of the genus Diomedea having the largest wingspan of any extant bird.
Southern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
The storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, relatives of the petrels, feeding on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Until 2018, this family's species were included with the other storm-petrels in family Hydrobatidae.
Northern storm-petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
Though the members of this family are similar in many respects to the southern storm-petrels, including their general appearance and habits, there are enough genetic differences to warrant their placement in a separate family.
Shearwaters and petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary.
Storks
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked wading birds with long stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Frigatebirds
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black, or black-and-white, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week.
Boobies and gannets
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Anhingas
Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae
Anhingas or darters are often called "snake-birds" because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake-like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark-brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape, and a larger bill than the female. The females have much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving.
Cormorants and shags
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white, and a few being colourful.
Pelicans
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes.
Hamerkop
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Scopidae
The hamerkop is a medium-sized bird with a long shaggy crest. The shape of its head with a curved bill and crest at the back is reminiscent of a hammer, hence its name. Its plumage is drab-brown all over.
Herons, egrets, and bitterns
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises, and spoonbills.
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers.
Secretarybird
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Sagittariidae
The secretarybird is a bird of prey easily distinguished from other raptors by its long crane-like legs.
Osprey
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution.
Hawks, eagles, and kites
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons, and keen eyesight.
Barn-owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak, and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk.
Mousebirds
Order: ColiiformesFamily: Coliidae
The mousebirds are slender greyish or brown birds with soft, hairlike body feathers and very long thin tails. They are arboreal and scurry through the leaves like rodents in search of berries, fruit, and buds. They are acrobatic and can feed upside down. All species have strong claws and reversible outer toes. They also have crests and stubby bills.
Trogons
Order: TrogoniformesFamily: Trogonidae
The family Trogonidae includes trogons and quetzals. Found in tropical woodlands worldwide, they feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons have soft, often colourful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage.
Hoopoes
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Hoopoes have black, white, and orangey-pink colouring with a large erectile crest on their head.
Woodhoopoes and scimitarbills
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Phoeniculidae
The woodhoopoes are related to the hoopoes, hornbills, and ground-hornbills. They most resemble the hoopoes with their long curved bills, used to probe for insects, and short rounded wings. However, they differ in that they have metallic plumage, often blue, green, or purple, and lack an erectile crest.
Ground-hornbills
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Bucorvidae
The ground-hornbills are terrestrial birds which feed almost entirely on insects, other birds, snakes, and amphibians.
Hornbills
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Bucerotidae
Hornbills are a group of birds whose bill is shaped like a cow's horn, but without a twist, sometimes with a casque on the upper mandible. Frequently, the bill is brightly coloured.
Kingfishers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs, and stubby tails.
Bee-eaters
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia, and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies, and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar.
Rollers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colourful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not.
African barbets
Order: PiciformesFamily: Lybiidae
The barbets are plump birds, with short necks and large heads. They get their name from the bristles which fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly coloured.
Honeyguides
Order: PiciformesFamily: Indicatoridae
Honeyguides are among the few birds that feed on wax. They are named for the greater honeyguide which leads traditional honey-hunters to bees' nests and, after the hunters have harvested the honey, feeds on the remaining contents of the hive.
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails, and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Falcons and caracaras
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles, and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Old World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand.
African and New World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae
Parrots are small to large birds with a characteristic curved beak. Their upper mandibles have slight mobility in the joint with the skull and they have a generally erect stance. All parrots are zygodactyl, having the four toes on each foot placed two at the front and two to the back. Most of the more than 150 species in this family are found in the New World.
African and green broadbills
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calyptomenidae
The broadbills are small, brightly coloured birds which feed on fruit and also take insects in flycatcher fashion, snapping their broad bills. Their habitat is canopies of wet forests.
Pittas
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pittidae
Pittas are medium-sized by passerine standards and are stocky, with fairly long, strong legs, short tails, and stout bills. Many are brightly coloured. They spend the majority of their time on wet forest floors, eating snails, insects, and similar invertebrates.
Cuckooshrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae
The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although some species are brightly coloured.
Old world orioles
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The Old World orioles are colourful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles though they appear similar.
Wattle-eyes and batises
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Platysteiridae
The wattle-eyes, or puffback flycatchers, are small stout passerine birds of the African tropics. They get their name from the brightly coloured fleshy eye decorations found in most species in this group.
Vangas, helmetshrikes, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vangidae
The helmetshrikes are similar in build to the shrikes, but tend to be colourful species with distinctive crests or other head ornaments, such as wattles, from which they get their name.
Bushshrikes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Malaconotidae
Bushshrikes are similar in habits to shrikes, hunting insects and other small prey from a perch on a bush. Although similar in build to the shrikes, these tend to be either colourful species or largely black; some species are quite secretive.
Drongos
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Dicruridae
The drongos are mostly black or dark grey in colour, sometimes with metallic tints. They have long forked tails, and some Asian species have elaborate tail decorations. They have short legs and sit very upright when perched, like a shrike. They flycatch or take prey from the ground.
Monarch flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae
The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching.
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A shrike's beak is hooked, like that of a typical bird of prey.
Crows, jays, and magpies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers, and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Rockjumpers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Chaetopidae
These two species are the only ones in their family. They are primarily insectivores, but cape rockjumpers also eat small vertebrates.
Hyliotas
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hyliotidae
The members of this small family, all of genus Hyliota, are birds of the forest canopy. They tend to feed in mixed-species flocks.
Fairy flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Stenostiridae
Most of the species of this small family are found in Africa, though a few inhabit tropical Asia. They are not closely related to other birds called "flycatchers".
Tits, chickadees, and titmice
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Penduline-tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
The penduline-tits are a group of small passerine birds related to the true tits. They are insectivores.
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Nicators
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Nicatoridae
The nicators are shrike-like, with hooked bills. They are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa.
African warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Macrosphenidae
African warblers are small to medium-sized insectivores which are found in a wide variety of habitats south of the Sahara.
Cisticolas and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or grey appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub.
Reed warblers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Grassbirds and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over.
Swallows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings, and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Bulbuls
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae
Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red, or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests.
Leaf warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with greyish-green to greyish-brown colours.
Sylviid warblers, parrotbills, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The family Sylviidae ("Old World warblers") is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as one common name implies, in Europe, Asia, and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
White-eyes, yuhinas, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae
The white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull colour like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast, or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye.
Laughingthrushes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Leiothrichidae
The members of this family are diverse in size and colouration, though those of genus Turdoides tend to be brown or greyish. The family is found in Africa, India, and southeast Asia.
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Oxpeckers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Buphagidae
As both the English and scientific names of these birds imply, they feed on ectoparasites, primarily ticks, found on large mammals.
Starlings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Thrushes and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Old World flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Sugarbirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Promeropidae
The two species in this family are restricted to southern Africa. They have brownish plumage, a long downcurved bill, and long tail feathers.
Sunbirds and spiderhunters
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Nectariniidae
The sunbirds and spiderhunters are very small passerine birds which feed largely on nectar, although they will also take insects, especially when feeding young. Flight is fast and direct on their short wings. Most species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but usually perch to feed.
Weavers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae
The weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. They are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills. The males of many species are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and black. Some species show variation in colour only in the breeding season.
Waxbills and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns.
Indigobirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Viduidae
The indigobirds are finch-like species which usually have black or indigo predominating in their plumage. All are brood parasites which lay their eggs in the nests of estrildid finches.
Old World sparrows
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown, or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects.
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They are slender ground-feeding insectivores of open country.
Finches, euphonias, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Old World buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. In Europe, most species are called buntings. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.
Notes
References
See also
List of birds
Lists of birds by region
External links
Birds of South Africa - World Institute for Conservation and Environment
South Africa
South Africa
birds
South Africa |
4306376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish%20orthography | Yiddish orthography | Yiddish orthography is the writing system used for the Yiddish language. It includes Yiddish spelling rules and the Hebrew script, which is used as the basis of a full vocalic alphabet. Letters that are silent or represent glottal stops in the Hebrew language are used as vowels in Yiddish. Other letters that can serve as both vowels and consonants are either read as appropriate to the context in which they appear, or are differentiated by diacritical marks derived from Hebrew nikkud, commonly referred to as "nekudot" or "pintalach" (literally "points" as those marks are mostly point-like signs). Additional phonetic distinctions between letters that share the same base character are also indicated by either pointing or adjacent placement of otherwise silent base characters. Several Yiddish points are not commonly used in any latter-day Hebrew context; others are used in a manner that is specific to Yiddish orthography. There is significant variation in the way this is applied in literary practice. There are also several differing approaches to the disambiguation of characters that can be used as either vowels or consonants.
Words of Aramaic and Hebrew origin are normally written in the traditional orthography of the source language—i.e., the orthography of these words, which is consonant-based, is generally preserved (Niborski 2012). All other Yiddish words are represented with phonemic orthography. Both forms can appear in a single word-for example, where a Yiddish affix is applied to a Hebrew stem. Yiddish diacritics may also be applied to words that are otherwise written entirely with traditional orthography.
Reform and standardization
In the early 20th century, for cultural and political reasons, efforts were initiated toward the development of a uniform Yiddish orthography. A specimen initial practice was described in detail by the Yiddish lexicographer Alexander Harkavy in a Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations first published in 1898 together with his Yiddish-English Dictionary (Harkavy 1898). Additional illustrations of this variation are provided in source excerpts in Fishman 1981, which also contains a number of texts specifically about the need (pro and con) for a uniform orthography. A detailed chronology of the major events during this normative action, including rosters of conference participants, bibliographic references to the documents they produced, and summaries of their contents, is given in Yiddish in Schaechter 1999. There is a less detailed (but extensive nonetheless) English language review of this process in Estraikh 1999.
The first action formally undertaken by a government was in the Soviet Union in 1920, abolishing the separate etymological orthography for words of Semitic (i.e., Hebrew and Aramaic) origin. This was extended twelve years later with the elimination of the five separate final-form consonants (as indicated in the table below) which were, however, widely reintroduced in 1961. The changes are both illustrated in the way the name of the author Sholem Aleichem is written. His own work uses the form but in Soviet publication this is respelled phonetically to also dispensing with the separate final-form mem and using the initial/medial form instead. This can be seen, together with a respelling of the name of the protagonist of his , by comparing the title pages of that work in the U.S. and Soviet editions illustrated next to this paragraph. The Germanized () in the former exemplifies another widespread trend, , discussed further below.
The efforts preliminary to the 1920 reform, which took place in several countries — most notably in Poland with focus on a uniform school curriculum — resulted in other devices that were not implemented as a result of any governmental mandate. These were further considered during the 1930s by the , YIVO (YIVO 1930). This led to the development of their ( – "Rules of Yiddish Orthography"), also known as the "SYO" (Standard Yiddish Orthography) or the "YIVO Rules" (1st edition YIVO 1935, current edition SYO 1999). This has become the most frequently referenced such system in present-day use. Although it regularly figures in pedagogical contexts, it would be misleading to suggest that it is similarly dominant elsewhere. Other orthographies are frequently encountered in contemporary practice and are house standards for many publishers.
A useful review of this variation is provided in the Oxford University ( – "Standard Rules of Yiddish Orthography") (Oxford 1992 and available online), written in and codifying a more conventional orthography than the one put forward by YIVO. Differences in the systems can be seen simply by comparing the titles of the two documents but they differ more fundamentally in their approaches to the prescription and description of orthographic detail. The former treats orthographic variation as a positive attribute of the Yiddish literature and describes essential elements of that variation. The latter presents a uniform Yiddish orthography, based on observed practice but with proactive prescriptive intent. Strong difference of opinion about the relative merit of the two approaches has been a prominent aspect of the discussion from the outset and shows little sign of abating. Although the Yiddish alphabet as stated in the SYO is widely accepted as a baseline reference (with a few minor but frequently encountered variations), the spelling and phonetics of the YIVO system of romanized transliteration discussed below, remain subjects of particular contention. The intent of the SYO is not to describe the spectrum of traditional orthographic practice. The bulk of Yiddish literature predates the formulation of those rules and the discrepancies are significant.
Transliteration
A few Yiddish letters and letter combinations are pronounced quite differently in the various Yiddish dialects. Whatever impact this may have on the discussion of standardized orthography, it becomes a significant factor when Yiddish is transliterated into other scripts. It is entirely possible to assign a specific character or sequence of characters in, for example, the Latin alphabet to a specific character or character sequence in the Yiddish alphabet. The transliterated form will, however, be pronounced in a manner that appears natural to the reader. A choice therefore needs to be made about which of the several possible pronunciations of the Yiddish word is to be conveyed prior to its transliteration, with parallel attention to the phonemic attributes of the target language.
The romanization of Yiddish has been a focus of scholarly attention in Europe since the early 16th century. A detailed review of the various systems presented through the 17th century, including extensive source excerpts, is provided in Frakes 2007. The Harkavy treatise cited above describes a late 19th-century system that is based on the pronunciation of the Northeastern Yiddish dialect, Litvish, for an anglophone audience. This was also a mainstay of the standardization efforts of YIVO, resulting in the romanization system described in detail below. The Harkavy and YIVO initiatives provide a convenient framework within which intervening developments may be considered. There was significant debate about many aspects of that sequence, including the need for any form of standardized orthography at all (Fishman 1981).
The outright replacement of Hebrew script with Roman script in the native representation of written Yiddish was briefly considered, among others by L. L. Zamenhof. This had no impact on mainstream orthography but a number of Yiddish books are currently available in romanized editions. These include Yiddish dictionaries, a context in which consistent and phonetically tenable transliteration is essential.
There is no general agreement regarding transliteration of Hebrew into the Roman alphabet. The Hebrew component of a Yiddish text will normally reflect the transliterator's preference without being seen as a component of the methodology applied to the romanization of words presented in the phonemic orthography.
Transcription
A transliteration system uses one script to represent another as closely as possible. It normally permits unambiguous conversion between the two scripts. Where the intent is to indicate phonetic variation, some form of transcription (frequently done through usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)) will be required. There are also many contexts in which phonetic distinctions are indicated by the diacritical marking of the base characters, or through the similar use of some alternate script that is familiar to the intended audience. These approaches are all also seen in native Yiddish texts, where distinctions that cannot be directly represented with the basic Yiddish script but do need to be highlighted, are indicated by using additional Hebrew diacritical marks, with Roman letters, or with the IPA.
There is no intrinsic reason why a transcription scheme cannot also be used for transliteration. In general, however, there is no expectation that the representation of a word in the source script can be retrieved from a transcription. Its purpose is to indicate how a word is pronounced, not its native orthography.
The table in the following section indicates two alternatives each for romanized transliteration and phonetic transcription, and is keyed to the Yiddish character repertoire as codified by YIVO. Other transliteration systems are also regularly employed in a variety of contexts, but none represent the full range of variant pronunciation in Yiddish dialects. Nor is the YIVO system equally appropriate phonetically to all languages using Roman script. This issue becomes particularly complex when dealing with older texts where little is known about contemporaneous pronunciation; transmitting the fullest possible detail of their notation is historically important. There are several approaches to the romanization of such material. The YIVO transliteration system is solely intended to serve as an English-oriented phonetic counterpart to the modern Standard Yiddish described (and to some extent prescribed) in the SYO. That work does, however, consider the transcription of variant pronunciation as will be discussed below.
YIVO published a major study of the range of Yiddish phonetic variation in The Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry, commonly referred to as the LCAAJ. This uses a detailed system of marked Roman characters and suprasegmental marks to indicate that variation, and does not apply standard YIVO transliteration at all. Although the full phonetic transcription scheme is not amenable to presentation in the table below, its core elements have been included. This scheme has been used by later authors to indicate "phonetic transcription", and is labeled in that manner below. One recent example of this is provided in Jacobs 2005. Another transcription system frequently cited in academic contexts was devised and presented (in German) by Solomon Birnbaum in Birnbaum 1918 and was used in his later German works, as well as his English publication Birnbaum 1979. This was intended to provide extreme flexibility in the representation of differences between dialects but failed to gain further practical acceptance due to its intricacy and idiosyncratic appearance:
The Yiddish alphabet
This table lists the Yiddish alphabet as described in the Uriel Weinreich English–Yiddish–English Dictionary (Weinreich 1968), with a few variants that may be seen in readily available literature. The YIVO romanizations are taken from the same source, where they are presented as "sound equivalents". The romanizations indicated in Harkavy 1898 are included for comparison. The IPA transcriptions correspond to the examples provided by YIVO (with a few additional variants). The transcriptions in the following column were extrapolated from the LCAAJ. The Dutch transliteration system was taken from the Jiddisch-Nederlands Woordenboek. The elements of the two transcription systems appear in this table as appropriate to the standard pronunciation discussed under the next heading. The same elements, particularly those indicating vowels and diphthongs, are associated with other Yiddish letters when other pronunciations are being transcribed.
The table also includes several digraphs and a trigraph that are standard elements of the Yiddish writing system. They appear here in normal alphabetic order but are commonly collated separately at the end of a listing of the basic single-character alphabet.
The pronunciation in contemporary Hasidic communities reflects the regional dialects from which these communities originate, and therefore may differ from the standard presented below.
The Standard Yiddish Orthography
The SYO is presented in Yiddish, and a few romanized transcriptions are included only where needed to indicate variant pronunciation. Given that the YIVO standardization initiative has been severely criticized for failing to accommodate such variation, it may be worth noting that the SYO explicitly references the three major branches of Eastern Yiddish — Litvish (Northern), Poylish (Central), and Ukrainish (Southern), as developed in the regions centered on present-day Lithuania/Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine/Moldova. The SYO gives dialect-specific romanized equivalents for the following characters:
A few further romanized equivalents are provided but do not indicate dialectal differences. These are identical to what is contained in the table in the preceding section, with the following exceptions:
YIVO took Litvish as the standard dialect with only slight modification, to a large extent because of the consistency with which its phonemic attributes could be represented by a standardized orthography similarly requiring only minimal elaboration of traditional practice. The important distinctions between Litvish, Poylish, and Ukrainish are therefore not indicated in either the SYO or Weinreich dictionary. These are, however, discussed in detail in the LCAAJ to which Uriel Weinreich was a major contributor. The Roman characters appearing in the SYO correspond to those used in the LCAAJ, and their marking according to Central European orthographic convention provides greater flexibility in notating dialectal distinction than does an English-oriented approach. Phonetic transcription is therefore common in linguistic discourse about Yiddish, often using a wide range of diacritical marks in clear contrast to the totally undecorated YIVO romanization.
The SYO listing of the Yiddish alphabet (which predates the Weinreich dictionary) explicitly states that the vowels with combining points, and the vov and yud digraphs, are not counted as separate letters, nor are the additional consonant digraphs and trigraphs listed at all:
The order of the letters in the alphabet is as follows, from right to left:
These are not counted as separate letters of the alphabet:
Common variation
There are several areas in which Yiddish orthographic practice varies. One of them is the extent to which pointing is used to avoid ambiguity in the way a word may be read. This ranges from unpointed text, through a small number of pointed characters, to the redundant use of the full system of Hebraic vowel pointing. Text being prepared for print generally uses a certain amount of pointing. In other contexts, however, there is an increasing tendency to forgo it entirely.
The most frugal application of pointing is the distinction of and by enclosing a dot in the former (further details below). Immediately beyond that is the differentiation of the from the unpointed form and then the further use of the . Where additional points are applied, there can be significant variation in their number and disposition and there are often internal inconsistencies in a single system. (The belief that this variation was an impediment to the recognition of Yiddish as a literary peer to the other major European languages was a primary driving force toward the development of orthographic norms.)
A detailed generalized description of the pointing of Yiddish text is given in Harkavy 1898 and the topic is also treated briefly in the SYO (which otherwise simply declares the prescribed characters). A more extensive character repertoire is presented and discussed in Birnbaum 1918.
Although consonants are basically represented in the same manner, the indication of vowels differs more widely. One noteworthy situation that does pertain to the representation of consonants is the indication of phonetic distinctions between each of the four character pairs , , , and . The 'hard' (plosive) pronunciation of the first letter in each pair is unequivocally denoted by a dot () in the middle of the letter. The 'soft' (fricative) pronunciation is similarly notated with a horizontal bar over the letter (). Most orthographic systems usually only point one of the two characters in a pair but may be inconsistent from pair to pair in indicating the hard or soft alternative. Text that otherwise conforms to the SYO therefore frequently omits the from , in harmonization with its unpointed final form, and makes the contrastive distinction from a solely with a in the latter (). The similar avoidance of the and preferential use of the is a common alternative for the contrastive distinction between and (), although in Yiddish, because is used much more than , with limited to words of Semitic origin, the is avoided and used instead.
The is an attribute of earlier Yiddish orthographic tradition and the is an adaptation of what is more generally a Hebrew practice. This also applies to the alternatives for indicating the distinction between when used as a consonant or as a vowel. There is a related need for marking the boundary between a and where they appear adjacent to each other and, again, in the corresponding situation with and . A dot under a () and to the left of a () unambiguously indicates the vocalic form of those letters. Harkavy does not use these pointed forms in the main table above, being among the details codified in the early 20th century. In the traditional Yiddish orthographies where these letters are not pointed, the vowel is indicated by preceding it with a (reducing the use of which was a major focus of the normative efforts). The single and digraph forms of, for example, can be separated either with a dot or an embedded as or (, 'where'). Although only the former spelling is consistent with the SYO and appears in Uriel Weinreich's dictionary, he uses the unpointed alternative exclusively in his own Say it in Yiddish (), a phrase book that contains the word in a large number of "Where is...?" queries and was published when the rules had already been well established.
A further graphic example of this distinction is seen in the official announcement, on 14 November 1997, of a change in editorial policy for the prominent Yiddish periodical, (, Yiddish Forward). It was first during that year that they adopted the YIVO orthography. The previous editorial position overtly opposed any such change and the following is included in the explanation of the shift (quoted in full in Schaechter 1999, p. 109):
And then we removed the in the words [] and [] (previously and ) and [] (previously ), and now will spell the words with a under the second as: , and .
The appearance of three alternate spellings for the name of the Yiddish language in a statement intended to describe its orthographic standardization might not require any comment if it were not for the clear indication that the cardinal representation — — was neither the older nor the newer editorial preference. Regardless of the intent of that statement, a word-initial is consonantal and an adjacent is vocalic in all Yiddish orthographic systems, as is the constraint on a word initial diphthong. Pointing the second in is therefore, indeed, redundant. The spelling also illustrates some of the dialectic breadth of the Yiddish language, the name of which is both written and pronounced with and without an initial consonant. In earlier texts, a single in word-initial position was often used to indicate (a reflex of the German use of to denote ).
Finally, letters other than may be used as silent indications of syllable boundaries and in compound consonants, as well as for extending the length of an adjacent vowel. This became particularly common in deliberately Germanized orthographies dating from the late 19th century, collectively termed . Its most obvious further attributes are the heavy use of double consonants where traditional orthography uses single ones, and the gratuitous substitution of German vocabulary for established Yiddish words. The desire to reverse that trend was another of the reasons for the effort toward orthographic standardization.
Publishers of Yiddish newspapers have, however, been particularly conservative in their attitude toward that development and the preceding editorial statement in provides a useful capsule summary of the details about which opinions differed. Other current Yiddish newspapers and magazines retain the spelling and many elements of . This is typified in (, which is one of several weekly tabloids — others being () and (, News Report) — that all adhere to the earlier orthography and are in wider circulation and of substantially greater length than the broadsheet . It may also be seen in the online version of the ( – ), as well as in its printed edition. Extensive additional source material relevant to the stance of the daily press on orthographic reform is provided in Fishman 1981.
Editorial acceptance of varying orthographies is a general characteristic of Hasidic publication, and a single work written by multiple authors may differ in that regard from section to section depending on the preferences of the individual contributors or the typographic context. One example of the latter situation is the use of the pointed forms of only in specific instances where they are deemed necessary to avoid misreading. (As may be noted with the preceding discussion of the spelling of , and the pointing of both and , the SYO contains some redundant elements.) The online manifestation of such orthographic heterogeneity can readily be seen in the Yiddish Wikipedia. This is an expansive aspect of contemporary Yiddish publication and will require detailed accommodation in future codifications of orthographic practice.
Graphic innovation
Orthographic reform, as considered here, embraces two distinct actions. The first is concerned with the way Yiddish words are spelled, as illustrated in the preceding section with the name of the language itself. The second relates to the graphic devices used to distinguish, for example, between א when representing what in English is an /a/ and when representing an /o/. The pointed אַ and אָ came into use for that purpose in the mid-18th century and were thus well established by the time the 20th century reforms were initiated, as were several other traditional Yiddish pointings. The most deeply entrenched of these was the distinction between פ fey and פּ pey. YIVO proposed the additional use of pointed letters that were not in the Yiddish (or Hebrew) fonts of the day. This is a frequently cited reason for the SYO being slow to gain acceptance, but regardless of any opinion about their utility, most of the graphic elements introduced in that manner are now readily available. (The SYO explicitly states that pointing to disambiguate vowels does not change the identity of the base character; a pointed alef, for example, is not a letter of its own.)
The first edition of the SYO was preceded by a collection of essays published by YIVO in 1930 entitled, "A Standard of Yiddish Spelling; Discussion No. 1" ( — , YIVO 1930). Neither the title of this work, nor its contents, were written using the conventions that YIVO was subsequently to put forward on its basis. The pivotal essay in the 1930 collection was written by Max Weinreich. His, "A Projected Uniform Yiddish Orthography" (Weinreich 1930), was not written with the pointing that was to be prescribed in the SYO and introduces a character that was entirely absent from the previous repertoire. This is the V-shaped grapheme on the second line of that text, replacing the in Weinreich's name, and in the name of the city where the work was published, Vilna. It appears at numerous additional places in the text and in two other essays in the same collection but did not appear in any subsequent printed work. It was, however, included in the SYO as a recommendation for use in handwritten text, where it is also encountered. Yudl Mark, who authored one of the other 1930 essays in which the typeset form was used, was later to dub this character the ("acute Maxy"), and it remains enshrined in the YIVO logo.
Further orthographic variation is seen in other YIVO publications from the same period, also using markings that were not included in the SYO, but which did have typographic precedent (for example, אֵ to represent /e/). The way in which the are set in the heading of the Weinreich article (in his name) is discussed below.
Computerized text production
There are orthographic alternatives in the digital representation of Yiddish text that may not be visually apparent but are of crucial importance to computer applications that compare two sequences of characters to determine if they match exactly. Examples of this are database queries and spell checkers. Situations where differing representations of typographically similar characters can give unexpected or incorrect results are described below. This may prove a particular concern for Internet users as Yiddish is increasingly used in Internationalized Domain Names, and in Web and e-mail addresses.
Some mobile clients only provide limited support for typing pointed text, restricting the range of available characters for such things as instant messaging and other forms of spontaneous digital text. Even people who are skilled in using laptop or desktop keyboards for that purpose (which also requires some erudition) are subject to this constraint. This fuels the move toward unpointed text and is illustrated in the blog, Yiddish with an alef. This is of particular note given the late acceptance of the SYO by its parent publication, The Jewish Daily Forward, discussed below.
Digraphs
There are two different ways in which each of the digraphs , , and can be typed on Yiddish and Hebrew keyboards (which are both commonly used for the production of Yiddish text). If the digraph appears on a single key, as is normal in a Yiddish keyboard layout, pressing that key will produce a single-character ligature. In the Unicode code chart the HEBREW LIGATURE YIDDISH DOUBLE VAV appears in position U+05F0, the HEBREW LIGATURE YIDDISH VAV YOD at U+05F1, and the HEBREW LIGATURE YIDDISH DOUBLE YOD at U+05F2 (where the U+ indicates that the numerical position of the character in the Unicode chart is given by following four hexadecimal digits).
These ligatures are, however, frequently missing from Hebrew keyboards — a characteristic inherited from the similarly differentiated Yiddish and Hebrew typewriter layouts. A separate was, however, not provided on either. Hebrew typewriters were modified specifically for Yiddish by the replacement of the first two keys in the second row, which were used for punctuation marks, with one shifting key for "/" and another for "/" (with ). This can be seen on a typewriter that belonged to the Yiddish author Isaac Bashevis Singer . Typewriters built directly for Yiddish include the same four additional characters in different positions, as can be seen on another typewriter that belonged to Singer . The salient difference between the two designs is that each key on the Yiddish typewriter produces one character only, available in two different sizes through shifting.
As a result of the widespread practice of writing Yiddish on Hebrew keyboards and other legacy effects of the variant digraph forms on both modified Hebrew and native Yiddish typewriters, when Yiddish text is entered from a computer keyboard with single-key digraphs, many people nonetheless type the digraphs as two-key combinations, giving the corresponding two-letter sequences ( U+05D5 U+05D5; U+05D5 U+05D9; U+05D9 U+05D9). Although ligatures can be appropriate in monospaced typewritten text, other than in the smallest type sizes they rarely appear in proportional typesetting, where the elements of a digraph are normally letterspaced as individual characters (illustrated in Max Weinreich's name in the facsimile text in the preceding section). It may be of further interest to note that a useful, albeit highly colloquial, test of whether digraphs are regarded as single or double characters is provided by the way they appear in crossword puzzles. In Yiddish, each element of a digraph is written in its own square (and the same practice applies to other word games where letters are allocated to positions of fixed width in a regular array).
The pointed digraph can also be typed in different ways. The one is simply to enter a precomposed , which is both displayed and stored as a single character (U+FB1F). The second option is to enter the ligature as a base character and then to enter a combining for display together with it. Although appearing to be a single character , it is stored digitally as two separate characters (U+05F2 U+05B7). These two forms can only be directly entered from a keyboard on which the ligature appears. As a result, a practice is developing where are indicated by enclosing a between the elements of a two-character digraph. The aligns correctly only with the first (subject to conditions described in the next section) but the display is tolerably that of a fully marked digraph and in some display environments may be indistinguishable from one or both of the previous alternatives. However, this option requires the storage of three separate characters (U+05D9 U+05B7 U+05D9). As a fourth alternative, albeit the least stable typographically, the second of two consecutive may be pointed (U+05D9 U+05D9 U+05B7). A is otherwise not part of any established Yiddish character repertoire, and its use in this context manifests conditions that are specific to computerized typography. The four possible representations of the thus have even greater potential for causing confusion than do the other digraphs. A further potentially confusing option specific to computerized text production, but not a component of any Yiddish orthographic tradition, is the combination of a with a ligature to represent the consonant-vowel sequence — , as (U+05F2 U+05B4) rather than the correct (U+05D9 U+05D9 U+05B4).
Combining marks
Fonts that support Hebrew script do not always correctly render the combining points that are specific to Yiddish (and in many cases have general difficulty with Hebrew marks). Some applications display extraneous blank space adjacent to a letter with such a mark, and the mark may be displayed in that space rather than properly positioned with the base character. Writing text for presentation in a reading environment that has unknown font resources — as will almost invariably be the case with HTML documents — thus needs special care. Here again, this is not simply a matter of typographic preference. The disjunction of combining and base characters can easily lead to error when character sequences are copied from one application into another.
The same alternative modes of entry that are illustrated above with the are available for all of the other pointed characters used in Yiddish, with largely indistinguishable visual results but with differing internal representations. Any such character that appears on either a physical or a virtual keyboard will normally be recorded as a two-character sequence consisting of the base character followed by the combining mark. If a graphic character selector is used that does not emulate a keyboard, the desired character will be chosen from a table on the basis of its appearance. Since such facilities display combining marks separately from base characters, it is likely that the precomposed character form of a character will be the more readily recognized of the alternatives.
Most applications will accept either form of input, but frequently normalize it to the combining characters. There are, however, some applications that normalize all input to precomposed characters. Digital texts containing the combining, and the precomposed alternatives are therefore both encountered. An example of extensive text using precomposed characters is provided by the online edition of the periodical (, Life Questions).
The present article was written using combining characters with the exception of the second row in the following table, which is provided to illustrate the differences between the two forms. In a viewing environment prone to the misalignment of base characters with their combining marks, precomposed characters are more likely to be typographically stable (but may cause greater difficulty in other regards).
Punctuation
The punctuation marks used to indicate sentence structure — the comma, period, colon, and semicolon — are the same in Yiddish as they are in English. The punctuation used for the abbreviation, contraction, and concatenation of words — the apostrophe and hyphen — are conceptually similar but typographically distinct in a manner that, yet again, can cause confusion when represented digitally. This can be illustrated with the contraction for (, 'it is'), which is (, 'it's'). Although the Yiddish punctuation mark is termed an () the character used to represent it is the Hebrew , which differs both in its graphic appearance and, more importantly, in its digital representation. (The APOSTROPHE is U+0027, and the HEBREW PUNCTUATION GERESH is U+05F3.) What is termed a double apostrophe is used to indicate abbreviation through the removal of several consecutive letters. For example, (, 'doctor') is abbreviated (equivalent to Dr.). The punctuation mark is, however, not the QUOTATION MARK (U+0022), but the HEBREW PUNCTUATION GERSHAYIM (U+05F4), which is the dual form of the word .
Yiddish words are also hyphenated in a manner that is directly comparable to English punctuation. The character used to indicate it is, however, not the HYPHEN-MINUS (U+002D), but the HEBREW PUNCTUATION MAQAF (U+05BE). The latter character appears as the horizontal mark flush with the top of the text in (, 'mother tongue'; the common vernacular designation for the Yiddish language). Typeset text may also indicate hyphenation with a character resembling an equal sign (⸗), sometimes in an oblique variant, but this is uncommon in digital text.
The distinctions between and "apostrophe – quotation mark – hyphen" are always indicated correctly in typeset material (with exception for the occasional deliberate use of the hyphen instead of the ). All characters in the first group are, however, not directly available on many Hebrew or Yiddish keyboards, and any that is lacking is commonly replaced by the corresponding character in the second group. Here again, in situations that depend on the correct matching of character sequences, the fall-back representation of a punctuation mark may not match the stored target of a database query, without the reason for the failure being apparent to a non-specialist user.
Paired characters such as parentheses, brackets, and quotation marks, which are typographically mirrored — ( ) [ ] { } “ ” — are prone to incorrect presentation in digital Yiddish text, with the opening and closing forms appearing to have exchanged places. (There are several instances in the preceding text where this problem will be apparent on systems that do not properly render mirroring characters in bidirectional text.)
See also
Yiddish dialects
Yiddish phonology
Hebrew punctuation
Notes
References
Birnbaum, Salomo A., Praktische Grammatik der Jiddischen Sprache für den Selbstunterricht, Hartleben Verlag, Vienna, 1918, (in German), 5th ed., Grammatik der Jiddischen Sprache, mit einem Wörterbuch und Lesestücken, Buske Verlag, Hamburg, 1988, .
Birnbaum, Solomon A., Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1979, .
Estraikh, Gennady, Soviet Yiddish: Language Planning and Linguistic Development, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999, .
Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.), Never Say Die: A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters, Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1981, (in English and Yiddish), .
Frakes, Jerold C., The Cultural Study of Yiddish in Early Modern Europe, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2007, .
Frakes, Jerold C., Early Yiddish Texts 1100–1750, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, .
Frank, Herman, Jewish Typography and Bookmaking Art, Hebrew-American Typographical Union, New York, 1938.
Harkavy, Alexander, Harkavy's English-Jewish and Jewish-English Dictionary, Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1898. Expanded 6th ed., 1910. scanned facsimile
Harkavy, Alexander, Yiddish-English-Hebrew Dictionary, Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1925. Expanded 2nd ed., 1928, reprinted, Yale University Press, 2005, .
Herzog, Marvin, et al. (ed.), YIVO, The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry, 3 vols., Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen, 1992–2000, .
Jacobs, Neil G., Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005, .
Katz, Dovid, Grammar of the Yiddish Language, Duckworth, London, 1987, . scanned facsimile
Katz, Dovid (compiler), Code of Yiddish Spelling, Oxforder Yidish Press, Oxford, 1992, (in Yiddish), . scanned facsimile
Niborski, Yitskhok, Verterbukh fun loshn-koydesh-stamike verter in yidish, 3rd ed., Bibliothèque Medem, Paris, 2012, .
Schaechter, Mordkhe, The Standardized Yiddish Orthography: Rules of Yiddish Spelling, 6th ed., and The History of the Standardized Yiddish Spelling, YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1999, (in Yiddish with introductory material in English), .
Weinreich, Max, Proyektn fun an aynheytlekher yidishen oysleyg, in Der aynhaytlekher Yidisher oysleyg: materialn un proyektn tsu der ortografisher konferents fun YIVO, ershte zamlung, Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut, Vilna, 1930. pp. 20–65 scanned facsimile
Weinreich, Uriel, Modern Yiddish-English English-Yiddish Dictionary, YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1968, .
Weinreich, Uriel, College Yiddish: an Introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish Life and Culture, 6th revised ed., YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1999, .
Yardeni, Ada, The Book of Hebrew Script, The British Library, London, 2002, .
YIVO, Der aynhaytlekher Yidisher oysleyg: materialn un proyektn tsu der ortografisher konferents fun YIVO, ershte zamlung, Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut, Vilna, 1930. scanned facsimile
YIVO, Oysleyg-takones fun Yidish, Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut, Vilna, 1935. scanned facsimile
External links
Yiddish-English/English-Yiddish Dictionary – by Alexander Harkavy; also includes his Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations
Ezra SIL – a freely available font designed for heavily marked Hebrew script
Yiddish Typewriter – online interconversion of Hebrew script and YIVO transliteration
Orthography
Typography
Orthographies by language
Scripts with ISO 15924 four-letter codes |
4306496 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Highland%20Railway | West Highland Railway | The West Highland Railway was a railway company that constructed a railway line from Craigendoran (on the River Clyde west of Glasgow, Scotland) to Fort William and Mallaig. The line was built through remote and difficult terrain in two stages: the section from Craigendoran to Fort William opened in 1894, with a short extension to Banavie on the Caledonian Canal opening in 1895.
It had originally been intended to extend to Roshven, to give good access to sea-going fishery vessels, but the end point was altered to Mallaig, and this section opened in 1901. The Mallaig Extension was notable for the extensive use of mass concrete in making structures for the line; at the time this was a considerable novelty.
The line never made a profit, and relied on government financial support, which was given (amid much controversy) to improve the depressed economic conditions of the region. It was worked by the North British Railway, which later took the company over. Except for a short stub at Banavie the entire line remains in use, and it is considered to be one of the most scenic railway lines in Britain.
Before the railways
Prior to the nineteenth century the western highlands of Scotland formed a wild tract of land, with mountainous terrain threaded by deep river valleys. The soil was generally poor and not conducive to productive agriculture, and land transport was poor. After the Jacobite rising of 1715 military roads were constructed for the purpose of military control, but these were limited to the area from Crieff to south of the Great Glen. The most efficient transport medium was coastal shipping.
Railways became a practicable means of transport around the end of the eighteenth century especially in mineral districts, in many cases at first as short-distance adjuncts to waterways; the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway of 1826 is notable in the development in Scotland. In 1842 the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway opened, showing the way for inter-urban general purpose railways, and the easing of the money market in the following years led to a frenzy of promotion of railways, in which a huge number of schemes were put forward, not all of them viable.
The railway mania
The climax of this was in 1845, the year in which the Caledonian Railway obtained its Act of Parliament, authorising the creation of capital of £1.5 million to build a railway from Edinburgh and Glasgow to Carlisle. Other Scottish trunk railways were authorised in the same year, and this encouraged the promotion of increasingly wild schemes intended to be submitted to Parliament in the following session. The West Highlands of Scotland were not omitted from the schemes proposed. Prospectuses were issued for the Scottish Western Railway and the Scottish North Western Railway, as well as the Scottish Grand Junction Railway and others. Some of the prospectuses told of abundant income and easy construction through imaginary gently rolling land. One line at least admitted the mountainous character of the area but proposed the use of the atmospheric system to overcome the difficulty.
The tightness of money in 1846 and the following years put paid to all the West Highland schemes.
As other railways were opened and operating, there remained a large area on the map of Scotland not served by any, and branch lines from existing trunk lines began to be considered. In 1870 the first section of the Callander and Oban Railway was opened, extending a local branch line, and this railway, a subsidiary of the Caledonian Railway, opened throughout to Oban in 1880.
Also in 1870 the main part of the Dingwall and Skye Railway opened, as far as Stromeferry. Thus two west coast locations were reached by penetrating branches from the centre.
The Glasgow and North Western Railway
There remained considerable tracts of the west Highland area without useful transport routes, and social conditions were identified as being unacceptable. A government commission appointed in March 1883, examined the plight of smallholders in the Highlands, and their investigation showed that above all transport was a pressing need. The Crofters Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886 established the Crofters' Commission and gave enhanced rights to crofters. This change of mood led to the idea that a railway serving the area was a social need, and in turn this led to the promotion of the Glasgow and North Western Railway. This 167-mile line, costed at £1,526,116, was to reach from Glasgow (Maryhill) to Inverness by way of Loch Lomond, Rannoch Moor, Glen Coe and Fort William. Fort William, although a small town, was the centre of a wide area.
The G&NWR was not directly established by the government: it was sponsored by financial interests in London, and by the North British Railway (NBR). The NBR was a bitter competitor of the Caledonian Railway (CR) and the CR regarded the western side of Scotland as its own preserve, so that the NBR interest in the new line automatically led to opposition. The Highland Railway and David MacBrayne Ltd, a coastal steamer operator, were both effective monopolies on their respective businesses and naturally opposed the G&NWR. The bill came before Parliament in the 1883 session.
The hearings were lengthy, and opposition counsel did not hesitate to pour scorn on Highlandmen who came in support of the line. The undeveloped nature of the area (which the railway was designed to rectify) was shown as a reason to reject the proposed line, and finally on 1 June 1883 the committee threw out the bill. The G&NWR was finished.
The West Highland Railway proposed
The establishment of the Crofters' Commission followed this disaster, and social concern at the plight of the West Highland population was not diminished by the failure of the G&NWR scheme. In October 1887 public opinion in Fort William begun to be mobilised when the provost N. B. MacKenzie publicly argued for a Glasgow to Fort William line. Efforts were made to secure the support of the North British Railway and in February 1888 this was given, provided that the government contributed £300,000 to the scheme. The North British guaranteed £150,000 if local subscriptions were inadequate, as well as guaranteeing 4.5% on the shares (by a complicated formula).
At length the idea of a West Highland Railway was developed. This time it would not attempt to reach Inverness, but was to run from Craigendoran, on the North British Railway line to Helensburgh. It would run beside the Gare Loch (instead of the southern part of Loch Lomond) to Ardlui, Crianlarich, Rannoch Moor and Loch Treig to Fort William. A branch was to continue to Lochailort and the south-west to Roshven, a west coast sea port intended to give access to fishing vessels and island steamers.
The truncated route passed over the estate of friendly landowners as far as Fort William, but west of that place matters were more feudal, and the Roshven extension was later abandoned in the face of their opposition.
On 30 January 1889 seven gentlemen, including Robert McAlpine set out to walk from Spean Bridge to Rannoch Lodge, a distance of 40 miles across largely trackless terrain. The purpose was to examine the route, and to discuss the route of the line with Sir Robert Menzies. In extremely poor weather they set off, wearing city clothes, and a series of misjudgements nearly led to catastrophe for them. This event was used in the parliamentary hearings for the authorisation of the line to illustrate the remoteness of the proposed route.
The projections on the earnings of the line were simply based on the receipts of the Callander and Oban line, grossed up for the longer mileage.
The Highland Railway and the Caledonian Railway both opposed the line in Parliament, to protect their lines to Stromeferry and Oban respectively, but the West Highland Railway Bill obtained royal assent on 12 August 1889. The Roshven extension was dropped and the authorised line was from Craigendoran to Fort William only. Immediately a further bill was prepared for the 1890 session for certain deviations—one on Rannoch Moor was rejected in Parliament—and for an extension to Banavie Pier. This bill was enacted as the West Highland Railway Act 1890.
Construction
The first sod was dug on 23 October 1889 and the contractor for the construction, Lucas and Aird, set about assembling the workforce for the construction. The exceptional remoteness of the area, and the scarcity of even basic roadways posed especial difficulties. The engineers were Formans and McCall.
In August 1891 a major dispute arose between the contractors and the railway company, over the price to be paid for removing spoil; the contractor wanted a higher payment for the material containing boulders. The dispute went to Dumbarton Sheriff Court, where the case was found in favour of the railway company, but by now the workforce was largely dispersed. A negotiated settlement brought Lucas and Aird back to the site and work resumed in October 1891.
There was still much to do, in particular the crossing of the boggy section of Rannoch Moor which had not yet been started, By the summer of 1893 the railway company was running out of capital, and it appeared that the work must cease, but one of the directors, Mr Renton, gave part of his personal fortune to save the scheme. In fact when the line was completed the total cost was said to be £1.1 million.
Opening
The line was finally inspected by Major Marindin of the Board of Trade on 3 August 1894 (after some earlier visits) and on 7 August authority to open the line to passenger operation was received. Maximum speed was to be limited to 25 mph. Opinion had been expressed within the company that a limited opening to Gareloch at first would be preferable, but the politics of securing government support for the Mallaig line meant that no hesitation could be displayed.
Trains started running on that day, although a formal opening was arranged for Saturday 11 August by the wife of the chairman, William Hay, 10th Marquess of Tweeddale.
The line ran from Craigendoran Junction to Fort William, with fifteen stations formed in the style of Swiss chalets. The line was single, with Saxby and Farmer tablet apparatus. There were three passenger trains each way, the first down and last up train conveying a through coach for Kings Cross via Edinburgh; one goods train ran each way daily. On 1 November 1894 the passenger service was reduced to two trains each way, the "winter" timetable. The rival Caledonian Railway introduced a London to Fort William service via Oban, with a steamer connection from there to Fort William, with throughout timings not far off the West Highland times. An attempt was made by the West Highland to operate a residential service from Arrochar to Craigendoran (three return journeys daily and 4 on Saturdays from 1959), there connecting with North British Railway trains to Glasgow, but the difficult location of the WHR stations, some distance from the communities they purported to serve, made this unattractive for daily travel. An attempt to generate goods traffic from Greenock (via steamer to Craigendoran) to Fort William was also unsuccessful because of a price disadvantage compared to throughout steamer transits.
Rannoch station was at this time remote from public roads: the West Highland built a road eastward from the station to Loch Rannoch. (The road is now part of the B846 road. Kinlochleven was also inaccessible by public road at this time.)
From 29 December 1894 through to 7 February 1895 blizzards of exceptional severity struck the area of the line, and many trains became marooned, as the line was blocked. Improved snow defences were subsequently erected, including the Cruach Rock snowshed.
Banavie extension
The 1890 Act for the West Highland Railway included a short branch line from a junction near Fort William to Banavie, at a location adjacent to the Caledonian Canal. This was duly completed and Banavie Pier railway station was opened on 1 June 1895, closing to passengers in 1939 and to freight in 1951. The line arched round to the north-east and there was a station, alongside the canal and some distance north-east of the present-day station. This location was near the head of the series of locks known as Neptune's Staircase by which the canal rises 20 m and a transfer siding adjacent to the canal needed to climb by a 1 in 24 gradient to reach a backshunt.
Crianlarich connection
It had always been intended to make a connecting line with the Callander and Oban line of the Caledonian Railway at Crianlarich, where the two lines crossed. The Caledonian Railway had earlier been suspicious of the motives of the North British Railway in this regard; the distance from Glasgow to Crianlarich was substantially shorter by the West Highland Railway and at the Parliamentary stage the West Highland Railway (seen as the creature of the NBR) had applied for running powers to Oban.
The original design of the WHR station at Crianlarich would have allowed through running from Glasgow to Oban via the West Highland, but this was not implemented. The Caledonian Railway suggested a joint station that would have allowed both routes (from Stirling or from Helensburgh) access to both destinations (Oban and Fort William, and there was a proposal that passenger trains from Central Scotland by both routes should combine at Crianlarich and then divide with portions for both Oban and Fort William.
Cattle and other traffic from Lochaber destined for Stirling and Perth were intended to be transferred, but the connection was not made ready until 20 December 1897 and in the meantime that traffic had to be routed via Glasgow. It was complained that this extra mileage was more profitable to the NBR.
From 1962 until 1971 a Swindon-built cross-country DMU, normally used on the Aberdeen to Inverness main line, was transferred in the summer months to work a daily round trip from Glasgow Queen Street station to Oban via this connection. It was joined from late 1965 by all Glasgow to Oban trains, re-routed following closure of the Dunblane to Crianlarich route - initially by a landslide in Glen Ogle but officially from April 1966 as part of the so called Beeching cuts.
Financial performance
With no through trains to Oban and a very limited 'residential' traffic to Garelochhead, the income on which the finances of the line had been based were out of reach. The main line to Fort William opened during the summer season of 1894, but doing so had been expensive, involving excessive construction costs against the contractor's advice in the difficult winters of 1892-3 and 1893-4. Moreover, the Banavie branch would not open until the following year (1895) and total construction costs exceeded £1 million, nearly double the estimate. By now the North British Railway was the banker for the West Highland, but some pretence of independence was retained, to avoid a repudiation of the financial support by the Treasury.
The total revenue of the West Highland Railway in 1896 was £45,146. It climbed to £69,626 in 1899 and eventually to £92,260 in 1901 (), but it was always heavily loss-making; the losses were made up by the NBR. Quite apart from the NBR's obligations under the guarantee, loans had been granted to the WHR; by June 1902 the WHR owed £1,206,463 ().
Extending to Mallaig
Although on salt water, Fort William was too far from the open sea to be useful as a fishing base, and the idea of a westward extension was revived. Loch Nevis was considered an ideal location from the shipping point of view, but the intermediate land would have made railway construction exceptionally difficult, so the West Highland Railway reluctantly settled on Mallaig, less than 40 miles from Fort William. It was clearly unlikely that the extension could be profitable and the NBR (as the only viable private provider of the necessary capital) made it clear that it would only invest if Government subsidy were made available.
A Treasury Committee examined the possible railways—not just the Mallaig line—and recommended Government support for the line, although Mallaig "could only be recommended for want of a more favoured position being attainable."
The North British Railway had supported the first part of the West Highland Railway for commercial reasons, but it was now concerned that it would be expected to pick up the loss of the Mallaig extension, and it considered a loss to be inevitable. Nonetheless commitments had been given, and on 28 April 1892 the NBR agreed to work the extension of 50% of gross receipts, and that it would continue to support the line when the Government guarantee of 3% on capital over 25 or 30 years expired.
Considerable negotiation with Government was necessary over a protracted period in regard to the subsidy, and the matter was badly affected by a change of Government, when the Liberal administration replaced the outgoing Conservative group. A last-minute attempt to get a West Highland (Banavie and Mallaig) Bill in Parliament for the 1893 session was finally refused by the House of Lords. A new Bill, the "West Highland Mallaig Extension Bill" went to the 1894 session.
Authorisation for the subsidy required a quite separate Bill; this was the West Highland Railway (Guarantee) Bill, also in the 1894 session. It was contingent on the construction Bill being passed; satisfactory improvements to Mallaig Harbour had to be agreed, and NBR was to undertake to work the line for 50% of gross receipts in perpetuity.
The Highland Railway opposed the Bill as it was about to extend from Stromeferry to Kyle of Lochalsh. The West Highland Railway (Mallaig Extension) Act passed on 31 July 1894, but the guarantee bill was thrown out; many MPs objected to a free gift to a railway company. However the scheme, aimed at developing a backward area of the country, had Government support and the Guarantee Bill was submitted to Parliament again in the 1895 and 1896 sessions and eventually it passed, on 14 August 1896. The Treasury guaranteed the shareholders 3% on £260,000 of West Highland Railway (Mallaig Extension) capital and to make a grant of £30,000 towards the £45,000 cost of the pier at Mallaig; rates were also to be held to the level of unimproved land.
The first sod of the extension line was cut on 21 January 1897 at Corpach by Lady Margaret Cameron. The contractors were Robert McAlpine and Sons, and the engineers were Simpson and Wilson.
Although the section from Banavie to the head of Loch Eil was easy, from there onwards the terrain was very difficult, a problem exacerbated by the remoteness and difficult access. Very hard rock was encountered and away from Loch Eil there was a considerable volume to penetrate. Steam-powered drilling equipment was difficult to bring to the locations and keep fuelled, and McAlpine used water turbines to provide compressed air power for drilling. The construction of the line actually cost £540,000 ().
Although the rock was hard, it was shattered and fractured, making it unsuitable for conventional masonry construction in bridges and viaducts, and this led McAlpine to use mass concrete to build many bridges; at the time this was a revolutionary form of construction. Borrodale Burn bridge became the world's longest concrete span at 127 feet, and Glenfinnan Viaduct was a huge structure in concrete at 416 yards long with 21 arches.
The Mallaig line continued from the existing Banavie branch; the junction (formerly Banavie Junction) near Fort William for the branch was renamed Mallaig Junction, and the point of divergence of the new line from the final section of the Banavie branch was named Banavie Junction. The original Banavie station was renamed Banavie Pier, and there was a new Banavie station on the through line.
Operating from Mallaig
The first trains ran to and from Mallaig on 1 April 1901. In the first timetable there was a through carriage and a sleeper to and from Kings Cross, but this was not continued in subsequent years. Fish traffic was very important but it never reached the volumes hoped for; the harbour was difficult in certain conditions (which also limited the reliability of the Hebrides ferry service). The Mallaig site on land was also very restricted and gave rise to complaints from the fish merchants, and delays to punctual running because of difficulty loading trains. In addition, the fish traffic tended to arise in spurts, requiring extra trains and empty return workings.
The area was a stronghold of conventional religious belief and the observance of the Sabbath was strictly enforced, also occasionally leading to difficulty in handling a perishable merchandise like fish.
All in all the line was a serious loss-maker and never reached even the low expectations of it: in the thirteen years from 1901-2 to 1913-4 the line made a trading loss of £72,672 and the Treasury contributed £36,672.
By 1914 private motoring had reduced railway income from the well-to-do estates, and bus services became real competitors in the 1920s.
Absorbed by the North British Railway
As time went on, the independence of the West Highland Railway was increasingly seen as a sham; its line was worked by the North British Railway, and its losses as well as any remaining capital works were funded by the NBR. Competing railways — the Highland and the Caledonian — could clearly see that the NBR was in control.
In 1902 matters were brought to a head when the North British Railway (General Powers) Act abolished West Highland Railway stock and substituted 3% North British Railway stock. Six years later the North British Railway Confirmation Act, 1908, gave the NBR power to absorb the entire WHR undertaking, and this became effective on 31 December 1908. The West Highland Railway had a book value of £2,370,000.
Invergarry and Fort Augustus
In 1895 an Invergarry and Fort Augustus Railway was proposed: it was a truly local scheme for a line 24 miles in length, serving a district with almost no population. Although built as a single line railway, land was taken for double track, against the day when traffic developed so as to require that. Its Bill was submitted to Parliament in November 1895. There had long been suspicion between the Highland Railway and the North British Railway about presumed attempts to gain control of the Great Glen: the Highland might attempt to reach Fort William and demand running powers to Mallaig; or the North British might seek to reach Inverness and run from Glasgow via Spean Bridge. Such lines had indeed been proposed in past years. Even the Caledonian Railway might get control of the line and acquire running powers to Mallaig.
The Highland Railway saw the Fort Augustus line as a way for the NBR to reach Inverness, whether or not the scheme was sponsored by the NBR, and the Highland opposed it in Parliament, but the line secured its authorising Act on 14 August 1896. This renewed open hostility between the NBR and the Highland Railway and both proposed new schemes for a line between Inverness and Fort Augustus. The Highland Railway appeared to be gaining Parliamentary support at first (in the 1897 session), but eventually both schemes were thrown out.
The Fort Augustus line was built on a lavish scale, with magnificently decorated structures, through difficult terrain. Work began on constructing the line in 1897, but it was not until 22 July 1903 that the line opened. Contrary to expectation, it was the Highland Railway that operated the line at first; it was far detached from the Highland system, and the arrangement was a political gesture rather than a pragmatic commercial move. In fact the Highland Railway withdrew in 1908 and the North British Railway took over. The financial position of the line was hopeless and when cash injections from wealthy landowners dried up, the NBR withdrew its trains in October 1911.
Following intervention from the County Council, trains resumed operation on 1 August 1913 and the NBR acquired the line on 30 August 1914. Passenger operation finally ceased on 1 December 1933 and the line closed completely on 31 December 1946.
The twentieth century
The West Highland Line of the North British Railway (as the WHR had become) settled down to a stable existence in the twentieth century, although continuing to lose money.
In 1923 the main line railways of Great Britain were "grouped" following the Railways Act 1921 and the North British Railway was a constituent of the new London and North Eastern Railway. In turn this was schemed into British Railways, Scottish Region, when the railways were taken into state ownership in 1948.
In 1924 work started on a huge hydro-electric power scheme which led to the establishment in 1929 of the Lochaber Aluminium Smelter near Fort William. The production of aluminium requires large quantities of electric power, and the decision on location of such a plant is driven by the availability of cheap power. Alcan took over the plant in 1981; the finished metal provided business for the line.
In 1931 the Lochaber power scheme was inaugurated; it required a diversion of nearly 1.5 miles of the line alongside Loch Treig; a dam was built across the northern end and the level of the loch was raised by about 35 feet. The diverted railway is from 78m 100yds to 80m 175yds, and includes a new tunnel 150 yards long.
The long-standing lack of employment in the West Highlands once again prompted government intervention when in 1963 an Act of Parliament was passed under which a grant of £8 million was made to Wiggins Teape to establish a pulp and paper mill at Corpach. This came on stream in 1966, and was known as Scottish Pulp and Paper Mills. The process requires plentiful timber and fresh water, and although the latter was freely available, in the longer term it proved difficult to obtain economically priced timber locally, and the plant was closed in 1991.
In June 1975 Fort William station was relocated, shortening the line a little, in connection with a road scheme.
In 1987 radio electronic token block (RETB) was installed on all of the West Highland Railway system, except for the Fort William station area. RETB enabled safe operation of the long single line sections without signalling staff at stations; the control centre was at Banavie. The points at passing loops at stations were spring operated, and were negotiated at slow speed in the facing direction. To avoid confusion in radio voice exchanges between drivers and the signallers at Banavie, Mallaig Junction was renamed Fort William Junction while Tyndrum Upper station was renamed Upper Tyndrum - both from late 1989.
Topography
Stations and locations on the first line were:
Craigendoran Junction; divergence from the Helensburgh line of the North British Railway;
Craigendoran; separate station from that on the Helensburgh line, and at a higher level; closed 15 June 1964;
Helensburgh Upper;
Row; renamed Rhu 1927; closed 9 January 1956; reopened as Rhu Halt 4 April 1960; closed 15 June 1964;
Faslane Junction; divergence of Faslane branch;
Faslane Platform; opened 26 August 1945 :closed 1949;
Shandon; closed 15 June 1964;
Garelochhead;
Whistlefield; opened 21 October 1896; Whistlefield Halt from 1960; closed 15 June 1964;
Glen Douglas Halt; opened 1894 or 1895. From September 1926 for families of railway staff, particularly in connection with the LNER school there; opened to the public 12 June 1961; closed 15 June 1964;
Arrochar and Tarbet;
Ardlui;
Glen Falloch; unadvertised station for workmen employed on Loch Sloy hydro-electric power scheme; opened 10 April 1946; closed circa 1948;
Crianlarich; also known as Crianlarich Upper from 1953; divergence of spur to Oban line;
Upper Tyndrum; previously known as Tyndrum Upper;
Bridge of Orchy;
Gorton; Private station opened 1894. Location of a school for railwaymen's children; trains called from 1938 to 1964 and possibly 1968; sometimes spelt Gortan;
Rannoch;
Corrour; originally intended to be merely a passing place but from the start a private station for Corrour Lodge and Estate; opened for public use 11 September 1934;
Fersit Halt; opened 1 August 1931; closed 1 January 1935;
Inverlair; renamed Tulloch 1895;
Roy Bridge;
Spean Bridge;
Banavie Junction; later renamed Mallaig Junction; later renamed Fort William Junction;
Fort William; relocated about half a mile north (and line shortened accordingly) on 9 June 1975.
Banavie branch:
Banavie Junction, above; renamed Mallaig Junction when the Mallaig line was opened;
Banavie Junction; inaugurated when the Mallaig line was opened;
Banavie; renamed Banavie Pier 1901; last passenger train ran 2 September 1939.
Mallaig line:
Banavie Junction, above;
Banavie;
Corpach;
Loch Eil Outward Bound; opened May 1985;
Locheilside;
Glenfinnan;
Lech-a-Vuie; opened April 1901; a private halt used by shooting parties on the Inverailort Estate and by the forces in WII; Closed in the 1970s
Lochailort;
Beasdale; originally a private station for Arisaig House; opened for public use 6 September 1965;
Arisaig;
Morar;
Mallaig.
The ruling gradient of the section from Craigendoran to Fort William is 1 in 50, but the line to Mallaig has a ruling gradient of 1 in 40. Seventeen sea wall sections were required between Corpach and Kinlocheil, as Loch Linnhe can be very rough in bad weather. There are eleven tunnels on this section, although originally only two were planned; the longest tunnel is 350 yards long, at Borrodale. There is a swing bridge at Banavie over the Caledonian Canal, and at Glenfinnan the concrete viaduct is 416 yards long on a 12-chain curve; there are 21 arch spans.
There were 350 viaducts and underbridges and 50 overbridges on the Fort William section. The longest viaduct is on Rannoch Moor at 684 feet in nine spans of 70 feet 6 inches, partly on a 12 chain radius curve. On the Banavie branch the viaduct over the river Lochy, consisting of four 80 feet spans, required cast iron cylinders to be sunk for the founding of the piers.
The Cruach snow shed, at 205 yards long, had a corrugated iron roof in three sections; in summer the centre section was removed; in 1944 it was said to be the only snow shed on a British railway.
There was a level crossing with remotely operated gates about 150 yards from Fort William station. Originally it was manually operated but from 1927 it was electrically worked and controlled from Fort William signal box, a novelty at that time.
The summit of the line is at Corrour, 1,347 feet above sea level.
Current status
Apart from the last section of the Banavie Branch, and several of the southern stations, the line is still open, being operated by ScotRail as part of the West Highland Line services (which also encompasses services to Oban and Mallaig).
Notes
References
Further reading
John McGregor, 100 years of the West Highland Line. 1994. ScotRail.
John McGregor, The West Highland Railway 120 Years, Amberley Publishing, Stroud, 2014,
John McGregor, West Highland Line, Amberley Publishing, Stroud, 2013, 978 144 5613369
John McGregor, The New Railway: The Earliest Years of the West Highland Line, Amberley Publishing,Stroud, 2015,
North British Railway Company, Mountain Moor and Loch: On the Route of the West Highland Railway, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1895 facsimile reprint 1972, 978-0715354223
John Thomas, The North British Railway: volume 2, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1975,
John Thomas, The West Highland Railway, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1965, .
Roland Paxton and John Shipway, Civil Engineering Heritage: Scotland, Highlands and Islands, Thomas Telford Publishiung, London, 2007,
See also
Mallaig Extension Railway
Glen Douglas Siding railway station
Inveruglas railway station
Whistlefield railway station
External links
Railscot on the West Highland Railway
North British Railway
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Transport in Argyll and Bute
Transport in Highland (council area)
Railway companies established in 1889
Railway lines opened in 1894
Railway companies disestablished in 1908
1889 establishments in Scotland
British companies established in 1889 |
4306829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20burial | Christian burial | A Christian burial is the burial of a deceased person with specifically Christian rites; typically, in consecrated ground. Until recent times Christians generally objected to cremation because it interfered with the concept of the resurrection of a corpse, and practiced inhumation almost exclusively. Today this opposition has all but vanished among Protestants and Catholics alike, and this is rapidly becoming more common, although Eastern Orthodox Churches still mostly forbid cremation.
History and antecedents of Christian burial rites
Early historical evidence
The Greeks and Romans practiced both burial and cremation, with Roman funerary practices distinctly favoring cremation by the time Christianity arose during the Principate. However, the Jews only ever buried their dead. Even God himself is depicted in the Torah as performing burial: "And [God] buried him (Moses) in the depression in the land of Moab, opposite Beth Peor. No man knows the place that he was buried, even to this day." (Deuteronomy 34:6). Similarly, early Christians used only burial, as can be demonstrated from the direct testimony of Tertullian and from the stress laid upon the analogy between the resurrection of the body and the Resurrection of Christ ().
In the light of the dogma of the resurrection of the body as well as of Jewish tradition, the burial of the mortal remains of the Christian dead has always been regarded as an act of religious import. It is surrounded at all times with some measure of religious ceremony.
Little is known with regard to the burial of the dead in the early Christian centuries. Early Christians did practice the use of an ossuary to store the skeletal remains of those saints at rest in Christ. This practice likely came from the use of the same among Second Temple Jews. Other early Christians likely followed the national customs of the people among whom they lived, as long as they were not directly idolatrous. St. Jerome, in his account of the death of St. Paul the Hermit, speaks of the singing of hymns and psalms while the body is carried to the grave as an observance belonging to ancient Christian tradition.
Several historical writings indicate that in the fourth and fifth centuries, the offering of the Eucharist was an essential feature in the last solemn rites. These writings include: St. Gregory of Nyssa’s detailed description of the funeral of St. Macrina, St. Augustine’s references to his mother St. Monica, the Apostolic Constitutions (Book VII), and the Celestial Hierarchy of Dionysius the Areopagite.
Probably the earliest detailed account of funeral ceremonial which has been preserved to us is to be found in the Spanish Ordinals of the latter part of the seventh century. Recorded in the writing is a description of "the Order of what the clerics of any city ought to do when their bishop falls into a mortal sickness." It details the steps of ringing church bells, reciting psalms, and cleaning and dressing the body.
Traditionally, the Christian Church opposed the practice of cremation by its members. While involving no necessary contradiction of any article of faith, it is opposed alike to ancient canon law and to the usages (praxis) of antiquity. Burial was always preferred as the method of disposition inherited from Judaism and the example of Jesus' burial in the tomb. During times of persecution, pagan authorities erroneously thought they could destroy the martyrs' hope of resurrection by cremating their remains. Though the church always taught that the destruction of the earthly remains posed no threat to the bodily resurrection, many Christians risked their lives to prevent this desecration of the relics of the saints. Furthermore, the bodies of Christians were considered to have been sanctified by baptism and the reception of the sacraments, and thus were to be treated with dignity and respect, as befits a "Temple of the Holy Spirit" (, ). In reaction against the Christian opposition to cremation some have deliberately instructed that their remains be cremated as a public profession of irreligion and materialism. The revival of cremation in modern times has prompted a revision of this opposition by many Christian churches, though some groups continue to discourage the practice, provided there is no intent of apostasy or sacrilege.
During the Middle Ages a practice arose among the aristocracy that when a nobleman was killed in battle far from home, the body would be defleshed by boiling or some such other method, and his bones transported back to his estate for burial. In response, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII promulgated a law which excommunicated ipso facto anyone who disembowelled bodies of the dead or boiled them to separate the flesh from the bones, for the purpose of transportation for burial in their native land. He further decreed that bodies which had been so treated were to be denied Christian burial.
The wake
The custom of watching by the dead (the wake) is an ancient practice probably derived from the similar Jewish custom of a pious vigil over the remains. Its origins are not entirely known. This was a Christian observance, attended with the chanting of psalms.
In the Middle Ages, among the monastic orders, the custom was practiced in a desire to perform religious duties and was seen as beneficial. By appointing relays of monks to succeed one another, orderly provision was made that the corpse would never be left without prayer.
Among secular persons, these nocturnal meetings were sometimes an occasion of grave abuses, especially in the matter of eating and drinking. The following is found in the Anglo-Saxon canons of Ælfric, addressed to the clergy:
Ye shall not rejoice on account of men deceased nor attend on the corpse unless ye be thereto invited. When ye are thereto invited then forbid ye the heathen songs (haethenan sangas) of the laymen and their loud cachinnations; nor eat ye nor drink where the corpse lieth therein, lest ye be imitators of the heathenism which they there commit.
In the earliest Ambrosian ritual (eighth or ninth century), which Magistretti pronounces to be derived from Rome, the funeral is broken up into stages: at the house of the deceased, on the way to the church, at the church, from the church to the grave, and at the grave side. But it is also clear that there was originally something of the nature of a wake (vigilioe) consisting in the chanting of the whole Psalter beside the dead man at his home.
Absolution
The Absolution became common in the second half of the eleventh century. It involves laying a form of absolution upon the breast of the deceased. This is enjoined in the monastic constitutions of Archbishop Lanfranc. Occasionally, a leaden cross etched with a few words was used for this purpose. Many such crosses have been recovered in opening tombs belonging to this period.
Offertory
The medieval ritual also included an offertory in the funeral of well known and distinguished people. Generous offerings were made in money, and in kind, in the hope of benefiting the soul of the deceased. It was also usual to lead his war-horse up the church fully accoutered and to present it to the priest at the altar rails. It would later be redeemed by a money payment.
Western Catholic burial ritual
The various Roman Catholic Church religious observances surrounding mortal remains can be divided into three stages. The following three stages assume, however, that the full funeral rites are celebrated, including the Funeral (Requiem) Mass, which, since it is a Mass, must be celebrated by a priest. If a Catholic deacon celebrates, the Funeral Mass does not occur, however, a Memorial Mass may be said later for the deceased. The deacon leads the prayer services at the home and the funeral home, blesses the remains at the church during another prayer service, and then leads the prayers of final commendation at the graveside. In an increasing number of cases where there are not enough priests and deacons, lay people will lead prayers in the home of the deceased, the Vigil for the Deceased at the church, and also prayers at the graveside (the only funeral service which requires an ordained priest is the Requiem Mass itself). If the traditional three-part funeral rites are celebrated, they proceed as follows:
Conveyance of the body to the church
The first stage involves the parish priest and other clergy going to the house of the deceased. One cleric carries the cross and another carries a vessel of holy water. Before the coffin is removed from the house it is sprinkled with the holy water. The priest, with his assistants, says the psalm De profundis with the antiphon Si iniquitates. Then the procession sets out for the church. The cross-bearer goes first, followed by members of the clergy carrying lighted candles. The priest walks immediately before the coffin, and the friends of the deceased and others walk behind it.
Note that in the vast majority of cases none of the above will happen. The priest or deacon will go to the house without procession, or lay people will lead the prayers in the presence of the body if clergy are not available.
As they leave the house, the priest intones the antiphon Exsultabunt Domino, and then the psalm Miserere is recited or chanted in alternate verses by the cantors and clergy. On reaching the church the antiphon Exsultabunt is repeated. As the body is placed "in the middle of the church," the responsorial Subvenite is recited.
Once again, this seldom happens. The coffin is brought to the church by the undertaker in a hearse. It may arrive the evening before, for a Vigil in the church, or it may arrive on the day of the funeral before the service.
Historical precedence provides that if the corpse is a layman, the feet are to be turned towards the altar. If the corpse is a priest, then the position is reversed, the head being towards the altar. The earliest reference to this is in Johann Burchard's "Diary". Burchard was the master of ceremonies to Pope Innocent VIII and Pope Alexander VI.
A little-known custom also exists that both before the altar and in the grave, the feet of all Christians should be pointed to the East. This custom is alluded to by Bishop Hildebert at the beginning of the twelfth century, and its symbolism is discussed by Guillaume Durand. "A man ought so to be buried", he says, "that while his head lies to the West his feet are turned to the East…" For clergy, however, the idea seems to be that the bishop (or priest) in death should occupy the same position in the church as during life, facing his people who he taught and blessed in Christ's name. In practice, facing the east is scarcely ever observed today, but appears to have been a common custom in the early middle ages. Post-conversion cemeteries can be distinguished in England from their pre-conversion counterparts from the orientation and direction of inhumation burials. Such an example can be seen in the Chamberlain's Barn cemetery near Leighton Buzzard - around 650 CE, graves were increasingly organised into rows, facing west, and grave furnishings (commonly associated with pagan burial practices) decreased.
Ceremony in the church
The second stage is a cycle of prayers, the funeral Mass, and absolution. In the Tridentine Rite, candles are lit around the coffin, and they are allowed to burn throughout this stage. In the post-Vatican II rite there are no candles.
Prayers
The prayers offered are the Office of the Dead. Throughout the prayers, certain omissions are made. For example, each psalm ends with Requiem aeternam instead of the Gloria Patri.
Mass for the Dead
As in the case of the Office, the Mass for the Dead (Missa de Requiem) is chiefly distinguished from ordinary Masses by certain omissions. Some of these may be due to the fact that this Mass was formerly regarded as supplementary to the Mass of the day. In other cases it preserves the tradition of a more primitive age. The suppression of the Alleluia, Gloria in excelsis, and the Gloria Patri seems to point to a sense of the incongruity of joyful themes in the presence of God's searching and inscrutable judgments. In the early Christian ages, however, it would seem that the Alleluia, especially in the East, was regarded as especially appropriate to funerals, as Christians rejoiced that the deceased was now closer to God than they were themselves.
During the Mass it used to be customary to distribute candles to the congregation. These were lit during the Gospel, during the latter part of the Holy Sacrifice from the Elevation to the Communion, and during the absolution which follows the Mass. As already remarked the association of lights with Christian funerals is very ancient, and liturgists here recognize a symbolical reference to baptism whereby Christians are made the children of Light, as well as a concrete reminder of the oft repeated prayer et lux perpetua luceat eis.
Today, giving candles to the congregation is hardly ever done.
In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite (the Mass of Paul VI) the order of choice for liturgical colors is white, or violet, or black. It is recommended that the coffin be covered by a white pall. In the Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite, the funeral Mass is a Requiem. In a Requiem Mass the priest always wears black vestments, and the pall is black. There are also slightly different ceremonies of the Mass and slightly different texts. When the deceased is a baptised child under the age of reason the priest wears white vestments as a symbol of the innocence of the deceased and the attendant belief that the child will immediately be received into heaven without the need to endure purgatory. The liturgical books for the extraordinary form have never prescribed a particular Mass for the funeral of such children, but the custom is that the votive Mass of the Angels is said.
The funeral Mass is sometimes called the "Mass of Christian Burial", "Mass of the Resurrection", or "Memorial Mass", but these terms are not found in the Order of Christian Funerals, which is the official book in the ordinary form of the Church, and should be discouraged.
Absolution
The absolution of the dead was removed from the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, and replaced with the Final Commendation and Farewell, when the new Order of Christian Funerals was promulgated following the Second Vatican Council. However, the absolution of the dead remains part of the funeral service of the Tridentine Mass.
The absolution of the dead is a series of prayers for pardon that are said over the body of a deceased Catholic following a Requiem Mass and before burial. The absolution of the dead does not forgive sins or confer the sacramental absolution of the Sacrament of Penance. Rather, it is a series of prayers to God that the person's soul will not have to suffer the temporal punishment in purgatory due for sins which were forgiven during the person's life.
During the absolution, the Libera me, Domine is sung while the priest incenses the coffin and sprinkles it with holy water. The prayer for absolution is said by the priest, and then the In paradisum is sung while the body is carried from the church.
Ceremony by the graveside
After the absolution, the body is carried to the grave. The tomb or burial plot is then blessed, if it has not been blessed previously. A grave newly dug in an already consecrated cemetery is considered blessed, and requires no further consecration. However, a mausoleum erected above ground or even a brick chamber beneath the surface is regarded as needing blessing when used for the first time. This blessing is short and consists only of a single prayer after which the body is again sprinkled with holy water and incensed. Apart from this, the service at the graveside is very brief.
In the Tridentine tradition, the priest intones the antiphon "I am the Resurrection and the Life", after which the coffin is lowered into the grave and the Canticle Benedictus is recited or sung. Then the antiphon is repeated again, the Lord's Prayer is said silently, while the coffin is again sprinkled with holy water. Finally, after one or two brief responses, the following ancient prayer is said:
Grant this mercy, O Lord, we beseech Thee, to Thy servant departed, that he may not receive in punishment the requital of his deeds who in desire did keep Thy will, and as the true faith here united him to the company of the faithful, so may Thy mercy unite him above to the choirs of angels. Through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.
The final petition made by the priest is "May his soul and the souls of all the faithful departed through the mercy of God rest in peace." At that point, the graveside ceremony and the burial is complete.
In the post-Vatican II rite, the prayers are different.
Burial fees
In principle, there was no fee for Christian burial. According to Canon Law, any faithful could be buried by the priest for free; and this has been confirmed by several Ecumenical council during the Middle Ages, such as the Third (1179) and the Fourth (1215) Council of the Lateran. Charging money to conduct burials, bless a marriage or to celebrate any of the sacraments was considered as a crime of Simony. Nevertheless, since the beginning of the Western Christianity, but especially after the 11th century, a considerable part of the doctrine, as well as the Canon Law itself, accepted a rightful compensation for the work of the minister. This compensation had to be based on local "laudable customs" or on a voluntary payment, but many parishes turned these fees into a standard scale of charges. This attitude resulted above all from the desire to strengthen parish incomes, often very small especially in rural areas. Although many critics attacked these exactions, in all Christian countries burial fees were regularly perceived by the clergy. Moreover, in contexts where parishes hosted a vestry (such as in England and France), the parishioners had to pay a certain amount to the wardens for the use of the churchyard or the church itself, when the burial took place inside it. This contribution was often called the right "for breaking the ground". After the Reformation, in both catholic and reformed areas, burial payments were standardized in tables of fees that had to be displayed at the entrance of the church or inside the sacristy. These tables registered also payments due for marriages, christenings, and, in some countries such as England, for the churching of women. The promulgation of tables of fees continues today in most of the Christian countries where there is an organized church.
Protestant burials
Protestant burial services and rituals vary enormously between denominations.
Methodist funeral
The United Methodist Church and the Methodist Church of Great Britain have funeral liturgies based on the Sarum Rite that emphasize "the paschal character of Christian death and connected the last rite with baptism". The Order for the Burial of the Dead in the Methodist Book of Worship for Church and Home (1965) specifies that "Funeral Services of church members should be held in the sanctuary. The casket should be placed before the altar". The casket or coffin is traditionally covered with a white pall symbolizing the resurrection of Christ. The official name for the liturgy in the United Methodist Church is "A Service of Death and Resurrection"; it includes the elements found in a standard liturgy celebrated on the Lord's Day, such as the Entrance, Opening Prayer, Old Testament Reading, Psalm, New Testament Reading, Alleluia, Gospel Reading, Sermon, Recitation of one of the ecumenical creeds, prayers of the faithful, offertory, and celebration of the Eucharist, as well as the Commendation. The Commendation contains prayer for the dead, including a variation of the Eternal Rest prayer. Following this, "A Service of Committal" takes place in the graveyard or cemetery.
Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic burial ritual
The full burial service of the Eastern Orthodox Church is lengthy, and there are several features unique to the Eastern Church. There are five different funeral services, depending upon the deceased's station in life: laity, children, monks, priests, and a special form served for all of the above during Bright Week (Easter week).
Ablutions
When an Orthodox Christian is preparing for death, the priest comes to hear the final confession and give Holy Communion, if the dying one is conscious (Holy Unction is not a part of Orthodox last rites). The priest then reads the Office at the Parting of the Soul from the Body, which consists of prayers and a canon to encourage repentance, and help ease the soul's transition from earthly life to the hereafter. There is a special form of this service "For One who has Suffered Long".
Immediately after death, a unique memorial service, called the "First Pannikhida" is celebrated. After this, the body is washed and clothed for burial. Traditionally, this act of love is performed by the family and friends of the deceased ().
A crown (sometimes referred to as a phylactery), is placed upon the dead layman's head. This consists of a strip of paper upon which the Trisagion is written, and sometimes an icon of the Deesis is printed on it as well. A small icon of Christ, the Theotokos or the deceased's patron saint is placed in the right hand; or, alternately, a cross. A prayer rope may be placed in his left hand. If the deceased served in the military or held some other high office, he or she may be dressed in his or her uniform. If a man had been tonsured as a Reader, he will be vested in a sticharion. If he had been ordained a Subdeacon he will be vested in his sticharion and orarion. A deceased deacon is vested in sticharion and orarion, and a censer is placed in his right hand.
A monk's body is prepared by one of his brethren in the monastery. He will be clothed in his monastic habit and a prayer rope placed in his hands. If he was a Stavrophore or Megaloschema-monk he will be wrapped in his mandyas (cloak), from which two strips will be cut. These strips are wound around the body, so that they cross over the breast, the waist and the legs, thus symbolising not only the cross, but also the swaddling bands in which Jesus was wrapped as a baby, since the death of the body is considered to be a birth for the soul into new life. His klobuk will be placed backwards over his head so that the veil covers his face. Nuns are similarly arrayed.
The body of a deceased priest or bishop is prepared by the clergy, and is anointed with oil. He is then clothed in his full Eucharistic vestments (however, if he was a hieromonk he will usually be clothed in his monastic habit and be vested only in his epitrachelion [stole] and epimanikia [cuffs]). His face is covered with an Aër, the liturgical veil with which the Holy Mysteries (chalice and paten) are covered during the Divine Liturgy. Also a Gospel Book is laid upon his breast (a similar practice was found in the West in the early Spanish Ordinal).
When a bishop dies, he is vested by the clergy in his full episcopal vestments, including mitre. As each vestment is placed on him, a Protodeacon swings the censer and reads the vesting prayers, exactly as was done for him when he served the Divine Liturgy. After the vesting the bishop is set upright in a chair and the dikirion and trikirion (candlesticks used by a bishop to bless the people) are placed in his hands as the clergy chant Eis polla eti, Despota! for the final time. He is then placed in his coffin. In ancient times, and still in some places, the bishop is not placed in a coffin, but remains seated in a chair, and is even buried in a sitting position. This custom was taken from the burial customs of the Byzantine Emperors.
After the clothing of the deceased, the priest sprinkles the coffin with holy water on all four sides, and the deceased is placed in the coffin. Then the wake begins immediately. Often, an Orthodox casket will have a solid lid which is removable. The lid, with a large cross on it, is often placed outside the front door of the house as a sign that the house is in mourning, and to invite all who pass by to pray for the deceased and give comfort to the bereaved.
Wake
For Orthodox Christians the wake consists of continuous reading of the Psalter aloud, interrupted only by the occasional serving of Panikhidas (brief memorial services). Anyone is allowed to read, and the family and friends will often take turns reading the psalms throughout the night up until it is time to take the body to the church.
If the deceased was a priest or bishop the reading is done by the higher clergy (bishops, priests and deacons) and instead of reading the Psalter, they read from the Gospel Book. If there are not enough clergy to read continuously, the laity may read the Psalter at times clergy are unavailable.
Conveyance of the Body to the Church
After a final Panikhida at the house of the deceased, the body is brought to the church in a procession headed by the cross and banners. The priest or deacon walks in front of the coffin with the censer. During the procession all sing the Trisagion. Bells may be rung during the procession, though they are not required by the rubrics.
Once the procession arrives at the church, the coffin is placed either in the center of the nave or, if the narthex is large enough it is placed there. Four candlestands are placed around the coffin, forming a cross. The priest censes around the coffin and begins a Panikhida. Then, the reading of the Psalter continues until the beginning of the services.
Ceremony in the Church
Throughout the service, upon a table close to the coffin stands a dish containing kolyva, made of wheat—symbolic of the grain which falling to the ground dies and brings forth much fruit ()—and honey—symbolic of the sweetness of the Heavenly Kingdom. A taper is placed in the kolyva and is lit during the service.
In the Orthodox funeral, the coffin is usually open in church (unlike the West, where it is usually closed), and the lower part of the coffin is covered with a funeral pall. The lid of the casket may be left outside the church door, as an invitation to all who pass by to enter and join in the funeral.
Divine Liturgy for the departed
In some Slavic traditions, Divine Liturgy takes place as usual, with the addition of special hymns for the departed. There are also special Epistle and Gospel readings for the dead, which vary according to the day of the week on which the funeral is served. There will also be a special ektenia (litany) for the departed, and at the end another Panikhida will be served around the coffin.
Funeral service
The funeral will usually begin immediately after the dismissal of the Divine Liturgy. The funeral service is called in Greek, Pannychis, meaning vigil, and it originally lasted through the entire night and into the next morning. Today, it has been considerably shortened, but it may still last around two and a half hours.
Throughout the entire service, everyone holds lighted candles, and the censer is swung by the deacon or priest throughout much of the service.
Because death is not defeat for a faithful Christian, the Alleluia is sung as part of the service, with special funeral verses.
As mentioned above, there are five different funeral services, all of which have different outlines:
Laymen—This is the most common form of funeral; it is used for all adult members of the laity and for lower clergy and deacons. It is the form detailed below.
Children—Because young children are generally not held to be morally responsible for their sins, the funeral for a child has none of the usual penitential elements, or prayers for the forgiveness of the sins of the deceased.
Monks—The burial of monks and nuns differs in a number of respects, most noticeably that there is no canon, but rather special antiphons are chanted in all the eight tones in succession, as if recalling the monastic's participation in the whole life of the Church. This funeral is used for all tonsured monks, and for hierodeacons. Some hieromonks (priest-monks) are buried using the monastic ritual.
Priests—When bishops and priests are buried, their funeral is different from those of laymen or monks (a hieromonk may be buried either as a monk or as a priest). Because of their important role as preachers of the Word, the funeral for priests has numerous Gospel readings in it. These are usually read from the Gospel Book which has been placed in the coffin.
Paschal—Because of the joy and extraordinary grace of the Paschal season, any funeral performed during Bright Week (Easter week) is remarkably different from that served at any other time of year. In place of the mournful melodies and penitential nature of the normal funeral services, joyful paschal hymns are chanted. There is also a special paschal funeral for children.
Important features of the funeral service are as follows:
Psalm 118
Right at the beginning of the funeral, Psalm 118 (Septuagint numbering; KJV: Psalm 119) is chanted. In the Orthodox Psalter this is known as the 17th Kathisma, and is the longest psalm in the Bible. The psalm is divided into three sections, called Stases, the first two of which is followed by a brief Ektenia (litany) for the Dead. Each verse of the Psalm is followed by a refrain. The refrain at the first and third stases is "Alleluia", the refrain for the second stasis is "Have mercy upon Thy servant." The Kathisma is followed by a set of hymns called the Evlogitaria, which is based upon a similar Paschal hymn chanted during the Easter season and on Sunday. Thus the themes of prayer for God's mercy and of the General Resurrection are tied together.
Kontakion
The Kontakion of the Dead is one of the most moving portions of the service. It is linked to the Ikhos, another hymn which follows it. During the funeral it takes place after the Sixth Ode of the Canon. It is also chanted during panikhidas (memorial services) which are conducted both before and after the funeral:
Kontakion: With the saints give rest, O Christ, to the soul of Thy servant where there is neither sickness, nor sorrow, nor sighing, but life everlasting.
Ikhos: Thou alone art immortal, who hast created and fashioned man. But we are mortal formed of the earth, and unto earth shall we return, as Thou who madest me didst command and say unto us: Thou art dust, and to dust shalt thou return. Whither, also, all we mortals wend our way, making as a funeral dirge the song: Alleluia! Alleluia! Alleluia!
The Russian melody for this Kontakion was famously sung during the funeral scene in the movie, Doctor Zhivago.
Hymns of St. John Damascene
After the canon, the choir chants stichera that were composed by St. John Damascene. According to tradition, Saint John composed these hymns to help one of the brethren in his monastery as he grieved for a family member. There are eight stichera, each composed in one of the tones of the Octoechos. These hymns are also chanted on Friday evenings and Saturday mornings throughout the year, since Saturday is a day set aside for general commemoration of the departed.
Absolution
At the end of the funeral service, the spiritual father of the deceased will read the Prayer of Absolution, which is printed on a separate piece of paper. After the prayer, he will roll the paper up and place it in the deceased's hand.
Last kiss
Symbolic farewell is taken of the deceased by a "last kiss", during which the faithful come forward and give a last kiss of peace to the departed. Though traditions vary, often they will kiss the phylactory on the deceased's forehead and the icon or cross in his hand. During this time, the choir chants moving hymns which are intended to assist the mourners as they work through their grief and love for the deceased.
Memory Eternal
After the last kiss, the choir chants, "Memory Eternal" (Slavonic: Vyechnaya pamyat) three times, to a slow and solemn melody. If the deceased has a shroud, it is pulled over the face of the deceased. Finally, the coffin is closed. In some traditions, the priest will sprinkle a little earth on the remains, in the shape of a cross, before closing the coffin.
Ceremony at the graveside
A procession forms, with the cross and banners going from the church to the cemetery. This procession is similar to the one during which the body was taken to the church. If the deceased is a priest, instead of singing the Trisagion, the clergy chant the Irmoi of the "Great Canon" written by St. Andrew of Crete.
Tolling of bells
During the procession, the bells are tolled. In the Russian tradition, the funeral toll is called Perebor. Each individual bell is struck once, from the smallest to the largest, in a slow, steady peal. After that, all of the bells are struck together at the same time. Striking the bells from the smallest to the largest symbolizes the stages of a person's life from birth to death; the final striking of all the bells together symbolizes the end of this earthly life.
Committal
Upon arriving at the grave, the Panikhida is again chanted.
The coffin may be sealed with nails. Traditionally there are four nails, reminiscent of the nails with which Christ was affixed to the Cross.
As the body is lowered into the grave, the choir chants:
Open wide, O earth, and receive him (her) that was fashioned from thee by the hand of God aforetime, and who returneth again unto Thee that gave him (her) birth. That which was made according to his image the Creator hath received unto himself; do thou receive back that which is thine own.
Then the priest takes a shovelful of dirt and makes the Sign of the Cross with it in the grave, saying:
The earth is the Lord's and the fullness thereof.
If the deceased received the Sacred Mystery (Sacrament) of Unction, the priest will pour some of the consecrated oil on the coffin (in some places, this is done at the funeral, immediately before the coffin is closed). The priest then pours the ashes from the censer into the open grave, after which the family and friends fill in the grave as the choir chants hymns.
Orthodox Christians are buried facing east; that is to say, with their feet to the east. When a cross is placed at the grave, it is not normally placed at the head of the grave, but at the foot, so that as the faithful stand at the grave and pray facing the cross, they will be facing east, in the traditional Orthodox manner.
In the Byzantine era, bishops were buried sitting upright in a chair, a practice that is still observed in some places. After the remains were lowered into the ground, the bishop's mitre would be removed, and his monastic klobuk placed on his head so that the veil covered his face.
In the Orthodox Church, it is only permitted to celebrate a funeral for a person who is a member of the Orthodox Church in good standing. Generally speaking, funerals are not permitted for persons who have committed suicide, or who will be voluntarily cremated. In cases where the local authorities impose cremation, such as for reasons of public health, this is no obstacle to an Orthodox funeral. For those persons for whom a funeral is not allowed, the most that may be done is the chanting of the Trisagion as the body is being carried to the cemetery.
The Orthodox burial rite is discussed in several sources.
Mourning period
Orthodox Christians do not consider death to be an end, but a beginning. However, sorrow at the separation from a loved one is natural to the human condition. In Orthodox theology, Jesus' weeping for his friend Lazarus is understood as a manifestation of the fullness of his humanity (). But Christians are taught not to grieve "even as others which have no hope" (). In the light of the Resurrection, the death of a believer is not considered to be a tragedy but a triumph. Both the funeral and the memorial services feature the singing of "Alleluia" many times.
The first traditional mourning period of Orthodox Christians lasts for forty days. During this period, certain days are considered to have special significance: the third day (on which the funeral is usually held), the ninth day, and the fortieth day. Of these three days, the fortieth is the most important, because it is believed that on that day the soul undergoes the Particular Judgment, which will determine the state of the soul until its reunification with the glorified body at the Second Coming.
For close relatives, the mourning period usually lasts for a year. During this period Panikhidas (memorial services) are served to pray for the repose of the soul of the deceased and to comfort their loved ones.
Normally, after forty days, memorials are taking place at three months, six months, nine months (terms corresponding to the Holy Trinity), at a year and in each subsequent year on the anniversary of death, for seven years in a row. It is a common practice for the friends and family to request a memorial at least on the deceased's anniversary of death. The first anniversary is almost universally celebrated, and many families will continue to request annual memorials on every anniversary of death.
Offerings
It is customary for almsgiving to be done in the name of a departed person. This not only honors their memory, but is believed to also be of spiritual benefit to them.
The departed are also commemorated regularly during the Proskomedie of the Divine Liturgy. The name of the departed is given to the priest, who then removes a particle of bread from the prosphoron (loaf of bread) offered for the Liturgy. In the Russian usage, there is a separate prosphoron for the departed, from which these memorial particles are taken. After the consecration, these particles are placed in the chalice, and the church teaches that the departed benefit spiritually from this action more than any other on their behalf.
Consecration of a Cemetery
In the Orthodox Church there is a ritual for the "Consecration of a Cemetery", found in the Euchologion (Slavonic: Trebnik). A large cross is erected in the center of the cemetery. The ritual begins with the Lesser Blessing of Waters. Then the cross and the entire property are consecrated with prayers, incense and the sprinkling of holy water.
Persons for whom a funeral service may not be chanted (see paragraphs above) may not be buried in a consecrated cemetery without the blessing of the local bishop.
If it is not possible to bury an Orthodox Christian in a consecrated cemetery, the individual grave may be consecrated, using the rite called the "Blessing of a Grave".
Burial confraternities
Even from the period of the catacombs such associations seem to have existed among the Christians and they no doubt imitated to some extent in their organization the pagan collegia for the same purpose.
Throughout the Middle Ages the guilds to a very large extent were burial confraternities; at any rate the seemly carrying out of the funeral rites at the death of any of their members together with a provision of Masses for his soul form an almost invariable feature in the constitutions of such guilds.
But still more directly to the purpose we find certain organizations formed to carry out the burial of the dead and friendless as a work of charity. The most celebrated of these was the "Misericordia" of Florence, believed to have been instituted in 1244 by Pier Bossi, and surviving to the present day. It is an organization which associates in this work of mercy the members of all ranks of society. Their self-imposed task is not limited to escorting the dead to their last resting-place, but they discharge the functions of an ambulance corps, dealing with accidents as they occur and carrying the sick to the hospitals. When on duty until recently the members wore a hood which completely disguised them.
See also
Veneration of the dead
Fate of the unlearned
Funerary art
Cemetery
Cremation
Requiem
References
External links
Let's Talk About Death by a Nun of the Orthodox Church
Christian Funeral Rituals by Funeral Services Singapore
Burial
Death customs
Christianity and death
Sacramentals |
4306962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columba%20Marmion | Columba Marmion | Columba Marmion, OSB, born Joseph Aloysius Marmion (April 1, 1858 – January 30, 1923) was a Benedictine Irish monk and the third Abbot of Maredsous Abbey in Belgium. Beatified by Pope John Paul II on September 3, 2000, Columba was one of the most popular and influential Catholic authors of the 20th century. His books are considered spiritual classics.
Early Years (1858–1886)
Columba was born in Queen Street, Dublin, Ireland on April 1, 1858, into a large and very religious family; three of his sisters became nuns. His father, William Marmion was from Clane, County Kildare. His mother, Herminie Cordier was French, prompting his biographer, Dom Raymond Thibaut to remark: "He owes to his Celtic origin his penetrating intelligence, his lively imagination, his sensibility, his exuberance and his youthful spirit. The French blood which ran in his veins contributes to his clearness of mind, his habit of clear perception, his ease of exposition, and his uprightness of character. From the combination of the two he derives his constant gaiety and his generosity of heart with all the strength, devotion, and fine feeling which this noble quality implies." He was baptised with the name "Joseph Aloysius". From a very early age he was seemingly "consumed with some kind of inner fire or enthusiasm for the things of God." He was educated at the Jesuit Belvedere College in Dublin.
He entered the seminary at the age of 16. At the time he entered the seminary, his "faith was very strong"; he perceived "something more than simple theoretical theses" in Catholic doctrine, in particular "that a man's love for God is measured by his love for his neighbor."
One day during a vacation [at about the age of 17] he learnt that a poor old woman, well known to his family, was threatened with being summoned before the magistrates by an exacting creditor who claimed the payment of a somewhat large debt. The young seminarian possessed an equivalent amount saved up little by little for a trip he had promised himself. A struggle went on in his heart between his generosity and the legitimate desire to enjoy the fruit of his economies. This struggled lasted all night. In the morning charity had gained the day; with his father's consent he generously made over his savings in favor of the poor woman.
A "very important moment in Dom Marmion's inner life" occurred while he was still in seminary.
It seems that one day when returning to the study hall he had all at once, to use his own words, "a light on God's Infinity." While this "light" only lasted for an instant, it was so clear and strong that it left an indelible impression on him, so that... "he referred to this not without emotion and thanksgiving during the last days of his life."
He completed his studies in Rome at the Pontifical Irish College and was ordained in 1881.
On his journey back to Ireland, he passed through Maredsous, Belgium – a young and dynamic monastery founded 9 years before (in 1872) by Benedictine monks from the Abbey of Beuron, Germany. He wished very much to join the community there. But his archbishop in Ireland refused his request to do so and appointed him as curate at Dundrum, a parish in the south of Dublin. After a year, he was appointed Professor of Metaphysics at Holy Cross College at Clonliffe, the Dublin diocesan seminary where Marmion himself had studied. For the next four years (1882–1886) he embarked on the education and spiritual direction of others, including an appointment as chaplain to a nearby convent.
Parish priest
Marmion's work as a parish priest "daily brought him into contact with a cross-section of humanity," and he was "called upon to advise, teach, console and give every kind of spiritual and material aid." He "possessed an extraordinary facility for adapting himself to other people," and above all "in comforting others and putting them at their ease." During this period he began to learn "the delicate art of spiritual direction in which he was later to excel."
His four years as professor at Clonliffe (1882–1886) "helped to complete his intellectual and spiritual formation. Thrown into the atmosphere of college life, he soon found himself in his native element."
Maredsous (1886–1899)
Marmion joined the monastic community at Maredsous in 1886, having received his archbishop's approval. At first, it was very hard for him, even "traumatic." He was 27 years old, a respected priest and professor. In Maredsous he was a novice, and had as well to learn a language (French) and monastic disciplines that were foreign to him.
After his Solemn Profession on February 10, 1891, Columba (as he was now called) was appointed to act as assistant to the Novice Master – with whom he got on rather badly – and in addition to preach at parishes in the vicinity of the Abbey.
"There was an element of the dramatic in his initiation into pastoral work. A neighboring parish priest, whose preacher had unexpectedly failed him on the eve of a great feast, came to the Benedictines to ask their help in his difficulty. The superior was very sorry, but he had no one to offer him except a young Irish monk whose French was far from perfect. 'I will take him all the same,' said the parish priest, and he brought off Dom Columba. Three days later he brought him back to the Abbey saying: 'We have never had such a preacher before in my parish.' And soon the other parish priests were competing with each other for 'the Irish father.'"
Monastic formation
During a season of "monastic calm" from 1891 to 1899, Marmion's spiritual life came "to full maturity" as he attended to "the various duties of the monastic state, the life of silence and recollection, of constant fidelity to the liturgy." Of particular importance to him were developing a spirit of obedience, compunction, and humility, as well as continued growth in the fundamental matters of faith, hope, and charity.
Above all, his spiritual life became more and more centered on Christ.
1887: After breakfast, while walking in the garden, I read the eighth chapter of The Imitation of Christ and I felt strongly impelled to take Jesus as my one friend. I realized that, in spite of my great weakness and unfaithfulness, Jesus desired to be my friend above all others. The text: "My delights are to be with the children of men" [Proverbs 8:31], gripped me and compelled me irresistibly to respond with all my heart to this desire of Jesus. In the course of this meditation I felt the near presence of Jesus and a great desire to do all things before His eyes.
1895: We are infinitely rich in Jesus Christ and God's mercies are to our miseries what the ocean is to a drop of water. We never glorify God more than when despite the sight of our sins and unworthiness we are so filled with confidence in His mercy and in the infinite merits of Jesus Christ that we throw ourselves on His bosom full of confidence and love, sure that He cannot repel us: "a humble and contrite heart, Oh God, Thou wilt not despise."
1896: Oh, my dear child, I would wish to engrave on your heart in letters of gold this truth, that no matter how great our misery, we are infinitely rich in Jesus Christ, if we unite with Him, if we lean on Him, if we realize constantly by a firm living faith that all the value of our prayer, and of all that we do comes from His merits in us.
Prior of Mont César, Louvain (1899–1909)
In 1899, Dom Columba helped to found the Abbey of Mont César, Louvain, Belgium, and became its first Prior. He was invested with heavy responsibilities: Director of Studies for the young monks; Professor of Theology; spiritual director of Carmelite nuns, all in addition to being Prior. He gave retreats in Belgium and the United Kingdom. He also became confessor to the future Cardinal Mercier.
Marmion the teacher
Marmion's great gift for teaching came into full bloom during this period. His lectures were distinguished by, "on the one hand, his extreme clearness, and on the other his happy and fluent application of doctrine to the inner life." Rather than presenting "revealed truths like mere theorems of geometry having no bearing on the interior life," Marmion sought to inspire his students to "live in and by the mysteries he set forth to them."
The fruitful years in Mont César enabled him to attain an unrivalled mastery of his subjects. Others may surpass him in the detailed documentation of their learning; but when Dom Columba discusses one of the major theses in which dogma approaches the highest mysteries of God... his teaching has a breadth which approaches the infinite. The vast repercussions of his thought, the fruit of long contemplation, throw light on a whole world of secondary conclusions. His trenchant summaries unite with an unusual power of synthesis in one beam of light the diverse aspects of a problem hidden at the first approach in its complexity. The central point stands out in brilliant relief and the whole assembly of connected truths is illuminated by the light of a governing principle which is the key to the whole problem. As a master of synthesis he is unrivalled.
Abbot of Maredsous (1909–1923)
In 1893, Dom Hildebrand de Hemptinne, Second Abbot of Maredsous, was appointed by Pope Leo XIII as the first Abbot Primate of the Benedictine Order. At the request of the Pope, Dom Hildebrand continued as Abbot of Maredsous, but relinquished that office in 1909.
In that year, at the age of 51, "at the height of his powers, both physical and intellectual," Dom Marmion was elected Third Abbot of Maredsous. A community consisting of a hundred monks, it ran two schools and was a publisher, in particular of La Revue bénédictine. Marmion adopted as his motto Magis prodesse quam praesse, "To serve rather than be served," a maxim taken from the Rule of St. Benedict. The monastery had great spiritual and intellectual influence under his leadership. Vocations abounded. But Dom Marmion was not indifferent to temporal matters. Thus he had the Abbey equipped with electricity and central heating, facilities rarely to be found in monasteries at that time.
"Gathering up all he had learnt during his priesthood of nearly thirty years and concentrating in his mind the treasures of theological science accumulated during as many years of study and teaching, a consummate master in dogmatics and asceticism, an experienced spiritual director, and a contemplative who constantly searched into the mysteries of God, Dom Marmion was now about to give the matured fruits of these years and to be above all among his own monks, the exponent of the Christian and monastic life in its fullness."
Maredsous and other communities
In 1909, the government of Belgium asked Maredsous to consider founding a Benedictine monastery in Katanga, in the Belgian Congo. Doubtless Dom Marmion's missionary spirit would not have hesitated; but the Community preferred to devote itself to research and to promotion of sources of the faith, rather than to launch out into direct evangelization. However, Marmion lent effective aid to this mission, which was taken on by the Abbey of Saint André at Bruges.
A few years later, Marmion gave help and support to the conversion to Catholicism of Anglican communities in Wales (Caldey and Milford Haven).
First World War (1914–1918)
When war broke out in 1914 Dom Marmion, fearing that his young novices might be called up, sent them to Ireland. This involved Marmion traveling, disguised as a cattle dealer, through the war zone from Belgium to England, "without passport or papers of any kind." During the war years Marmion continued his activities as preacher and spiritual director. In 1915 he wrote to a young man preparing for ordination: "The best of all preparations for the priesthood is to live each day with love, wherever obedience and Providence place us."
However, the Irish house, established at Edermine, did not give him entire satisfaction; the attitude of the young novices grieved him: "I have tried to win them by constancy and prayer, but so far without success. They are good, but full of confidence in themselves... They oppose the letter of Canon Law to the spirit of the Holy Rule." The Edermine house was closed in 1920.
The episode of the Dormition Monastery
After the war, the need to provide replacements for the German monks of the Beuronese congregation who had been expelled from the Benedictine Monastery of the Dormition, on Mount Zion in Jerusalem, made Marmion dream of there being a foundation from Maredsous in the Holy Land.
Despite his efforts and the support they gained, this dream was not realized and the German monks returned to the Dormition.
His writings
In 1895, Marmion gave a retreat for a small group of nuns. The notes for those talks contained in kernel an idea he would develop during the next 20 years – meditating upon it in prayer, and refining and polishing it in the many talks he gave as a popular retreat master. In its finished form it became Christ, the Life of the Soul (1917) – a book that was first published privately, but then rapidly, unexpectedly, became an "overwhelming success" in the Catholic world.
At the time of its publication, much Catholic literature was a mere "rehash... of pious thoughts," marked by a "sentimental emphasis," and a tendency towards a sterile "refinement of interior analysis." "Little attention was paid to the Bible, the Fathers and the great masters of the spiritual life." In this atmosphere, Marmion's work seemed like "something new," even "revolutionary." "It was as if the desert had received its long-awaited rain." His books "initiated a profound spiritual revival the influence of which... permeated the whole Catholic world."
Yet there was essentially "nothing new" in Marmion's work. Rather, his "revolution" was effected by "a return to what was fundamental," specifically his restoration of "Christ as the center of all... spiritual thinking."
A second major theme of his work is the doctrine of divine adoption in Christ. Again, this idea was not original with Marmion; it is clearly set forth in the New Testament, particularly in the writings of St. Paul. But although the doctrine had been addressed by many spiritual writers before him, "it would be difficult to find another who had given the mystery such preeminence, making it, as he does, the beginning and the end of the spiritual life. And with Dom Marmion it is not so much a theory or a system, as a living truth that acts directly on the soul." Some believe the Catholic Church will one day formally declare Marmion the Doctor of Divine Adoption.
Sources for Marmion's thought include, preeminently, the Bible (especially St. Paul and St. John), the Church Fathers, St. Thomas Aquinas, and the Liturgy (i.e., the Mass, the Divine Office, the sacraments), as well as St. Francis de Sales (1567–1622) and Msgr. Charles Gay (1815–1880).
As a 20th-century writer, Marmion is notable, perhaps unique, in the several formal and informal endorsements his works have received from the popes of the 20th century, including Benedict XV (1914–1922), Pius XI (1922–1939), Pius XII (1939–1958), Paul VI (1963–1978), and John Paul II (1978–2005).
His last years
With Cardinal Mercier, his friend and confidant, Marmion was a spiritually dominant figure on the Belgian and international scene. The publication of his books had met with "immediate and overwhelming success," and they were rapidly being translated into a number of languages, including Korean and Japanese. His influence was at its height, despite his fatigue and a precarious state of health.
In September 1922, he took the place of the Bishop of Namur as leader of the diocesan pilgrimage to Lourdes.
In October of the same year, he presided at the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the foundation of Maredsous Abbey (which he had governed as abbot for 14 years).
Marmion was struck during a flu epidemic, and succumbed to bronchial pneumonia on January 30, 1923.
Beatification
Rapidly, favors and miracles were attributed to him; justifying the transfer, in 1963, of his body from the monks' cemetery to the abbatial church (his body was found to be incorrupt, after more than 40 years). A cure from cancer obtained after a woman from St. Cloud, Minnesota, visited his tomb in 1966 was investigated by the Church and recognized as miraculous in 2000, leading to his beatification in that year.
Dom Columba Marmion was beatified on September 3, 2000 by Pope John Paul II, on the same occasion as:
Pope John XXIII, who died in 1963
Pope Pius IX, who died in 1878
Tommaso Reggio, Archbishop of Genoa, who died in 1901
William Chaminade, who died in 1850
At the Beatification ceremony Pope John Paul II declared:
He bequeathed to us an authentic treasury of spiritual teaching for the Church of our time. In his writings he teaches a way of holiness, simple and yet demanding, for all the faithful, whom God, through love, has destined to be his adopted children in Christ Jesus... May a wide rediscovery of the spiritual writings of Blessed Columba Marmion help priests, religious and laity to grow in union with Christ and bear faithful witness to Him through ardent love of God and generous service to their brothers and sisters.
May Blessed Columba Marmion help us to live ever more intensely, to understand ever more deeply, our membership in the Church, the Mystical Body of Christ!
Following the Beatification, Dom Marmion's Cause for Canonization has been opened and is very active. Recently (2009) the Archdiocese of Vancouver, Canada, began a canonical investigation into the cure of a man ravaged by a necrotizing fasciitis. He had been expected to die within hours.
Both Marmion Abbey and Marmion Academy (established 1933) in Aurora, Illinois are named in his honor.
Principal works
Thanks to Dom Raymond Thibaut, his secretary, the central teachings of Columba, delivered orally in French, were memorialized in writing as follows:
Le Christ, vie de l'âme (1917)
Le Christ dans ses Mystères (1919)
Le Christ, idéal du moine (1922)
Le Christ, idéal du prêtre (1951)
These were translated into English, respectively, as follows:
Christ, the Life of the Soul, English translation by "A Nun of Tyburn," i.e., Mother Mary St. Thomas, 1922
Christ in His Mysteries, English translation by Mother Mary St. Thomas, 1924
Christ the Ideal of the Monk, English translation by Mother Mary St. Thomas, 1926
Christ the Ideal of the Priest, English translation by Dom Matthew Dillon, 1958
Posthumous Works Published in English
Sponsa Verbi: The Virgin Consecrated to Christ, translated by Dom Francis Izard (London: Sands, 1925)
Words of Life on the Margin of the Missal, edited by Dom Raymond Thibaut (St. Louis, Missouri: B. Herder Book Co., 1939)
Union with God According to the Letters of Direction of Dom Marmion, by Dom Raymond Thibaut (London: Sands and Co., 1949)
Suffering with Christ: An Anthology of the Writings of Dom Columba Marmion, compiled by Dom Raymond Thibaut (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1952)
The Trinity in Our Spiritual Life: An Anthology of the Writings of Dom Columba Marmion, compiled by Dom Raymond Thibaut (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1953)
The English Letters of Abbot Marmion, 1858-1923 (Baltimore, Maryland: Helicon Press, 1962)
Fire of Love: An Anthology of Abbot Marmion's Published Writings on the Holy Spirit, edited by Charles Dollen (St. Louis, Missouri: B. Herder Book Co., 1964)
English Translations in Print
Christ, the Life of the Soul. A new translation by Alan Bancroft. Introduction by Dom Mark Tierney, OSB (European Vice-Postulator of Marmion's Beatification Cause). Foreword by Fr. Benedict Groeschel, CFR (Bethesda, Maryland: Zaccheus Press, 2005) () (in North America) and (Leominster, UK: Gracewing, 2005) () (outside North America).
Christ in His Mysteries. A new translation by Alan Bancroft. Introduction by Aidan Nichols, OP; Foreword by Fr. Benedict Groeschel, CFR. (Bethesda, Maryland: Zaccheus Press, 2008) () (in North America) and (Leominster, UK: Gracewing, 2010) () (outside North America); both publishers' editions are available in Australasia.
Christ the Ideal of the Monk. Reprint of the Mother Mary St. Thomas translation. (Ridgefield, Connecticut: Roman Catholic Books, circa 2005) ()
Christ the Ideal of the Priest. Reprint of the Dom Matthew Dillon translation, with adaptations made by Rev. David L. Toups, STD. (San Francisco, California: Ignatius Press, 2005) () (in North America) and (Leominster, UK: Gracewing, 2006) () (in the United Kingdom)
Union with God: Letters of Spiritual Direction by Blessed Columba Marmion. Reprint of the Mother Mary St. Thomas translation, with an introduction by Rev. David L. Toups, STD. (Bethesda, Maryland: Zaccheus Press, 2006) ()
Columba Marmion: Correspondance 1881–1923. Edited by Mark Tierney, R.-Ferdinand Poswick, and Nicolas Dayez. (Paris: François-Xavier de Guibert, 2008)
Footnotes
References
Philipon, MM, OP, The Spiritual Doctrine of Dom Marmion, trans. Dom Matthew Dillon (Westminster, Md.: The Newman Press, 1956).
Rigali, Justin F., Cardinal, "Blessed Columba Marmion: Doctor of Divine Adoption" in Josephinum, vol. 13:2 (2006): 132–142.
Other books
Ph. Nyssens-Braun, Dom Columba Marmion intime. Editions Ramgal, Thuillies, and Maison Casterman. 1939.
External links
Biography in the Vatican's website
Official Site of the Postulation of the Cause of Blessed Columba Marmion
Works by and about Dom Marmion
Select Bibliography
Irish beatified people
Irish Benedictines
Belgian Benedictines
Benedictine abbots
Belgian abbots
1858 births
1923 deaths
19th-century Irish people
People from County Dublin
Alumni of Clonliffe College
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul II
People educated at Belvedere College |
4308076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhina%20Espaillat | Rhina Espaillat | Rhina Polonia Espaillat (born January 20, 1932, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic) is a bilingual Dominican-American poet and translator who is affiliated with the literary movement known as New Formalism in American poetry. She has published eleven collections of poetry. Her work has been included in many popular anthologies, including The Heath Introduction to Poetry (Heath 2000); The Muse Strikes Back (Story Line Press 1997); and In Other Words: Literature by Latinas of the U.S. (Arte Publico Press 1994).
Espaillat's original poetry contains many sonnets describing her family in domestic settings, which she calls "snapshots". She is also well-known for writing poetry that captures the beauty of daily routine, as well as poems which ironically and humorously retell stories from both the Christian Bible and Classical mythology.
Espaillat is also known for her literary translations of the Christian poetry of St. John of the Cross (1542–1591) from Castilian Spanish into American English and which appeared in the literary journal First Things, and of similarly translating the greatest works from the literary canon of both Spanish and Latin American poetry. Espaillat has also published acclaimed translations from American English into Spanish of the poems of both Robert Frost and Richard Wilbur. Espaillat's Spanish renderings of the poetry of Robert Frost have particularly been praised for her use of completely accurate equivalents for the Yankee poet's many uses of rural New England slang terms.
In 2023, Espaillat's translations of the Christian poetry by the Archpriest of Hita, Dafydd ap Gwilym, Marko Marulić, Bedřich Bridel, and Gaspar Aquino de Belén were edited and published for the first time by Burl Horniachek in the poetry anthology To Heaven's Rim: The Kingdom Poets Book of World Christian Poetry. Espaillat's translation of a Middle Welsh poem by Dafydd ap Gwilym for the book was made in collaboration with former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams.
Furthermore, even though Espaillat grew up in a time when, "the expectation that one should overcome any non-British ancestral origins, still held sway as a prerequisite to entering the sphere of genuine Americanness", Espaillat's poetry also expresses pride in being a Latina, in her identity as a feminist who is also a loving and happy wife and mother, and in American patriotism rooted in gratitude for her status as a political refugee who has built a successful and rewarding life for herself and her family in the United States.
Life
Family background
Espaillat is of mixed Afro-Dominican, Spanish, French, and Arawak descent. She is the daughter of Carlos Manuel Homero Espaillat Brache, a Dominican diplomatic attaché, and Dulce María Batista. Her aunt Rhina Espaillat Brache founded the first ballet institute of La Vega. Espaillat is also the grandniece and god-daughter of Dominican diplomat Rafael Brache. Through her great-uncle, Espaillat is second-cousin of Democratic Party chairman Tom Perez. Espaillat is fourth-cousin once-removed of Adriano Espaillat and great-great-great-grand-niece of Dominican President Ulises Espaillat, and is descended from the French immigrant François Espeillac.
Early life
Rhina Espaillat was born in the Dominican Republic's capital of Santo Domingo, which Caudillo Rafael Trujillo had recently renamed Cuidad Trujillo, on January 20, 1932. Shortly after her birth, Espaillat's parents returned with their infant daughter to their hometown of La Vega, which had been founded by Christopher Columbus in 1494.
While growing up in La Vega, the Espaillat family lived near an historic fort on Independence Avenue, surrounded by a large community of extended family and friends who shared their dedication to art, music, and poetry.
Espaillat was often taken to visit relatives in her mother's hometown of Jarabacoa, which is now a popular resort.
Espaillat began composing poetry in Spanish when she was only 4-years of age. Her first poems were written down by her grandmother, who told Espaillat that her poems were all wonderful and that she was a poet. None of those first poems, however, still survive.
In 1937, a five-year old Espaillat accompanied her parent on a diplomatic mission to Washington, D.C.. At the time, Espaillat's great-uncle and god-father, Rafael Brache, headed the Dominican delegation and Espaillat's father was the legation's secretary.
Rafael Brache had supported the 1930 coup d'etat that had brought Rafael Trujillo to power. Furthermore, Brache's duties ever since becoming Ambassador to the United States in 1934 had mainly involved defending Trujillo's public reputation, which was suffering due to reports of political assassinations, human rights abuses, and the censorship of the press.
In 1937, however, Trujillo issued orders to the Dominican Army that resulted in the genocidal Parsley massacre of an estimated 20,000 Haitians in the Dominican Republic. In response, a horrified Rafael Brache wrote a letter to Trujillo which denounced the massacre and said, "he could no longer be associated with a government that had committed such a terrible criminal act."
According to Espaillat, "we did learn that the dictator was absolutely furious when he received it." At that time, however, there was little or no organized opposition to Trujillo in the Dominican Republic and, in November 1937, a majority vote by the National Congress declared Rafael Brache and three other critics of the massacre to be, "unworthy Dominicans", and, "enemies of the fatherland". According to Espaillat's biographer Leslie Monsour, Brache and his nephew, Espaillat's father, knew that they, "would face a dire punishment – at best imprisonment – and the lives of other members of the family would be endangered if the two men returned to their country." By that time, however, "reports of Trujillo's oppression and brutality had reached international notoriety", and the United States Federal Government willingly granted political asylum to Rafael Brache, his nephew, and their dependents. Both men and their families resettled in New York City.
During these events, Espaillat's mother suffered a miscarriage while pregnant with a son. After recovering, Dulce Maria, knowing that life in New York City would be difficult, decided that her daughter would be better looked after by relatives in their homeland. In response, Dulce Maria made the high risk decision to secretly return to the Dominican Republic. During the visit, Dulce Maria left Rhina to be cared for by her paternal grandmother in La Vega. Dulce Maria then visited her own mother and siblings in Jarabacoa, said her last goodbyes, collected her sewing machine, and returned to the United States without attracting the attention of Trujillo's police.
For the next two years, Espaillat was raised by her paternal grandmother and aunts in La Vega, where Spanish language poetry was always being recited out loud. Espaillat's grandmother also played Spanish classical guitar. Espaillat has since stated that, "those experiences made me much more of an ear poet than an eye poet".
In 1939, however, Espaillat's parents felt more settled in the United States and Rhina joined them in a New York City apartment on West Forty-Ninth Street in Hell's Kitchen.
Refugee
As a young child, Espaillat rapidly learned American English and adapted very quickly to the cosmopolitan atmosphere of wartime Manhattan, but she deeply missed her loving extended family in the Dominican Republic.
In a 2017 interview, Espaillat recalled, "I think that as an immigrant, you create a family, and in New York, it’s interesting to do that. Everybody’s there. I was surrounded by Jewish kids in the school, and Italian kids, and Germans, and even Japanese who were having a rough time at that point, because the war was starting. So I ran into people who were, as my father said, just like us. They’re running from somebody. My father was a political exile. He explained that Jewish people were running from Europe because there were bad things happening. And I said, 'You mean they’re like us?' He said, 'Yes. The world is full of people like us, because the world is full of people just like Rafael Trujillo.'"
In addition to closely following world events, Espaillat's parents were also, "avid readers of literature and history in their native Spanish", and, from the age of five onwards, Espaillat was listening to her father's almost constant poetry recitations, which, "ran the gamut of Spanish-language verse from Spain's Golden Age to the major poets of modern Latin America". In later years, she would recall hearing the verse of Teresa of Ávila, St. John of the Cross, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, José Santos Chocano, and Federico García Lorca.
As a child, Espaillat was required by her father to speak only Castilian Spanish inside the family apartment. She was also required to speak both English and Spanish with correct pronunciation and grammar. Furthermore, she was strictly forbidden to mix both languages together. "Don Homero" Espaillat Brache viewed English and Spanish as, "world languages", which deserved the respect of being written and spoken properly. Even though Espaillat found this very frustrating as a child and would even, "end up crying", she has expressed gratitude to her father for making her, "truly bilingual."
While attending elementary school at P.S. 94, Espaillat would often visit the public library next door during her lunch break. During a, "guided trespass", into the adult section of the library, an enthusiastic Espaillat came upon a copy of the 1942 poetry anthology, A Treasury of Great Poems English and American, in which Louis Untermeyer collected the literary canon of poetry in English from the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain to the interwar period of the 20th century. When Rhina asked her parents to buy her a copy, the Espaillats were, "delighted by their daughter's passion for a compilation of poems rather than dolls or dresses", but they could not afford the book's asking price of $3.75, which was a sizeable amount of money for a refugee family in 1943. In response, Don Homero Espaillat Brache asked for help from his daughter's godfather, Rafael Brache, who bought a copy of the book as a 1943 Christmas gift for his god-daughter.
Espaillat has described receiving the gift of Untermeyer's book as, "another turning point in my life." She adds, "I ate it up! It's such a marvellous book, and it became my poetic Bible."
Decades later, the book remains one of Espaillat's most cherished possessions. In a June 2014 email to her biographers, Espaillat described the volume as, "bandaged with tape but miraculously still in one piece and still at work, like a brave old veteran."
Even though she began composing poetry in English when she was only 8-years old, Espaillat's first surviving poem in English, First Snowfall, was written when she was only ten years old.
Early success
When she was only fifteen, Espaillat's high school English teacher, Catherine Haydon Jacobs, took an interest in her poetry and, without Espaillat's knowledge, submitted them to The Ladies Home Journal. To Espaillat's shock, she received a letter from the magazine's editor saying that three of her poems had been accepted for publication. Espaillat later recalled that, as she read the editor's letter, she thought, "This can't be happening! This only happens to poets!"
Following her November 1947 debut, Espaillat's poetry regularly appeared in The Ladies' Home Journal and, eventually, in a British magazine as well. The resulting exposure caused her to receive a large number of fan letters.
Catherine Jacobs also sent Espaillat's poems to the Poetry Society of America, which changed its rules to accept Espaillat, who was then only 16-years old, as the Poetry Society's youngest ever member.
When she was seventeen, Espaillat received a fan letter from Shabani, in Southern Rhodesia, from an admirer who had translated one of her poems into Afrikaans and who was requesting permission to publish the translation. Espaillat received similar fan letters from poetry lovers throughout the United States, as well as in Manila, Berlin, Rio de Janeiro, and London.
During the same era, Espaillat also acted as a literary mentor to a young girl who had written to her from the American Zone of Occupied Germany, where the girl's father was serving with the United States military. This ultimately led, according to Espaillat's biographers, "to a close and enduring friendship."
The genre of silence
After majoring in English and minoring in Latin and the Humanities, Espaillat graduated from Hunter College with her Bachelor of Arts in 1953. Following her 1952 interracial marriage to Alfred Moskowitz, however, Espaillat drifted for a long time out of contact with the Poetry Society of America while working as a public school teacher and raising her two sons in Flushing, Queens. During her long absence from American poetry, Espaillat relied heavily upon the mentorship and encouragement of Alfred Dorn, who would go on to become one of the founders of New Formalism.
Following the CIA-backed assassination of Rafael Trujillo on May 30, 1961, and U.S. President John F. Kennedy's use of coercive diplomacy to effect regime change in the Dominican Republic on November 19, 1961, Espaillat's relatives at last felt able to safely travel to the United States and visit Espaillat, her husband, and their two sons in Flushing, Queens. Espaillat's visiting cousins charmed her many local friends and neighbors, as she later described in the poem Translation.
Also following Trujillo's assassination, Espaillat's great-uncle, Rafael Brache, his wife, and several of their sons returned permanently to the Dominican Republic. Espaillat's parents, though, did not. Espaillat later recalled, "I was married with children and my parents didn't want to leave us. They'd also made many close friends in the United States; and, of course, many of the people back home had already died, including both of my grandmothers. I believe that it's very common in immigrant communities to have powerful longings for home, but by 1961, my parents' lives were centered in the U.S."
In 1964, Espaillat completed her M.S.E. at Queens College.
Along with her husband, Espaillat taught English in the New York City public school system, including Jamaica High School in Queens, for many years. In 1990, she chose early retirement and moved with her husband to Newburyport, Massachusetts, to be closer to their two sons and their grandchildren.Their foster son, who had joined the family in 1968, remained in New York City with his wife and stepchildren. Espaillat later recalled that she had enjoyed teaching, but missed poetry deeply. For this reason, her husband had told her, "Why don't you choose early retirement and give more time to what you really love?" In Newburyport, Espaillat began writing poetry almost immediately and has since led the Powow River Poets, the local chapter of the Massachusetts State Poetry Society, which has become a New Formalist chapter due to Espaillat's leadership and influence.
Return to poetry
Espaillat attended the first West Chester University Poetry Conference, which was founded by New Formalist poets Michael Peich and Dana Gioia, in 1995 and later recalled, "I was the only Hispanic there, but I realized that these people were open to everything, that their one interest was the craft. If you could bring something from another culture, they were open to it."
Espaillat subsequently took charge of, "teaching the French Forms and the forms of repetition," but also made sure to teach classes in, "the Spanish and Hispanic examples of the forms" such as the décima and the ovillejo."
Due to Espaillat's teaching and encouragement, the ovillejo, particularly, has become very popular among younger New Formalists writing in English. While being interviewed for a book about her life, Espaillat gleefully commented, "On the internet and in the stratosphere, everybody loves it."
Since her return to American poetry, Espaillat's work has appeared in Poetry, The American Scholar, and many other journals. She is a two-time winner of the Howard Nemerov Sonnet Award, and she judged the 2012 Contest. Her second poetry collection, Where Horizons Go, was published by Truman State University Press in conjunction with her selection for the 1998 T. S. Eliot Prize. Her 2001 collection, Rehearsing Absence, was published by University of Evansville Press after she won the Richard Wilbur Award.
Literary accomplishments
Literary translator
Espaillat writes poetry in both English and Spanish, and has translated into Spanish and published her translations of the poetry of both Robert Frost and Richard Wilbur.
Of her translations of Frost, Espaillat once said, "...something like The Witch of Coos seems to be written in a kind of New Hampshirese that's very hard to translate into Spanish. It's too idiosyncratic. But I've been pleased with the shorter lyrics I've done. In the past, I've only seen a few translations of Frost into Spanish, and I don't care for any of them. One of them actually translated Frost into free verse, which I don't think is appropriate at all, and I'm sure that Frost was turning in his grave."
In return for her translations of Frost, which preserve, "their rhyme schemes and metrical ingenuity while at the same time coming up with equivalents for their linguistic idiosyncrasies", Espaillat has been awarded the Tree at My Window Award by the Robert Frost Foundation of Lawrence, Massachusetts. Furthermore, ten of Espaillat's translations have been placed along the Robert Frost Trail at Lawrence Common.
According to biographers Nancy Kang and Silvio Torres-Saillant, Espaillat, "has also accrued a solid track record as English translator of Spanish and Latin American verse from across diverse historical periods."
Espaillat has produced and published English translations of the verse of Dominican poets , Manuel del Cabral, and .
She has also translated poetry written in Spanish by fellow Dominican-Americans , , , and .
From other Latin American countries, Espaillat has translated the poetry of , Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Manuel González Prada, Rafael Arévalo Martínez, Gabriela Mistral, Vicente Huidobro, and Alfonsina Storni.
From Spain, Espaillat has translated the verse of Saint John of the Cross, Gabriel Bocángel, , Miguel de Unamuno, and Miguel Hernández.
Espaillat has also translated the poetry of Antero de Quental from Portuguese and the verse of Blas de Otero from Catalan.
From other languages, Espaillat has translated into English the verse of Charles of Orleans from Middle French, Dafydd ap Gwilym from Middle Welsh, Croatian national poet Marko Marulić from Renaissance Latin, Luís Vaz de Camões from Portuguese, Bedřich Bridel from Czech, and Filipino poet Gaspar Aquino de Belén from Tagalog.
During an interview with William Baer, Espaillat said, "I can't imagine a world without translation because we'd have no Bible, no Homer, and no Virgil. All of our libraries would shrink down to a single room. So we desperately need translation, but it's crucial for the translator to face the fact that he's not going to get it all. There are going to be losses, which he should try to keep to a minimum, but he can never flatter himself that he's really bringing the poem into another language because it simply can't be done. I think the translator needs to begin with humility. As far as the actual process goes, I think a translator first needs to understand the poem as much as he can, try to get under the author's skin, and see if he can reconstruct the thought process of the original author. The primary job of the translator is to carry the poem from one language to the other with as little damage as possible. Personally, I enjoy the challenge very much, even though I'm never fully satisfied."
Latina writer
Even though Espaillat grew up in a time when, "the expectation that one should overcome any non-British ancestral origins, still held sway as a prerequisite to entering the sphere of genuine Americanness", she opposes the idea of complete assimilation rooted in the English only movement and instead favors encouraging bilingualism among Americans from immigrant families. In an interview with William Baer, she said, "Whenever I speak to Hispanic groups, I tell the young people to make sure they hold onto their Spanish, and keep it clean, and constantly increase their vocabulary, just as they're doing with English. Then I encourage them and say, 'Now, since you know two languages, for heaven's sake, translate! We need you! Both languages need you to bridge the gap.'"
Espaillat has also cited the music of the Spanish classical guitar, which she first heard played by her grandmother as a child, as a major influence on her poetry. She has particularly cited the music of composer Joaquín Rodrigo as a vitally important influence.
Despite Espaillat's use of that very idiom in her poem, Bilingual/Bilingüe, she also opposes the use of Spanglish, saying, "The language of Cervantes, of Neruda, of Darío and Borges and Sor Juana, and, yes, of Don Pedro Mir, deserves better treatment; and so does the language of Shakespeare, and Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson and Robert Frost."
Personal life
Of her interracial marriage to Alfred Moskowitz, Espaillat once said, "I met him at the wedding of my best friend, Mimi, and his best friend, Harry. I was still at Hunter College, in my junior year, and we ended up sitting at the same table at the wedding on Thanksgiving Day in 1951. And we started talking, then dancing, and – I know this sounds like madness – he proposed five weeks later on New Year's Eve, and we were married in June of 1952." At the time of their wedding, Rhina Espaillat was only 21-years old.
The son of Romanian Jewish immigrants with left-wing views, Moskowitz was an industrial arts teacher, labor union organizer, and sculptor. He had grown up in The Bronx while speaking Yiddish in the home and had fought as a 19-year-old G.I. during the Battle of the Bulge in 1944. According to Esaillat's biographers Nancy Kang and Silvio Torres-Saillant, "Moskowitz brought to the household a sense of stark realism as experienced by U.S. military personnel during World War II. This was a time when many young Americans took to the front
with a profound desire to fight for freedom and justice against regimes that endorsed tyranny and oppression."
During their many subsequent decades together, the Moskowitzes had, "many conversations", with each other. "Conversations", according to Espaillat, "when we'd consider how we'd come from different backgrounds, different cultures, even different burroughs, and yet, ultimately, we came together so quickly. And sometimes we'd talk about how various small turns in our earlier lives would have altered everything, and that we would have ended up living completely different lives, with different spouses, different children, and so on – which is quite a frightening thought for two people who are happy together. There were so many earlier ifs that could have changed things. If I'd gone back to Oswego instead of going to school in New York City, if I'd taken that scholarship in Ohio instead of staying at Hunter College, and so on. In life, we never know when the important things are going to happen. When Alfred and I first met at that wedding, neither one of us was expecting anything major to happen. But it did."
Following their wedding, Alfred and Rhina Moskowitz moved into an apartment in the racially mixed neighborhood of Flushing, Queens. Both continued teaching in New York City's public school system.
The Moskowitzes were also very active and influential members of the United Federation of Teachers from the time it was first being created. Espaillat later recalled, "Our house was strike headquarters in our district more than once. The experience left both of us feeling strongly loyal to the labor movement everywhere, to workers in every field and across racial, ethnic, gender, and all other lines, as necessary to justice and the protection of workers' rights."
Alfred Moskowitz deferred to his wife's fame within American poetry by allowing her to continue publishing under her maiden name in literary magazines. In legal paperwork, however, Espaillat would always sign her name as Mrs. Alfred Moskowitz.
The Moskowitzes also participated in the American Civil Rights Movement and in protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
They remained together until Moskowitz died in February 2016; the couple had three sons.
In a 2017 interview, Espaillat commented, "I think that outside the fabric that we belong in, that we’re part of, we really don’t mean very much. As a matter of fact, now that I lost my husband last February, I’m having a hard time feeling like a whole person, because it had been sixty-three years of a really good, happy marriage, and once you’ve had that kind of thing, you feel: 'Where’s the rest of me? He’s gone, suddenly there’s nobody on the other pillow.' I don’t think that feminism consists in thinking of yourself as nobody’s anything. I think it consists in precisely being somebody’s something and counting. Whatever doors you open for yourself are fine, but I think what really matters is whatever doors you succeed in opening for other people. Whatever good you do in the world makes you a person. I don’t think that existing for yourself alone is all that valuable. So maybe I’m a backward person. I guess I’m an unfeminist in that sense, but I don’t care."
Current status
While being interviewed by New Formalist poet and literary critic William Baer, Espaillat expressed an intense dislike of political poetry, "I don't think poetry should be asked to change political systems or rectify the economy, even though poets can certainly express how they feel about such things. Poets can, of course, write about their fears and hopes and wishes, but I don't think that poetry should be used for political sloganeering. I personally don't care for that kind of poetry, regardless of which side of the political spectrum it comes from."
According to Leslie Monsour, "If an issue of social injustice is encountered, she approaches it through ironic observation, clever conceit, or worldly disillusionment, in keeping with her lifelong attraction to the Baroque and Metaphysical poets."
In a 2017 interview, Espaillat sharply criticized sitting U.S. President Donald Trump on the one hand, and the excesses of both identity politics and Intersectionality on the other, for causing the political polarization of the American people. Espaillat commented, "There are a lot of rights to defend that other people have not yet been given, that are their rights by nature. And I think that if we isolate ourselves into little groups fighting for mine, and for yours, and for yours and for yours, we’re not going to make it. I think we need to become a whole tapestry of people who are fighting for all rights, including the rights for White working class people who are being underpaid and overworked and who have not been taught what they should have been taught. I don’t think we can afford to throw rocks at anybody, even the people who look like the enemy right now, because they’re not the enemy. They’re just … other people."
Following the 2020 Presidential Election, President-elect of the United States Joe Biden received a petition signed by more than 70 poets from Massachusetts to California, who urged him to select Espaillat to read her poetry at Biden's Presidential Inauguration.
According to her biographer Silvio Torres-Saillant of Syracuse University, "This is a no-brainer to me... She may be the one American poet with the most capricious, inclusive vision of empathy and compassion. You can even see that when she speaks about our problematic American history. She talks about being the offspring of a slaver and a slave and can place each one in his or her historical context and their circumstances."
In an interview before Amanda Gorman was selected instead, Espaillat commented, "Would I want to do it? Do chickens have lips?... We were political exiles and this country gave us a home. This country saved us from a lot of grief. It has given me everything that I really love in the world. It has given me a wonderful husband, wonderful children who were born here, a career that I have loved all of my life, and friends that I probably don’t deserve. So I have a number of things that I need to be grateful for. There are some powerful feelings that I have about this country."
In a January 2021 interview, Espaillat praised senior members of the Republican Party for having urged Donald Trump in vain to concede the 2020 Presidential Election, "I am very sorry for the mistakes he has made because I am not a one-party person. I don't believe that any democracy can survive with one party alone. We need something to argue over because that is the way that we arrive at the right way to do things."
In the same interview, Espaillat expressed hope that the political polarization of the American people can be overcome, "This is a country that is full of good people who have welcomed immigrants like me in the past. I feel like I was born here, even though I wasn't and this is the story of many, many people who have been saved by coming here. I believe in the Statue of Liberty, I believe in the torch."
Publications
Bilingual
Mundo y palabra/The World and the Word (2001), Oyster River Press
Agua de dos ríos: Poemas, prosa y traducciones – una coleccíon bilingüe'''' (2006) Dominican Ministry of Culture
In English
Where Horizons Go: Poems (1998)
Rehearsing Absence (2001)
The Shadow I Dress In (2004)
The Story-Teller's Hour (2004)
Playing at Stillness (2005)
Her Place in These Designs (2008)
And After All (2018)
The Field (2019)
In Spanish
Oscura fruta: cuarenta y dos poemas (2013) (42 translations into Spanish of poems by Richard Wilbur), Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico City
Algo hay que no es amigo de Los muros: cuarenta poemas (2014) (40 translations into Spanish of poems by Robert Frost), Ediciones El Tucán de Virginia, Mexico City
References
Further reading
William Baer (2016), Thirteen on Form: Conversations with Poets, Measure Press.
Nancy Kang and Silvio Torres-Saillant (2018), The Once and Future Muse: The Poetry and Poetics of Rhina P. Espaillat, University of Pittsburgh Press.
Leslie Monsour (2021), The Colosseum critical introduction to Rhina P. Espaillat, Steubenville, OH : Franciscan University Press, ISBN 978-1-73398-897-1
External links
Official website
A Conversation with Rhina P. Espaillat, Rattle, June 17, 2013.
An Interview with Rhina Espaillat; Poet and Translator Mythos'', January 13, 2017.
Short biography of the poet.
Short video of an animation that accompanies Espaillat's reading of her poem "Weighing In"; the animation was created by Christopher Dudley Thorpe.
1932 births
20th-century African-American women writers
20th-century African-American writers
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
20th-century Dominican Republic poets
20th-century translators
21st-century African-American women writers
21st-century African-American writers
21st-century American poets
21st-century American women writers
21st-century Dominican Republic poets
21st-century translators
Activists for African-American civil rights
African-American poets
American women poets
American Spanish-language poets
Anti-racism activists
Dominican Republic emigrants to the United States
Dominican Republic women poets
Dominican Republic people of French descent
English–Spanish translators
Formalist poets
Hispanic and Latino American poets
Living people
Native American poets
People from La Vega, Dominican Republic
People from La Vega Province
Poets from Massachusetts
Portuguese–English translators
Sonneteers
Spanish–English translators
Translators from Czech
Translators of Gabriela Mistral
Welsh–English translators
White Dominicans
Writers from Newburyport, Massachusetts
Poets from New York City |
4308307 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative%20and%20Regulatory%20Reform%20Act%202006 | Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006 | The Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006 (c51) (LRRA) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was enacted to replace the Regulatory Reform Act 2001 (RRA). The Act was and remains very controversial, because of a perception that it is an Enabling Act substantially removing the ancient British constitutional restriction on the Executive introducing and altering laws without assent or scrutiny by Parliament, and it has been called the "Abolition of Parliament Act".
The Bill for this Act
The bill which became the Act was brought before the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in early 2006. As originally drafted, the Bill was controversial, as it would have granted government ministers wide powers to make secondary legislation that could amend, repeal or replace any primary legislation or secondary legislation (known as a Henry VIII clause). The government proposed numerous amendments to the Bill on 4 May 2006 and 10 May 2006, to address certain criticisms of the Bill's scope and lack of safeguards.
The Bill received its third reading in the House of Commons on 16 May 2006, and moved to the House of Lords. After its first and second readings, the bill was reported with amendments on 19 July 2006, before the summer recess. Its report stage in the House of Lords took place on 26 October 2006, and it received royal assent on 8 November 2006.
Part 1: Power to reform legislation
The first Part of the Bill, entitled "Power to reform legislation", permits a government minister to make Statutory Instruments to reform legislation that is perceived to be "outdated, unnecessary or over-complicated". A similar procedure is possible under the existing RRA, which permits a minister to make Regulatory Reform Orders (RROs). A review of the first 4 years of operation of the RRA, published by the Cabinet Office in July 2005, concluded that the RRA "presented a number of hurdles which inhibited the production of RROs", its powers were "too technical and limited", and the procedure should be "extended to deliver non-controversial proposals for simplification".
Under clause 1 of the Bill, a minister can only make an order for two purposes: "reforming legislation" or "implementing recommendations" made by the Law Commission, the Scottish Law Commission or the Northern Ireland Law Commission, with or without changes. Part of the justification for the Bill is that reports of the Law Commissions are often not acted upon for years after they are published. Under clause 2, an order may amend, repeal or replace any primary or secondary legislation.
Before making an order, clause 3 of the Bill requires the relevant minister to be satisfied that a legislative change is required to secure the policy objective, that the proposed order is "proportionate", "strikes a fair balance" between the public interest and the interests of any persons adversely affected, does not remove any "necessary protection", and does not prevent anyone from exercising rights or freedoms that they "might reasonably expect to continue to exercise".
The Bill contains some express limitations. Clause 5 prevents the Bill being used to "impose or increase taxation"; clause 6 prevents orders under the Bill being used to create any new criminal offence that is punishable by imprisonment for more than 2 years; and clause 7 prevents the Bill being used to authorise any forcible entry, search or seizure, or compel the giving of evidence (subject to exceptions where merely restating existing legislation, or implementing the recommendations of a Law Commission). Clause 8 prevents orders being made in relation to matters within the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament, and Clause 9 prevents orders being made to alter the functions of the Welsh Assembly without its prior consent.
Ministers are required to consult widely before making an order under the Bill, lay a draft of a proposed order before Parliament with an explanatory documents. The draft order may pass through Parliament to become a Statutory Instrument under the existing "negative resolution" or "affirmative resolution" procedures, or a new "super-affirmative resolution" procedure.
Criticism
Controversially, the order-making powers in the Bill are potentially very wide. Although, for example, the Bill (if it is enacted as drafted) cannot be used to introduce new taxes, there is no restriction on the Bill being used to amend itself; and the tests that a minister must satisfy before making an order are very subjective. An order would be subject to supervision by the High Court by way of judicial review, but it would be difficult to show that a minister was not "satisfied" that the requirements for making an order were met. In January 2006, the Bill was called "potentially one of the most constitutionally significant Bills that has come before the House for some time" by the House of Commons Select Committee on Regulatory Reform; while supporting the move to cut "red tape", the Committee asked for extra safeguards to avoid potential "abuse" of the powers in the Bill.
Earlier in January, the House of Lords Select Committee on the Constitution wrote to the Lord Chancellor to express its concern that the Bill could markedly alter the respective and long-established roles of Ministers and Parliament in the legislative process, and its disappointment that the bill had not been published in draft.
The Bill has been criticised heavily in articles and correspondence published in the press. In The Times, journalist Daniel Finkelstein dubbed it the "Bill to End All Bills", and Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament David Howarth called it the "Abolition of Parliament Bill". The Green Party passed a motion at their conference against the Bill, saying "the Bill threatens to shatter the foundations of democracy".
The Bill has also been criticised by legal professionals. The Law Society published a briefing note before its Second Reading, expressing concerns that safeguards were too weak, that secondary legislation should not be able to authorise further subordinate legislation, that the powers of non-Ministers acting under delegated powers were not restricted, and that there was no procedure for Parliament to challenge use of the Bill. In a letter published in The Times, six professors of law at the University of Cambridge wrote that the Bill could be used to create a new offence of incitement to religious hatred, punishable by two years' imprisonment; curtail or abolish trial by jury; introduce house arrest; allow the prime minister to sack judges; rewrite the law on nationality and immigration; and "reform" Magna Carta, saying that "It would, in short, create a major shift of powers within the State, which in other countries would require an amendment to the constitution; and one in which the winner would be the executive, and the loser Parliament." Joshua Rozenberg wrote in The Telegraph that Clifford Chance had pointed out that the Bill "usurps the power of Parliament", and David Pannick QC wrote in The Times that the Bill "would confer astonishingly broad powers on ministers to make the law of the land".
Barristers Sir Jeremy Lever QC and George Peretz pointed out in a letter to The Times on 23 February 2006 that the Solicitor General told Parliament on 13 July 1972 that the similar powers in section 2(2) of the European Communities Act 1972 would only be used for "consequential amendments of a small, minor and insignificant kind", although they have been used subsequently to implement EC legislation that has made substantial changes to UK law.
An article in The Guardian compared the Bill to the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, saying that the Bill was presented as modernising measure but actually gave ministers arbitrary powers, taking "another chunk out of our centuries-old democracy". An article published in The Independent in June 2006 that analysed the last nine years of legal reform attacked the Prime Minister and his Government, claiming that the numerous changes and laws passed since it has been in power have reduced the power of democracy in the UK; the Bill was one example the journalist gave of the kinds of methods being employed to do this.
After the Bill completed its committee stage in the House of Commons, it was reported that the House of Commons Procedure Committee had complained that the Bill "tips the balance between the executive and Parliament too far in the Government's favour". A second report published by the House of Commons Select Committee on Public Administration on 20 April 2006 stated that, "As currently drafted, the Legislative and Regulatory Reform Bill gives the Government powers which are entirely disproportionate to its stated aims."
In May 2006, the House of Lords Constitution Select Committee published a report which drew attention to a number of issues. The report criticised the manner in which the bill was introduced, commenting that the consultative process was "lamentable", that the bill was not debated on the floor of the House of Commons, as is long accepted practice for bills of first class constitutional importance, and that the late amendments, while welcome, were "something of an indictment of the processes of policy-making and legislation". The report also noted a repetition of the delegation of "unprecedentedly wide power" to ministers, as the Regulatory Reform Act 2001 was described in December 2000; and the further ability for ministers to change legislation to implement recommendations of the Law Commission. The report concluded that the bill, after amendment, was more balanced than before, but remained "over-broad and vaguely drawn", and further safeguards were necessary.
Support
The government minister responsible, Jim Murphy, said, in winding up the debate on Second Reading on 9 February 2006: "I give the House clear undertakings, which I shall repeat in Committee, that the orders will not be used to implement highly controversial reforms", although there is no such restriction in the text of the Bill itself. Barrister Francis Bennion (formerly Parliamentary Counsel, and author of the authoritative Bennion on Statutory Interpretation) wrote in a letter to The Times on 20 February 2006 that "The Bill opens the door to much-needed reforms in what is called lawyer's law".
In May 2006, a report from the House of Lords Select Committee on Delegated Powers and Regulatory Reform found that clause 1 of the bill was "not far different" from the power granted under the Regulatory Reform Act 2001, and so not inappropriate. While recognising the need for sub-delegation of order-making powers in some situations, the report considered that the case for unlimited sub-delegation was sufficiently made out, and that some limits should be imposed, for example, by specifying categories of person (such as local authorities) to whom powers could be delegated. The report found that the powers of Parliamentary supervision in the amended bill were adequate, but the ability for a minister to change the law to implement recommendations of Law Commission or to consolidate and simplify legislation were thought to be inappropriate, saying that "the statute law should be made by Parliament, not by Ministers".
Part 2: Regulators
The second Part of the Bill, entitled "Regulators", implements recommendations of a review led by Philip Hampton, entitled "Reducing administrative burdens: effective inspection and enforcement", published in the Hampton Report in a March 2005. Clause 19 contains two principles that regulators must have regard to when exercising particular regulatory functions: regulatory activities must be carried out in a way which is "transparent, accountable, proportionate and consistent", and should be targeted only at cases in which action is needed. Clause 20 and enables a minister to introduce a mandatory Code of Practice for regulators.
Part 3: European Community legislation
The third Part of the Bill, entitled "Legislation Relating to the European Communities etc.", makes provision about legislation relating to the European Communities, to reduce the number of UK Statutory Instruments required to transpose EU legislation into domestic UK law. These provisions were copied from the European Union Bill which was also before Parliament, but which had made little progress.
Procedural history
House of Commons
The Bill was introduced in the House of Commons by Jim Murphy, Parliamentary Secretary to the Cabinet Office, on 11 January 2006, becoming Bill 111 of the 2005–6 Parliamentary session. A Bill of this nature would usually be introduced by a more senior minister, such as the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster or the Cabinet Office Minister, but a replacement for John Hutton had not been announced in over two months since he was promoted to replace David Blunkett as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions on 2 November 2005. Hilary Armstrong became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Cabinet reshuffle on 5 May 2005.
The Bill had its formal First Reading on 11 January 2006 and Second Reading on 9 February 2006, when a programme motion (to curtail debate) and a money resolution were passed.
The Bill was considered by House of Commons Standing Committee A in eight sittings on 28 February, 2 March, 7 and 9 March 2006. A number of government amendments were agreed, but none of the amendments proposed by the opposition parties were passed.
The Government published proposed amendments to the Bill on 4 May 2006 which are intended "to put beyond doubt that the Legislative and Regulatory Reform Bill will only be used to deliver the Government's better regulation agenda".
The amendments make substantial changes to the Bill, replacing the first two clauses entirely with new clauses under which an order can only be made for the purposes of "removing or reducing any burden" from legislation, or of securing that regulatory activities are "carried out in a way which is transparent, accountable, proportionate and consistent" and are "targeted only at cases in which action is needed", or of implementing the recommendations of a Law Commission. The amendments also add a power for a Committee of either of the Houses of Parliament to prevent a draft order being passed, subject to the Committee being overruled by the relevant House. Further "follow-up" amendments were published on 10 May 2006 to "ensure total clarity on what this Bill is intended to deliver". Amongst other things, the new amendments ensure that the Orders under the Bill could not be used to amend the Bill itself, once it is enacted, nor to amend the Human Rights Act 1998.
The Bill was debated on Report from the Standing Committee on 15 and 16 May 2006. A number of government amendments were made to implement the changes announced earlier on 4 May, and further opposition amendments were debated but rejected. The Bill received its Third Reading in the House of Commons following the debate on 16 May.
House of Lords
The Bill moved to the House of Lords, where it was presented by Lord Bassam of Brighton and received its formal First Reading on 17 May, and House of Lords Bill 109 of the 2005–6 Parliamentary session. It had its Second Reading on 13 June, and it was debated in a Committee of the whole house on 3 July, 10 July and 19 July.
After completing its Committee stage on 19 July, the Bill was reported with amendments. The Bill had its report stage in the House of Lords on 26 October, after Parliament returned from its summer recess, and its Third Reading was held on 3 November.
The Bill received Royal Assent on 8 November 2006.
Section 33 – Commencement
This section provides that the Act came into force at the end of the period of two months that began on the date on which it was passed. The word "months" means calendar months. The day (that is to say, 8 November 2006) on which the Act was passed (that is to say, received royal assent) is included in the period of two months. This means that the Act came into force on 8 January 2007.
See also
Enabling act
References
Halsbury's Statutes. Fourth Edition. 2008 Reissue. Volume 41. Page 1158.
Further reading
Text of the Bill introduced to the House of Commons on 11 January 2006
Explanatory notes to the Bill as introduced on 11 January 2006
Text of the Bill on Report, 9 March 2006
Text of the Bill introduced to the House of Lords on 17 May 2006
Explanatory notes to the Bill as introduced on 17 May 2006
Amendments in the House of Lords
Text of the Bill as amended in Committee in the House of Lords, 19 July 2006
Review of the Regulatory Reform Act 2001, Cabinet Office (PDF, 59 pages)
Reducing administrative burdens: effective inspection and enforcement (Philip Hampton, March 2005), HM Treasury (PDF, 147 pages)
Amendments published by the Cabinet Office, 4 May 2006 (PDF, 10 pages)
Further amendments published by the Cabinet Office, 10 May 2006 (PDF, 3 pages)
Whitaker, Richard. "Parliament and Government, 2005-06: Reforms and Reflections." Parliamentary Affairs, vol. 59, no. 4 (Oct 2006), p. 694.
External links
The Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006, as amended from the National Archives.
The Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006, as originally enacted from the National Archives.
Explanatory notes to the Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006.
Save Parliament – a campaign against this Bill
Save Parliament Blog
Fear over plans to cut red tape, BBC News, 17 March 2006.
Interview with Kenneth Clarke and Jim Murphy, BBC Radio 4, Today programme, 22 February 2006.
Telegraph Opinion: Labour isn't wicked – but it's doing just what the Nazis did
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 2006
Economics of regulation
Law reform in the United Kingdom |
4308394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Eles%20des%20Saintes | Îles des Saintes | The Îles des Saintes (; ), also known as Les Saintes (, ), is a group of small islands in the archipelago of Guadeloupe, an overseas department of France. It is part of the Canton of Trois-Rivières and is divided into two communes: Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas. It is in the arrondissement of Basse-Terre and also in Guadeloupe's 4th constituency.
History
Pre-Columbian
Les Saintes, due to their location in the heart of the Lesser Antilles, were frequented first by Indian tribes coming from Caribbean and Central America. Caaroucaëra (the Arawak name of Îles des Saintes), although uninhabited due to the lack of spring water, were regularly visited by Arawak peoples then Kalinagos living on the neighbourhood islands of Guadeloupe and Dominica around the 9th century. They went there to practise hunting and fishing. The archaeological remains of war axes and pottery dug up on the site of Anse Rodrigue's Beach and stored at "Fort Napoléon" museum testify the visits of these populations.
Discovery and colonisation
It was during his second expedition for America, that Christopher Columbus discovered the small archipelago, on 4 November 1493. He named them "Los Santos", in reference to All Saints' Day which had just been celebrated. Around 1523, along with its neighbours, these islands, which were devoid of precious metals, were abandoned by the Spanish who favoured the Greater Antilles and the South American continent.
On 18 October 1648, a French expedition led by Sir du Mé, annexed les Saintes, already under English influence, at the request of the governor of Guadeloupe, Charles Houël. From 1649, the islands became a colony exploited by the French West India Company which tried to establish agriculture. However, the inhospitable ground and the aridity of "Terre-de-Haut" halted this activity, though it persisted for a while on Terre-de-Bas, which was wetter and more fertile, under the orders of Sir Hazier du Buisson from 1652.
In 1653, the Kalinagos slaughtered the French troops in Marie-Galante. Sir du Mé decided to respond to this attack by sending a punitive expedition against the tribes in Dominica. Following these events, the Kalinagos, invaded les Saintes to take revenge. Sir Comte de l'Etoile tried to repel the Caribs who were definitively chased away in 1658. In the name of the King of France, les Saintes were acquired in the royal domain by Jean-Baptiste Colbert when the French West India Company was dissolved in 1664.
On 4 August 1666, while the English were attacking the archipelago, their fleet was routed by the passage of a hurricane and some British who besieged this "Gibraltar of the Antilles" were quickly expelled by the troops of Sir du Lion and Sir Desmeuriers, helped by the Caribs. The English surrendered on 15 August 1666, the day of the Assumption of Mary, and a Te Deum was intoned at the request of Sir du Lion who founded an annual remembrance in honour to this victory - this is celebrated ardently on the island of Terre-de-Haut to this day. Our-Lady-of-Assumption became the Patron saint of the parish.
To protect the French colonies of the area, the English were repelled to Barbados by the governor of Santo Domingo, Jean-Baptiste Ducasse in 1691.
18th Century
From 1759 to 1763, the British took possession of Les Saintes and a part of Guadeloupe.
Les Saintes were restored to the Kingdom of France only after the signature of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by which France gave up Île Royale, Isle Saint-Jean, Acadia and Canada, the Great Lakes region and the left bank of the Mississippi to the British.
To prevent further British ambitions, King Louis XVI ordered the construction of fortifications on Les Saintes. Thus began the construction of "Fort Louis" on the Mire Hill, "Fort de la Reine" on Petite Martinique island, the watchtowers of "Modele tower" on Chameau Hill (the top of the archipelago, 309 m), the artillery batteries of Morel Hill and Mouillage Hill, in 1777.
On 12 April 1782, after the military campaign of January in Basseterre on the island of Saint Christopher, the French fleet of Comte de Grasse, which aimed to capture British Jamaica, left Martinique and headed towards the archipelago of les Saintes, where it arrived in the evening. Caught in the Dominica Passage by the British and inferior in number, it was engaged and defeated by the ships of the line of George Brydges Rodney aboard the Formidable and Samuel Hood aboard the Barfleur. According to legend, after he had fired the last of the ammunition of his carronades, de Grasse fired off his silverware. In a little more than five hours, 2,000 French sailors and soldiers were killed and wounded, and 5,000 men and 4 ships of the line captured and one ship of the line sunk. The defeat resulted in Îles des Saintes coming under British rule for twenty years.
In 1794, France's National Convention, represented by Victor Hugues, tried to reconquer the islands but succeeded in occupying them only temporarily, the islands being recaptured away by the powerful British vessel Queen Charlotte.
19th Century
In 1802, the First French Empire under Napoleon launched a successful operation to recapture the archipelago from the British. On 14 April 1809, the British fleet of Admiral Sir Alexander Forrester Inglis Cochrane reconquered the archipelago. Three young people from les Saintes, Mr. Jean Calo, Mr. Cointre and Mr. Solitaire, succeeded in guiding three French vessels (D'Hautpoul, Courageux, and Félicité) commanded by the infantry division of Admiral Troude which were caught unawares inside the bay and helped them to escape back to France through the North Passage called "La baleine". These men were decorated with the Legion of Honour for their actions.
Guadeloupe island was also conquered on 26 February 1810 by the British.. The French Governor Jean Augustin Ernouf was forced to capitulate.
By a bilateral treaty signed in Stockholm on 3 March 1813, Sweden promised the British that they would make a common front against Napoleon's France. In return, the British would have to support the ambitions of Stockholm on Norway. Pragmatically, Karl XIV Johan indeed understood that it was time for Sweden to abandon Finland (lost in 1809) and to spread the kingdom westward. Besides, Great Britain offered the colony of Guadeloupe to Karl XIV Johan personally to seal this new alliance.
Under the Treaty of Paris signed on 30 May 1814, the United Kingdom accepted to give Guadeloupe back to France. King Karl XIV Johan of Sweden retroceded Guadeloupe to France and earned in exchange the recognition of the Union of Sweden and Norway and the payment to the Swedish royal house of 24 million gold francs in compensation (Guadeloupe Fund). However, the French only came back to les Saintes on 5 December, when the General Leith, commander in chief of forces in the West Indies and governor of the Leeward Isles accepted it.
The new governor of Guadeloupe and dependencies, the Commodore Sir Comte de Linois and his deputy governor Sir Eugène-Édouard Boyer, Baron de Peyreleau, sent by Louis XVIII to repossess the colony were quickly disturbed by the return of Napoleon I in April 1815 (Hundred Days). A conflict broke out between Bonapartists and monarchists.
On 19 June 1815, Sir Comte de Linois (monarchist) forced by Sir Boyer de Peyreleau (Bonapartist), rejoined the Bonapartists and sent away a British frigate dispatched by the governor of the Windward Islands in Martinique, Sir Pierre René Marie, Comte de Vaugiraud to bring back the monarchical order of Louis XVIII.
Sir Comte de Vaugiraud relieved them of their duties and the British took the offensive.
Les Saintes were captured again by the crown of Great Britain on 6 July 1815, Marie-Galante on 18 July and Guadeloupe on 10 August.
Despite the defeat of the Bonapartists and the restoration of Louis XVIII, on the request of the slave planter of Guadeloupe (favourable to the British because of their abolitionist minds) and by order of General Leith the British stayed to purge the colony of Bonapartism. The Bonapartists were judged and deported.
The British troops left the colony to the French on 22 July 1816. Sir Antoine Philippe, Comte de Lardenoy was named by the King, Governor and Administrator of Guadeloupe and dependencies on 25 July 1816.
It was in 1822 that the Chevalier de Fréminville legend was born. Christophe-Paulin de la Poix, named Chevalier de Fréminville, a sailor and naturalist in a military campaign to les Saintes aboard the vessel La Néréïde shared a dramatic love story with a Saintoise named Caroline (known as "Princess Caroline" in reference to her legendary beauty). She committed suicide down from the artillery battery of Morel Hill which bears her name today, thinking her beloved man dead at Saint-Christopher, not seeing him come back from campaign. This condemned the knight to madness; taken by sorrow, he took Caroline's clothes and returned to Brest, where he stayed until the end of his days. Engravings and narratives are kept at Fort Napoléon museum.
In 1844, during Louis Philippe I's reign, the construction of a fort began on the ruins of the old Fort Louis. The fortification was built to the technique of Vauban to protect the archipelago against a possible reconquest.
In 1851, a penitentiary was built on Petite Martinique island, which became renamed îlet à Cabrit; in 1856 a prison reserved for women replaced it. It was destroyed in 1865 by a hurricane. The fort, begun during Louis-Philippe's reign, was finished in 1867 in the reign of Napoleon III who baptised it Fort Napoléon in honour of his uncle, Napoleon I. Fort de la Reine was renamed Fort Joséphine at the same time. A lazaretto was opened in 1871 instead of the penitentiary.
On 9 August 1882, under Jules Grévy's mandature, at the request of the municipal councillors and following the church's requirements asking for the creation of Saint-Nicholas's parish, the municipality of Terre-de-Bas was created, separating from Terre-de-Haut which also became a municipality. This event marked the end of the municipality of les Saintes. The patron saint's day of Terre-de-Bas was then established on 6 December, St Nicholas'Day.
In 1903, the military and disciplinary garrisons were definitively given up. It was the end of the "Gibraltar of the Antilles", but in honour of its military past, the ships of the navy made a traditional stopover. In 1906, the cruiser Duguay-Trouin stopped over at les Saintes. In September 1928, les Saintes, like its neighbouringislands of Guadeloupe, were violently struck by a strong cyclone which destroyed an important part of the municipal archives. From 1934 the first inns were built, which marked the beginning of visits to the island by the outside world.
Dissidence and French overseas departmentalisation
In June 1940, answering the appeal of General de Gaulle, the French Antilles entered into a Resistance movement against Vichy regime and Nazi collaboration. They called it Dissidence. The governor, appointed by Marshal Philippe Pétain, Constant Sorin, was in charge of administering Guadeloupe and its dependencies. Les Saintes became the Mecca of dissidence.
The French Antilles were affected by the arbitrary power and the authoritarian ideology of Pétain and Pierre Laval. The ministry of the colonies of Vichy, by its colonial representatives Mr. Constant Sorin and Admiral Georges Robert, High Commissioner of France, applied its whole legislation including the anti-semitic laws. A strong police state was set up and any resistance was actively repressed. Seeing the rallying of the French Antilles to the regime of Vichy, the islands were embargoed by the British-American forces. Cut from any relationship (in particular the import of fuels and foodstuffs) with France, Constant Sorin set up a policy of rationing and self-sufficiency, by diversifying and increasing the local production. It was a period of resourcefulness.
On 27 October 1940, the General council was dissolved and the Mayors of Guadeloupe and its dependencies were relieved of their duties and replaced by prominent citizens appointed by the Vichy government. The mayor of Terre-de-Haut, Théodore Samson, was replaced by a Béké of Martinique, Mr. de Meynard. Popular gatherings were forbidden and freedom of expression was banned by the regime. A passive resistance to Vichy and its local representatives was organised from 1940 to 1943. More than 4,000 French West Indians left their islands, at the risk of their life, to join the nearby British colonies. Then they rallied the Free French Forces, first by undertaking military training in the United States, Canada or Great Britain. At the same time, Fort Napoléon became a political jail where the dissidents were locked. The Saintois boarded their traditional Saintoise to the Guadeloupean coast to pick up the volunteers for dissidence departure. Then, they were sailed through Dominica Passage, avoiding the cruisers and patrol boats of Admiral Robert.
In March 1943, the French Guyanese rebelled against the regime and rallied the allies. French West Indians followed the movement and in April, May and June 1943, a civil movement of resistance took weapons and rebelled against Vichy's administration. In Martinique, the marines of Fort-de-France also rebelled against Admiral Robert.
With shortages from the embargo making life more and more difficult, Admiral Robert sent to the Americans his will to capitulate, seeking the end of the blockade, on 30 June 1943.
On 3 July 1943, the American admiral John Howard Hoover came to Martinique and on 8 July 1943, the American government required an unconditional surrender to the authority of the French Committee of National Liberation and offered asylum to Admiral Robert.
On 15 July 1943, Governor Constant Sorin and Admiral Robert were relieved of their duties by Henri Hoppenot, ambassador of Free French Forces, and the French Antilles also joined the allies. Admiral Robert left the island the same day for the United States.
Many of the dissidents were sent to the North African fronts and participated in Operation Dragoon beside the Allies.
On 19 March 1946, the President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic promulgated the law of departmentalisation, which set up the colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, La Réunion and French Guiana, as Overseas Departments. From then on, les Saintes, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, Saint-Barthélemy and the French side of Saint-Martin were joined, as municipalities, with Guadeloupe island into the new department of Guadeloupe. The colonial status up until then was replaced by a policy of assimilation to the rest of the metropolitan territory.
In 1957, in the country's municipal elections, the mysterious death of the mayor of Terre-de-Haut, Théodore Samson, while he was in the office of the National Gendarmerie provoked an uprising of the population against the institution which was attacked with conches and stones. The revolt lasted two days before being quelled by the military and police reinforcements from Guadeloupe whom dissipated the crowd, looked for and arrested the insurgents (mainly of the "Pineau" family, Théodore Samson's political support). A frigate of the navy stayed a few weeks in the harbour of les Saintes to restore the peace.
Development of tourism
In 1963, the archipelago welcomed SS France during its first transatlantic voyage, which moored in the bay like the Italian, Swedish, Norwegian and American cruise ships which continue today to frequent the small archipelago. The era of the luxury yacht began.
In 1969, the first hotel of the island, "Le Bois Joli" opened its doors at Anse à Cointre beach.
In 1972, les Saintes was equipped with a desalination plant to supply the population. However, distribution costs were too much, so the activity was abandoned in 1993 and replaced by a submarine supply piped from Capesterre-Belle-Eau. Similarly, for electricity, although an emergency power plant of fuel oil remains active on the island of Terre-de-Bas.
In 1974, Fort Napoléon was restored by the Club of the Old Manor House and the Saintoise Association of the Protection of Heritage (A.S.P.P), and accommodated a museum of the history and heritage of les Saintes. It became the most visited monument in the archipelago. In 1984, the Jardin Exotique de Monaco and Jardin botanique du Montet sponsored the creation of an exotic garden on the covered way of Fort Napoléon.
In 1990, for "La route des fleurs" ("The road of flowers", a national contest between the municipalities of France which rewards the most flowery municipality), Terre-de-Haut was coupled with the city of Baccarat, famous for its crystal glass-making.
At the same time, the island of Terre-de-Haut was rewarded by an "environment Oscar" (a French award to municipalities protecting their heritage and environment) for the conservation of its heritage and natural housing environment.
On 14 May 1991, the sites of the Bay of Pompierre and Pain de Sucre were classified as protected spaces according to the law of 2 May 1930.
In 1994, the tourism office of les Saintes was created. The island welcomes approximately 300,000 visitors a year and became a destination appreciated by cruises and sailors.
On 20 May 1994, during his travel in the Antilles, the Prime Minister of France, Édouard Balladur, made an official visit to Terre-de-Haut.
In May 2001, les Saintes joined the Club of the Most Beautiful Bays of the World.
2004 earthquake
On 21 November 2004, the islands of les Saintes were struck by an earthquake of magnitude 6.3. It was an intraplate earthquake situated on a system of normal faults going from les Saintes to the north of Dominica. These faults are globally directed 135° (north-west to south-east), with dip north-east (Roseau fault, Ilet fault, Colibri fault, Marigot Fault) or south-west (Souffleur fault, Rodrigues fault, Redonda fault). These faults bound zones of rifts corresponding to an extension located on Roseau volcano (an inactive submarine volcano). The epicentre was offshore, located between the island of Dominica and les Saintes archipelago, at approximately 15°47'N 61°28'W, on Souffleur fault. The depth of the focus is located on the earth's crust, and is superficial, about . The concussions of the main shock and the numerous aftershocks were powerful, reaching an intensity of VIII (important structural damage) on the MSK scale. Damage to the most vulnerable properties in les Saintes, in Trois-Rivières (Guadeloupe) and in the North of Dominica was considerable. In Trois-Rivières, a collapsed wall killed a sleeping girl and seriously hurt her sister. In les Saintes, even though no-one was killed or badly wounded, many were traumatised by the strong and numerous aftershocks.
Political and institutional evolution
On 7 December 2003, the islands of les Saintes, integrated into the department of Guadeloupe, participated in a referendum on the institutional evolution of that French Overseas Department and rejected it by a majority of "No".
During the 2009 French Caribbean general strikes, les Saintes did not get involved in the movement and were only moderately affected: the supply of stores was very perturbed like other places in Guadeloupe, but these strikes mostly concerned small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (weakly presented on these islands). The maritime transport companies tried hard to find some Gasoil to assure most of the connections, and the Guadeloupean tourism was partially transferred to les Saintes.
Nicolas Sarkozy declared, at the end of the conflict, the opening of États-Généraux de l'Outre-mer ("Estates-general of the Overseas"). Several study groups were created, one of which looked into the local governance, brought to conceive an institutional modification project or a new status of Guadeloupe with or without emancipation of its last dependencies. The conferences of the "southern islands" (name of the last dependencies of Guadeloupe) (Marie Galante, les Saintes and la Désirade) were opened in parallel. Problems common to these islands were exposed in six study groups: the equality of opportunity, the territorial continuity, the local governance, the local economic development, the insertion by the activity and tourism.
On 12 May 2009, the French overseas Minister, Yves Jégo, at the end of these conferences, made an official visit to les Saintes for the seminary of the southern islands of Guadeloupe. He took into account the identical reality and the political hopes of these islands, to improve the territorial continuity, to reduce the effects of the double-insularity, the abolition of the dependence to Guadeloupe, national representation, the development of the attractiveness of the labour pool in the zone, the fight against the depopulation, the tax system and the expensive life. For the moment he announced the signature of a contract baptised COLIBRI ("hummingbird"; Contract for the Employment and the Local Initiatives in the Regional Pond of the Southern Islands of Guadeloupe), a convention of the Grouping of Public Interest for Arrangement and Development (GIPAD) and a proposition of statutory evolution in final, like the study group of governance, the collective of the southern islands of Guadeloupe and the elected representatives asked it, on the basis of the article 74 of the French constitution.
Les Saintes, like Marie Galante, aspires to the creation of an Overseas collectivity for each entity of the Southern islands, or combining the three dependences, on the same plan as the old northern islands of Guadeloupe (Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin). Marie-Luce Penchard, native of Guadeloupe, brought in a governmental portfolio for overseas on 23 June 2009 and appointed Overseas Minister on 6 November 2009, seems wildly opposed to the initial project of her predecessor and delays applying it.
Geography
Les Saintes is a volcanic archipelago fully encircled by shallow reefs. It arose from the recent volcanic belt of the Lesser Antilles from the Pliocene Epoch. It is composed of rocks appeared on the Tertiary age between (4.7 to 2 million years ago). By origin, it was a unique island that the tectonic and volcanic earthquakes separate to create an archipelago due to the subduction zone between the South American plate, the North American plate and the Caribbean plate.
The total surface is . The archipelago has approximately of coast and its highest hill, Chameau ("Camel"), reaches about .
The Pain de sucre peninsula, with the height of () is linked to Terre-de-Haut by an isthmus. It is situated between two small beaches. It is constituted by an alignment of columnar basalt.
Islands
It is composed of two very mountainous inhabited islands, Terre-de-Haut Island and Terre-de-Bas Island. Grand-Îlet is an uninhabited protected area. There are six other uninhabited îslets.
Les Roches Percées
An uninhabited island characterized by high rocks abrupt which the erosion dug impressive fractures by which the sea rushes. These faults are at the origin of the naming of the island. It is a natural site classified by French law. The entry and the anchorage of motorboats, as well as sailing boats are strictly forbidden.
Îlet à Cabrit
At at the northwest of Terre-de-Haut Island, closing partially the Bay of les Saintes. It is approximately from east to west and from north to south. Its highest mount up to , Morne Joséphine. It creates two passages into the Bay of les Saintes, la Baleine passage to the East and Pain de Sucre passage in the South, which constitute both access roads to the harbours of Mouillage and Fond-du-Curé.
It is the site of the ruins of the lazaretto and Joséphine Fort.
La Redonde
An uninhabited rock at South of Terre-de-Haut Island. It is the northern extremity of Grand-Îlet Passage. It is very difficult to berth on it, the swell there is constantly bad.
La Coche
At west of Grand-Îlet from which it is separated from it by the Passe des Dames, and on the east of les Augustins by the Passe des Souffleurs. It is about in wide and long. It spreads out in the length from the southeast headland to the northwest headland and is characterized by a coast of abrupt cliffs towards Dominica Passage and a sandy hillside opening on Terre-de-Haut Island.
Les Augustins
A small group of rocks near la Coche from which they are separated by the Passe des Souffleurs. They are separated from Terre-de-Bas Island by the Southwest Passage, a major shipping lane. The Rocher de la Vierge, is named for the Immaculate Conception.
Le Pâté
An island in shape of a high plateau at of the northern headland of Terre-de-Bas Island, called Pointe à Vache. It opens the Pain de Sucre Passage, the main shipping lane to access to the Bay of les Saintes by the North. Near the islands, there is an exceptional dive site called sec Pâté. It is a submarine mountain, which the base belongs at less deep and the top at less than below sea level. The maritime conditions make this dive difficult and the level 2 is required. The place abounds in a large quantity of diversified fishes, sea turtles, sea fans, corals, gorgonians, lobsters and shellfishes which appropriate the marine domain, around three rock peaks which form the top of the mountain. Fishing of fishes and shells is regulated or forbidden for certain species.
Location
Les Saintes is a territory of the northern hemisphere situated in North America, in the Caribbean islands, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It is positioned at 15°51' North, the same latitude as Thailand or Honduras, and at 61°36' West, the same longitude as Labrador and the Falkland Islands.
This locality places the archipelago at from metropolitan France; at from the southeast of Florida, at from the coast of South America, and exactly at the heart of the arc of the Lesser Antilles.
Les Saintes lies immediately south of the island of Guadeloupe and west of Marie-Galante. It is separated from Guadeloupe by Les Saintes Passage and from the north of Dominica by the Dominica Passage.
Africa, at
Central America, at
France, at
Venezuela, at
New York, at
Rio de Janeiro, at
Barbados, at
Puerto Rico, at
Guadeloupe, at
Dominica, at
Climate
The climate of these islands is tropical, tempered by trade winds with moderate-high humidity.
Despite its location between Guadeloupe and Dominica, the climate of les Saintes is different, and is more dry than its neighbours. It tends to get closer to the climate of St. Barts and most little islands of the Lesser Antilles. The archipelago covers an area of . Terre-de-Bas, the western isle, is wetter than Terre-de-Haut, the eastern. Though having 330 days of sunshine, the rainfall could reach but varies very widely. Summer is from May to November which is also the rainy season. Winter, from December to April, is the dry season. Sunshine is very prominent almost throughout the year and even during the rainy season. Humidity, however, is not very high because of the winds. It has an average temperature of with day temperatures rising to . The average temperature in January is while in July it is . The lowest night temperature could be . The Caribbean sea waters in the vicinity generally maintain a temperature of about . The archipelago faces frequent catastrophic threats of cyclonic storms.
Environment
Les Saintes extend only over but are characterised by a long coast, enriched by those of four small uninhabited islands. The coast of these islands does not have real cliffs, but their rocky shores are covered with corals. The sandy shores are more-or-less colonised by marine spermatophyte plants. In 2008, the inventory of the natural zones of ecological interest, fauna and flora (ZNIEFF) listed zones covering 381 hectares.
Fauna
Land
There are numerous ground iguanas, including the green iguana which is the heraldic symbol of Terre-de-Haut, and the Iguana delicatissima, which is threatened by the appearance of a hybrid stemming from the reproduction between the two species. Other reptiles include the Terre-de-Haut racer, Terre-de-Bas racer, the endemic Les Saintes anole, and a lot of species of anoles.
There are also agoutis, goats, and stick insects.
Birds include the bananaquit, yellow-headed blackbird, dickcissel, blue-headed hummingbird, green-throated carib; purple-throated carib, and blue-tailed emerald.
Ardeidaes rest in salty ponds (snowy egret, green heron, western cattle egret, yellow-crowned night heron, tricolored heron, etc.) and living with the aquatic turtles, the common moorhen, the blue land crab, the blackback land crab, the sand fiddler crab and other species of crabs. The common kestrel is visible and audible during rides into the dry forest, like the zenaida dove, an endemic species of West Indies protected inside the archipelago.
Frogs include the Eleutherodactylus pinchoni, among others.
Tree bats feed on papayas and other fruits and berries.
Marine
The archipelago shelters a variety of:
Coral fishes (parrotfish, Cephalopholis, trumpetfish, mero, Epinephelus adscensionis, cardinalfish, damselfish, sergeant major fish, queen triggerfish, sunfish, scrawled cowfish, schoolmaster snapper, groupers, moray eels, conger, green moray, black scorpionfish (venomous), red snapper, balloonfishes, Atlantic blue tang surgeonfish, etc.);
Pelagic fishes
Royal spiny lobsters (Panulirus argus) and Brazilian lobsters (Panulirus guttatus)
Crustaceans (spiny spider crabs, edible crab, shrimp, slipper lobster, etc.)
Molluscs (bobtail squid, squid, octopuses)
Shells (Strombus gigas renowned for their flesh, helmet shell, clam, whelks, etc.)
Sea anemone, seahorse, seaweeds, sea urchin white and black, polyps and other species of cnidarians (jellyfish)
Corals (diploria, fire corals, etc.) from Caribbean islands, which are prevalent during dives around the archipelago
Sharks and rays
It is not rare to observe in Les Saintes Passage cetaceans: humpback whales, sperm whales, killer whales, and dolphins, which during their migration reproduce in the warm seas of the Antilles.
Sea birds (magnificent frigatebird, brown booby, masked booby, terns, double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus), pelican, petrels) nest on the cliffs and uninhabited islands. In particular, on Grand-Îlet, a natural reserve of the archipelago which houses species of booby found nowhere else on les Saintes: red-footed booby (Sula sula) and blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxii). But in the context of global warming and invasive foreign species implanted by the humans (e.g. red lionfish), the environment and the biodiversity of these islands are considered to be very vulnerable and to be protected. It is therefore recommended that visitors do not take plants or capture animals to avoid disturbing the species in their natural biotope, and do not pollute the ecosystem.
Sea turtle protection
Numerous species are endemic and strictly protected, listed, and guarded by the Conservatoire du littoral ("Coastal protection agency" ), particularly the sea turtles, in application of the international convention ratified by France. Indeed, les Saintes is the preserve of seven varieties of sea turtle, among which three (those in bold type) lay on the beaches of the island:
the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas)
the flatback sea turtle (Natator depressus)
the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta)
the olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)
the Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii)
the hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
Flora
The flora is typical of the xerophile forests of the volcanic Antilles islands:
Soapberries
Tabebuia pallida
Tabebuia heterophylla
Eugenia (Eugenia axillaris) - (a species of Myrtaceae, the fruits of which allow the manufacturing of the local and typical liqueur of wild cherry, apéritif of les Saintes)
Acerola (Malpighia emarginata)
Gumbo-limbo (Bursera simaruba)
Plumeria alba
Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella) - a toxic tree marked with red lines on their trunks by the Conservatoire du Littoral
Chinee apple or permseret (Ziziphus mauritiana) the edible fruits of which are used in the manufacturing of a punch softened in white rum.
Flamboyant red or yellow-flowered (Delonix regia)
Guapinol (Hymenaea courbaril)
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica), the fruits of which are used to make one of the specialities of Terre-de-Bas island, called "limbé ", a small home-made candy
West Indian bay tree (Pimenta racemosa) - much more present on the hills of Terre-de-Bas where the inhabitants use it to make the Bay rum, a rub lotion with curative qualities, the efficiency of which was widely proved in the Antilles. Also, certain species can be used in hair creams, allegedly favouring a fast regrowth and nutrition of hair. The seeds are also used as a spice to perfume dishes. The exploitation of pimenta is assured by the association "Le Mapou" at Terre-de-Bas island, in the medicinal garden "Éloit Germain".
The aridity allowed the establishment of colonies of very diversified cacti and succulents, which the most remarkable are:
Ceroid cacti
prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica)
Melocactus - which are on the logo of the Tourist information office of the archipelago.
Aloe
The dry ground of the hills is strewn with herbaceous plants, sometimes composed by urticant lianas (Acalypha arvensis), cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa), Croton balsamifer, philodendron and fabaceaes (trees with toxic or edible seeds), pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan), sword beans (Canavalia gladiata), Senna alexandrina, margosa or bitter melon (Momordica charantia), Caesalpinia ciliatea, Caesalpinia bonduc (from which children make balls), rosary pea (Abrus precatorius), castor oil plant (Ricinus communis - used in the local small business sector).
The seaside has a vegetation of:
Yellow, green or orange huge coconut palms
Baygrape (Coccoloba uvifera)
Portia tree (Thespesia populnea)
Paradise plum (Chrysobalanus icaco)
Muricife (creole term), a variety of edible West Indian olive that has almost disappeared from beaches
Three rare species of orchid grow naturally in the archipelago and are the object of a severe protection:
Fringed star orchid (Epidendrum ciliare)
Tolumnia urophylla
Brassavola cucullata - more rare; endangered on les Saintes
Numerous walking tours were established by the Conservatoire du Littoral through the forest, in such a way to allow observation of these natural resources, the historic ruins of the fortifications, and the exceptional panoramas offered by les Saintes to its visitors.
The sand of the beaches is dominantly white or golden, although some zones of black sand remain under the white sand. On the semi-submerged rocks, crabs can be found: Ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata), hermit crab (Pagurus bernhardus), Sally lightfoot (Grapsus grapsus).
Environmental and energy policy
Numerous things are done to protect this fragile ecosystem at international, national, departmental and municipal level. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) listed several sites of the archipelago and categorised their degree of protection according to the current classification. So, several sites are registered in category IV, as defined by the non-governmental organisation.
During the 1990s, most of the beaches and hills of the archipelago were listed under a decree of biotype protection (Grande Anse beach, Îlet à Cabrit, Morel hill). At the request of the municipality and the Departmental Council, the bays of Pompierre and Pain de Sucre were classified by a French law of 2 May 1930 (relative to the protection of the natural monuments and the sites of artistic, historic, scientific, legendary or picturesque character).
The Conservatoire du littoral agency has acquired several areas, in particular Grand Ilet and Chameau hill, under the framework of the national program of protection of natural spaces.
On 31 December 2010, the open-air garbage dump, an environmental problem for the archipelago for a long time, was closed and replaced by waste sorting. Now, waste is compacted and sent by boat to Guadeloupe to be recycled.
Moreover, plastic bags have disappeared from grocers' shops and other businesses on the archipelago. Each municipality helped its inhabitants to change their habits by distributing reusable shopping bags. With these new political measures, les Saintes is more committed to the protection of the environment and its heritage.
Terre-de-Haut, created its local Agenda 21.
In May 2011, anchorage buoys were installed in the bay of Terre-de-Haut to regulate sailing and decrease uncontrolled anchorages which damage the sea bed.
Special guy-wired wind turbines, which could be laid on the ground within forty-five minutes when a hurricane or storm comes, were installed on Terre-de-Bas. In 2007, these seven machines could produce three million kWh a year, allowing Terre-de-Bas, and all the archipelago of les Saintes to be surplus in electricity. Thanks to this, les Saintes can supply electricity to the south of Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe).
Demographics
The inhospitable relief and the low precipitation do not allow the establishment of agriculture. Few slaves were brought onto these islands. The population is constituted historically by Bretons, Normans and Poitevins who settled on the islands to fish, rather than establish plantation slavery, as elsewhere in the Caribbean. This explains the largely European origin of the Saintois , as islanders are called.
In 2017, the population of les Saintes was established as:
Terre-de-Haut: 1,532 inhabitants, with a density of population of 255 inhabitants / km2. The number of households is 676.
Terre-de-Bas: 1,046 inhabitants, with a density of population of 154 inhabitants / km2. The number of households is 429.
The life expectancy is 75 years for men and to 82 years for women. The average number of children per woman is 2.32.
Education
There are six primary and secondary schools which welcome the pupils of both municipalities. There are two nursery schools, two primary schools, and two middle schools (colleges). High school and higher education requires the children to go to Guadeloupe, Martinique or France.
Public health
Terre-de-Haut has two general practitioners, two dentists, four physiotherapists. Terre-de-Bas has a general practitioner. The pharmacy is located on Terre-de-Haut.
The fire brigades are equipped with equipment and vehicles adapted to fight against disasters and to carry assistance.
Other care and specialities are located at Basse-Terre or Pointe-à-Pitre and in case of emergency, the fire brigade can call the helicopter of Sécurité Civile to come from Guadeloupe
Languages
The archipelago of les Saintes is mostly populated by the descendants of colonists from Brittany and Normandy, Poitou, Saintonge and Anjou, who are mostly from the first French families that lived on Saint Christopher and Nevis when it was a French colony. The population has the peculiarity of being primarily of European origin and speaking a variety of popular American French, with some terms of Old French.
The French of France is the official language and taught in schools.
Among the languages of the archipelago, the Creole or patois (dialect) of les Saintes, stemming from the interbreeding of the Europeans and from the Creole influence of the slaves brought into the archipelago, is the most practiced by far.
Les Saintes Creole is a French-based creole language, and is included the category of the agglutinative languages. It differs from those of the neighbouring islands (Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Dominica) by its very Gallicised pronunciation. It is close to the Creole spoken on the eastern side of the island of Saint-Barthélemy. Certain phonemes of the French language (, , , and ) disappeared from the modern creole of Guadeloupe, Dominica and Martinique are found in this dialect.
Contrary to other French Antilles creoles which have diverged from French, Les Saintes Creole is moving toward it, in particular by a hyper-correction of the pronunciation of [r], considered a sign of speaking well. This may be a legacy of the first colonists who considered, by phenomenon of diglossia, the dialect as a secondary language lower than French and tried hard to avoid pronouncing [r] in the Guadeloupean way [w].
There is a second variant of this dialect, caused by the isolated evolution of the groups on two different islands. Terre-de-Haut Island's dialect can be distinguished from that of Terre-de-Bas.
The variant of Terre-de-Bas is the same, with a different accent, and certain expressions which are typical.
Even if the correct French language remains the educational parental priority, there is no generational problem in learning and speaking Creole. However, it is necessary to avoid talking in Creole for people exercising public authority, the elders and unknown people.
There are many other peculiarities of this dialect. Les Saintes creole is still spoken and Saintois are proud of its difference with the other Creoles. Though it is not taught in schools, it is transmitted orally from parents to their children.
Economy
Fishing was for a long time the main activity of les Saintes and is still an important employment sector. The local fishermen are respected throughout the Lesser Antilles for their bravery and their "hauls".
For around thirty years, les Saintes has become a famous place for tourism and this activity underpins the local economy. Terre-de-Haut welcomes numerous boats which cast anchor in the bay of les Saintes, dubbed "one of the most beautiful bays of the world". The hotel business and guest houses have spread, without disturbing this archipelago which has remained wild. The bay attracts luxury yachts, pleasure boats, cruise ships and big sailboats which cross through the Antilles. (84 stopovers of cruise for 2009) Terre-de-Haut annually receives more than 380,000 visitors who frequent businesses of the archipelago.
Agriculture remains underdeveloped on these dry islands.
An economic approach to all the activities is implemented by the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE) of Guadeloupe. Economic activity remains relatively low, marked by strong disparities between Terre-de-Haut and Terre-de-Bas. The unemployment rate is 16.5% in Terre-de-Haut, and 34.5% in Terre-de-Bas (2017). The working population consists of a great majority of employees and salaried workers and a small percentage of storekeepers and craftsmen. The number of companies in the archipelago was 316 in 2015.
Culture
The exceptional landscapes, heritage and scenes of life of Les Saintes inspire many artists, including Pascal Foy and Martine Cotten.
Feast days and long-standing customs
The calendar of feast days and customs are guided by the Christian feast days. The traditions of the Church are very long-lived in the islands. The public holidays are the same as those of France, plus those specific to the Guadeloupe overseas department and those of Les Saintes.
The Christian feast days (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost) are celebrated by mass in the churches, embellished by the choirs of both parishes. Some feast days have peculiarities:
Corpus Christi: The believers follow a procession through the streets of the island with the priest who protects the Monstrance (Blessed Sacrament) covered with beautiful local embroidery to a cave, where there are children dressed as cherubs throwing flower petals. The local residents who liv along the route of procession go out to the entrance of their house, their fishing nets decorated with fruits and flowers, with Christian icons and paintings of The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci).
Fishing and fishermen days: celebrated on 11 June every year with a fishing competition, net making, remembrance of dead fishermen, and dancing.
Public holidays on 15 and 16 August: August 15th is the patron saint's day of Terre-de-Haut Island (Our Lady of Assumption). The Mayor, his municipal council and officials are dressed as much as the boats in the bay. There are artillery salvos, drum majorettes, a torchlight procession, and bugle reveille. The island celebrates the 15 August 1666 victory of the French fleet against the English occupying the archipelago. A procession with the status of Our-Lady-of-Assumption is led through the streets of the island before ending on the beach where the priest throws a spray of flowers to the sea. It is the signal for the regatta of saintoise sail (traditional boat of les Saintes). A ship of the French Navy is present for the occasion, particularly la Fougeuse a Patrol boat, of which Terre-de-Haut island is the godmother. Officers and sailors wearing their bachis (Seaman (Matelot) and Quartermaster (Quartier-maître) hat in French navy characterised by a small red pom-pom) walk on the island. In the past, French cruiser Jeanne d'Arc (R97) attended the festivities.
16 August is sailors and seamen day. A procession is held in remembrance of dead sailors. The programme is: election of beauty queens, dancing, competitions and fireworks, which begin from 14 August. Today, 15 and 16 August are very famous and are a festival of Caribbean music, where numerous artists attend. Terre-de-Bas island holds its festivities on 8 and 9 August. This is the commemoration of 9 August 1882, the creation of the municipality of Terre-de-Bas.
Sinterklaas: 6 December is the Patron saint's day of Terre-de-Bas Island (Saint Nicholas). Festival of the island.
Carnival is celebrated in February by wearing luxurious fancy dresses and masks in the streets under the rhythms of West Indian steel drums for fat days: Saturday, Sunday, Monday (at night in pyjamas), on Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) and on Ash Wednesday (wearing black and white, closing the carnival by the burning of the marionette Vaval, King of Carnival). People go to the church after the carnival for liturgical marking with ashes. A traditional mask, known in the creole as Mo-vivant ("zombie"), frightens the children, particularly during Fat Tuesday.
Local crafts
Crafts are still very prominent on the archipelago, which still produce typical objects:
the Salako, a traditional hat made from bamboo fibres, probably native of Indochina. It is a conical hat, traditionally covered with white fabric for the top and blue for the bottom, but also dressed in madras fabric; it is manufactured by the craftsmen of Terre-de-Bas.
The Saintoise, a fishing boat which is used in all the Lesser Antilles due to its reliability and its manoeuvrability. It is the work of the old marine carpenters of the island who have modernised it by motorising it. Its traditional shape is in veil and wood and is used during regattas today. Guadeloupe took back this tradition of les Saintes, and restored local sailing by creating an annual regatta which takes place in July, the TGVT (Guadeloupe Traditional Sail Tour). The saintoise is built in shipyards which receive orders from numerous Caribbean islands (e.g. shipyard Alain Foy, shipyard Pineau, etc.).
Embroidery, sewing, crochet, and weaving: coming from Breton and Norman ancestral traditions, the ladies of the island prepare basketwork in latan palm leaves, and sew. As well as parasols, slippers, baby clothes, curtains, place mats, mantillas, beddings and pillowcases embroidered or crocheted by the extraordinary dextrous ladies of the archipelago. Their products are sometimes exhibited in city halls and sold in front of the doors of their residences. The men make bow nets for fishing and weave the bamboo fibres for the bottoms of chairs and rocking chairs.
Furniture, model making and wooden toys: furniture (beds, sideboards, consoles, rocking chairs), and model boats are created by very skillful carpenters. Marionettes, cars (kabwa in Creole) and wooden traditional spinning tops are made on the island, and are still appreciated by the children.
The housing environment: Les Saintes is renowned for the charm and the cleanliness of its houses. Everything is minutely detailed: railings, doors with flaps, venetian blinds, the designs, and the decorative friezes covering gutters along the roof. Wood is still the most important material of local crafts.
Music
Like on all the islands of the Lesser Antilles, music livens up life of the people from les Saintes. The musicians who, in the past, occupied squares to play West Indian and French tunes with their accordions, violins and harmonicas are now replaced by small bands which provide rhythm to the parties and carnivals of the islands. (SOS band, Unison, Mélody Vice, Explosion, etc.)
The traditional music (Creole Quadrille, Biguine, mazouk from Martinique) is still present for the folk balls when the inhabitants wear their traditional costumes and sing the island's creole hymns Viv péyi an nou, viv les Saintes an nou ("Long live our country, long live our les Saintes") or Viv Terre-de-Haut ("Long live Terre-de-Haut") for official occasions such as ministerial visits or the island's patron saint's day on 15 August. Gwo ka music, contrary to on neighbouring Guadeloupe where it comes from, made only brief appearances to les Saintes, and has not integrated into Les Saintes traditions.
Haitian Compas music and the Guadeloupean combos of the 70s (les Aiglons, la Perfecta, etc.) are very appreciated and are played in all the celebrations of life (marriages, public baptisms, balls, etc.).
The Creole waltz remains the traditional emblem of the opening of the ball for the newlyweds of the archipelago.
Zouk, Salsa, Merengue, Dancehall, French and international varieties of music are popular with young people who dance to these rhythms in bars and clubs. Les Saintes have also inspired the Guadeloupean singer Francky Vincent who dedicated a title to the archipelago: Le tourment d'amour.
A singer from les Saintes called "Joyeux des cocotiers" who sang the songs La cousine and Pina colada coco loco became famous in the French Antilles as part of an illustrious band from Terre-de-Bas: L' Étoile des mers which created the titles: La vi péchè (L'an mè la enragé), Pwoblèm and Ti marin péchè.
Cuisine
The food of the islands is mainly composed of products of the sea and creole culinary dishes. These include fish Court-bouillon, Colombo (a creole dish of meat spiced with curry, curcuma, saffron and cumin), black pudding, and accras de Morue (saltfish). Some typical specialities are:
Le "Tourment d'amour": a small tartlet consisting of a pie crust pastry, with jam (traditionally coconut) wholly covered with a sponge cake. These tartlets are very widespread in the archipelago, and are sold at the port to the visitors arriving from the ferries. Every year, for the patron saint's day, a competition for the best and biggest "tourment d'amour" is held. They are now also made with jam of other tropical fruits, e.g. banana, guava, passion fruit and pineapple. Musician Francky Vincent praised these in one of his musical compositions.
Fish pancakes: to honour their ancestral roots, les Saintes''' people have created a pancake with the peculiarity of being filled by a fish stuffing and a bechamel sauce. It is baked in the oven and covered with dried breadcrumbs.
Fish cake: a fish terrine, baked in the oven and served fresh."Limbe": a small candy made on the island of Terre-de-Bas with tamarinds, sugar and condensed milk."Fwisu": a special preparation of goat blood, spiced with onion, thyme and garlic, served as a warm starter. It is similar to the Sanquette, a traditional dish of the regions of the South of France."Wog": a kind of local caviar - fish eggs, that les Saintes people prepare by frying. Mahi-mahi eggs are usually used.
Eugenia liqueur: small wild berries of les Saintes steeped in white rum to give a liqueur. When aged, it has a bigger flavour. It is considered to be the local wine due to its colour and taste.
Heritage and historical monuments "Caroline Artillery battery" (Morel hill) and "Modele Tower" (Chameau hill)
The French navy cemetery of Terre-de-Haut
The lighthouse of the port of Terre-de-HautThe "Bateau des îles", or the house in the shape of bow of ship (Terre-de-Haut)
The chapel of the Calvary (Terre-de-Haut)
The square of the Governor Lion or square of the port, with its coloured houses (Terre-de-Haut)
The ruins of the old pottery factory of "Grand Baie" (Terre-de-Bas)
St Nicholas' church (Terre-de-Bas)
The watchtower and ponds of "Abymes hill"'' (Terre-de-bas)
The typical district of Mapou and its factory of bay rum and essence of bay rum tree
The many beaches (Crawen, Pompierre, Anse Rodrigue, Anse Figuier, Marigot, Anse Mire, Grande-Anse, Anse à Dos, Anse à Cointre, etc.).
Transport
The transport on Terre-de-Haut mainly consists of scooters and motorcycles. Scooter rental companies are available to tourists. Cars are rare.
Small ferries make several daily connections between Terre-de-Bas, Terre-de-Haut, Trois-Rivières (Guadeloupe island), and Basse-Terre.
Other connections, essentially for tourists, are made several times a week to Pointe-à-Pitre, Grand-Bourg (Marie-Galante), Roseau (Dominica) or Fort-de-France (Martinique).
An aerodrome was built on Terre-de-Haut island in 1966. It has runway of .
See also
French Antilles
Fort Napoléon des Saintes
Notes
External links
Office Municipal du Tourisme de Terre de Haut, Les Saintes
Directory about the tourist activities on Terre de Haut & Terre de Bas, Les Saintes
1649 establishments in the French colonial empire
Dependencies of Guadeloupe |
4308598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism%20financing | Terrorism financing | Terrorism financing is the provision of funds or providing financial support to individual terrorists or non-state actors.
Most countries have implemented measures to counter terrorism financing (CTF) often as part of their money laundering laws. Some countries and multinational organisations have created a list of organisations that they regard as terrorist organisations, though there is no consistency as to which organisations are designated as being terrorist by each country. The Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) has made recommendations to members relating to CTF. It has created a Blacklist and Greylist of countries that have not taken adequate CTF action. As of 24 October 2019, the FATF blacklist (Call for action nations) only listed two countries for terrorism financing: North Korea and Iran; while the FATF greylist (Other monitored jurisdictions) had 12 countries: Pakistan (see Pakistan and state-sponsored terrorism), Bahamas, Botswana, Cambodia, Ghana, Iceland, Mongolia, Panama, Syria, Trinidad and Tobago, Yemen, and Zimbabwe. In general, the supply of funds to designated terrorist organisations is outlawed, though the enforcement varies.
Initially the focus of CTF efforts was on non-profit organizations, unregistered money services businesses (MSBs) (including so called underground banking or ‘Hawalas’) and the criminalisation of the act itself.
History
After September 11 attacks
The United States Patriot Act, passed after the September 11 attacks in 2001, gives the US government anti-money laundering powers to monitor financial institutions. The Patriot Act has generated a great deal of controversy in the United States since its enactment. The United States has also collaborated with the United Nations and other countries to create the Terrorist Finance Tracking Program.
Many initiatives have stemmed from the USA PATRIOT Act such as the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, which focuses specifically on money laundering and financial crimes.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 is a counter-terrorism measure intended to deny financing to terrorist organisations and individuals.
Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act, also known as USA PATRIOT Act, was also enacted in 2001. In 2009 the act aided in blocking around $20 million and another $280 million that came from State Sponsors of Terrorism.
In 2020, Veit Buetterlin, who conducted investigations on-site in more than 20 countries and who was kidnapped in course of his work, explained in an interview with CNN that the fight against terrorism financing will be an ongoing challenge (“it’s actually impossible to defeat a concept”). He noted that the world’s top 10 terrorist organizations have an estimated annual budget of USD 3.6 billion.
Methods used for terrorism funding
A number of countries and multinational organisations maintain lists of organisations that they designate as terrorist organisations, though there is no consistency as to which organisations are so designated. In the United States, the Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) maintains such a list. Financial transactions that benefit the designated terrorist organisations are usually outlawed.
Designated terrorist organisations may adopt a variety of strategies to get past efforts to prevent such funding. For example, they may make multiple smaller-value transfers in an attempt to bypass scrutiny; or they may use people who have no criminal backgrounds to complete financial transactions to try to make fund transfers harder to track. These transactions may also be disguised as donations to charities or as gifts to family members. Countries are not able to combat terrorism on their own, as corporate actors are needed to scan financial transactions themselves. If corporate actors do not comply with the state then penalties or regulatory sanctions may be applied.
Terrorists and terrorist organizations often use any resource of money they can have access to in order to fund themselves. This can range from the distribution of narcotics, black market oil, having businesses such as car dealerships, taxi companies, etc. ISIS is known to use black market oil distribution as a means of funding their terrorist activity.
The internet is a growing modern form of terrorist finance as it is able to protect the anonymity that it can provide to the donor and recipient. Terrorist organizations use propaganda in order to rally up financial support from those who follow them. They are also able to find funds through criminal activity on the internet such as stealing online banking information from people who are not correlated to these terrorist organizations. Terrorist organizations also use the front of being a charity to finance themselves. Al- Qaeda is a known terrorist organization that has used the internet in order to finance their organization, as through this platform they are able to reach a wider audience.
Money laundering
Often linked in legislation and regulation, terrorism financing and money laundering are conceptual opposites. Money laundering is the process where cash raised from criminal activities is made to look legitimate for re-integration into the financial system, whereas terrorism financing cares little about the source of the funds, but it is what the funds are to be used for that defines its scope.
An in-depth study of the symbiotic relationship between organised crime and terrorist organizations detected within the United States and other countries referred to as crime-terror nexus points has been published in the forensic literature.
The Perri, Lichtenwald and MacKenzie article emphasizes the importance of multi-agency working groups and the tools that can be used to identify, infiltrate, and dismantle organizations operating along the crime-terror nexus points.
Bulk cash smuggling and placement through cash-intensive businesses is one typology. They are now also moving monies through the new online payment systems. They also use trade linked schemes to launder monies. Nonetheless, the older systems have not given way. Terrorists also continue to move monies through MSBs/Hawalas, and through international ATM transactions. Charities also continue to be used in countries where controls are not so stringent.
Said and Cherif Kouachi, before the Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris, France in 2015, used transaction laundering to fund their activities. Examples included reselling counterfeit goods and drugs."This chain of funding shows a clear correlation between transaction laundering and terrorism, using legitimate marketplaces to conduct illegal activity (in this case, selling counterfeit shoes) and then using the proceeds to launder money for terrorists."
Preventing the funding of terrorism
AML and CTF both carry the notion of Know Your Customer (KYC), this entails financial organizations to have in person identification and to observe the lawfulness of the transaction in question. Although this methodology is not favoured by banks, lawyers or other professionals who are able to see the transaction of money or legal aid occurring, because of the business and client relationship that can be hurt through the process of personal identification. This can damage relationships between long term clients who need to prove their identity, and respected members of society do not want to be asked for personal identification every time.
The FATF Blacklist (the Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories list) mechanism was used to coerce countries to bring about change.
Suspicious activity
Operation Green Quest, a US multi-agency task force established in October 2001 with the official purpose of countering terrorism financing considers the following patterns of activity as indicators of the collection and movement of funds that could be associated with terrorism financing:
Account transactions that are inconsistent with past deposits or withdrawals such as cash, cheques, wire transfers, etc.
Transactions involving a high volume of incoming or outgoing wire transfers, with no logical or apparent purpose that come from, go to, or transit through locations of concern, that is sanctioned countries, non-cooperative nations and sympathizer nations.
Unexplainable clearing or negotiation of third party cheques and their deposits in foreign bank accounts.
Structuring at multiple branches or the same branch with multiple activities.
Corporate layering, transfers between bank accounts of related entities or charities for no apparent reasons.
Wire transfers by charitable organisations to companies located in countries known to be bank or tax havens.
Lack of apparent fund raising activity, for example a lack of small cheques or typical donations associated with charitable bank deposits.
Using multiple accounts to collect funds that are then transferred to the same foreign beneficiaries
Transactions with no logical economic purpose, that is, no link between the activity of the organization and other parties involved in the transaction.
Overlapping corporate officers, bank signatories, or other identifiable similarities associated with addresses, references and financial activities.
Cash debiting schemes in which deposits in the US correlate directly with ATM withdrawals in countries of concern. Reverse transactions of this nature are also suspicious.
Issuing cheques, money orders or other financial instruments, often numbered sequentially, to the same person or business, or to a person or business whose name is spelled similarly.
It would be difficult to determine by such activity alone whether the particular act was related to terrorism or to organized crime. For this reason, these activities must be examined in context with other factors in order to determine a terrorism financing connection. Simple transactions can be found to be suspect and money laundering derived from terrorism will typically involve instances in which simple operations had been performed (retail foreign exchange operations, international transfer of funds) revealing links with other countries including FATF blacklisted countries. Some of the customers may have police records, particularly for trafficking in narcotics and weapons and may be linked with foreign terrorist groups. The funds may have moved through a state sponsor of terrorism or a country where there is a terrorism problem. A link with a Politically exposed person (PEP) may ultimately link up to a terrorism financing transaction. A charity may be a link in the transaction. Accounts (especially student) that only receive periodic deposits withdrawn via ATM over two months and are dormant at other periods could indicate that they are becoming active to prepare for an attack.
Nation specific actions
Pakistan
As at 24 October 2019, Pakistan was on the FATF greylist for terrorism financing and has met only 5 of 27 action items, and it has been given four months to comply with the remaining action points for the prevention of terror financing. As of 2022 Pakistan is compliant on most of the action plan but continues to be on the list.
Bahrain
Bahrain has been regularly accused of doing very little to prevent the flow of funds for the terrorism financing in other nations.
Qatar
Qatar interactions with militants includes financing Hamas.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia faces accusations of not doing enough to stop terrorism financing by private actors.
A recent report by FATF highlighted serious deficiencies in Saudi Arabia's efforts to counter terrorism. Terrorism financing budding in Saudi Arabia became an important source of funding for al-Qaeda and other terrorist organizations.
In a leaked classified memo, Hillary Clinton said that in 2009 the kingdom was a crucial source of funds to Sunni terrorist groups, including al-Qaeda, the Taliban and Lashkar-e-Taiba pointing to its intelligence incompetence.
In 2019, the European Commission added Saudi Arabia, along with several other countries, to its blacklist list of states that have failed to control money laundering and terrorism financing. Saudi Arabia has been accused of not making enough effort to control the huge amounts of money being transferred to Islamist extremists and terrorist groups.
United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates had been accused of being a financial hub for terrorist organisations. The UAE banking system was found to be involved in the attacks on 11 September 2001 against the United States carried out by al-Qaeda. The 9/11 terrorists had bank accounts in the UAE. Executing the attack cost the terrorist group around $400,000–500,000, out of which $300,000 was transacted via one of the hijackers’ bank accounts in the US. The movement of funds took place with the help of both public banking systems and the Al Qaeda established Hawala networks.
According to the 9/11 Commission Report, in response to concerns that the UAE banking system had been used by 9/11 hijackers to launder funds, the UAE adopted legislation giving the Central Bank in 2002 the power to freeze suspect accounts for 7 days without prior legal authorisation. The report stated "banks have been advised to carefully monitor transactions passing through the UAE from Saudi Arabia and Pakistan and are now subject to more stringent transaction and client reporting requirements." The UAE government has since affirmed its stance and policy of zero tolerance towards terrorism financing.
Australia
Australian anti terrorism financing laws include:
Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth):
section 102.6 (getting funds to, from or for a terrorist organisation)
section 102.7 (providing support to a terrorist organisation)
section 103.1 (financing terrorism)
section 103.2 (financing a terrorist), and
section 119.4(5) (giving or receiving goods and services to promote the commission of a foreign incursion offence).
Charter of the United Nations Act 1945 (Cth):
section 20 (dealing with freezable assets), and
section 21 (giving an asset to a proscribed person or entity).
These offences sanction persons and entities under Australian and international law. The responsibility of prosecuting these offences in Australia rests with the Australian Federal Police, State police forces and the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions.
Germany
In July 2010, Germany outlawed the Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation (IHH), saying it has used donations to support projects in Gaza that are related to Hamas, which is considered by the European Union to be a terrorist organization, while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian help. German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, "Donations to so-called social welfare groups belonging to Hamas, such as the millions given by IHH, actually support the terror organization Hamas as a whole."
According to a research conducted by the Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, Hezbollah is financed through non-profit organizations such as the “Orphans Project Lebanon”, a German-based charity for Lebanese orphans. It found that it had been donating portions of its contributions to a foundation which finances the families of Hezbollah members who commit suicide bombings.
The European Foundation for Democracy published that the “Orphans Project Lebanon” organization directly channels financial donations from Germany to the Lebanese Al-Shahid Association, which is part of the Hezbollah network and promotes suicide bombings in Lebanon, particularly among children. In Germany, financial donations to the Orphans Project Lebanon are tax-deductible and thus subsidized by the German State's tax policy.
In 2018, an investigation by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) called “Operation Cedar” led to the arrest of Hezbollah operatives involved in laundering millions of euros in South American drug money to Europe and Lebanon. One of the operatives arrested was Hassan Tarabolsi, a German citizen who manages a worldwide money laundering business. Tarabolsi represents the close connection between the criminal operation and the leaders of Hezbollah.
India
India has been a victim of terrorism and has campaigned for linking of the IMF's macroprudential regulation and lending policies with key provisions of FATF's anti-money laundering (AML) and countering financing of terrorism (CFT) to significantly enhance its IMF member nation's compliance on these issues which cause a threat to the global economy. India also seeks to link these IMF policies with the secrecy jurisdictions, cyber-risks and tax havens.
Spain
In February 2019, the Spanish Treasury, through the Commission for the Prevention of Money Laundering and Monetary Offences (SEPBLAC), published their strategy for preventing the financing of terrorism.
United Kingdom
In the UK, the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989, put in place in 1989, helped to prevent the financing of terrorism. This was more so to help shut down the funding of the Republican and Loyalist paramilitaries in Northern Ireland. Income sources for the Irish Republican and Loyalist paramilitaries came from gambling machines, cab companies and charitable donations in Northern Ireland, which provided the overwhelming bulk of revenue in the Troubles (1969–1998).
Republic of Ireland
The Offences against the State Acts 1939–1998 criminalises many actions deemed detrimental to the security of the Republic of Ireland. An organisation can be made subject to a suppression order under the act, after which being a member of or directing or fundraising the activities of such an unlawful organisation becomes an offence. During the Troubles (1969–1998), the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were proscribed under these measures.
However during the conflict, the Republic of Ireland was a primary source of funds, arms (mostly IEDs of Irish origin), training camps, bomb factories, and safe houses for the Irish Republican cause more than any other group or nation on earth in the conflict. Overseas donations, including $12 million in cash from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and $3.6 million raised by NORAID in America for the Republican cause (but not necessarily directly to the IRA coffers), were often overexaggerated and actually really small. Most or nearly all of the revenue for the IRA came from legitimate and criminal activities within Ireland such as protection rackets, bank robberies, black taxies, fraud, and money laundering, all which contributed to the longevity of the conflict as it enabled the group to buy enough guns and explosives.
Supranational organizations
European Union
European Union has undertaken several actions against money laundering and terror funding. This includes production of following reports and implementation of their corresponding recommendations: Supranational Risk Assessment Report (SNRA), Report on publicly known anti-money laundering cases involving EU banks, Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) report, interconnection of central bank account registries.
United Nations
Article 2.1 of the 1999 Terrorist Financing Convention defines the crime of terrorist financing as the offense committed by "any person" who "by any means, directly or indirectly, unlawfully and willfully, provides or collects funds with the intention that they should be used or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in full or in part, in order to carry out" an act "intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act."
The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1373 after the 9/11 attacks. This outlined that states were not allowed to provide financing to terrorist organizations, allow safe havens to them and that information regarding terrorist groups had to be shared with other governments.
A committee was formed in the United Nations that were in charge of gathering a list of organizations and people who had ties with terrorism or were suspected of terrorism whose financial accounts needed to be frozen and that no financial institutes would be able to do trade with them.
Evasive actions of terrorist organisations
Al-Qassam Brigades appealing for Bitcoin
In January 2019, the military wing of Hamas, known as the al-Qassam Brigades, began a campaign to get supporters to donate USD. Soon after announcing its intention to crowdfund through Bitcoin, the al-Qassam Brigades provided a Bitcoin address to which donors could send funds and posted infographics and tutorials about Bitcoin on social media.
See also
Alms for Jihad
Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre
FBI
Financial crime
Funding Evil
List of charities accused of ties to terrorism
Money laundering
Organized crime
Stephen Flatow
The Establishment
Terrorism in Australia
White-collar crime
References
9/11 Commission Report
Further reading
Adams, James. The Financing of Terror. Sevenoaks, Kent: New English Library, 1986.
American Foreign Policy Council. Confronting Terrorism Financing. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2005.
Biersteker, Thomas J., and Sue E. Eckert. Countering the Financing of Terrorism. London: Routledge, 2008.
Clarke, C.P. Terrorism, Inc.: The Financing of Terrorism, Insurgency, and Irregular Warfare. ABC-CLIO, 2015.
, Sean S., and David Gold. Terrornomics. Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007.
Ehrenfeld, Rachel. Funding Evil: How Terrorism Is Financed—and How to Stop It. Chicago: Bonus Books, 2003.
Freeman, Michael. Financing Terrorism Case Studies. Farnham: Ashgate, 2011.
Giraldo, Jeanne K., and Harold A. Trinkunas. Terrorism Financing and State Responses: A Comparative Perspective. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 2007.
Martin, Gus, and Harvey W. Kushner. The Sage Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications, 2011.
Pieth, Mark. Financing Terrorism. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002.
Schott, Paul Allan. Reference Guide to Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2006.
Vittori, Jodi. Terrorist Financing and Resourcing. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
External links
US Department of State International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), annual report issued in March every year. Essential reading for all compliance officers for evaluating country money laundering risk
US FinCEN (the US FIU) - Periodic SAR Reviews
UK SOCA (merges NCIS (the UK FIU) - the UK Threat Assessment
Compliance Web Search - A Google-powered vertical search engine designed to facilitate and accelerate the account vetting process for financial institutions
Financial Market Integrity Unit, The World Bank
International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research - Strategic Counter Terrorism - Financial Response
The funding of international islamic terrorism ~ Strategic analysis profiles ~ Guardia di Finanza General Headquarters - 2nd Department – Analysis Unit
The Terror Finance Blog - Blog on all aspects of terrorism financing written by a group of independent analysts
The Financial Action Task Force website
World-Check.com - For negative news and sanctions screening.
Commercial crimes |
4308757 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20West%20Bengal | Geography of West Bengal | The Geography of West Bengal, a state in eastern India, is primarily defined by plains and plateaus, with the high peaks of the Himalayas in the north and the Bay of Bengal to the south.
Location and extent
West Bengal is on the eastern neck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. It lies between 85 degree 50 minutes and 89 degree 50 minutes east longitude, and 21 degrees 25 minutes and 27 degrees 13 minutes north latitude. The state has a total area of . With Bangladesh on its eastern border, the state forms the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. To its northeast lie the states of Assam and Sikkim and the country of Bhutan. To its southwest is the state of Odisha. To the west, it borders the states of Jharkhand and Bihar, and to the northwest, Nepal. The capital of the state is Kolkata, the third-largest urban agglomeration and the seventh-largest city in India.
Political geography
There are 30 districts and 5 divisions in West Bengal. The Burdwan Division consists of Paschim Bardhaman, Purba Bardhaman, Birbhum, and Hooghly; Medinipur division consists of Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur, Jhargram, Bankura and Purulia; the Jalpaiguri Division consists of Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Kalimpong; the Malda division consists of Uttar Dinajpur, Dakshin Dinajpur, Murshidabad and Malda, and the Presidency Division consists of Kolkata, Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas and Howrah. The newly added 7 districts are Ranaghat, Jangipur, Berhampur, Bishnupur, Sundarban, Icchemati and Bashirhat.
Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. Often, the districts north of the Ganges (i.e., Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, kalimpong, Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur, and Malda) are together called North Bengal.
The capital of the state is Kolkata – the third-largest urban agglomeration and the seventh-largest city in India. Asansol is the second largest city and urban agglomeration in West Bengal after Kolkata. Siliguri is an economically important city, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India. Other major cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah, Durgapur, Raniganj, Haldia, Jalpaiguri, Kharagpur, Burdwan, Darjeeling, Midnapore, and Malda.
Landforms
Darjeeling Himalayan hill region
Darjeeling Himalayan hill region is situated to the north of the state. This region belongs to the Eastern Himalaya range. The entire Darjeeling district (except the Siliguri subdivision and northern parts of Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar districts) falls under this zone, which starts abruptly from the Terai region. The deep gorges of Teesta River, which runs from north to south have divided this mountainous region into two parts: the western mountains (west of Teesta) and the eastern mountains (east of Teesta).
The western mountains
The western mountains are the higher part of Darjeeling Himalayan range, with an average height of . They spread from Nepal border to the Teesta river, and primarily consist of two mountain ranges: the Singalila Range and the Darjeeling range. The Singalila Range is located along the border of Darjeeling district and Nepal. It separates West Bengal from Nepal. Singalila starts from Western Sikkim and penetrates into Darjeeling district. It has four important peaks higher than 3,000 m: Sandakphu (3,636 m), Phalut (3,595 m), Sabargram (3,543 m), and Tonglu (3,036 m). Among the Himalayan ranges of this region, Singalila Range hosts Sandakphu (3,636 m), the highest peak in West Bengal. Kanchenjunga (the world's 3rd highest peak), Everest (world's highest peak), Lhotse (world's 4th highest peak), and Makalu (world's 5th highest peak) can be seen from the Singalila Range.
The Darjeeling range rises steadily from Terai area. Located within this range, Ghum railway station (2,258 m) is the highest rail station in India. The famous Tiger Hill (2,567 m) is situated at the middle of this mountain chain and is a viewpoint from which some of the world's tallest peaks can be seen, including Kanchenjunga, Everest, Lhotse, and Makalu. Three minor mountain chains start from Tiger Hill: Darjeeling Lebong in the north, Takdah Peshok in the northeast, and Bagora Dowhill in the south. Sinchal (2,615 m) is one of the well-known peaks here.
The eastern mountains
The eastern side of the Darjeeling Himalayan mountains are lower than the western side, with an average altitude of . Durpin Dara and Chola are two major mountain chains of this part.
The Durpin Dara chain holds the highest peak of eastern part: Rishila, at . There are two peaks, Renigango (1,885 m) and Chhoto Sinchula (1726m) to the north of Jalpaiguri district. The Buxa hill is located at the east end of this region. Sangchuli is the highest peak of the Buxa hills. Kalimpong town is one of the well-known towns of this area.
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (simply known as "toy train") has been listed in UNESCO world heritage sites.
Terai region
The Teesta River divides the area into two parts: the Terai to the west and the Dooars (or Duars) to the east. The Dooars region can be further subdivided into the Siliguri (Western) Dooars, the Jalpaiguri (Middle) Dooars, and the Alipur (Eastern) Dooars.
The Terai ("moist land") is a belt of marshy grasslands, savannas, and forests at the base of the Himalaya range stretching southwards about 38 km. Above the Terai belt lies the Bhabar, a forested belt of rock, gravel, and soil eroded from the Himalayas. The Terai zone is composed of alternate layers of clay and sand, with a high water table that creates many springs and wetlands. The Terai zone is inundated yearly by the monsoon-swollen rivers of the Himalayas. The Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands is an ecoregion that stretches across the middle of the Terai belt, consisting of tall grasslands, savannas, evergreen forests, and deciduous forests.
The Terai and Dooars region politically constitute the plains of Darjeeling District, the whole of Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar district, and the upper region of Cooch Behar District in West Bengal. The slope of the land is gentle, from north to south. The general height of the land is 80–100 m. The entire region is made up of sand, gravel, and pebbles laid down by Himalayan rivers including the Teesta, Torsa, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Sankosh, and Mahananda.
North Bengal plains
The North Bengal plains start from the south of Terai region and continue up to the left bank of the Ganges. The southern parts of the district Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur baring some extreme northern regions, South Dinajpur, Malda, Alipurduar and southern part of Cooch Behar districts constitute this geographical region. The narrow land mass in the North Dinajpur district is known as Mahananda Corridor. This corridor runs north to south joining Malda with the plains of Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar. The entire part of North and South Dinajpur is silt laden plain.
The Mahananda River divides the district of Malda into two parts. The eastern part (known as Barind or Barendrabhumi) consists of undulating plains and tilas, and is made up of old alluvium and is part of the Ganges Delta. In contrast, the western part is made up of new alluvium, and here the Kalindi River joins the Mahananda River. The area north of the Kalindi River is a lowland covered with swamps and beels (small water bodies) and is known as tal. In contrast, the area south of the Kalindi is a very fertile land and is known as diara.
The plain south of Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, and Cooch Behar district is also made of new alluvium deposited by numerous rivers including the Teesta, Torsa, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Sankosh, Balason, Punarbhaba, and Atrai.
Rarh region
Rarh is the region that intervenes between the Vajjabhumi and the Ganges Delta. This region is composed of parts of the districts Murshidabad, Birbhum, Bankura, Purba Bardhaman, Paschim Bardhaman, Purba Medinipur, and Paschim Medinipur. The region is about 50–100 m above sea level, and is believed to consist of soil from the Deccan plateau. The area is formed by the silt brought by the tributaries of the Bhagirathi, Mayurakshi River, Ajay River, Damodar, and Rupnarayan rivers, which flow through the red laterite soil of the western plateau region. The land is sloped from west to southeast, and the formation of natural levees along the riverbanks is a common phenomenon.
Coastal plain
A small coastal region is on the extreme south of the state. A part of the district of Purba Medinipur along the Bay of Bengal constitutes the coastal plain. This emergent coastal plain is made up of sand and mud deposited by rivers and wind. Parallel to the coast are areas of sand dunes and marsh. The Digha dunes lie nearest to the Bay of Bengal, while the Kanthi dunes are the farthest from it. In some areas, dunes occur at a distance of 15–16 km from the coast and are 11–12 m high.
Western plateau and high lands
The western part of Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Bardhaman, and Paschim Medinipur districts constitute the western plateau and highlands, which form the eastern fringes of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Geologically, this area is made of igneous rocks of the Archaean era as well as coal-bearing mudstone and quartzite rocks of Carboniferous period. Because of long and continuous erosion, the whole region has been transformed into an undulating peneplain. This area is interspersed by small monadnocks locally known as tila. Some of the important hills in the area include Ajodhya Hills (677 m), Panchet (643 m), and Baghmundi in Purulia, and Biharinath (452 m) and Susunia (442 m) in Bankura. Gorgaburu in the Ayodhya Hills (677 m) is the highest point in the region.
The average altitude in the area ranges from 100 to 500 m. The area has a slope from the west to the east.
There are some badlands in this region. The Sinhati Badlands are located 4 km northwest of Bishnupur town in the Sinhati area of Bankura district. The Gangani (or Garbheta) Badlands are located in Paschim Midinipur district beside river Shilabati. These badlands are also known as Grand Canyon of West Bengal.
Ganges delta
The Ganges Delta covers the entirety of Nadia, Kolkata, North 24 Parganas, and South 24 Parganas districts, and the eastern half of Murshidabad district. The Ganges passes through this vast area and divides into three distinct parts: the old delta, the mature delta, and the active delta.
The old delta consists of the districts of Murshidabad and Nadia. The formation of delta is complete and the rivers here are heavily silted and many have even dried up over time. Silted rivers, swamps, beels, and oxbow lakes form the area. This area is also known as Bagri region.
The districts of Kolkata and North 24 Parganas form mature delta region. The rivers are slow and meandering and frequently shift their courses. Swamps, beels, and oxbow lakes characterise the scenery. The district of South 24 Parganas is known to be the active delta of the Ganges, where the formation of the delta is still an ongoing process.
Agro-climatic groups
Depending on soil and climate variations, West Bengal can be divided into six broad divisions:
The hill region in the north
The Terai and Teesta alluvial region of North Bengal
The laterectic, red and gravely undulating region in the west
The coastal alluvial region in the south
The Gangetic alluvial region in the east
The Vindhya alluvial region in the centre
Rivers
The Ganges enters West Bengal near Rajmahal and then flows in a southeasterly direction. It divides in two near north of Dhulian in Murshidabad district. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma (or Pôdda), while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi and Hooghly River in a southern direction. The Bhagirathi-Hooghly is the main river in West Bengal, and flows past some of the important cities like Murshidabad, Baharampur, Nabadwip, Chinsurah, Chandannagar, Srirampur, Howrah, Kolkata, Diamond Harbour, and Haldia. It empties into Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island in the South 24 Parganas district.
Numerous rivers flow eastwards through West Bengal and join the Bhagirathi on the right bank. These include:
The Mayurakshi River—which is fed by the Brahmani, Dwarka, Bakreshwar, and Kopai—joins the Bhagirathi near Kandi, Murshidabad.
The Ajay River, which rises in the hills of Bihar and is joined by the Kunur, flows down the plateau fringe, marking the boundary between Bardhaman and Birbhum districts and joining the Bhagirathi near Katwa.
The Damodar River joins the Bhagirathi near Uluberia. The river is also known as "the sorrow of Bengal", and controlled by the Damodar Valley Project.
The Dwarakeswar and Shilabati rivers join to form the Rupnarayan River. The Kangsabati and Keleghai rivers join to form the Haldi River. The Rupnarayan and Haldi then join the Bhagirathi in the East Midnapur district.
The Subarnarekha River, after flowing for a short distance in West Bengal, re-enters into Orissa.
Similarly, several rivers flow westwards into West Bengal and join the Bhagirathi on its left bank. These include:
The Bhairab River and the Jalangi River, which join together (then known as Jalangi) before joining the Bhagirathi.
The Mathabhanga River, which divides into two branches: the Churni and Ichhamati. The Churni meets the Bhagirathi, while the Ichhamati flows southwards and joins the Kalindi River.
These rivers carry with them plenty of water, keeping the Bhagirathi River submerged with water throughout the year. The rivers also carry silt and sand eroded from the western plateaus and deposit them in the Bhagirathi. This silting causes trouble for the Kolkata Port and often causes flooding during years of heavy rain.
The Sunderbans region is covered by numerous estuaries and streams, mainly distributaries of main rivers. The rivers are interconnected and are fed by tidal waters. The major rivers of the area are the Hooghly, Matla, Gosaba, Saptamukhi, Haribhanga, Piyali, Thakuran (or Jamira), Raimangal, Kalindi, and Ichhamati.
The Teesta River cuts deep gorges from north to south in the mountainous Darjeeling district. It then enters the plains at Sevoke and flows in a mighty stream in a straight line towards the southeast, until it pours into the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh.
The Torsa, Jaldhaka, Kaljani, Raidak, Sankosh, and Mahananda rivers originate in the northern hilly region which rise in the Himalayas and flow in a southerly direction through the districts of Darjeeling, Alipurduar, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar and North and South Dinajpur, before entering Bangladesh. As most of the rivers are fed by snow, they are perennial in nature and often flood during the rainy season. The entire region is made up of sand, gravel, and pebbles laid down by these rivers. The Mahananda rises from the Dow Hills forest, near the town of Darjeeling, and runs in a zig-zag course through the district of Malda and joins the Padma in Bangladesh. In the central region, the main river is the Mahananda. The Tangon, Punarbhabha, and Atrai rivers arise in the plains; the former two join and flow into the Mahanadi, while the Atrai flows into the Padma.
Wetlands
The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world, situated in the South 24 Parganas district. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are both UNESCO world heritage sites, separately listed as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats, and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and present an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes.
The average elevation of the area is 10 m. This area has been created by the deposition of silt from its numerous rivers—the Hooghly, Matla, Jamira, Gosaba, Saptamukhi, and Haribhanga—and their tributaries. The formation of the delta is an ongoing process, and new bars and islands are being created along the rivers and at the river mouth. A large percentage of the area is underwater during incoming tides.
The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the royal Bengal tiger, but numerous species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles, and snakes also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
Climate
West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savannah in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with daily high temperatures ranging from to . At nights, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
In early summer, brief squalls and thunderstorms known as kal-baisakhi often arrive from the north or northwest. Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian Ocean monsoon that moves in a northwest direction. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average daily low temperatures of . A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. However, the Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall at places.
Natural resources
West Bengal stands third in India in terms of mineral production by state, contributing about one-fifth of the total mineral production of the country.
Coal constitutes 99% of the minerals extracted in West Bengal. West Bengal is the third largest state for coal production, accounting for about half of India's total. Coal is extracted from about 228 mines in the Raniganj and Asansol region of Bardhaman district. High grade bituminous coal is mined at Raniganj, Dishergarh, Santaldih, Kulti, Barakar, Ghushik, and Kajora. Coalfields stretch over an area of about . The coalfields of Raniganj support the Asansol-Durgapur industrial belt by providing fuel to the industries as well as generation of thermal power. Lignite mined in Darjeeling is used to make briquettes. Coal deposits are also found along the Ajoy river in Birbhum district.
Fireclay and china clay are also mined. West Bengal ranks next to Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in production of fireclay. Most of this mineral is extracted in the Raniganj region, along with a small quantity extracted from Birbhum and Purulia. In 1993–94, 124,000 metric tons of fireclay were produced in West Bengal. China clay—used in the pottery, paper, textile, rubber, and paint industries—is unearthed at Mohammad Bazar in Birbhum and Mejia in Bankura. The rest of the production comes from Purulia, Bardhaman, Darjeeling, and Jalpaiguri.
Limestone, copper, iron ore, wolframite, manganese, and dolomite are also mined in small quantities. Limestone—used in the cement industry—is mined in Bankura, Purulia, Darjeeling, and Jalpaiguri. There are copper mines in Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling. Small quantities of low-quality iron ore are mined in Bardhaman, Purulia, Birbhum, and Darjeeling. There is manganese in the Jhargram region of Paschim Medinipur, Purulia, and Bardhaman. Wolframite is mined at Jhilimili in Bankura. The state's production of dolomite comes from the Dooars region of Jalpaiguri. 38.5 thousand tonnes of dolomite were raised in 1993–94.
There are possible deposits of mineral oil and natural gas in the areas near the Bay of Bengal, in Purba Medinipur, Sundarbans, South 24 Parganas, and North Bengal plains. Research is ongoing in various places to locate natural gas.
References
Environment of West Bengal |
4308762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sin%20City%20characters | List of Sin City characters | Sin City is a series of stories by Frank Miller, told in comic book form in a film noir-like style.
Listed below are the major and minor characters.
Recurring characters
Male protagonists
Marv, a hulking, violent giant of a man, who possesses an uncanny athleticism along with remarkable endurance for pain. As an ex-con, he spends his time on the streets doing odd jobs for various people. He is described as an "over the hill do-gooder" by several people, and admires long overcoats, taking them from those he kills. He suffers from an unknown mental condition (most likely some form of dementia) that causes him to, as Marv describes, "get confused." His symptoms seem to involve experiencing short-term memory loss and possibly hallucinations. Lucille, his parole officer, supplies Marv with medication to control these effects of his condition, though he doesn't seem to be supplied with anything that would curb his violent nature. His personal code of honor dictates the repayment of debts and a sort of chivalry towards women. He is a classic example of a noir anti-hero. Creator Frank Miller describes Marv as "Conan in a trench coat" in the book Sin City: The Making of the Movie. Marv is portrayed by Mickey Rourke in the film adaptation and its sequel.
Dwight McCarthy, a private investigator-turned-vigilante and a close ally of the Old Town girls. In his first appearance (A Dame to Kill For), Dwight is manipulated by his ex-lover Ava Lord into killing her husband and then betrayed by her, leaving him a wanted murderer. Gail and the Old Town girls surgically reconstructed his face, drastically changing his identity and allowing him to take revenge. He is thus deeply in debt to the women of Old Town and will go to great lengths to aid them, to the point of singlehandedly starting a mob war to avenge a murdered prostitute. Dwight is highly intelligent, a skilled marksman, and an intimidating physical fighter. Elements of Dwight's personality and of the stories which feature him prominently frequently evoke other hardboiled figures common to noir, crime and mystery fiction genres, especially Raymond Chandler's Philip Marlowe character. Dwight is portrayed by Clive Owen in the film adaptation and by Josh Brolin in its sequel.
Detective John Hartigan, An honest, determined 60-year-old ex-con/ex-cop with a severe heart condition (angina). Hartigan was one of the few honorable cops on the Basin City Police force. On his last night on the job he saved Nancy Callahan from being raped and murdered by Roark Junior when she was 11 years old, only to be framed and imprisoned for the crime himself. He has a distinguishing X-shaped scar on his forehead, which is a tribute to Harry Callahan of the Dirty Harry film series, Miller's inspiration for the character. Portrayed by Bruce Willis in the film adaptation and its sequel.
Wallace, a fit, long-haired artist-turned-vigilante hero who falls in love with and then rescues Esther from The Colonel's organ-harvesting scheme. He is a former Navy SEAL and was awarded the Medal of Honor. Wallace is portrayed as an unbeatable fighter, though he prefers to avoid fighting whenever possible. Unlike the other Sin City protagonists, especially Marv and Dwight, he has no reluctance to kill a woman; killing Delia and Maxine in cold blood. Until going on a killing spree to save Esther, Wallace seems to be the most law-abiding person in Sin City.
Female protagonists
Goldie and Wendy, beautiful identical twin prostitutes who are in charge of Old Town. Little is known about Goldie, who is killed after learning too much about the Roark family farm at the beginning of The Hard Goodbye, and she is seen mainly through the eyes of Marv, who is stunned when she offers herself to him in exchange for protection and considers her "an angel." Wendy is a tough, hot-tempered leader who is quick to avenge any wrong done to the girls in her care. After she delivers a vicious beating to Marv, who she believes to be her sister's murderer, he notes that Goldie must have been "the nice one." However, once Wendy comes to understand Marv's motives and intentions for his quest, and the lengths he will go to see them through, she softens to him, becoming his helper throughout The Hard Goodbye. Wendy is the last visitor Marv receives before his execution, and she spends the night with him. She tells him that he can call her by her sister's name that last night. They likely make love although that is never shown. After Marv is killed she is never seen without his crucifix around her neck. Goldie and Wendy are portrayed by Jaime King in the film adaptation and its sequel.
Nancy Callahan, an angelic erotic dancer at Kadie's bar, she is the only character to appear in each of the 7 volumes of Sin City, usually as a silent presence dancing on stage. In "That Yellow Bastard" it is revealed that she was saved by Det. John Hartigan when she was 11 years old (roughly 12 years before The Hard Goodbye) from the murderous pedophile Roark Junior. His actions to protect her in adulthood are the focus of that book. She is also a good friend to Marv, who often doubles as her protector. Portrayed by Jessica Alba (as an adult) and Makenzie Vega (as an 11-year-old girl) in the film adaptation and by Alba in its sequel.
Gail, a prostitute, dominatrix and one of the leaders of the Old Town community, second only to the Twins. Standing 6 feet tall and wearing an outfit made of a combination of leather, fishnet stockings and metal studs, (and occasionally bondage masks,) she has a love/hate relationship with Dwight McCarthy. Indeed, the reason Dwight is still alive at all is 'that one fiery night when she was mine' and the unrequited love she feels for him; in A Dame to Kill For, when the girls of Old Town are deliberating whether or not to kill Dwight, Gail states that he is the only man she has ever loved, and that if he dies, she wants to die with him. Her preferred weapon is an Uzi submachine gun. Portrayed by Rosario Dawson in the film adaptation and its sequel.
Miho, often referred to as "Deadly Little Miho" by Dwight, is a highly skilled, incredibly dangerous assassin who serves as an enforcer and defender of Old Town. She never speaks. Among her arsenal are twin katana samurai swords, throwing stars in the shape of a Manji, and a Mongolian-styled longbow. She is often seen on roller blades and is capable of killing several men while skating. She owes a debt of honor to Dwight for saving her life, and he is the only male she interacts with on a friendly basis. Dwight likens her to a cat, in that she uses her swords to "play" with her opponent by dodging her opponent while hitting them in return. She is especially sadistic if the opponent uses anti-Japanese racial slurs. Frank Miller considers the character to be a "supernatural being" of Sin City that characterizes a "good demon." Portrayed by Devon Aoki in the film adaptation and Jamie Chung in its sequel.
Esther, a depressed, lonely, suicidal actress whom Wallace saves from drowning in Hell and Back, and whose kidnapping sets him on a one-man mission to rescue her.
Male antagonists
Kevin is a mute serial killer who resides at "The Farm", a shadowy retreat owned by the powerful Roark family. Though he is never shown speaking a single word, his erstwhile protector Cardinal Roark claims that he has the voice of an angel. He kills prostitutes, mounts their heads on a wall like hunting trophies, and eats their remains, giving the leftovers to his pet wolf. He is sheltered by Cardinal Roark, to whom he supposedly confessed being tormented by guilt over his crimes. Being close with Cardinal Roark, he is also well known to the family and is good friends with Roark Junior. He appears as a small, shadowy figure with occasionally glowing glasses and razor-sharp fingernails that he uses as weapons. Kevin is preternaturally quick and silent, and ferociously skilled at martial arts. Marv laments that Kevin is the only person to have ever successfully snuck up on him, and is also the only person to beat him in single combat; Marv only defeats Kevin in their rematch by luring him in close and handcuffing himself to Kevin so that Kevin's trademark speed is useless. Despite suffering a gruesome and lingering death by Marv's hands, Kevin does not scream once, staring placidly straight ahead even as his pet wolf begins to eat him. Portrayed by Elijah Wood in the film adaptation.
Cardinal Patrick Henry Roark, a Catholic Cardinal, is brother to Senator Roark. Roark occasionally uses Kevin (who is akin to a son) as his personal assassin, and even joins him in his cannibalistic rituals. He is killed by Marv in an unspecified (but implied to be extremely gruesome and painful) way. Portrayed by Rutger Hauer in the film adaptation.
Manute, a huge African American man, typically dressed as a valet, who is very gentlemanly and polite in all situations, even while committing homicide, who served Ava Lord and is later recruited by the Colonel and Wallenquist. He is, like Marv, nearly indestructible, having been crucified (by Miho), shot repeatedly (by Dwight), beat up numerous times (by Marv and Wallace), and relieved of an eye (again, by Marv). Manute is finally gunned down by Old Town hookers during 'The Big Fat Kill'. In the deleted scenes of the film, he was shown to have escaped from the assault by the Old Town girls with Schutz and another thug, only to be sliced in half by Miho in an alley way. Portrayed by Michael Clarke Duncan in the film adaptation and Dennis Haysbert in its sequel.
Alarich Wallenquist / The Kraut, the mysterious and powerful leader of the Sin City mob. His goal is merely to achieve power and profit, regardless of what underhanded methods can lead him to that goal. Unlike the other antagonists, however, he is somewhat an honorable person, as he sees revenge as an unnecessary extravagance and will often take losses, (such as his enforcers' defeat in The Big Fat Kill and Hell and Back, even the death of Bruno in Family Values,) with a fair amount of dignity. He also proves to be one of the few men able to resist Ava Lord's wiles. Portrayed by Stacy Keach in the sequel.
Lieutenant Jack "Iron Jack" Rafferty / "Jackie Boy", is Shellie's abusive former boyfriend. Miho kills him and his four buddies after they threaten Becky with a gun. His spirit later haunts Dwight's imagination, and his murder is what precipitates 'the big fat kill' of the title. Despite his blatant alcoholism and abusive behavior towards women, Rafferty is a well-respected hero cop, having ascended to the ranks of Lieutenant. He was given the moniker "Iron Jack" by the newspapers. Portrayed by Benicio del Toro in the film adaptation.
Ethan Roark Jr. / That Yellow Bastard, is the son of Senator Roark. He is handsome, young, and rich; he is also a sadistic child molester and serial killer who rapes and murders prepubescent girls, a pastime covered up by his father and the Basin City police. In That Yellow Bastard, Hartigan shoots off Junior's left ear, right hand and genitals while rescuing an 11-year-old Nancy Callahan, and Sen. Roark pays millions in physical rehabilitation treatments to rebuild him. Due to these treatments, however, his body cannot process waste properly, resulting in his skin turning bright yellow and making him smell like rotting meat. He finally meets his end twelve years later, when Hartigan stabs him in the gut with a switchblade, castrates him again (this time with his bare hands), and proceeds to pound his head to a pulp. Portrayed by Nick Stahl in the film adaptation.
Senator Ethan Roark, a corrupt politician with huge political and financial power; he has the influence to eliminate whomever he chooses. He even beat his own wife to death with a baseball bat, leaving his fingerprints all over it, and blackmailed someone else into confessing. His son is Roark Junior. He hushes up Junior's crimes by threatening to kill Hartigan's family if he doesn't confess to the murders Junior committed. The Senator's brother is Cardinal Roark. Portrayed by Powers Boothe in the film adaptation and its sequel.
The Colonel / The Salesman, also goes by The Man. A shadowy, poetic freelance assassin, allied with both the cops and the Mafia. He trains and co-ordinates assassins, and is one himself at some point. He runs an organ harvesting ring as well as other ventures in organized crime. His operations are eventually shut down by the Basin City Police in a sting operation and he is captured and shot by Commissioner Liebowitz after mouthing off to him. He is also known as "the Salesman", a gentle, poetic hit-man who ensures his target's last moments are happy before he quietly kills them. It is assumed he kills Becky at the end of the movie adaptation. Portrayed by Josh Hartnett in the film adaption.
Female antagonists
Ava Lord, the dame to kill for. An ex-lover of Dwight McCarthy and an expert manipulator and liar. She convinces Dwight to kill her husband Damien, who she claims is abusive, then betrays him. She later manipulates police detective Mort into falling in love with her, eventually leading to his suicide. She is considered a goddess by her servant Manute and a manipulative bitch by Dwight, who eventually kills her. She represents the classic femme fatale, acting as a foil to Dwight's typically hard-boiled but cool-headed anti-hero. Portrayed by Eva Green in the film sequel.
Delia / Blue Eyes, an assassin trained by The Colonel. Her first job is killing the only man she has ever loved. She uses the powers of seduction to lead unsuspecting men to their deaths and considers her co-worker Mariah to be "sloppy". She usually has sex with her victims before killing them, something The Colonel admonishes her for. She herself is killed by Wallace, despite begging for her life.
Mariah, a trained assassin in league with Delia, although apparently less skilled. She, too, uses the powers of seduction, but can also fight with a bo (staff), and is stealthy enough to kill a man without waking up the man in bed next to him. She works for Wallenquist. Her nose was broken by Wallace, and she managed to escape from Liebowitz's assault on the factory and request his permission to seek revenge but goes along with his decision not to. Has a penchant for leopard print clothing.
Maxine, a psychopharmacologist who works alongside Delia. She administers a strong hallucinogen into Wallace's system, and later gives him the antidote at gunpoint. Dies for her troubles. She was also involved in Esther's attempted brainwashing.
Becky, a young Old Town prostitute who is instrumental in getting Jackie Boy killed by Miho, although it is unclear if she does this on behalf of the other Girls or The Colonel, who she also works for as a spy. Her service to the Colonel is mainly because she didn't want her mother to discover that she was a prostitute, partly because he offered her a considerable sum of money and a new life. She seemingly dies when Old Town girls shoot her in the stomach during the shootout in The Big Fat Kill, but in the movie adaptation, she is only shot in the arm and escapes, only to encounter the Salesman while leaving the hospital, and it is implied he kills her. Portrayed by Alexis Bledel in the film adaptation. She is also among those who watch Wendy torture Marv before the group is persuaded of his innocence.
Supporting characters
Lucille, Marv's lesbian friend/parole officer and Hartigan's lawyer. Preyed on by Kevin- who makes her watch as he eats her left hand- and afterwards gunned down by police to cover up Cardinal Roark's proclivities with Kevin. Portrayed by Carla Gugino in the film adaptation.
Shellie, a barmaid at Kadie's and Dwight McCarthy's occasional girlfriend. On the night that John Hartigan found the fully grown Nancy at Kadie's bar, she took a drunk and depressed Dwight back to her place out of pity. She was annoyed with him for not calling her for months during A Dame To Kill For, but helped Gail hide him from the cops. By The Big Fat Kill, they appear to have reconciled and have resumed a casual sexual relationship. While her taste in men leaves something to be desired, she is courageous enough to lie to the cops on Dwight's behalf and verbally defend herself against her abusive boyfriend 'Jackie Boy' when he and four of his friends force their way into her apartment. Portrayed by Brittany Murphy in the film adaptation.
Kadie, a middle-aged, overweight transsexual that owns the eponymous bar where Nancy and Shellie work. She gives Marv drinks for free because he has killed a number of people for her. Although she has never been seen, she is often mistaken for Josie, an equally plump barmaid who serves drinks there along with Shellie. Next to Nancy and Shellie, Josie is the one who is most affectionate to Marv; when Marv assaults the bouncer during The Hard Goodbye for denying him entrance, she makes excuses for the bouncer: 'He's new here, Marv. He didn't know.' Portrayed by Evelyn Hurley in the film adaptation.
Douglas Klum and Burt Schlubb / Fat Man and Little Boy, a pair of low-rent hit men with "delusions of eloquence" who use pretentious, pseudo-poetic words (sprinkled with malapropisms) in daily conversation to mask the fact that they're both incredibly stupid and incompetent at their chosen occupation. Real names are Burt Schlubb (Fat Man) and Douglas Klump (Little Boy). Both have been bested in unarmed combat by John Hartigan (twice in That Yellow Bastard) and Dwight McCarthy (The Babe Wore Red) and 'Fat Man' has been menaced by Marv (as a cameo in Silent Night). Their nicknames are references to the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II. Portrayed by Nick Offerman (Schlubb) and Rick Gomez (Klump) in the film adaptation.
Detective Bob, Hartigan's partner in That Yellow Bastard who betrays him to the Roarke family. He reappears in A Dame to Kill For, and has a new partner, Mort. He and Mort are the detectives that start looking for Dwight when Ava Lord blames him for being in her house. Later they search and interrogate people who are related to Dwight. Right after he and Mort discover Dwight's whereabouts, Mort is encouraged by Ava Lord to go to Old Town and kill Dwight, but Bob insists he not go there because of the danger. Bob is shot through the head by his partner in the car just when he is about to turn Mort in. In the film adaptation of "That Yellow Bastard", Bob's role is expanded and he is shown to regret betraying Hartigan, picking him up from Prison and giving him his first lead on his search for Nancy. Portrayed by Michael Madsen in the film adaptation and by Jeremy Piven in its sequel.
Detective Mort, partners with Bob during A Dame to Kill For and an honest detective. Visits Hartigan in the hospital during That Yellow Bastard and tries to get Hartigan to give permission to clear Hartigan's name. Eight years later, picks up Hartigan at the prison after Hartigan's false confession. Seduced and corrupted by Ava Lord, and eventually takes Bob's, and his own, life. Portrayed by Christopher Meloni in the film sequel.
Others
Marv's Mother, who lives in the Housing Projects of Basin City, where Marv was born and raised. Having gone blind at an unspecified age, her hearing has improved to compensate. She keeps Marv's childhood room spotless, and seems to be unaware of some of his darker nocturnal habits. Portrayed by Lucina Paquet in the film adaptation.
"Weevil" is a local informant and a regular at Kadie's. Portrayed by Tommy Nix in the film adaptation and Johnny Reno in its sequel.
Stan, hitman who tries to bring Marv in. After taking a shot in the belly and the groin, he surrenders the identity of his benefactor, only to be killed and robbed of his 'damn fine coat'. Portrayed by Jason Douglas in the film adaptation.
Padre, a priest who is the final link in the chain of people who attempted to put a hit out on Marv. He reveals that it was on the orders of Cardinal Roark, at which Marv initially scoffs. The Priest instructs him to investigate the Roark farm, and to ask himself if the corpse of a slut (Goldie) was worth dying for. Marv puts three bullets in his face, reiterating that she was "worth dying for. Worth killing for. Worth going to Hell for." Portrayed by series creator Frank Miller in the film adaptation.
"The Painted Cop", a police captain with tribal tattoos on his face, who arrives at the farm with a squad of armed police to kill or capture Marv. When Lucille subdued Marv and attempted to surrender him so that he wouldn't get anyone else killed, she was fatally sprayed with automatic fire for her trouble by the Painted Cop. After Marv wiped out the entire squad in vengeance and faced off against the ammo-less Painted Cop, it is assumed, if not virtually explicit, that Marv interrogates him (he talked after Marv showed him 'all those pieces of himself',) then murders him with a hatchet and takes possession of his 'damn fine coat'. Marv also reveals that he 'took his time' with him in revenge for his killing of Lucille. Portrayed by Ryan Rutledge in the film adaptation.
Corporal Rivera, a hapless perimeter guard at the Cardinal's mission. Has his neck snapped by Marv. Portrayed by Jesse De Luna in the film adaptation.
"Juicer", the prison warden in charge of Marv's execution. Portrayed by David H. Hickey in the film adaptation.
Joey, a businessman going through an awkward marriage with a woman called Gloria and is resentful of people he believes are holding him back. He is also the subject of a private investigation job handed to Dwight. After he has his fun and provided plenty of photographic evidence, he is beaten by Dwight after threatening his mistress with a gun. Portrayed by Ray Liotta in the film sequel.
Sally, an Old Town girl and Joey's mistress, who tries to kill her to cover-up his infidelity. Luckily Dwight, who was photographing him, smashes through a window and saves her. Portrayed by Juno Temple in the film sequel.
Agamemnon, is a sort-of friend to Dwight, who gives Dwight photography jobs related to private investigation and lets him use his darkroom. Gets Dwight out of jams in exchange for food. Often seen wearing a 'Kiss Me, I'm Greek' shirt. Most of his sentences end with, "I tell ya, I could write a book ..."
Damien Lord, Ava's rich husband whom she left Dwight for. Whilst it is never clear how he came to be a millionaire, it is assumed it is extra-legal. The primary victim of Ava's schemes, and seems to be rather aware of her pathological nature. Portrayed by Marton Csokas in the film sequel.
Molly, an Old Town girl who is also seemingly a doctor. She saved Dwight's life, at Gail's insistence, when he was seriously wounded by Ava Lord.
Kelley, Sandy and Denise, a group of Old Town girls who were victims of a group of white slavers led by a man named Manuel. Though their fate was never revealed, Dwight presumably made sure their captors were dealt with accordingly.
"Cowboy", a macho customer of Wendy's who has a penchant for 'carving up' women with a large hunting knife. Needless to say, he gets what's coming to him, courtesy of Miho.
"The Customer", a beautiful young woman and one of the many targets of the Salesman. Seemingly hired the Salesman to kill her, although he never found out whom or what she was running from. Portrayed by Marley Shelton in the film adaptation.
Mary, the babe (who) wore red, who gets herself caught in a middle of a botched drug exchange and was then made a target of Fat Man and Little Boy, until Dwight saved her. Afterward, she becomes a nun.
Kimberly, the little girl Marv saves in Silent Night. Held captive and was most likely going to be sold for sex, until Marv saved her at her mother's behest.
The "Troops", Jackie Boy's gang who go with him on his ill-fated night out. All are just as drunk as Jack and think nothing of egging him on, no matter how much trouble it will cause. They are the first to be dispatched by Miho when Jack does "the dumbest thing in (his) whole life". Portrayed by Ethan Maniquis, Ken Thomas, Chris Warner and Iman Nazemzadeh in the film adaptation.
Murphy, Maeve, Ronnie and Brian, a group of Irish mercenaries who are hired by Manute to recover Jackie Boy's head and kill Dwight McCarthy. Murphy (the group's leader) and Maeve are shot by Dwight McCarthy, and Ronnie has his head cut in half with a throwing star by Miho. Brian, the group's demolitions expert, was also killed by Miho after getting the drop on Dwight in the sewer. Portrayed by Arie Verveen (Murphy), Helen Kirk (Maeve), Jason McDonald (Ronnie) and Tommy Flanagan (Brian) in the film adaptation.
Dallas, Old Town girl and Miho's driver. Gunned down by mercenaries. In the film adaptation, she is played by Patricia Vonne, Robert Rodriguez's sister and the same actress who plays Zorro Girl, an Old Town girl who dresses in a similar fashion to Zorro.
Stuka, a wisecracking —and extremely durable— henchman of Manute's who has a swastika tattooed on his forehead. Miho shoots him twice with arrows in The Big Fat Kill; the first arrow goes completely through his torso but his only reaction is one of bemusement, although he does eventually admit "...it's starting to hurt a little now ... d'you think I should see a doctor?" He is killed by a second arrow (In the film, the second arrow goes through the back of his head, and pierces right through the swastika in his forehead; in the book, the second arrow goes through his neck). Portrayed by Nicky Katt in the film adaptation.
Schutz, another of Manute's henchmen. He dies in 'the big fat kill'. Portrayed by Clark Middleton in the film adaptation.
Davis, Works for Wallenquist and specializes in torturing people. Is particularly skillful at inflicting pain with the use of his hands, without the necessity of any tools. He is killed in 'the big fat kill'. He does not appear in the film and his role as torturer is taken by Manute.
Lenny and Benny, twins who acted as hired muscle for Junior before his disfigurement by Hartigan. They are dispatched by Hartigan with ease. Portrayed by Scott Teeters in the film adaptation.
Eileen, John Hartigan's wife. She only appears once, at the hospital, pleading with him to tell her that Senator Roark's cover-up isn't true. She leaves, presumably gets divorced in the interim, and by the time of Hartigan's release eight years later, she has remarried and had two children. Portrayed by Babs George in the film adaptation.
One of Hartigan's lawyers, referred to in the film as "Skinny Dude". His overall view of the case is far from optimistic. Portrayed by Marco Perella in the film adaptation.
Commissioner Liebowitz, Commissioner of the Basin City Police Department. Brutally beats Hartigan upon his arrival in prison, and later takes bribes from The Colonel in Hell and Back. After his family is threatened, Liebowitz finally kills The Colonel and shuts down Wallenquist's human-trafficking operations. In the Long Bad Night segment original to the second movie, Liebowitz plays poker with Senator Roark and tries to warn off a young man bent on making Roark mad at him (although he doesn't stop Roark from killing the young man later on). Portrayed by Jude Ciccolella in the film adaptation and its sequel.
Tammy, an Old Town 'nurse' who Liebowitz uses to taunt and torture Hartigan. Portrayed by Lisa Marie Newmyer in the film adaptation.
Claire, Lucille's girlfriend who is first mentioned in The Hard Goodbye; she is not seen until That Yellow Bastard, and even then only fleetingly. She is a psychiatrist who provides Marv, via Lucille, with the pills he takes to control his 'condition'. According to Marv, she tried to analyze him once, but 'got too scared'.
Johnny, a middle-aged man who falls in love with a sweet girl named Amy, and in order to finally be with her, he must kill her controlling father. Unfortunately, he falls victim to Amy and "Daddy's" sick sexual role-playing.
Amy and Daddy; Amy seduces Johnny and convinces him to kill her "father", so that they can be happy together. Johnny is lured into Amy's sick trap, as "Daddy" is really her lover, and Amy's victims are used to get a rise out of "Daddy".
Jim, a deep-thinking man and a former lover of Delia. As "the only man she has ever loved," he is killed by Delia as part of her initiation by the Colonel.
The War Criminal, an emaciated, insane Nazi war criminal who survives on dog food and rats he kills in his gas oven. He Participated in the Holocaust, and is murdered by The Janitor, a mysterious mercenary and possible Nazi hunter, who kills him the same way he kills the rats.
Phil, a used car salesman. Mistaken for Eddie by Delia and killed (after she has sex with him). Delia is shocked to discover that Phil has murdered his wife Donna and hidden her body in the trunk of his car.
Eddie Dubois, Delia's real target, who sold stolen jewelry without giving Wallenquist a cut of the profits. He avoids Delia's initial ambush due to a flat tire. Delia catches up to him on a train and kills him- after having sex with him, of course.
Peggy, a single mother who hangs out in bars tempting men into buying her drinks, as she is an alcoholic and is frequently denied more drinks. A valuable source of info to Dwight in Family Values.
Otto, the bartender of the diner in which Peggy hangs out.
Bruno, a politician on Wallenquist's payroll. His murder at the hands of the Mafia, and the collateral damage that ensued, set Dwight on a mission to find his murderer.
Vito, a Mafia mobster who kills Bruno and (accidentally) Carmen in Family Values. Forced to shoot his brother Luca. He is forced to drive Dwight and Miho to the home of his uncle, Don Giacco Magliozzi and is presumedly killed by Daisy.
Spinelli, short Mafia muscle. Wears a hooded coat similar to a slicker. The first of Vito's thugs to be killed by Miho.
Luca, Vito's brother and one of Magliozzi's hitmen. Dwight and Miho force Vito to shoot him.
Vinnie, Mafia muscle. Incredibly racially bigoted, especially towards Japanese.
Don Giacco Magliozzi, Leader of the local Mafia, residing in Sacred Oaks. Enemies with Wallenquist. Killed by Daisy at the conclusion of Family Values.
Carmen, Old Town girl with a rough past; lesbian lover of Daisy. Unintentionally gunned down in the Magliozzi hit on Bruno, which sparks Dwight, Daisy and Miho's bloody vengeance on the Magliozzi family.
Daisy, Carmen's lesbian lover. Avenges her death by killing the remaining Magliozzi family members.
Dr. Fredric, a doctor in league with the Colonel. Kidnaps and overpowers Esther under the Colonel's orders after incapacitating Wallace with narcotics in Hell and Back. Mariah kills him and his companion, Orrin, to make sure that Wallace doesn't extract any valuable information from him.
Orrin, Doctor Fredric's assistant and lover. Shoots and incapacitates Wallace with a strong tranquilliser whilst he and Fredric abduct Esther. Mariah kills him before killing Doctor Fredric.
Manson and Bundy, two corrupt police officers, named after Charles Manson and Ted Bundy. They pick on a drugged Wallace, who in turn beats them and two other cops up with relative ease once he managed to flush the tranquilliser from his system. It would seem Manson is a post-operative female-to-male transsexual, as he claims he hasn't been a woman in nine years; consequently he takes any suggestion that he is not masculine, deliberate or otherwise, very personally. Bundy, whilst seeing Manson's over-the-top brutality as 'harsh', does nothing to control his partner. They and the two other cops were shot and killed by Captain when he rescues a hallucinating Wallace from a frame-up masterminded by the Colonel's subordinate
Captain, a loyal war buddy of Wallace's. Aids him in saving Esther, first by supplying him with his 'heap', then by helping a hallucinating Wallace to snap out of his drugged state to catch up with Delia and Maxine, giving his life in the process during a gun battle with Gordo.
Jerry, Captain's lover and a fellow war veteran. Good with missiles, but Wallace considers him a bad choice for missions requiring stealth. Agrees to help Wallace rescue Esther after Wallace assured him the Captain hasn't died in vain.
Gordo, The Colonel's muscle. Works alongside Delia to try and set-up Wallace's death. Very dumb, and speaks and thinks in third-person. Was killed by Wallace after he mortally shot Captain.
Josh Liebowitz, Liebowitz's son. He is lured away from his high school with the promise of sex by Mariah. She then breaks his arm, under orders from the Colonel, in an effort to remind Liebowitz of their power over him. The assault on Josh has the opposite effect and is the cause for Liebowitz's rejection of his corruption. Has a younger teenage sister, Hannah.
Fargo, A friend of Dwight's who was murdered. He was later revealed to be into drug related activities and left a package for Dwight before he died.
Mrs Mendoza, Wallace's land lady who is a retired nurse. She carries a snub nosed revolver and doesn't ask Wallace for the rent.
Gabriel, a frequently-mentioned Star player for the Basin City Blues basketball team.
Film series
A indicates the actor or actress portrayed the role of a younger version of their character.
A indicates the actor or actress lent only their voice for their character.
A indicates the actor or actress appeared only in a cameo appearance.
A indicates the actor or actress appeared only in photographic form.
An indicates an appearance through archival footage.
A dark gray cell indicates the character was not in the film.
Original Characters
Johnny, Senator Roark's illegitimate son. Portrayed by Joseph Gordon-Levitt.
See also
Characters
Nancy Callahan
John Hartigan
Marv
Dwight McCarthy
The Roark Family
Wallace
Other
Sin City (film)
Sin City: A Dame to Kill For
References
External links
Sin City page at Dark Horse Comics
Sin City Overview and Art From The Graphic Novel
Sin City, from an ad-supported website "devoted to the sophisticated study of comic books"
Frank Miller: The Complete Works, The most comprehensive listing of all of Frank Miller's works. Includes very detailed information on each book as well as a discussion forum.
IFILM explore Rats: A Sin City Yarn, The Short Story out of Lost, Lonely, & Lethal.
Comic book-to-film visual comparisons
SuperheroHype! Sin City Messageboard, Forums dedicated to both the comics and film.
Lists of Dark Horse Comics characters
Lists of film characters
Characters created by Frank Miller (comics)
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sv:Sin City |
4308844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Village | West Village | The West Village is a neighborhood in the western section of the larger Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan, New York City. The West Village is bounded by the Hudson River to the west and 14th Street to the north. The eastern boundary is variously cited as Greenwich Avenue, Seventh Avenue, or Sixth Avenue, while the southern boundary is either Houston Street or Christopher Street.
The West Village is part of Manhattan Community District 2, and is patrolled by the 6th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Residential property sale prices in West Village are among the most expensive in the United States, typically exceeding US in 2017.
History
Beginning in the early 1980s, residential development spread in the Far West Village between West Street and Hudson Street, from West 14th Street to West Houston Street, resulting in the area being given its own name.
Preservation
Historically, local residents and preservation groups have been concerned about development in the Village and have fought to preserve the architectural and historic integrity of the neighborhood. More than 50 blocks, bordering 14th Street to the north, comprise a historic district established by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The district's convoluted borders run no farther south than 4th Street or St. Luke's Place, and no farther east than Washington Square East or University Place. Redevelopment in this area is severely restricted, and developers must preserve the main facade and aesthetics of the buildings, even during renovation. This district—which was for four decades the city's largest—was created in 1969 by the then-four-year-old New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. However, preservationists advocated for the entire neighborhood to be designated a historic district; although it covers most of the West Village, the blocks closest to the Hudson River are excluded.
Advocates continued to pursue their goal of additional designation, spurred in particular by the increased pace of development in the 1990s. The Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation (GVSHP), a nonprofit organization dedicated to the architectural and cultural character and heritage of the neighborhood, successfully proposed new districts and individual landmarks to the LPC. Those include:
Gansevoort Market Historic District was the first new historic district in Greenwich Village in 34 years. The 112 buildings on 11 blocks protect the city's distinctive Meatpacking District with its cobblestone streets, warehouses and rowhouses. About 70 percent of the area proposed by GVSHP in 2000 was designated a historic district by the LPC in 2003, while the entire area was listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places in 2007.
Weehawken Street Historic District, designated in 2006, is a 14-building, three-block district near the Hudson River centering on tiny Weehawken Street and containing an array of architecture including a sailor's hotel, former stables, and a wooden house.
Greenwich Village Historic District Extension I, designated in 2006, brought 46 more buildings on three blocks into the district, thus protecting warehouses, a former public school and police station, and early 19th-century rowhouses. Both the Weehawken Street Historic District and the Greenwich Village Historic District Extension I were designated by the LPC in response to the larger proposal for a Far West Village Historic District submitted by GVSHP in 2004. The Landmarks Preservation Commission also designated as landmarks several individual sites proposed by the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation, including the former Bell Telephone Labs Complex (1861–1963), now Westbeth Artists Community, designated in 2011; and houses at 159 Charles Street and 354 W. 11th Street, as well as the Keller Hotel, all in 2007.
In addition, several contextual rezonings were enacted in Greenwich Village in recent years to limit the size and height of allowable new development in the neighborhood, and to encourage the preservation of existing buildings. The following were proposed by the GVSHP and passed by the City Planning Commission:
Far West Village Rezoning, approved in 2005, was the first downzoning in Manhattan in many years, putting in place new height caps, thus ending construction of high-rise waterfront towers in much of the Village and encouraging the reuse of existing buildings.
Washington and Greenwich Street Rezoning, approved in 2010, was passed in near-record time to protect six blocks from out-of-scale hotel development and maintain the low-rise character.
Reputation as urban bohemia
The West Village historically was known as an important landmark on the map of American bohemian culture in the early and mid-twentieth century. The neighborhood was known for its colorful, artistic residents and the alternative culture they propagated. Due in part to the progressive attitudes of many of its residents, the Village was a focal point of new movements and ideas, whether political, artistic, or cultural. This tradition as an enclave of avant-garde and alternative culture was established during the 19th century and into the 20th century, when small presses, art galleries, and experimental theater thrived. Known as "Little Bohemia" starting in 1916, West Village is in some ways the center of the bohemian lifestyle on the West Side, with classic artists' lofts in the form of the Westbeth Artists Community and Julian Schnabel's Palazzo Chupi.
In 1924, the Cherry Lane Theatre was established at 38 Commerce Street. It is New York City's oldest continuously running Off-Broadway theater. A landmark in Greenwich Village's cultural landscape, it was built as a farm silo in 1817, and also served as a tobacco warehouse and box factory before Edna St. Vincent Millay and other members of the Provincetown Players converted the structure into a theatre they christened the Cherry Lane Playhouse, which opened on March 24, 1924, with the play The Man Who Ate the Popomack. During the 1940s The Living Theatre, Theatre of the Absurd, and the Downtown Theater movement all took root there, and it developed a reputation as a place where aspiring playwrights and emerging voices could showcase their work.
On January 8, 1947, stevedore Andy Hintz was fatally shot by hitmen John M. Dunn, Andrew Sheridan and Danny Gentile in front of his apartment on Grove Street. Before he died on January 29, he told his wife that "Johnny Dunn shot me." The three gunmen were immediately arrested. Sheridan and Dunn were executed.
The Village hosted the first racially integrated night club in the United States, when Café Society was opened in 1938 at 1 Sheridan Square by Barney Josephson. Café Society showcased African American talent and was intended to be an American version of the political cabarets Josephson had seen in Europe before World War I. Notable performers there included among others: Pearl Bailey, Count Basie, Nat King Cole, John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Ella Fitzgerald, Coleman Hawkins, Billie Holiday, Lena Horne, Burl Ives, Lead Belly, Anita O'Day, Charlie Parker, Les Paul and Mary Ford, Paul Robeson, Kay Starr, Art Tatum, Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Josh White, Teddy Wilson, Lester Young, and The Weavers, who also in Christmas 1949, played at the Village Vanguard.
The annual Greenwich Village Halloween Parade, initiated in 1974 by Greenwich Village puppeteer and mask maker Ralph Lee, is the world's largest Halloween parade and America's only major nighttime parade, attracting more than 60,000 costumed participants, 2 million in-person spectators, and a worldwide television audience of over 100 million.
Geography
Boundaries
The traditional boundaries of the West Village are the Hudson River to the west, West 14th Street to the north, Greenwich Avenue to the east, and Christopher Street to the south. Other popular definitions have extended the southern boundary as far south as Houston Street, and some use Seventh Avenue or Avenue of the Americas as the eastern boundary. The Far West Village extends from the Hudson River to Hudson Street, between Gansevoort Street and Leroy Street. Neighboring communities include Chelsea to the north, the South Village and Hudson Square to the south, and the Washington Square neighborhood of Greenwich Village to the east.
Street grid
The neighborhood is distinguished by streets that are "off the grid", being set at an angle to the other streets in Manhattan. These roads were laid out in an 18th-century grid plan, approximately parallel or perpendicular to the Hudson, long before the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 which created the main street grid plan for later parts of the city. Even streets that were given numbers in the 19th century to make them nominally part of the grid can be idiosyncratic, at best. West 4th Street, formerly Asylum Street, crosses West 10th, 11th and 12th Streets, ending at an intersection with West 13th Street. Heading north on Greenwich Street, West 12th Street is separated by three blocks from Little West 12th Street, which in turn is one block south of West 13th Street. Further, some of the smaller east–west residential streets are paved with setts (often confused with cobblestones), particularly in Far West Village and the Meatpacking District.
This grid is prevalent through the rest of Greenwich Village as well.
Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of the West Village neighborhood tabulation area was 66,880, a change of -1,603 (-2.4%) from the 68,483 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 80.9% (54,100) White, 2% (1,353) African American, 0.1% (50) Native American, 8.2% (5,453) Asian, 0% (20) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (236) from other races, and 2.4% (1,614) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.1% (4,054) of the population.
The approximate residential population in the West Village is 34,000 people based on seven 2010 Census Tracts for Manhattan Community District 2. Some population characteristics include:
10% of the population in the West Village is less than 20 years old (27% of population of entire US is less than 20 years old)
45% of the population in the West Village is 20–39 years old (versus 27% in entire US)
Females aged 20–39 make up 25% of the population in the West Village (13% of population in entire US) Females aged 20–29 make up 14% of the population in the West Village versus 7% in the entire US. Females in the West Village represent 52% of the population versus 51% in all of the US.
80% of the population was born in the US (87% in entire US)
Average household income by census tract was $180,000 (compared to $51,000 average household income by state for entire US)
A study by NYU estimated that 8,000 workers commute to the West Village during the workweek.
About 13,000 out-of-town visitors also visit the neighborhood daily. A portion of these approximately 139,452 domestic and international visitors that enter the city daily visit or stay in the West Village; an average of 11,000 people visit the High Line every day.
Law enforcement
The West Village is patrolled by the 6th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 233 West 10th Street. The 6th Precinct ranked 68th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. This is due to a high incidence of property crime.
The 6th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 80.6% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 1 murder, 20 rapes, 153 robberies, 121 felony assaults, 163 burglaries, 1,031 grand larcenies, and 28 grand larcenies auto in 2018.
The Meatpacking District at the north end of this neighborhood, also known as the "Gansevoort Historic District", is filled with trendy boutiques and nightclubs. It is also the area's most concentrated site of grand larceny. (Grand larceny in New York is legally defined as stealing property worth $1,000 or more or property taken from the person of another without the threat of force.) In February 2013 the NYPD passed out 3,500 fliers to bars and clubs in the Sixth Precinct warning people to guard their valuables, especially at district's clubs, due to the rise in grand larceny rates. Police have said these crimes mostly happen in the Meatpacking District from 11 p.m. to 3 a.m.
Fire safety
The West Village is served by two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations:
Engine Company 24/Ladder Company 5/Battalion 2 – 227 6th Avenue
Squad 18 – 132 West 10th Street
Post office and ZIP Codes
The West Village includes two ZIP Codes. Most of the West Village, south of Greenwich Avenue and west of Sixth Avenue, is located in 10014, while the northern section north of Greenwich Avenue is in 10011. The United States Postal Service operates the West Village Station at 527 Hudson Street.
Education
Schools
There are two zoned elementary schools nearby: PS 3 Melser Charrette School, and PS 41 Greenwich Village School. Residents are zoned to Baruch Middle School 104. Greenwich Village High School was a private high school formerly located in the area, but later moved to SoHo. In 2017, Middle School 297 opened at 75 Morton Street.
Libraries
The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates two branches near the West Village. The Jefferson Market Library is located at 425 Avenue of the Americas (Sixth Avenue). The building was a courthouse in the 19th and 20th centuries before being converted into a library in 1967, and it is now a city designated landmark. The Hudson Park branch is located at 66 Leroy Street. The branch is housed in Carnegie library that was built in 1906 and expanded in 1920.
Transportation
The area is served by the MTA Regional Bus Operations’ routes and the following New York City Subway stations:
14th Street–Eighth Avenue at Eighth Avenue; serving the
West Fourth Street–Washington Square at Sixth Avenue; serving the
14th Street at Seventh Avenue; serving the
Christopher Street–Sheridan Square at Seventh Avenue; serving the
Houston Street at Varick Street; serving the
The West Village is also served by the PATH at Christopher Street and .
The Citi Bike bike share program launched in the area in May 2013.
Points of interest
Jefferson Market Branch of the New York Public Library is at 425 Sixth Avenue, corner of West 10th Street. It was built as a courthouse from 1874 to 1877, and was designed by architect Frederick Clarke Withers of the firm of Vaux and Withers. It was turned into a library after public outcry over its planned demolition in 1958.
High Line, now a public park, connects the historic district to Chelsea, Hell's Kitchen, and the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project. The elevated train tracks, mostly running parallel to Tenth Avenue, have been converted to an open greenway. The tracks, abandoned in 1980, once served the businesses in the area; the park opened in 2009.
Hudson River Park, running from 59th Street to the Battery including most of associated piers, is being transformed into a joint city/state park with non-traditional uses.
St. Luke in the Fields Church is an Episcopal church founded in 1820 on farmland donated by Trinity Church.
Stonewall Inn is a gay tavern and recreational bar. It is most famous as the site of the Stonewall riots of 1969, which is widely considered to be the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for gay and lesbian rights in the United States. The surrounding area is designated as the Stonewall National Monument.
Village Vanguard is a jazz club opened on February 22, 1935, by Max Gordon. At first, it featured many forms of music, such as folk music and beat poetry, but it switched to an all-jazz format in 1957.
Westbeth Artists Community is a nonprofit housing and commercial complex dedicated to providing affordable living and working space for artists and arts organizations. The complex is named for two of the streets that border it—West and Bethune.
Whitney Museum of American Art is located in the West Village. The Whitney was founded in 1931 by Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, a wealthy and prominent American socialite and art patron. Its permanent collection comprises more than 21,000 works. From 1966 to 2014, the Whitney was located on the Upper East Side; it closed in October 2014 to relocate to a new building in the Meatpacking District/West Village, which opened in May 2015.
Notable people
Costas Kondylis's 1 Morton Square residential development (on Morton and West Street, completed in 2004) is the residence of actresses Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen and of actor Daniel Radcliffe. Richard Meier's towers at 173 Perry Street, 176 Perry Street, and 165 Charles Street are home to actors Jim Carrey, Hugh Jackman, and Nicole Kidman. Other notable actors who formerly lived or currently reside in the neighborhood include Matthew Broderick, Scarlett Johansson, Ray Romano, Jason Biggs, Ryan Eggold, Andy Samberg, Claire Danes, Hugh Dancy, Will Ferrell, Jill Hennessy, Seth Meyers, Julianne Moore, Sarah Jessica Parker, Brooke Shields, Liv Tyler, Saoirse Ronan, Karlie Kloss, and musician/actor Richard Barone. Ramsey Clark, Attorney General under Lyndon B. Johnson, activist and founder of the International Action Center, lived here as well. Michael Riedel, the broadcaster and sports writer, has been a resident for over 20 years.
Notes
References
External links
Gansevoort Historic District
Wikipages West Village, a wiki-based business directory for the West Village
Neighborhoods in Manhattan
Greenwich Village |
4309335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20history%20of%20Chile | Economic history of Chile | The economy of Chile has shifted substantially over time from the heterogeneous economies of the diverse indigenous peoples to an early husbandry-oriented economy and finally to one of raw material export and a large service sector. Chile's recent economic history (since 1973) has been the focus of an extensive debate from which neoliberalism acquired its modern meaning.
Chile emerged into independence as a rural economy on what was the periphery of the Spanish Empire. A period of relative free trade that began with independence in the 1810s brought a modernizing development of certain sectors of the Chilean economy. This was accompanied by formation of a local business class, a novelty in Chile. Chile experienced its first modern economic crisis with the Long depression in the 1870s. The exploitation of lucrative nitrate deposits of the north conquered in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884) marked a whole epoch in the history of Chile and the economic legacy of nitrate has been widely debated.
When Chile became an independent nation in 1818 it was the poorest territory in the Americas, by the 1890s it had become richer than Sweden, and twice as rich than Japan and it became one of the 15 richest nations in the world, a position it would retain for decades, even as late as the 1950s it remained richer than its former colonial master, Spain, and almost as rich as Germany. However, starting in the late 1920s, the Chilean economy began a steady decline with 1950 industrial capacity inferior to what it had been forty years previously. It was not until the late 1970s that this decline started to revert. Since that time the Chilean economy has generally grown although it has yet to regain its former status.
In the first half of the 20th century Chile suffered severe economic recessions including the Great Depression. This period saw the rapid urbanization of the country, and a state-led partial "industrialization" that began in 1939. Large-scale copper mining replaced nitrate extraction as the country's main source of wealth. Chilean agriculture remained one of the most undeveloped sectors of economy and was stagnant, despite land reforms in the 1960s and 1970s, from 1930 to 1980.
In the mid-1970s under the influence of the Chicago Boys, Pinochet's military dictatorship initiated profound changes oriented to a "neoliberal" economic model. The democratic governments that succeeded the dictatorship since 1990 have largely continued its economic policies, but increased social spending and reduced poverty. Chilean exports and GDP per capita rose steadily through the 1980s and 1990s until the Asian crisis of 1997 after which economic growth slowed somewhat. In the post-1973 period there has been a rise in outsourcing, self-employment, informal employment and an increase in women's share in the labor force.
Pre-Hispanic economy
In the Far North the Pre-Hispanic economy of indigenous groups were divided among those that practised agriculture and were sedentary and the Changos that lived as coastal hunter-gatherers. The sedentary groups raised llamas and practised irrigation techniques. Bone necklaces, gold and copper objects interpreted as luxury goods suggest according to Villalobos et al. certain level of social stratification among the sedentary groups.
At the time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from Itata River to Chiloé Archipelago. In this area indigenous groups practised glade agriculture among the forests. The forests provided firewood, fibre and allowed the production of planks. Agriculture type varied; while some Mapuches and Huilliches practised a slash-and-burn type of agriculture some more labour-intensive agriculture is known to have been developed by Mapuches around Budi Lake (raised fields) and the Lumaco and Purén valleys (canalized fields). Pre-Hispanic agriculture extended as far south as the Guaitecas Archipelago (44° S), were indigenous Chonos cultivated Chiloé potatoes. Tools are known to have been relatively simple. In addition the Mapuche and Huilliche economy was complemented with chilihueque raising. The southern coast was particularly rich in molluscs, algaes, crustaceans and fish.
The fjords and channels of the Chilean Far South (excluding Chiloé Archipelago) were inhabited by nomadic canoe-using hunter-gatherers. These groups included the Chonos, the Alacaluf and the Yaghans.
Colonial economy
Spanish conquest (1541–1600)
The conquest of Chile was not carried out directly by the Spanish Crown but by Spaniards that formed enterprises for those purposes and gathered financial resources and soldiers for the enterprise by their own. In 1541 an expedition (enterprise) led by Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago initiating the conquest of Chile. The first years were harsh for the Spaniards mainly due to their poverty, indigenous rebellions and frequent conspirations. The second founding of La Serena in 1549 (initially founded in 1544 but destroyed by natives) was followed by the founding of numerous new cities in southern Chile halting only after Valdivia's death in 1553.
The Spanish colonization of the Americas was characterized by the establishments of cities in the middle of conquered territories. With the founding of each city a number of conquistadores became vecinos of that city being granted a solar and possibly also a chacra in the outskirts of the city, or a hacienda or estancia in more far away parts of the countryside. Apart from land natives were also distributed among Spaniards since they were considered vital for carrying out any economic activity.
Beyond subsistence the 16th century economy of Chile was oriented towards large-scale production. Spanish colonizers used large amounts of indigenous labour following the slave labour system used in the sugar cane plantations of the Mediterranean islands and Macaronesia. This system of labour successively killed the production base leading to the imposition of the encomienda system by the Spanish Crown in order to prevent excesses. In Chile Spanish settlers managed to continue to exploit indigenous labour under slave like conditions despite the implementation of the encomienda. Rich Spanish settlers had over time to face opposition to their mode of production by Jesuits, Spanish officials and indigenous Mapuches.
The initial Spanish settlers of Chiloé Archipelago (conquered in 1567) attempted to base their economy on gold extraction and a "hispanic-mediterranean" agricultural model. This activity ended in a general failure given the unsuitable conditions of the archipelago. Spaniards however reoriented their activities into logging Fitzroya.
Century of suet (1600–1687)
The collapse of the Spanish cities in the south following the battle of Curalaba (1598) meant for the Spaniards the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest indigenous labour sources. After those dramatic years the colony of Chile became concentrated in the central valley which became increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited. Following a tendency common in the whole Spanish America haciendas were formed as the economy moved away from mining and into agriculture and husbandry. Compared to the 16th and 18th centuries Chilean mining activity in the 17th century was very limited. Over the course of the 17th century the indigenous population of Chile declined, making the encomiendas less and less important. Chilean encomenderos who had encomiendas in Cuyo, across the Andes, introduced to Chile indigenous Huarpes who they hired to other Spanish without encomiendas.
In the 17th century economy of the Viceroyalty of Peru, Chile's husbandry and agriculture based economy had a peripheral role, contrasting to ore-rich districts like Potosí and the wealthy city of Lima. Husbandry products made up the bulk of Chilean exports to the rest of the viceroyalty. These products included suet, charqui and leather. This trade made Chilean historian Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna label the 17th century the century of suet (Spanish: Siglo del sebo). Other products exported included dry fruits, mules, wines and minor amounts of copper. Trade with Peru was controlled by merchants from Lima that enjoyed protection by the Spanish authorities in Lima. In addition to the exports to coastal Peru Chile also exported products inland to Upper Peru through the port of Arica. Trade inside Chile was small since cities were tiny and self-sufficient.
Generally the extraction of wood had little importance in colonial Chile but Chiloé Archipelago and Valdivia were exceptions. These two areas exported planks to Peru. With the destruction of Valdivia in 1599 Chiloé gained increased importance as the only locale that could supply the Viceroyalty of Peru with Fitzroya wood. In 1641 the first large shipment of Fitzroya wood left Chiloé.
Century of wheat (1687–1810)
In the 1650–1800 period the Chilean lower classes grew considerably in size. To deal with the poor and landless population a policy of founding cities and granting lands in their surroundings was implemented. From 1730 to 1820 a large number of farmers settled in the outskirts of old cities or formed new cities. Settling as a farmer in the outskirts of old cities (La Serena, Valparaíso, Santiago and Concepción) was overall more popular than joining a new city since it secured a larger consumer market for agricultural products. Chilean haciendas (latifundia) engaged little in the supply of Chilean cities but focused on international exports for revenues.
Chile begun exporting cereals to Peru in 1687 when Peru was struck by both an earthquake and a stem rust epidemic. Chilean soil and climatic conditions were better for cereal production than those of Peru and Chilean wheat was cheaper and of better quality than Peruvian wheat. According to historians Villalobos et al. the 1687 events were only the detonant factor for exports to start. The Chilean Central Valley, La Serena and Concepción were the districts that came to be involved in cereal export to Peru. It should be pointed out that compared with the 19th century the area cultivated with wheat was very small and production modest.
Initially Chilean latifundia could not meet the wheat demand due to a labour shortage, so had to incorporate temporal workers in addition to the permanent staff. Another response by the latifundia to labour shortages was to act as merchants buying wheat produced by independent farmers or from farmers that hired land. In the period 1700 to 1850 this second option was overall more lucrative.
The 1687 Peru earthquake also ended a Peruvian wine-boom as the earthquake destroyed wine cellars and mud containers used for wine storage. The gradual decline of Peruvian wine even caused Peru to import some wine from Chile as it happened in 1795 when Lima imported 5.000 troves (Spanish: botijas) from Concepción in southern Chile. This particular export showed the emergence of Chile relative to Peru as a wine-making region.
Haciendas of central Chile are believed to had become labour-saturated by 1780 generating an "excess" population that could not be incorporated into their economy. Some of this population settled in the outskirts of larger cities while other migrated to the mining districts of Norte Chico. Chile saw an unprecedented revival of its mining activity in the 18th century with annual gold production rising from 400 to 1000 kg over the course of the century and the silver annual production rising from 1000 to 5000 kg in the same interval.
In the 18th century the shipbuilding industry in Valdivia, one of the city's main economic activities, reached its peak building numerous ships including frigates. Other shipyards of Chile included those of Concepción and Chiloé Archipelago. The Chiloé shipyards constructed the bulk of the ships in Chile until the mid-18th century. In 1794 a new shipyards was established the mouth of Maule River (present day Constitución). Despite some navigators expressing that Valdivia had better conditions than Guayaquil in Ecuador, this last port was the chief shipyard of the Spanish Empire in the Pacific.
Direct trade with Spain over the Straits of Magellan and Buenos Aires begun first in the 18th century constituting primarily an export route for gold, silver and copper from Chilean mining. By the same time Spain's trade monopoly with its colonies was successively weakened by smugglers from England, France and United States.
Independence Era (1810–1830)
The independence wars in Chile (1810–1818) and Peru (1809–1824) had a negative impact on the Chilean economy. Trade was disrupted and armies in Chile pillaged the countryside. The war made commerce a high risk activity and royalist Peru, then the only market for Chilean agricultural products, was closed to commerce with independent Chile. The Guerra a muerte phase was particularly destructive for the Biobío area and ended only to see a period of outlaw banditry (e.g. Pincheira brothers) occur until the late 1820s. Chilean mining activity came out of the independence wars with relatively little damage.
Trade with Peru did not fully recover after the independence struggles, instead commerce with United States, France and United Kingdom took off in the 1820s.
During the Chilean Independence War the scarcity of weapons in the Chilean market forced the patriots to do large weapon purchases abroad or to the ships that anchored at Chilean ports. In addition to the finance of the Chilean army the nascent Chilean state had also to wholly finance the Chilean-Argentine Army of the Andes after San Martín begun to disobey the orders from Argentina and the Freedom Expedition of Perú, originally thought to be financed in part by Argentina.
An expensive loan of £1,000,000 taken in 1822 in London in order to finance the independence struggle became a heavy burden for the Chilean state and took decades to pay off. Finance minister Diego José Benavente attempted to reform the tax system but met severe opposition to many measures. To pay off the loan the Chilean state granted the company Sociedad Portales, Cea y Cía a sales monopoly of tobacco in Chile, but this activity ended in failure.
Liberalism
Early republican boom (1830–1873)
In the early republican period Chilean international trade grew considerably. Merchants from countries like England, Italy, Germany and the United States settled in Chile. Chile was officially open to trade to all nations since 1811 but applied protectionist policies to favour domestic production in a manner that has been called neomercantilism. Chile's relative openness to international trade contrasted with contemporary truly protectionistic policies of Peru and Argentina. The 1830–1870 period was one of the greatest growth for the Chilean economy and was largely indebted to two export booms: the copper and silver mining in Norte Chico and the Chilean wheat cycle. The overall development resulted in Chile becoming one of the high-income countries in South America.
Following the discovery of silver at Agua Amarga (1811) and Arqueros (1825) the Norte Chico mountains north of La Serena were exhaustively prospected. In 1832 prospector Juan Godoy found a silver outcrop (reventón) 50 km south of Copiapó in Chañarcillo. The finding attracted thousands of people to the place and generated significant wealth. After the discovery of Chañarcillo, many other ores were discovered near Copiapó well into the 1840s. Copiapó experienced a large demographic and urbanistic growth during the rush. The town became a centre for trade and services of a large mining district. The mining zone slowly grew northwards into the diffuse border with Bolivia. At the end of the silver rush rich miners had diversified their assets into banking, agriculture, trade and commerce all over Chile.
In the 19th century, access to the Californian and Australian markets made wheat export a very lucrative activity. In the mid 19th century, these countries experienced large gold rushes which created a large demand for wheat. Chile was at the time the "only wheat producer of some importance in the Pacific". At the same time as the wheat cycle new irrigation canals were built and apiculture and some machines introduced into Chilean agriculture. Apart from that, new markets were explored for Chilean agricultural products. The wheat boom did not last for long; by 1855 California managed to supply itself with wheat and from 1858 onwards it went over to export wheat to Chile. The Australian gold rush of 1851 had the effect of decreasing the labour used in agriculture forcing the colony to import wheat from Chile sustaining Chilean wheat exports whilst the Californian market vanished. After the gold rushes of California and Australia were over these regions begun exporting wheat competing with Chilean wheat forcing from the mid-1860s onwards wheat exports to be shifted to England. Between 1850 and 1875 the area cultivated with wheat and barley for export in Chile rose from 120 to 450 ha. The "cycle" came to an end in the late 1870s due to the increased technification of agriculture in the United States and Argentina plus the competition of Russia and Canada. The end of the wheat cycle added to the already difficult situation that Chilean economy was passing through in the 1870s.
In the mid-19th century the value relationship established by law between gold and silver coin undervalued silver coins causing the flight of silver from Chile due to better prices in the international market and a scarcity of silver coins in Chile. With the abolition of the silver standard in most countries that begun in Germany in 1871 the unadjusted Chilean rate that had previously undervalued silver came to undervalue gold instead.
Following independence in 1820 Valdivia entered a period of economic decline. This was because Valdivia was since colonial times isolated from Central Chile by hostile Mapuche territory and depended heavily upon seaborne trade with the port of Callao in Peru. With independence this intra-colonial traded ended but was not substituted by new routes. German immigrants that arrived from 1850 to 1875 transformed the economy of Valdivia and the whole Southern Chile. Among the achievements of the Germans immigrants was the deepening of division of labour, the introduction of wage labour in agriculture and the establishment of Chile's first beer brewery in Valdivia in 1851 by Carl Anwandter.
Until the mid-19th century more than 80% of Chilean population remained rural working in agriculture or mining and was to a large degree self-sufficient to produce articles of consume.
Saltpetre Republic (1873–1914)
Starting in 1873, Chile's economy deteriorated. Chilean wheat exports were outcompeted by production in Canada, Russia, and Argentina. Chilean copper was largely replaced in international markets by copper from the United States and Río Tinto in Spain. Chile's silver mining income also dropped. In the mid-1870s, Peru nationalized its nitrate industry, affecting both British and Chilean interests. Contemporaries considered the crisis the worst ever of independent Chile. Chilean newspaper El Ferrocarril predicted 1879 to be "a year of mass business liquidation". In 1878, then-President Aníbal Pinto expressed his concern through the following statement:
It was during this context of economic crisis that Chile became involved the costly War of the Pacific (1879–1883) seizing control of mineral-rich provinces of Peru and Bolivia. The notion that Chile entered the war to obtain economical gains has been a topic of debate among historians. The crisis in has also been considered by Jorge Pinto Rodríguez a force behind the new pulse of conquest of indigenous lands that took place in Araucanía in the 1870s.
When Chile found herself in command of the then still Peruvian province of Tarapacá during the War of the Pacific and being subjected to pressure from Peru's creditors, who threatened Chile's credit in Europe if their claims were not met, the Chilean government essentially had two options: to nationalize the industry for Chile (that is to pay the Peruvian debt certificates), or to recognize the holders of the Peruvian debt certificates (which John Thomas North hurried to purchase at knock-down prices) as the owner of the assets. On June 11, 1881, Chile issued a decree in favor of the second option and to enact an export tax upon the export of saltpeter. The Chilean war debts, the impossibility to assume the financial obligations of nitrate certificates and the will to deflate European opposition to the annexation were the reasons to the decree that was criticized in Chile after the war.
As the victor and possessor of a new coastal territory following the War of the Pacific, Chile benefited by gaining a lucrative territory with significant mineral income. The national treasury grew by 900 percent between 1879 and 1902, due to taxes coming from the newly acquired lands. British involvement and control of the nitrate industry rose significantly, but from 1901 to 1921 Chilean ownership increased from 15% to 51%. The growth of Chilean economy sustained in its saltpetre monopoly meant, compared to the previous growth cycle (1832–1873), that the economy became less diversified and overly dependent on a single natural resource. In addition the Chilean nitrate, used worldwide as fertilizer, was sensitive to economic downturns as farmers made cuts on fertilizer use one of their earliest economic measures in the face of economic decline. It has been questioned on whether the nitrate wealth conquered in the War of the Pacific was a resource curse or not. During the Nitrate Epoch the government increased public spending but was however accused of squandering money.
The 1870s saw of industries like sugar refineries, confectioneries and shoe and textile factories emerge. Since the 1880s some scholars argue that Chile was en route to becoming an industrialized nation before 1914, economist Ducoing claims no industrialization took place, but rather a modernization process.
Starting in 1878, the Chilean state increased the issuing of new banknotes (fiat currency) causing the Chilean peso to devaluate. When the War of the Pacific began in 1879 the government issued more fiat currency in order to afford the costly war, and continued to do so in 1880 and 1881. In 1881 the country prepared for a return to the gold standard and to gradually eliminate fiat currency. However, during the Chilean Civil War in 1891 the government of José Manuel Balmaceda issued more fiat money to finance this new war. By 1891 a dispute begun between those who supported a return to gold convertibility of money ("oreros") and those who opposed convertibility ("papeleros"). In 1892 the "oreros" succeeded in having the convertibility of currency approved by law and in December 1895 non-convertible legal tender was pulled out of circulation. In 1898 the convertible regime collapsed once again in the face of severe economic instability (crop failure, war scare) and was abolished. Issuing of fiat money then continued until 1907 but from there on currency was issued with convertibility to gold or saltpetre mining related legal titles.
The establishment of the Buenos Aires-Mendoza railroad in 1885 ended the lengthy and costly trade with carts that connected these two regions of Argentina and facilitated cattle exports from the pampas to Chile, albeit in the last portion of the route the cattle had to walk over the high mountain passes of the Andes. These imports resulted in a lowering of meat prices in Chile. Sociedad Nacional de la Agricultura (National Agriculture Society), a landowners organization, pushed for a tariff on Argentine cattle and in 1897 the tariff was passed in a bill at the Chilean congress. The unpopular tariff resulted a massive protest in that degenerated into a destructive riot in Santiago in October 1905. Chilean wine exports to Argentina were hampered by the lack of effective land transport and a series of war scares. This situation changed after the Pactos de Mayo were signed in 1902 and the inauguration of the Transandine Railway in 1909, making war unlikely and trade across the Andes easier. Both governments agreed to sign a free trade agreement. The Argentine winegrowers association, Centro Vitivinícola Nacional, seeing Chilean wines as a threat to domestic industry, protested vigorously against the agreement. Their complaints, in conjunction with that of Chilean cattle farmers represented by Sociedad Nacional de la Agricultura ended up tearing down the plans for a free trade agreement between Argentina and Chile.
The rapid economic expansion of the late 19th century occurred not only in the northern regions but also in the extreme south where in Tierra del Fuego a gold rush was triggered in 1884 fueled economic growth in Punta Arenas and attracted a considerable amount of European immigrants. Tierra del Fuego and much of Magallanes Region also experienced a boom in the sheepherding industry since the 1880s accompanied by colonization of the sparsely populated Patagonian grasslands. In the South-Central Araucanía the Chilean invasion of native Mapuche territory caused the economy of Araucanía to change from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction. The Mapuches' loss of land following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practice large-scale livestock herding in limited areas.
Crisis and restructuring (1914–1938)
The opening of Panama Canal in 1914 caused a severe drop in traffic along Chilean ports due to shifts in the maritime trade routes. In addition to this international trade collapsed and state income was reduced to half of its previous value after the start of the World War I in 1914. The Haber process, first applied on an industrial scale in 1913 and later used as part of Germany's war effort due to its lack of access to Chilean saltpetre, ended Chile's monopoly on nitrate and led to an economic decline in Chile. While saltpetre mining gradually waned in importance copper mining rose, exporting raw materials to a level unprecedented in the history of Chile. By 1929 copper exports had reached the same values as saltpetre exports, and in 1937 the value of copper exports largely surpassed that of saltpetre. In the 1920–1937 period both industries had combined a 70–83% share of the value of Chilean exports.
In the 20th century two new economic actors rose to prominence in Chile; the state and capital from the United States. Beginning in 1905 United States-based companies came to develop and control copper mining in Chile. The main companies were; Anaconda Copper in control of Chuquicamata, Kennecott Copper Corporation in control of El Teniente and Andes Copper in control of Potrerillos. Between the 1910s and 1930 United States investments in Chile had a tenfold increase, the bulk of which was directed to mining activities.
The increased influence of the United States in Chilean economy did not only manifested itself in copper mining but also in foreign trade. After the First World War the United States became the prime importer of Chilean goods and in the 1930s it overtook the United Kingdom's place as the prime source of Chilean imports.
Edwin W. Kemmerer, a "Money Doctor", was invited to Chile in 1925 to deal with monetary policy and inflation problems which were considered one of the principal economic problems of Chile at the time. The visit by Kemmerer was used to back up monetary policies already outlined by Chileans. These reforms included the creation of a central bank, the establishment of a government budget law and general bank law. All these reforms were established by rule by decree by Arturo Alessandri who had been reestablished in power following a coup d'etat against him in 1924 (where the coup-makers protested among other things against inflation). Gold convertibility was established in 1925. As result of these reforms Chile managed to tame inflation to such degree that the 1920s were the decade with less inflation in the 1890–1980 period. Another consequence of the reforms was an increased easyness by Chile to obtain loans not only in the United States but also in the United Kingdom, Switzerland and Germany. In the years after the visit of Kemmerer there was a sharp increase in foreign investments.
The Great Depression that begun 1929 was felt strongly in Chile from 1930 to 1932. Saltpetre and copper exports collapsed. The World Economic Survey of the League of Nations declared Chile the worst affected nation by the depression. The crisis caused the authoritarian regime of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo to fall in July 1931 followed by a succession of short-lived governments until the election of Arturo Alessandri in December 1932. The economic crisis rose the levels of unemployment and caused a migration of unemployed saltpetre miners from the north to Santiago. Miners constituted around 6% of the active population but made up more than half of the unemployed during the crisis. Numerous soup kitchens
sprang up in Santiago while homeless people begun to dwell in caves in the hills around the city.
The state responded to the crisis by gradually raising tariffs, increasing internal demand and increasing control over the "flux and use" of foreign currency. Quotas and licences were established for imports and the gold convertibility was once again abolished in 1931.
These policies contributed to an industrial recovery and for the industry to already by 1934 surpass the levels of activity of 1929. In the 1930s the massive industrial growth was spearheaded by the textile industry, but non-metallic mining, chemical industries and machine and transport factories did also expand. Overall industry recovered and expanded faster than the traditional exports in the post depression period.
The Great Depression brought initially a period of deflation of Chilean currency followed by inflation in 1931 and 1932. The inflation was brought under control momentarily after 1932 but resurfaced again in 1936.
The 1900–1930 period was the one of largest growth of agriculture in the 20th century until the 1980s. Despite of this conditions in for rural workers remained harsh with Tancredo Pinochet denouncing the poor conditions of workers in the hacienda of president Juan Luis Sanfuentes during his presidency (1915–1920). Within a dual sector economic model the Chilean hacienda has been characterized as a prime example of a primitive and rural component. McBride, a British who visited Chile in the 1930s, is reported to have been "astounded" to see haciendas with "agricultural methods that reminds of ancient Egypt, Greece or Palestine."
The Faculty of Economical Science of the University of Chile was established in 1937 coinciding with the spread of Keynesian economics.
Internal growth era
Partial industrialization (1938–1958)
Industrialization became a state policy from 1938 onwards. This policy line became possible after the victory of the Popular Front, a coalition including communists and socialists, in the 1938 elections. The perceived success of the Soviet economy, the fast growth of other centralized European economies and the influence of Keynesian economics helped to establish "development inwards" ideas in Chile paving the way for active state involvement in the nation's economy. These tendencies were reinforced in 1948 with the establishment of ECLAC (CEPAL in Spanish) in Santiago and the arrival of Raúl Prebisch in 1950 as director of it. Chile's "development inwards" policies were part of a regional phenomenon with Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay applying similar policies.
In the aftermath of the disastrous 1939 Chillán earthquake, the government created CORFO (Spanish acronym for Production Development Corporation) to help in the reconstruction of the country and to industrialize the country, mechanize the agriculture and help mining to develop. To finance CORFO loans were taken by the government, the bulk of the taxes were raised and copper mining in particular got an additional tax.
One of the early tasks of CORFO was to "solve the old problem of the ironworks". In doing so it injected capital and granted loans to the Compañía Electro-Siderúrgica e Industrial de Valdivia, the inheritor to the failed Altos Hornos y Acerías de Corral. In 1947 CORFO begun the construction of a large steel mill in Huachipato near Concepción which in 1950 begun operating as Compañía de Acero del Pacífico. Another division of CORFO engaged in oil exploration making a breakthrough discovery in northern Tierra del Fuego in 1945. Extraction began in 1949 and in 1950 the state created ENAP (National Petroleum Company) to deal with oil extraction and prospection. Until 1960 most oil extracted in Chile came from Tierra del Fuego.
Industrial activity experienced enormous growth in the 1940s, it expanded at least 6.1% annually in that decade. The industries share of GDP rose from 16.7 to 23.7 in the 1940–1955 period.
Starting in 1953 the growth rate of Chilean economy decreased to an annual average of 0.7% but increased to an annual average of 2.4–3.0% in the 1957–1960 period. The decline in the economic growth from 1953 onwards was variously attributed to excessive state intervention, neglect of agriculture and mining, unequal wealth distribution and dependency on state intervention.
The agrarian production in Chile contracted from 1950 onwards. A government plan set up in 1954 to address this ended with meager results and in 1958 a new plan was presented.
Structural reforms (1958–1970)
The 1958 agriculture plan allowed CORFO to develop investments in dairy plants, refrigerated slaughterhouses, sugar refineries and transport infrastructure.
Statism and collectivism (1970–1973)
Salvador Allende won the 1970 Chilean presidential election as leader of the Unidad Popular ("Popular Unity") coalition. His economic policy included a number of measures referred to as the Vuskovic Plan. Under this the Chilean copper mines were nationalized. Their revenue represent a large share of the Chilean government budget revenue.
During 1972, the macroeconomic problems continued to mount. Inflation surpassed 200 percent, and the fiscal deficit surpassed 13 percent of GDP. Domestic credit to the public sector grew at almost 300 percent, and international reserves dipped below US$77 million. Real wages fell 25 percent in 1972.
At the same time, the United States conducted a campaign to deepen the inflation crisis.
Neoliberal reforms (1973–1990)
From an economic point of view, the era can be divided into two periods. The first, from 1973 to the Crisis of 1982, corresponds to the period when most of the reforms were implemented. The period ended with the international debt crisis and the collapse of the Chilean economy. At that point, unemployment was extremely high, above 20 percent, and a large proportion of the banking sector had become bankrupt. During that first period, an economic policy that emphasized export expansion was implemented. Some economists argue that the economic recovery of the second period, from 1982 to 1990, was due to Pinochet's nationalisation of banks and reintroduction to the private market in 1984.
Monetarist shock therapy and "seven modernizations" (1973–1982)
After the military took over the government in 1973, a period of dramatic economic changes began. The military junta appointed a group of Chilean economists who had been educated in the United States at the University of Chicago. The Chicago Boys advocated laissez-faire, free-market, neoliberal, and fiscally conservative policies, in stark contrast to the extensive nationalization and centrally-planned economic programs supported by Allende, and the import substitution industrialization and structuralist economics supported by Chilean governments since the Great Depression. In a shock therapy, Chile was drastically transformed from an economy with a protected market, with strong government intervention, into a liberalized, world-integrated economy, where market forces were left free to guide most of the economy's decisions. Before 1973 the role of the state was to promote investment and industrialization. The Chicago Boys restricted government intervention and public enterprise activities. Businesses and lands expropriated during the presidency of Allende were re-privatized (with the exception of the copper mines). Price controls were abolished, import liberalized, the financial market and capital flows were deregulated. Labor unions were suppressed. Direct taxes and progressive taxes were reduced or abolished while indirect taxes were raised. The central bank raised interest rates from 49.9% to 178%. Thereby inflation could be lowered at the expected price of a sharp recession. When unemployment doubled some public work programmes were installed.
Initial support by the business community dried out when contractionary monetary policies and hasty liberalizations caused a drop in manufacturing output of 26% in 1975. The first period advocating a Monetarist shock therapy and “seven Modernisations” is marked by a high rate of business bankruptcies and a significant loss of manufacturing share of GDP. The Chicago Boys argued that this was due to a lack of competitiveness caused by the development strategy supported before 1973. Chilean economist Ricardo Ffrench-Davis counters that the cause for those bankruptcies cannot necessarily be addressed to outright inefficiencies since the severe recessions (around 1973, 1975 and 1981), real interest rates at an average of 38%, hasty import liberalization and an artificially high exchange rate revaluation were the decisive factors of business mortality.
After the recession of 1975 the economy expanded from 1977 to 1980 with high growth rates. It made Chile a showcase for Monetarists and economic liberals. Milton Friedman called it in his Newsweek column from January 25, 1982, a Miracle of Chile. Nevertheless, the economic growth rate of the whole 1975–1980 period was below the potential Chilean growth rate.
The boom ended in the economic crises of 1982. The Latin American debt crisis had a devastating impact on every Latin American country, but Chile was hit hardest with a GDP declined by 14%, while Latin American GDP diminished by 3.2% within the same period. Besides the Petrodollar recycling and the 1979 energy crisis there were some specific Chilean reasons for the crises too. The Chicago Boys had expected that since the government had achieved a fiscal surplus and the decision for external borrowing was left to private agents a foreign exchange crises would not occur. But in an effort to fight inflation Dollarization was introduced which lead to a Peso revaluation that caused high current account deficits which led to an increase in foreign lending. Additionally capital controls were abandoned and the financial market deregulated which led to an undamped increase in private foreign borrowing. The debt crises led to a bank run which led to an economic crises.
With the economic crisis of 1982, the "monetarist experiment" came to be widely regarded as a failure.
Pragmatic neoliberalism (1982–1990)
Finance minister Sergio de Castro rejected a competitive devaluation of the Peso even in 1982 despite a quickly growing rate of business bankruptcies. He argued that only the strongest and fittest should survive, but with a deepening financial and economic crises that position became unbearable, he had to resign. One by one the economic crises of 1981 led to the replacement of all the Chicago Boys. Pragmatic economists had to socialize the two biggest Chilean banks in 1982 and another seven collapsing banks in 1983. The Central Bank of Chile socialized much of the foreign debt. The public expenditure quota rose above 34%, even higher than during the presidency of socialist Salvador Allende.
The pragmatic Chicago Boy Hernán Büchi was appointed as finance minister in 1985. He revived Bank regulation by founding the Superintendencia de Bancos e Instituciones Financieras (SBIF) and established capital controls to avoid another financial crises. He also established ProChile, a Chilean government agency specialized in the promotion of exports. A further promotion of exports were fostered by cheap government credit and subsidies. Some tariffs were raised up to 35%. The socialized banks and some profitable public companies were re-privatized.
The pragmatic economic policy after the crises of 1982 is appreciated for bringing constant economic growth.
Concertación era (1990–2010)
After the return to Democracy the Presidents Patricio Aylwin (1990–1993) and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle (1994–1999) avoided radical change in favour of a “change in continuity”. To raise the lower income groups the share of government social spending was raised and a tax reform increased fiscal income. In 1990 the labor code was reformed with the aim to legitimate unions in order to balance the bargaining powers of employers and employees. Also in 1990 a tripartite agreement between government, unions and employers provided for an increase in the real minimum wage of 28% until 1993. In the first half of the 1990s a significant success on poverty reduction and a bit more equitable income distribution was achieved.
Capital controls such as a reserve requirement for foreign loans and a tax on foreign currency loans helped to prevent another financial crisis when many southern American countries suffered from the impact of the Tequila crisis. Nevertheless, the capital controls were not adapted to the disproportionate real appreciation of the peso and excessive capital inflows in 1996–1997. Thus Chile was affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis and witnessed a financial and economic crisis, albeit a relatively short one.
See also
Economy of Chile
Chilean nationalization of copper
The Shock Doctrine
Economic history of Latin America
Notes
References
Bibliography
Otero, Luis (2006). La huella del fuego: Historia de los bosques nativos. Poblamiento y cambios en el paisaje del sur de Chile. Pehuén Editores. .
Salazar, Gabriel (1985). Labradores, Peones y Proletarios (3rd ed.). LOM Ediciones. .
Salazar, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (2002). Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores. LOM Ediciones. .
Villalobos, Sergio; Silva, Osvaldo; Silva, Fernando; Estelle, Patricio (1974). Historia De Chile (14th ed.). Editorial Universitaria. .
External links
Economía y democracia. Los casos de Chile y México – by J.L. Saez Lozano, CEPAL
Global Trade Watch paper on recent Chilean economic policy history
Economy of Chile |
4309709 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita%20Blake%20mythology | Anita Blake mythology | In the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter series of novels, author Laurell K. Hamilton has developed a detailed mythology. Her series is an alternate history in which the supernatural is real, and vampires, lycanthropes, and other supernatural beings live alongside humans in a society that otherwise resembles 21st century North America.
Although the existence of supernatural beings has been public knowledge for centuries in the Anitaverse (see select references below), its history has otherwise unfolded so identically to that of the real world that the series contains occasional references to the popular culture of the 1990s, including the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, the O. J. Simpson trial, and others.
Undead
Vampires
There are many different types of vampires discussed in Anita Blake's mythology. Generally they are turned by being bitten three times on three subsequent nights. Draining of blood is part of the process, although not all of it as not everyone who is bitten becomes a vampire and the full requirements to go from being human to vampire are uncertain.
Once turned the new vampire is then taught by their master on the rights, rituals and general rules of "living," which includes a blood oath between the master and subservient vampire (read: does not necessarily require a newly turned individual).
This generally in turn leads to the vampire hierarchy of master to Master of the City. These master vampires in turn owe their allegiance to the top of the vampire hierarchy the Vampire Council.
Also included are feral vampires who have either been without blood, tortured and subjected to holy items for too long. Once in a feral state, the vampire loses its ability to reason and only becomes obsessed with feeding. When this state is reached by a vampire, it is nearly impossible to reverse or control without being destroyed. Anita managed to bring Damian back from this state by taking his blood oath.
Vampire characteristics
The only real universal trait is that they are blood drinking reanimated human corpses, risen from the dead to prey on the living, with a variety of diverse supernatural powers which grow stronger with each passing year;
Immortality. Being animated by supernatural forces which preserve their souls within their unliving cadavers, vampires neither age nor decay; and although they can starve, they cannot starve to death. They are also extremely difficult to harm; wounds from most objects, even bullets, heal in seconds without causing them any seeming discomfort and their unliving nature combined with their preternatural vitality renders them immune to all terrestrial diseases and other biological afflictions. Impaired or disabled humans or those suffering from a debilitating or terminal illness will find their faculties and health fully restored and improved several-fold upon reanimation as a vampire.
Superhuman Physical Attributes. A key characteristic which distinguishes vampires from humans and even other undead is their supernaturally augmented bodies. Their strength is superhuman; able to lift average-sized cars and injure humans with ease, and they move with incredible celerity. Vampires slowly and subtly grow stronger both in physical prowess as well as psychic potency with age; those with several centuries of undeath can send grown men flying across a room with the slightest touch, accidentally kill a human with a backhanded slap, eviscerate giant animals, and move with such speed that they appear to teleport.
Heightened Senses. Their senses are heightened to the point were they can tell a human's emotional state by scent alone, see in the dark, or hear whispered comments from some distance away.
Rolling. Vampires can "roll" victims by making eye contact. "Rolling" typically refers to a temporary hypnotic state that vampires can use to conceal their movements (giving them the illusion of instantaneous movement or teleportation), to give commands to the victim, or to reduce the pain of a vampire's bite. Victims with supernatural power, such as other vampires, animators, human servants, and lycanthropes, display varying amounts of resistance to this technique due to their own innate paranormal natures, but most people avoid the technique by not looking vampires directly in the eyes. A victim never remembers rolling, usually have this vague memory of eyes, or sometimes an animal with blazing eyes, or car headlights that were very bright, and after that is black-out, a gap in memory. A skilled hypnotist is usually able to recover lost memory.
Deep Rolling. Given time, a sufficiently powerful vampire can put a victim into an effectively permanent hypnotic state. In Guilty Pleasures, Aubrey uses this technique on Anita's friend Catherine in order to blackmail Anita—Anita knows that once deeply rolled, Catherine is Aubrey's to command unless Anita meets his demands. Vampires sometimes pretend to release a rolled human to appease the police, but if they have been "deep rolled" they can still recall them. Only the death of either the vampire or the human will severe the psychic link.
Mass Hypnosis. Some vampires are able to exert a hypnotic effect over an entire crowd. For example, one of the vampire comedians at the Laughing Corpse used mass hypnosis to convince his audiences that he was funny. Mass hypnosis does not have the same permanent effects as "deep rolling". Mass hypnosis is not a widely known vampire power, and has its limits. For example, in Bloody Bones, Anita doubts that any vampire could hold three murder victims simultaneously hypnotized while killing them. This form of "mind control" is the only one currently considered legal.
Vampire's Bite. A vampire's bite can (but apparently does not always) provide the vampire with mental control over the victim. In Guilty Pleasures, Nikolaos bites Anita and states that after a few bites, her control over Anita will be absolute. Anita is able to remove the effect of the bite by disinfecting the wound with holy water. In Circus of the Damned, Anita states that a vampire must enter a victim's mind during a bite to gain control over the victim. A vampire's bite can be intimate and sexually pleasurable depending on the victim's feelings towards the vampire and the use of mind powers, and the act of feeding itself is often seen as a form of intimacy in addition to or even in lieu of sex for both parties.
Empathy. Vampires refer to being able to "smell" emotions such as fear and lust through their heightened senses, and some vampires are able to detect lies. It is not clear precisely how much of this ability involves literal scent and how much involves mental powers. However, mental powers are clearly a significant component; once Jean-Claude makes Anita his human servant, he is unable to read her emotions, which suggests that the technique is not purely physical. Thanks to Itzpapalotl Anita on occasion can obtain vampire sharpened vision for a while; this sharpened vision alone is enough to notice other person's emotional state and detect a lie, or to notice slightest details, like well-hidden weapons.
Vulnerabilities. They are vulnerable to fire or wounds to the heart caused by wooden or silver weapons. They dislike garlic, can be repelled by religious icons wielded by people with faith, and are burned by holy water and sunlight. Wounds caused by silver or holy water will heal at a human rate and leave scars. They cannot enter a person's home unless they are invited; if the invitation is rescinded, the vampire is barred from the property by an unseen force.
Zombies
Zombies are mindless humans or animals raised from the dead by an animator, a vaundun practitioner, or a necromancer. Although they may appear human and have some of their memories at first, zombies quickly lose their memories and begin to rot. Zombies do not need to eat, but if fed meat, zombies will rot more slowly or not at all.
Although not supernaturally strong, zombies are able to use their entire strength without concern for exhaustion or damage. They typically obey their creator's orders absolutely. Zombies are able to operate in daylight, but prefer night, and will hide during the day if permitted.
If an animator's corpse is raised as a zombie, it will arise as a flesh-eating zombie—uncontrollable, much faster than a normal zombie, and with a taste for human flesh. The zombie can only regain its memory and personality by eating human flesh.
In another instance, if the victim of a murder is risen as a zombie, the zombie will rise and then actively seek out its murderer. The zombie will then kill the murderer after attacking anything that has gotten in its way. Such a zombie can not be controlled like other zombies, which is clear from the short story Those Who Seek Forgiveness and from the novel Micah. The latter source shows that physical act of killing is irrelevant; causing person's death on purpose creates a murder victim.
Vaundun priestess Dominga Salvador created two apparently novel types of zombies.
Salvador was capable of storing the soul of a dead person in a bottle, allowing her to raise zombies before their souls had passed on. By returning the soul to the zombie, Salvador created zombies with souls. This process prevented the zombies from rotting while they had souls, and served as further punishment for the deceased.
Salvador also created a sort of zombie chimera by animating parts of several humans and animals, then melding them into a single monstrous zombie. A version of this type of zombie is also seen in Obsidian Butterfly.
Ghosts
Anita has encountered ghosts before. According to her, ghosts cannot actually harm a living person, but paying attention to them allows them to become more solid and attempt to harass or scare their victims. Anita generally tries to avoid animating a corpse if the deceased person's ghost is still haunting their grave. She appears to have no power over them, as ghosts are a type of "soul magic," as noted in The Laughing Corpse. As yet, no clear information on their legal status in the Anitaverse has been revealed.
In Crimson Death lack of dead bodies to raise forces Anita to raise crowd of vengeful, angry ghosts; to make them more solid, Anita gave them blood; probably she shared some of her power with them, so ghosts were able to kill vampires.
Ghouls
Ghouls are undead scavengers, who hunt in packs, typically near the cemetery where they live, feed on human corpses and living human flesh. Ghouls have animal or child-level intelligence and typically haunt cemeteries that are no longer holy ground, either because of the passage of time or because of some unholy ritual. Ghouls regard non-ghouls as either potential food or something to run from. As yet, animators in the Anitaverse do not know why most ghouls rise from the dead, although in one case, a pack of ghouls apparently rose when Zachary, an animator, was buried and rose from the dead. The female form is given as ghouleh and the plural is given ghilan.
In Dead Ice Anita is surprised by her power working on ghouls; a ghoul took simple orders from her.
Shapeshifters
Numerous different types of shapeshifters exist in the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter universe, including werewolves and wererats. Anita distinguishes between lycanthropes, which includes solely persons infected by contact with another lycanthrope's bodily fluids, and shapeshifters, a class that includes both lycanthropes and persons who are able to shapeshift as a result of magic, such as a personal or family curse.
Other supernatural creatures
Anita meets or discusses a variety of other supernatural creatures over the course of the novels.
Faeries
Classified as Homo arcanus rather than Homo sapiens, the fey of the Anitaverse share many similarities with those of Hamilton's later Merry Gentry series of novels.
Fey characteristics
Fey are cross-fertile with humans. Humans with part fey ancestry, such as Magnus and Dorcas Bouvier may share some characteristics of full blooded fey. (Because the only fey to appear in the books living in America are the Bouviers and three exotic specimens, Rawhead and Bloody Bones, Xavier and Nuckelavee, this section primarily discusses part-blooded fey descended from the fairy high court, such as the Bouviers).
Part-fey such as the Bouviers appear primarily human. In the case of the Bouviers, their most striking physical characteristics are their otherworldly androgynous beauty, and the ability of their irises to "pinwheel" closed when their powers are active.
Physical abilities: All fey seen in the Anita Blake novels to date have been preternaturally fast and strong, and unusually resistant to damage. Some fullblooded fey, such as Rawhead, are completely immortal under normal conditions. (Ultimately, Rawhead shared blood with Magnus, rendering Rawhead capable of being killed while Magnus lived).
Cold iron: Unlike vampires and lycanthropes, fey are not bothered by silver. Cold forged iron or even lead is more damaging to them.
Glamour: One of the key abilities of the high court fey is that of glamour, an ability to cast illusions. Humans can resist glamour by placing a variety of magic ointments over their eyes *Example of Glamour; Making mud look and taste like ham.
Sensitivity: Both Magnus and Dorcas were mentally powerful as well, possessing psychic abilities, such as clairvoyance.
Harmony with nature: When Anita walked through the forest with Dorcas, it appeared as if the forest plants moved aside for her, or that she was in harmony with them. (Anita never saw a plant move, but somehow, forest plants were never wherever Dorcas happened to walk.)
Vampirism: Supposedly, it is impossible to raise a member of the fey as a vampire. However, as Xavier showed, this does not appear to be entirely true.
Fey social organization
In the Anitaverse, Unseelie fey are barred by law from immigrating into the United States.
The Daoine Sidhe, or fairy high court, is composed of some of the most powerful of the fey. When Anita sees Magnus using glamour, she concludes that he must be descended from the Daoine Sidhe. It is divided into a seelie court of neutral or good fey and an unseelie court of "bad" fey.
Many people in the Anitaverse have partial fey heritage, and, at least in the U.S., they officially have the same rights and privileges as ordinary humans. Even Dolph Storr, who regards most supernatural beings with some dubiousness, considers having fey blood a non-issue. In practice, however, prejudice against part-fey is prevalent enough that many conceal their heritage.
Trolls
Lesser Smokey mountain troll
A small North American species, usually between three and a half feet to around five feet tall. Diet consists mostly of plants but occasionally carrion or insects. They walk as humans do, the only other primate species to do so, and are covered in black colored "fur." They are also what Richard has studied for four years in order to obtain his master's degree.
Greater Smokey mountain troll
A large aggressive and carnivorous species of troll, ranging from eight to twelve feet tall. They were hunted to extinction, because they had been fond of pulling trees up by their roots, beating people to death with them, and then eating the marrow out of their bones.
North American cave troll
The smallest troll species on North America, one member of the species (named Peter) was attempted to be converted into Christianity, by a human named Simon Barkley. A scientific journal in 1910 had been published with the information that some trolls had buried their dead with personal artifacts. The newspapers expanded on that information, proclaiming that the trolls mentioned must believe in an afterlife. Simon Barkley wrote a book describing his time with Peter and a professor of Anita's had a picture of Peter looking like he was praying.
Dragons
Dragons are known to have existed in the Anita Blake novels, as seen on page 544 of Obsidian Butterfly. However, it implies that most species, if not all, are extinct in present times. However, in Smolder, it looks like at least one dragon is still alive.
Gargoyles
In The Lunatic Cafe, page 55, gargoyles are described as carrion eaters with the nearest grouping located in Kentucky. It is possible that they will attack a man, but it happens rarely. In France, there are three species reported that are either bigger than a human or human sized.
Quetzalcoatl
The status of the supposedly extinct Quetzalcoatl Draconus Giganticus, shortened to Quetzalcoatl, is up for debate, called either a subspecies of dragons or gargoyles or sometimes a class of their own. The Spanish were believed to have hunted them to extinction in their conquest of the Aztecs; however, a living example is seen in Obsidian Butterfly, so this classification may be incorrect. There is a deceased Quetzalcoatl in the Chicago Field Museum, though it is thought a far cry from the living thing.
The Quetzalcoatl is an iridescent green/blue which, as it nears the snout, loses most of the green, with a white belly and underside of wings. Multihued feathers fringe its round eyes, which are compared to that of a bird of prey's, and its wings are the same rainbow of colors as the feathers. It is armed with rows of saw-like teeth and claws. Anita describes it as "one of the most beautiful things [she had] ever seen."
First seen in Obsidian Butterfly, the Quetzalcoatl featured is a servant of the Red Woman's Husband, devouring human flesh given to it by its master. After the Red Woman's Husband's death, it disappeared without a trace and has so far not been mentioned.
Demons
Although rarely encountered in the novels, demons also exist in the Anitaverse; little has been revealed about them to date save that they are vastly powerful and evil entities, apparently residing in an otherworldly dimension and visiting Earth only when summoned by magic or when possessing weak willed humans (with mental illness seen as a potential risk factor for possession). Prior to Anita's own encounter with a demon in Blue Moon, there had been no known direct demon attacks upon humans since the Middle Ages. Devils, also known as "greater demons," are even rarer and considered among the most dangerous creatures in existence; when, in Obsidian Butterfly, Edward suggests that a Devil might be responsible for the mutilations and murders, Anita initially half-believes him to be joking.
Merfolk
Mermaids (and their male counterparts) exist within the Anitaverse. Merfolk with a power similar to the ardeur are known as sirens who seductively lure men into inhumanly strange but intensely pleasurable sexual unions, only to drown or kill them in some other way. Sirens have the power to "roll" the minds of people in a similar fashion to vampires. Due to their potential power over other merfolk, sirens are traditionally slain by merfolk before they can become a danger.
Master Vampire of the City of Cape Cod Samuel has merfolk as his animal to call, and his wife Leucothea is the last living siren.
Humans
Humans are very prominent in the Anitaverse. Anita has many human friends, most of whom are on the police force. Humans by nature don't have any special powers, and are not nearly as strong as most of the preternatural creatures in the books. However, some, like Blake, and her fellow animators, are born with talents that, if developed, enables them to rival or surpass other more powerful creatures. In addition, those who serve vampire masters acquire powers through that service: see the section below on human servants.
Psychics
Psychics are humans that are born with different types of preternatural abilities, so it is debatable whether they are truly human or not. Some psychic abilities include:
Clairvoyance; the bearer of the power can touch a random object and can tell who else has touched it, and what they did with that object. Can be used to find murderers, or where the murder victim is.
Telepathy; telepaths can read minds, and although Anita has not met a telepath, she briefly mentions them in the series.
Although psychic abilities may be very prominent, some people don't even know they're psychic.
For example, Zerbrowski, one of Anita's police friends, is said to be a little psychic.
When a vampire's power is floating around the room, Anita is said to have seen Zerbrowski shiver, and none of the other police officers.
Animators
Animators are said to be very rare, though not as rare as necromancers. There are three animating firms in the US according to Anita, and the firm she works for, Animators Inc., has about 6 different animators working there. Animators are born with their powers, and Anita is not sure she was ever human, even from birth. Animators have the ability resist vampires' hypnotic powers to some degree and to raise and control zombies. However, they can only control zombies, while necromancers (like Anita) can control all types of dead, and most undead.
Necromancers
Anita is primarily a necromancer, which gives her the ability to control the dead. They can raise zombies easier than animators, and sometimes don't even need an animal sacrifice. They can also control vampires. In the daytime, they can animate a vampires corpse, whilst it is soulless. Towards the last few books Anita can also control vampires while they are alive, in daytime. Necromancers, as a Vampire's human servant, add greatly to the creation of a power triad, called a triumvirate. A triumvirate includes master vampire, a human servant, and an animal servant. When a triumvirate includes a necromancer as human servant and a lycanthrope as animal servant, the necromancer may act as the bridge between the vampire and the lycanthrope, since a necromancer is a living being (like lycanthrope) and possesses death magic (like a vampire).
Human Servants
Human servants are bound to a master vampire by a magic called marks. There are four types of mark needed; the first is a kind of extension of the vampires' life force that allows their servant to heal more rapidly and gives them some resistance to vampiric hypnosis, the second comes in a vision of flame and allows the vampire to feed on the metabolism of their servant (when the servant eats/drinks the vampire shares the experience), the third mark involves the vampire feeding from their servant directly allowing the sharing of thoughts and memories between the two, and when the servant is forever bound by the fourth (final) mark which involves the servant drinking the vampires' blood, he/she becomes immortal. The relationship between a vampire and his or her human servant(s) is described as an intimate and eternal union of their flesh, blood, and souls. The human servant should only die when the vampire they are bound to dies, although Anita has proven that wrong on several occasions, in the third book Anita lives on as she kills the vampire she is bound to. Also, if the human servant is killed, due to physical or metaphysical force (although they cannot be poisoned or infected with a pathogen), the vampire they are tied to may die as well, unless that vampire is a sufficiently powerful master, such as Asher or Nikolaos.
Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter
Zombies and revenants in popular culture |
4309871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatem%20Ben%20Arfa | Hatem Ben Arfa | Hatem Ben Arfa (, ; born 7 March 1987) is a French professional footballer who plays as a winger and attacking midfielder. He is Currently a Free Agent. Known for his flair and dribbling ability, he is regarded as a fan favorite with a cult following. He was once described as "one of the best-rated talents in France" but has been criticised by the media and players alike for lacking discipline.
Ben Arfa's career started in the Île-de-France region, where he trained at Boulogne-Billancourt and Versailles. In 1999, he was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy. He spent three years there before leaving for Lyon, where he won four Ligue 1 titles. In his early career at Lyon, he played as a centre forward but moved into a striker role during the 2007–08 season. In the summer of 2008, Ben Arfa signed with rivals Marseille for €11 million in a move that required the intervention of the Ligue de Football Professionnel. With Marseille, he won the 2009–10 league title, his fifth overall, as well as the Coupe de la Ligue in 2010. After two years at Marseille, Ben Arfa joined English club Newcastle United on loan for the 2010–11 season. The deal was made permanent later in the season.
Ben Arfa spent four years at Newcastle, with a loan spell at Hull City in his final season at the club. He signed for Nice in January 2015 but was unable to make his debut until August, having already represented Newcastle United Reserves and Hull City the previous season. He scored 17 goals in 32 league appearances for Nice, attracting the interest of several European clubs, and signed for Paris Saint-Germain on 1 July 2016. After failing to make a competitive appearance in the 2017–18 season, Ben Arfa signed for Rennes, where he won the Coupe de France over Paris Saint-Germain. He then went on to play for Valladolid and Bordeaux before joining Lille in 2022.
Ben Arfa is a former French youth international and has played at all levels for France. At the under-17 level, he was a part of the team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. He was called up to the senior team for the first time in October 2007 for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against the Faroe Islands. He has made 15 appearances for France, scoring twice.
Early career
Ben Arfa was born into a family with a football history. His father was the former Tunisian international footballer Kamel Ben Arfa. Ben Arfa began his career in France at ASV Châtenay-Malabry. After two years at the club, he moved a few miles north to Montrouge CF 92. In 1998, Ben Arfa joined sporting club AC Boulogne-Billancourt. The following year, he was selected to attend the INF Clairefontaine academy. He was the youngest player in his class, and the only one born in 1987. While at Clairefontaine, he was a part of A la Clairefontaine, a documentary series which chronicled the lives of some of France's top young footballers during their time at the academy. During the series, an episode showed Ben Arfa getting into an argument with Abou Diaby. While training at Clairefontaine during the weekdays, he played for FC Versailles 78 on the weekends.
Club career
Lyon
Already labeled a prodigy at the age of 15, Ben Arfa joined Lyon, a club that had just won its first ever Ligue 1 championship. In August 2004, after spending two years in the youth divisions of the Lyon academy, he signed his first professional contract, agreeing to a three-year deal despite late interest from English club Chelsea and Dutch outfit Ajax. Along with fellow youth player Karim Benzema, he was promoted to the senior squad and was assigned the number 34 shirt.
Ben Arfa made his professional debut on the opening day of the 2004–05 season against Nice. Lyon won the match 1–0 with a goal from Giovane Élber, a few minutes after Ben Arfa had come on. After making a few substitute appearances, he made his first start on 11 September 2004 in a 2–1 victory over Rennes playing 56 minutes. Ben Arfa scored his first professional goal two months later on 10 November in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Lille, converting from the penalty spot in extra time to give Lyon a 2–1 lead, though Lille scored two late goals, beating Lyon 3–2. He made his UEFA Champions League debut in a group stage match against Manchester United coming on as a substitute for Sidney Govou.
The following season, Ben Arfa switched to the first team number 18 shirt, but his substitute-to-start ratio was still high as seven of his 12 appearances were as a substitute. He scored as Lyon won the 2005 Trophée des Champions. He made his first Champions League start in a 2–1 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg, providing the assist on the game-winning goal scored by Fred in the last minutes of the match. Ben Arfa scored his first league goal during the 2006–07 season against Sedan just before half-time. The goal proved to be the winner as Lyon won the match 1–0.
After the departure of wingers Florent Malouda and Sylvain Wiltord, new manager Alain Perrin preferred the more modern 4–3–3 formation, and moved Ben Arfa to left wing for the 2007–08 season. Ben Arfa quickly adapted to the position and scored his first goal in a 5–1 demolition of Metz on 15 September, though his performance was overshadowed by a Benzema hat trick. Arguably his best performances in a Lyon shirt came in a period of 12 days, during which he played a league match on 28 October against Paris Saint-Germain and a Champions League game against German club VfB Stuttgart on 7 November. He scored two goals in each match with both results being in favor of Lyon. Following the season, he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP) Young Player of the Year.
Despite rumors of a rift between himself and Benzema, Ben Arfa signed a contract extension with Lyon in March 2008 until 2010. However, his career at Lyon reached an impasse after he got into a training session scuffle with Sébastien Squillaci.
Marseille
Despite reported interest from English clubs Everton, Manchester United, Arsenal, and Spanish club Real Madrid, rumors of a move to rivals Marseille began to surface. On 28 June 2008, Lyon confirmed that a proposed transfer to Marseille had been cancelled for the time being. However, Ben Arfa confirmed to the local La Provence newspaper on 29 June that he had signed for the southern coast club and would not return to Lyon for pre-season training the following day. La Provence later reported that Ben Arfa had in fact missed training in Lyon on 30 June, confirming his intentions.
Ben Arfa officially joined Marseille on 1 July 2008 for €12 million, with future incentives to be included later, after an agreement was reached between Marseille and Lyon in a meeting organized by the Ligue de Football Professionnel. As a result of the disagreement over the transfer, in December 2008, Ben Arfa told the local Lyon newspaper Le Progrès that his former team lacked class and was not a great team. Ben Arfa was presented to the media and had his first training session with the club the same day. He was given the number 20 shirt. On 16 July, Ben Arfa was involved in another training session bust-up, this time with striker and France international player Djibril Cissé. Cissé later joined English club Sunderland on loan.
Ben Arfa made his league debut on the opening day of the season in a 4–4 draw with Rennes. He scored his first goal for Les Marseillais in that match. He continued in form scoring six times in his first 11 matches. However, his reputation for controversy continued to haunt him when he was involved in another dispute, this time with the Cameroon international player Modeste M'bami during a warm up session ahead of the club's UEFA Champions League match against Liverpool. The two had to be separated by Ronald Zubar. Controversy arose again following Marseille's 4–2 loss to Le Classique rivals Paris-Saint Germain. He drew the ire of manager Eric Gerets after his refusal to leave the bench to warm up. Ben Arfa later said he was injured much to the chagrin of Gerets, but later apologized for the incident to the media and Gerets himself. Upon his return to the squad, Ben Arfa responded by scoring a goal and providing the assists on both the other goals in a 3–1 victory over Saint-Étienne.
Ben Arfa switched to the number 10 shirt for the 2009–10 season and made his debut on the opening match day of the season in a 2–0 away victory over Grenoble appearing as a substitute in the 68th minute. The following week, he earned his first start of the season against Lille and assisted the winning goal scored by Brandão. Controversy surfaced again, however, when, on 8 October 2009, Ben Arfa was fined €10,000 by the club for missing a training session. Ben Arfa blamed the absence on airport delays as he was in Tunisia visiting family members during the international break. A month later, on 18 November, he got into a heated argument with manager Didier Deschamps during a training session, for which Ben Arfa later apologized. Under Deschamps in the first half of the season, Ben Arfa appeared in 15 of the club's 20 league matches and only played the full 90 minutes in two matches, a 2–1 defeat against Monaco and a 2–0 defeat to Auxerre.
Ben Arfa's play during the 2010 portion of the season earned praise from both Deschamps and sporting director José Anigo. On 10 January 2010, Ben Arfa scored his first goal of the season against amateur club Trélissac in the Coupe de France. A month later, he was instrumental in Marseille's 5–1 victory over Valenciennes assisting on the opening goal scored by Lucho González. Later that month, Ben Arfa scored an away goal in the first leg of the club's UEFA Europa League tie against Danish club Copenhagen. In the return leg in Marseille, Ben Arfa struck again, scoring the opening goal in the 43rd minute. Marseille won the match 3–1 and the tie 6–2 on aggregate. On 27 February, he scored his first league goal of the season in a 3–0 victory over Paris Saint-Germain. Ben Arfa's play in the month of February was validated when he was named the UNFP Player of the Month. Marseille won all four of the league matches the team contested with Ben Arfa starting all of them. On 7 April, Ben Arfa converted a penalty in a 3–0 win over Sochaux. The victory placed the club at the top of the table, and they remained there for the rest of the season and clinched the title on 5 May with a 3–1 win over Rennes. Ben Arfa appeared as a substitute in the match.
On 22 July 2010, reports surfaced suggesting that English club Newcastle United were looking to sign Ben Arfa. After being questioned, Newcastle's manager Chris Hughton denied the reports. Five days later, Ben Arfa's agent declared that Newcastle were indeed interested in the player, along with German clubs Hoffenheim and Werder Bremen, Turkish club Galatasaray, and Italian club AC Milan. On 9 August, a season-long loan with an option to make the move permanent was being negotiated between the two clubs; however, a loan-fee for the deal could not be reached with Newcastle offering £650,000; £350,000 short of what Marseille wanted. On 12 August, Marseille president Jean-Claude Dassier announced that Ben Arfa would not be moving to Newcastle and even went as far as to say that an offer from the club had not even existed.
Similar to his actions in leaving Lyon, Ben Arfa responded to the statement by telling the French sports newspaper L'Équipe that he would not be returning to La Commanderie, Marseille's training facility, and would not play with the team for the remainder of the season. He also stated that his relationship with Deschamps had turned sour and was beyond repair. Ben Arfa confirmed his intentions by travelling to Newcastle upon Tyne, without authorization, with hopes that Newcastle and Marseille would come to an agreement. After returning to Marseille, he missed several training sessions with his parent club and was, subsequently, left off the match day squad for two league matches against Valenciennes and Lorient. Ben Arfa's number 10 was later given to new signing André-Pierre Gignac, which signaled a transfer was imminent.
On 19 August, a proposed move to Werder Bremen failed to come to fruition after the club's sporting director Klaus Allofs declared that the club was not interested in Ben Arfa, despite reports of Werder Bremen offering Marseille a transfer fee of €8 million. On 27 August, Dassier confirmed that the club had reached an agreement on a loan fee with Newcastle for the transfer of Ben Arfa with personal terms being the only stumbling block in the deal. Marseille agreed to a £2 million loan fee. Newcastle had been set to pay Marseille another £5 million if Ben Arfa had made 25 club appearances in the 2010–11 season, which would have made the transfer permanent.
Newcastle United
On 27 August 2010, Ben Arfa agreed to personal terms with Newcastle and, the following day, the club confirmed that it had signed Ben Arfa on a season-long loan. He made his debut on 11 September 2010, appearing as a substitute in a 2–0 defeat at home to Blackpool. He scored his first goal for Newcastle on his full debut on 18 September in the 1–0 victory against Everton. On 3 October, Ben Arfa suffered a broken tibia and fibula in his left leg while playing in a league match against Manchester City. The injury came as a result of a tackle by opposing midfielder Nigel de Jong. On 5 January 2011, Marseille and Newcastle both confirmed on their websites that they had reached an agreement for the permanent transfer of Ben Arfa to Newcastle with the player agreeing to a four and a half year contract. The transfer fee was undisclosed.
Ben Arfa spent most of his rehabilitation in his home city of Paris recuperating at the Clairefontaine academy. On 23 February, Newcastle manager Alan Pardew confirmed that Ben Arfa was running and could return to the team in April. However, days later, Pardew revealed that he was not prepared to rush the player's rehabilitation process and that Ben Arfa probably would not be available until May, stating "I am going to protect him. I can't just throw him in". Ben Arfa returned to training with Newcastle on 5 April. He participated fully in warm-ups with the first-team, but spent the majority of the training session doing light training and fitness work. Ben Arfa ultimately failed to make any more appearances with the team in the 2010–11 season.
After continuing his rehabilitation during the summer, ahead of the 2011–12 season, Ben Arfa began participating in friendly matches with the senior team. He made his return to the team on 15 July 2011 in a match against Conference National club Darlington. Five days later, in the team's pre-season tour of the United States, he sustained an ankle injury in a match against Sporting Kansas City. Ben Arfa ventured back to his home country to rehab the injury and returned to Newcastle on 18 September. He was, subsequently, named to the first-team to participate in the team's Football League Cup tie against Nottingham Forest on 21 September. Ben Arfa made his season debut in the match against Nottingham Forest appearing as a substitute. Three days later, he made his Premier League return, coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 win over Blackburn Rovers. On 26 December 2011, after going the majority of the autumn campaign without scoring a goal, Ben Arfa scored his first goal of the season in a 2–0 away win over Bolton.
On 7 January 2012, Ben Arfa scored Newcastle's opening goal in its FA Cup third round tie against Blackburn Rovers. The goal, described by BBC Sport as "magical", drew the match 1–1 and Newcastle later went on to win the tie 2–1. On 22 January 2012, Ben Arfa scored in Newcastle's 5–2 defeat to Fulham at Craven Cottage. Two months later, Ben Arfa scored the opener in Newcastle's away league match against Arsenal. The hosts, however, won the match 2–1. On 25 March, he scored one goal and provided the assists on the other two goals in a 3–1 victory against West Brom. Two weeks later, on Easter Monday, Ben Arfa scored again against Bolton Wanderers. The goal, described as "a moment of genius" by British publication The Independent, as he was passed the ball just inside his own half, he proceeded to turn and speed past 4 Bolton players, showing incredible control in doing so, and slotted it past Bolton goalkeeper Ádám Bogdán, the goal was the opener and Newcastle went on to win the match 2–0.
Despite having a disrupted pre-season due to his participation in Euro 2012, Ben Arfa enjoyed a good start to the new Premier League season. On the opening weekend of the season he won and converted a penalty that gave Newcastle a 2–1 victory over Tottenham. Two weeks later, he scored with a spectacular 25-yard drive, on his weaker right foot, to earn Newcastle a point in a 1–1 draw against Aston Villa. He injured his hamstring in a Europa League match against Marítimo, returning in a 2–1 loss to Fulham, in which he scored Newcastle's only goal. However, he aggravated the injury during the match, and did not make an appearance until 7 March 2013 (his 26th birthday), in a Europa League Round of 16 match against Anzhi Makhachkala. Once again, he injured his hamstring which kept him out of the team until the second leg of the Europa League quarter final against Benfica on 11 April, when he came on as a second-half substitute. On 12 May, Ben Arfa scored the equaliser in a 2–1 away win at Loftus Road from the penalty spot as Newcastle confirmed their Premier League status for the next season.
Ben Arfa started the 2013–14 season in a rich vein of form, securing Newcastle's first win of the season by scoring an individual goal against Fulham, and scoring and making an assist in the following game against Aston Villa. Ben Arfa's third goal of the season came when the Frenchman converted a late penalty away at Crystal Palace to help Newcastle ease to 3–0 victory.
Loan to Hull City
On 2 September 2014, Ben Arfa signed for Hull City on a season-long loan. He made his debut on 15 September, replacing fellow debutant Abel Hernández for the final 11 minutes of a 2–2 home draw against West Ham United. In December 2014, however, Ben Arfa unexpectedly left England, with Hull manager Steve Bruce later admitting he did not know where the player was and that his career with Hull appeared to be over.
On 4 January 2015, Ben Arfa was released from his Newcastle United contract.
Nice
On 5 January 2015, Ben Arfa signed a deal with Ligue 1 side Nice, stating that "Even if Real Madrid had called at that moment, my mind was made up." He said that he had returned to France because "There are people here who trust me, who do not judge me as some people want to judge me through the press."
Ben Arfa would be ineligible to play for the club, due to a rule that a player can only play for two clubs in a single season, having already played for both Newcastle United Reserves and Hull City. On 3 February, Ben Arfa told a press conference his deal with Nice had been terminated, however, on 9 June, Nice would re-sign Ben Arfa at the start of the 2015–16 Ligue 1 season.
Ben Arfa made his debut for Nice against Monaco in Nice's opening Ligue 1 match of the season on 8 August 2015 at the Allianz Riviera. Seven days later, he scored his first goal for his new club against Troyes from the penalty spot in Nice's second Ligue 1 match of the season, which ended 3–3. In Nice's next Ligue 1 match on 22 August, Ben Arfa scored a solo goal in the 2–1 win against Caen.
Paris Saint-Germain
On 1 July 2016, amidst reported interest from all over Europe after a season in which he scored 18 goals in 37 matches for Nice, Ben Arfa signed for Paris Saint-Germain on a two-year deal, after his contract ran out at Nice. On 6 August 2016, Ben Arfa scored on his PSG debut, scoring in the 34th minute in a 4–1 victory over his former club Lyon in the 2016 Trophée des Champions. On 1 February 2017, Ben Arfa scored a goal while assisting another two goals in a 4–0 away victory against Rennes in the round of 32 of the 2016–17 Coupe de France. On 5 April, Ben Arfa was handed a rare start (just his ninth of the season) and he scored two goals and provided an assist for Javier Pastore in a 4–0 away victory against Avranches in the quarter-finals of the Coupe de France; that was Ben Arfa's last PSG competitive match of the 2016–17 season. After failing to make a single competitive appearance for PSG in the 2017–18 season, he left the club upon the expiration of his contract in June 2018.
Rennes
On 2 September 2018, Ben Arfa signed for Rennes on a two-year deal. On 20 September, Ben Arfa made his competitive debut for Rennes in the Europa League Group K 2–1 home win over Jablonec by coming on as a second-half substitute; playing his first competitive match since 5 April 2017, he scored the final goal from a penalty in the 91st minute. On 7 October, Ben Arfa scored the final goal in the 77th minute (his first career Ligue 1 goal for Rennes) after his 14th minute corner had assisted Damien Da Silva's goal in a 2–1 away win over Monaco. On 8 December, Ben Arfa scored the final goal in the 89th minute after he had set up Benjamin Bourigeaud's goal in a 2–0 Ligue 1 home win over Dijon. On 27 April 2019, Ben Arfa won the Coupe de France as Rennes defeated his former club Paris Saint-Germain in the final on penalties.
Real Valladolid
On 28 January 2020, Ben Arfa signed with La Liga club Real Valladolid on a six-month contract. He chose the number 3 jersey, an uncommon shirt number for an attacker, and explained his choice by stating that "on the shirt, it looks pretty". However, his performances failed to convince, and after a mere five appearances, he left the club as a free agent.
Bordeaux
On 7 October 2020, Ben Arfa joined Ligue 1 side Bordeaux on a one-year contract. He scored his first goal for the club on 20 November against his former club Rennes. Ben Arfa enjoyed a "good start to the season", scoring two goals and providing five assists in 2020 with Bordeaux. However, he endured a difficult second half of the season, which was marred by injuries and problems in the locker room with several teammates, notably with captain Laurent Koscielny. He also had a deteriorating relationship with manager Jean-Louis Gasset. On 26 May 2021, sporting director Alain Roche confirmed that Ben Arfa would be leaving the club at the end of his contract. He stated that the option for a further year included in Ben Arfa's deal was "conditioned upon sporting criteria" that were not met.
Lille
On 19 January 2022, Ben Arfa joined reigning Ligue 1 champions Lille on a six-month contract. He made his debut as a substitute in a 2–0 defeat to Brest three days later. On his first start for Les Dogues on 6 February, Ben Arfa went on to provide an assist for Sven Botman's goal in a 5–1 defeat to PSG.
In early April, Ben Arfa was suspended from the Lille squad after a heated altercation with manager Jocelyn Gourvennec following a 0–0 draw to Bordeaux. Ben Arfa had reportedly criticised the way the team was set up, and told Gourvennec that "this isn't Guingamp", a team he formerly coached. He later insulted Gourvennec and Lille president in an Instagram story, calling them "twisted", a word used by Gourvennec earlier in the day. Gourvennec admitted in a press conference that he had "never seen that in all [of his] career", referring to Ben Arfa's inappropriate behavior in the dressing room following the match.
International career
Youth
Ben Arfa has earned caps with all of France's youth teams. With the under-16 team, he made ten appearances scoring seven goals. Ben Arfa made his debut with the team at the 2003 edition of the Aegean Cup in Turkey. He scored his first goal in the tournament on 12 January in a 3–2 win over Belgium. The victory assured France a third-place finish. At the Montaigu Tournament, Ben Arfa scored a team-leading six goals. He scored two goals in the team's 8–0 win over Gabon in the opening match. In the following match, Ben Arfa scored the final goal in the team's 3–0 win over Russia and, in the final group stage match, bagged another double in a 3–1 victory over England. He capped the tournament by scoring a goal in the final against Italy, though France lost the match 5–1.
Ben Arfa made his debut with the under-17 team in the opening match of the season against Sweden converting a first-half hat-trick in a 5–2 victory. In the Tournio de Val-de-Marne, Ben Arfa scored two goals as France were crowned champions without conceding a goal. At the 2004 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship, Ben Arfa, alongside teammates Samir Nasri, Benzema, and Jérémy Menez contributed to the team winning the competition. Ben Arfa appeared in all five matches and scored goals against Northern Ireland, Turkey and Portugal. In total with the under-17s, he made 17 appearances and scored a team-high 11 goals. Because of his increased playing time with Lyon, Ben Arfa missed a significant portion of playing time with the under-18 team. He made his debut on 15 March 2005, playing in a 3–3 draw with Germany. Ben Arfa appeared in the final three matches of the season for the team to bring his appearance total to four. He scored no goals.
The foursome of Ben Arfa, Nasri, Benzema, and Menez returned to international play together for under-19 duty. The four were joined by Issiar Dia, Blaise Matuidi, and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship. In the first round of qualification for the tournament, Ben Arfa scored his lone goal in the opening match against Wales as France advanced through the round undefeated. Due to injury, Ben Arfa was absent from the final round of qualification for the tournament and, despite going undefeated in the round, France were eliminated after being beaten on points by Scotland. Ben Arfa made only one competitive appearance with the under-21 team, appearing in a 2009 UEFA Under-21 Championship qualification match against Romania.
Senior
Before representing France, Ben Arfa was eligible to represent Tunisia and was offered a place in the 2006 World Cup, held in Germany. Like Sami Khedira he turned down the opportunity, preferring to continue his career with the France national team. Ben Arfa was called up to the senior team for the first time on 10 October 2007 by Raymond Domenech to replace the injured Louis Saha and played in the Euro 2008 qualifying matches against the Faroe Islands and Lithuania. This move stunned critics of Domenech as they expected striker David Trezeguet to get the call-up. Ben Arfa made his debut on 13 October when he came on for Franck Ribéry in the 64th minute and scored the last goal in France's 6–0 victory over the Faroe Islands. Ben Arfa was, however, omitted from Domenech's final 23-man Euro 2008 squad on 28 May.
On 25 February 2010, after a long period without a call-up, Ben Arfa returned to the team, alongside teammates Steve Mandanda and Benoît Cheyrou, after being called up for France's friendly match with Spain on 3 March. On 11 May, he was named to the 30-man preliminary list by Domenech to play in the 2010 World Cup, but failed to make the final 23.
After going nearly two years without representing France internationally, on 5 August 2010, Ben Arfa was called up to the senior team by new manager Laurent Blanc for the team's friendly match against Norway on 11 August 2010. Ben Arfa made his return to the team in the match appearing as a half-time substitute for Moussa Sissoko. He scored the opening goal of the match in a 2–1 defeat. On 29 May 2012 Ben Arfa was included in France's 23 man squad for UEFA Euro 2012, making his first start in the final game of Group D, losing 2–0 to Sweden.
On 12 May 2016, Ben Arfa was named on the standby list for France's UEFA Euro 2016 squad.
Personal life
Ben Arfa was born in the Paris suburb of Clamart and was raised in Châtenay-Malabry. His father, Kamel Ben Arfa, a former Tunisian international footballer, arrived in France in 1973, settling in Saint-Michel, Aisne to work in a foundry. He later starred for a local club in the commune. Ben Arfa describes himself as a moderately practising Muslim.
Career statistics
Club
International
Source:
International goals
Scores and results list France's goal tally first.
Honours
Lyon
Ligue 1: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08
Coupe de France: 2007–08
Trophée des Champions: 2005, 2006, 2007
Marseille
Ligue 1: 2009–10
Coupe de la Ligue: 2009–10
Trophée des Champions: 2010
Paris Saint-Germain
Coupe de France: 2016–17
Coupe de la Ligue: 2016–17
Trophée des Champions: 2016
Rennes
Coupe de France: 2018–19
France U17
UEFA European Under-17 Championship: 2004
Individual
UNFP Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year: 2007–08
UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Month: February 2010
UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year: 2015–16
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
French sportspeople of Tunisian descent
French Muslims
Footballers from Hauts-de-Seine
French men's footballers
Men's association football wingers
AC Boulogne-Billancourt players
FC Versailles 78 players
INF Clairefontaine players
Olympique Lyonnais players
Olympique de Marseille players
Newcastle United F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
OGC Nice players
Paris Saint-Germain F.C. players
Stade Rennais F.C. players
Real Valladolid players
FC Girondins de Bordeaux players
Lille OSC players
Ligue 1 players
Premier League players
La Liga players
France men's youth international footballers
France men's under-21 international footballers
France men's international footballers
UEFA Euro 2012 players
French expatriate men's footballers
French expatriate sportspeople in England
French expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
People from Clamart |
4309884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20Hearts%3A%20From%20the%20New%20World | Shadow Hearts: From the New World | Shadow Hearts: From the New World is a role-playing video game developed by Nautilus (Sacnoth) for the PlayStation 2. It was published in Japan by Aruze in 2005, in North America by Xseed Games in 2006, and in Europe by Ghostlight in 2007. From The New World is the third and final game in the Shadow Hearts series, acting as both a continuation of the series narrative and a spin-off featuring new characters.
Set in an alternate version of the Americas during the Prohibition era, the story follows amnesiac private investigator Johnny Garland, who travels with the Native American Shania in pursuit of a malevolent being known as Lady. During gameplay, the player controls a group led by Johnny exploring various locations across the Americas. During battle, a party of up to four characters can be controlled, with actions in battle relying on a timing-based system dubbed the Judgement Ring. The game's worldview combines alternate history with elements of Lovecraftian horror.
From the New World was produced on a tight schedule, with several staff members returning from Shadow Hearts: Covenant; Covenant art director Takamusa Ohsawa acted as director and producer, while Miyako Kato and Yoshitaka Hirota returned respectively as character designer and lead composer. It was treated as a fresh start for the team due to its setting and characters. The development team focused on refining the mechanics introduced in Covenant. Debuting to low sales, the game was generally well received by critics. Despite plans to continue the Shadow Hearts series, From the New World was the last game development by Nautilus before their absorption into Aruze and departure from game development. Some team members including Kato, Hirota and series creator Matsuzo Machida began work on a spiritual successor titled Penny Blood in 2019.
Gameplay
Shadow Hearts: From the New World is a role-playing video game (RPG) where players take control of a party led by main protagonist Johnny Garland as they progress through the game; progress is split between a linear story-driven first half and a second half which allows greater exploration and access to optional areas. During gameplay, the party explores a number of town and country areas across the Americas from a fixed-camera third-person perspective, collecting and buying items and equipment, talking to non-playable characters who act as quest givers and merchants, solving environmental puzzles, and completing both story-centered quests and side quests.
The turn-based battles are triggered through both random and scripted encounters. Each player character has hit points (health), skill points (magic), and sanity points (SP). SP ordinarily decrease once per turn, and when a character runs out of SP they go berserk and cannot be controlled by the player. Each character has two basic attack types; single attacks which range from normal attacks to powerful "Hard Hit", and double attacks which allow one character to take two actions in a single turn.
Characters, including enemy groups, can use combos with two or more characters. Characters link up to perform a succession of compatible attacks. There are two combo types; standard combos and double combos, which are mechanically similar to double attacks. Double attacks and all combos draw from a "Stock" gauge which is filled by attacking or being attacked. After each battle, the party gains experience points which raise their level, permanently raising health, magic and SP. Greater experience and more valuable items are awarded for good battle performance. New skills are attained by each character through story-driven side quests.
Central to combat is the Judgement Ring. Represented as a disc with colored areas on its surface, the player's aim is to hit those areas as a pointer passes over them. If the player fails to hit an area, the attack can either be shortened or cancelled altogether. Small red-colored "Strike" areas boost the power of an action, while magic attacks have increasingly dark hues near the end of a hit area, with hits in those areas making the spell more powerful. The Judgement Ring is used for every battle action, from standard attacks and special abilities to using items. Players can choose to automate the Judgement Ring, but this removes the Strike option and decreases action power. During combos, missing a hit area on the Judgement Ring breaks the rest of the combo and removes any subsequent character's turns. After a certain point in the game, the Judgement Ring can be customised for each character, potentially easing the difficulty. The Judgement Ring is also used in other gameplay areas, such as gaining discounts from shops and in some mini-games.
A power unique to main heroine Shania is Fusion; during the course of the story, Shania unlocks the ability to transform into different monstrous forms, altering her stats and giving her unique abilities. Each Fusion costs SP, and while in a Fusion form SP decreases with each turn. Fusions are increased in strength using Spirit energy collected after each battle, which is fed into collectable totems associated with each form. For characters other than Shania, magic is unlocked using Stellar Charts. Each character equips compatible Stellar items in slots, which give a character access to different spells. The Stellar Charts can be upgraded and expanded, allowing for new and more powerful abilities to be incorporated.
Synopsis
Setting and characters
From the New World is set in an alternate reality, taking place in 1929 during the Prohibition era and mingling historical events and people with supernatural elements including divine beings and cosmic horror. The story is set exclusively in the Americas, with locations ranging from North American areas including New York City and Las Vegas, and South American regions such as the Guianas and ruins of the Maya civilization. While taking place in the same reality as and featuring cameos from Shadow Hearts and Shadow Hearts: Covenant, the story is separate from the rest of the canon.
The main protagonist is Johnny Garland, a teenage private detective who is searching for his forgotten past following a car accident that killed the rest of his family. He is saved from death by Shania, a Native American priestess capable of transforming into monstrous forms in battle after forming pacts with powerful spirits. The pair are joined by Natan, Shania's bounty hunter bodyguard; Frank Goldfinger, a self-proclaimed master ninja; Master Mao, an anthropomorphic cat; Ricardo Gomez, a mariachi-playing gunman; and Hildergard "Hilda" Valentine, a member of the recurring Valentine vampire clan.
The main antagonists are Lady, a mute woman who can infect others with Malice; Killer, a serial killer who becomes her companion; and Professor Gilbert, an immoral researcher obsessed with Malice. A key supporting character is Roger Bacon, a 12th century philosopher who achieved imperfect immortality and a recurring character in the Shadow Hearts series.
Plot
Johnny is hired by Gilbert to track down Marlow Brown. Upon finding him in an abandoned opera house, Brown is terrified of Johnny, and is shortly killed by a monster that appears from a portal. Johnny is saved by Shania, who was hunting the monster. Since the release of the dark energy Malice into the world during the events of Covenant, Shania and her companion Natan help keep monsters spawned from Malice in check, along with hunting for those who destroyed Shania's tribe. Johnny and Shania team up and locate Gilbert at Arkham University, who reveals his true intentions to unleash Malice upon the world before escaping. Meanwhile, in Brooklyn, a wanted criminal codenamed "Killer" escapes police pursuit and is fatally injured. He encounters a mysterious mute woman who kills his pursuers and gives him a "Kiss of Malice", healing his wounds. Grateful, he dubs the woman as "Lady" and stays with her.
As Johnny and Shania investigate—picking up Frank and Mao along the way—Lady makes her way across North America, seeking out concentrations of Malice. Shania identifies Lady as the being responsible for the attack on her tribe. At one point, Lady gives her Kiss of Malice to Gomez's girlfriend Edna, who is corrupted and turned into a monster Gomez is forced to kill; this leads him to join Johnny's party. They also rescue the vampire Hilda and Roger Bacon from Area 51. At the same time, Gilbert teams up with Lady and a reluctant Killer as Lady is drawn to several South American ruins, unlocking the seals on concentrated pockets of Malice. This summons a massive structure known as the Gate, from which Malice and monsters would pour into the world if opened. The group fail to stop them, and during one encounter Lady kisses Shania, infecting her with Malice.
To stop the Gate from opening, Johnny's group travels to Salar de Uyuni to locate an artifact imbued with the power of "Will", a blue light that counterbalances Malice. Killer arrives and attacks them, fatally wounding Johnny. Johnny transforms into a being similar to Lady and attacks the group, forcing Shania to release the Will and return Johnny to normal. This stalls the Gate's opening, but does not stop it due to Lady's presence there. Suspicious of his past, Johnny returns to his family home and discovers that he and his sister Grace died in a car crash. His father teamed up with Brown to steal the mystical Émigré Manuscript from Bacon and perform a resurrection ritual on Johnny and Grace using the combined energies of Malice and Will. The ritual went wrong, and Grace sacrificed her Will to preserve Johnny, turning her into Lady.
Johnny accepts the need for Lady's death and travels to the Gate with his companions. Before the final battle, Shania reveals that she may become a monster due to the Malice inside her. The group storm the Gate, fighting first Killer—whose death causes Lady to show emotion for the first time—then a Malice-mutated Gilbert. The party kill Lady, escaping before the Gate vanishes, and go their separate ways. After this point, two endings are unlocked. In the "Bad" ending, Shania is consumed by the Malice. In the "Good" ending, unlocked by obtaining an optional Fusion and maxing out Shania's powers, Shania is cleansed of Malice and works with Johnny at his agency.
Development
From the New World was developed by Nautilus (formerly known as Sacnoth), featuring the same production team that created Shadow Hearts and its sequel. The game was produced and directed by Takamusa Ohsawa, who previously served as art director for Covenant. The characters were designed by series artist Miyako Kato. The lead game designer was Takehiro Ishida, and the scenario was written by Toshiyuki Suzuki, with the story concept being provided by former director and scenario writer Matsuzo Machida. The game's production was completed on "an extremely tight schedule", presenting challenges to different team members caused by this. It was also stated that the production had a "more controlled system" compared to the previous two titles, leading to a tonal shift from the series earlier darker tone. The director was also replaced midway through production. By March 2005, the game was 60% complete.
While previous Shadow Hearts titles were based on the Eurasian continent, From the New World moved to the Americas, giving the developers a fresh start. The new setting and characters allowed the team to create a beginner-friendly narrative which would attract a larger audience, with the story being a spin-off only loosely connected to the events of Shadow Hearts and Covenant. Rather than portraying a grand mythology, the narrative focused on individuals within the struggle created within the Shadow Hearts series. Despite its spin-off status, the team treated Johnny with the gravity of a mainline Shadow Hearts protagonist. While the series continued to use real locations, the team did not want to be too realistic, so added in anachronistic locations. Ishida, who had worked on the series since Covenant, was in charge of the battle system. It was based on the system used in Covenant, although new elements such as the stock gauge were added to increase strategy. The battle system expansions, which included the ability for enemies to use combo attacks, were done based on a combination of staff wishes and fan feedback.
Kato designed all the characters, with some going through notable redesigns; one was Natan, whose early character design was far leaner than his final appearance. For Shania's Fusion forms, she was given the direction to make them appear like goddesses rather than monsters. The game used a modified version of the Covenant engine. More detailed character expressions were incorporated, and load times were decreased. Unlike Covenant, From the New World used only one PS2 DVD, which caused problems with data storage. The CGI cutscenes were created by computer graphics studio Avant, with motion capture being handled by Dynapix. Avant had previously created the CGI cutscenes for Covenant. Many of the motion capture actors had previously worked on Covenant. The real-time cutscenes were made more cinematic, with more attention paid to camera angles and character movement. Despite the change to a lighter atmosphere, monster designs continued to draw inspiration from H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, an influence reaching back to the first Shadow Hearts.
Music
Yoshitaka Hirota, composer for the previous two Shadow Hearts games, returned for From the New World. Hirota was joined by Ryo Fukuda, who collaborated on the first Shadow Hearts, and Tomoko Imoto and Hirotomi Imoto. Imoto also acted as sound director. For the music, Hirota researched Native American music and made heavy use of vocals and ethnic music, fusing ancient instruments with electronic elements. The series theme "Icaro" was reprised in an arranged form. Choral work was led by Akiko Shikata. The main theme "Spread My Wings" was composed by Hirota, and was performed and written by Takehara Tomoaki from the indie funk band Taste of Chocolate. A soundtrack album was released by Team Entertainment on August 24, 2005 in parallel with an arrange album of tracks from across the Shadow Hearts series.
Release
From the New World was first announced by publisher Aruze in March 2005, with the first trailer being included in the director's cut edition of Covenant. The game was released in the region on July 28, 2005. It came in both standard and limited editions. The latter included a soundtrack CD, and additional merchandise including a themed T-shirt and keyholder. Other separate merchandise was produced, including several guidebooks, and an artbook which included character illustrations and developer commentary.
While previous Shadow Hearts games were localised by Midway Games, From the New World was licensed for a North American release by Xseed Games. At the time, Xseed was a fairly new company, and From the New World was one of its earliest major localizations, having successfully secured Western release rights alongside Wild Arms 4. As with the previous two Shadow Hearts games, the localization was handled by Jeremy Blaustein. Blaustein was brought on board the project by Xseed. The voice acting was an important element for the English release, who cast actors based on the regional accents of characters. According to a later interview, Xseed were under pressure due to most of their resources being tied up with Wild Arms 4, and while they were impressed by the English dub, the written script had a number of issues and needed to be proofed and edited for consistency. The game was released in North America on March 6, 2006. In Europe, the game was licensed for publication by Ghostlight. From the New World was released in Europe on May 25, 2007. An Australasian release followed on June 7.
Reception
During its debut week, From the New World reached third place in sales charts, reaching nearly 52,000 units. By the end of the year, the game had sold over 82,000 units. Despite general low sales for their game business division, Aruze credited the release of From the New World with that division showing a profit that year. Speaking in 2020, Xseed Games parent company CEO Ken Berry noted that the market demand for From the New World in the West was sufficient alongside that for Wild Arms 4 to keep Xseed Games going.
Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave much praise to the narrative and its characters, noting the use of comedy and numerous side stories related to each player character. Rob Fahay of Eurogamer enjoyed the story's pacing, but found the amount of humour off-putting compared to the balance struck in Covenant and took longer to like the cast. GamePro found the varied cast to be the game's strongest element, and GameSpots Bethany Massimilla said the story "remains compelling (if insane) throughout". GameSpys Gerald Villoria felt that the storyline lack cohesion, Jeremy Dunham of IGN criticised an imbalance between dungeon exploration and narrative that negatively affected an otherwise-enjoyable story. PALGNs Tristan Kalogeropoulos noted the more absurd storyline and characters compared to earlier Shadow Hearts games, and negatively noted the stereotypes of American culture and history used in the game. RPGFans Patrick Gann lauded the storytelling and characters, but was disappointed by the game's "good" ending as it ran against the themes of both the game and the series.
Famitsu noted that the game seemed to have solid production values. Massimilla though the environment and dungeon designs were repetitive, but praised the character designs as the strongest aspect of the game's visuals. Villoria similarly praised the character designs, and Dunham cited the graphics and CGI cutscenes as one of the game's strengths despite lacking higher resolution or widescreen support. Kalogeropoulos praised the CGI and real-time cutscenes, while Gann lauded the amount of effort put into the visual and stylistic presentation by Nautilus. The voice acting divided opinion; some gave praise, while others faulted it. In contrast, the music was met with a generally positive response.
The gameplay was described by Famitsu simply as "an orthodox RPG", while Fahay commented that "the battle system remains just as strong and compelling as it was in Covenant". GamePro enjoyed the battle system, but found the Stellar upgrades underdeveloped and was extremely critical of puzzle designs. Massimilla enjoyed the combat options, but disliked both the dungeon design and the reliance of character progression on side quests. Villoria praised the breadth and depth of combat, but found the random encounters underwhelming compared to the scripted boss fights. Dunham enjoyed the additions and tweaks to the battle system, but faulted the dungeon design. Kalogeropoulos praised the battle system for encouraging player interaction in actions normally governed by chance in RPGs in addition to the variety of move types, but noted that the character growth system was geared more towards completionists than casual players. Gann lauded the game design, but noted that there were still weak parts of the overall design inherent to the Shadow Hearts series; like other reviewers, he criticised the dungeon design.
Legacy
Speaking in a later interview, Machida said that From the New World was not the true Shadow Hearts III, which would have continued the story of original protagonist Yuri Hyuga. His plan had been for Shadow Hearts III to follow Jinpachiro Hyuga and Kiheita Inugami, the respective fathers of Yuri and Covenant character Kurando Inugami. Ultimately, From the New World was the last Shadow Hearts title to be released; Nautilus was absorbed into Aruze in 2007 and ended video game production, ultimately ceasing to exist during corporate restructuring in 2009. Machida was approached three times about developing a new Shadow Hearts, but each time the project was cancelled due to "the company’s circumstances". Machida, Kato and Hirota later came together to work on Penny Blood, a spiritual successor to the Shadow Hearts series.
Notes
References
External links
Official website
(North America)
at Ghostlight (Europe)
Role-playing video games
Alternate history video games
PlayStation 2-only games
Shadow Hearts
2005 video games
PlayStation 2 games
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Video games scored by Yoshitaka Hirota
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4309952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Glastonbury%20Romance | A Glastonbury Romance | A Glastonbury Romance was written by John Cowper Powys (1873–1963) in rural upstate New York and first published by Simon and Schuster in New York City in March 1932. An English edition published by John Lane followed in 1933. It has "nearly half-a-million words" and was described as "probably the longest undivided novel in English".
It is the second of Powys's Wessex novels, along with Wolf Solent (1929), Weymouth Sands (1934) and Maiden Castle (1936). Powys was an admirer of Thomas Hardy and these novels are set in Somerset and Dorset, parts of Hardy's mythical Wessex. The action occurs over roughly a year, and the first two chapters of A Glastonbury Romance take place in Norfolk, where the late Canon William Crow's will is read, and the Crow family learn that his secretary-valet John Geard has inherited his wealth. Also in Norfolk, a romance begins between cousins, John and Mary Crow. However, after an important scene at the ancient monument of Stonehenge, the rest of the action takes place in or near the Somerset town of Glastonbury, which is some ten miles north of the village of Montacute. Powys's father, the Reverend Charles Francis Powys (1843–1923), was parish priest of Montacute from 1885 to 1918, and it was here that Powys grew up. The grail legends associated with the town of Glastonbury are of major importance in this novel, and Welsh mythology has, for the first time, a significant role.
Summary of the plot
The book is divided into two sections, which reflects Simon and Schuster's original plan to publish the book in two separate volumes, as they had done with Wolf Solent. The climax of volume 1 is Geard's pageant, part of his plan to revive Glastonbury as a place of religious pilgrimage. The Pageant has three parts: "Arthurian scenes at the beginning", then a "Christmas 'Passion Play' ", followed by a final "prehistoric portion". However the Pageant ends abruptly during the second part, when Owen Evans, who is enacting Christ's death on the Cross, collapses. In volume 2's final chapter, "The Flood", the sea invades the land, Geard dies, and Glastonbury becomes an island once again.
The action begins in Norfolk with the funeral Canon William Crow and the reading of his will, and where the romance between the cousins John and Mary Crow begins. The Crow family members are shocked to learn that William' Crow's secretary-valet, John Geard, has inherited most of the deceased's wealth. John Crow then sets off to walk to Glastonbury, where he will rejoin Mary. While crossing Salisbury Plain he is offered a ride in Owen Evans' car and the two men visit Stonehenge.
A central aspect of A Glastonbury Romance is the attempt by John Geard, ex-minister, who becomes the mayor, to restore Glastonbury to its medieval glory as a place of religious pilgrimage. On the other hand, the Glastonbury industrialist Philip Crow, along with John and Mary Crow, and Tom Barter, all whom are from Norfolk, view the myths and legends of the town with contempt. Philip's vision is of a future with more mines and more factories. John Crow, however, as he is penniless, takes on the task of organizing a pageant for Geard. At the same time an alliance of Anarchists, Marxists, and Jacobins try to turn Glastonbury into a commune.
Like Powys, Owen Evans is a devoted student of Welsh mythology. He also resembles Powys in that he has strong urges toward violence and sadism, and is often tempted by sadistic pornography. But Evans is not the only character that resembles his creator, as both John Geard and John Crow reflect, in different ways, aspects of Powys's personality.
A Glastonbury Romance has several climactic moments, before the major final one. Firstly there is Sam Dekker's decision, following his Grail vision, to give-up of his adulterous affair with Nell Zoyland, and to lead a monk-like existence. Then there's Evans' failed attempt to destroy his sadistic urge, by playing the part of Christ on the Cross at the Easter Pageant. Followed, however, by his wife Cordelia's ability to defeat his desire to witness a murder. The attempted murder of John Crow is equally climatic. But this involves Tom Barter's death, when he saves his friend John Crow, who is Mad Bet's intended victim.
Finally the novel concludes with the a flooding of the low lying country surrounding Glastonbury, so that it becomes once again the legendary Isle of Avalon. This leads the death of Geard, and ends his ambitious plans for Glastonbury. However, the ending is ambiguous, rather than tragic, because Geard had earlier had asked John Crow: "do you suppose anyone's ever committed suicide out of an excess of life, simply to enjoy the last experience in full consciousness?"
In the novel's final pages there is a panegyric to "the great goddess Cybele", the "Goddess Earth" (See also - Gaia, Demeter, Persephone, Rhea), whom "The powers of reason and science gather in the strong light of the Sun to beat ... down. But evermore she rises again".
Characters
The numerous inhabitants of Glastonbury, include: "a sadist, a madwoman, a vicar, a procuress, eccentric servants, spinster ladies, lovelorn maidens, lesbians ... anarchists, communists, romantic lovers, old men, and young children".
John Geard, a mystic who influenced the late Canon Crow of Glastonbury and received the man's riches when he died. Geard becomes mayor of the town during the course of the novel and becomes obsessed with the Grail Legend, commissioning new monuments for the town and promoting his own religious brand of Grail-worship. He is married to Megan Geard—a marriage that is still physically passionate unlike that of Geard's rival, Philip Crow. Geard becomes fascinated with the youthful and delicate daughter of the Marquis of P., Rachel Zoyland. Megan Geard has Welsh ancestry, as her maiden name was Rhys. The Geard's were a prominent family of Baptists in Montacute, where Powys's father was vicar for 32 years.
Cordelia Geard, daughter of John and Megan Geard. She is described as "very plain" and "very dark", "with a thin, awkward bony figure". Her name Cordelia may indicate a mythological identification with Creiddylad, daughter of Lludd in The Mabinogion. Her admirer, Owen Evans, identifies her with the Grail Messenger. Creiddylad is the name that Porius gives to the giantess in Powys's novel, Porius.
Crummie Geard, Cordelia's beautiful, younger sister, who has "fair" hair and "violet-coloured eyes". She is in love with Sam Dekker, and is described by Glen Cavaliero, as a grail-bearer to Sam.
John Crow, a young man from Norfolk who comes from France to attend funeral of his grandfather Canon William Crow. There he meets his cousin Mary Crow, who he later marries. He walks to Glastonbury, where he works for John Geard. A skeptic and cynic, he sees his work for Geard as a way of mocking the Grail-worship he is supposed to promote.
Philip Crow, a cousin to John and an industrialist, who owns Wookey Hole Caves. He is widely hated by the citizens of the town for his attempt to industrialise it. He too hates the Grail legend, and seeks to unseat Geard.
Tom Barter, a childhood friend of John Crow, from Norfolk. He initially works for Philip Crow but leaves to join John Geard. He is a somewhat depressed womaniser who carries a flame for Mary Crow but marries Tossie Stickles, after she becomes pregnant.
Owen Evans, a Welshman, obsessed student of Welsh mythology, mystic, antiquarian, and a friend of John Crow. He has strong sadistic urges, and is tempted by an anonymous pornographic book. He is writing a book on Merlin, the magician of Arthurian legend.
Mat Dekker, the town vicar. He is also wary of Geard's new religion and is also described as being an enemy of the anthropomorphised sun.
Sam Dekker, the vicar's son. He carries an on-and-off affair with Nell Zoyland, wife of Will Zoyland, and goes through several spiritual conversions during the course of the novel. According to Morine Krissdóttir, "Sam is the virtuous Perceval of medieval myth; the Fisher King is this story Christ himself".
Persephone Spear, wife of Communist leader Dave Spear and longtime mistress to Philip Crow.
Mad Bet, (Bet Chinnock) a bald, witch-like madwoman who encourages Finn Toller to commit murder. She is identified with the Grail Messenger.
Finn Toller (alias, Codfin), who accidentally kills Tom Barter when he attempts to murder John Crow.
Edward Athling, a farmer-poet who creates the "libretto" for the Glastonbury Pageant.
Red Robinson, a "cockney communist, who was always plotting troubles and strikes in Philip's factories. Red hates Philip Crow and plots, with fellow communist Dave Spear and philosophical anarchist Paul Trent, to establish a commune in Glastonbury, along the lines of the Paris Commune of 1871.
Paul Trent, a solicitor from the Scilly Isles of Cornwall, who plans to set up an office in Glastonbury. He is a philosophical anarchist.
Publication history
A Glastonbury Romance was first published by Simon & Schuster in New York in 1932 and in London by John Lane in 1933.
Subsequently, cuts were made to the 3rd impression of the Lane edition, following a libel suit in 1934 by Captain Hodgkinson, the owner of Wookey Hole caves. along with an apology. There were two further impressions with the apology and cuts.
When Macdonald reprinted the novel in 1955, further cuts were made, including the deletion of eight pages from the end of chapter 8: "Wookey Hole".
Subsequent editions
Picador 1975,
Outlook Duckworth 1996,
Penguin 1999, were photocopied from the 1955 edition.
There is a full details of the cuts in Paul Cheshire's essay, "A Glastonbury Romance: Cuts and Alterations to the UK Printed Texts 1932-1955", The Powys Journal, vol. XXVII (2017), pp. 65-86. Earlier, Penny Smith discussed the cuts in "The 'Cave of the man-eating Mothers': its location in A Glastonbury Romance", The Powys Review, 9 (1981/82), pp. 10-37.
For an online copy of the 5th impression of the Lane edition from 1934, see #Further reading, below.
Lawsuit
In 1934, Powys and his English publishers were successfully sued for libel by Gerard Hodgkinson, real-life owner of the Wookey Hole caves, who claimed that the character of Philip Crow had been based on him. The damages awarded crippled Powys financially, and he was forced to make substantial changes to the English edition of his next novel, which was initially published in America as Weymouth Sands (1934). The title of the English version was changed to Jobber Skald (1935) and all references to the real-life Weymouth were cut.
Introduction
It "was conceived on an uncompromisingly huge scale, with a cast of hundreds". In his preface to the 1955 edition Powys states the novel's "heroine is the Grail", however, in 1932 he described "Glastonbury herself" as "the hero of the story. Its central concern is with the various myths and legends along with history associated with Glastonbury. It is also possible to see most of the main characters, John Geard, Sam Dekker, John Crow, and Owen Evans as undertaking a Grail quest.
However, the opening chapters are concerned with John Crow's arrival in Northwold, Norfolk, to attend his grandfather's funeral and the reading of the will. Northwold was where Powys spent memorable holidays as a child at his maternal grandfather, William Cowper Johnson's, rectory. Johnson was Rector of Northwold from 1880 until 1892. In 1878 was made an Honorary Canon of Norwich Cathedral. Like John Crow, Powys would have arrived at Brandon railway station and similarly boated and fished on the River Wissey. In 1929 he had revisited Northwold with his brother Littleton.
Central to the novel is John Geard's plan to revive Glastonbury as a centre of religious pilgrimage. Part of his plan is an elaborate pageant that includes the various myths and legends associated with the town. It is worth noting that beginning in 1924 annual pilgrimages "to the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey" began to take place, initially organized by some local churches. Pilgrimages continue today to be held; in the second half of June for the Anglicans and early in July for the Catholics and they attract visitors from all over Western Europe. Services are celebrated in the Anglican, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The abbey site is visited by over 100,000 a year.
With regard to Geard's pageant, W. J. Keith notes that "the chapter entitled 'The Pageant' occurs exactly halfway" in the novel, and that because "of its structural and thematic importance is therefore central in two senses of that word". Margaret Drabble also recognizes the importance of this chapter, describing its 55 pages as "a narrative tour de force. She notes that it involves "not only the 50 and more named characters ... but a cast of thousands" with "the whole town ... either taking part or providing the audience". There are Arthurian scenes at the beginning, followed by the Christmas 'Passion Play', and a final a prehistoric portion, which is not performed. "The pageant ends ... unintentionally, with the physical collapse of Evans" playing the role of Christ on the cross.
The novel has several climaxes that relate to the completion of the Grail quest of major characters and the murder of Tom Barter.
At the novel's end, much of the city is flooded, in reference to the myth that held Glastonbury to be the original Island of Avalon of Arthurian legend. The novel closes with a drowning John Geard looking to Glastonbury Tor (itself referred to repeatedly as the domain of the Welsh king of the Welsh Otherworld (Annwn), Gwyn-ap-Nudd), in hopes of seeing the Grail.
A Glastonbury Romance is also the first of several novels by Powys that reflect his growing interest in Welsh mythology, the others are Maiden Castle (1935), Morwyn (1937), Owen Glendower (1941), and Porius (1951). The Welshman Owen Evans, one of the novel's main characters, introduces the idea that the Grail has a Welsh (Celtic), pagan pre-Christian origin.
Genre: Romance
The novel's title "points to a distinction between romance and novel", and, in his Autobiography, Powys describes Walter Scott's romances, as "by far the most powerful literary influence of my life". Scott defines the romance as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", in contrast to mainstream novels which realistically depict the state of a society. These works frequently, but not exclusively, take the form of the historical novel. The following definition of the word "romance" is also serves describes some of the characteristic elements of the romance: "the character or quality that makes something appeal strongly to the imagination, and sets it apart from the mundane; an air, feeling, or sense of wonder, mystery, and remoteness from everyday life; redolence or suggestion of, or association with, adventure, heroism, chivalry, etc.; mystique, glamour" (OED). This definition is associated with the Romantic movement, as well as to the medieval romance tradition.
God-like omniscience
In a letter written just after he had completed A Glastonbury Romance Powys describes how it differs from his previous novel,Wolf Solent, because it does not,"strain the whole business through one character ... but jumps about boldly and shamelessly from one person's thoughts to another's. David A. Cook calls this "an awesome authorial omniscience" that aspires "to the cosmic consciousness of God. The "author-god" enters the consciousness not only of an array of human characters but assigns "souls" to the sun, moon, and the earth. For example, "the thoughts of the earth mother throbbed with ... unappeasable jealousy". Powys also includes "the feelings of a tree" and "the secret life motion a louse". The lives of multiple characters and their individual perspectives are followed. The main stories involve, Philip Crow, John Crow, Sam Dekker, John Geard, and Owen Evans, with numerous critics describing them, other than Philip Crow, as "Powy-heroes", that is characters who reflect "a dominant psychological bias in the author". H. P. Collins describes John Crow as "a quite undisguised projection of John Cowper", while Sam Dekker embodies "John Cowper's suppressed evangelism". Jocelyn Brooke likewise sees Owen Evans as "a projection of Powys the self-confessed sadist; and "Johnny Geard, the methodist messiah ... is none other than the eccentric, 'dithyrambic' lecturer to American Women's Clubs".
Three women are also especially significant, John Crow's wife Mary (née Crow), Evans's wife, Cordelia Geard, and Persephone Spear (née Crow)(see, W. J. Keith for Cordelia and Mary, and Glen Cavaliero for Persephone. Also important is Mad Bet's plot to murder John Crow. But this does not exhaust the list of individual stories and the novel offers different perspectives and "numerous political and religious views jostle for attention, with none being privileged over others"; and, there is also, a wide spectrum of social classes ... age groups ... and love relationships ... [including] "a remarkably varied array of homoerotic attractions and liaisons".
There is in addition the question of the role of the novel's narrator and the extent to which he is to be identified with the author. Generally critics tend to follow "the convention of calling the narrator 'Powys'", Academics such as Wilson Knight, George Steiner, and John Bayley "have heard one voice in [Powys's] novels, that of Powys himself". Other critics, however, emphasise "the artistry of Powys", that his novels are "deliberate literary works". Charles Lock, for example, following ideas formulated by the Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin, emphasizes the polyphonic or multiple-voiced nature of A Glastonbury Romance: "The characters' voices are not subject to the author's voice, bur all speak on equal terms". The narrator is not Powys, "Even when the narrator voices opinions known th have been held by Powys ... he must not be taken 'literally' or too seriously", his "voice [is] on the same plane as all other voices in the book Powys's narrator, according to Lock, is "unreliable, protean, deceptive, ambiguous, and Zany". However, while W. J. Keith accepts that Powys gives characters "arguments that may be very different from his own", he contends that this does not "stifle all 'omniscient' authorial opinion", as Lock, following Bakhtin, suggests, because the author "exerts ultimate authority".
Significance of the settings
Setting has a central role in A Glastonbury Romance and Roland Mathias suggests that Powys "is less interested in the clash of character than in the ethos of place. In his "Authors Review" of 1932 Powys names the hero of his novel as "Glastonbury herself", and in answer to the question as to how "can a mere place or region, have a personality?" he answers "I cannot tell. But I know that it has one!" However, the novel's first two chapters take place in Norfolk, and the third is at the site of the ancient stone circle, Stonehenge. Another important scene, at least in earlier uncut versions of the novel, takes place in the Wookey Hole Caves, some from Glastonbury on the edge of the Mendip Hills. Geographically Norfolk and the country surrounding Glastonbury are similar, that is both are low-lying, reclaimed marshland, though the town was formerly an island and has three prominent hills, Chalice Hill, Glastonbury Tor, and Wearyall or Wirral Hill, each of which has a role in the novel.
Central to the novel is the contrast Powys makes between the inhabitants from the two main settings: On the one hand, the people of Norfolk, in particular the members of the Crow family, are described descendants of Danish invaders, "who rode roughshod over the sacred mythologies of Celtic Britain". Powys uses Dane and Norman interchangeably.
The inhabitants of Glastonbury are descended from Saxons and earlier Celtic and neolithic people. The fact that Owen Evans and others have Celtic, Welsh ancestry is important. Geard has a "long line of Saxon ancestors, preserving their distinct identity under centuries of Norman tyranny". He also emphasizes that King Arthur was a Saxon king. Geard is attempting "to cast out the Invaders ... [who] attempted to rule since the Battle of Hastings" in 1066. Norfolk, represented by the Crow family, stands as "a kind of touchstones of sanity and a recalcitrant resistance to the dominance of the supernatural" that characterizes Glastonbury.
An important part of the setting is also the multiple layers of history, legend, and mythology associated with Glastonbury. In addition to Danish and Norman invasions, there is the association of Glastonbury in legend with Christ through Joseph of Arithamathea, with King Arthur, with earlier Welsh or Celtic mythology, and Neolithic aboriginals.
John Crow by chance meets the mythology obsessed Owen Evans at Stonehenge, on his journey from Norfolk to Glastonbury. John "is greatly affected by" the ancient site, which, for him is "no dead ruin like Glastonbury", rejecting Evans's idea that was "a Druid's Temple". as he refuses "'to delegate' to any interpreter, any priest". John Crow believes that is possible to worship a stone as a god and rejects "all the mysterious cult secrets that Evans's erudite imaginative need collected, just as he later rejects the mysteries of Glastonbury".
The Wookey Hole Caves, owned by the industrialist Philip Crow, "hold a malefic function" in opposition to what Glastonbury represents. Likewise, Philip's ambition, is to modernise Glastonbury in opposition to his antagonist Geard's planned religious revival. Philip is associated with mining, a factory, flying, and plans to electrify Wookey Hole, "the caves of the Druids".
Eight pages of chapter 8, "Wookey Hole", were removed when the novel was reprinted in 1955, and some shorter cuts were made to earlier reprints in 1933. In the full version, a mythological parallel is established between Philip's descent into the Caves with Persephone Spear and the god Pluto's descent into his underworld kingdom, with the goddess Demeter's daughter Persephone. The legend of Wookey Hole involves a witch being changed into a stalactite by a monk's holy water. In the full version, the "'phallic' formations of the cave" are described as " 'memorials' of the Witch of Wookey's 'monstrous encounters' ", which Penny Smith suggests are a reference here to the "myth of the castrating Mother" and Smith links this to the "cult of Cybele and her son Attis". Philip, however, experience in the Cave " 'a sensation of power ... beyond anything he had ever known' ". Paul Cheshire notes that this energy is "phallic", and he points to "three superhuman forces operating on Philip". Firstly "the umbilical nerve within him vibrating in response to the nerves of the Great Mother" secondly "the [divine-diabolic] First Cause ... and [thirdly] ... Christ ... operating 'against him' ". Later Geard visits Philip's "kingdom below the earth", where, according to Paul Cheshire, "the Witch" strikes "a 'dolorous blow' against [his] Grail project", when he falls asleep and misses making "his great speech".
Glastonbury Tor
A hill near Glastonbury topped by the roofless St Michael's Tower. The Tor is mentioned in Celtic mythology, particularly in myths linked to King Arthur, and has several other enduring mythological and spiritual associations. The Tor seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (meaning "The Isle of Avalon") by the Britons and is believed by some, including the 12th and 13th century writer Gerald of Wales, to be the Avalon of Arthurian legend. The Tor has been associated with the name Avalon, and identified with King Arthur, since the alleged discovery of his and Queen Guinevere's neatly labelled coffins in 1191, recounted by Gerald of Wales. Author Christopher L. Hodapp asserts in his book The Templar Code for Dummies that Glastonbury Tor is one of the possible locations of the Holy Grail, because it is close to the monastery that housed the Nanteos Cup.
With the 19th century resurgence of interest in Celtic mythology, the Tor became associated with Gwyn ap Nudd, the first Lord of the Otherworld (Annwn) and later King of the Fairies. The Tor came to be represented as an entrance to Annwn or to Avalon, the land of the fairies. The Tor is supposedly a gateway into "The Land of the Dead (Avalon)".
Chalice Hill
Chalice Hill, a small hill next to Glastonbury Tor and situated near the summit is Chalice Well, a natural spring, also known as the Red Spring. Wells often feature in Welsh and Irish mythology as gateways to the spirit world. One legend is that Chalice Well marks the site where Joseph of Arimathea placed the chalice that had caught the drops of Christ's blood at the Crucifixion, linking the Well to the wealth of speculation surrounding the existence of the Holy Grail.
Wearyall or Wirrall Hill
According to legend, Joseph of Arimathea visited Glastonbury with the Holy Grail and thrust his staff into Wearyall Hill, which then grew into the original thorn tree. The original tree has been propagated several times, with one tree growing at Glastonbury Abbey and another in the churchyard of the Church of St John. The "original" Glastonbury thorn was cut down and burned as a relic of superstition during the English Civil War, and one was planted on Wearyall Hill in 1951 to replace it.
Myths and legends of Glastonbury
Influences
Not only is A Glastonbury Romance concerned with the legend that Joseph of Arimathea brought the Grail, a vessel containing the blood of Christ, to the town, but the further tradition that King Arthur was buried there. Powys's wide reading in the literature relating to the Grail, King Arthur, fertility ritual, and Celtic mythology shaped the mythological ideas that underlie this novel. This includes John Rhys's Studies in the Arthurian Legend, the works of the Cambridge classical scholars, Jane Harrison, Francis Cornford, and Gilbert Murray, Roger Loomis on the Fisher King and W. E. Mead on Merlin. In addition Alfred Nutt "on the Celtic version" of the Grail Legend. However, "it was Jessie Weston's controversial theories of the Grail's origins ... that particularly absorbed him".
In writing this novel Powys was also clearly influenced by both James Joyce's Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land. Just as Joyce established a series of parallels between Homer's Odyssey and his novel, Powys used the Grail as "a peg upon which to hang his huge narrative". In a letter to Kenneth Hopkins, Powys comments "There is all the way through the book a constant undercurrent of secret references to the Grail Legends, various incidents playing roles parallel to those in the old romances of the Grail". Eliot in his first note to his poem attributes the title to Jessie Weston's book on the Grail legend, From Ritual to Romance. The allusion is to the wounding of the Fisher King and the subsequent sterility of his lands; and to the restoring the King and make his lands fertile again.
Island of Avalon
Though no longer an island the high conical bulk of Glastonbury Tor had been surrounded by marsh prior to the draining of fenland in the Somerset Levels. In ancient times, Ponter's Ball Dyke would have guarded the only entrance to the island. The Romans eventually built another road to the island. Glastonbury's earliest name in Welsh was the Isle of Glass, which suggests that the location was at one point seen as an island. At the end of the 12th century, Gerald of Wales wrote in De instructione principis:
Holy Grail
The Holy Grail is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature. Different traditions describe it as a cup, dish or stone with miraculous powers that provides eternal youth or sustenance in infinite abundance, often in the custody of the Fisher King. The term "holy grail" is often used to denote an elusive object or goal that is sought after for its great significance.
A "grail", wondrous but not explicitly holy, first appears in Perceval, le Conte du Graal, an unfinished romance written by Chrétien de Troyes around 1190. Chrétien's story attracted many continuators, translators and interpreters in the later 12th and early 13th centuries, including Wolfram von Eschenbach, who perceived the Grail as a stone. In the late 12th century, Robert de Boron wrote in that the Grail was Jesus's vessel from the Last Supper, which Joseph of Arimathea used to catch Christ's blood at the crucifixion. Thereafter, the Holy Grail became interwoven with the legend of the Holy Chalice, the Last Supper cup, a theme continued in works such as the Lancelot-Grail cycle and consequently Le Morte d'Arthur.
Joseph of Arimathea was, according to all four canonical gospels, the man who assumed responsibility for the burial of Jesus after Ηis crucifixion. A number of stories that developed during the Middle Ages connect him with Glastonbury. and also with the Holy Grail legend.
Powys lists the forms that the Grail has been known "in those parts for five thousand years": "a cauldron, a horn, a krater, a mwys (basket), a well, a kernos, a platter, a cup, and even a nameless stone". W. J. Keith comments that cauldrons "are an especially common feature of Celtic literature, and include "Bran's cauldron of rebirth ... and Ceridwen's cauldron of inspiration", but especially the "Cauldron of the Head of Hades" (Cauldron of Yr Echwyd), which is "the object of Arthur's quest in ... "The Spoils of Annwn" (Preiddau Annwn)".
In the "Preface" to the 1955 edition of A Glastonbury Romance Powys describes the Grail as referring "us to things beyond itself and to things beyond words", and that it is "older than Christianity", "older than the orbits of the stars", "a symbol of beyond-life", a symbol of "a lapping up of one perfect drop of noon-day happiness". For Geard it is "a fragment of the Absolute", "a little nucleus of eternity".
Fisher King
In Arthurian legend, the Fisher King also known as the Wounded King or Maimed King is the last in a long bloodline charged with keeping the Holy Grail. Versions of the original story vary widely, but he is always wounded in the legs or groin and incapable of standing. All he is able to do is fish in a small boat on the river near his castle, Corbenic, and wait for some noble who might be able to heal him by asking a certain question. In later versions, knights travel from many lands to try to heal the Fisher King, but only the chosen can accomplish the feat. This is achieved by Percival alone in the earlier stories; he is joined by Galahad and Bors in the later ones..
The Fisher King appears first in Chrétien de Troyes' Perceval, the Story of the Grail in the late 12th century, but the character's roots may lie in Celtic mythology. He may be derived more or less directly from the figure of Brân the Blessed in the Mabinogion. In the Second Branch, Bran has a cauldron that can resurrect the dead (albeit imperfectly; those thus revived cannot speak) which he gives to the king of Ireland as a wedding gift for him and Bran's sister Branwen. Later, Bran wages war on the Irish and is wounded in the foot or leg, and the cauldron is destroyed. He asks his followers to sever his head and take it back to Britain, and his head continues talking and keeps them company on their trip. The group lands on the island of Gwales, where they spend 80 years in a castle of joy and abundance, but finally they leave and bury Bran's head in London. This story has analogues in two other important Welsh texts: the Mabinogion tale "Culhwch and Olwen", in which King Arthur's men must travel to Ireland to retrieve a magical cauldron, and the poem The Spoils of Annwn, which speaks of a similar mystical cauldron sought by Arthur in the otherworldly land of Annwn.
The injury is a common theme in the telling of the Grail Quest. Although some iterations have two kings present, one or both are injured, most commonly in the thigh. The wound is sometimes presented as a punishment, usually for philandering. In Parzival, specifically, the king is injured by the bleeding lance as punishment for taking a wife, which was against the code of the "Grail Guardians". In some early story lines, Percival asking the Fisher King the healing question cures the wound. The nature of the question differs between Perceval and Parzival, but the central theme is that the Fisher King can be healed only if Percival asks "the question".
The location of the wound is of great importance to the legend. In most medieval stories, the mention of a wound in the groin or more commonly the "thigh" (such as the wounding of the ineffective suitor in Lanval from the Lais of Marie de France) is a euphemism for the physical loss of or grave injury to one's penis. In medieval times, acknowledging the actual type of wound was considered to rob a man of his dignity, thus the use of the substitute terms "groin" or "thigh", although any informed medieval listener or reader would have known exactly the real nature of the wound. Such a wound was considered worse than actual death because it signaled the end of a man's ability to function in his primary purpose: to propagate his line. In the instance of the Fisher King, the wound negates his ability to honour his sacred charge.
Characters who see the Grail
There is some disagreement amongst critics with regard to the how characters relate to the Grail. Glen Cavaliero states that "Persephone, Sam, and Evans are all seeking the Grail", but that "only the single-minded ones, Sam and Mary, are allowed to see it", though he also states that "Bloody Johnny [Geard] lives as if the Grail were his loving cup – earlier Cavaliero denied that Geard was "seeking the Grail Evans "pursues the Grail experience relentlessly, for release from his masochistic prison of perverted sexuality". W.J. Keith, however, claims that the only "unequivocal Grail-experiences in the romance" are "Sam Dekker's and Mr Geard's just before his death". In addition, Keith, suggests that "various individuals are rewarded with experiences that, if not of the Grail itself, are none the less preternatural, and often spiritually fulfilling". This includes Cordelia Geard's visit to Chalice Hill, "John Crow's vision of Arthur's sword", and Mary Crow's ecstatic experience upon seeing "something that seemed more blood-red than sunlight hit ... the great broken arch" of the Abbey ruins. The Grail even seems to enter the mind of its arch-enemy Philip Crow, in the form of grail-dream or nightmare. To this should be added Geard's daughters Cordelia and Crummie, who "act as grail-bearers to Evans and Sam respectively ... and the "'dark' grail bearer ... Mad Bet".
King Arthur
The legendary Arthur developed as a figure of international interest largely through the popularity of Geoffrey of Monmouth's fanciful and imaginative 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). In some Welsh and Breton tales and poems that date from before this work, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore, sometimes associated with the Welsh otherworld Annwn (see reference to Gwyn ap Nudd above). How much of Geoffrey's Historia (completed in 1138) was adapted from such earlier sources, rather than invented by Geoffrey himself, is unknown. According to Geoffrey in the Historia, and much subsequent literature which he inspired, King Arthur was taken to Avalon in hope that he could be saved and recover from his mortal wounds following the tragic Battle of Camlann. Much of the work appears to be derived from Gildas's 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, Bede's 8th-century Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, the 9th-century Historia Brittonum ascribed to Nennius, the 10th-century Annales Cambriae, medieval Welsh genealogies (such as the Harleian Genealogies) and king-lists, the poems of Taliesin, the Welsh tale Culhwch and Olwen, and some of the medieval Welsh saints' lives,
Around 1190, monks at Glastonbury Abbey claimed to have discovered the bones of Arthur and his wife Guinevere. The discovery of the burial is described by chroniclers, notably Gerald, as being just after King Henry II's reign when the new abbot of Glastonbury, Henry de Sully, commissioned a search of the abbey grounds. At a depth of 5 m (16 ft), the monks were said to have discovered an unmarked tomb with a massive treetrunk coffin and, also buried, a lead cross bearing the inscription:
Merlin
Links between King Arthur's magician Merlin, and Glastonbury are “practically non-existent”, but for the legend that King Arthur was buried there. However, Merlin is important in the lives of two of the novel's main characters, Owen Evans and John Geard. Evans is writing a life of Merlin and believes that hidden in the ancient Welsh grail myths is a spiritual wisdom that will enable him to free himself from the nightmare of his sadistic obsession and find happiness (A Glastonbury Romance, p, 151). Geard spends a night in a room at Marks Court associated with fear and death, because it was where Merlin returned and punished King Mark's crimes by turning him into "a pinch of thin grey dust" (p. 406). After struggling within fear, upon hearing the voice of Merlin "Geard reaches out to comfort the disconsolate ghost ... and from then on does in a sense become Merlin himself". C. A. Coates comments that after this experience Geard "has achieved something in the psychic sphere and established his right to be called a magician". This combined with the legend about the Holy grail containing drops of Christ's blood, gives Geard the Christ-like power of curing Tithie Petherton of her cancer, and bringing an apparently dead boy back to life (pp. 707, 893-4).
In his Autobiography Powys states that "my dominant life-illusion was that I was, or at least would eventually be, a magician". Later, after describing how reading Thomas Hardy helped him overcome his sadistic thoughts, Powys says that he felt himself "to be what the great Magician Merlin was before he met his 'Belle Dame sans Merci' " (Autobiography, p. 309). Merlin again appears in Morwyn (1937), and as Myrddin in Porius: A Romance of the Dark Ages (1951), while in Owen Glendower (1941), Glendower is presented as a magician by Powys, following Shakespeare's suggestion, in Henry IV: Part 1 (III.i. 530), There is also, earlier, in Wolf Solent (1929) reference to Christie's mother being Welsh and claiming descent from Merlin.
Christ
One of the legends that Powys make use of is that Joseph of Arimathea brought the Grail, a vessel containing the blood of Christ, to Glastonbury.
With regard to Powys's use of Christ, Glen Cavaliero, comments that: The figure of Christ, although a powerful influence in the spiritual world of Glastonbury, is ambiguous in character and means different things to different people. Christ is associated mainly with three of the novels major characters: Own Evans, John Geard, and Sam Dekker. A more minor role is played by Sam's father, Matt, vicar of Glastonbury, who is based on Powys's father and represents traditional Anglican beliefs.
A central episode in the novel involves Owen Evans's highly realistic portrayal of Christ's suffering on the cross in the pageant scene. Earlier Evans had hoped that he could free himself from his sadism
by discovering the "ancient Cauldron of Celtic myth", one form that the grail takes, however, because this quest fails, he decides to "seek" to expiate "his would-be crimes" by emulating Christ's suffering on the cross. But, "he exults in his agony" and "[i]t not only failed to purge him of his vice" but "[h]is sado-maschochistic orgy" "aids in its gratification".
Sam Dekker believes "that Christ is a God" who opposes " 'the cruelty of the great Creator-God' " – is "the enemy of God", "like Lucifer". This leads him to renounce "the world, the devil and the flesh", to give up his adulterous love affair with Nell Zoyland and endeavour to live the life of a saint. Such a "puritanical and neurotic attitude is condemned in the novel" and Evans sees this as form of auto sadism. However, "[it] is the existence of pain which has caused Sam, in his hypersensitive sympathy, to reject the whole life force". Subsequently Sam's sensitivity to nature" is "greatly intensified". The "growth of sensitive awareness suddenly [becomes a] mystical vision", with Sam's Grail experience. Following this–and Sam giving Mr Twig an enema–"he no longer has scruples about making love to Nell". She, however, has gone back to her husband.
John Geard's "intention is to inaugurate a new religion", a "Fifth Gospel", by showing "'the world ... that the real Grail still existed in Glastonbury' ". For Geard the Grail and Christ's Blood have made Glastonbury a focus of spiritual force. Geard's "passive reciprocity" to "the psychic power" of the Grail "gives him powers he can use positively". However, in the "Preface" to the 1955 edition of the novel, Powys notes that "the Holy Grail" is "much older than Christianity" and it is on the night of Christ's Resurrection that he has his encounter with the spirit of Merlin, which creates "an essential link between himself and Merlin ... [and] unites pagan and Christian religion in a loose bond". Another pagan dimension is provided by the reference to Cybele, the Mother goddess, as well as the temple to the neolithic goddess of fertility, in the final pages.
Themes
In 1932 Powys said that, amongst other things, he wrote his Romance, "To express certain moral, philosophical and mystical ideas that seem to me unduly neglected in these days" ( In particular this is presented as a "psychic battle ... over the Grail ... between the 'forces of mystery,' and 'forces of reason' ([A Glastonbury Romance], 747)", or, in the words of Morine Krissdottir "a battle ... between the powers of science and the powers of magic", with Powys asking, what effect, if any, can myth myth have in the scientific twentieth century"? C. A. Coates describes it as "a novel in which the main element is the possibility of mystical experience" and that it is "one of the great mystical novels". While, for Glen Cavaliero, "Glastonbury as a place [is] uniquely constituted for revealing [Powys's] vision of reality. That vision might be described as a naturalizing of the supernatural, the incorporation into a single vision of two normally separate areas of experience". G. Wilson Knight, however, has a different focus, and sees A Glastonbury Romance as "the greatest study of evil that has ever been composed".
Kenneth Hopkins draws attention to the "half a dozen love stories ... each concerned with a different aspect of love". Along with which there is "love go God, love of ones neighbour, love of power, love of self, love of money; selfish or generous or hopeless or triumphant love".
Anthropomorphism
The novel also contains numerous examples of anthropomorphism, that is "the attribution of human characteristics or behavior to a god, animal, or object" (OED), reflecting Powys's belief that "there is nothing in the universe devoid of some mysterious element of consciousness ... whether animal, vegetable or mineral". This includes "certain astronomical powers or bodies" who are "possessed of sub-human or super-human consciousness", including "The Sun, the Moon, the Evening Star, the Milky Way, the Constellations". Also, in the first paragraph of the novel, there is reference to the dualism of the First Cause's "divine diabolical soul", the novel's equivalent to a Judeo-Christian God. In Powys's own word, from his "review" in 1932 of the novel, combining "God and the Devil".
The Flood
There are three important elements in the novel's concluding chapter. The significance of the flood; then Geard's suicide and grail vision; and finally the allusion to the Earth Mother, Cybele.
There was an actual flood in the Somerset levels that surround Glastonbury in December 1929, just four months after Powys's visit, as well as one in 1919, when were inundated with sea water, poisoning the land for up to 7 years.
Charles Lock describes water as a central element in A Glastonbury Romance, which "begins in one aquatic landscape, Norfolk, and moves to another, Glastonbury". Lock sees water as signifying both "salvation and destruction" and equates it "in the symbolic pattern of novel ... [with] the female principle of life". This flood has generally been interpreted allegorically, especially in terms of the Biblical Flood, but also in terms of the Waste Land story. John Brebner, Wilson Knight, and others see it as a cleansing force, with Geoffrey West describing "the flood 'sweeping away both capitalist and communist'". Morine Krissdottir, however, sees the flood making "the Waste Land ... fertile again". W. J. Keith rejects this, because "salt water distinct from fresh water is the reverse of 'life-giving'". A quite different perspective on the flood is provided by J. P. Couch, who questions the Biblical paradigm observing that the land is low lying and therefore vulnerable to flooding, including from the sea and "has at least once" in living memory "already merged with the sea". Furthermore, it is believed that, in earlier times, Glastonbury had been an island.
Geard's suicide
Geard asks John Crow if he could conceive him "committing suicide out of love of life". Indeed his "suicide is not undertaken in weariness of spirit but as a continuation of his quest", because he believes that, following his death, he will meet "'A living Being, who might, or might not, be the Christ the churches worshipped'". W. J. Keith and others, see Geard's death "not as an act of self-destruction but as a Merlininesque 'Esplumoir'" that is, as Owen describes it, "'a sort of inspired suicide, a mysterious dying in order to live more fully'"; a "mystic Fourth Dimension, or Nirvanic apotheosis". The last we learn is that as Geard is dying "In calm inviolable peace ... he saw ... that nameless Object, that fragment of the Absolute, about which all his days he had been murmering".
Cybele
The "Divine Famine" is important in A Glastonbury Romance. The novel begins with reference to the "earth-mother", and ends "with a two-page celebration" of the Phrygian "Goddess of Earth" Cybele. Keith notes that though other references to the earth-mother are sparse, they "occur at fairly regular intervals", and Christine Bilodeau draws to attention to how Powys emphasizes the moon's symbolic relationship with the Feminine. Furthermore, it is "unusual spring tides" that causes the flooding.
In his Autobiography Powys refers to the "'Cybele to whom I have always prayed'", and, in his 1929 diary, he says that his "deepest Religious ritual is for the Mothersb- Cybele and Gaia and Demeter and Our Lady and Ceridwen the Welsh Demeter." W. j. Keith notes similarities "between the story of the Fisher King and various death-and-resurrections myths" that relate to Earth Goddesses, like Cybele, and their sons/lovers/consort. Attis is Cybele's consort, whose self-mutilation, death, and resurrection represents the fruits of the earth, which die in winter only to rise again in the spring. Geard drowns above " 'the spot where the ancient Lake Villagers had their temple to the ancient goddess of fertility'[Romance, 1955]". Jeremy Hooker suggests that Geard "returns himself to the waters of the primeval mother of all things".
Reception
One of Powys's major novels, it was praised on publication by J. D. Beresford as "one of the greatest novels in the world". While Glen Cavaliero describes it "as Powys's most enthralling novel" despite "all its many and glaring faults".
In a review of the 1955 reprint, Roland Mathias describes Powys "as a strangely limited writer, fecund but narrow in his fecundity". He suggests that Powys "may not be a novelist at all, or less one than historian, philosopher and image-maker". Mathias finds Powys's characters unsatisfying: "It is, unfortunately, the plot that moves, not the characters. With few exceptions they do not develop". But, he notes,
It is not given to one writer in a generation to enjoy so embracing an imagination and to simulate life and beyond-life, to gather in preposterous and tender, and to go on being so interesting in himself that his fictions hardly matter.
However, though Jeremy Hooker sees all the major characters, as "reflections of a dominant psychological bias in the author", he argues that "Powys is, supremely, a master of personalities–of massive,self-consistent personalities. ... Evans is his creator's mouthpiece, but his ideas are consistent with his character".
A Glastonbury Romance was translated into French by Jean Queval, as Les enchantements de Glastonbury and published in 1975/6 (in four volumes) by Gallimard
in their "Collection Du monde entier," with a preface by Catherine Lépront. In the German-speaking world, admirers included Hermann Hesse, Alfred Andersch, Hans Henny Jahnn, Karl Kerényi and Elias Canetti. It was published in Germany by Verlag Zweitausendeins, Frankfurt am Main, 2000, ISBN 3-86150-258-5; (Munich: Hanser, 1998).
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
See also external links, below.
Keith, W. J. "John Cowper, Powys's A Glastonbury Romance: A Reader's Companion"
A Glastonbury Romance, 1934, 5th UK impression, online text. This is a cut version but less so than later editions.
External links
The Powys Society – various resource links
The Powys Review online access to articles
The Powys Journal (full access on JSTOR)
Modernist novels
1932 British novels
Modern Arthurian fiction
Anglo-Welsh novels
Works by John Cowper Powys
Novels set in Somerset
Novels set in Norfolk |
4310527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Mosque%20of%20Paris | Grand Mosque of Paris | The Grand Mosque of Paris (), also known as the Great Mosque of Paris or simply the Paris Mosque, is located in the 5th arrondissement and is one of the largest mosques in France. There are prayer rooms, an outdoor garden, a small library, a gift shop, along with a cafe and restaurant. In all, the mosque plays an important role in promoting the visibility of Islam and Muslims in France. It is the oldest mosque in Metropolitan France.
History
Genesis of the project
The history of the Paris mosque is inextricably linked to France's colonization of large parts of the Muslim world over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. An early, if not the first, project for a mosque in Paris is recorded as desired to be "in the Baujon district in 1842, followed by a revival of similar intentions at the Moroccan embassy in 1878 and 1885." In 1846, the Société orientale (Eastern Society) proposed the construction "in Paris, then at Marseilles, of a cemetery, mosque, and a Muslim school (collège)." According to the historian Michel Renard, it was put forward "for philanthropic reasons, augmented by political reasons (the recent conquest and pacification of Algeria), but also religious since Muslims were judged to be closer to Roman Catholicism than the Jews." The negative reaction of the Ministry of Justice and Religions, which debated the matter with the National Assembly, shelved the project for ten years.
The First "Mosque" at Père-Lachaise
A French Prefectorial decree of 29 November 1856 permitted the Ottoman Embassy in Paris to construct a special enclosure that was reserved for the burial of Muslims in the 85th division of the Parisian Cemetery of the East, called Père Lachaise. The enclosure measured about 800 square meters, and in it the Ottomans built a structure labeled as a 'Mosque,' in order to give shelter to funerary services and the prayers for the deceased. It was thus the first mosque constructed on Parisian territory. However, it was not the first in Western Europe since the disappearance of Muslims from the south of France in the ninth century, because there was an earlier mosque that had long been used in Marseille within the boundaries of the Cemetery of the Turks, but it had been destroyed during the French Revolution."
The cemetery covered the tombs of Ottomans who had died in France. Little used, in 1883 it was cut down in size, but soon the building fell into disrepair, so the Ottoman government decided to finance its reconstruction and extension. In 1914, an architectural design was put forward for a more prominent building with a dome and clear "Islamic" characteristics evident, but the First World War blocked the implementation of the project. In 1923, however, an inter-ministerial commission of Muslim affairs discussed the work for completing a Muslim cemetery in Père Lachaise. It concluded that it was not practical to build a mosque in the cemetery, as they were looking to build a mosque in the district of the Jardin des Plantes.
1895 and 1915–16 projects
The first project for a true mosque in Paris was envisaged without success in 1895 by the Committee of French Africa set up by Théophile Delcassé, Jules Cambon, the Prince Bonaparte and the Prince d’Arenberg. An article in La Presse from 12 January 1896 was, however, optimistic about this project, specifically for a mosque to be constructed on the Quai d'Orsay, notably with the financial support of the Ottoman sultan, the Viceroy of Egypt, and the Sultan of Morocco.
The journalist Paul Bourdarie justified the construction of the Paris Mosque in the newspaper La Revue indigène: Such a proposal cannot be forgotten and lost [to history]. It reflects too much the political outlook that France ought to follow towards her Muslim sons, and which should translate above all into acts of political and administrative equality and above all into gestures of sympathy and goodwill. From its foundation in 1906, La Revue indigène has put forward plans to resume this project from which the reforms which she proposes will be recommended and completed with success. The members of the Algerian Muslim delegation in Paris who came to Paris in 1912, Dr. Benthami, Dr. Moussa, the lawyer Mr. Mokhtar Hadj Saïd, etc., recall that the question was addressed at that moment in the course of the meetings which took place at the headquarters of La Revue indigène. In the meantime, Mr. Christian Cherfils, the Islamophile and author of a work on Napoléon and Islam, recommended the erection of a mosque in Paris. Others, without a doubt, view the same construction as both desirable and possible.
Bourdarie evoked, in his article, the contradiction between the alliance with England which worked to dominate the majority of countries in the Muslim world while the French interest was to remain "friends of the Turk according to the wishes of Francis I and Suleiman the Magnificent" and to continue "its role within Muslim Arab power." La Revue indigène believed that the project for the Parisian mosque was one that French citizens knew "to be in accordance with their spirit and their heart’s love of their country and the respect of Islam." It was why Bourdarie did not stop lobbying for his project and undertook serious work to get the French government to listen to him.
As Bourdarie confided in his journal: In May and June 1915, I began conferring with an architect, a student of [Charles] Girault, Mr. E. Tronquois. Our discussions frequently turned towards Islam and the role of French Muslims on the field of battle. Mr. Tronquois expressed the opinion that a mosque would be a veritable commemorative monument to their heroism and their sacrifices. I explained to Mr. Tronquois the facts and points of view previously expressed and we resolved also to get to work. And in the summer of 1916 a certain number of Muslims living in Paris and their friends met several times at the headquarters of La Revue indigène in order to examine and, if need be, critique the sketches of the architect. Among them I recall were the Emir Khaled, having come from the Front and passing through Paris; Dr. Benthami; the mufti Mokrani; Dr. Tamzali and his brother; Halil Bey; Ziane; the painter Dinet; the Countess d’Aubigny; Lavenarde; Christian Cherfils; the deputy A. Prat, etc. Following these meetings, a committee was formed, the presidency of which was offered to Mr. É[douard] Herriot, mayor of Lyon and a senator; the vice-presidencies to Mr. Lucien Hubert, Senator; Marin and Prat, members of the Chamber of Deputies; and A. Brisson, the director of Annales politiques et littéraires. The Interministerial Commission of Muslim Affairs, which knew of the project through Mr. Gout, had given its approval, and Mr. Pichon, former Minister of Foreign Affairs, offered his patronage, and so the project was brought directly to Mr. [Aristide] Briand, president of the Council which approved it.
Bourdarie was truly the father of the project for the Parisian mosque, and he worked tirelessly towards its completion. The first concept for the project was worked up by the architect Maurice Tranchant de Lunel, who was the Director of Fine Arts under Hubert Lyautey from 1912 onwards and a friend of Rudyard Kipling, C. Farrère, and Queen Elizabeth of Belgium.
First World War
In 1881, the French government established the indigénat in Algeria which enabled punishments, such as being stripped of land, and discrimination towards the colonials. This decree also restricted travel of Algerians internationally and in their own country by requiring permits to travel. In 1905, a strike among the French workforce had French officials look to Algerians to fill this role. The travel limitations were relaxed to allow Algerians to travel and immigrate to France to fill the voids in the labor force. In 1912, the French desire for workers grew as the country grew while also needing additional soldiers for the military. In response, the decree was softened allowing further immigration from Algeria. Shortly afterwards, during World War I France needed more resources to assist ongoing war. France saw large waves of migration of Algerians to France in order to serve in the military and to become laborers. The war saw casualties upwards of 100,000 Algerian soldiers serving the French and a new population of Algerian immigrants into France. As the war came to an end, the French became more accepting of the Muslim people and wanted to celebrate them for their efforts and sacrifices for France.
Construction and financing
The decision to construct the mosque resurfaced more precisely in the aftermath of the Battle of Verdun when the Société des Habous was charged with constructing the mosque. This association, created in 1917, had the goal of organizing an annual pilgrimage to Mecca for residents of North Africa and insuring that the pilgrims followed regulations of security and hygiene during their travel to the Hejaz.
The Great Mosque of Paris was funded by the French state as per the law of 19 August 1920, which accorded a subvention of 500,000 francs for the construction of a Muslim Institute composed of a mosque, a library, and a meeting and study room. The law of 19 August 1920 did, however, infringe upon the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State promulgating the secular nature of the government, whose signatories had included Edouard Herriot and Aristide Briand themselves. The Great Mosque was built on the site of the former Charity Hospital (Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital) and adjacent to the Jardin des plantes. The first stone was laid in 1922. The work was completed by Robert Fournez, Maurice Mantout and Charles Heubès based on plans by Maurice Tranchant de Lunel. The mosque was built following the Moorish style, and its minaret is 33 m high.
Inauguration
It was inaugurated on 16 July 1926, in the presence of French President Gaston Doumergue and Sultan Yusef of Morocco. Doumergue celebrated the Franco-Muslim friendship sealed by the bloodshed on the Western Front in World War I and affirmed that the Republic protected all beliefs. The Sufi Sheikh Ahmad al-Alawi led the first communal prayer to inaugurate the newly built mosque. On the eve of the inauguration, Messali Hadj held the first meeting of the Etoile nord-africaine (North African Star) and criticized the "mosque publicity stunt."
In 1929, King Fuad I of Egypt donated the mosque's minbar, which is still used today.
Architecture
Inspired by the el-Qaraouyyîn Mosque in Fez, Morocco, one of the most important mosques in Morocco and one of the oldest in the world, all of the decorative program of the Paris Mosque, including the courtyards, horseshoe arches, and in particular the zelliges, was entrusted to specialized craftsmen from North Africa using traditional materials. The 33-meter-tall minaret was inspired by the Al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunisia.
The great entrance door to the Paris Mosque is ornamented with stylized floral motifs in the most pure Islamic style.
The Great Mosque of Paris covers an area of 7,500 square meters, and comprises:
A prayer room whose decoration is inspired by many parts of the Muslim world
A Madrasa (school)
A library
A conference room
Arab gardens covering an area of 3,500 square meters
Annexes of a restaurant, tea room, hammam, and shops
The Mosque, along with the Islamic Center, are listed in the supplementary inventory of Historic Monuments by the decree of 9 December 1983. The edifice is filed under the label of "Twentieth Century Patrimony" (Patrimoine du XXe siècle).
The Great Mosque of Paris can accommodate up to 1,000 people, and authorizes access to women, and provides confessional rooms as well as access for handicapped persons.
Second World War
In a 1991 documentary, director Derri Berkani reported that during the Second World War and the occupation of France by the Nazis, the Great Mosque of Paris served as a site of resistance for Muslims living in France. The Algerians of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP; Partisan Snipers) made it their mission to secure and protect British parachutists and find them shelter. Built on caves, the Mosque permitted them to secretly reach the Bièvre, a tributary of the Seine. The FTP also helped Jewish families or families whom they knew or at the request of friends, relocate to the Mosque while waiting for transit papers for passage to the Free Zone or to cross the Mediterranean Sea to the Maghreb. Jewish refugees were given papers declaring that they were Muslim and members of the mosque in order to protect them from persecution. Doctor Albert Assouline recorded some 1600 ration cards (one per person) that had been furnished by the Great Mosque of Paris for the Jews who had found refuge there. This little-known history was recounted in Karen Gray Ruelle and Deborah Durland DeSaix's, The Grand Mosque of Paris: A Story of How Muslims Rescued Jews During the Holocaust, a book for ages 8–12, published in the U.S. in 2009 (also in French and Japanese editions).
The figures concerning the number of Jews housed and saved through the Paris Mosque during this period vary considerably according to various authors. , President of the Association des Bâtisseuses de Paix (Association of the Female Builders of Peace), reports that, according to Albert Assouline, who appears in Birkani's film, 1600 people were saved. On the other hand, according to Alain Boyer, former official working with religions for the French Ministry of the Interior, the number was closer to 500 people.
A call for witnesses to the circumstances of Jews saved by the Great Mosque of Paris between 1942 and 1944 was launched on 3 April 2005, at the same time as the Medal of Justice (médaille des Justes) was awarded by Yad Vashem to the descendants of the rector of the Mosque, Si Kaddour Benghabrit, who had saved the lives of a hundred Jews, including the singer Salim Halali, by giving them certificates of Muslim identity from the administrative personnel of the Mosque, thus allowing them to escape arrest and deportation.
Serge Klarsfeld, the President of the Association des filles et des fils de déportés juifs de France (Association of the Sons and Daughters of Jewish Deportees from France), is, however, more skeptical about the figure of 1500 Jews saved and states that "of the 2,500 members of our organization" there "is nobody who has ever heard of it." He considers, nonetheless, that the campaign to launch an appeal to witnesses undertaken by the Association des Bâtisseuses de Paix to be "positive."
The Franco-Moroccan director Ismaël Ferroukhi made a 2011 film entitled Les hommes libres (The Free Men), about the forgotten history of the Muslim resistance fighters during World War II, with Tahar Rahim and Michael Lonsdale as the leading actors. The film was criticized by the historians Michel Renard and Daniel Lefeuvre, who consider it not particularly serious.
Modern history
The Grand Mosque plays an important role in French social society, promoting the visibility of Islam and Muslims. The mosque was assigned to Algeria in 1957 by the French Foreign Minister. The Paris Mosque serves as the head mosque for French mosques and is currently led by mufti Dalil Boubakeur, who has served as rector since 1992. In 1993 the Institut Al-Ghazali was founded, a religious seminary for the training of imams and Muslim chaplains. In 1994, Charles Pasqua, then the Minister of the Interior in charge of Religion, gave the Grand Mosque the authority of certifying meat as halal.
On 12 December 2011, an official ceremony marked the start of the construction of a retractable roof covering the great patio facing the prayer hall of the Great Mosque. This important project, long-awaited for many years by its congregants in order to protect them during inclement weather, was an important feature of its original conception in 1922–26.
In November 2012, a prayer room was set up in Paris by a member of the group 'Homosexual Muslims of France' Ludovic-Mohamed Zahed. The opening has been condemned by the Grand Mosque of Paris.
In December 2013, the group Les Femmes dans la Mosquée (Women in the Mosque) demanded from the administration the right to pray in the same room as men, having been excluded from it and relegated to the entrance foyer. For the spokesperson of the movement Hanane Karimi, "The previous policy reflects the organization of the Muslim community along certain conventions today, that women have no place there; they have become invisible."
During the administration of Bertrand Delanoë, some controversies have arisen, such as those who want to give an emphyteutic lease to the Société des Habous and sacred places of Islam. In 2013, the office of the mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo refused permission of the construction of a second building for the (Institute of Muslim Cultures), citing the 1905 Law of the separation of Church and State.
The Grand Mosque of Paris urged voters to "follow the path of hope" by voting for Emmanuel Macron, instead of Marine Le Pen.
The Grand Mosque has endured multiple Islamophobic attacks in recent years. In 2015, a man attempted to drive a truck into the mosque, but was stopped by barriers of police officials put outside by the government to prevent racist incidents. On another occasion in 2015 a man scrawled swastikas on the walls of the mosque. After the attacks the members of the mosque came together looking for hope and unity after the attempted vandalism.
The Mosque maintains a positive public relations campaign in attempt to dispel common Islamic stereotypes that exist in France. Dr. Dalil Boubakeur is the official face of Islam in France and does everything in his power to provide access to his beliefs through books, interview, and is even a prominent social justice figure.
Legal status
Since 1921, the Great Mosque has been under the authority of the Société des Habous et lieux saints d l'Islam, an association regulated by the Law of 1901, owner of the building following its donation by the city of Paris. In the 1980s the Minister of the Interior Gaston Deferre withdrew the guardianship of the Mosque from the Ministry and the city of Paris, an act which has since permitted Algeria to finance a third of the budget of the mosque (in 2015, this budget totalled 1.8 million euros). Even if the mosque is legally independent, it remains religiously and culturally linked to Algeria, which exercises an unwritten right to the nomination of its rector; although, in 2015, Algeria announced officially the start of procedures for the acquisition of the property of the Great Mosque of Paris.
Halal control and traceability
The Institut musulman de la grande mosquée de Paris is in a religious partnership with the Société française de contrôle de la viande halal (SFCVH; French Agency for Control of Halal Meat) agreed upon to regulate the priests authorized to perform ritual slaughter in conformation with the Decree of 15 December 1994 of the French Minister of Agriculture. The Institut musulman exercises the religious prerogatives in the matter of Islamic ritual sacrifice while the SFCVH is charged with overseeing the technical, administrative, and commercial aspects of control and certification of the processes of slaughter, such as electrocution and inert gas asphyxiation.
Tourism
Today the Grand Mosque is the largest mosque in France and the third largest in Europe. It is located in the 5th arrondissement in the Latin Quarter near the Jardin des Plantes and the Institut de Monde Arabe. The mosque is a tourist destination as well as a place of prayer, and it offers guided tours. There are also large Turkish marble baths for visitors.
The mosque is open for tourists every day of the year (except for Fridays), outside of the rooms of imams and those for instruction, and the spaces reserved for reading of the Koran, prayers, and meditations by Muslims.
The mosque also includes a traditional restaurant "Aux Portes de l'Orient" (At the Doors of the East) which serves the cuisine of the Magreb such as tagine and couscous, along with a tea room (serving mint tea, loukoum, pastries, hookah). There are also Turkish baths (exclusively for women), shops selling traditional Arab crafts, and all these establishments are open year-round to the public.
The mosque is accessed from Paris Métro Line 7 from the stations Place Monge and Censier-Daubenton as well as by several bus lines of the RATP (47, 67, and 89).
COVID-19
On March 13, 2020, the Grand Mosque of Paris was forced to shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to limit the spread of the disease, France banned any gatherings over 100 people. On June 2, 2020, the mosque reopened with requirements including social distancing, capacity, and face coverings. The mosque would continue to cease and resume operations as the country would enter and exit lockdown several more times.
Gallery
See also
Mosque of the Bois de Vincennes
Saint Petersburg Mosque
References
External links
Official website of the mosque
Aerial View and Multimedia Resources of the Grand Mosque of Paris
MSNBC's coverage
Paris
Sufi mosques
Buildings and structures in the 5th arrondissement of Paris
1926 establishments in France
Mosques completed in 1926
Paris |
4310717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Amiga | History of the Amiga | The Amiga is a family of home computers that were designed and sold by the Amiga Corporation (and later by Commodore Computing International) from 1985 to 1994.
Amiga Corporation
The Amiga's Original Chip Set, code-named Lorraine, was designed by the Amiga Corporation during the end of the first home video game boom. Development of the Lorraine project was done using a Sage IV machine nicknamed "Agony" which had 64-kbit memory modules with a capacity of 1 mbit and a 8 MHz . Amiga Corp. funded the development of the Lorraine by manufacturing game controllers, and later with an initial bridge loan from Atari Inc. while seeking further investors. The chipset was to be used in a video game machine, but following the video game crash of 1983, the Lorraine was reconceived as a multi-tasking multi-media personal computer.
The company demonstrated a prototype at the January 1984 Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Chicago, attempting to attract investors. The Sage acted as the CPU, and BYTE described "big steel boxes" substituting for the chipset that did not yet exist. The magazine reported in April 1984 that Amiga Corporation "is developing a 68000-based home computer with a custom graphics processor. With 128K bytes of RAM and a floppy-disk drive, the computer will reportedly sell for less than $1000 late this year."
Further presentations were made at the following CES in June 1984, to Sony, HP, Philips, Apple, Silicon Graphics, and others. Steve Jobs of Apple, who had just introduced the Macintosh in January, was shown the original prototype for the first Amiga and stated that there was too much hardware – even though the newly redesigned board consisted of just three silicon chips which had yet to be shrunk down. Investors became increasingly wary of new computer companies in an industry dominated by the IBM PC. Jay Miner, co-founder, lead engineer and architect, took out a second mortgage on his home to keep the company from going bankrupt.
In July 1984, Atari Inc. was bought by the recently resigned CEO and founder of Commodore, Jack Tramiel. A substantial number of Commodore's employees followed him, prompting a lawsuit from Commodore for theft of trade secrets. Tramiel's son Leonard later discovered that Atari Inc. had lent $500,000 to the Amiga Corporation, with repayment due at the end of June, prompting Atari Corp. to counter Commodore.
In a subsequent development, the Amiga group received interested from Commodore, and began discussions of selling the company. In August 1984, Amiga was purchased by Commodore for $27 million, including paying off the loan from Atari.
Commodore
1985–87: the early years
When the first Amiga computer was released in July 1985 by Commodore, it was called the Amiga 1000, devoid of references to Commodore. Commodore marketed it both as their successor to the Commodore 64, and as their competitor against the Macintosh. It was later renamed the Amiga 1000.
At a relatively affordable base price of , the Amiga could display up to , produce 8-bit stereo audio, and run several applications concurrently. These qualities were unprecedented in a consumer-oriented computer and gave the Amiga 1000 a significant technical lead on its three main competitors (the Atari ST, the Macintosh, and the IBM PC).
The public saw both Commodore and Atari selling, as John C. Dvorak wrote, "cheap disposable" game machines, and observers believed that either the ST or Amiga would survive, but not both. The ST had more software in the beginning, but larger companies like Electronic Arts and Activision promised to make software for the Amiga. Neither had distribution from major chains like ComputerLand or BusinessLand, or support from large business-software companies like Microsoft, Ashton-Tate, or Lotus. The New York Times stated that "it is not clear that the business computer user really cares about colorful graphics". The computers' sophisticated graphics strengthened their perception as "game machines".
Poorly marketed, the Amiga 1000 was not a success. An August 1986 Compute! editorial expressed amazement that Commodore, insisting that the Amiga was a business computer, did not show it at the summer CES. The magazine estimated that in their first year of availability, the Atari ST had outsold the Amiga. Stating that the "industry needs the vision and direction that a Commodore can help provide", it urged the company to pursue the consumer market that had been very successful for the Commodore 64. Jerry Pournelle from BYTE praised the Amiga Sidecar as "really impressive", and approved of the "great deal of Amiga software" at Spring COMDEX, but wondered "whether Commdore has enough high-tech people to support the Amiga properly" after large layoffs, while "Atari ST software pours forth like a flood". Bruce Webster reported in January 1987 that Commodore had sold about 150,000 Amigas as of October 1986, but "imagine how many [the company] might have sold if they had done things right". He criticized many aspects of Commodore's handling of the computer, including selling "not-quite-finished" hardware and software, not supporting third-party developers, poor advertising, and internal uncertainty of the Amiga's target market. Aware of its reputation, Commodore asked the press to call the computer "The Amiga, from Commodore" and designed new logos to replace its own iconic "C=" design. Commodore compounded the problem by marketing the new 8-bit Commodore 128 alongside the Amiga, confusing the general public about Commodore's direction and the Amiga's advantages.
By 1987, rumors spread that the size of the Amiga market disappointed software vendors, which were uncertain of Commodore's intention for the computer. Bing Gordon of Electronic Arts, which had prominently supported the Amiga, stated that year that "the Amiga has never done as well as we had hoped when we started out", and that Electronic Arts had expected Commodore to sell it as a $600 high-end home computer instead of an $1800 business computer. The best-selling Amiga games sold about 25,000 copies in 1986, said Gordon, compared to 125,000 to 150,000 copies on the Commodore 64. In 1994 BYTE wrote "The Amiga was so far ahead of its time that almost nobody – including Commodore's marketing department – could fully articulate what it was all about. Today, it's obvious the Amiga was the first multimedia computer, but in those days it was derided as a game machine because few people grasped the importance of advanced graphics, sound, and video." This marketing confusion would plague the Amiga throughout its lifetime, even as it changed hands between Escom, Gateway, and other owners.
1987–90: Cost-reduced and high-end models
In 1987, faced with strong competition from Atari ST in the lower end of the segment, Commodore released the cost-reduced Amiga 500 and the high-end Amiga 2000, for the respective prices of US$699 and $2395 (this price included 1 MB RAM and a monitor).
By 1988, software sales for the Amiga remained disappointing, compared to those for the IBM PC, Commodore 64, and Apple II. With its lowered price, the Amiga 500 became a successful home computer and eventually outsold its main rival, the Atari ST. The Amiga 2000, thanks to its Genlock and internal expansion slots, also managed to carve out a market niche within desktop video. This market was not as large as the office and publishing markets dominated by the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh, and the Amiga 2000 lagged behind these systems in sales. Additionally, Commodore had initially announced a price of $1495 for 2000, resulting in widespread disappointment among their customer base when the higher price was made public. This was also the case for the A500, which Commodore announced its price as $595.95, but later released it at $699. The Amiga did see widespread use in the television and video production industry during the late 1980s and early 1990s, including on popular shows like Clarissa Explains It All and Unsolved Mysteries.
1990–92: Height of popularity
In 1990, Commodore released a significant update of the Amiga platform, in the shape of the Amiga 3000 featuring an enhanced chipset (ECS) and the second release of its operating system, commonly referred to as Workbench 2.0.
Commodore had a poor reputation among consumers and developers. Computer Gaming World wrote in 1990 of its "abysmal record of customer and technical support in the past". Commodore was unable to match the pace of PC advancement with their lower resources and economy of scale, and users complained that the custom ECS chipset failed to match the features of the PC and Mac display hardware at the time. Users also felt that the operating system (Workbench 2.0) only featured improvements taken from the user community. As Apple was the only other major user of Motorola chips at the time, Commodore often had to wait for a new CPU technology until increased supplies allowed Motorola to sell chips to anyone but Apple.
On the plus side, many users considered the Amiga 3000 the most well-engineered Amiga model, and the Amiga 3000's integrated flicker filter made it painless to use inexpensive PC-style VGA monitors. This may in part be the reason Commodore went on to sell one million Amigas in just one year, which is equal to a third of all Amigas sold up to that time.
In the same year as the Amiga 3000, Commodore released the US$895 CDTV, aimed to move the Amiga platform to the living room and a competitor to devices such as Philips CD Interactive (CD-I). Commodore believed that there was a market for a system that could display animations, pictures and offer educational software and games on television, and many game developers thought that interactive CD-based video games would become a popular market. The end result was a system that could be described as an Amiga 500 with a remote control replacing the keyboard and a CD-ROM replacing the floppy drive.
Considering that the Amiga 500 was cheaper, more versatile, and had the promise of a future CDTV expansion, few Amiga users had any interest in the Amiga CDTV. At the same time, the general public preferred cheaper game consoles over both the CDTV and CD-I, and they were not aware of or interested in the multimedia potential of these CD-ROM based systems.
Both Commodore and Philips tried to tempt users with the promise of an MPEG-1 module capable of playing video from a CD-ROM. These Video CDs can be considered lower-resolution versions of today's Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs), but without some additional features and the inconvenience of having to change the disks during a full-length movie.
The CDTV became Commodore's first Amiga-based failure, one that allegedly cost them a significant amount of resources. Commodore made a last-ditch effort in saving the system with the CDTV 2 but dropped that design in favor of the much more capable Amiga CD32.
1992–94: Trouble ahead
Commodore began 1992 early by introducing the Amiga 500+, a slightly updated and cost-reduced Amiga 500. Viewed primarily as a game machine, especially in Europe, this model was criticized for not being able to run popular games such as SWIV, Treasure Island Dizzy, and Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge, and some people returned them to dealers, demanding an original Amiga 500.
By the early 1990s, the IBM PC platform dominated the market for computer games. In December 1992, Computer Gaming World (CGW) reported that MS-DOS accounted for 82% of game sales in 1991, compared to Macintosh's 8% and Amiga's 5%. In response to a reader's challenge to find a DOS game that played better than the Amiga version the magazine cited Wing Commander and Civilization, and added that "The heavy MS-DOS emphasis in CGW merely reflects the realities of the market". Instead of discontinuing the Amiga 500 and 500+, Commodore envisioned it taking the place of the Commodore 64 in the low-cost segment. To make that possible Commodore set out to design the Amiga 600, a system intended to be much cheaper than the Amiga 500. The Amiga 500 itself would be replaced by Amiga 1200, also under development.
Shortly after releasing the Amiga 600, Commodore announced that two new super Amigas would be released at the end of the year. In classic Osborne style, consumers decided to wait for the new Amigas and Commodore had to close their Australian office in face of plummeting sales. At the same time, Commodore's foray into the highly competitive PC market was unsuccessful. This contributed to Commodore's 1992 profits falling to an unimpressive $28 million, and made the need for a successful new Amiga launch all that more critical.
In October 1992, Commodore released the Amiga 1200 and the Amiga 4000. Each featured the new AGA chipset and the third release of AmigaOS.
Computer Gaming World reported in March 1993 that declining Amiga sales were "causing many U.S. publishers to quit publishing Amiga titles", and in July that at the Spring European Computer Trade Show the computer was, unlike 1992, "hardly mentioned, let alone seen". That year Commodore marketed the CD32, which was one of the earliest CD-based consoles and was also the world's first 32-bit game machine, with specifications similar to the A1200.
The last Amiga (and the last computer) released by Commodore was the A4000T, in 1994.
Amiga in the United States
Mass-market Amigas were considerably cheaper than PCs and Macintoshes at the time. This factor helped to boost sales in European markets, but it also continued Commodore's misfortune of being viewed in the more price-conscious US markets as a producer of cheap "toy computers" and "game machines". This perception was furthered by the fact that most Commodore retail outlets were toy stores, and marketing campaigns were mismatched with the public's needs and wants. Overall, the Amiga was very successful in Europe, but it sold less than a million units in the US.
Additionally, in the US market, the IBM PC was already a dominant market force, especially in the workplace. Potential buyers' first question was often, "Is it IBM compatible?", allowing the user to "take work home" or more often, take software home to install on their own machines. To satisfy these users, Commodore introduced a variety of PC-compatibility add-ons, such as the Amiga Sidecar for the Amiga 1000, the Bridge Board for the A2000, and a 5.25" floppy disk drive to facilitate data exchange with PC disks. Even as Commodore was improving the Amiga's interoperability, the PC's graphics drastically improved from the early mediocre CGA and EGA modes prevalent at the Amiga's introduction to VGA and SVGA, which appeared to match or exceed the Amiga's abilities. This caused a raft of PC gaming titles to be introduced during the late 1980s and early 1990s, including many ported from Amiga versions. Consumers began to see no advantage in the Amiga's "incompatible" technology. Commodore's attempts at interoperability did not persuade users concerned about IBM compatibility to buy an Amiga. Instead, inexpensive PC clones were beginning to flood the US market. As a result, US Amiga users tended to be technophiles enamored of the Amiga's software or hardware capabilities, Commodore loyalists upgrading from the C-64 or 128, iconoclasts who disliked IBM, video and graphic arts enthusiasts, or professionals – the desktop video market was one of the few areas where the Amiga would gain widespread adoption in the US outside of the home.
Bankruptcy
Commodore management voluntarily filed for Chapter 11 under US bankruptcy laws in late April 1994. Chapter 11 US rules allow a firm to recover its debts and reorganize it. Commodore was reorganized in various occasions twice before and repaid by Irving Gould without requesting filing for Chapter 11, but this time, as being controlled by US bankruptcy laws, the court-appointed board of trustees decided to liquidate the company without proceeding to reorganization. The majority of Commodore's assets and name were sold to Escom. Production was halted briefly until it was restarted for a short time under Escom's Amiga Technologies. Though the machines had been upgraded and had plentiful hardware and software support, the lack of new Amigas meant that vendors sooner or later moved on. Most of the technology hobbyists and productivity market moved to PC architecture, sometimes running Linux or BeOS in preference to Microsoft Windows.
Due to the fierce loyalty of some Amiga fans, the 'scene' continued for many year after the last original Amiga was sold. Inevitably, the PC eventually became the undisputed leading home computing technology, and the console wars also left the CD32 behind.
The rights to the Amiga platform were successively sold to Escom, and later, Gateway 2000. Escom had almost immediately gone bankrupt itself (due to non-Amiga related problems), while Gateway decided to keep the patents and sell the remaining assets to a new company later renamed to Amiga, Inc. (no relation to the original Amiga Corporation) in 1999. Amiga also received a license to use Amiga-related patents, which were retained by Gateway until they expired. Amiga Inc. sold the copyrights for works created up to 1993 to Cloanto, and commissioned development of AmigaOS 4 to Hyperion Entertainment.
New Amigas
Since the end of the Commodore-Amiga, there have been many attempts to create new Amiga hardware and solutions. All new Amigas are built from standard components without using the original Commodore custom chips.
Amiga compatibles
Only Amiga compatible machines share the original Amiga heritage with the custom chip compatibility. While they are not using the original chips (as in original Amiga computers), they implement compatible functionality using their field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) or custom bootloaders.
DraCo
The DraCo was the first Amiga clone. It was released during the bankruptcy of Commodore International in 1994 and was sold until 2000. Unlike later systems employing FPGA for the custom chipset, the Draco only provided compatibility at the operating system level and used a bootloader to patch various system devices and libraries that attempted to directly access any real Amiga chips. It was never intended to be a 'general purpose' desktop computer, however, users have been able to get some models to boot to Workbench.
Minimig
Minimig is an open source hardware implementation of the Amiga 500 with the custom chipset implemented using a FPGA, released under the GNU General Public Licence. It uses the MC68000 CPU chip from Freescale and supports overclocking up to 50 MHz. The size of the FPGA limited the MiniMig to a subset of the ECS graphics, lacking support for productivity modes on the real chipset. It was also limited to only 2 MB of memory that was artificially split into ROM, "chip", and "fast" segments with an aftermarket 'hack' that could increase it to 4 MB total.
Natami
Natami was a hardware project to build 68k-based computers to run AmigaOS. While the original project is defunct, many of the core members of Natami have moved onto the Vampire project.
Vampire V4 Standalone
Vampire V4 Standalone is an FPGA Amiga-compatible currently in development by Apollo Accelerators. It is built around the Apollo Core 68080 (AC68080) first launched in the V2 line of accelerators, the V500 and V600, which are compatible with the Amiga 500 and Amiga 600, respectively. Although not originally designed as such, the V500 has also been installed in the original Amiga 1000 and Amiga 2000 desktop systems, as these all used the same, socketed version of the original Motorola 68000 processor. While the V2 was only designed as an accelerator, it was equipped with local memory, Ethernet, microSD and retargetable graphics (RTG), named "SAGA" or Super-AGA.
The V4 is designed to replace the V2 V500 model as an accelerator, as well as operate entirely independently of any computer in a so-called "standalone mode". To accomplish this, Apollo Accelerators has built a cleanroom version of the AGA chipset and added direct support classic DB9-based joysticks and various low or full-speed USB 2.0 peripherals such as mice, keyboard and gamepads. Amiga AGA graphics are automatically upscaled to HDMI (576p) resolution and can switch automatically between classic and SAGA display modes for use with modern LCD monitors and televisions.
As of August 2019, the AC68080 is the fastest 680x0-compatible Amiga processor with more than four times the performance of the previously fastest, the Motorola 68060. It is capable of 192.12 MIPS and 102.06 MFLOPS, while the Cyberstorm 68060 at 50 MHz was capable of only 39.29 MIPS and 28.02 MFLOPS. Performance gains are aided by using modern DDR3 memory which is capable of over 500 MiB/s in all memory regions. In contrast, the original Amiga processors were significantly bottlenecked accessing shared "chip" memory, achieving less than 3 MiB/s on OCS and ECS machines, and no more than 6.5 MiB/s on AGA machines with all chipsets having DMA disabled.
The AC68080 is closed source, although it may be available for licensing. It is designed to use the original, closed-source Commodore AmigaOS (up to and including the most recent AmigaOS 3.1.4 release from Hyperion), but can also run AROS, EmuTOS, and FreeMiNT, as well as the Classic Macintosh OS.
Amiga Components
A number of suppliers have begun to spring up to provide components to allow users to build their own Amiga compatibles. This includes new motherboards and cases. intended to be combined with either an emulator or an FPGA.
AmigaOS 4 systems
The AmigaOS is known for combining the functionality of OS and window manager. It was primarily designed to run on PowerPC Amiga systems or hardware equipped with Cyberstorm PPC or BlizzardPPC accelerator boards as well as AmigaOne computers with PPC Teron installed. This system was only available in developer pre-releases for several years until the final release in December 2006. Since 2001, Hyperion Entertainment has been developing new AmigaOS 4 running on PowerPC-based systems. The contract between Amiga Inc. and this Belgian-German company only allowed for the availability of the commercial AmigaOS 4 license to computers with AmigaOne motherboards.
AmigaOS 4 also runs on the Sam440 line developed by ACube Systems, following an agreement Hyperion. It also runs on Pegasos II systems developed by Genesi/bPlan and AmigaOne systems developed by British Eyetech and A-eon Technologies. AmigaOS 4 can run system-friendly AmigaOS software written for original Commodore Amigas.
AmigaOS 4 provides backward-compatibility to 68K software through tiered emulation. If the program is known to be OS-friendly (it does not attempt to access hardware directly), then a lightweight JIT emulator is used and calls are allowed directly to AmigaOS 4's API which remains largely compatible to AmigaOS 3.x. However, if the program is not known, or is known to access hardware directly, then it will be executed using E-UAE.
AROS systems
AROS is an open-source re-implementation of AmigaOS and is designed more for portability. The features of the first attempts replicated those found in the AmigaOS 3.1. It runs on many x86-based systems as native or hosted flavors. AROS also runs on some 68k-based Amigas and PowerPC systems. There are also sellers of 'AresOne' systems dedicated to run AROS only. Unlike many other Amiga-based solutions, AROS is Amiga binary compatible only on 68k-based systems. This version is recognized for its high degree of compatibility at the source-code level, allowing it to make concessions towards the legacy deficiencies of the OS it was based from.
MorphOS systems
MorphOS is a closed-source re-implementation of AmigaOS. It runs on PowerPC-based systems but can run system-friendly AmigaOS software written for the original Commodore Amigas. MorphOS runs on Efika, Pegasos I/II and PowerPC based Apple Mac G4 models, such as the Mac Mini, eMac, PowerMac, PowerBook, and iBook.
References
External links
A history of the Amiga - Jeremy Reimer's discussion of the history behind the Amiga's creation and demise with Commodore.
Famous Amiga Uses
Amiga
Amiga
History of Silicon Valley |
4311032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmen%20Aristegui | Carmen Aristegui | María del Carmen Aristegui Flores (; born January 18, 1964) is a Mexican journalist and anchorwoman. She is widely regarded as one of Mexico's leading journalists and opinion leaders, and is best known for her critical investigations of the Mexican government. She is the anchor of the news program Aristegui on CNN en Español, and writes regularly for the opinion section of the periodical Reforma. In March 2015, she was illegally fired from MVS Radio 102.5 FM in Mexico City following a report on the conflict of interests by then Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, with a state contractor who would have built a millionaire residence for the mandatory and his family. She manages her own news website and hosts an online morning newscast, which is also broadcast on Grupo Radio Centro's XERC-FM.
Early life
Aristegui was born on 18 January 1964 in Mexico City, the fifth of seven children. Her father was a Basque Spaniard who had come to Mexico as a child as a refugee from the Spanish Civil War and her mother was of Spanish and French heritage. She has said that it was because of that family background that she has dedicated her life to journalism.
Aristegui grew up in the Colonia Álamos, a neighborhood in the Benito Juárez division in the south-central part of the Federal District. She attended elementary school at the Escuela Primaria Estado De Chiapas, and attended secondary school at Club de Leones de la Ciudad de México.
Her first job, at age 17, was with an accounting firm, Ayala and Associates.
She attended the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), where she first studied Sociology and then switched to Communication Sciences.
Television
She began her television career on Channel 13, then Imevisión (currently TV Azteca) as an assistant on the financial-news program Monitor Financiero, hosted by Efrén Flores. Later she was on Imevisión's team of journalists. According to a profile in Quien, Aristegui's "communication skills and her tenacity at work ensured that she came to be part of the team of news readers and reporters on the more than fifteen daily news programs broadcast by Imevisión on its five or six channels. Before long, she and Javier Solórzano ranked as the cornerstones of the 7 AM news broadcast on channel 13."
She worked on the program En Blanco y Negro alongside Javier Solórzano, broadcast by MVS, and in 2001 was also on Círculo Rojo on Televisa. She worked on the news program Noticias Canal 52: Aristegui-Solórzano, broadcast on channel 52MX, from 2003 to 2006. In 2005, after more than 15 years of working together at various media (Imevisión, MVS, Imagen, Televisa, Canal 52), Aristegui and Solórzano announced that they would be separating professionally on account of "conflicting schedules".
In addition, she worked on the channel 11 program Primer Plano. For over 5 years she hosted the program Partidos Políticos. Since 2005 she has been the host of the interview program Aristegui, broadcast on CNN en Español.
Radio
Aristegui has worked for various radio stations, including Radio Educación, FM Globo and Stereorey. Among the programs in which she has taken part are Para Empezar ("To Begin With") on MVS Radio, and the early broadcast of Imagen Informativa ("Informative Image") on Grupo Imagen, on which she was a regular until November 2002, when she had a conflict with Pedro Ferríz de Con, who did not allow her to enter the studio to broadcast the show. After this incident, she and Javier Solórzano chose to depart from Grupo Imagen. In an act of solidarity, the hosts of the later broadcasts of Imagen Informativa, Ilana Sod, Julio Boltvinik, Denise Dresser, and Vivian Hiriart also quit.
Hoy por Hoy
Aristegui hosted the program Hoy por Hoy ("Nowadays") on W Radio until 4 January 2008, when, after several months that had been marked by increased tensions between herself and her employers about the extent to which she should be allowed to express certain opinions, she parted ways with the network, citing differences over its planned changes in editorial direction. "Early in December 2007," Aristegui said, "I was informed of the network's desire not to renew my contract, but they left open the possibility of staying on. The network notified me that they sought to change the contractual conditions in some respects, incorporating some changes in editorial direction...We discussed it and looked forward to specific proposals, but in the end it didn't happen." In her final broadcast, she said that she had been surprised by the news of her termination. The split coincided with the March 2007 appointment of Daniel Moreno, who was close to the wife of Zavala and former president Vicente Fox's wife Marta Sahagún, as director of W. Though Hoy por Hoy had attained its highest audience levels ever with Aristegui at the helm, beginning in 2007, Aristegui was conspicuously omitted from the list of electronic journalists who were granted interviews with the Mexican president.
On 5 January 2008, La Jornada reported that after the show's final broadcast, Aristegui received applause from station workers, lasting for several minutes. Hosts of the stations Ke-Buena, Los 40 Principales and Bésame Mucho, which broadcast from the same building, also gathered there to applaud the journalist's work. Outside, listeners gathered spontaneously to protest Aristegui's firing, some of them carrying signs reading "Long live our right to information!", "We will not be silenced! Long live our freedom of expression!" and "Carmen, we are with you, because Mexico needs valiant and principled journalists like you."
Voces Silenciadas ("Silenced Voices"), a 2009 documentary by Maria del Carmen De Lara about the persecution of journalists in Mexico and the relationship between the Mexican media and politicians, used Aristegui's departure from W Radio as its starting point. De Lara stated publicly that the Aristegui case showed how concentrated media ownership in Mexico had narrowed the range of permissible opinions in Mexico's media.
Noticias MVS
MVS Radio and Aristegui reached an agreement in early 2009 to begin a new radio show on Noticias MVS. The daily show, which began airing in January 2009, dealt with issues in much greater depth than her twenty-minute TV show for CNN. On 6 July 2009 (the day of the 2009 midterm elections) the program also began broadcasting on channel 52MX, which also belongs to MVS. Guests on this program included various Mexican political figures, such as Andrés Manuel López Obrador and Roberto Madrazo Pintado. The show featured an interview with former president Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado in which he expressed disappointment in his successor, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, because of the latter's family corruption and links to drug cartels.
Firing and reinstatement at MVS
On 4 February 2011, on her MVS program, Aristegui reported an incident that had occurred on the previous day in the Chamber of Deputies. Opposition deputies had displayed a banner reading: "Would you let a drunk drive your car? No, right? So why let one run your country?" Aristegui commented on her news program that while she didn't "have any specific information" as to whether the president had problems with alcohol, she added "this is a delicate topic" and suggested that President Calderón had an obligation to reply to the charge. On 7 February MVS, citing Aristegui's comments, terminated her contract purportedly "for violating the ethical code" of the firm. "In our code of ethics," MVS said in a statement, "we pledge to reject the presentation and dissemination of rumors as news. The journalist Carmen Aristegui violated our code of ethics and we decided to terminate our existing contractual relationship." The termination resulted in widespread public protests, and Aristegui was reinstated a few days later. Neither she nor MVS Radio issued an official statement about her return to the air.
A CNN report in August 2012, revealed the behind-the-scenes story of the firing and rehiring. On 4 February, shortly after Aristegui's on-air comments about President's Calderón's possible alcoholism, MVS president Joaquin Vargas received a phone call from Calderón's spokeswoman, Alejandra Sota. Vargas apologized for Aristegui's comment, and later that day was told by a cabinet official that the government would not be taking action on a matter involving MVS's broadcast frequencies until Aristegui herself offered a public apology. On 5 February, Sota handed Vargas a statement of apology and told him to instruct Aristegui to read it on the air. On 6 February, Aristegui refused; Vargas fired her immediately. Her termination was announced that evening, and within hours Sota phoned Vargas and told him she was alarmed by the intense reaction on social networks to the news of Aristegui's dismissal. After several days of public outcry and of extensive communication between Vargas and various representatives of Calderón, Aristegui returned to the air on February 21.
Second firing from MVS
On 12 March 2015, two journalists from MVS, Daniel Lizárraga and Irving Huerta, were fired after they used the station's brand name without permission in a newly created website known as MexicoLeaks, which leaked reports on government corruption. Aristegui issued an ultimatum and threaten to quit if MVS did not reinstate her two staff members. Four days later, MVS fired Aristegui after considering that she had crossed the line for issuing an ultimatum to the MVS management.
Because the two journalists fired were part of an investigatory group that revealed the "white house scandal", a presidential scandal that involved the First Lady buying a house from a government contractor, many outlets commented on a possible conflict of interest. Both the Mexican government and MVS, however, stated that Aristegui's departure was due to internal disagreements between her and the MVS management. Aristegui said that she had plans to pursue legal action against MVS.
Thousands of people gathered outside the MVS installations that day asking for Aristegui's reinstatement and criticizing MVS for firing her. On March 17, two more journalists from MVS, Ame Motta and Adriana Buentello, were fired after the management decided to cut personnel. On social media, the two journalists expressed their doubts about MVS's rationale and claimed it was due to them backing Aristegui.
On 21 June 2018, a federal court ruled that the 2015 dismissal of Carmen Aristegui from the MVS radio group was "illegal and improper".
Grupo Radio Centro
On September 28, 2018, Grupo Radio Centro and Aristegui announced an alliance in which the journalist's Internet newscast would be broadcast over XERC-FM and other stations in several states of Mexico, beginning in October 17.
Print media
Aristegui worked for El Universal, for which she co-wrote the column "Círculo rojo" with Javier Solórzano. As of 2013 she writes a column for Reforma.
Aristegui's first book, Uno De Dos 2006: Mexico en la Encrucijada ("One of Two 2006: Mexico at the Crossroads"), profiles President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa and Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the leading presidential candidates in that year's federal election in Mexico. She explained that she had written the book in order to offer readers "a very interesting overview and X-ray of the country" and to provide insights into the ways the candidates had resolved specific situations in the past, which might offer clues as to how they would behave in office.
Other work
For over five years, Aristegui hosted the Federal Electoral Institute's special political programming. In 1997, she acted as an advisor to a civic group involved in the first election for mayor of Mexico City.
She regularly participates in several academic forums and debates.
She was selected to carry the Olympic torch through part of Mexico while it was on its worldwide journey to Athens in 2004.
Aristegui gave a lecture on "Mexico's Democratic Transition" in the series Dialogues with Mexico/Diálogos con México on 20 January 2010 at the Woodrow Wilson Center in Washington, D.C.
In April 2012, Aristegui launched her Twitter account, @aristeguionline, and within a day she had more than 70,000 followers. The same month saw the launch of Aristeguinoticias.com, a news and analysis site.
In 2004, on the Canal 52 MVS evening news, Aristegui uncovered the first video scandal of the year, concerning Green Party leader Jorge Emilio González Martínez's involvement in a tourist development in Cancún.
Aristegui has long been critical of the Television Law, which favors the televised media duopoly in Mexico consisting of Grupo Televisa and TV Azteca.
Aristegui has closely followed the case of Ernestina Ascensión Rosario, an indigenous resident of Zongolica in the state of Veracruz, who allegedly died as a result of a gang rape by Mexican soldiers. The National Commission of Human Rights, chaired by José Luis Soberanes Fernández, declared that this purported crime never took place.
Aristegui's program was the first to report on the phone calls between the governor of Puebla, Mario Marín Torres, and textile executive Kamel Nacif Borge, who colluded to deprive journalist Lydia Cacho of her liberties because of her denunciation of a pedophile ring in her book Los Demonios del Edén.
Aristegui has also extensively covered the clerical sexual abuse of minors, including the case of Cardinal Norberto Rivera Carrera, who was charged in the Superior Courts of California of international conspiracy for allegedly protecting Fr. Nicolás Aguilar, who had been accused of pedophilia. The journalist Sanjuana Martínez investigated the cases and wrote about them in her books Manto Púrpura and Prueba de Fe. Aristegui also investigated the life of Marcial Maciel and the many cases of pedophilia in which he was involved, and questioned his beatification by Pope John Paul II.
Awards and honors
The School of Journalism at Columbia University, which awards the Maria Moors Cabot Prize, explained its selection of Aristegui as follows: "Aristegui gives voice to Mexicans who would otherwise not be heard or seen because they criticize the country's most powerful institutions. The heat generated by her morning talk show on W Radio, 'Hoy por Hoy,' led to Aristegui's forced departure. Aristegui continues to explain, celebrate, and expose what is great and wrong in Mexico — and in the hemisphere — on her CNN en Español show, 'Aristegui,' and in her column in the newspaper Reforma. Her courage serves as an example for journalists, especially women, fighting to make their voices heard." Upon accepting the prize, she dedicated it to her son and spoke about her firing by W Radio, saying that the incident "showed just how frail a journalist can be." Adding that "a country cannot be truly democratic when two companies control 94%" of the media, she called Mexico "a high-risk country for our profession."
On being presented with the Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Prize, Aristegui dedicated it to the writer Germán Dehesa, who had died the previous September, and to the 64 reporters killed in recent years for exercising their freedom of expression. "Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz," said Aristegui, "is a key character, transcendent, transformative, a kind of myth. Sor Juana's life was devoted to study, to the pursuit of knowledge, not only in order to understand, unravel and know, but precisely to make possible a window on liberty."
The French government awarded Aristegui the Legion of Honor in recognition of her "struggle for freedom of expression, and her commitment to the defense of those who often have no voice in the media, as well as her work for democracy and rule of law in Mexico."
Aristegui has received the following awards and honors:
2001 – National Award for Journalism (shared with Javier Solórzano)
2002 – Recognized by the Mexican Center for Philanthropy
2002 – Mexican Press Club, National Journalism Award
2003 – Named Best National Anchor
2003 – Public Image Prize for Best Journalist at National Level
2004 – Mexican Press Club, National Journalism Award
2004 – National Award for Journalism
2004 – Mont Blanc Woman of the Year
2005 – Honored by the National Institute of Indigenous Languages
2005 – National Award for Journalism
2006 - Omecihauatl Medal, from the Instituto de las Mujeres-DF
2006 - Ondas Iberoamericano Radio Prize, for the program Hoy por hoy
2006 – Mexican Journalism Prize, awarded by the Fifth National Congress of the Federation of Mexican Journalists' Associations, in the category of interviewing
2008 - María Moors Cabot Prize from the School of Journalism at Columbia University
2009 – National Award for Journalism
2010 – National Award for Journalism
2010 – Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz Prize
2012 – Named a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor
2014 - PEN Mexico Prize
2015 - Gabriel García Marquez Prize, for research on "The White House"
2016 - Chosen as one of BBC's 100 Women
2017 - Chosen as one of 50 "World's greatest leaders" by Fortune magazine
2018 - Received the John Peter and Anna Catherine Zenger Award for Press Freedom from the University of Arizona School of Journalism.
Personal life
Aristegui has one son, Emilio, born on 11 February 1999. "The emotion that came over me continues to be unforgettable," she said of his birth in an interview some years later.
See also
Ana Navarro
Anderson Cooper
Andrés Oppenheimer
Arianna Huffington
Carlos Alberto Montaner
Carlos Montero
Christiane Amanpour
Fareed Zakaria
Fernando del Rincón
Geovanny Vicente
Patricia Janiot
Pedro Bordaberry
Sylvia Garcia
CNN en Español
References
External links
Carmen Aristegui profile at CNN.com
A case study on Aristegui's dismissal in 2011, The University of Oxford
AristeguiNoticias.com, her news site
1964 births
Living people
Maria Moors Cabot Prize winners
Mexican people of Basque descent
Mexican news anchors
National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
Writers from Mexico City
Mexican columnists
Mexican women journalists
Mexican women columnists
20th-century Mexican women writers
20th-century Mexican writers
21st-century Mexican women writers
Investigative journalists
Women television journalists |
4311052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20resistance%20in%20German-occupied%20Europe | Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe | Jewish resistance under Nazi rule took various forms of organized underground activities conducted against German occupation regimes in Europe by Jews during World War II. According to historian Yehuda Bauer, Jewish resistance was defined as actions that were taken against all laws and actions acted by Germans. The term is particularly connected with the Holocaust and includes a multitude of different social responses by those oppressed, as well as both passive and armed resistance conducted by Jews themselves.
Due to military strength of Nazi Germany and its allies, as well as the administrative system of ghettoization and the hostility of various sections of the civilian population, few Jews were able to effectively resist the Final Solution militarily. Nevertheless, there are many cases of attempts at resistance in one form or another including over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings. Historiographically, the study of Jewish resistance to German rule is considered an important aspect of the study of the Holocaust.
Concepts and definitions
The historian Julian Jackson argued that there were three forms of Jewish resistance in the course of his study of the German occupation of France: "first, individual French Jews in the general Resistance; secondly, specifically Jewish organizations in the general Resistance; thirdly, Resistance organizations (not necessarily comprising Jews alone) with specifically Jewish objectives." In his book The Holocaust: The Jewish Tragedy, Martin Gilbert defines Jewish resistance more widely. He recounts widespread individual resistance in many forms. Jews fought oppressors with the weapons they could find. But Gilbert emphasizes that many Jews resisted passively; by enduring suffering and even death with dignity, they refused to satisfy German attackers' desire to see them despair. Gilbert writes, "Simply to survive was a victory of the human spirit."
Nechama Tec argues that any of the complex and varying acts of defiance against the restrictive and demoralizing conditions forced upon the Jews of Europe should be considered spiritual resistance. Tec asserts that actions such as ghetto leaders scavenging resources for food and medicine, or the employment and preservation of Jewish art and artists in Germany through the creation of Jewish Cultural Association serve as a passive means of resisting the Nazi aim to destroy the identity and culture of Judaism. Richard Middleton-Kaplan identifies documented acts of spiritual resistance in concentration camps, such as inmates saying prayers for Shabbat and fallen loved ones and making efforts to care for themselves and others.
This view is supported by Yehuda Bauer, who wrote that resistance to the Nazis comprised not only physical opposition, but any activity that gave the Jewish people dignity and humanity despite the humiliating and inhumane conditions. The scholarly argument surrounding passive and spiritual resistance stems from historian Yehuda Bauer's concept of "amidah", the Hebrew word meaning "to stand up against", which asserts any act of resisting the destruction of Jewish life is an act of defiance. Further historical research and arguments have used "Amidah" to characterize religious observation, the of Jewish resistance to the destruction of one's culture, one's individualism, and one's will to live.
Bauer disputes the popular view that most Jews went to their deaths passively—"like sheep to the slaughter". He argues that, given the conditions in which the Jews of Eastern Europe had to live under and endure, what is surprising is not how little resistance there was, but rather how much resistance was present. Middleton-Kaplan calls upon the traditional connotation of "sheep to the slaughter" in both Judaism in Christianity to argue the positive notion in Jewish scripture of facing a looming, existential threat with faith and bravery, succumbing to one's fate without fear. In The Myth of Jewish Passivity, Middleton-Kaplan mentions Jewish resistance leader Abba Kovner, famed for his role in the Vilna ghetto uprising, quoted as early as 1941 using the "sheep to the slaughter" phrase as a call to action, arguing Kovner employed the phrase's original connotation as a call to action towards an unmoving or absent God. Historians such as Patrick Henry have found that the "sheep to the slaughter" myth of Jewish passivity is partly tied to the apparent lack of discussion regarding forms of Jewish resistance outside armed revolt.
Types of resistance
Ghettos across German-occupied Poland
In 1940, the Warsaw ghetto was cut off from its access to Polish underground newspapers, and the only newspaper allowed to be imported into the confines of the ghetto was the General Government propaganda organ Gazeta Żydowska. As a result, from roughly May 1940 to October 1941, the Jews of the ghetto published their own underground newspapers, offering hopeful news about the war and prospects for the future. The most prominent of these were published by the Jewish Socialist party and the Zionist Labor Movement. These two groups formed an alliance but they had no arms. These papers lamented the carnage of war, but for the most part did not encourage armed resistance.
Jews mainly used unarmed resistance in Eastern Europe; for instance, young Jews smuggled food or secretly took people into the forests in Sobibór and Treblinka death camps, whereas in Western Europe, they used armed resistance. Between April and May 1943, Jewish men and women of the Warsaw Ghetto took up arms and rebelled against the Nazis after it became clear that the Germans were deporting remaining Ghetto inhabitants to the Treblinka extermination camp. Warsaw Jews of the Jewish Combat Organization and the Jewish Military Union fought the Germans with a handful of small arms and Molotov cocktails, as Polish resistance attacked from the outside in support. After fierce fighting, vastly superior German forces pacified the Warsaw Ghetto and either murdered or deported all of the remaining inhabitants to the Nazi killing centers. The Germans claimed that they lost 18 dead and 85 wounded, though this figure has been disputed, with resistance leader Marek Edelman estimating 300 German casualties. Some 13,000 Jews were killed, and 56,885 were deported to concentration camps. There are two main reasons why Jews failed to resist when they were leaving the ghettos: Nazis' powerful army and also, it was difficult for Jews to get armed resistance because they needed others' support and because they lacked the ability to get arms when they were in ghettos.
There were many other major and minor ghetto uprisings, however most were not successful. Some of the ghetto uprisings include the Białystok Ghetto Uprising and the Częstochowa Ghetto Uprising. Uprisings took place in five major cities and 45 provincial towns.
Concentration camps
There were major resistance efforts in three of the extermination camps.
In August 1943, an uprising took place at the Treblinka extermination camp. The participants obtained guns and grenades after two young men used forged keys and snuck into the armory unit. The weapons were then distributed around the camp in garbage bins. However, during the distribution of arms, a Nazi guard stopped a prisoner and found contraband money on him. Fearing that the prisoner would be tortured and give away the plan, the organizers decided to launch the revolt ahead of schedule without completing the distribution of weapons, and set off a single grenade—the agreed-upon signal for the uprising. The prisoners then attacked the Nazi guards with guns and grenades. Several German and Ukrainian guards were killed, a fuel tank was set on fire, barracks and warehouses were burned, military vehicles were disabled, and grenades were thrown at the SS headquarters. The guards replied with machine-gun fire, and 1,500 inmates were killed—but 70 inmates escaped to freedom. The guards chased those who had escaped on horseback and in cars, but some of those who escaped were armed, and returned the guards' fire. Gassing operations at the camp were interrupted for a month.
In October 1943, an uprising took place at Sobibór extermination camp, led by Polish-Jewish prisoner Leon Feldhendler and Soviet-Jewish POW Alexander Pechersky. The inmates covertly killed 12 German SS officers, including the deputy commander, and a number of Ukrainian guards. Although the plan was to kill all of SS members and walk out of the main gate of the camp, the guards discovered the killings and opened fire. The inmates then had to run for freedom under fire, with roughly 300 of the 600 inmates in the camp escaping alive. All but 50–70 of the inmates were killed in the surrounding minefields or recaptured and murdered by the Germans. However, the escape forced the Nazis to close the camp, saving countless lives.
On October 7, 1944, the Jewish Sonderkommandos (inmates kept separate from the main camp and put to work in the gas chambers and crematoria) at Auschwitz staged an uprising. Female inmates had smuggled in explosives from a weapons factory, and Crematorium IV was partly destroyed by an explosion. At this stage they were joined by the Birkenau One Kommando, which also overpowered their guards and broke out of the compound. The inmates then attempted a mass escape, but were stopped by heavy fire. Three guards were killed in the uprising, including an Oberkapo who was pushed alive into an oven. Almost all of the 250 escapees were killed. There were also international plans for a general uprising in Auschwitz, coordinated with an Allied air raid and a Polish resistance attack from the outside.
Uprisings also erupted in at least 18 forced labor camps.
Partisan groups
There were a number of Jewish partisan groups operating in many countries, especially in places like Poland. Jews also joined existing partisan movements. The most notable Jewish partisan group is the Bielski partisans, whom the movie Defiance portrays, and the Parczew partisans in the forests near Lublin. Hundreds of Jews escaped the ghettoes and joined the Partisan resistance groups. Some Jews liberated from the Gęsiówka concentration camp participated in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. In France, up to 20% of the French Resistance was Jewish despite Jews making up only about 1% of the French population, and there was a Jewish resistance unit, the Armée Juive. About 10% of Soviet partisans were Jews. Thousands of Jews also joined the Yugoslav Partisans. One Yugoslav Partisan unit, Rab battalion, was composed of entirely of Jews liberated from the Rab concentration camp.
Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe by country
Belgium
Belgian resistance to the treatment of Jews crystallised between August–September 1942, following the passing of legislation regarding wearing yellow badges and the start of the deportations. When deportations began, Jewish partisans destroyed records of Jews compiled by the AJB. The first organization specifically devoted to hiding Jews, the (CDJ-JVD), was formed in the summer of 1942. The CDJ, a left-wing organization, may have saved up to 4,000 children and 10,000 adults by finding them safe hiding places. It produced two Yiddish language underground newspapers, ("Our Word", with a Labour-Zionist stance) and ("Our Fight", with a Communist one). The CDJ was only one of dozens of organised resistance groups that provided support to hidden Jews. Other groups and individual resistance members were responsible for finding hiding places and providing food and forged papers. Many Jews in hiding went on to join organised resistance groups. Groups from left wing backgrounds, like the (FI-OF), were particularly popular with Belgian Jews. The Communist-inspired (PA) had a particularly large Jewish section in Brussels.
The resistance was responsible for the assassination of Robert Holzinger, the head of the deportation program, in 1942. Holzinger, an active collaborator, was an Austrian Jew selected by the Germans for the role. The assassination led to a change in leadership of the AJB. Five Jewish leaders, including the head of the AJB, were arrested and interned in Breendonk, but were released after public outcry. A sixth was deported directly to Auschwitz.
The Belgian resistance was unusually well informed on the fate of the deported Jews. In August 1942 (two months after the start of the Belgian deportations), the underground newspaper reported that "They [the deported Jews] are being killed in groups by gas, and others are killed by salvos of machinegun fire."
In early 1943, the sent Victor Martin, an academic economist at the Catholic University of Louvain, to gather information on the fate of deported Belgian Jews using the cover of his research post at the University of Cologne. Martin visited Auschwitz and witnessed the crematoria. Arrested by the Germans, he escaped, and was able to report his findings to the CDJ in May 1943.
France
Despite amounting to only 1% of the French population, Jews accounted for about 15–20% of the French Resistance. Some of the Jewish resistance members were refugees from Germany, Poland and other central European states.
Although the majority of the French and foreign Jews involved in the French Resistance participated in the general Resistance movements, some Jews also set up their own armed resistance movement: the Armée Juive (Jewish Army), a Zionist organization, which at its height, numbered some 2,000 fighters. Operating throughout France, it smuggled hundreds of Jews to Spain and Switzerland, launched attacks against occupying German forces, and targeted Nazi informants and Gestapo agents. Armee Juive participated in the general French uprising of August 1944, fighting in Paris, Lyon, and Toulouse.
Germany
Jewish resistance within Germany itself during the Nazi era took a variety of forms, from sabotage and disruptions to providing intelligence to Allied forces, distributing anti-Nazi propaganda, as well as participating in attempts to assist Jewish emigration out of Nazi-controlled territories. It has been argued that, for Jews during the Holocaust, given the intent of the Nazi regime to exterminate Jews, survival itself constituted an act considered a form of resistance. Jewish participation in the German resistance was largely confined to the underground activities of left-wing Zionist groups such as Werkleute, Hashomer Hatzair and Habonim, and the German Social Democrats, Communists, and independent left-wing groups such as the New Beginning. Much of the non-left wing and non-Jewish opposition to Hitler in Germany (i.e., conservative and religious forces), although often opposed to the Nazi plans for extermination of German and European Jewry, in many instances itself harbored anti-Jewish sentiments.
A celebrated case involved the arrest and execution of Helmut Hirsch, a Jewish architectural student originally from Stuttgart, in connection with a plot to bomb Nazi Party headquarters in Nuremberg. Hirsch became involved in the Black Front, a breakaway faction from the Nazi Party led by Otto Strasser. After being captured by the Gestapo in December 1936, Hirsch confessed to planning to murder Julius Streicher, a leading Nazi official and editor of the virulently anti-Semitic Der Stürmer newspaper, on behalf of Strasser and the Black Front. Hirsch was sentenced to death on March 8, 1937, and on June 4 was beheaded with an axe.
Perhaps the most significant Jewish resistance group within Germany for which records survive was the Berlin-based Baum Group (Baum-Gruppe), which was active from 1937 to 1942. Largely young Jewish women and men, the group disseminated anti-Nazi leaflets, and organized semi-public demonstrations. Its most notable action was the bombing of an anti-Soviet exhibit organized by Joseph Goebbels in Berlin's Lustgarten. The action resulted in mass arrests, executions, and reprisals against German Jews. Because of the reprisals it provoked, the bombing led to debate within opposition circles similar to those that took place elsewhere where the Jewish resistance was active—taking action and risking murderous reprisals vs. being non-confrontational with the hopes of maximizing survival.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the only pre-war group that immediately started resistance against the German occupation was the communist party. During the first two war years, it was by far the biggest resistance organization, much bigger than all other organizations put together. A major act of resistance was the organisation of the February strike in 1941, in protest against anti-Jewish measures. In this resistance, many Jews participated. About 1,000 Dutch Jews took part in resisting the Germans, and of those, 500 perished in doing so. In 1988, a monument to their memory was unveiled by the then mayor of Amsterdam, Ed van Thijn.
Among the first Jewish resisters was the German fugitive Ernst Cahn, owner of an ice cream parlor. Together with his partner, Kohn, he had an ammonia gas cylinder installed in the parlor to stave off attacks from the militant arm of the fascist NSB, the so-called "Weerafdeling"("WA"). One day in February 1941 the German police forced their entrance into the parlor, and were gassed. Later, Cahn was caught and on March 3, 1941, he became the first civilian to be executed by a Nazi firing squad in the Netherlands.
Benny Bluhm, a boxer, organized Jewish fighting parties consisting of members of his boxing school to resist attacks. One of these brawls led to the death of a WA-member, H. Koot, and subsequently the Germans ordered the first Dutch razzia (police raid) of Jews as a reprisal. That in turn led to the Februaristaking, the February Strike. Bluhm's group was the only Jewish group resisting the Germans in the Netherlands and the first active group of resistance fighters in the Netherlands. Bluhm survived the war, and strove for a monument for the Jewish resisters that came about two years after his death in 1986.
Numerous Jews participated in resisting the Germans. The Jewish director of the assembly center in the "Hollandsche Schouwburg", a former theatre, Walter Süskind, was instrumental in smuggling children out of his centre. He was aided by his assistant Jacques van de Kar and the director of the nearby crèche, Mrs Pimentel.
Within the underground communist party, a militant group was formed: de Nederlandse Volksmilitie (NVM, Dutch Peoples Militia). The leader was Sally (Samuel) Dormits, who had military experience from guerrilla warfare in Brazil and participation in the Spanish Civil War. This organisation was formed in The Hague but became mainly located in Rotterdam. It counted about 200 mainly Jewish participants. They made several bomb attacks on German troop trains and arson attacks on cinemas, which were forbidden for Jews. Dormits was caught after stealing a handbag off a woman in order to obtain an identification card for his Jewish girlfriend, who also participated in the resistance. Dormits committed suicide in the police station by shooting himself through the head. From a cash ticket of a shop the police found the hiding place of Dormits and discovered bombs, arson material, illegal papers, reports about resistance actions and a list of participants. The Gestapo was warned immediately and that day two hundred people were arrested, followed by many more connected people in Rotterdam, The Hague and Amsterdam. The Dutch police participated in torturing the Jewish communists. After a trial more than 20 were shot to death; most of the others died in concentration camps or were gassed in Auschwitz. Only a few survived.
Jewish resistance in Allied militaries
Approximately 1.5 million Jews served in the regular Allied militaries during World War II, among them roughly 550,000 in the United States Armed Forces (including those who served in the Pacific theater) and 500,000 in the Red Army. About 100,000 served in the Polish Army during the German invasion and thousands served in the Free Polish Forces including about 10,000 in Anders' Army. About 60,000 British Jews and 30,000 Jews from Mandatory Palestine served in the British Armed Forces during the war. Another 17,000 Jews served in the Canadian Armed Forces.
The British Army trained 37 Jewish volunteers from Mandate Palestine to parachute into Europe in an attempt to organize resistance. The most famous member of this group was Hannah Szenes. She was parachuted into Yugoslavia to assist in the rescue of Hungarian Jews about to be deported to the German death camp at Auschwitz. Szenes was arrested at the Hungarian border, then imprisoned and tortured, but refused to reveal details of her mission. She was eventually tried and executed by firing squad. She is regarded as a national heroine in Israel.
The British government formed the Jewish Brigade, an all-Jewish unit of the British Army for Jews from Palestine, in July 1944. It consisted of about 5,500 Jewish volunteers from Palestine led by British-Jewish officers, and was organized into three infantry regiments, an artillery regiment, and supporting units. They were attached to the British Eighth Army in Italy from November 1944, taking part to the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy. After the end of the war in Europe the Brigade was moved to Belgium and the Netherlands in July 1945. As well as participating in combat operations against German forces, the brigade assisted and protected Holocaust survivors.
The Special Interrogation Group was a British Army commando unit comprising German-speaking Jewish volunteers from Palestine. It carried out commando and sabotage raids behind Axis lines during the Western Desert Campaign, and gathered military intelligence by stopping and questioning German transports while dressed as German military police. They also assisted other British forces. Following the disastrous failure of Operation Agreement, a series of ground and amphibious operations carried out by British, Rhodesian and New Zealand forces on German and Italian-held Tobruk in September 1942, the survivors were transferred to the Royal Pioneer Corps.
Notable Jewish resistance fighters
Mordechaj Anielewicz, leader of the Jewish Combat Organization during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, killed in action in 1943
Paweł Frenkiel, a Polish Jewish youth leader in Warsaw and a senior commander of the Jewish Military Union, killed in action defending the JMU headquarters
Yitzhak Arad, a former Soviet partisan
Herbert Baum, a Jewish member of the German resistance against National Socialism, tortured to death by the Gestapo
Bielski partisans, an organization of Jewish partisans who rescued Jews from extermination in western Belarus
Frank Blaichman, a Holocaust survivor who was a Polish-Jewish leader of Jewish resistance
Thomas Blatt, a survivor from the uprising and escape from the Sobibór extermination camp in October 1943
Masha Bruskina, a 17-year-old Jewish member of the Minsk Resistance, executed by the Nazis
Eugenio Calò, an Italian partisan, executed by the Nazis
Franco Cesana, an Italian Jew who joined a partisan group, killed by the Nazis at age 13
Icchak Cukierman, one of the leaders of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 1943 and fighter in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising
Szymon Datner helped smuggle several people out of Białystok Ghetto in 1943
Marek Edelman, a leader of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
Selma Engel-Wijnberg, the only known Dutch prisoner of Sobibór extermination camp who escaped and survived
Leon Feldhendler, a Polish-Jewish resistance fighter who organized the 1943 prisoner uprising at the Sobibór extermination camp
Dov Freiberg, a participant in the Sobibór prisoners' revolt who joined Joseph Serchuk's partisan unit
Munyo Gruber, a member of the Parczew partisans who fought the Germans while attempting to save as many Jewish lives as possible
Abba Kovner, a member of the United Partisan Organization, one of the first armed underground organizations in the Jewish ghettos under Nazi occupation
Zivia Lubetkin, one of the leaders of the Jewish underground in Nazi-occupied Warsaw and the only woman on the High Command of the resistance group Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa
Dov Lopatyn, leader of one of the first ghetto uprisings of the war and member of a partisan unit, killed in action
Vladka Meed, a member of Jewish resistance in Poland who smuggled dynamite into the Warsaw Ghetto and also helped children escape out of the ghetto
Parczew partisans, fighters in irregular military groups participating in the Jewish resistance movement
Alexander Pechersky, one of the organizers, and the leader of the most successful uprising and mass-escape of Jews from a Nazi extermination camp during World War II; which occurred at the Sobibor extermination camp in 1943
Frumka Płotnicka, leader of the Sosnowiec and Będzin Ghetto uprisings.
Moše Pijade, one of the leaders of the uprising in Montenegro against the Italian occupation forces in Axis-occupied Yugoslavia
Haviva Reik, one of 32 or 33 Palestinian Jewish parachutists sent by the Jewish Agency and Britain's Special Operations Executive (SOE) on military missions in Nazi-occupied Europe; she was captured and executed
Joseph Serchuk, commander of the Jewish partisan unit in the Lublin area in Poland
Hannah Szenes, one of 37 Jews from Mandatory Palestine parachuted by the British Army into Yugoslavia, she was captured, tortured, and executed by the Nazis
Lelio Vittorio Valobra, leader of DELASEM, which helped Jewish refugees to escape the Holocaust
Dawid Wdowiński, founder of the ŻZW group in the Warsaw Ghetto who served as its political leader
Yitzhak Wittenberg, a Jewish resistance fighter in Vilnius; after he was captured by the Gestapo, he committed suicide in his jail cell
Shalom Yoran, a Jewish resistance fighter who fought back the Germans and their collaborators
Simcha Zorin, a Jewish Soviet partisan commander in Minsk of a group that consisted of 800 Jewish fighters
Aftermath
The Nokmim
In the aftermath of the war, Holocaust survivors led by former members of Jewish resistance groups banded together. Calling themselves Nokmim (Hebrew for "avengers"), they tracked down and executed former Nazis who took part in the Holocaust. They killed an unknown number of Nazis, and their efforts are believed to have continued into the 1950s. The Nazis were often kidnapped and killed by hanging or strangulation, others were killed by hit-and-run attacks, and a former high-ranking Gestapo officer died when kerosene was injected into his bloodstream while he was in hospital awaiting an operation. It is possible that some of the most successful Nokmim were veterans of the Jewish Brigade, who had access to military intelligence, transport, and the right to freely travel across Europe.
Nokmim also travelled to places such as Latin America, Canada, and Spain to track down and kill Nazis who had settled there. In one instance, they are believed to have confronted Aleksander Laak, responsible for killing 8,500 Jews at Jägala concentration camp, at his suburban Winnipeg home, and after telling him that they intended to kill him, allowed him to commit suicide.
In 1946, the Nokmim carried out a mass poisoning attack against former SS members imprisoned at Stalag 13, lacing their bread rations with arsenic at the bakery which supplied it. Approximately 1,200 prisoners fell ill, but no deaths were reported. The U.S. Army mustered its medical resources to treat the poisoned prisoners. Nokmin responses ranged from viewing this mass assassination attempt as a failure to claiming that the Allies covered up the fact that there had been deaths.
See also
Righteous Among the Nations
Jewish Resistance Against the Nazis (book)
Anti-fascism
Defiance (2008 film)
Uprising (2001 film)
Resistance during World War II
Like sheep to the slaughter
Armenian resistance during the Armenian Genocide
Notes and references
Further reading
Dov Levin. Fighting Back: Lithuanian Jewry's Armed Resistance to the Nazis, 1941–1945. (Holmes and Meier, 1985).
Dov Levin and Zvie A. Brown. The Story of an Underground: The Resistance of the Jews of Kovno in the Second World War. (Gefen Publishing, 2014).
Finkel, E. (2015). "The Phoenix Effect of State Repression: Jewish Resistance during the Holocaust." American Political Science Review, 109(2), 339–353.
External links
Jewish Armed Resistance and Rebellions on the Yad Vashem website
"Jewish Resistance: A Working Bibliography". The Miles Lerman Center for the Study of Jewish Resistance. Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Washington, D.C. PDF version
Jewish Resistance During the Holocaust from Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project
About the Holocaust
Jewish Partisan Educational Foundation
Interviews from the Underground: Eyewitness accounts of Russia's Jewish resistance during World War II documentary film and website (jewishpartisans.net)
Jewish Resistance in the Holocaust, Organization of Partizans Underground and Ghetto Fighters
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Armed Jewish Resistance: Partisans |
4311113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Hustle%20Records | Grand Hustle Records | Grand Hustle Records (formerly Grand Hustle Entertainment), also known as Hustle Gang Music, is an Atlanta, Georgia–based hip hop record label, founded in 2003, by American rapper T.I. and his manager Jason Geter. The label was distributed by Atlantic Records until December 2012. It currently operates as an independent record label. Its roster has included the artists 8Ball & MJG, B.o.B, Killer Mike, Young Dro, DJ Drama, Meek Mill, Chip, Travis Scott, and Trae tha Truth, the latter of whom also serves as the label's vice president. The label also houses a roster of record producers, which has included Lil' C, Mars and Nard & B.
The label has released 33 studio albums, with 14 of them certified gold or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The label has released six albums that reached number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, namely King (2006), T.I. vs. T.I.P. (2007), Paper Trail (2008), The Adventures of Bobby Ray (2010), Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight (2016) and Astroworld (2018). Grand Hustle has released many Top 40 hit singles, including "Bring 'Em Out", "What You Know", "Shoulder Lean", "Dead and Gone", "Airplanes", "Magic", "Strange Clouds", "Both of Us", "Antidote" and many more. Among those singles, six of them went on to reach the number one spot on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart – "Whatever You Like", "Live Your Life", "Nothin' on You", "Sicko Mode" and "Highest in the Room".
History
2003–11: Beginnings and various signings
Due to the poor commercial reception of his debut album, I'm Serious, T.I. was released from his Arista Records contract. He then formed Grand Hustle Entertainment and began releasing several mixtapes, with the assistance of DJ Drama. He resurfaced in the summer of 2003, alongside fellow Atlanta rapper and former label-mate Bone Crusher, on the song "Never Scared", and he signed a joint venture deal with Atlantic Records. T.I. released his second album Trap Muzik on August 19, 2003, through Grand Hustle Records; it debuted at number four and sold 109,000 copies in its first week. It spawned the singles "24s", "Be Easy", "Rubberband Man", and "Let's Get Away". In March 2004, a warrant was issued for T.I.'s arrest after he violated his probation of a 1997 drug conviction. He was sentenced to three years in prison.
In 2005, fellow Bankhead-based rapper Alfamega signed a deal with Grand Hustle Records. In July 2005, the label released the soundtrack to the film Hustle & Flow. The soundtrack included the song "It's Hard out Here for a Pimp", which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Also in 2005, T.I. added American soul singer-songwriter Governor to the Grand Hustle roster, after Atlantic Records chose T.I. to act as his mentor. Atlantic Records' plan for Governor, who joined Atlantic's roster almost four years prior, was to market him a devotee, or a card-carrying member of T.I.'s "camp". Atlantic first tried to pair him with record producer Dr. Dre, and then with gangsta rapper 50 Cent. Both plans fell through. In search of quick street credibility, the label brokered a deal for the singer to join T.I.'s imprint. After appearing on several of DJ Drama's Gangsta Grillz mixtapes, Governor later released his Grand Hustle debut Son of Pain, in September 2006.
By early 2006, T.I. had signed fellow Bankhead-based rapper Young Dro, to the label. Young Dro released the single "Shoulder Lean" in the summer of 2006. It had heavy rotation on BET and MTV2, and its cellular phone ringtone sold over 500,000 units. The single is featured on Dro's major-label debut Best Thang Smokin', released in late August the same year. In December 2006, the label released Grand Hustle Presents: In da Streetz Volume 4, a compilation album featuring contributions from several Grand Hustle artists including aforementioned newcomers Alfamega, Young Dro and Governor. The compilation's title comes from a mixtape series entitled In da Streetz, that T.I. and his hip hop ensemble Pimp $quad Click (P$C), released in their early careers.
On October 13, 2007, federal authorities arrested T.I. four hours before the BET Hip Hop Awards in Atlanta. He was charged with two felonies – possession of three unregistered machine guns and two silencers, and possession of firearms by a convicted felon. The arrest was made in the parking lot of a downtown shopping center. T.I. was arrested after allegedly trying to purchase the guns from a "cooperating witness" with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives. According to federal officials, the witness had been cooperating with authorities a few days prior to the T.I. arrest. The witness had been working as T.I.'s bodyguard since July, authorities said.
In May 2008, T.I. signed up-and-coming Atlanta-based musician B.o.B, who signed a joint partnership deal with Grand Hustle and super producer Jim Jonsin's Rebel Rock Entertainment, under Atlantic Records. B.o.B was later featured on T.I.'s album Paper Trail (2008) on the track "On Top of the World", which also featured Ludacris. In June 2008, T.I. announced the signing of Southern hip hop duo 8Ball & MJG to Grand Hustle, during his Hot 107-9 Birthday Bash. In December 2008, Killer Mike, whom T.I. previously collaborated with on the 2003 hit single "Never Scared", confirmed he signed a recording contract with Grand Hustle.
In 2008, T.I. also signed Philadelphia-based rapper Meek Mill to Grand Hustle. Shortly after, Mill was arrested, charged with a crime and ordered to serve seven months in jail. Mill was released during the early portion of 2009. Due to T.I.'s and Mill's respective legal troubles, Mill was never able to release an album under Grand Hustle and they parted ways in 2010.
In 2008, P$C member AK, also known as AK the Razorman, began to express his discontent with the label and his longtime friend T.I.: In a 2011 interview with Inday, a Grand Hustle marketing promoter, he confirmed AK and Yung L.A. were no longer a part of the label. In May 2009, T.I. dropped rapper Alfamega, who signed in 2005, after reports surfaced of his past as a DEA informant. A short-lived feud between the two later embroiled, with Alfamega releasing a diss track titled "Greenlight", in March 2010.
On September 1, 2010, T.I. and his wife Tameka "Tiny" Cottle, were arrested on drug charges in Los Angeles. The arrest for drug charges led to T.I. being sentenced on October 15, 2010 to 11 months in prison for violating the terms of his probation, specifically for possessing ecstasy, testing positive for opiates and associating with a convicted felon, namely his P$C cohort C-Rod. However, on October 25, the drug charges against T.I. were dropped. On November 1, T.I. reported back to the Forrest City Federal Facility to serve his 11-month sentence. His date of release was set to be September 29, 2011. His seventh album No Mercy, was released on December 7, 2010, during his imprisonment. The album peaked at number four in the US and it sold over 159,000 copies in its first week. RIAA certified No Mercy Gold, with over 500,000 copies sold.
2011–2016: Get Dough or Die series
In 2011, T.I. signed his youngest brother Bryce Harris, better known by his stage name GFM Bryyce. In late 2011, Grand Hustle solo artists Shad da God, Spodee and Yung Booke, came together to form the hip hop group D.O.P.E. (an acronym for Destroying Other People's Egos). D.O.P.E.'s first notable song, titled "Harry Potter" and produced by Hit-Boy, was included on T.I.'s fifth solo mixtape, Fuck da City Up, which was released January 1, 2012. On March 1, 2012, T.I. revealed he signed rappers Iggy Azalea, Chip and Trae tha Truth, to Grand Hustle Records. T.I. was executive producer on Azalea's debut EP, Glory and was featured on the lead single "Murda Bizness", which premiered March 26, 2012. The EP was released on July 30, 2012. On October 9, 2012, T.I., Iggy Azalea, B.o.B, Chip and Trae tha Truth, were all featured on the annual BET Hip Hop Awards cypher. In 2012, Chip, formerly known as Chipmunk, also released his first project with Grand Hustle, a mixtape entitled London Boy. The mixtape, which features several appearances from Grand Hustle artists, including Iggy Azalea and T.I on the posse cut "Hustle Gang", was released on December 25, 2012. In early January 2013, B.o.B announced an upcoming Grand Hustle compilation album titled Hustle Gang.
On January 18, 2013, it was announced T.I. drew a close to his 10-year contract with Atlantic Records the month before, after releasing Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head. It was reported he proposed a $75 million deal for any label that wanted to provide a home for him and his imprint. TMZ reported that T.I. had drawn up the details, which included exclusive signing of all Grand Hustle artists. T.I. allegedly negotiated with several big names in the industry: there were reports that Jay-Z was looking to sign T.I., hoping to add him to the Roc Nation roster; T.I. had dinner with Dr. Dre, who is thought to have proposed an Interscope signing to the rapper; Sony reportedly offered T.I. $50 Million, and spoke with Universal later that week.
In March 2013, T.I. and B.o.B filmed the music video for "Memories Back Then", a song featuring Kendrick Lamar and Kris Stephens. The song, which was recorded for Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head, failed to appear on Trouble Man due to sample-clearance issues, it was announced to be being released as the lead single from the upcoming Grand Hustle Presents: Hustle Gang compilation album. The music video for "Memories Back Then", directed by Philly Fly Boy, was released April 22, 2013. The song was then officially released via iTunes the next day. The song has since debuted at #88 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On April 4, T.I. revealed the label would release a mixtape titled, G.D.O.D. (Get Dough or Die), during the first week of May 2013, preceding the compilation album. On April 19, 2013, T.I. formally introduced GOOD Music producer Travis Scott and Grammy Award winning songwriter Kris Stephens, as Grand Hustle signees. On April 28, a release date for the mixtape would later be announced to be May 7, 2013. As promised the mixtape was released on May 7, featuring 20 tracks and contributions from Grand Hustle artists T.I., Mitchelle'l, B.o.B, Young Dro, Big Kuntry King, Trae tha Truth, D.O.P.E., Travis Scott, Chip, Kris Stephens, Mac Boney, Doe B and Shad da God (formerly Rich Kid Shawty). "Problems", "Poppin' 4 Sum", "Kemosabe", and "Here I Go" were released as singles from the mixtape over the following months. In a May 8, 2013 interview, T.I. said that he was in talks of possibly signing American recording artists Yo Gotti, Problem, Jeremih and Kirko Bangz to Grand Hustle.
On December 28, 2013, Glenn Thomas, better known by his stage name Doe B, died after being shot in his home state of Alabama with Mike Feez. His manager DJ Frank White confirmed Doe B's death via Twitter. In February 2014, Grand Hustle collaborated with DJ Whoo Kid, DJ Skee and DJ MLK, to release the compilation mixtape SXEW Vol. 1: The Grand Hustle, the trio's annual SXSW inspired mixtape. The mixtape features appearances from T.I., Young Dro, Trae Tha Truth, Iggy Azalea and Doe B, the latter of which is featured on a song with T.I. and American rapper Raekwon, titled "I Wanna Know".
In an August 2014 interview with MTV, T.I. revealed plans to release the Grand Hustle compilation, which is tentatively due in December, following Paperwork: "What's holding up the Hustle Gang project is that we have some new additions to the mix, and we didn't wanna put out the project out without including or allowing those new additions to be part of it. Maybe we'll do a stroke of midnight release on New Years. We did that with F**k Da City Up and it did well, so maybe we'll try that again." On September 19, 2014, the label released the second installment to the G.D.O.D. (Get Dough or Die) series. Aside from Grand Hustle recording artists, the mixtape features additional appearances from Iggy Azalea, Meek Mill, Young Thug, Troy Ave, Watch The Duck, Yo Gotti, Trey Songz and Rich Homie Quan, among others.
In March 2015, it was announced the OMG Girlz, the musical trio that included T.I.'s stepdaughter, was officially disestablished. In August 2015, D.O.P.E. member Spodee, announced he was no longer under Grand Hustle; during an interview he stated "Everybody know I was a loyal guy with Grand Hustle and Tip. And, you know, it's no bad blood. I'm not mad at Tip or anything like that, but I have the potential to be bigger than Tip or if not, just as big. So it was time, man. I outgrew that. [I was with Grand Hustle] for too long. Six years." In response, T.I. commented "As we all go about our business and pleasure on this fine day today, allow me to remind you of two former young hopeful Grand Hustlers, who thought going against the glory and good graces of [the family] might be more beneficial to their campaign", referring to Yung L.A. and DG Yola.
In September 2015, Travis Scott released his debut studio album Rodeo, under Grand Hustle and Epic Records. The album was supported by two singles, "3500" and "Antidote", the latter of which reached number 16 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and was certified platinum by the RIAA for sales over 1,000,000 digital downloads. In July 2016, Grand Hustle released a song under the namesake Hustle Gang, titled "40 Acres", featuring T.I. alongside fellow Atlanta-based rappers RaRa and Rossi.
On September 19, 2016, Grand Hustle released the compilation H.G.O.E. (Hustle Gang Over Errrrythang), featuring guest appearances from Young Thug, Chocolate Droppa, Future, Migos, B.o.B, London Jae, Young Dro, Trae tha Truth, Lotto Savage, Shad da God, Kap G and more.
2017–present: We Want Smoke
In April 2017, American rappers Tokyo Jetz, RaRa, Translee and London Jae, were all revealed to be new members of the Grand Hustle roster.
On March 15, 2017, T.I. announced the Hustle Gang concert tour. The Grand Hustle tour began on April 26 in Mobile, Alabama, going through 36 shows across the country before they wrapped up on June 11 in Jacksonville, Florida. In late March, Hustle Gang hosted an after-hours brunch and vibe event, at South by Southwest (SXSW), titled the Hustle Gang Experience, to feature the new Hustle Gang roster. T.I.'s son, Domani Harris, performed music from his recently released project Constellation, followed by RaRa with songs such as "FWM" off his debut project I Am What I Am. Tokyo Jetz went on to perform her viral hit "DM", Yung Booke and London Jae performed "H.I.T.V.", and Trae Tha Truth performed records like "Swangin" and new music from T.I.'s forthcoming album.
On June 28, 2017, a song titled "Game 7" was released as the first single from Grand Hustle's compilation album We Want Smoke. The song features verses from T.I., RaRa and Rossi. The album's second single "Do No Wrong", was released in July and features verses from GFMBRYYCE, Young Dro and T.I. The album's third single "Friends", was released with an accompanying music video, on September 8. "Friends" features Hustle Gang rappers T.I., RaRa, Brandon Rossi, Tokyo Jetz, Trae tha Truth and Young Dro.
In an October 2017 interview with HipHopDX, when asked about Grand Hustle Records' upcoming albums, T.I. answered with: "We Want Smoke is out, and then Translee is coming out on November 27th, and Booke is October 27th, and you can wait until December 18th for mine. Just know that whenever you see The Chief [logo] on the project, it's gonna be absolute pandemonium. It gonna go hamburger."
Artists
Current acts
Former acts
Publishing deals
Throughout the years, Grand Hustle Records has signed multiple artists (often in their respective early careers) to publishing deals. The following list documents notable artists who had signed such a contract at one point or another.
Iggy Azalea
Kris Stephens
Spot
Zuse
Branches
Hustle Gang
Hustle Gang is an American hip hop collective composed of signees of Grand Hustle, introduced in 2013. The group's debut LP, GDOD: Get Dough or Die was released the same year and co-released by record label Be Music. The group's 2017 releases were distributed by Roc Nation.
Smash Factory
Smash Factory was a production team composed of T.I., and Grand Hustle in-house producers, Lamar Edwards (known as Mars or MyGuyMars) and C Gutta (also known as Lil' C). The group has produced for the likes of Nelly and Young Dro.
VisionMob
VisionMob is a banner under Grand Hustle in which T.I. directs and or produces music videos.
In-house producers
Grand Hustle Records also house a production wing, which serves as a group of in-house producers for the label.
Current
Aldrin "DJ Toomp" Davis – known for producing T.I.'s hit singles "24's", "Be Easy", "U Don't Know Me" and "What You Know".
Cordale "Lil' C" Quinn – known for producing Young Dro's "Shoulder Lean" and "Rubberband Banks", Young Jeezy's "My Hood" and T.I.'s "Wit Me".
DJ MLK – Grand Hustle's resident disc jockey.
Keith Mack – known for producing Ludacris' "Act a Fool" and several T.I. tracks, including the 2006 single "Live in the Sky".
Kevin "Khao" Cates – known for producing T.I.'s hit single "Why You Wanna", among other tracks for T.I. and other popular hip hop artists.
Lamar "Mars" Edwards – a member of production team 1500 or Nothin', known for producing Asher Roth's "G.R.I.N.D (Get Ready It's a New Day)" and T.I.'s "Love This Life", among other songs from prominent artists.
Smash Factory – production team composed of T.I., Lil' C and Mars. They have produced songs such as "I Can't Help It" by T.I., "She's So Fly" by Nelly and "King on Set" by T.I., the latter of which was featured on the More than a Game soundtrack.
Two Band Geeks – production duo composed of Elliot Stroud and Billy Kang. Production credits include "I Know You Missed Me" by T.I., "Stand Up" by D.O.P.E. and more. Elliot Stroud contributes solo production under the pseudonym 'Everybody Knows Stroud.'
TrackSlayerz – production duo composed of Dexter "INF" Randall and Demetri "Price" Duncan. Known for producing songs such as T.I.'s "I'm Back", Jim Jones' "Pulling Me Back" and Yung Joc's "Posted at da Store", among others.
Former
DJ Drama (2006–2011) – former resident disc jockey for the label
Nard & B (2007–2016) – production duo composed of Bernard "Nard" Rosser and Brandon "B" Rackley. Known for producing several songs, including Yung L.A.'s "Futuristic Love (Elroy)", Slim Thug's "So High", and co-producing Maino's "All the Above", with high-profile producer Just Blaze.
Personnel
Current
Clifford "Tip" Harris, Jr. – chief executive officer (CEO)
Jason Geter – co-CEO, president
Doug Peterson – VP of artists and repertoire (A&R)
Hannah Kang – general manager
Inday – marketing promoter
Joe McLaren – artist development, engineer
James Miller – marketing director
Nikeya Gray – operations manager
Mark Jackson – executive VP of A&R
Vernell Woods – technology director
Former
Claybourne Evans Jr. – vice president (VP)
Trae tha Truth – vice president (VP)
Discography
All releases distributed by Atlantic Records until December 2012, unless otherwise noted.
Studio albums
Compilation albums
EPs
References
External links
T.I.
Record labels established in 2003
American record labels
American hip hop record labels
Vanity record labels
Gangsta rap record labels
Contemporary R&B record labels
Music production companies
Music publishing companies of the United States |
4311446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carey%20Mulligan | Carey Mulligan | Carey Hannah Mulligan (born 28 May 1985) is an English actress. She has received various accolades, including a British Academy Film Award, in addition to nominations for two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Tony Award.
Mulligan made her professional acting debut on stage in Kevin Elyot's play Forty Winks (2004) at the Royal Court Theatre. She made her film debut with a supporting role in Joe Wright's romantic drama Pride & Prejudice (2005), followed by diverse roles in television, including the drama series Bleak House (2005), the television film Northanger Abbey (2007), and a guest appearance in Doctor Who, where she played Sally Sparrow. She made her Broadway debut in the revival of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull (2008), which earned her a Drama Desk Award nomination.
Mulligan's breakthrough role came as a 1960s schoolgirl in the coming-of-age film An Education (2009), for which she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role, and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She gained further acclaim for her performances in Never Let Me Go (2010), Drive (2011), Shame (2011), The Great Gatsby (2013), Inside Llewyn Davis (2013), Far from the Madding Crowd (2015), Suffragette (2015), Mudbound (2017), Wildlife (2018), Promising Young Woman (2020), She Said (2022), and Maestro (2023). For her performance in the Broadway revival of David Hare's Skylight (2015), she was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, and for her portrayal of a vigilante in the black comedy Promising Young Woman (2020), Mulligan received her second Academy Award nomination.
Mulligan has been an ambassador for the Alzheimer's Society since 2012, and an ambassador for War Child since 2014. She has been married to singer-songwriter Marcus Mumford since 2012. They have two children.
Early life and education
Carey Hannah Mulligan was born on 28 May 1985 in London, to Nano (née Booth) and Stephen Mulligan. Her father, a hotel manager, is of Irish descent and is originally from Liverpool. Her mother, a university lecturer, is from Llandeilo, Wales. Her parents met while they were both working in a hotel in their twenties. In My Grandparents' War (2019), she explored her maternal grandfather Denzil Booth's role as naval radar artillery officer on at the Battle of Okinawa and then sailing into Tokyo Bay at the end of World War II.
When Mulligan was three, her father's work as a hotel manager took the family to West Germany. While living there, she and her brother attended the International School of Düsseldorf. When she was eight, she and her family moved back to the UK. As a teenager, she was educated at Woldingham School, an independent school in Surrey.
Her interest in acting sparked from watching her brother perform in a school production of The King and I when she was six. During rehearsals, she pleaded with his teachers to let her be in the play. They let her join the chorus. While enrolled in Woldingham School as a teen, she was heavily involved in theatre. She was the student head of the drama department there, performing in plays and musicals, conducting workshops with younger students, and helping put on productions.
When she was 16, she attended a production of Henry V starring Kenneth Branagh. His performance emboldened her and reinforced her belief that she wanted to pursue a career in acting. She wrote a letter to Branagh asking him for advice. "I explained that my parents didn't want me to act, but that I felt it was my vocation in life," she said. Branagh's sister replied: "Kenneth says that if you feel such a strong need to be an actress, you must be an actress."
Mulligan's parents disapproved of her acting ambitions and wished for her to attend a university like her brother. At age 17, she applied to three London drama schools instead of the universities she was expected to apply to, but was not invited to attend them. During her final year at Woldingham School, actor/screenwriter Julian Fellowes delivered a lecture at the school on the production of the film Gosford Park. Mulligan briefly talked to him after the lecture and asked him for advice on an acting career. Fellowes tried to dissuade her from the profession and suggested she "marry a lawyer" instead. Undeterred, she later sent Fellowes a letter in which she stated she was serious about acting and that it was her purpose in life.
Several weeks later, Fellowes's wife Emma invited Mulligan to a dinner she and her husband were hosting for young aspiring actors. It facilitated an introduction between Mulligan and a casting assistant that led to an audition for a role in Pride and Prejudice. She auditioned three times, and was eventually given the role of Kitty Bennet. During her late teens and early twenties, she worked as a pub barmaid and an errand-runner for Ealing Studios between acting jobs.
Career
2004–2008: Early work
In 2004 Mulligan made her stage debut in the play Forty Winks at the Royal Court Theatre in London. She made her film debut the following year in Joe Wright's 2005 film adaptation of the Jane Austen novel Pride & Prejudice, portraying Kitty Bennet alongside Keira Knightley. Later that year, she won the role of orphan Ada Clare in the BAFTA award-winning BBC adaption of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, her television debut.
Among her 2007 projects were My Boy Jack, starring Daniel Radcliffe, another Jane Austen adaptation, Northanger Abbey, starring Felicity Jones, and the Doctor Who episode "Blink", which won her the Constellation Award for Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode. She rounded out 2007 by appearing in an acclaimed stage revival of The Seagull, in which she played Nina alongside Kristin Scott Thomas and Chiwetel Ejiofor. The Guardian called her performance "quite extraordinarily radiant and frank." While in the middle of the production, she had to have an appendectomy, preventing her from being able to perform for a week. For her debut Broadway performance in the 2008 American transfer of The Seagull, she was nominated for a Drama Desk Award, but lost to Angela Lansbury for Blithe Spirit.
2009–2014: Breakthrough and critical success
Her big breakthrough came when, at 24, she was cast in her first leading role as Jenny in the 2009 independent film An Education, directed by Danish filmmaker Lone Scherfig and written by Nick Hornby. Over a hundred actresses auditioned for the part, but Mulligan's audition impressed Scherfig the most. The film and her performance received rave reviews, and she was nominated for an Academy Award, Screen Actors Guild, Golden Globe, Critics Choice and won a BAFTA Award. Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly and Todd McCarthy of Variety both compared her performance to that of Audrey Hepburn. Rolling Stone's Peter Travers described her as having given a "sensational, starmaking performance," Mulligan was the recipient of the BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination, which is voted on by the British public.
In 2010, she was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences,
That same year she starred in the film adaptation of Kazuo Ishiguro's acclaimed novel Never Let Me Go with Keira Knightley, and Andrew Garfield. She won a British Independent Award for her performance.
That same year she starred in the Oliver Stone-directed film Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps. Screened out of competition at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, it was her first major studio project. Later that year she also provided vocals for the song "Write About Love" by Belle & Sebastian.
She returned to the stage in the Atlantic Theater Company's off-Broadway play adaptation of Ingmar Bergman's Through a Glass, Darkly, from 13 May – 3 July 2011. Mulligan played the central character, a mentally unstable woman, and received glowing praise from reviewers. Ben Brantley, theater critic for The New York Times, wrote that Mulligan's performance was "acting of the highest order"; he also described her as "extraordinary" and "one of the finest actresses of her generation."
Mulligan co-starred in two critically acclaimed films in 2011. The first being Nicolas Winding Refn's
Drive, with Ryan Gosling. The second film was Steve McQueen's sex-addiction drama Shame alongside Michael Fassbender Both films were major film festival hits. Drive debuted at 2011 Cannes Film Festival and Shame debuted at 2011 Venice Film Festival, both to rave reviews. She was nominated for her second BAFTA award—Best Supporting Actress—for the film Drive which also garnered a total of 4 BAFTA award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Director. For her performance in Shame, she received critical praise as well as a British Independent Film Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
In 2013, she starred as Daisy Buchanan in Baz Luhrmann's The Great Gatsby opposite Leonardo DiCaprio, which was released in May 2013. Mulligan auditioned for the role of Daisy in late 2010. While attending a Vogue fashion dinner in New York City in November, Baz Luhrmann’s wife, Catherine Martin, told her she had the part. In May 2012, she was a co-chair, alongside Anna Wintour, for the 2012 Met Ball Gala themed Schiaparelli and Prada: Impossible Conversations. In 2013, she also starred in Joel and Ethan Coen's black comedy Inside Llewyn Davis alongside Oscar Isaac, and Justin Timberlake. The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival to rave reviews.
In 2014, she starred in the London revival of the play Skylight with Bill Nighy and Matthew Beard, directed by Stephen Daldry, at Wyndham's Theatre in London's West End. It won the 2014 Evening Standard Theatre Award for Revival of the Year and was nominated for the 2014 Olivier Award for Best Revival.
She followed the production when it transferred to Broadway at the John Golden Theatre in April 2015.
The transfer was a massive success. The play won the Tony Award for Best Revival and she earned her first Tony Award nomination for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play.
2015–present: Continued acclaim
Mulligan has continued to earn acclaim for her portrayal of a wide range of complex characters. In 2015, Mulligan was praised for her roles in two acclaimed films released that year. She starred in Thomas Vinterberg's film adaptation of Thomas Hardy's novel Far from the Madding Crowd with Matthias Schoenaerts, Tom Sturridge, and Michael Sheen, as well as Sarah Gavron's Suffragette with Helena Bonham Carter, Ben Whishaw, Brendan Gleeson and Meryl Streep.
In 2017, she starred in Netflix's Mudbound, directed by Dee Rees. The film was met with critical acclaim. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 97% with the consensus reading, "Mudbound offers a well-acted, finely detailed snapshot of American history whose scenes of rural class struggle resonate far beyond their period setting." The film earned four Academy Award nominations including Best Adapted Screenplay for Rees.
In 2018, she starred in Paul Dano's directorial debut film Wildlife with Jake Gyllenhaal. The film was written by Dano and Zoe Kazan, and is an adaptation of Richard Ford’s novel of the same name. The film debuted at the 71st Cannes Film Festival and received rave reviews from critics. The film has earned a 94% on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus reading, "Wildlife's portrait of a family in crisis is beautifully composed by director Paul Dano – and brought brilliantly to life by a career-best performance from Carey Mulligan." For her performance, Mulligan received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Actress.
Mulligan stepped back into television as a Detective Inspector in Collateral, a BBC Two limited series, receiving plaudits from American and British critics. Mulligan praised creator Sir David Hare for seamlessly accommodating her pregnancy into the script.
Mulligan appeared off Broadway in the solo show, Girls and Boys at the Minetta Lane Theatre. The show was written by Dennis Kelly and directed by Lyndsey Turner. Her performance was praised, with The New York Times calling it "perfection". While promoting the show on Stephen Colbert's Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Mulligan described being injured while the curtain was going down. Bradley Cooper, who was in the audience, visited her backstage and carried her to urgent care.
In 2020, Mulligan starred in Emerald Fennell's black comedy thriller film Promising Young Woman, alongside Bo Burnham and Alison Brie. She also served as an executive producer on the film, which debuted at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival to great acclaim. The website Rotten Tomatoes lists the film's rating as 90%, with a critics consensus reading, "A boldly provocative, timely thriller, Promising Young Woman is an auspicious feature debut for writer-director Emerald Fennell — and a career highlight for Carey Mulligan." Due to the COVID-19 pandemic the film's release was delayed to 25 December 2020. For her performance, she received her second Academy Award nomination for Best Actress and won the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress among many other honours. After winning Best Female Lead at the 36th Independent Spirit Awards, Mulligan dedicated her award to the late Helen McCrory.
In 2021, Mulligan replaced Nicole Kidman in The Dig, a film about the events of the 1939 excavation of Sutton Hoo, co-starring Ralph Fiennes and Lily James. It received a limited release in the United Kingdom, followed by a streaming release via Netflix. The following year, Mulligan portrayed Megan Twohey, one of the real life New York Times reporters who broke the Harvey Weinstein scandal, in Maria Schrader's She Said, based on the book of the same name. For her performance, Mulligan received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
Mulligan starred as Felicia Montealegre in Bradley Cooper's directorial Maestro (2023), a biopic about the relationship between Montealegre and her husband Leonard Bernstein (played by Cooper). David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter particularly applauded Mulligan's "heartbreaking" performance, adding that she "has never been better. Mulligan will next star with Adam Sandler in Netflix's adaptation of the science fiction novel Spaceman of Bohemia, directed by Johan Renck. In addition, she will have a voice role in the stop motion animated feature Wildwood, based on the fantasy novel of the same name.
Personal life
Mulligan dated Shia LaBeouf, who co-starred in the film Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps from 2009 to 2010.
In 2012, she married Marcus Mumford, the lead singer of Mumford & Sons. They were childhood pen pals who lost touch and reconnected as adults. A few weeks after completing production on the film Inside Llewyn Davis, in which they were both involved, they married on 21 April 2012.
They have two children.
Philanthropy
Aside from acting, Mulligan was among the actresses who took part in the Safe Project—each was photographed in the place she feels safest—for a 2010 series to raise awareness of sex trafficking. She donated the Vionnet gown she wore at the 2010 BAFTAs to the Curiosity Shop, which sells its donations to raise money for charity.
Mulligan became the ambassador of the Alzheimer's Society in 2012, with the goal of raising awareness and research funding for Alzheimers and dementia. Her grandmother lived with Alzheimer's disease for the final 17 years of her life, during which she no longer recognised Mulligan. She helped host and participated in the 2012 Alzheimer's Society Memory Walk and was one of the sponsored Alzheimer's Society runners in the 2013 Nike Run to the Beat half-marathon in London.
In 2014, Mulligan became an ambassador for the charity War Child and visited the Democratic Republic of Congo in this role.
Acting credits
Film
Television
Stage
Podcast
Discography
Awards and nominations
See also
List of British Academy Award nominees and winners
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories
References
External links
1985 births
21st-century English actresses
Actresses from London
Audiobook narrators
Best Actress BAFTA Award winners
English expatriates in the United States
English film actresses
English health activists
English people of Irish descent
English people of Welsh descent
English radio actresses
English stage actresses
English television actresses
English voice actresses
Living people
People educated at Woldingham School
Sexual abuse victim advocates
WFTV Award winners
Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners |
4311503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages%20of%20Singapore | Languages of Singapore | A multitude of languages is used in Singapore. It consists of several varieties of languages under the families of the Austronesian languages, Dravidian languages, Indo-European languages and Sino-Tibetan languages. The Constitution of Singapore says the national language of Singapore is Malay. This plays a symbolic role, as Malays are constitutionally recognised as the indigenous peoples of Singapore, and it is the government's duty to protect their language and heritage. The constitution also states that the four commonly used languages of Singapore are English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil, with the lingua franca between Singaporeans of different races being English, the de facto main language. Singaporeans often speak Singlish among themselves. Singlish is an informal, colloquial form of English that is used in Singapore. Linguists define it as Singapore Colloquial English.
The three languages other than English were chosen to correspond with the major ethnic groups present in Singapore at the time: Mandarin had gained status since the introduction of Chinese-medium schools; Malay was deemed the "most obvious choice" for the Malay community; and Tamil for the largest Indian ethnic group in Singapore, in addition to being "the language with the longest history of education in Malaysia and Singapore". In 2009, more than 20 languages were identified as being spoken in Singapore, reflecting a rich linguistic diversity in the city. Singapore's historical roots as a trading settlement gave rise to an influx of foreign traders, and their languages were slowly embedded in Singapore's modern day linguistic repertoire.
In the early years, the lingua franca of the island was Bazaar Malay (Melayu Pasar), a creole of Malay and Chinese, the language of trade in the Malay Archipelago. While it continues to be used among many on the island, especially Singaporean Malays, Malay has now been displaced by English. English became the lingua franca due to British rule of Singapore, and was made the main language upon Singaporean independence. Thus, English is the medium of instruction in schools, and is also the main language used in formal settings such as in government departments and the courts. According to Singaporean President Halimah Yacob during her 2018 speech, "Through the education system, we adopted a common working language in English."
Hokkien (Min Nan) briefly emerged as a lingua franca among the Chinese, but by the late 20th century it had been eclipsed by Mandarin. The Government promotes Mandarin among Singaporean Chinese people, since it views the language as a bridge between Singapore's diverse non-Mandarin speaking groups, and as a tool for forging a common Chinese cultural identity. China's economic rise in the 21st century has also encouraged a greater use of Mandarin. Other Chinese varieties such as Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka, Hainanese and Cantonese have been classified by the Government as "dialects", and language policies and language attitudes based on this classification and discouragement of usage in Non-Mandarin Chinese or "Chinese dialects" in official settings and television media have led to a decrease in the number of speakers of these varieties. In particular, Singapore has its own lect of Mandarin; Singaporean Mandarin, itself with two varieties, Standard and Colloquial or spoken. While Tamil is one of Singapore's official and the most spoken Indian language, other Indian languages are also frequently used by minorities.
Almost all Singaporeans are bilingual since Singapore's bilingual language education policy promotes a dual-language learning system. Learning a second language has been compulsory in primary schools since 1960 and secondary schools since 1966. English is used as the main medium of instruction. On top of this, most children learn one of the three official languages (or, occasionally, another approved language) as a second language, according to their official registered ethnic group. Since 1 January 2011, if a person is of more than one ethnicity and their race is registered in the hyphenated format, the race chosen will be the one that precedes the hyphen in their registered race.
English as the main language of Singapore
Although de jure Malay is the national language, Singapore English is regarded de facto as the main language in Singapore, and is officially the main language of instruction in all school subjects except for Mother Tongue lessons in Singapore's education system. It is also the common language of the administration and is promoted as an important language for international business. Spelling in Singapore largely follows British conventions, owing to the country's status as a former Crown Colony. English is the country's default lingua franca despite the fact that four languages have official status.
Under the British colonial government, English gained prestige as the language of administration, law and business in Singapore. As government administration increased, infrastructure and commerce developed, and access to education further catalysed the spread of English among Singaporeans.
When Singapore gained self-government in 1959 and independence in 1965, the local government decided to keep English as the main language to maximise economic benefits. Since English was rising as the global language for commerce, technology and science, promotion of its use in Singapore would expedite Singapore's development and integration into the global economy.
Furthermore, the switch to English as the only medium of instruction in schools aided in bridging the social distance between the various groups of ethnic language speakers in the country. Between the early 1960s to the late 1970s, the number of students registering for primarily English-medium schools leapt from 50% to 90% as more parents elected to send their children to English-medium schools. Attendance in Mandarin, Malay and Tamil-medium schools consequently dropped and schools began to close down. The Chinese-medium Nanyang University also made the switch to English as the medium of instruction despite meeting resistance, especially from the Chinese community.
There has been a steep increase in the use of the English language over the years. Singapore is currently one of the most proficient English-speaking countries in Asia. Then Education Minister, Ng Eng Hen, noted a rising number of Singaporeans using English as their home language in December 2009. Of children enrolled in primary school in 2009, 60% of the Chinese and Indian pupils and 35% of the Malay pupils spoke predominantly English at home.
Singlish
Singlish is an English-based creole language with its own consistent rules and phonology widely used in Singapore. However, usage of this language is discouraged by the local government, which favours Standard English. The Media Development Authority does not support using Singlish in television and radio advertising.
According to a 2018 study by the Institute of Policy Studies (IPS), only 8% of Singaporeans identify with Singlish as their primary language, compared to the one-third that identify with English and another 2% with their official mother tongue. Both survey waves, in 2013 and 2018, conducted showed that about half of all respondents reported being able to speak Singlish "well" or "very well". Younger respondents (18–25 years old) reported greater profiency than older respondents (65+ years old).
Over the years, the use of Singlish has become more widespread, with a greater number of people adopting the language both out of a sense of identity and cultural importance. Some, even view that it identifies them as uniquely Singaporean.
Chinese language
According to the 2000 population census, Mandarin and other varieties of Chinese are the most common languages spoken at home. They are used by 51% of the population. The table below shows the change in distribution of Mandarin and other Chinese varieties, as well as English, as home languages of the resident Chinese population of Singapore in 1990, 2000 and 2010. It can be observed that the percentage of the population which speaks English and Mandarin has increased, while the percentage of those who speak other Chinese varieties has collapsed and is now limited mainly to the elderly. More recently, English is starting to displace Mandarin among the new generation of Singapore Chinese due to long term effects of the dominant usage of English in most official settings over Mandarin, the dominant usage of English as the medium of instruction in Singapore schools, colleges and universities, and the limited and lower standards of local mother education system over the years in Singapore.
Standard Mandarin
Standard Mandarin is generally spoken as the lingua franca among the Chinese community in Singapore. Simply known as Chinese, it is the designated mother tongue or 'ethnic language' of Chinese Singaporeans, at the expense of the other Chinese varieties.
In 1979, the government heavily promoted Mandarin through its "Speak Mandarin" campaign. The Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew stated that Mandarin was chosen to unify the Chinese community with a single language. With the rising prominence of Mandarin in Singapore at that time, politicians such as Lee theorized that it might overtake English, despite strong evidence to the contrary. From the 1990s, with the perceived increase in commerce and trade possibilities with Mainland China, the Singaporean government promoted Mandarin as a language with high economic advantage and value. Today, Mandarin is generally seen as a way to maintain a link to Chinese culture. However, due to the fact that English is the main medium of language instruction in Singaporean schools, colleges and universities; as well as the limited and lower standards of local Mandarin Chinese education in Singapore and the dominant usage of English in most official settings, the standards of Mandarin Chinese among many young Singaporean Chinese has been dropping as more and more young Singaporean Chinese are speaking and using English more frequently than Mandarin Chinese.
Other Chinese varieties
Other Chinese varieties also have a presence in Singapore. Amongst them, Hokkien used to be an unofficial language of business until the 1980s. Hokkien was also used as a lingua franca among Chinese Singaporeans, and also among Malays and Indians to communicate with the Chinese majority. As of 2012, according to demographic figures, the five main Chinese linguistic groups in Singapore are Hokkien (41.1%), Teochew (21.0%), Cantonese (15.4%), Hakka (7.9%) and Hainanese (6.7%), while Hokchew/Hokchia (Fuzhou dialect), Henghua (Puxian Min), and Shanghainese have smaller speaker bases. Other than Mandarin, the two most commonly spoken varieties of Chinese are Hokkien which is the dominant dialect and Cantonese, both of which are mainly spoken among the older generation. Teochew, is being replaced by Hokkien, while other Chinese varieties are increasingly less commonly heard nowadays.
Written Chinese
Traditional Chinese characters were used in Singapore until 1969, when the Ministry of Education promulgated the Table of Simplified Characters (), which while similar to the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme of the People's Republic of China had 40 differences. In 1974 a new Table was published, and this second table was revised in 1976 to remove all differences between simplified Chinese characters in Singapore and China. Although simplified characters are currently used in official documents, the government does not officially discourage or prohibit the use of traditional characters. Hence, traditional characters are still used in signs, advertisements and Chinese calligraphy, while books in both character sets are available in Singapore.
Malay language
Malay is the national language of Singapore and one of its official languages. It is written using a version of the Roman script known as Rumi. It is the home language of 13% of the Singaporean population. Malay is also the ceremonial national language and used in the national anthem of Singapore, in citations for Singapore orders and decorations and military foot drill commands, mottos of several organisations, and is the variety taught in Singapore's language education system.
Historically Malay was written in the Jawi script, based on Arabic. Under the British and Dutch Malay began to be written in Rumi. Efforts to create a standardised spelling for Malaya and Singapore emerged in 1904 by colonial officer Richard Wilkinson. In 1910, the Malay of the Riau Islands was chosen by the Dutchman van Ophuijsen as the dialect for his book "Malay Grammar", intended for Dutch officials, standardising Rumi usage in Dutch territories. In 1933, grammarian Zainal Abidin bin Ahmad made further changes to Rumi as used in Malaya and Singapore. Many Chinese immigrants who spoke Malay were supporters of British rule, and purposely used Rumi when writing newspapers or translating Chinese literature. Printing presses used by colonial officials and Christian missionaries further spread Rumi, while Jawi was mostly written by hand. The transition to Rumi changed the Malay language due to the influence of English grammar. In 1972, Malaysia and Indonesia reached an agreement to standardise Rumi Malay spelling. Singaporean Malays still learn some Jawi as children alongside Rumi, and Jawi is considered an ethnic script for use on Singaporean Identity Cards.
Prior to independence, Singapore was a centre for Malay literature and Malay culture. However, after independence, this cultural role declined. Singapore is an observer to the Language Council for Brunei Darussalam-Indonesia-Malaysia which works to standardise Malay spelling, however it has not applied to be a member. It nonetheless applies standardisations agreed to in this forum, and follows the Malaysian standard when there are disagreements. Standards within the country are set by the Malay Language Council of Singapore. There are some differences between the official standard and colloquial usage. While the historical standard was the Johor-Riau dialect, a new standard known as sebutan baku (or bahasa melayu baku) was adopted in 1956 by the Third Malay language and Literary Congress. This variation was chosen to create consistency between the written word and the spoken pronunciation. However, implementation was slow, with Malaysia only fully adopting it in the educational system in 1988, with Singapore introducing it at the primary school level in 1993. Despite expanding use in formal education, it has not replaced the Johor-Riau pronunciation for most speakers. The artificial creation of the accent means there are no truly native speakers, and the pronunciation is closer to Indonesian than it is to Johor-Riau. There has also been cultural resistance, with accent differences between older and younger generations leading to questions surrounding Malay cultural identity. This question was further sharpened by Malaysia dropping sebutan baku in 2000, returning to the traditional use of Johor-Riau.
While the official Mandarin and Tamil mother tongues often do not reflect the actual language spoken at home for many, Malay is often the language spoken at home in Singaporean Malay households. Due to this, and strong links between the language and cultural identity, the Singaporean Malay community has retained stronger usage of their mother tongue than others in the country. Nonetheless, there has been some shift towards English, with use of Malay as the primary language at home dropping from 92% to 83% between 2000 and 2010. This reflects a broader shift in Singapore, with English replacing Malay as the lingua franca throughout the late 20th century.
Other varieties that are still spoken in Singapore include Bazaar Malay (Melayu Pasar), a Malay-lexified pidgin, which was once an interethnic lingua franca when Singapore was under British rule. Another is Baba Malay, a variety of Malay Creole influenced by Hokkien and Bazaar Malay and the mother tongue of the Peranakans, which is still spoken today by approximately 10,000 Peranakans in Singapore. Other Austronesian languages, such as Javanese, Buginese, Minangkabau, Batak, Sundanese, Boyanese (which is a dialect of Madurese) and Banjarese, are also spoken in Singapore, but their use has declined. Orang Seletar, the language of the Orang Seletar, the first people of Singapore and closely related to Malay is also spoken near the Johor Strait, between Singapore and the state of Johor, Malaysia.
Tamil language
Tamil is one of the official languages of Singapore and written Tamil uses the Tamil script. According to the population census of 2010, 9.2% of the Singaporean population were of Indian origins, with approximately 36.7% who spoke Tamil most frequently as their home language. It is a drop from 2000, where Tamil-speaking homes comprised 42.9%. On the other hand, the percentage of Indian Singaporeans speaking languages categorised under "others" have increased from 9.7% in 2005 to 13.8% in 2010. Meanwhile, the percentage of the total population speaking Tamil at home has remained steady, or has even slightly risen over the years, to just above 4%, due to immigration from India and Sri Lanka.
There are a few reasons that contribute to Tamil's declining usage. Historically, Tamil immigrants came from different communities, such as Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Tamils which spoke very different dialects, dividing the potential community of Tamil speakers. The housing policy of Singapore, with ethnic quotas that reflect national demographics, has prevented the formation of large Tamil communities. The Tamil taught in education is a deliberately pure form, that does not reflect and therefore does not reinforce Tamil as it is used in everyday life. Tamil is usually replaced by English, which is seen as providing children with greater opportunities in Singapore and abroad. The top-down Tamil language purism as dictated by the Ministry of Education Curriculum Planning and Development Division restricts language development, disallowing loanwords. However, the language policy is supported by Tamils, likely due to contrast with that of neighbouring Malaysia where Tamil has no status.
Apart from Tamil, some of the other Indian languages spoken by minorities in Singapore include Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Bengali, Hindi, and Gujarati.
Eurasian languages
Kristang is a creole spoken by Portuguese Eurasians in Singapore and Malaysia. It developed when Portuguese colonizers incorporated borrowings from Malay, Chinese, Indian and Arab languages. When the British took over Singapore, Kristang declined as the Portuguese Eurasians learned English instead. Today, it is largely spoken by the elderly.
Singapore Sign Language
While Singapore Sign Language (SgSL) has not been recognised as a national sign language, the local deaf community recognises it as Singapore's native sign language, developed over six decades since the setting up of the first school for local deaf in 1954. Singapore Sign Language is closely related to American Sign Language and is influenced by Shanghainese Sign Language (SSL), Signing Exact English (SEE-II), Pidgin Signed English (PSE).
Other Malayo-Polynesian languages
In the 1824 census of Singapore, 18% of the population were identified as ethnic Bugis, speaking the Buginese language, counted separately from the Malays. Over the centuries, the Bugis community dwindled and became assimilated into the Malay demographic. In 1990, only 0.4% of Singaporeans were identified as Bugis. Today the term Malay is used in Singapore as an umbrella term for all peoples of the Malay Archipelago.
Bilingualism and multilingualism
The majority of Singaporeans are bilingual in English and one of the other three official languages. For instance, most Chinese Singaporeans can speak English and Mandarin. Some, especially the older generations, can speak Malay and additional Chinese varieties such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese.
Bilingual education policy
Singapore has a bilingual education policy, where all students in government schools are taught English as their first language. Students in Primary and Secondary schools also learn a second language called their "Mother Tongue" by the Ministry of Education, where they are either taught Mandarin, Malay, or Tamil. English is the main language of instruction for most subjects, while Mother Tongue is used in Mother Tongue lessons and moral education classes. This is because Singapore's "bilingualism" policy of teaching and learning English and Mother Tongue in primary and secondary schools is viewed as a "cultural ballast" to safeguard Asian cultural identities and values against Western influence.
While "Mother Tongue" generally refers to the first language (L1) elsewhere, it is used to denote the "ethnic language" or the second language (L2) in Singapore. Prior to 1 January 2011, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore defined "Mother Tongue" not as the home language or the first language acquired by the student but by their father's ethnicity. For example, a child born to a Tamil-speaking Indian father and Hokkien-speaking Chinese mother would automatically be assigned to take Tamil as the Mother Tongue language.
Since 1 January 2011, Mother Tongue is defined solely by a person's official registered race. If a person is of more than one ethnicity and their race is registered in the hyphenated format, the race chosen will be the one that precedes the hyphen in their registered race.
The Lee Kuan Yew Fund for Bilingualism was set up on 28 November 2011. The Fund aims to promote bilingualism amongst young children in Singapore, is set up to supplement existing English and Mother Tongue language programmes in teaching and language learning. It is managed by a Board chaired by the Singapore's Minister of Education, Mr Heng Swee Keat and advised by an International Advisory Panel of Experts.
Impacts of bilingual education policy
The impact of the bilingual policy differs amongst students from the various ethnic groups. For the Chinese, when the policy was first implemented, many students found themselves struggling with two foreign languages: English and Mandarin. Even though several different Chinese varieties were widely spoken at home, they were excluded from the classroom as it was felt that they would be an "impediment to learning Chinese". Today, although Mandarin is widely spoken, proficiency in second languages has declined. In response to these falling standards, several revisions have been made to the education system. These include the introduction of the Mother Tongue "B" syllabus and the now-defunct EM3 stream, in both of which Mother Tongue is taught at a level lower than the mainstream standard. In the case of Mandarin, Chinese students would study Chinese "B".
The Malay-speaking community also faced similar problems after the implementation of the policy. In Singapore, Malay, not its non-standard dialects, is valued as a mean for transmitting familial and religious values. For instance, ‘Madrasahs', or religious schools, mosques and religious classes all employ the Malay language. However, Malay in turn is facing competition from the increased popularity of English.
In contrast to the language policy for Mandarin and Malay, Indian students are given a wider variety of Indian languages to choose from. For example, Indian students speaking Dravidian languages study Tamil as a Mother Tongue. However, schools with low numbers of Tamil students might not provide Tamil language classes. As a result, students from such schools will attend Tamil language classes at the Umar Pulavar Tamil Language Centre (UPTLC). On the other hand, Indian students who speak non-Dravidian languages can choose from Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, Gujarati and Urdu. However, as with Tamil, only certain schools offer these non-Dravidian languages. Thus, students will attend their respective language classes at designated language centres, held by the Board for the Teaching and Testing of South Asian Languages (BTTSAL).
In 2007, in a bid to enhance the linguistic experience of students, the Ministry of Education strongly encouraged schools to offer Conversational Malay and Chinese to those who do not take either of these languages as their Mother Tongue. By providing the schools with the resources needed to implement the programme, the Ministry of Education has succeeded in significantly increasing the number of participating schools. More importantly, the programme was also well received by students.
Challenges in the teaching of Mother Tongue
The teaching of Mother Tongue (especially Mandarin) in schools has encountered challenges due to more Singaporeans speaking and using English at home. The declining standards and command of Mandarin amongst younger generations of Chinese Singaporeans continue to be of concern to the older generations of Chinese Singaporeans, as they perceive it to be an erosion of Chinese culture and heritage. This concern has led to the establishment the Singapore Centre for Chinese Language (SCCL) by the government in November 2009. The SCCL's stated purpose is to enhance the effectiveness of teaching Mandarin as a second language in a bilingual environment as well as to meet the learning needs of students from non-Mandarin speaking homes.
Despite government efforts to promote Mandarin through the Speak Mandarin Campaign, the propagation of Mandarin and Chinese culture amongst Chinese Singaporeans continues to be a challenge because Mandarin faces stiff competition from the strong presence of English. However, this situation is not only limited to Mandarin, but also Malay and Tamil, where rising statistics show that English is progressively taking over as home language of Singaporeans.
Foreign population in Singapore
With the influx of foreigners, the population of non-English speaking foreigners in Singapore offers new challenges to the concept of language proficiency in the country. Foreigners in Singapore constitute 36% of the population and they dominate 50% of Singapore's service sectors. Thus, it is not uncommon to encounter service staff who are not fluent in English, especially those who do not use English regularly. In response to this situation, the Straits Times reported that from July 2010, foreigners working in service sectors would have to pass an English test before they can obtain their work permits.
Sociolinguistic issues
Politics
Language plays an important role in Singapore's politics. Even until today, it is important for politicians in Singapore to be able to speak fluent English along with their Mother Tongue (including different varieties of Chinese) in order to reach out to the multilingual community in Singapore. This is evident in Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong's annual National Day Rally speech, which is communicated through the use of English, Malay and Mandarin.
Before the 1980s, it was common for politicians to broadcast their speech in Malay, English, Singaporean Hokkien, Singaporean Mandarin and other Chinese varieties. For instance, during the 1960s, Lee Kuan Yew learned and used Hokkien frequently in his political or rally speeches, as it was vital for him to secure votes in elections from the Hokkien-speaking community. Similarly, Lim Chin Siong, who was charismatic in the use of Hokkien, was able to secure opposition votes. Facing competition and difficulty in securing votes from the Chinese-educated, Lee Kuan Yew also had to learn Mandarin, in order to win the votes from the Mandarin-speaking community.
Although the use of other Chinese varieties among the Singapore population has dwindled, they continue to be used in election rallies as of the 2011 parliamentary election. For instance, both Low Thia Khiang and Chan Chun Sing were noted for their usage of different Chinese varieties during election rallies.
Status of Singlish as an identity marker
There has been a continuous debate between the general Singaporean population and the Government with regard to the status of Singlish in local domains. While the government fears that the prevalence of Singlish would affect Singapore's overall image as a world class financial and business hub, most Singaporeans on the other hand have chosen to embrace Singlish as an identity marker and as a language of solidarity. In an attempt to eradicate the usage of Singlish, the government then began the Speak Good English Movement, encouraging people to use Standard Singaporean English in all contexts instead. Despite the success of the campaign, most Singaporeans surveyed still preferred the use of Singlish to communicate with fellow Singaporeans, and they also believed that they had the ability to code switch between Singlish and Standard Singaporean English, depending on the requirements of the particular situation.
Most recently, Singlish came into the limelight when Republic of Singapore Air Force pilots supposedly used the language to much effect to prevent their American counterparts from intercepting their communications during the 2014 Red Flag exercise, resulting in a boost in support for the usefulness of Singlish among Singaporean netizens.
Preservation issues
Chinese varieties (classified as dialects by the Singapore government), with the exception of Mandarin, have been in steep decline since the independence of Singapore in 1965. This is in part due to the Speak Mandarin Campaign that was launched in 1979. As part of the campaign, all programmes on TV and radio using non-standard varieties were stopped. Speeches in Hokkien by the prime minister were discontinued to prevent giving conflicting signals to the people. By the late 1980s, Mandarin managed to some extent, to replace these varieties as the preferred language for communication in public places, such as restaurants and public transport.
The preservation of local varieties in Singapore has been of increasing concern in Singapore since the 2000s, especially among the younger generation of Chinese youths. This sudden revival of other varieties can mainly be attributed to a feeling of disconnection between the younger and the elder generations, as well as a sense of loss of identity from their own linguistic roots for many others. While more work has to be put in to revive these varieties, the recent 2014 Singapore Teochew Festival held in Ngee Ann City can be regarded as a positive sign that more people are becoming more actively involved in reconnecting with their linguistic roots.
Controversy over learning of Chinese varieties
In March 2009, a newspaper article was published in Singapore broadsheet daily The Straits Times on a Language and Diversity Symposium organised by the Division of Linguistics and Multilingual Studies at Nanyang Technological University. Ng Bee Chin, acting Head of the Division, was quoted in the article as saying, "Although Singaporeans are still multilingual, 40 years ago, we were even more multilingual. Young children are not speaking some of these languages at all any more. All it takes is one generation for a language to die."
The call to rethink the ban on dialects elicited a swift reply from Minister Mentor, Lee Kuan Yew. "I thought it was a daft call. My then-principal private secretary Chee Hong Tat issued a reply on my behalf: Using one language more frequently means less time for other languages. Hence, the more languages a person learns, the greater the difficulties of retaining them at a high level of fluency… It would be stupid for any Singapore agency or NTU to advocate the learning of dialects, which must be at the expense of English and Mandarin.’
A week later, Lee reiterated the point at the 30th anniversary launch of the Speak Mandarin Campaign. In his speech, he described his personal experience with "language loss".
"To keep a language alive, you have to speak and read it frequently. The more you use one language, the less you use other languages. So the more languages you learn, the greater the difficulties of retaining them at a high level of fluency. I have learned and used six languages – English, Malay, Latin, Japanese, Mandarin and Hokkien. English is my master language. My Hokkien has gone rusty, my Mandarin has improved. I have lost my Japanese and Latin, and can no longer make fluent speeches in Malay without preparation. This is called "language loss."
Renewed interest in learning other Chinese varieties
Since 2000, there has been an renewed interest in other Chinese varieties among Singaporean Chinese. In 2002, clan associations such as Hainanese Association of Singapore (Kheng Chiu Hwee Kuan) and Teochew Poit Ip Huay Kuan started classes to teach other Chinese varieties. This was in response to an increased desire among Singaporeans to reconnect with their Chinese heritage and culture through learning other Chinese varieties. In 2007, a group of 140 students from Paya Lebar Methodist Girls' Primary School learnt Hokkien-Taiwanese and Cantonese as an effort to communicate better with the elderly. The elderly themselves taught the students the varieties. The programme was organised in the hope of bridging the generational gap that was formed due to the suppression of these dialects in Singapore.
Likewise, third-year students from Dunman High can now take a module called "Pop Song Culture". This module lets them learn about pop culture in different dialect groups through pop songs from the 70s and 80s performed in different varieties. Besides this, students can also take an elective on different flavours and food cultures from various dialect groups.
Although the Singapore government appears to have relaxed its stance towards Chinese varieties in recent years, the fact is that they still did not actively support the widespread use of other Chinese varieties especially in the Singapore mainstream Television media. Recently, the Singapore Government allowed some local produced mini "chinese dialect" shows to be broadcast in Hokkien-Taiwanese and Cantonese dedicated to the Singapore Chinese elderly who speak Hokkien-Taiwanese or Cantonese but did not understand English or Mandarin Chinese. The aim of the local produced mini "chinese dialect" shows is to transmit important messages about social services and medical services and care to the Singapore Chinese Elderly. However, there are limited number of "Chinese Dialect" shows that could be broadcast on Singapore's Mainstream Television due to the Singapore's Government stringent language policy.
Linguistic landscape of Singapore
The multi-ethnic background of Singapore's society can be seen in its linguistic landscape. While English dominates as the working language of Singapore, the city does not possess a monolingual linguistic landscape. These can be seen from the variety of signs strewn around the city. Signs are colour-coded and categorised by their respective functions: for example, signs which are pointing to attractions are brown with white words, while road signs and street names are green with white words.
Some of the most evident signs of multilingualism in Singapore's linguistic landscape include danger/warning signs at construction sites, as well as road signs for tourist attractions. By observing the variation in languages used in the different contexts, we are able to obtain information on the ethnolinguistic vitality of the country.
Tourist attractions
The majority of Singapore's tourist attractions provide information through English in the Roman script. In many cases, the entrances of the attraction is written in English (usually with no other accompanying languages) while the distinctive brown road signs seen along streets and expressways which direct tourists come in up to four or five languages, with English as the largest and most prominent language on the sign.
Some examples of the different ways in which popular tourist attractions in Singapore display ethnolinguistic diversity can be seen at tourist attractions such as Lau Pa Sat, where the words "Lau Pa Sat" on the directory boards consist of the Mandarin Chinese word lau for "old" (老;lǎo) and from the Hokkien words pa sat for "market" (巴刹;bā sha), written in roman script. The entrance sign of the attraction also includes a non-literal translation in English below its traditional name (Festival Market). It is also called the Telok Ayer Market, a name which makes reference to the location of the attraction and does not have anything to do with its cultural name.
The conversion and expression in Roman script of Mandarin and Hokkien into pīnyīn helps non-Mandarin and non-Hokkien speakers with the pronunciation of the name of a place whilst remaining in tandem with the use of English and Roman script in Singapore. The repackaging of the original names of Lau Pa Sat in Roman script, and inclusion of the appearance of an English translation as a secondary title can be seen as a way of heightening the sense of authenticity and heritage of the attraction as it is marketed as a culturally-rich area in Singapore, similar to Chinatown and Little India; both of which were formerly cultural enclaves of the distinctive races. Similarly in places that bear cultural significance, the signs are printed in the language associated with the culture, such as The Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall which has an entirely Chinese sign without any translations.
Some notable exceptions include the brown directional road signs for the Merlion Park which are written not only in the four national languages, but also in Japanese. Although many variations exist, this arrangement is widely applied to most places of interest as well as places of worship, such as the Burmese Buddhist Temple which has signs in Burmese and some mosques in Singapore which also have their names printed in the Jawi script even though the Malay language was standardized with the Roman alphabet in Singapore.
Government offices and public buildings
Despite the fact that Malay is the national language of Singapore, government buildings are often indicated by signs in English and not Malay. Comparing the relative occurrences of English and Malay in building signs, the use of the working language is far more common in Singapore's linguistic landscape than that of the national language, which is limited to ceremonial purposes. This can also be seen on the entrance sign to most Ministries and government buildings, which are expressed only in English, the working language.
Most of the foreign embassies in Singapore are able to use their own national or working languages as a representation of their respective embassies in Singapore, as long as their language can be expressed in the script of any of Singapore's official languages. For example, embassies representing non-English speaking countries such as the French Embassy are allowed to use their own languages because the language can be expressed in Roman script, thus explaining why the French embassy uses its French name. However, for the case of the Royal Thai Embassy, English was chosen to represent it in Singapore because the Thai script is not recognized as a script in any of Singapore's official languages, even though English is less widely used in Thailand than standard Thai.
Public hospitals
Out of the eight general hospitals overseen by Singapore's Ministry of Health, only Singapore General Hospital has signages in the four official languages. Along Hospital Drive (where Singapore General Hospital is located) and various national medical centres, road directories are entirely in English. Within the hospital itself, signs for individual blocks, wards, Accident and Emergency department, Specialist Outpatient Clinics, National Heart Centre and National Cancer Centre have signs written in the four official languages. The English titles are still expressed with the largest font first, followed by Malay, Chinese and Tamil in smaller but equally-sized fonts, which is in accordance with order given by Singapore's constitution. Surprisingly, the Health Promotion Board, National Eye and Dental Centres, which are also in the same region, have English signs only. All of the other seven public hospitals have their "Accident and Emergency" sign in English only, with some highlighted in a red background.
Notices and campaigns
Messages and campaigns that have a very specific target audience and purpose are usually printed in the language of intended readers. For example, the "No Alcohol" signs put up along Little India after the Little India Riots are notably printed in only Tamil and English as a reflection of the racial demographics in the region.
During the 2003 SARS epidemic, the government relied heavily on the media to emphasise the importance of personal hygiene, and also to educate the general public on the symptoms of SARS, in which a Singlish rap video featuring Gurmit Singh as Phua Chu Kang was used as the main medium. Similarly in 2014, the Pioneer Generation Package (for senior citizens above 65 years of age in 2014 who obtained Singapore citizenship on or before 31 December 1986) made use of Chinese varieties commonly spoken in Singapore such as Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew, and also Singlish in order to make the policies more relatable, and at the same time raise awareness about the benefits that this new scheme provides for them.
These allowances of different language varieties is an exception to the four official languages. This exception is seen for campaigns that are deemed as highly important, and include the elderly, or those who are not as proficient in the English language as the target audience.
Limitations in current research methodologies
While the above examples show how the different languages are used on signs within Singapore, there is scant data on the motivations behind these variations seen, as exemplified by the advisory for "No Alcohol" sales in Little India, which showcased a rare variation from the usage of the four main languages that are commonly seen on most advisory signs. Similarly, the Ministry of Health, in a response to a feedback requesting all hospitals to have four languages on its entrances, has claimed that usage of pictorial signages was better in conveying messages, as opposed to using all four languages. Due to problems in the research methodology and lack of governmental statutes that explain these variations, the study on the linguistics landscape in Singapore remain as a controversial field. These problems include non-linearity, where the large numbers of variations seen in Singapore prevents the application of any trends to understand the landscape; and also the lack of any standard legislation that determines any fixed rules on usage of languages on signs.
Controversies
In a 2012 pilot program, SMRT trains began announcements of station names in both English and Mandarin Chinese so as to help Mandarin Chinese-speaking senior citizens cope better with the sudden increase in new stations. However, this received mixed reactions from the public. Some people pointed out that there were senior citizens who did not speak Mandarin, while others complained of feeling alienated. In reaction to this, SMRT claimed that the announcements were only recorded in English and Mandarin because the Malay and Tamil names of stations sounded very similar to the English names.
In 2013, a group of Tamil speakers petitioned the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore to include Tamil instead of Japanese on all the signs in the Singapore Changi Airport. Even though only 5% of the Singapore population speaks Tamil, they argued that since Tamil is one of the four official languages of Singapore, it should be used to reflect Singapore's multi-racial background.
In 2014, there were reports of erroneous translations on road signs of popular tourist attractions such as Lau Pa Sat and Gardens by the Bay made by the Singapore Tourism Board.
Media and the arts
The free-to-air channels in Singapore are run by Mediacorp and each channel is aired in one of the four official languages of Singapore. For example, Channel U and Channel 8 are Mandarin-medium channels, Channel 5 and CNA are English-medium channels, Suria is a Malay-medium channel, and Vasantham is a predominantly Tamil-medium channel. However, these channels might also feature programmes in other languages. For example, apart from programmes in Mandarin, Channel U also broadcasts Korean television programmes at specific allotted times.
Chinese varieties in local films
The use of Chinese varieties other than Mandarin in Singapore media is restricted by the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts (MICA). The rationale given for the resistance towards nonstandard Chinese varieties was that their presence would hinder language learning of English and Mandarin. However, in order to cater to older Singaporeans who speak only non-standard Chinese varieties, videos, VCDs, DVDs, paid subscription radio services and paid TV channels are exempted from MICA's restrictions. Two free-to-air channels, Okto and Channel 8, are also allowed to show operas and arthouse movies with some non-standard variety content, respectively.
The use of Chinese varieties is not controlled tightly in traditional arts, such as Chinese opera. As such, they have managed to survive, and even flourish in these areas. In Singapore, various types of Chinese opera include Hokkien, Teochew, Hainanese and Cantonese. In the past, this diversity encouraged the translation between varieties for scripts of popular stories. After the implementation of the bilingual policy and Speak Mandarin Campaign, Mandarin subtitles were introduced to help the audience understand the performances. Today, as usage of English rises, some opera troupes not only provide English subtitles but also English translations of their works. For these English-Chinese operas, subtitles may be provided in either Mandarin, other Chinese varieties, or both. In this way, Chinese opera will be able to reach out to a wider audience despite being variety-specific.
Similar to Chinese opera, there are no language restrictions on entries for film festivals. In recent years, more local film makers have incorporated non-standard Chinese varieties into their films. For example, the local movie 881 revived the popularity of getai after it was released. Getai, which is mainly conducted in Hokkien and Teochew, became more popular with the younger generations since the release of the movie. On the effect triggered by the release of the movie 881, Professor Chua Beng Huat, Head of the Department of Sociology of the National University of Singapore, commented in the Straits Times that "putting Hokkien on the silver screen gives Hokkien a kind of rebellious effect. It's like the return of the repressed." The success of 881 is also reflected by album sales of 881 movie soundtrack, which became the first local film soundtrack to hit platinum in Singapore. In other instances, the movie Singapore Ga Ga, a tissue seller sings a Hokkien song while Perth features a Singaporean taxi driver using Hokkien and Cantonese. Local directors have commented that non-standard Chinese varieties are vital as there are some expressions which just cannot be put across in Mandarin Chinese, and that the different Chinese varieties are an important part of Singapore that adds a sense of authenticity that locals will enjoy.
Indian languages in the media
Indian languages besides Tamil are managed slightly differently from the Chinese varieties. Even though only Tamil has official language status, there have been no attempts to discourage the use of other Indian languages such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Telugu, and Urdu. For one, movies in these languages are shown in some local cinemas, such as Rex and Screens of Bombay Talkies. Furthermore, the local Indian TV channel Vasantham has also allocated specific programme timeslots to cater to the variety of Indian language speakers in Singapore.
Language-specific societies
Chinese clan associations play a role in maintaining the non-standard Chinese varieties. In the past, they provided support to migrant Chinese, based on the province they originated. Today, they provide a place for people who speak the same variety to gather and interact. For example, the Hokkien Huay Kuan holds classes for performing arts, calligraphy, and Hokkien Chinese. They also organize the biennial Hokkien Festival, which aims to promote Hokkien customs and culture. With such efforts, perhaps non-standard Chinese varieties in Singapore will be better equipped to resist erosion.
Apart from the efforts to maintain local Chinese varieties, the Eurasian Association holds Kristang classes for people who are interested in learning Kristang. In this way, it hopes to preserve what it perceives to be a unique part of the Eurasian heritage in Singapore.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
National Language Campaigns |
4311569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20thermometer | Medical thermometer | A medical thermometer or clinical thermometer is a device used for measuring a human's or other animal's body temperature. The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue (oral or sub-lingual temperature), under the armpit (axillary temperature), into the rectum via the anus (rectal temperature), into the ear (tympanic temperature), or on the forehead (temporal temperature).
History
The medical thermometer began as an instrument more appropriately called a water thermoscope, constructed by Galileo Galilei circa 1592–1593. It lacked an accurate scale with which to measure temperature and could be affected by changes in atmospheric pressure.
Italian physician Santorio Santorio is the first known individual to have put a measurable scale on the thermoscope and wrote of it in 1625, though he possibly invented one as early as 1612. His models were bulky, impractical and took a fair amount of time to take an accurate oral reading of the patient's temperature.
Two individuals switched from water to alcohol in the thermometer.
The earliest is Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1610–1670), who created an enclosed thermometer that used alcohol circa 1654.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), a Polish-born Dutch physicist, engineer, and glass blower, made contributions to thermometers as well. He created an alcohol thermometer in 1709 and later innovated the mercury thermometer in 1714. Mercury, he found, responded more quickly to temperature changes than the previously used water.
Fahrenheit also created the temperature scale which is named after him, having recorded the system in 1724. The scale is still only mainly used for everyday applications in the United States, its territories and associated states (all served by the U.S. National Weather Service) as well as the Bahamas, Belize, and the Cayman Islands.
Prominent Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist Christiaan Huygens created a clinical thermometer in 1665, to which he added an early form of the Celsius scale by setting the scale to the freezing and boiling points of water. By 1742 Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius created the Celsius temperature scale that was the reverse of the modern scale, in that 0 was the boiling point of water, while 100 was freezing. It was later reversed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) in 1744.
Working independently of Celsius, the Lyonnais physicist Jean-Pierre Christin, permanent secretary of the Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de LyonFR, developed a similar scale in which 0 represented the freezing point of water and 100 represented boiling. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, the "Thermometer of Lyon" built by the craftsman Pierre Casati that used this scale.
The medical thermometer was used by Dutch chemist and physician Hermann Boerhaave (1668–1738), as well as his notable students Gerard van Swieten (1700–72) and Anton de Haen (1704–76). It was also utilized around the same time by Scottish physician George Martine (1700–1741). De Haen made particular strides in medicine with the thermometer. By observing the correlation in a patient's change in temperature and the physical symptoms of the illness, he concluded that a record of one's temperature could inform the doctor of a patient's health. However, his proposals were not met with enthusiasm by his peers and the medical thermometer remained a scarcely used instrument in medicine.
Thermometers remained cumbersome to transport and use. By the mid 19th century, the medical thermometer was still a foot long (30.28 cm) and took as long as twenty minutes to take an accurate temperature reading. Between 1866 and 1867, Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt (1836–1925) designed a medical thermometer that was much more portable, measuring only six inches long and taking only five minutes to record a patient's temperature.
In 1868, German physician, pioneer psychiatrist, and medical professor Carl Reinhold August Wunderlich published his studies that consisted of over one million readings from twenty-five thousand patients' temperatures, taken in the underarm. With his findings, he was able to conclude a healthy human's temperature fell within the range of 36.3 to 37.5 °C (97.34 to 99.5 °F).
Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger (13 April 1905 - 26 October 1999) invented the ear thermometer in 1964. Born in Stuttgart, Germany, he immigrated to the U.S. in 1947 and became a naturalized citizen in 1955. He worked from 1947 to 1970 in the bioenergetics division at the Naval Medical Research Center in Bethesda, Maryland.
Classification by location
The temperature can be measured in various locations on the body which maintain a fairly stable temperature (mainly oral, axillary, rectal, tympanic, or temporal). The normal temperature varies slightly with the location; an oral reading of 37 °C does not correspond to rectal, temporal, etc. readings of the same value. When a temperature is quoted the location should also be specified. If a temperature is stated without qualification (e.g., typical body temperature) it is usually assumed to be sub-lingual. The differences between core temperature and measurements at different locations, known as clinical bias, is discussed in the article on normal human body temperature. Measurements are subject to both site-dependent clinical bias and variability between a series of measurements (standard deviations of the differences). For example, one study found that the clinical bias of rectal temperatures was greater than for ear temperature measured by a selection of thermometers under test, but variability was less.
Oral
Oral temperature may only be taken from a patient who is capable of holding the thermometer securely under the tongue, which generally excludes small children or people who are unconscious or overcome by coughing, weakness, or vomiting. (This is less of a problem with fast-reacting digital thermometers, but is certainly an issue with mercury thermometers, which take several minutes to stabilise their reading.) If the patient has drunk a hot or cold liquid beforehand time must be allowed for the mouth temperature to return to its normal value.
The typical range of a sub-lingual thermometer for use in humans is from about 35 °C to 42 °C or 90 °F to 110 °F.
Armpit
The armpit (axilla) temperature is measured by holding the thermometer tightly under the armpit. One needs to hold the thermometer for several minutes to get an accurate measurement. The axillary temperature plus 1 °C is a good guide to the rectal temperature in patients older than 1 month. The accuracy from the axilla is known to be inferior to the rectal temperature.
Rectal
Rectal thermometer temperature-taking, especially if performed by a person other than the patient, should be facilitated with the use of a water-based personal lubricant. Although rectal temperature is the most accurate, this method may be considered unpleasant or embarrassing ; in 1966, Time Magazine noted "what for many remains a humiliating procedure ... insertion of a rectal thermometer. Also, if not taken the correct way, rectal temperature-taking can be uncomfortable and in some cases painful for the patient. Rectal temperature-taking is considered the method of choice for infants.
Ear
The ear thermometer was invented by Dr. Theodor H. Benzinger in 1964. At the time, he was seeking a way to get a reading as close to the brain's temperature as possible, since the hypothalamus at the brain's base regulates the core body temperature. He accomplished this by using the ear canal's ear drum's blood vessels, which are shared with the hypothalamus. Before the ear thermometer's invention, easy temperature readings could only be taken from the mouth, rectum, or underarm. Previously, if doctors wanted to record an accurate brain temperature, electrodes needed to be attached to the patient's hypothalamus.
This tympanic thermometer has a projection (protected by a one-time hygienic sheath) that contains the infrared probe; the projection is gently placed in the ear canal and a button pressed; the temperature is read and displayed within about a second. These thermometers are used both in the home and in medical facilities.
There are factors that make readings of this thermometer to some extent unreliable, for example faulty placement in the external ear canal by the operator, and wax blocking the canal. Such error-producing factors usually cause readings to be below the true value, so that a fever can fail to be detected.
Forehead
Temporal artery
Temporal artery thermometers, which use the infrared principle report temperature, are becoming increasingly common in clinical practice because of their ease of use and minimal invasiveness. Because of the variability of technique and environmental considerations, measurements by temporal artery thermometers may suffer issues of precision, and to a lesser degree accuracy. Temporal thermometers have been found to have a low sensitivity of around 60–70%, but a very high specificity of 97–100% for detecting fever and hypothermia. Because of this, it is suggested that they should not be used in acute care settings like the ICU, or in patients with a high suspicion of temperature imbalance. Evidence supports higher accuracy and precision amongst pediatric patients.
Plastic strip thermometer
The thermometer is applied to the patient's brow. It is typically a band coated with different temperature-sensitive markings using plastic strip thermometer or similar technology; at a given temperature the markings (numerals indicating the temperature) in one region are at the right temperature to become visible. This type may give an indication of fever, but is not considered accurate.
Classification by technology
Liquid-filled
The traditional thermometer is a glass tube with a bulb at one end containing a liquid which expands in a uniform manner with temperature. The tube itself is narrow (capillary) and has calibration markings along it. The liquid is often mercury, but alcohol thermometers use a colored alcohol. Medically, a maximum thermometer is often used, which indicates the maximum temperature reached even after it is removed from the body.
To use the thermometer, the bulb is placed in the location where the temperature is to be measured and left long enough to be certain to reach thermal equilibrium—typically five minutes in the mouth and ten minutes under the armpit. Maximum-reading is achieved by means of a constriction in the neck close to the bulb. As the temperature of the bulb rises, the liquid expands up the tube through the constriction. When the temperature falls, the column of liquid breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. After reading the value, the thermometer must be reset by repeatedly swinging it sharply to shake the liquid back through the constriction.
Mercury
Mercury-in-glass thermometers have been considered the most accurate liquid-filled types. However, mercury is a toxic heavy metal, and mercury has only been used in clinical thermometers if protected from breakage of the tube.
The tube must be very narrow to minimise the amount of mercury in it—the temperature of the tube is not controlled, so it must contain very much less mercury than the bulb to minimise the effect of the temperature of the tube—and this makes the reading rather difficult as the narrow mercury column is not very visible. Visibility is less of a problem with a coloured liquid.
It has been decided by many states to prohibit the use and sale of mercury thermometers due to the risk of handling and spilling, and the potential to cause mercury poisoning; the vigorous swinging needed to "reset" a mercury maximum thermometer makes it easy to accidentally break it and release poisonous mercury vapors. Mercury thermometers have largely been replaced by electronic digital thermometers, or, more rarely, thermometers based on liquids other than mercury (such as galinstan, coloured alcohols and heat-sensitive liquid crystals).
Gallium
One company markets a thermometer of this sort which it bills as "the first analogue thermometer without mercury," as it instead uses the liquid metal gallium. Gallium is considered non-toxic and when disposed of does not face environmental concerns. Like mercury, gallium is a liquid at body temperature (melting point 29.7 °C), but according to the manufacturer an alloy of gallium, indium and tin is actually used, resulting in a lower melting temperature.
Phase-change (dot matrix) thermometers
Phase-change thermometers use samples of inert chemicals which melt at progressively higher temperatures from 35.5 °C to 40.5 °C in steps of 0.1 °C. They are mounted as small dots in a matrix on a thin plastic spatula with a protective transparent cover. This is placed under the patient's tongue. After a short time the spatula is removed and it can be seen which dots have melted and which have not: the temperature is taken as the melting temperature of the last dot to melt.
These are cheap disposable devices and avoid the need for sterilizing for re-use.
Liquid crystal
A liquid crystal thermometer contains heat-sensitive (thermochromic) liquid crystals in a plastic strip that change color to indicate different temperatures.
Electronic
Since compact and inexpensive methods of measuring and displaying temperature became available, electronic thermometers (often called digital, because they display numeric values) have been used. Many display readings with a resolution of only 0.1 °C (.2 °F), but this should not be taken as a guarantee of accuracy: the specified accuracy must be checked in the documentation and maintained by periodic recalibration. A typical inexpensive electronic ear thermometer for home use has a displayed resolution of 0.1 °C, but a stated accuracy within ±0.2 °C (±0.35 °F) when new. The first electronic clinical thermometer, invented in 1954, used a flexible probe that contained a Carboloy thermistor.
Types of Digital Thermometer
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
RTDs are wire windings or other thin film serpentines that exhibit changes in resistance with changes in temperature. They measure temperature using the positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the higher the value of their electrical resistance. Platinum is the most commonly used material because it is nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures, is very accurate, and has a fast response time. RTDs can also be made of copper or nickel. Advantages of RTDs include their stable output for long periods of time. They are also easy to calibrate and provide very accurate readings. Disadvantages include a smaller overall temperature range, higher initial cost, and a less rugged design
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are accurate, highly sensitive to small temperature changes, and quickly respond to changes to the environment. They consist of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. The metal pair generates a net thermoelectric voltage between their opening and according to the size of the temperature difference between the ends.
•Advantages of thermocouples include their high accuracy and reliable operation over an extremely wide range of temperatures. They are also well-suited for making automated measurements both inexpensive and durable.
•Disadvantages include errors caused by their use over an extended period of time, and that two temperatures are required to make measurements. Thermocouple materials are subject to corrosion, which can affect the thermoelectric voltage
Thermistor
Thermistor elements are the most sensitive temperature sensors available. A thermistor is a semiconductor device with an electrical resistance that is proportional to temperature. There are two types of products.
•Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) devices are used in temperature sensing and are the most common type of thermistor. NTCs have temperatures that vary inversely with their resistance, so that when the temperature increases, the resistance decreases, and vice versa. NTCs are constructed from oxides of materials such as nickel, copper, and iron.
• Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) devices are used in electric current control. They function in an opposite manner than NTC in that the resistance increases as temperature increases. PTCs are constructed from thermally sensitive silicons or polycrystalline ceramic materials.
• There are several advantage and disadvantages to using an NTC thermistor thermometer.
• Advantages include their small size and high degree of stability. NTCs are also long lasting and very accurate.
• Disadvantages include their non-linearity, and unsuitability for use in extreme temperatures
Contact
Some electronic thermometers may work by contact (the electronic sensor is placed in the location where temperature is to be measured, and left long enough to reach equilibrium). These typically reach equilibrium faster than mercury thermometers; the thermometer may beep when equilibrium has been reached, or the time may be specified in the manufacturer's documentation.
Remote
Other electronic thermometers work by remote sensing: an infrared sensor responds to the radiation spectrum emitted from the location. Although these are not in direct contact with the area being measured, they may still contact part of the body (a thermometer which senses the temperature of the eardrum without touching it is inserted into the ear canal). To eliminate the risk of patient cross-infection, disposable probe covers and single-use clinical thermometers of all types are used in clinics and hospitals.
Accuracy
According to a 2001 research, electronic thermometers on the market significantly underestimate higher temperatures and overestimate lower temperatures. The researchers conclude that "the current generation of electronic, digital clinical thermometers, in general, may not be sufficiently accurate or reliable to replace the traditional glass/mercury thermometers"
Basal thermometer
A basal thermometer is a thermometer used to take the basal (base) body temperature, the temperature upon waking. Basal body temperature is much less affected than daytime temperature by environmental factors such as exercise and food intake. This allows small changes in body temperature to be detected
Glass oral thermometers typically have markings every 0.1 °C or 0.2 °F. Basal temperature is stable enough to require accuracy of at least 0.05 °C or 0.1 °F, so special glass basal thermometers are distinct from glass oral thermometers. Digital thermometers which have sufficient resolution (0.05 °C or 0.1 °F is sufficient) may be suitable for monitoring basal body temperatures; the specification should be checked to ensure absolute accuracy, and thermometers (like most digital instruments) should be calibrated at specified intervals. If only the variation of basal temperature is required, absolute accuracy is not so important so long as the readings do not have large variability (e.g., if real temperature varies from 37.00 °C to 37.28 °C, a thermometer which inaccurately but consistently reads a change from 37.17 °C to 37.45 °C will indicate the magnitude of the change). Some digital thermometers are marketed as "basal thermometers" and have extra features such as a larger display, expanded memory functions, or beeping to confirm the thermometer is placed properly.
Smart and wearable thermometers
A smart thermometer is able to transmit its readings so that they can be collected, stored and analysed. Wearable thermometers can provide continuous measurement but it is difficult to measure core body temperature in this way.
See also
Thermometer
Liquid crystal thermometer
Footnotes
References
Allbutt, T.C., "Medical Thermometry", British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, Vol.45, No.90, (April 1870), pp.429-441; Vo.46, No.91, (July 1870), pp.144-156.
Medical testing equipment
Thermometers
Italian inventions |
4311618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sin%20City%20yarns | List of Sin City yarns | These are the individual stories, usually referred to as "yarns", set in Frank Miller's Sin City universe. They are listed here in order of publication.
The Hard Goodbye
First published as Sin City in Dark Horse Presents issues #51–62 and 5th Anniversary Special (June 1991–June 1992), and reprinted as Sin City (The Hard Goodbye) in trade paperback form (January 1993), The Hard Goodbye is the first comic book story that Frank Miller drew and wrote about the desperate denizens of Basin City/"Sin City". The protagonist is Marv, a chivalrous yet dangerous and possibly psychotic ex-convict with a penchant for fine coats. Marv meets a mysterious and very beautiful woman at Kadie's bar. The woman seduces Marv much to his surprise and delight, since he doesn't usually attract women due to scars from his many years as a street fighter. Marv wakes up after a one-night stand to discover Goldie, the woman he had just met and had sex with, has been killed in the night. When he hears sirens of the police drawing near (long before anyone but he and the killer could know what had happened) he realizes that he is being framed by someone with a lot of money and influence in Basin City. The thirteen-part serial follows Marv on his single-minded quest to understand why Goldie was killed and bring revenge upon her murderers.
This story is one of three Sin City stories retold in the movie Sin City. In the film version, Mickey Rourke plays Marv, Jaime King plays Goldie and Wendy, Carla Gugino plays Lucille, Elijah Wood plays Kevin, and Rutger Hauer plays Cardinal Roark.
A Dame to Kill For
First published November 1993–May 1994, A Dame to Kill For is the second compilation of the Sin City series. It chronicles Dwight's attempts to rescue Ava Lord, his former fiancée, from her husband and servant, who she says are sadistically torturing her. Dwight begins to suspect that things aren't what they seem with Ava.
The story begins as Dwight McCarthy, working as a photographer for a grossly overweight man named Agamemnon, saves one of the Old Town prostitutes from one of her customers, whom Dwight was investigating on behalf of his wife; he then drives her back to Old Town. That night, he receives a call from a woman named Ava, asking him to meet her at a seedy bar called Kadie's Club Pecos. Dwight is suspicious of her, as Ava broke his heart four years ago by running off with another richer man, but he agrees to meet her anyway. Marv is also there and greets Dwight. Ava arrives late (as she often used to) and tries to persuade Dwight to take her back, claiming that her life is "a living Hell"; Dwight refuses to listen. Just then, Manute, Ava's husband's valet, arrives and takes Ava away. Dwight goes home, but cannot sleep. He decides to check up on Ava and her new husband, Damien Lord.
He hops a fence and, using his photography equipment, scopes out the estate and, in particular, Ava, who is swimming in the nude. He is discovered and claims that he is simply a Peeping Tom. Manute, who seemingly doesn't recognize him from the bar, beats him brutally before throwing him from a car into the street. Dwight calls Agamemnon for a ride home and they stop several times for fast food.
As Dwight arrives home, he finds his Ford Mustang returned and his door unlocked. In his bedroom is a nude Ava. Following a heated argument, they eventually reconcile and make love. Manute arrives and violently beats naked Dwight. Dwight is knocked out of his upper story apartment window to the street below, where he blacks out momentarily. He awakens to see Manute driving off with Ava.
Determined to rescue her, Dwight arrives at Kadie’s, where Marv is in the middle of a squabble with some out-of-town punks. One of them pulls a gun on Marv, who knocks him flat; the rest quickly scatter. Dwight convinces Marv, over several drinks and whilst watching Nancy dance, to help him storm Damien's estate. As they approach the mansion, Dwight insists Marv leave the punk's gun, which Marv has procured, in the car. Marv tackles the guards as a distraction and eventually takes on Manute, ripping his right eye out and beating him savagely.
With Manute and the guards occupied, Dwight makes his way to Damien. When he finds him in his office, he beats him to death. As Dwight begins to realize what he has done, Ava appears, and explains how Dwight was all a part of her plan to get Damien murdered so she could inherit his estate. She shoots Dwight six times, including once in the head. Dwight once again falls out of a window and is picked up by Marv. Upon Dwight's insistence, Marv drives him to Old Town, where Dwight has his old flame, Gail, help him. The girls of Old Town perform surgery on Dwight's multiple bullet wounds, then ask him to leave. He convinces Gail and Miho, a deadly assassin he saved three years prior, to let him stay, and they operate further on him.
Two detectives following up on Damien Lord's death, Mort and Bob, talk to Ava. She claims that Dwight was a stalker psychopath who killed Damien out of jealousy. They believe her story, and Mort starts sleeping with her. They interrogate Agamemnon, who tells how Dwight is an upright man who went clean after being a wild alcoholic with a short temper in his younger days. When they speak with Dwight's landlady, she tells about letting Ava in and the resulting loud noises of the fight the night of Damien's murder. Bob doubts Ava considerably now, while Mort, who is still sleeping with her, becomes more on-edge towards his partner. This culminates with Mort killing Bob, then committing suicide. (On an unrelated note, during the scene in which Mort kills Bob, while they are driving in the car you can clearly see Wendy and Marv drive past them, presumably on their way to butcher Kevin.)
Meanwhile, Dwight is recovering from his near-fatal wounds and calls Ava to inform her he's coming for her soon. Ava, with her late husband's financial assets, is joining her corporation with the mob boss Wallenquist. Unaffected by Ava's flirting, he warns her not to underestimate him again and tells her to tie up her loose ends with Dwight; he has someone arriving from Phoenix soon to meet her about that.
Dwight (with his new face), accompanied by Gail and Miho, poses as Wallenquist's man from Phoenix. Inside Ava's estate, however, Manute sees past the new face and captures Dwight. Gail and Miho strike from Dwight's car, and Dwight shoots Manute with a hidden .25 he had up his left sleeve. Six bullets fail to kill him, and Manute aims shakily at Dwight as Ava grabs one of Manute's guns, shooting Manute in his shoulder. Manute falls through a window and, upon landing, is stabbed in the arms by Miho, pinning him to the ground. Ava then tries to get Dwight to kill him, telling him that Manute had her under mind control to manipulate her and Damien and that it would be a cruel irony if he killed her now. Dwight finally sees through all the lies and kills Ava.
The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories
First published November 1994, The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories is a publication of short stories:
"And Behind Door Number Three..." (4 pages long)
"The Customer Is Always Right" (3 pages long) – first published in San Diego Comic Con Comics #2 (August 1993)
"The Babe Wore Red" (23 pages long) It reprints a serial run in Previews.
"And Behind Door Number Three..." is a short story about Gail and Wendy (who's now wearing Marv's necklace) setting a trap for a man they suspect is 'carving up' girls in Old Town.
The enigmatic "Cowboy" is captured by the allure of Wendy and subsequently shot and tied up by Gail. Although the Cowboy is willing to confess to the cops, the girls have other plans and invite Miho to finish the job.
"The Customer Is Always Right" served as the opening sequence for the film Sin City, which featured Josh Hartnett and Marley Shelton. The sequence served as the original proof of concept footage that director Robert Rodriguez filmed to convince Frank Miller to allow him to adapt Sin City to the silver screen.
The story involves an enigmatic tryst between two nameless characters; "The Customer" and "The Salesman." They meet on the terrace of a high rise building, hinting that although they seem to be acting like strangers, they do indeed have some sort of past. It is unclear what their past involves even as they embrace in a passionate kiss.
A silenced gunshot stabs the night air to reveal that The Salesman has shot The Customer. The reader is led to believe that The Customer had fallen into a serious and difficult situation and, with no other feasible alternative, hired The Salesman to kill her. Later information given by Frank Miller on the commentary of the Recut & Extended DVD Edition states that The Customer had an affair with a member of the mafia, and when she found out tried to break it off with him. The mafia member then swore to her that she would die in the most terrible way possible, and when it is least expected. The Customer, having connections, hires The Salesman (who is referred to as "The Lady-Killer") to kill her. In the comic The Salesman is the Colonel, as Miller has verified in the BLAM! section page 29 of the one-shot issue "Sex & Violence."
"The Babe Wore Red" centers around the character of Dwight and the murder of his friend Fargo. Dwight stumbles upon the hanging corpse of Fargo in his apartment and encounters Mr Shlubb, half of the recurring supporting duo, Douglas Klump and Burt Shlubb (aka Fat Man and Little Boy).
He knocks out Shlubb and finds the titular character hiding in the shower. Under a barrage of sniper shots from Douglas Klump, Dwight and the Babe reach their car and speed off. Although they successfully elude the pair, Dwight refuses to let them off easy, choosing rather to head to The Farm to deal with them. In the meantime, the Babe introduces herself as a hooker named Mary, but Dwight can tell she's lying. He duels with both of them again and due to insistence from Mary decides to shoot them in the leg instead of killing them. He eventually receives a package from Fargo who had shipped it off before his untimely demise. Dwight reads up on the whole situation and realizes that Fargo was simply the scapegoat for illegal drug-related activities and had paid the ultimate price. He also receives a package from Mary. She was not a hooker, rather a nun that had flirted with temptation before ultimately deciding to dedicate her life to God.
The time frame for the story is given as during the time Marv spent on death row in "The Hard Goodbye", as noted when Dwight mentions that he had a friend on death row because of what happened at the Roark family farm.
The Big Fat Kill
First published in five issues November 1994–March 1995, The Big Fat Kill opens in Shellie's apartment, where a drunken former fling is furiously rapping on her door, demanding to be let in. Shellie is obviously scared, but is comforted by Dwight who has gotten a new face (see A Dame To Kill For). Dwight tells the barmaid to let the man and his ensuing entourage in, expressing confidence in his ability to 'handle them'. When the man outside threatens to break down her door, Shellie reluctantly opens it while Dwight hides in the bathroom. Dwight deals with the man, who then leaves, heading into Old Town. The story deals with the repercussions of Dwight's and the Old Town Girls' actions towards him.
The story is one of three from Sin City related in the film Sin City. In the film, Clive Owen plays Dwight, Brittany Murphy plays Shellie, Benicio del Toro plays Jack, Rosario Dawson plays Gail, Devon Aoki plays Miho, Alexis Bledel plays Becky, and Michael Clarke Duncan plays Manute.
"Silent Night"
"Silent Night" is a one-shot short story that Frank Miller released in November 1995. It is a 26-page story featuring Marv. It has almost no dialogue; only one speech bubble appears in the entire story. The original issue had no functional cover, i.e. the story started on the top page, which had no title, author or publisher information. These were appended at the end of the issue.
Against a backdrop of heavy snow, Marv (a hulking, scarred figure in a trenchcoat) approaches a door in a dark alley. He intimidates the bouncer, Fatman, by simply glaring at him, and is let in. He proceeds down a flight of stairs, and is met by two men with machine pistols and a leather-clad woman, who is apparently their boss. Marv hands her a wad of bills and is shown to a steel door in the far wall. Through a small viewing slit, he can see a terrified little girl crouching in darkness in the room beyond. It is not stated, but is apparent that the child was being sold for sex. Marv draws two pistols and kills the pair of henchmen, then executes the woman, the only time he kills a woman in all of his Sin City appearances. He says to the little girl, "Your momma's been asking after you, Kimberly. Let's get you home." Cuddling the girl gently in his arms, he walks off into the distance, as the snow obscures his receding form.
That Yellow Bastard
First published in February 1996–July 1996, That Yellow Bastard is a six-issue comic book miniseries, and the sixth in the Sin City series. It follows the usual black and white noir style artistry of previous Sin City novels. The first collected edition by Dark Horse Comics became available in July 1997 ().
The story begins more than eight years before any other Sin City book takes place, with possibly the most noble, and heroic protagonist in the Sin City universe, policeman John Hartigan (suffering from severe angina problems) on his final mission before his forced retirement. Roark Junior, son of one of the most powerful and corrupt officials in Basin City, is indulging his penchant for raping and murdering pre-pubescent girls. It is Hartigan's mission to rescue Junior's latest quarry, a thin eleven-year-old named Nancy Callahan. Hartigan rescues her, but only after severely wounding Junior and sending him into a coma. Hartigan is then framed for kidnapping and raping Nancy, and sent to prison for eight years, until he manages to achieve parole and attempts to locate and protect Nancy from Roark's men.
In the film adaptation, Bruce Willis stars as Hartigan, Jessica Alba as Nancy, Nick Stahl as the Yellow Bastard/Junior, Powers Boothe as Senator Roark and Michael Madsen as Hartigan's partner, Bob. There are only a few notable differences in the film version: Mort is replaced by Bob when Hartigan is released from prison, an appearance by Carla Gugino as Lucille is omitted (but reinstated in the extended version released to DVD), and Senator Roark (Powers Boothe) has a mustache.
In the DVD commentary, Frank Miller indicated that he was initially motivated to write That Yellow Bastard after his disappointment with The Dead Pool, the fifth and final film in the Dirty Harry series. Nancy—who prior to this story had no last name—was named "Callahan", a name shared with Clint Eastwood's character.
"Daddy's Little Girl"
"Daddy's Little Girl" was first published in A Decade of Dark Horse #1 (July 1996) and reprinted in Tales to Offend #1 (July 1997), Booze, Broads, and Bullets, and Dark Horse Day 2016 Sampler (June 2016).
Johnny is a middle-aged man who seems to be in love with a much younger girl by the name of Amy. Amy insists that they cannot be together and alludes to the solution that he kills her father. Torn by his emotions and manipulated by Amy, he attempts to confront her father first, asking for her hand in marriage. Daddy refuses and Johnny shoots him with a revolver that Amy gave him. Daddy then reveals that the gun was in fact loaded with blanks and was a plot orchestrated by him and Amy. The two are either lovers with a daddy/daughter fetish based relationship or a father and daughter in an incestuous relationship. Daddy strangles Johnny for sexual satisfaction, and it implied this was the only way he was able to become aroused.
Lost, Lonely, & Lethal
First published December 1996, Lost, Lonely & Lethal contains three stories:
"Fat Man and Little Boy" (3 pages) – first published in San Diego Comic Con Comics #4 (July 1996)
"Blue Eyes" (14 pages)
"Rats" (7 pages)
"Fat Man and Little Boy" is a short three-page story about Douglas Klump and Burt Shlubb, who also appear in That Yellow Bastard and Family Values. These characters use a large vocabulary to make it appear that they are more intelligent than they truthfully are. However their wordy speeches are sprinkled with malapropisms. In this yarn, Shlubb's boots are in horrible shape, and he wishes to steal the shoes off a corpse, wrapped in a rug, that they're supposed to dump in the river.
Klump tells him that they're supposed to leave the body as it is. Shlubb disagrees and pulls the boots off, to discover that there are no feet in them, and a ticking sound rings through their ears. This was apparently a test, and the two buffoons get thrown several yards away as the explosion hits. It seems they failed the test miserably.
"Blue Eyes", the second story, begins as a man named Jim notices someone he assumes is a hitman following him. He runs into Kadie's, where he is confronted by an ex-flame named Delia. Marv is sitting next to them at the bar, and provides some comic relief. The hitman enters the bar, and Jim convinces Delia to leave with him. Marv then steals his drink, reasoning that it would have gone to waste otherwise.
Jim and Delia go back to his place and make love. She then attacks him, and explains that this is her test. She wants to become a hitwoman, and she must first kill the only man she ever loved. After killing Jim, the Colonel appears - he was the 'hitman' who had been following Jim. He gives her an assignment, and she takes on the name 'Blue Eyes', which is what Jim used to call her.
Blue Eyes is shown to take place at the same time as A Dame To Kill For, as part of the story shows Gail telling Shelley what to tell the police about Dwight. The story also has brief appearances by many characters, including Miho, Agammemnon and Manute.
"Rats" is the final story, it is about a disturbed war criminal who eats dog food. It was adapted to a 2004 fan film of the same name.
A sadistic war criminal (and presumed Nazi) stuffs rats in his oven to eat as he mentally rambles about the London Blitz, his arthritis, and how he killed all the 'rats', which were all people. A vigilante known amongst readers as 'The Janitor' kicks down the door and incapacitates him, before shoving his head into the oven, gassing him to death.
Sex & Violence
Sex & Violence was first published in March 1997 and only contains two stories, both of which feature Delia:
"Wrong Turn" (23 pages)
"Wrong Track" (3 pages)
The two stories take place on the same night, with the second taking place minutes after the first.
"Wrong Turn" is the first story, in which a man named Phil drives aimlessly in the rain, eventually finding Delia unconscious on a dirt road. He picks her up, and she tells him that she must have got struck by lightning. He offers to take her to the hospital, but she refuses. She asks if he is married, and he says that he is not. She takes him to the pits, and they make love. In the middle of it, he confesses that he is, in fact, married.
She starts choking him and calls him by the name of Eddie. She claims he has a trunk-load of stolen jewels he plans to sell in Sacred Oaks, violating an exclusivity agreement with the Wallenquist Organization. He explains that he is a used car salesman named Phil, and she understands. Eddie was supposed to be driving a similar Studebaker, and looked very similar. She sticks the heel of her shoe in his eye socket, killing him. She meets up with the Colonel and Gordo at the entrance to the pits. They check the trunk of Phil's car and find his wife with six bullets in her chest. They throw him in as well and Gordo pushes the car into the pits. Delia explains that she has a train to catch.
"Wrong Track" is the second story, which picks up soon after. Eddie is riding the train. His internal monologue explains that he had a flat tire. Delia hits on him, and they make love near the back of the train.
When they're done, she snaps his neck and throws him off the train. Leaving the rear of the train, the Colonel waits for her. "Delia-- do you plan to make love to each and every one of them?" he asks. Her response is "Only the ones I like."
"Just Another Saturday Night"
"Just Another Saturday Night" was first published in Sin City #1/2 (August 1997), a limited mail-in comic available only through a special offer in Wizard #73. It was later reprinted in a mass-market edition as Just Another Saturday Night (October 1998).
It is the story of what Marv was up to on the night John Hartigan met back up with Nancy (from That Yellow Bastard). Marv regains consciousness on a highway overlooking the Projects, surrounded by dead young guys, unable to remember how he got there. He lights one of the dead guys' cigarettes and thinks back; since it is Saturday, he deduces he must have been at Kadie's watching Nancy dance.
Marv was rather depressed after seeing Nancy leave with Hartigan, as he had always had an unrequited crush on her, so the barkeep gives him a bottle to drown his sorrow with. He gets drunk and steps outside, only to find some preppy college kids trying to burn drunks and winos to death. He immediately kills one of them and chases the rest to The Projects, where along the way he destroys a police patrol car and hijacks another vehicle. At the Projects, it is clear that they are being watched, but Marv uses hand signals to identify himself and instruct his former neighbors to attack the kids, and they do so by firing arrows at them and providing Marv with a knife. After questioning the last surviving kid about him being called 'Bernini boy' (it was the name of the brand of coat he was wearing), he slits his throat. This done, he muses, "And one fine coat it is. Somebody must've spent a fortune on it. I wonder who?" But he cannot seem to remember where he got the coat or gloves.
The story served as the opening sequence for the film Sin City: A Dame to Kill For.
Family Values
Family Values was first published in (October 1997) and was the fifth "yarn" in Frank Miller's Sin City series. Unlike the previous four stories, Family Values was released as a 128-page graphic novel rather than in serialized issues that would later be collected in a trade paperback volume. The plot concerns Dwight and Miho going on a mission from Gail to dig up information about a recent mob hit at a small diner.
Booze, Broads, & Bullets
Booze, Broads, & Bullets is a compilation of stories from the Sin City series of comic books by Frank Miller. It reprints all the short stories, in the following order:
"Just Another Saturday Night" (from Sin City #1/2 and also reprinted in Just Another Saturday Night)
"Fat Man and Little Boy" (from Lost, Lonely, & Lethal)
"The Customer Is Always Right" (from The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories)
"Silent Night" (from Silent Night)
"And Behind Door Number Three..." (from The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories)
"Blue Eyes" (from Lost, Lonely, & Lethal)
"Rats" (from Lost, Lonely, & Lethal)
"Daddy's Little Girl" (from A Decade of Dark Horse #1 and also reprinted in Tales to Offend #1)
"Wrong Turn" (from Sex & Violence)
"Wrong Track" (from Sex & Violence)
"The Babe Wore Red" (from The Babe Wore Red and Other Stories)
Hell and Back
Hell and Back was first published in (July 1999–April 2000)
Hell and Back is the longest of the Sin City stories, spanning 9 issues. It tells the story of Wallace, an artist/war hero/short order cook who saves a suicidal woman named Esther. She likes his art and they go out for a drink. They are ambushed by two men, who drug Wallace and kidnap Esther. When Wallace recovers, he vows to find Esther and deal with those who kidnapped her.
References
Comics-related lists |
4311656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20history%20of%20Brazil | Economic history of Brazil | The economic history of Brazil covers various economic events and traces the changes in the Brazilian economy over the course of the history of Brazil. Portugal, which first colonized the area in the 16th century, enforced a colonial pact with Brazil, an imperial mercantile policy, which drove development for the subsequent three centuries. Independence was achieved in 1822. Slavery was fully abolished in 1888. Important structural transformations began in the 1930s, when important steps were taken to change Brazil into a modern, industrialized economy.
A socioeconomic transformation took place rapidly after World War II. In the 1940s, only 31.3% of Brazil's 41.2 million inhabitants resided in towns and cities; by 1991, of the country's 146.9 million inhabitants 75.5% lived in cities, and Brazil had two of the world's largest metropolitan centers: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The share of the primary sector in the gross national product declined from 28% in 1947 to 11% in 1992. In the same 1947–92 period, the contribution of industry to GNP increased from less than 20–39%. The industrial sector produces a wide range of products for the domestic market and for export, including consumer goods, intermediate goods, and capital goods.
Through the 1980s and 1990s, the Brazilian economy suffered from rampant inflation that subdued economic growth. After several failed economic initiatives created by the government, in 1994 the Plano Real was introduced. This plan brought stability and enabled Brazil to sustain economic growth over that of the global economy through the coming decade. Despite this rapid development the country still suffers from high levels of corruption, violent crime, functional illiteracy and poverty.
Colonial period
Brazil belonged to the Kingdom of Portugal as a colony. European commercial expansion of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Blocked from the lucrative hinterland trade with the Far East, which was dominated by Italian cities, Portugal began in the early fifteenth century to search for other routes to the sources of goods valued in European markets. Portugal discovered the maritime passage to the East Indies around the southern tip of Africa and established a network of trade outposts throughout Africa and Asia. After the discovery of America, it competed with Spain in occupying the New World.
Initially, the Portuguese did not find mineral riches in their American colony, but they never lost the hope of someday finding such riches there. Meanwhile, in order to settle and defend the colony from European intruders, the Portuguese established a pioneer colonial enterprise: the production of sugar in the Northeast. Beginning in about 1532–1534, cattle began arriving in Brazil, and a cattle industry developed rapidly in response to the needs of the sugar industry for transportation and food for workers. The discovery of precious metals in the colony's Center-South (Centro-Sul), a relatively undefined region encompassing the present-day Southeast (Sudeste) and South (Sul) regions, came only in the eighteenth century.
Sugar cycle (1540–1640)
By the mid-16th century, Portugal had succeeded in establishing a sugar economy in parts of the colony's northeastern coast. Sugar production, the first large-scale colonial agricultural enterprise, was made possible by a series of favorable conditions. Portugal had the agricultural and manufacturing know-how from its Atlantic islands and manufactured its own equipment for extracting sugar from sugarcane. Furthermore, being involved in the African slave trade, it had access to the necessary manpower. Finally, Portugal relied on the commercial skills of the Dutch and financing from Holland to enable a rapid penetration of sugar in Europe's markets.
Until the early seventeenth century, the Portuguese and the Dutch held a virtual monopoly on sugar exports to Europe. However, between 1580 and 1640 Portugal was incorporated into Spain, a country at war with Holland. The Dutch occupied Brazil's sugar area in the Northeast from 1630 to 1654, establishing direct control of the world's sugar supply. When the Dutch were driven out in 1654, they had acquired the technical and organizational know-how for sugar production. Their involvement in the expansion of sugar in the Caribbean contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese monopoly.
The Caribbean sugar boom brought about a steady decline in world sugar prices. Unable to compete, Brazilian sugar exports, which had peaked by the mid-seventeenth century, declined sharply. Between the fourth quarter of the seventeenth century and the early eighteenth century, Portugal had difficulties in maintaining its American colony. The downfall of sugar revealed a fragile colonial economy, which had no commodity to replace sugar. Paradoxically, however, the period of stagnation induced the settlement of substantial portions of the colony's territory. With the decline of sugar, the cattle sector, which had evolved to supply the sugar economy with animals for transport, meat, and hides, assimilated part of the resources made idle, becoming a subsistence economy. Because of extensive cattle production methods, large areas in the colony's interior were settled.
Realizing that it could maintain Brazil only if precious minerals were discovered, Portugal increased its exploratory efforts in the late seventeenth century. As a result, early in the eighteenth century gold and other precious minerals were found. The largest concentration of this gold was in the Southeastern Highlands, mainly in what is now Minas Gerais State.
Economy at independence (1822)
Despite Brazil's economic troubles, the early nineteenth century was a period of change. First, the Napoleonic Wars forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Portugal's colony of Brazil in 1808, and for a short period the colony became the seat of the Portuguese empire. Moreover, in 1808 Britain persuaded Portugal to open the colony to trade with the rest of the world, and Portugal rescinded its prohibition against manufacturing (Strangford Treaty). These events paved the way for Brazil's independence on September 7, 1822. Indeed, during this period, the Portuguese royal family and the noblemen who had established themselves in the territory, started many reforms which developed the educational, cultural and economical sectors of Brazil. By 1814, the Portuguese and their allies had defeated Napoleon's armies in the Peninsular War, after had been victorious in the war against the French invasion of Portugal by 1811. However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821, but his son Pedro remained in Rio de Janeiro as regent and governor of the newly created Kingdom of Brazil, a Portuguese possession within the new United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (1815–22).
Brazil's early years as an independent nation were extremely difficult. 1820-1872 for Brazil was a combination of stagnation and regional diversity. According to Leff (1982, 1997), from the time of Brazil's independence in 1822, its rate of GDP growth failed to outpace its population growth. Hence, while the population did expand at a rapid pace (nearly 2 per cent per annum), the country's efforts to improve its performance in per capita terms were largely frustrating until the start of the twentieth century. This protracted and very difficult period of stagnation was, however, the net results of widely varying trends in different regions of the country. The north-eastern part of Brazil, which was a platform for sugar and cotton exports and which accounted for 57 per cent of the country's exports at the start of this period, saw a steady decline in its external sales. In 1866–70, these crops represented just 30 per cent of exports, while the share of coffee exports-the leading product in the south-eastern portion of the country-jumped from 26 to 47 per cent.
Leff (1982, 1997) explains the decline experiences in the north-east in terms of Dutch disease. As coffee exports came to play a greater role in the foreign exchange market, the real exchange rate increasingly reflected the importance of that product, which had a negative impact on the less competitive regions, such as the north-east. It was neither possible to restructure the sugar industry very quickly, nor easy to promote large-scale inter-regional migration flows, although a large number of slaves did move from the north-east to the south-east. Throughout this period, the expansion of the coffee industry was not hindered by any increase in labor costs, since up to 1852 (end of the slave trade), wages were depressed by the presence of slave labor and later by subsidized immigration flows, particularly from Italy (Leff 1997:5). This strengthened the existing pattern in Brazil: an export sector that generated high levels of earnings alongside a large sector that catered to the domestic market and a large subsistence economy, both with very low levels of productivity, with the outcome being low per capita income levels but a high export coefficient relative to the other Latin American economies.
Exports remained low, and the domestic economy was depressed. The only segment that expanded was the subsistence economy. Resources (land, slaves, and transport animals) made idle by the decline of the export economy were absorbed into mostly self-consumption activities.
American–Brazilian economic relations (1870–1930)
In 1870 Brazil's trade with America was valued at about 31 million dollars while the combined trade of all the South American countries was valued at about $29 million. Brazil was a significant producer of coffee and because of this the United States imported about four times as much as it exported to Brazil. In 1885 Brazil was producing more than one half of the world's supply of coffee. Brazil's trade in 1890 was more than $71 million while that of Argentina and Uruguay was $14 million and $6 million respectively. Soon after 1896, the production of coffee started to surpass consumption and prices began to fall in Brazil. Brazil then stored their coffee instead of selling all of it, and when there was bad season of coffee production they would use what they had previously stored from the year before.
The Monroe Doctrine appeared to some South American states as a US attempt of preserving their control over that hemisphere. Brazil viewed this doctrine as a measure of protection against the interference of the US and from European nations. Brazil's first ambassador to the United States, Joaquim Nabuco, 1905–1910, was a partisan of the Monroe Doctrine. Brazil borrowed money from many nations but it was not until after World War One that it actually borrowed substantial amounts from the US. With the outbreak of the First World War, Brazil continued to share the most significant trade with America with a trade that was valued at $154 million.
Coffee cycle (1840–1930)
The impact of coffee on the Brazilian economy was much stronger than that of sugar and gold. When the coffee surge began, Brazil was already free from the limitations of colonialism. Moreover, the substitution of slave labor for wage labor after 1870 (slavery was abolished in 1888) meant an increase in efficiency and the formation of a domestic market for wage goods. Finally, the greater complexity of coffee production and trade established important sectorial linkages within the Brazilian economy.
Coffee was introduced in Brazil early in the eighteenth century, but initially it was planted only for domestic use. It took the high world prices of the late 1820s and early 1830s to turn coffee into a major export item. During the initial phase, production was concentrated in the mountainous region near Rio de Janeiro. This area was highly suitable for coffee cultivation, and it had access to fairly abundant slave labor. Moreover, the coffee could be transported easily on mule trains or on animal-drawn carts over short distances to the ports.
An entrepreneurial class established in Rio de Janeiro during the mining surge was able to induce the government to help create basic conditions for the expansion of coffee, such as removing transportation and labor bottlenecks. From the area near Rio de Janeiro, coffee production moved along the Paraíba Valley toward São Paulo State, which later became Brazil's largest exporting region. Coffee was cultivated with primitive techniques and with no regard to land conservation. Land was abundant, and production could expand easily through the incorporation of new areas. However, it soon became necessary to ease two basic constraints: the lack of transportation and the shortage of labor.
The cultivation of coffee farther away from ports required the construction of railroads, first around Rio de Janeiro and into the Paraíba Valley, and later into the fertile highlands of São Paulo. In 1860 Brazil had only of railroads; by 1885 this total had increased to . The main rail link between São Paulo's eastern highlands and the ocean port of Santos allowed for a rapid expansion of coffee into the center and northwest of the state.
After the initial coffee expansion, the availability of slaves dwindled, and further cultivation required additional slaves. However, by 1840 Brazil was already under pressure to abolish slavery, and a series of decrees were introduced, making it increasingly difficult to supply the new coffee areas with servile labor. In the 1870s, the shortage of labor became critical, leading to the gradual incorporation of free immigrant labor. The coffee expansion in the west-northwest of São Paulo State after 1880 was made possible largely by immigrant labor. In 1880 São Paulo produced 1.2 million 60-kilogram coffee bags, or 25% of Brazil's total; by 1888 this proportion had jumped to 40% (2.6 million bags); and by 1902, to 60% (8 million bags). In turn, between 1884 and 1890 some 201,000 immigrants had entered São Paulo State, and this total jumped to more than 733,000 between 1891 and 1900. By 1934, over 40% of the coffee production in São Paulo was produced by the 14.5 percent foreign population of the state. International mass immigration to Brazil during the 19th century caused a significant human capital increase because of the immigrants' superior formal and informal education and training. Slavery was abolished in 1888.
The Brazilian economy grew considerably in the second half of the nineteenth century. Coffee was the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 63% of the country's exports in 1891, and 51% between 1901 and 1910. However, sugar, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, and, during the turn-of-the-century rubber boom, rubber were also important. During the first three decades of the 20th century, the Brazilian economy went through periods of growth but also difficulties caused in part by World War I, the Great Depression, and an increasing trend toward coffee overproduction. The four-year gap between the time a coffee tree is planted and the time of the first harvest magnified cyclical fluctuations in coffee prices, which in turn led to the increasing use of government price supports during periods of excess production. The price supports induced an exaggerated expansion of coffee cultivation in São Paulo, culminating in the huge overproduction of the early 1930s.
The 1840 to 1930 period also saw an appreciable but irregular expansion of light industries, notably textiles, clothing, food products, beverages, and tobacco. This expansion was induced by the growth in income, by the availability of foreign exchange, by fiscal policies, and by external events, such as World War I. Other important factors were the expansion of transportation, the installed capacity of electric energy, increased urbanization, and the formation of a dynamic entrepreneurial class. However, the manufacturing growth of the period did not generate significant structural transformations.
Economic growth in the nineteenth century was not shared equally by the regions. Development and growth were concentrated in the Southeast. The South Region also achieved considerable development based on coffee and other agricultural products. The Amazon Basin experienced a meteoric rise and fall of incomes from rubber exports. The Northeast continued to stagnate, with its population living close to the subsistence level.
Sweeping changes (1930–1945)
The decade of the 1930s was a period of interrelated political and economic changes. The decade started with the 1930 revolution, which abolished the Old Republic (1889–1930), a federation of semi-autonomous states. After a transitional period in which centralizing elements struggled with the old oligarchies for control, a coup in 1937 established the New State (Estado Novo) dictatorship (1937–45).
To a large extent, the revolution of 1930 reflected a dissatisfaction with the political control exercised by the old oligarchies. The political unrest of the first half of the 1930s and the 1937 coup were influenced strongly by the onset of economic problems in 1930. The coffee economy suffered from a severe decline in world demand caused by the Great Depression and an excess capacity of coffee production created in the 1920s. As a result, the price of coffee fell sharply and remained at very low levels. Brazil's terms of trade deteriorated significantly. These events, and a large foreign debt, led to an external crisis that took almost a decade to resolve.
The external difficulties had far-reaching consequences. The government was forced to suspend part of the country's debt payments and eventually to impose exchange controls. Excess coffee production led to increasing interventions in the coffee market. The state programs to support coffee prices went bankrupt in 1930. To avoid further decreases in coffee prices, the central government bought huge amounts of coffee, which was then destroyed. Central government intervention provided support to the coffee sector and, through its linkages, to the rest of the economy.
Despite the economic difficulties, the income maintenance scheme of the coffee support program, coupled with the implicit protection provided by the external crisis, was responsible for greater industrial growth. Initially, this growth was based on increased use of the productive capacity and later on moderate spurts of investment. The initial import substitution industrialization that occurred especially during World War I did not lead to industrialization; it became a process of industrialization only in the 1930s.
The 1930s also saw a change in the role of government. Until then, the state acted primarily in response to the demands of the export sector. During the first half of the decade, it was forced to interfere swiftly in an attempt to control the external crisis and to avoid the collapse of the coffee economy; government leaders hoped that the crisis would pass soon and that another export boom would occur. However, with the magnitude and duration of the crisis it became clear that Brazil could no longer rely solely on exports of primary goods and that it was necessary to promote economic diversification. During the Estado Novo, the government made initial attempts at economic planning, and in the late 1930s began to establish the first large government enterprise, an integrated steel mill, Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional.
The World War II period saw mixed achievements. By the late 1930s, coffee production capacity had been reduced drastically, the worst of the external crisis had passed, and the Brazilian economy was ready to grow. However, the war interfered with development efforts. Output increased mainly through better utilization of the existing capacity but, except for the steel mill, there was little industrial and infrastructure investment. Thus, at the end of the war Brazil's industrial capacity was obsolete and the transportation infrastructure was inadequate and badly deteriorated.
Import substitution industrialization (1945–1964)
A review of the evolution and structural changes of the industrial sector since the end of World War II reveals four broad periods. The postwar period to 1962 was a phase of intense import substitution, especially of consumer goods, with basic industries growing at significant but lower rates. The 1968 to 1973 period was one of very rapid industrial expansion and modernization (between 1962 and 1967, the industrial sector stagnated as a result of adverse macroeconomic conditions). The 1974 to 1985 phase was highlighted by import substitution of basic inputs and capital goods and by the expansion of manufactured goods exports. The period since 1987 has been a time of considerable difficulties.
At the end of World War II, political and economic liberalism were reintroduced in Brazil. Getúlio Dorneles Vargas (president, 1930–45, 1951–54) was overthrown, democratic rule was reestablished, and the foreign-exchange reserves accumulated during the war made possible a reduction of trade restrictions. However, trade liberalization was short-lived. The overvalued foreign-exchange rate, established in 1945, remained fixed until 1953. This, combined with persistent inflation and a repressed demand, meant sharp increases in imports and a sluggish performance of exports, which soon led again to a balance of payments crisis.
Pessimistic about the future of Brazil's exports, the government feared that the crisis would have a negative impact on inflation. Consequently, instead of devaluing the cruzeiro, it decided to deal with the crisis through exchange controls. In 1951 the newly elected government of Getúlio Vargas enforced a recently established system of import licensing, giving priority to imports of essential goods and inputs (fuels and machinery) and discouraging imports of consumer goods. These policies had the unanticipated effect of providing protection to the consumer goods industry. Early in the 1950s, however, convinced that the only hope for rapid growth was to change the structure of the Brazilian economy, the government adopted an explicit policy of import substitution industrialization. An important instrument of this policy was the use of foreign exchange controls to protect selected segments of domestic industry and to facilitate the importation of equipment and inputs for them.
However, the move to fixed exchange rates together with import licensing drastically curtailed exports, and the balance of payments problem became acute. The system became nearly unmanageable, and in 1953 a more flexible, multiple-exchange-rate system was introduced. Under the latter, imports considered essential were brought in at a favored rate; imports of goods that could be supplied domestically faced high rates and were allotted small portions of the available foreign exchange. Similarly, some exports were stimulated with a higher exchange rate than those of traditional exports. This system continued to be the main instrument for the promotion of import substitution industrialization, but the performance of the export sector improved only modestly.
Between 1957 and 1961, the government made several changes in the exchange-control system, most of which were attempts at reducing its awkwardness or at improving its performance with the advance of import substitution industrialization. For this same purpose, the government also introduced several complementary measures, including enacting the Tariff Law of 1957, increasing and solidifying the protection extended to domestic industries, and offering strong inducements to direct foreign investment.
In the second half of the 1950s, the government enacted a series of special programs intended to better orient the industrialization process, to remove bottlenecks, and to promote vertical integration in certain industries. The government gave special attention to industries considered basic for growth, notably the automotive, cement, steel, aluminum, cellulose, heavy machinery, and chemical industries.
As a result of import substitution industrialization, the Brazilian economy experienced rapid growth and considerable diversification. Between 1950 and 1961, the average annual rate of growth of the gross domestic product exceeded 7%. Industry was the engine of growth. It had an average annual growth rate of over 9 percent between 1950 and 1961, compared with 4.5% for agriculture. In addition, the structure of the manufacturing sector experienced considerable change. Traditional industries, such as textiles, food products, and clothing, declined, while the transport equipment, machinery, electric equipment and appliances, and chemical industries expanded.
However, the strategy also left a legacy of problems and distortions. The growth it promoted resulted in a substantial increase in imports, notably of inputs and machinery, and the foreign-exchange policies of the period meant inadequate export growth. Moreover, a large influx of foreign capital in the 1950s resulted in a large foreign debt.
Import substitution industrialization can be assessed according to the contribution to value added by four main industrial subsectors: nondurable consumer goods, durable consumer goods, intermediate goods, and capital goods. Using data from the industrial censuses, the share of these groups in value added between 1949 and 1960 shows a considerable decline in the share of the nondurable goods industries, from nearly 60 percent to less than 43 percent, and a sharp increase in that of durable goods, from nearly 6% to more than 18%. The intermediate and capital goods groups experienced moderate increases, from 32 to 36% and from 2.2 to 3.2%, respectively.
A representative component of the nondurable group is the textile industry, the leading sector before World War II. Between 1949 and 1960, its share in the value added by industry as a whole experienced a sharp decline, from 20.1% to 11.6%. In the durable goods group, the component with the most significant change was the transport equipment sector (automobiles and trucks), which increased from 2.3% to 10.5%.
The lower increases in the shares of the intermediate and capital goods industries reflect the lesser priority attributed to them by the import substitution industrialization strategy. In the early 1960s, Brazil already had a fairly diversified industrial structure, but one in which vertical integration was only beginning. Thus, instead of alleviating the balance of payments problems, import substitution increased them dramatically.
Stagnation and spectacular growth (1962–1980)
Stagnation (1962–1967)
As a result of the problems associated with import substitution industrialization and the reforms introduced by the military regime after March 1964, the Brazilian economy lost much of its dynamism between 1962 and 1967. The average rate of growth of GDP in the period declined to 4.0 percent and that of industry to 3.9 percent. In part, stagnation resulted from distortions caused by the strategy. Moreover, political troubles negatively affected expectations and precluded the formation of a coalition to back the introduction of tough measures to control inflation and the balance of payments crisis. Political troubles also hindered the removal of obstacles to growth.
The 1964 coup dealt with the political obstacles by forcefully restraining opposition to the military agenda of change. With the objective of transforming Brazil into a modern capitalist economy and a military power, the regime implemented a series of reforms aimed at reducing inflation, at removing some of the distortions of import substitution industrialization, and at modernizing capital markets. The regime gradually introduced incentives to direct investment, domestic and foreign, and tackled balance of payments problems by reforming and simplifying the foreign-exchange system. In addition, the regime introduced a mechanism of periodic devaluations of the cruzeiro, taking into account inflation. Finally, the military government adopted measures to attract foreign capital and to promote exports. It took steps to expand public investment to improve the country's infrastructure and later to develop state-owned basic industries.
Spectacular growth (1968–1973)
The post-1964 reforms and other policies of the military government, together with the state of the world economy, created conditions for very rapid growth between 1968 and 1973. In that period, the average annual rate of growth of GDP jumped to 11.1%, led by industry with a 13.1% average. Within industry, the leading sectors were consumer durables, transportation equipment, and basic industries, such as steel, cement, and electricity generation.
As a result of the post-1964 policies, external trade expanded substantially faster than the economy as a whole. There was a significant growth in exports, especially manufactured goods, but also commodities. Yet, imports grew considerably faster, rapidly increasing the trade deficit. This did not present a problem, however, because massive inflows of capital resulted in balance of payments surpluses.
The external sector contributed substantially to high growth rates, as did the rapid expansion of investment, including a growing share of public investment and investment by state-controlled enterprises. In addition, increased demand for automobiles, durable and luxury goods, and housing resulted from a rapid growth in income for the upper income strata and from credit plans created for consumers and home-buyers by the capital-market reforms.
The industrial sector generally experienced not only rapid growth but also considerable modernization. As a result, imports of capital goods and basic and semi-processed inputs increased sharply. The share of intermediate goods imports in total imports increased from 31.0% in the 1960–62 period to 42.7% in 1972, and that of capital goods, from 29.0 to 42.2%. The total value of imports rose from US$1.3 billion to US$4.4 billion.
A comparison of the 1960 and the 1975 shares of the various industrial sectors in total value added by industry reveals a continuation in the relative decline of nondurable industries, notably textiles, food products, and beverages, and an increase in machinery, from 3.2 to 10.3%. The relative shares of most of the remaining industries, however, did not change significantly in the period.
As a result of the period's outward-looking development strategy, Brazil's industrial exports increased from US$1.4 billion in 1963 to US$6.2 billion in 1973. The composition of exports shows that whereas in 1963 processed and semi-processed manufactured exports accounted for only 5% of total exports, in 1974 their share had reached 29%.
In the 1968–73 period, personal income became more concentrated and regional disparities became greater. Industrial expansion took place more vigorously in the Center-South Region, which had benefited most from the import substitution industrialization strategy. Its per-capita income considerably exceeded the national average, its infrastructure was more developed, and it had an adequate supply of skilled workers and professionals. The region was therefore able to take advantage of the opportunities and incentives offered by the military regime. Although a special regional development strategy existed for the Northeast, it promoted a distorted industrialization that benefited only a few of that region's large cities; the Northeast's linkages with the Center-South were stronger than its linkages within the region. The combination of a harsh climate, a highly concentrated land-tenure system, and an elite that consistently resisted meaningful change prevented the Northeast from developing effectively.
Growth with debt (1974–1980)
Brazil suffered drastic reductions in its terms of trade as a result of the 1973 oil shock. In the early 1970s, the performance of the export sector was undermined by an overvalued currency. With the trade balance under pressure, the oil shock led to a sharply higher import bill. Brazil opted to continue a high-growth policy. Furthermore, it adopted renewed strategies of import substitution industrialization and of economic diversification. In the mid-1970s, the regime began implementing a development plan aimed at increasing self-sufficiency in many sectors and creating new comparative advantages. Its main components were to promote import substitution of basic industrial inputs (steel, aluminium, fertilizers, petrochemicals), to make large investments in the expansion of the economic infrastructure, and to promote exports.
This strategy was effective in promoting growth, but it also raised Brazil's import requirements markedly, increasing the already large current-account deficit. The current account was financed by running up the foreign debt. The expectation was that the combined effects of import substitution industrialization and export expansion eventually would bring about growing trade surpluses, allowing the service and repayment of the foreign debt.
Thus, despite the world recession resulting from other countries' adjustments to the oil shock, Brazil was able to maintain a high growth rate. Between 1974 and 1980, the average annual rate of growth of real GDP reached 6.9 percent and that of industry, 7.2 percent. However, the current-account deficit increased from US$1.7 billion in 1973 to US$12.8 billion in 1980. The foreign debt rose from US$6.4 billion in 1963 to nearly US$54 billion in 1980.
Brazil was able to raise its foreign debt because, at the time, the international financial system was awash in petrodollars and was eagerly offering low-interest loans. By the end of the 1970s, however, the foreign debt had reached high levels. Additionally, the marked increase of international interest rates raised the debt service, forcing the country to borrow more only to meet interest payments. Productive capacity, exports, and the substitution of imports in various sectors expanded and became more diversified. However, the expected impacts on Brazil's current account were not to materialize until the mid-1980s.
Another feature of the 1974–80 period was an acceleration of inflation. Between 1968 and 1974, the rate of inflation had declined steadily, but afterward the trend was reversed. From 16.2 percent a year in 1973, the growth rate of the general price index increased to 110.2 percent a year by 1980.
Stagnation, inflation and crisis (1981–1993)
The effect of the 1974–85 period's industrialization on the balance of trade was significant. The balance of trade moved from an average deficit of US$3.4 billion in the 1974–76 period to an average surplus of US$10.7 billion in the 1983–85 period. In 1985 the share of manufactures (processed and semi-processed) of total exports reached 66 percent, and between 1971–75 and 1978–83 the share of basic input imports in total imports declined from 32.3% to 19.2%. The recession and stagnation of the early 1980s had a role in reducing imports. However, import substitution was also important, as demonstrated by the few years of the 1980s that experienced a significant growth in GDP while the trade surplus was maintained.
Between 1981 and 1992, the GDP increased at an average annual rate of only 2.9% and per capita income declined 6%. Gross investment, as a proportion of GDP, fell from 21 to 16 percent, in part as a result of the fiscal crisis and the loss of public-sector investment capacity. The decline also reflected growing uncertainties regarding the future of the economy. The 1980s became known as the "lost decade," and its problems spilled over into the 1990s. Despite the stagnation of the 1981–92 period, inflation remained a major problem (see stagflation). It stayed in the 100% level until the mid-80's and then grew to more than 1000% a year, reaching a record 5000% in 1993.
1981–1984
In 1979 a second oil shock nearly doubled the price of imported oil to Brazil and lowered the terms of trade further. The rise in world interest rates sharply increased Brazil's balance of payments problem and the size of the foreign debt. Nevertheless, the government continued borrowing, mainly to face an increasing debt burden, while it tried vainly to maintain the high-growth strategy. At the beginning of the 1980s, however, the foreign-debt problem became acute, leading to the introduction of a program to generate growing trade surpluses in order to service the foreign debt. The program was achieved by reducing growth and, with it, imports, and by expanding exports. As a result, in 1981 real GDP declined by 4.4 percent. The 1982 Mexican debt crisis ended Brazil's access to international financial markets, increasing the pressure for economic adjustment.
Some unorthodox economists like Stephen Kanitz attribute the debt crisis not to the high Brazilian level of indebtedness nor to the disorganization of the country's economy. They say that the cause of the crisis was rather a minor error in the U.S. government banking regulations which forbids its banks from lending over ten times the amount of their capital, a regulation that, when the inflation eroded their lending limits, forced them to cut the access of underdeveloped countries to international savings.
The austerity program imposed by the International Monetary Fund in late 1979 continued until 1984, but substantial trade surpluses were obtained only from 1983 on, largely as a delayed result of the import substitution industrialization programs of the 1970s and the reduction in imports brought about by economic decline. The austerity program enabled Brazil to meet interest payments on the debt, but at the price of economic decline and increasing inflation.
Inflation accelerated as a result of a combination of factors: the exchange-rate devaluations of the austerity program, a growing public deficit, and an increasing indexation of financial balances, wages, and other values for inflation. The first two factors are classical causes of inflation; the last became an important mechanism for propagating hyperinflation and in preventing the usual instruments of inflation control from operating.
By the mid-1980s, domestic debt nearly displaced foreign debt as Brazil's main economic problem. During the high-growth 1970s, a significant portion of foreign borrowing had been by state enterprises, which were the main actors in the import substitution industrialization strategy. Initially, they borrowed to finance their investments. However, toward the end of the decade, with the acute shortage of foreign exchange, the government forced state enterprises to borrow unnecessarily, increasing their indebtedness markedly. Their situation worsened with the sharp rise in international interest rates in the late 1970s, the devaluations of the austerity program, and the decreasing real prices of goods and services provided by the public enterprises stemming from price controls. Because the state enterprises were not allowed to go bankrupt, their debt burden was transferred gradually to the government, further increasing the public debt. This, and a growing disorganization of the public sector, transformed the public debt into a major economic problem. By the mid-1980s, the financial burden stemming from the debt was contributing decisively to its rapid expansion.
1985–1989
During the second half of the 1980s, it became increasingly clear that a large-scale fiscal reform, one that enabled noninflationary financing of the public sector, was needed not only to control inflation but also to restore the public sector's capacity to invest. Both were essential for an economic recovery. However, political obstacles prevented the reform from materializing. And, because inflation had become the most visible symptom of the public-sector disequilibrium, there were several attempts to bring inflation under control through what came to be known as "heterodox economic shocks". The period saw three such shocks: the Cruzado Plan (1986), the Bresser Plan (1987), and the Summer Plan (1989).
The objective of the Cruzado Plan was to eliminate inflation with a dramatic blow. Between 1980 and 1985, the rise in the CPI had escalated from 86.3% to 248.5% annually. Early in 1986, the situation became desperate, prodding the implementation of the plan. Its main measures were a general price freeze, a wage readjustment and freeze, readjustment and freeze on rents and mortgage payments, a ban on indexation, and a freeze on the exchange rate.
The plan's immediate results were spectacular: the monthly rate of inflation fell close to zero, economic growth surged upward, and the foreign accounts remained under control. However, by the end of 1986 the plan was in trouble. The wage adjustments were too large, increasing aggregate demand excessively and creating inflationary pressures. Moreover, the price freeze was maintained for too long, creating distortions and leading to shortages of a growing number of products. Inflation accelerated again and there was a return of indexation. The country imposed a moratorium on its foreign debt service on February 20, 1987.
The two other stabilization plans amounted to renewed attempts at bringing inflation down from very high levels. It was soon clear that without a thorough reform of the public sector, controlling inflation would be impossible. Both plans introduced a price freeze and eliminated indexation, but there were differences between them, and with the Cruzado Plan. Neither was able to address the public-sector disequilibrium effectively. The objective of the Summer Plan, for instance, was mainly to avoid hyperinflation in an election year.
In fact, the public-sector disequilibrium became virtually locked in as a result of the 1988 constitution, which created advantages for various segments of society without indicating how these advantages would be paid for. Moreover, it transferred large portions of the tax revenues from the federal government to state and municipal governments, without requiring them to provide additional public services. With less revenue and more responsibility, the federal accounts experienced growing deficits. In addition, several subsidies were locked into the legislation. These factors and the financial burden of the public debt meant growing problems of public finance.
The 1980s ended with high and accelerating inflation and a stagnant economy, which never recovered after the demise of the Cruzado Plan. The public debt was enormous, and the government was required to pay very high interest rates to persuade the public to continue to buy government debt instruments.
Another major obstacle to economic growth during the 1980s was Brazil's protectionist policy from 1984 to 1992 of severely restricting imports of foreign computer hardware and software to protect and nurture Brazil's domestic computer industry (which was but one manifestation of the country's long-term policy of import substitution industrialization). The policy was so strict that the government regularly seized personal computers from foreign businesspersons who were visiting for ordinary business trips, because of the fear that foreign visitors were smuggling PCs to domestic users. Although this policy was superficially successful, the federal government failed to fund the basic research that was essential to the success of computer industries in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Brazilian computer users in this era frequently paid two or three times the international market price for unreliable, poorly designed domestic clones of foreign computer designs, since domestic manufacturers lacked the well-trained engineers and basic research necessary to develop their own indigenous innovations, let alone build brilliant new designs from scratch. By the time the policy was rescinded in 1991, it had failed in the sense that Brazil's domestic computer manufacturers were still unable to make advanced computer products suitable for export to other countries, and had severely limited the modernization and computerization of Brazil's economy. By that point in time, computer usage in most economic sectors in most developed countries was exceeding 90 percent. In Brazil, computer usage by businesses was around 12 percent. Even worse, Brazilian schools were falling far behind in preparing students to use computers when they entered the workforce; only 0.5 percent of Brazilian classrooms had computers. In other words, by 1990, the electronic office was still science fiction as far as most Brazilians were concerned and they were still doing business exclusively through labor-intensive paper-based processes. This meant their productivity was far lower than people in countries who had already been using computers for one or two decades, and who had, for example, already made the transition from typing and re-typing drafts of documents on manual typewriters to simply entering print commands into word processing software. Finally, the policy of restricting imports of foreign computers was also blamed for causing Brazil to fall far behind in adopting many lifesaving technologies made possible by modern microprocessors, such as anti-lock brakes.
1990–1993
The first post-military-regime president elected by popular suffrage, Fernando Collor de Mello (1990–92), was sworn into office in March 1990. Facing imminent hyperinflation and a virtually bankrupt public sector, the new administration introduced a stabilization plan, together with a set of reforms, aimed at removing restrictions on free enterprise, increasing competition, privatizing public enterprises, and boosting productivity.
Heralded as a definitive blow to inflation, the stabilization plan was drastic. It imposed an eighteen-month freeze on all but a small portion of the private sector's financial assets, froze prices, and again abolished indexation. The new administration also introduced provisional taxes to deal with the fiscal crisis, and took steps to reform the public sector by closing several public agencies and dismissing public servants. These measures were expected not only to swiftly reduce inflation but also to lower inflationary expectations. Collor also implemented a radical liquidity freeze, reducing the money stock by 80% by freezing bank accounts in excess of $1000.
Brazil adopted neoliberalism in the late 1980s, with support from the workers party on the left. Brazil ended the old policy of closed economies with development focused through import substitution industrialization, in favor of a more open economic system and privatization. For example, tariff rates were cut from 32 percent in 1990 to 14 percent in 1994. The market reforms and trade reforms resulted in price stability and faster inflow of capital, but did not change levels of income inequality and poverty.
At first few of the new administration's programs succeeded. Major difficulties with the stabilization and reform programs were caused in part by the superficial nature of many of the administration's actions and by its inability to secure political support. Moreover, the stabilization plan failed because of management errors coupled with defensive actions by segments of society that would be most directly hurt by the plan. Confidence in the government was also eroded as a result of the liquidity freeze combined with an alienated industrial sector who had not been consulted in the plan.
After falling more than 80 percent in March 1990, the CPI's monthly rate of growth began increasing again. The best that could be achieved was to stabilize the CPI at a high and slowly rising level. In January 1991, it rose by 19.9%, reaching 32% a month by July 1993. Simultaneously, political instability increased sharply, with negative impacts on the economy. The real GDP declined 4.0% in 1990, increased only 1.1% in 1991, and again declined 0.9% in 1992.
President Collor de Mello was impeached in September 1992 on charges of corruption. Vice president Itamar Franco was sworn in as president (1992–94), but he had to grapple to form a stable cabinet and to gather political support. The weakness of the interim administration prevented it from tackling inflation effectively. In 1993 the economy grew again, but with inflation rates higher than 30 percent a month, the chances of a durable recovery appeared to be very slim. At the end of the year, it was widely acknowledged that without serious fiscal reform, inflation would remain high and the economy would not sustain growth. This acknowledgment and the pressure of rapidly accelerating inflation finally jolted the government into action. The president appointed a determined minister of finance, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and a high-level team was put in place to develop a new stabilization plan. Implemented early in 1994, the plan met little public resistance because it was discussed widely and it avoided price freezes.
The stabilization program, called Plano Real had three stages: the introduction of an equilibrium budget mandated by the National Congress a process of general indexation (prices, wages, taxes, contracts, and financial assets); and the introduction of a new currency, the Brazilian real (pegged to the dollar). The legally enforced balanced budget would remove expectations regarding inflationary behavior by the public sector. By allowing a realignment of relative prices, general indexation would pave the way for monetary reform. Once this realignment was achieved, the new currency would be introduced, accompanied by appropriate policies (especially the control of expenditures through high interest rates and the liberalization of trade to increase competition and thus prevent speculative behavior).
By the end of the first quarter of 1994, the second stage of the stabilization plan was being implemented. Economists of different schools of thought considered the plan sound and technically consistent.
Post-Real Plan economy (1994–2010)
The Plano Real ("Real Plan"), instituted in the spring 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Plano Real. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and memories of the debt crisis of the 1980s faded.
The Real Plan successfully eliminated inflation, after many failed attempts to control it. Almost 25 million people turned into consumers.
The maintenance of large current account deficits via financial account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt-to-GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency.
The economy grew 4.4% in 2000, but problems in Argentina in 2001, and growing concerns that the presidential candidate considered most likely to win, leftist Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, would default on the debt, triggered a confidence crisis that caused the economy to decelerate. Poverty was down to near 16%.
In 2002, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva won the presidential elections and was re-elected in 2006. During his government, the economy began to grow more rapidly. In 2004, Brazil saw a promising growth of 5.7% in GDP, followed by 2005 with 3.2%, 2006 with 4.0%, 2007 with 6.1% and 2008 with 5.1%. Due to the 2008–10 world financial crisis, Brazil's economy was expected to slow down in 2009 between a decline of −0.5% and a growth of 0.0%. In reality, economic growth continued at a high rate hitting 7.5% in 2010.
2010s economic contraction
Following a boom at the end of the previous decade, Brazil's economy experienced a contraction. Between 2011 and 2015, the value of the real fell from 1.55 reals per US dollar to 4.0 reals. The price of many of the country's main exports fell due to falling demand. From September 2014 to February 2015, Petrobras, the largest energy corporation in Brazil, lost 60% of its market value. Unemployment remained below 6% but began to rise above that in 2015 with the economy overall expected to contract by 25% in 2015 in US dollar terms.
See also
Economy of Brazil
History of Brazil's economic policy
List of economic crises in Brazil
Agriculture in Brazil
Industrialization in Brazil
Latin American debt crisis
La Década Perdida (The Lost Decade)
Economic history of Latin America
References
Works cited
Further reading
Carlson, Chris (2022). "The Agrarian Roots of Divergent Development: A Case Study of Twentieth-Century Brazil". American Sociological Review.
Joao Ayres, Marcio Garcia, Diogo A. Guillén, Patrick J. Kehoe. 2019. "The Monetary and Fiscal History of Brazil, 1960-2016." NBER paper.
Vidal Luna, Francisco, and Herbert S. Klein. 'The Economic and Social History of Brazil since 1889 (Cambridge University Press, 2014) 439 pp. online review
Serrano, Franklin and Ricardo Summa. Aggregate Demand and the Slowdown of Brazilian Economic Growth from 2011–2014, from the Center for Economic and Policy Research, August 2015
In Portuguese |
4311692 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Infantry%20Regiment%20%28United%20States%29 | 1st Infantry Regiment (United States) | The 1st Infantry Regiment is a regiment of the United States Army that draws its lineage from a line of post American Revolutionary War units and is credited with thirty-nine campaign streamers. The 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry is assigned as support to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and to furnish the enlisted garrison for the academy and the Stewart Army Subpost. 2nd Battalion, 1st Infantry Regiment is an infantry component serving with the 2nd Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division at Joint Base Lewis–McChord, Washington.
History
Origins
On 3 March 1791, Congress added to the Army "The Second Regiment of Infantry" from which today's First Infantry draws its heritage. In September of that year, elements of it and the original 1st Infantry Regiment (today's 3rd United States Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard)), with sizable militia complements, all under command of General Arthur St. Clair, were sent against the Native American nations of the Ohio country. St. Clair served as a major general in the Continental Army and was now appointed "General in Chief," superseding the first commander of the regiment, Josiah Harmar. Fighting against the Miamis, St. Clair's soldiers were untrained, ill-equipped, underfed, and sickly. This resulted in a disastrous defeat in which the entire U.S. Army suffered a loss of about 700 killed and some 300 wounded out of a total strength of around 1,700, with some 100 civilians killed and 50 wounded as well.
Early history
In 1792, Congress created the Legion of the United States, which was a combined arms force of infantry, cavalry, and artillery under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne. MG Wayne had become a hero of the Revolutionary War when he led a small force against a larger British force to regain control of Stony Point, a crucial point on the Hudson River just south of West Point, New York. This Legion in which the Second Infantry became the "Infantry of the Second Sub-Legion," finally decisively defeated the Northwest Indian confederacy and its British support at Fallen Timbers in the Old Northwest (Ohio Country) on 20 August 1794.
In the War of 1812, the 2nd Infantry Regiment as well as the 7th and 44th Infantry Regiments, fought in the southern theater to include the Battle of New Orleans with General Andrew Jackson. This gives the regiment campaign credit for the War of 1812.
First Indian War period
The 2nd Infantry was consolidated May–October 1815 with the 3rd and 7th Infantry (both constituted 12 April 1808), and 44th Infantry (constituted 29 January 1813) to form the 1st Infantry Regiment. In the ensuing years the regiment was primarily concerned with Indian conflicts and the 1st was involved in the Black Hawk War of 1832 and the Second Seminole War from 1839 to 1842. During this time the regiment was commanded by many, now famous commanders including, Colonel Zachary Taylor, who would later become the 12th President of the United States and Second Lieutenant Jefferson Davis, who would become the President of the Confederate States in the American Civil War.
War with Mexico
When War broke out with Mexico in 1846, the 1st Infantry Regiment was sent across the border with General Zachary Taylor's Army and participated in the storming of Monterrey where the regiment fought house to house in savage hand-to-hand combat. From Monterrey, the regiment was transferred to General Winfield Scott's command and participated in the first modern amphibious landing in American history at Vera Cruz in 1847.
Second Indian War period
Following the Mexican–American War, the regiment campaigned in the Texas area against the Comanches until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861.
Civil War
After escaping from rebel forces in Texas the regiment returned to the Mid-west and fought in the Mississippi area of operations. The regiment fought in one of the first battles of the Civil War at Wilson's Creek, Missouri, in August 1861. The 1st Infantry then campaigned with General Grant against Vicksburg in 1863. The end of the war found the regiment occupying New Orleans, Louisiana.
Third Indian War period
After the Civil War the regiment was sent West to fight the Indians once again. The 1st Infantry was consolidated in April 1869 with the 43d Infantry Regiment, Veteran Reserve Corps (constituted 21 September 1865) and consolidated unit designated as the 1st Infantry Regiment. 1st Infantry Regiment campaigned against the Sioux in the 1870s and 1890s and against the Apache, led by Geronimo, from 1882 to 1886.
One member of the regiment was awarded the Medal of Honor for service during this period: 1st Lt. Marion P. Maus, 11 January 1886, Sierra Madre Mountains, Mexico.
After the end of the Indian wars the regiment was occupied with quelling labor disputes in California.
Spanish–American War
War was declared with Spain in 1898 following the sinking of the USS Maine. The First was quickly sent to Florida where it embarked on ships and was sent to Cuba. While in Cuba the regiment took part in the storming of the San Juan Heights and the capture of Santiago.
Philippine–American War
In 1900, following occupation duty in Cuba, the regiment was preparing for shipment to China to participate in the Boxer Rebellion. Instead, the regiment was detoured to deal with the rebellion on the Philippine Islands which had also been captured by the United States in the Spanish–American War. The regiment would fight in this guerrilla war in the Philippines from 1900 to 1902 and again from 1906 to 1908.
Subsequently, the regiment was redeployed to garrison duties in Oahu, Hawaii and commanded by Colonel George K. McGunnegle.
World War I
1st Infantry Regiment was assigned on 11 September 1918 to the 13th Division at Fort Lewis. 13th ID never left Fort Lewis, and demobilized there on 8 March 1919. 1st IR was relieved on 8 March 1919 from assignment to the 13th Division and resumed separate regiment status. The regiment was again assigned 27 July 1921, this time to the 2nd Division, which was headquartered at Fort Sam Houston, and assigned to the U.S. VIII Corps.
World War II
The regiment was stationed at Camp Jackson, South Carolina, where it was relieved 16 October 1939 from assignment to the 2nd Division and assigned to the 6th Division. The 6th Division arrived at Fort Jackson on 1939-11-09, and the 1st IR traveled with the division from that point forward. The 1st IR moved to Fort Benning, Georgia on 1940-04-09 to prepare for a series of maneuvers. The 1st IR participated in the Sabine, Louisiana – Texas Maneuver on 1940-05-09. They then moved to Fort Francis E. Warren, Wyoming on 1940-06-03, and then to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas on 1941-04-02, followed by Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri on 1941-05-20. They then moved to Tennessee to participate in maneuvers there. This was followed by a training cycle at the Desert Training Center, while billeted at the Camp Young billeting area from 1942-12-10. The regiment then staged at Camp San Luis Obispo, California on 1943-03-23.
The regiment departed from the San Francisco, California Port of Embarkation on 1943-09-19, and arrived in Hawaii on 1943-09-26.
The 1st IR departed Hawaii on 1944-01-26, and arrived at Milne Bay, New Guinea on 1944-02-07 to participate in the New Guinea Campaign.
1st IR departed Milne Bay on 1944-06-01, and arrived at Toem on 1944-06-14.
1st IR assaulted Sansapor on 1944-07-30, and left New Guinea on 1944-12-26 with the end of the New Guinea Campaign taking place on 1944-12-31.
The 1st IR won a Presidential Unit Citation for its action at Milne Bay.
1st IR assaulted Lingayen Gulf on the Philippine Island of Luzon on 1945-01-09 to participate in the Luzon Campaign.
1st IR moved to Sixth Army Reserve status from 1945-02-10 to 1945-02-23, when they returned to the Luzon Campaign.
1st IR attached to 38th Infantry Division from 1945-04-28 to 1945-05-01, and then was attached to the XI Corps from 1945-06-10 to 1945-06-25, when they returned to 6th Infantry Division Control.
The Luzon Campaign concluded on 1945-07-04.
1st IR was located at Bagabag, Philippine Islands on 1945-08-14. They then moved to Korea on 1945-10-24, which they Occupied through 1949, with garrisons in Taegu and Pusan.
Cold War
Korean War and reactivation
On 10 January 1949, 1st IR was inactivated in Korea, and then was reactivated on 4 October 1950 at Fort Ord, California as a training regiment for units being sent to the fight in Korea. On 3 April 1956, the regiment was relieved from assignment to the 6th Infantry Division, and then was assigned on 15 May 1956 to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. On 15 May 1958 the regiment was reorganized under the Combat Arms Regimental System as HHC, 1st Battle Group, 1st Infantry Regiment.
In 1960, the 1st Battle Group, 1st Infantry was reorganized under a concept that provided sufficient tactics instructors in the permanent party for continuity, but called for outside augmentation for the summer training program. This left the battle group with a Headquarters, Headquarters and Training Company, Service Company, Airborne Detachment, the 2nd Aviation Detachment, the USMA Band, Detachment 1 and 2 United States Army Hospital, and saw the attachment of the 50th Engineer Battalion (Construction) and the 57th Military Police Company. The old Military Police Detachment personnel formed the nucleus of the newly attached 57th Military Police Company.
On 16 May 1961, the mission of providing tactical instruction for the Corps of Cadets along with the personnel involved, was transferred to a newly created Office of Military Instruction in the Department of Tactics. All enlisted personnel remained assigned to the battle group. On 1 February 1962, Service Company was eliminated and its personnel absorbed into Headquarters Company.
On 1 January 1965, the 1st Battle Group, 1st Infantry was redesigned as the 1st Battalion, 1st Infantry. With the exception of transferring tactical instruction to the Office of Military Instruction (now DMI) in 1961, its mission was essentially unchanged. The 2nd Battalion was then assigned to Fort Benning, Georgia.
Vietnam War
In 1966, the 2nd Battalion was deployed to Vietnam with the 196th Light Infantry Brigade (196th LIB). In 1967 the 3rd Battalion was activated at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii as part of the 11th Infantry Brigade. After the 11th Brigade arrived in Vietnam, both battalions became components of the Americal Division. These two battalions earned fourteen campaign streamers for the regiment during the war in Vietnam. Also in 1967, the 4th, 5th, and 6th Battalions were activated on 24 November and assigned to the 6th Infantry Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. The battalions at Fort Campbell were relieved from assignment to the 6th Infantry Division on 24 July 1968, and inactivated on 21 July 1969.
The 11th Infantry Brigade returned home in 1971, at which time 3rd Battalion was deactivated.
On 11 April 1972 the 2nd Battalion was flown into Phu Bai Combat Base from Danang to provide base security. On 12 April 1972 approximately 50 men from Company C, 2nd Battalion refused to go on a combat patrol in the hills west of Phu Bai, but eventually undertook the patrol. The 2nd Battalion commander Lieutenant colonel Frederick P. Mitchell blamed television newsmen and journalists for inciting the combat refusal.
The 196th Light Infantry Brigade was the last combat brigade to leave Vietnam in June 1972.
Following its tour of duty in Vietnam the 2nd Battalion was sent to Fort Lewis, Washington, where it became part of the 9th Infantry Division. In January 1991 the battalion became part of the 199th Infantry Brigade at Fort Polk, Louisiana, where it remained until inactivation in 1994.
1st Infantry soldiers awarded the Medal of Honor for service in Vietnam:
Specialist Four Thomas J. McMahon, Company A, 2nd Battalion, 19 January 1969, Quang Tin Province (posthumous)
Specialist Four Donald Sloat, 3rd Platoon, Delta Company, 2nd Battalion, 17 January 1970, Quảng Nam Province (posthumous)
Private First Class David F. Winder, HQ & HQ Company, 3rd Battalion, 13 May 1970 (posthumous)
Recent history (1994–present)
Reactivation
On 16 December 1994 the 2nd Battalion was reactivated at Fort Wainwright as part of the 6th Infantry Division (Light), which was reduced in size and reflagged as the 172nd Infantry Brigade (Separate) in April 1998.
Iraq War
In August 2005 2nd Battalion was deployed, along with the 172nd Stryker Brigade, to Mosul Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The battalion conducted counter insurgency operations aimed at securing the city of Mosul from an insurgency headed by the terrorist organization al-Qaeda in Iraq. After 12 months in Mosul 2nd Battalion was preparing to return to home station at Fort Wainwright, Alaska when their deployment was unexpectedly extended by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. The 2nd Battalion, along with the entire 172nd Infantry Brigade, was subsequently sent to Baghdad, Iraq to quell rising sectarian violence. The 2nd Battalion returned home in December 2006 after 16 months in Iraq. It was inactivated on 16 December when the 172nd was reflagged as the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team, 25th Infantry Division, and the 2-1st Infantry was reflagged as the 1st Battalion, 24th Infantry.
War in Afghanistan
The battalion was reactivated on 17 April 2007 as part of the 5th Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division at Fort Lewis. On 17 February 2009, President Obama ordered 4,000 soldiers of 5th Stryker Brigade Combat Team to Afghanistan, along with 8,000 Marines. The deployment came as a result of the then-worsening situation in the Afghan war. These soldiers were to be deployed in the southeast, on the Afghan border. The brigade was scheduled to return to Joint Base Lewis–McChord in July 2010. After it returned, on 22 July, the 5th BCT was reflagged as the 2nd BCT of the 2nd ID and the battalion continued to serve with the latter.
From June 2009 to June 2010, a group of U.S. Army soldiers from the 1st Infantry Regiment based in FOB RAMROD perpetrated the murders of at least three Afghan civilians. Body parts of the victims, such as finger bones and a skull were collected by the soldiers as war trophies.
Honors
Campaign participation credit
War of 1812
Canada
Lundy's Lane
New Orleans
Alabama 1814
Florida 1814
Alabama 1815
Louisiana 1815
Mexican–American War
Monterey
Vera Cruz
Civil War
Mississippi River
Vicksburg
Missouri 1861
Texas 1861
Mississippi 1862
Indian Wars
Miami
Creeks
Seminoles
Black Hawk
Apaches
Pine Ridge
Texas 1850
Spanish–American War
Santiago
Philippine–American War
Samar 1901
World War II
New Guinea (with arrowhead)
Luzon (with arrowhead)
Vietnam
Counteroffensive, Phase II
Counteroffensive, Phase III
Tet Counteroffensive
Counteroffensive, Phase IV
Counteroffensive, Phase V
Counteroffensive, Phase VI
Tet 69/Counteroffensive
Summer–Fall 1969
Winter–Spring 1970
Sanctuary Counteroffensive
Counteroffensive, Phase VII
Consolidation I
Consolidation II
Cease-Fire
War on Terrorism
Operation Iraqi Freedom III
Operation Iraqi Freedom IV
Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan)
Decorations
Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Maffin Bay
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation for 17 October 1944 TO 4 July 1945
Valorous Unit Award
for Quang Tin Province
for Iraq 15 August 2005 to 15 December 2006
Notable awards / commendations
Corporal (R) Stephen Sanford, Company C, 2nd Battalion, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for actions in Mosul Iraq during the unit's deployment.
Sergeant First Class Peter Lara, Company C, 2nd Battalion, was awarded the Silver Star for actions in Mosul Iraq during the unit's deployment.
Heraldry
Coat of arms
Blazon
Shield: Per bend Gules and Azure, on a bend or a bendlet Argent indented of seven and counter indented of the same fimbriated Sable.
Crest: On a wreath of the colors Or and Gules the Arabic numeral "1" Azure fimbriated Or within a garland of laurel Vert.
Motto: Semper Primus (Always First).
Symbolism
The regiment has a history of fighting in all the wars of the country and a logical grouping divides its campaigns or wars into 14 groups. These are heraldically represented by the 14 notches on the diagonal band across the shield.
The upper part of the shield is red, this was the color of the old 2nd Sub-legion. The lower part is blue the modern Infantry color.
The crest with the numeral within the laurel wreath of Victory and the motto long in use by the regiment are self-explanatory.
Background
The coat of arms was originally approved on 1922-03-15.
It was amended on 1959-08-10.
On 1968-11-08 the coat of arms was amended to correct the wording in the blazon of the shield and motto.
It was amended on 1999-11-04 to correct the blazon.
Distinctive unit insignia
Description
A gold color metal and enamel device in height overall consisting of a shield emblazoned: Per bend Gules and Azure, on a bend or a bendlet Argent indented of seven counter indented of the same fimbriated Sable, the shield surmounting a gold color metal oval belt with three blue enamel stripes parallel to the edges of the oval and surmounted by a plain gold color metal buckle in base and a gold color metal band on each side of the shield bearing the motto "SEMPER" on the dexter band and "PRIMUS" on the sinister band in red enamel letters.
Symbolism
The regiment has a history of fighting in all the wars of the country and a logical grouping divides its campaigns or wars into 14 groups. These are heraldically represented by the 14 notches on the diagonal band across the shield.
The upper part of the shield is red, this was the color of the old 2nd Sub-legion.
The lower part is blue the modern Infantry color.
The motto long in use by the regiment is self-explanatory.
Background
The distinctive unit insignia was originally approved on 1923-09-08.
It was amended on 1999-11-04 to add the symbolism and the metric measurements.
See also
List of United States Regular Army Civil War units
References
External links
The 1st Regiment, United States Infantry official website
0001
001st Infantry Regiment
001st Infantry Regiment
001st Infantry Regiment
001st Infantry Regiment
1791 establishments in the United States
Military units and formations established in 1791
United States Army regiments of World War I |
4311867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUID | CPUID | In the x86 architecture, the CPUID instruction (identified by a CPUID opcode) is a processor supplementary instruction (its name derived from CPU Identification) allowing software to discover details of the processor. It was introduced by Intel in 1993 with the launch of the Pentium and SL-enhanced 486 processors.
A program can use the CPUID to determine processor type and whether features such as MMX/SSE are implemented.
History
Prior to the general availability of the CPUID instruction, programmers would write esoteric machine code which exploited minor differences in CPU behavior in order to determine the processor make and model. With the introduction of the 80386 processor, EDX on reset indicated the revision but this was only readable after reset and there was no standard way for applications to read the value.
Outside the x86 family, developers are mostly still required to use esoteric processes (involving instruction timing or CPU fault triggers) to determine the variations in CPU design that are present.
In the Motorola 680x0 family — that never had a CPUID instruction of any kind — certain specific instructions required elevated privileges. These could be used to tell various CPU family members apart. In the Motorola 68010 the instruction MOVE from SR became privileged. This notable instruction (and state machine) change allowed the 68010 to meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements. Because the 68000 offered an unprivileged MOVE from SR the 2 different CPUs could be told apart by a CPU error condition being triggered.
While the CPUID instruction is specific to the x86 architecture, other architectures (like ARM) often provide on-chip registers which can be read in prescribed ways to obtain the same sorts of information provided by the x86 CPUID instruction.
Calling CPUID
The CPUID opcode is 0F A2.
In assembly language, the CPUID instruction takes no parameters as CPUID implicitly uses the EAX register to determine the main category of information returned. In Intel's more recent terminology, this is called the CPUID leaf. CPUID should be called with EAX = 0 first, as this will store in the EAX register the highest EAX calling parameter (leaf) that the CPU implements.
To obtain extended function information CPUID should be called with the most significant bit of EAX set. To determine the highest extended function calling parameter, call CPUID with EAX = 80000000h.
CPUID leaves greater than 3 but less than 80000000 are accessible only when the model-specific registers have IA32_MISC_ENABLE.BOOT_NT4 [bit 22] = 0 (which is so by default). As the name suggests, Windows NT 4.0 until SP6 did not boot properly unless this bit was set, but later versions of Windows do not need it, so basic leaves greater than 4 can be assumed visible on current Windows systems. , basic valid leaves go up to 14h, but the information returned by some leaves are not disclosed in the publicly available documentation, i.e. they are "reserved".
Some of the more recently added leaves also have sub-leaves, which are selected via the ECX register before calling CPUID.
EAX=0: Highest Function Parameter and Manufacturer ID
This returns the CPU's manufacturer ID string a twelve-character ASCII string stored in EBX, EDX, ECX (in that order). The highest basic calling parameter (the largest value that EAX can be set to before calling CPUID) is returned in EAX.
Here is a list of processors and the highest function implemented.
The following are known processor manufacturer ID strings:
"AMDisbetter!" early engineering samples of AMD K5 processor
"AuthenticAMD" AMD
"CentaurHauls" IDT WinChip/Centaur (Including some VIA and Zhaoxin CPUs)
"CyrixInstead" Cyrix/early STMicroelectronics and IBM
"GenuineIntel" Intel
"TransmetaCPU" Transmeta
"GenuineTMx86" Transmeta
"Geode by NSC" National Semiconductor
"NexGenDriven" NexGen
"RiseRiseRise" Rise
"SiS SiS SiS " SiS
"UMC UMC UMC " UMC
"VIA VIA VIA " VIA
"Vortex86 SoC" DM&P Vortex86
" Shanghai " Zhaoxin
"HygonGenuine" Hygon
"Genuine RDC" RDC Semiconductor Co. Ltd.
"E2K MACHINE" MCST Elbrus
The following are ID strings used by open source soft CPU cores:
"MiSTer AO486" ao486 CPU
"GenuineIntel" v586 core (this is identical to the Intel ID string)
The following are known ID strings from virtual machines:
"bhyve bhyve " bhyve
"KVMKVMKVM\0\0\0" KVM, \0 denotes an ASCII NUL character
"TCGTCGTCGTCG" QEMU
"Microsoft Hv" Microsoft Hyper-V or Windows Virtual PC
"MicrosoftXTA" – Microsoft x86-to-ARM
" lrpepyh vr" Parallels (it possibly should be "prl hyperv ", but it is encoded as " lrpepyh vr" due to an endianness mismatch)
"VMwareVMware" VMware
"XenVMMXenVMM" Xen HVM
"ACRNACRNACRN" Project ACRN
" QNXQVMBSQG " QNX Hypervisor
"GenuineIntel" Apple Rosetta 2
"VirtualApple" – Newer versions of Apple Rosetta 2
For instance, on a GenuineIntel processor values returned in EBX is 0x756e6547, EDX is 0x49656e69 and ECX is 0x6c65746e. The following example code displays the vendor ID string as well as the highest calling parameter that the CPU implements.
.intel_syntax noprefix
.text
.m0: .string "CPUID: %x\n"
.m1: .string "Largest basic function number implemented: %i\n"
.m2: .string "Vendor ID: %s\n"
.globl main
main:
push r12
mov eax, 1
sub rsp, 16
cpuid
lea rdi, .m0[rip]
mov esi, eax
call printf
mov eax, 0
cpuid
lea rdi, .m1[rip]
mov esi, eax
mov r12d, edx
mov ebp, ecx
call printf
mov 3[rsp], ebx
lea rsi, 3[rsp]
lea rdi, .m2[rip]
mov 7[rsp], r12d
mov 11[rsp], ebp
call printf
add rsp, 16
pop r12
ret
.section .note.GNU-stack,"",@progbits
EAX=1: Processor Info and Feature Bits
This returns the CPU's stepping, model, and family information in register EAX (also called the signature of a CPU), feature flags in registers EDX and ECX, and additional feature info in register EBX.
Stepping ID is a product revision number assigned due to fixed errata or other changes.
The actual processor model is derived from the Model, Extended Model ID and Family ID fields. If the Family ID field is either 6 or 15, the model is equal to the sum of the Extended Model ID field shifted left by 4 bits and the Model field. Otherwise, the model is equal to the value of the Model field.
The actual processor family is derived from the Family ID and Extended Family ID fields. If the Family ID field is equal to 15, the family is equal to the sum of the Extended Family ID and the Family ID fields. Otherwise, the family is equal to the value of the Family ID field.
The meaning of the Processor Type field is given in the table below.
As of October 2023, the following x86 processor family IDs are known:
The processor info and feature flags are manufacturer specific but usually, the Intel values are used by other manufacturers for the sake of compatibility.
Reserved fields should be masked before using them for processor identification purposes.
EAX=2: Cache and TLB Descriptor information
This returns a list of descriptors indicating cache and TLB capabilities in EAX, EBX, ECX and EDX registers.
On processors that support this leaf, calling CPUID with EAX=2 will cause the bottom byte of EAX to be set to 01h and the remaining 15 bytes of EAX/EBX/ECX/EDX to be filled with 15 descriptors, one byte each. These descriptors provide information about the processor's caches, TLBs and prefetch. This is typically one cache or TLB per descriptor, but some descriptor-values provide other information as well - in particular, 00h is used for an empty descriptor, FFh indicates that the leaf does not contain valid cache information and that leaf 4h should be used instead, and FEh indicates that the leaf does not contain valid TLB information and that leaf 18h should be used instead. The descriptors may appear in any order.
For each of the four registers (EAX,EBX,ECX,EDX), if bit 31 is set, then the register should not be considered to contain valid descriptors (e.g. on Itanium in IA-32 mode, CPUID(EAX=2) returns 80000000h in EDX - this should be interpreted to mean that EDX contains no valid information, not that it contains a 512K L2 cache.)
The table below provides, for known descriptor values, a condensed description of the cache or TLB indicated by that descriptor value (or other information, where that applies). The suffixes used in the table are:
K,M,G : binary kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte (capacity for caches, page-size for TLBs)
E : entries (for TLBs; e.g. 64E = 64 entries)
p : page-size (e.g. 4Kp for TLBs where each entry describes one 4KByte page, 4K/2Mp for TLBs where each entry can describe either one 4Kbyte page or one 2MByte hugepage)
L : cache-line size (e.g. 32L = 32-byte cache line size)
S : cache sector size (e.g. 2S means that the cache uses sectors of 2 cache-lines each)
A : associativity (e.g. 6A = 6-way set-associative, FA = fully-associative)
EAX=3: Processor Serial Number
This returns the processor's serial number. The processor serial number was introduced on Intel Pentium III, but due to privacy concerns, this feature is no longer implemented on later models (the PSN feature bit is always cleared). Transmeta's Efficeon and Crusoe processors also provide this feature. AMD CPUs however, do not implement this feature in any CPU models.
For Intel Pentium III CPUs, the serial number is returned in the EDX:ECX registers. For Transmeta Efficeon CPUs, it is returned in the EBX:EAX registers. And for Transmeta Crusoe CPUs, it is returned in the EBX register only.
Note that the processor serial number feature must be enabled in the BIOS setting in order to function.
EAX=4 and EAX=Bh: Intel thread/core and cache topology
These two leaves are used for processor topology (thread, core, package) and cache hierarchy enumeration in Intel multi-core (and hyperthreaded) processors. AMD does not use these leaves but has alternate ways of doing the core enumeration.
Unlike most other CPUID leaves, leaf Bh will return different values in EDX depending on which logical processor the CPUID instruction runs; the value returned in EDX is actually the x2APIC id of the logical processor. The x2APIC id space is not continuously mapped to logical processors, however; there can be gaps in the mapping, meaning that some intermediate x2APIC ids don't necessarily correspond to any logical processor. Additional information for mapping the x2APIC ids to cores is provided in the other registers. Although the leaf Bh has sub-leaves (selected by ECX as described further below), the value returned in EDX is only affected by the logical processor on which the instruction is running but not by the subleaf.
The processor(s) topology exposed by leaf Bh is a hierarchical one, but with the strange caveat that the order of (logical) levels in this hierarchy doesn't necessarily correspond to the order in the physical hierarchy (SMT/core/package). However, every logical level can be queried as an ECX subleaf (of the Bh leaf) for its correspondence to a "level type", which can be either SMT, core, or "invalid". The level id space starts at 0 and is continuous, meaning that if a level id is invalid, all higher level ids will also be invalid. The level type is returned in bits 15:08 of ECX, while the number of logical processors at the level queried is returned in EBX. Finally, the connection between these levels and x2APIC ids is returned in EAX[4:0] as the number of bits that the x2APIC id must be shifted in order to obtain a unique id at the next level.
As an example, a dual-core Westmere processor capable of hyperthreading (thus having two cores and four threads in total) could have x2APIC ids 0, 1, 4 and 5 for its four logical processors. Leaf Bh (=EAX), subleaf 0 (=ECX) of CPUID could for instance return 100h in ECX, meaning that level 0 describes the SMT (hyperthreading) layer, and return 2 in EBX because there are two logical processors (SMT units) per physical core. The value returned in EAX for this 0-subleaf should be 1 in this case, because shifting the aforementioned x2APIC ids to the right by one bit gives a unique core number (at the next level of the level id hierarchy) and erases the SMT id bit inside each core. A simpler way to interpret this information is that the last bit (bit number 0) of the x2APIC id identifies the SMT/hyperthreading unit inside each core in our example. Advancing to subleaf 1 (by making another call to CPUID with EAX=Bh and ECX=1) could for instance return 201h in ECX, meaning that this is a core-type level, and 4 in EBX because there are 4 logical processors in the package; EAX returned could be any value greater than 3, because it so happens that bit number 2 is used to identify the core in the x2APIC id. Note that bit number 1 of the x2APIC id is not used in this example. However, EAX returned at this level could well be 4 (and it happens to be so on a Clarkdale Core i3 5x0) because that also gives a unique id at the package level (=0 obviously) when shifting the x2APIC id by 4 bits. Finally, you may wonder what the EAX=4 leaf can tell us that we didn't find out already. In EAX[31:26] it returns the APIC mask bits reserved for a package; that would be 111b in our example because bits 0 to 2 are used for identifying logical processors inside this package, but bit 1 is also reserved although not used as part of the logical processor identification scheme. In other words, APIC ids 0 to 7 are reserved for the package, even though half of these values don't map to a logical processor.
The cache hierarchy of the processor is explored by looking at the sub-leaves of leaf 4. The APIC ids are also used in this hierarchy to convey information about how the different levels of cache are shared by the SMT units and cores. To continue our example, the L2 cache, which is shared by SMT units of the same core but not between physical cores on the Westmere is indicated by EAX[26:14] being set to 1, while the information that the L3 cache is shared by the whole package is indicated by setting those bits to (at least) 111b. The cache details, including cache type, size, and associativity are communicated via the other registers on leaf 4.
Beware that older versions of the Intel app note 485 contain some misleading information, particularly with respect to identifying and counting cores in a multi-core processor; errors from misinterpreting this information have even been incorporated in the Microsoft sample code for using CPUID, even for the 2013 edition of Visual Studio, and also in the sandpile.org page for CPUID, but the Intel code sample for identifying processor topology has the correct interpretation, and the current Intel Software Developer’s Manual has a more clear language. The (open source) cross-platform production code from Wildfire Games also implements the correct interpretation of the Intel documentation.
Topology detection examples involving older (pre-2010) Intel processors that lack x2APIC (thus don't implement the EAX=Bh leaf) are given in a 2010 Intel presentation. Beware that using that older detection method on 2010 and newer Intel processors may overestimate the number of cores and logical processors because the old detection method assumes there are no gaps in the APIC id space, and this assumption is violated by some newer processors (starting with the Core i3 5x0 series), but these newer processors also come with an x2APIC, so their topology can be correctly determined using the EAX=Bh leaf method.
EAX=6: Thermal and power management
This returns feature bits in the EAX register and additional information in the EBX, ECX and EDX registers.
EAX=7, ECX=0: Extended Features
This returns extended feature flags in EBX, ECX, and EDX. Returns the maximum ECX value for EAX=7 in EAX.
EAX=7, ECX=1: Extended Features
This returns extended feature flags in EAX, EBX, and EDX. ECX is reserved.
EAX=7, ECX=2: Extended Features
This returns extended feature flags in EDX.
EAX, EBX and ECX are reserved.
EAX=0Dh: XSAVE features and state-components
This leaf is used to enumerate XSAVE features and state-components.
The XSAVE instruction set extension is designed to save/restore CPU extended state (typically for the purpose of context switching) in a manner that can be extended to cover new instruction set extensions without the OS context-switching code needing to understand the specifics of the new extensions. This is done by defining a series of state-components, each with a size and offset within a given save area, and each corresponding to a subset of the state needed for one CPU extension or another. The EAX=0Dh CPUID leaf is used to provide information about which state-components the CPU supports and what their sizes/offsets are, so that the OS can reserve the proper amount of space and set the associated enable-bits.
The state-components can be subdivided into two groups: user-state (state-items that are visible to the application, e.g. AVX-512 vector registers), and supervisor-state (state items that affect the application but are not directly user-visible, e.g. user-mode interrupt configuration). The user-state items are enabled by setting their associated bits in the XCR0 control register, while the supervisor-state items are enabled by setting their associated bits in the IA32_XSS (0DA0h) MSR - the indicated state items then become the state-components that can be saved and restored with the XSAVE/XRSTOR family of instructions.
The XSAVE mechanism can handle up to 63 state-components in this manner. State-components 0 and 1 (x87 and SSE, respectively) have fixed offsets and sizes - for state-components 2 to 62, their sizes, offsets and a few additional flags can be queried by executing CPUID with EAX=0Dh and ECX set to the index of the state-component. This will return the following items in EAX, EBX and ECX (with EDX being reserved):
Attempting to query an unsupported state-component in this manner results in EAX,EBX,ECX and EDX all being set to 0.
Sub-leaves 0 and 1 of CPUID leaf 0Dh are used to provide feature information:
As of July 2023, the XSAVE state-components that have been architecturally defined are:
EAX=12h: SGX capabilities
This leaf provides information about the supported capabilities of the Intel Software Guard Extensions (SGX) feature. The leaf provides multiple sub-leaves, selected with ECX.
Sub-leaf 0 provides information about supported SGX leaf functions in EAX and maximum supported SGX enclave sizes in EDX; ECX is reserved. EBX provides a bitmap of bits that can be set in the MISCSELECT field in the SECS (SGX Enclave Control Structure) - this field is used to control information written to the MISC region of the SSA (SGX Save State Area) when an AEX (SGX Asynchronous Enclave Exit) occurs.
Sub-leaf 1 provides a bitmap of which bits can be set in the 128-bit ATTRIBUTES field of SECS in EDX:ECX:EBX:EAX (this applies to the SECS copy used as input to the ENCLS[ECREATE] leaf function). The top 64 bits (given in EDX:ECX) are a bitmap of which bits can be set in the XFRM (X-feature request mask) - this mask is a bitmask of which CPU state-components (see leaf 0Dh) will be saved to the SSA in case of an AEX; this has the same layout as the XCR0 control register. The other bits are given in EAX and EBX, as follows:
Sub-leaves 2 and up are used to provide information about which physical memory regions are available for use as EPC (Enclave Page Cache) sections under SGX.
EAX=14h, ECX=0: Processor Trace
This sub-leaf provides feature information for Intel Processor Trace (also known as Real Time Instruction Trace).
The value returned in EAX is the index of the highest sub-leaf supported for CPUID with EAX=14h. EBX and ECX provide feature flags, EDX is reserved.
EAX=19h: AES Key Locker features
This leaf provides feature information for AES Key Locker in EAX, EBX and ECX. EDX is reserved.
EAX=24h, ECX=0: AVX10 Features
This returns a maximum supported sub-leaf in EAX and AVX10 feature information in EBX. (ECX and EDX are reserved.)
EAX=80000000h: Get Highest Extended Function Implemented
The highest calling parameter is returned in EAX.
EBX/ECX/EDX return the manufacturer ID string (same as EAX=0) on AMD but not Intel CPUs.
EAX=80000001h: Extended Processor Info and Feature Bits
This returns extended feature flags in EDX and ECX.
Many of the bits in EDX (bits 0 through 9, 12 through 17, 23, and 24) are duplicates of EDX from the EAX=1 leaf - these bits are highlighted in light yellow. (These duplicated bits are present on AMD but not Intel CPUs.)
AMD feature flags are as follows:
EAX=80000002h,80000003h,80000004h: Processor Brand String
These return the processor brand string in EAX, EBX, ECX and EDX. CPUID must be issued with each parameter in sequence to get the entire 48-byte ASCII processor brand string. It is necessary to check whether the feature is present in the CPU by issuing CPUID with EAX = 80000000h first and checking if the returned value is not less than 80000004h.
The string is specified in Intel/AMD documentation to be null-terminated, however this is not always the case (e.g. DM&P Vortex86DX3 and AMD Ryzen 7 6800HS are known to return non-null-terminated brand strings in leaves 80000002h-80000004h), and software should not rely on it.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <cpuid.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int regs[12];
char str[sizeof(regs)+1];
__cpuid(0x80000000, regs[0], regs[1], regs[2], regs[3]);
if (regs[0] < 0x80000004)
return 1;
__cpuid(0x80000002, regs[0], regs[1], regs[2], regs[3]);
__cpuid(0x80000003, regs[4], regs[5], regs[6], regs[7]);
__cpuid(0x80000004, regs[8], regs[9], regs[10], regs[11]);
memcpy(str, regs, sizeof(regs));
str[sizeof(regs)] = '\0';
printf("%s\n", str);
return 0;
}
EAX=80000005h: L1 Cache and TLB Identifiers
This function contains the processor’s L1 cache and TLB characteristics.
EAX=80000006h: Extended L2 Cache Features
Returns details of the L2 cache in ECX, including the line size in bytes (Bits 07 - 00), type of associativity (encoded by a 4 bits field; Bits 15 - 12) and the cache size in KB (Bits 31 - 16).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <cpuid.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int eax, ebx, ecx, edx;
unsigned int lsize, assoc, cache;
__cpuid(0x80000006, eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
lsize = ecx & 0xff;
assoc = (ecx >> 12) & 0x07;
cache = (ecx >> 16) & 0xffff;
printf("Line size: %d B, Assoc. type: %d, Cache size: %d KB.\n", lsize, assoc, cache);
return 0;
}
EAX=80000007h: Processor Power Management Information and RAS Capabilities
This function provides information about power management, power reporting and RAS (Reliability, availability and serviceability) capabilities of the CPU.
EAX=80000008h: Virtual and Physical address Sizes
EAX=8000000Ah: Secure Virtual Machine features
This leaf returns information about AMD SVM (Secure Virtual Machine) features in EAX, EBX and EDX.
EAX=8000001Fh: Encrypted Memory Capabilities
EAX=80000021h: Extended Feature Identification 2
EAX=8FFFFFFFh: AMD Easter Egg
Several AMD CPU models will, for CPUID with EAX=8FFFFFFFh, return an Easter Egg string in EAX, EBX, ECX and EDX. Known Easter Egg strings include:
EAX=C0000000h: Get Highest Centaur Extended Function
Returns index of highest Centaur leaf in EAX. If the returned value in EAX is less than C0000001h, then Centaur extended leaves are not supported.
Present in CPUs from VIA and Zhaoxin.
On IDT WinChip CPUs (CentaurHauls Family 5), the extended leaves C0000001h-C0000005h do not encode any Centaur-specific functionality but are instead aliases of leaves 80000001h-80000005h.
EAX=C0000001h: Centaur Feature Information
This leaf returns Centaur feature information (mainly VIA PadLock) in EDX. (EAX, EBX and ECX are reserved.)
CPUID usage from high-level languages
Inline assembly
This information is easy to access from other languages as well. For instance, the C code for gcc below prints the first five values, returned by the cpuid:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <cpuid.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int i, eax, ebx, ecx, edx;
for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
__cpuid(i, eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
printf ("InfoType %x\nEAX: %x\nEBX: %x\nECX: %x\nEDX: %x\n", i, eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
}
return 0;
}
In MSVC and Borland/Embarcadero C compilers (bcc32) flavored inline assembly, the clobbering information is implicit in the instructions:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int a, b, c, d, i = 0;
__asm {
/* Do the call. */
mov EAX, i;
cpuid;
/* Save results. */
mov a, EAX;
mov b, EBX;
mov c, ECX;
mov d, EDX;
}
printf ("InfoType %x\nEAX: %x\nEBX: %x\nECX: %x\nEDX: %x\n", i, a, b, c, d);
return 0;
}
If either version was written in plain assembly language, the programmer must manually save the results of EAX, EBX, ECX, and EDX elsewhere if they want to keep using the values.
Wrapper functions
GCC also provides a header called <cpuid.h> on systems that have CPUID. The __cpuid is a macro expanding to inline assembly. Typical usage would be:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <cpuid.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int eax, ebx, ecx, edx;
__cpuid(0 /* vendor string */, eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
printf("EAX: %x\nEBX: %x\nECX: %x\nEDX: %x\n", eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
return 0;
}
But if one requested an extended feature not present on this CPU, they would not notice and might get random, unexpected results. Safer version is also provided in <cpuid.h>. It checks for extended features and does some more safety checks. The output values are not passed using reference-like macro parameters, but more conventional pointers.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <cpuid.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int eax, ebx, ecx, edx;
/* 0x81234567 is nonexistent, but assume it exists */
if (!__get_cpuid (0x81234567, &eax, &ebx, &ecx, &edx)) {
printf("Warning: CPUID request 0x81234567 not valid!\n");
return 1;
}
printf("EAX: %x\nEBX: %x\nECX: %x\nEDX: %x\n", eax, ebx, ecx, edx);
return 0;
}
Notice the ampersands in &a, &b, &c, &d and the conditional statement. If the __get_cpuid call receives a correct request, it will return a non-zero value, if it fails, zero.
Microsoft Visual C compiler has builtin function __cpuid() so the cpuid instruction may be embedded without using inline assembly, which is handy since the x86-64 version of MSVC does not allow inline assembly at all. The same program for MSVC would be:
#include <stdio.h>
#ifdef
#include <intrin.h>
#endif
int main()
{
unsigned int regs[4];
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
__cpuid(regs, i);
printf("The code %d gives %d, %d, %d, %d", regs[0], regs[1], regs[2], regs[3]);
}
return 0;
}
Many interpreted or compiled scripting languages are capable of using CPUID via an FFI library. One such implementation shows usage of the Ruby FFI module to execute assembly language that includes the CPUID opcode.
.NET 5 and later versions provide the System.Runtime.Intrinsics.X86.X86base.CpuId method. For instance, the C# code below prints the processor brand if it supports CPUID instruction:using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
using System.Runtime.Intrinsics.X86;
using System.Text;
namespace X86CPUID {
class CPUBrandString {
public static void Main(string[] args) {
if (!X86Base.IsSupported) {
Console.WriteLine("Your CPU does not support CPUID instruction.");
} else {
Span<int> raw = stackalloc int[12];
(raw[0], raw[1], raw[2], raw[3]) = X86Base.CpuId(unchecked((int)0x80000002), 0);
(raw[4], raw[5], raw[6], raw[7]) = X86Base.CpuId(unchecked((int)0x80000003), 0);
(raw[8], raw[9], raw[10], raw[11]) = X86Base.CpuId(unchecked((int)0x80000004), 0);
Span<byte> bytes = MemoryMarshal.AsBytes(raw);
string brand = Encoding.UTF8.GetString(bytes).Trim();
Console.WriteLine(brand);
}
}
}
}
CPU-specific information outside x86
Some of the non-x86 CPU architectures also provide certain forms of structured information about the processor's abilities, commonly as a set of special registers:
ARM architectures have a CPUID coprocessor register which requires EL1 or above to access.
The IBM System z mainframe processors have a Store CPU ID (STIDP) instruction since the 1983 IBM 4381 for querying the processor ID.
The IBM System z mainframe processors also have a Store Facilities List Extended (STFLE) instruction which lists the installed hardware features.
The MIPS32/64 architecture defines a mandatory Processor Identification (PrId) and a series of daisy-chained Configuration Registers.
The PowerPC processor has the 32-bit read-only Processor Version Register (PVR) identifying the processor model in use. The instruction requires supervisor access level.
DSP and transputer-like chip families have not taken up the instruction in any noticeable way, in spite of having (in relative terms) as many variations in design. Alternate ways of silicon identification might be present; for example, DSPs from Texas Instruments contain a memory-based register set for each functional unit that starts with identifiers determining the unit type and model, its ASIC design revision and features selected at the design phase, and continues with unit-specific control and data registers. Access to these areas is performed by simply using the existing load and store instructions; thus, for such devices, there is no need for extending the register set for device identification purposes.
See also
CPU-Z, a Windows utility that uses CPUID to identify various system settings
CPU-X, an alternative of CPU-Z for Linux and FreeBSD
Spectre (security vulnerability)
Speculative Store Bypass (SSB)
, a text file generated by certain systems containing some of the CPUID information
References
Further reading
External links
Intel Processor Identification and the CPUID Instruction (Application Note 485), last published version. Said to be incorporated into the Intel® 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual in 2013, but the manual still directs the reader to note 485.
Contains some information that can be and was easily misinterpreted though, particularly with respect to processor topology identification.
The big Intel manuals tend to lag behind the Intel ISA document, available at the top of this page, which is updated even for processors not yet publicly available, and thus usually contains more CPUID bits. For example, as of this writing, the ISA book (at revision 19, dated May 2014) documents the CLFLUSHOPT bit in leaf 7, but the big manuals although apparently more up-to-date (at revision 51, dated June 2014) don't mention it.
AMD64 Architecture Programmer’s Manual Volume 3: General-Purpose and System Instructions
cpuid command-line program for Linux
cpuprint.com, cpuprint.exe, cpuprint.raw command-line programs for Windows
instlatx64 - collection of x86/x64 Instruction Latency, Memory Latency and CPUID dumps
X86 architecture
Machine code
X86 instructions |
4311910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial%20lake%20outburst%20flood | Glacial lake outburst flood | A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a type of outburst flood caused by the failure of a dam containing a glacial lake. An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier, is called a jökulhlaup. The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine. Failure can happen due to erosion, a buildup of water pressure, an avalanche of rock or heavy snow, an earthquake or cryoseism, volcanic eruptions under the ice, or massive displacement of water in a glacial lake when a large portion of an adjacent glacier collapses into it.
Increasing glacial melting because of climate change, alongside other environmental effects of climate change (i.e. permafrost melting) mean that regions with glaciers are likely to see increased flooding risks from GLOFs. This is especially true in the Himalayas where geologies are more active.
A 2023 study found 15 million people at risk from this hazard, mostly in China, India, Pakistan, and Peru.
Definition
A glacial lake outburst flood is a type of outburst flood occurring when water dammed by a glacier or a moraine is released. A water body that is dammed by the front of a glacier is called a marginal lake, and a water body that is capped by the glacier is called a sub-glacial lake. When a marginal lake bursts, it may also be called a marginal lake drainage. When a sub-glacial lake bursts, it may be called a jökulhlaup.
A jökulhlaup is thus a sub-glacial outburst flood. Jökulhlaup is an Icelandic term that has been adopted into the English language, originally referring only to glacial outburst floods from Vatnajökull, which are triggered by volcanic eruptions, but now is accepted to describe any abrupt and large release of sub-glacial water.
Glacial lake volumes vary, but may hold millions to hundreds of millions of cubic metres of water. Catastrophic failure of the containing ice or glacial sediment can release this water over periods of minutes to days. Peak flows as high as 15,000 cubic metres per second have been recorded in such events, suggesting that the v-shaped canyon of a normally small mountain stream could suddenly develop an extremely turbulent and fast-moving torrent some deep. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods are often compounded by a massive river bed erosion in the steep moraine valleys, as a result, the flood peaks increase as they flow downstream until the river reaches, where the sediment deposits. On a downstream floodplain, it suggests a somewhat slower inundation spreading as much as wide. Both scenarios are significant threats to life, property and infrastructure.
Monitoring
The United Nations has a series of monitoring efforts to help prevent death and destruction in regions that are likely to experience these events. The importance of this situation has magnified over the past century due to increased populations, and the increasing number of glacial lakes that have developed due to glacier retreat. While all countries with glaciers are susceptible to this problem, central Asia, the Andes regions of South America and those countries in Europe that have glaciers in the Alps, have been identified as the regions at greatest risk.
There are a number of imminent deadly GLOF situations that have been identified worldwide. The Tsho Rolpa glacier lake is located in the Rolwaling Valley, about northeast of Kathmandu, Nepal, at an altitude of . The lake is dammed by a high unconsolidated terminal moraine dam. The lake is growing larger every year due to the melting and retreat of the Trakarding Glacier, and has become the largest and most dangerous glacier lake in Nepal, with approximately of water stored.
Examples
Asia
India
In June 2013, Kedarnath in Uttarakhand witnessed flash floods along with a GLOF caused by Chorabari Tal, killing thousands of pilgrims, tourists and residents who came to visit the place.
Pakistan
Pakistan has more than 7000 glaciers, which is more than anywhere else in the world, except for the polar regions. As of 2018, more than 3,000 glacial lakes had formed in Gilgit-Baltistan, with 30 identified by the UNDP as posing an imminent threat of glacial lake outburst flooding. In 2017, a "Scaling up of Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Risk Reduction in Northern Pakistan Project" was continued. In 1929, a GLOF from the Chong Khumdan Glacier in the Karakoram caused flooding on the Indus River 1,200 km downstream (a maximum flood rise of 8.1 m at Attock).
Bhutan
GLOFs occur with regularity in the valleys and low lying river plains of Bhutan.
In the recent past, flash floods have occurred in the Thimphu, Paro and Punankha-Wangdue valleys. Of the 2674 glacial lakes in Bhutan, 24 have been identified by a recent study as candidates for GLOFs in the near future. In October 1994, a GLOF upstream from Punakha Dzong caused massive flooding on the Pho Chhu River, damaging the dzong and causing casualties.
In 2001, scientists identified Lake Thorthormi as one that threatened imminent and catastrophic collapse. The situation was eventually relieved by carving a water channel from the lip of the lake to relieve water pressure.
Nepal
Even though GLOF events have been occurring in Nepal for many decades, the 1985 Dig Cho glacial lake outburst has triggered detailed study of this phenomenon. In 1996, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) of Nepal reported that five lakes were potentially dangerous, namely, Dig Tsho, Imja, Lower Barun, Tsho Rolpa, and Thulagi, all lying above 4100 m. A 2001 study done by ICIMOD and UNEP reported 20 potentially dangerous lakes in Nepal. In ten of them GLOF events have occurred in the past few years and some have been regenerating after the event. Additional dangerous glacial lakes may exist in parts of Tibet that are drained by streams crossing into Nepal, raising the possibility of outburst incidents in Tibet causing downstream damage in Nepal. The Gandaki River basin is reported to contain 1025 glaciers and 338 lakes.
The Thulagi glacier located in the Upper Marsyangdi River basin, is one out of the two moraine-dammed lakes (supra-glacial lakes), identified as a potentially dangerous lake. The Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, Frankfurt am Main, the BGR (Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany), in cooperation with the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology in Kathmandu, have carried out studies on the Thulagi Glacier and have concluded in 2011 that even assuming the worst case, a disastrous outburst of the lake can be excluded in the near future.
Tibet
Longbasaba and Pida lakes are two moraine-dammed lakes at an altitude of about 5700 m in the Eastern Himalayas. Due to the rise of temperature, the areas of the Longbasaba and Kaer glaciers decreased by 8.7% and 16.6% from 1978 to 2005. Water from glaciers directly flowed into Longbasaba and Pida lakes, and the area of the two lakes increased by 140% and 194%. According to the report of the Hydrological Department of Tibet in 2006, if a GLOF had occurred at the two lakes, 23 towns and villages, where more than 12,500 people live, would have been endangered.
In Tibet, one of the major barley producing areas of the Tibetan Plateau was destroyed by GLOFs in August 2000. More than 10,000 homes, 98 bridges and dykes were destroyed and its estimated cost was about $75 million. The farming communities faced food shortages that year by losing their grain and livestock.
A major GLOF was reported in 1978 in the valley of the Shaksgam River in the Karakoram, a part of historic Kashmir, ceded by Pakistan to China.
Europe
Iceland
The most famous are the immense jökulhlaup released from the Vatnajökull Ice Cap in Iceland. It is not by chance that the term jökulhlaup (jökull = glacier, hlaup = run (n.)/running) comes from Icelandic, as the south of Iceland has very often been the victim of such catastrophes. This was the case in 1996, when a volcano north of the Grímsvötn lake belonging to the Vatnajökull glacier erupted, filling Grímsvötn, and then the river Skeiðará flooded the land in front of Skaftafell, now part of Vatnajökull National Park. The jökulhlaup reached a flow rate of 50,000 cubic metres per second, and destroyed parts of the Hringvegur (Ring Road or Iceland Road #1). The flood carried ice floes that weighed up to 5000 tons with icebergs between 100 and 200 tons striking the Gigjukvisl Bridge of the Ring Road (the ruins are well marked with explanatory signs today as a popular tourist stop). The tsunami released was up to high and wide. The flood carried with it 185 million tons of silt.
The jökulhlaup flow made it for several days the second largest river (in terms of water flow) after the Amazon.
After the flooding, some icebergs high could be seen on the banks of the river where the glacier run had left them behind (see also Mýrdalsjökull). The peak water release from a lake that develops around the Grímsvötn Volcanic Crater in the center of the Vatnajökull ice cap generates flows that exceed the volume of the Mississippi River. The outbursts have occurred in 1954, 1960, 1965, 1972, 1976, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1991 and 1996. In 1996, the eruption melted of ice and yielded an outburst of per second at peak flow.
Strait of Dover
The Strait of Dover is thought to have been created around 200,000 years ago by a catastrophic GLOF caused by the breaching of the Weald-Artois Anticline, which acted as a natural dam that held back a large lake in the Doggerland region, now submerged under the North Sea. The flood would have lasted several months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second. The cause of the breach is not known but may have been caused by an earthquake or simply the build-up of water pressure in the lake. As well as destroying the isthmus that connected Britain to continental Europe, the flood carved a large bedrock-floored valley down the length of the English Channel, leaving behind streamlined islands and longitudinal erosional grooves characteristic of catastrophic megaflood events.
Swiss Alps
The 1818 Giétro Glacier catastrophe, killing 44 people, originated in a 4-km long valley located in south-western Switzerland. Fatal flooding was known during historical times with 140 deaths first recorded in 1595. After an increase of the glacier during the "Year Without a Summer", an ice cone started to form from the accumulation of falling seracs. During 1816, the valley filled into a lake which emptied during the spring of 1817. In spring of 1818, the lake measured about 2 km in length. To stop the rapid rise of waters, the canton engineer Ignaz Venetz decided to drill a sluice hole through the ice, tunneling from both upstream and downstream sides of the ice dam at an elevation of about 20 metres above the lake surface. An avalanche interrupted work, so a secondary tunnel was then drilled for safety reasons as the waters rose to 10 metres below. Dangerous sloughing of ice delayed the work until finally a 198-metre-long hole was completed on 4 June, days before lake began to escape via the manmade waterfall on 13 June. Venetz warned the inhabitants of the valley of the danger as water was also escaping from the base of the cone. However, the cone began to crack on the morning of 16 June and at 16:30 the ice dam broke sending 18 million m3 of flood waters into the valley below.
Americas
Alaska
During the late Quaternary, ancient Lake Atna in the Copper River Basin may have generated a number of glacial outburst floods.
Some jökulhlaups release annually. Lake George near the Knik River had large annual outbreaks from 1918 to 1966. Since 1966 the Knik Glacier has retreated and an ice-dam is no longer created. Lake George might resume annual floods if the glacier thickens again and blocks the valley (Post and Mayo, 1971).
Almost every year, GLOFs occur in two locations in southeastern Alaska, one of which is Abyss Lake. The releases associated with the Tulsequah Glacier near Juneau often inundate a nearby airstrip. About 40 cabins could potentially be affected and a few have been damaged by the larger floods. Events from Salmon Glacier near Hyder have damaged roads near the Salmon River.
Contiguous United States
Immense prehistoric GLOFs, known as the Missoula Floods or Spokane Floods, occurred in North America's Columbia River watershed toward the end of the last ice age. They were the result of periodic breaches of ice dams in present-day Montana, resulting in the draining of a body of water now known as Glacial Lake Missoula. The immense floods scoured the Columbia Plateau as the water raced toward the ocean, resulting in the Channeled Scablands topography that exists today across Central and Eastern Washington.
Glacial River Warren drained Glacial Lake Agassiz during the Wisconsinian glaciation; the now mild Minnesota River flows through its bed. This river seasonally drained glacial meltwater into what is now the Upper Mississippi River. The region now termed the Driftless Area of North America was contemporaneously also subject to glacial outburst floods from Glacial Lake Grantsburg, and Glacial Lake Duluth during all three phases of the last ice age.
Between 6 and 10 September 2003, a GLOF occurred from Grasshopper Glacier in the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming. A proglacial lake at the head of the glacier burst through a glacial dam, and water from the lake carved a trench down the center of the glacier for more than . An estimated of water were released in four days, raising the flow level of Dinwoody Creek from per second to per second, as recorded at a gauging station downstream. Debris from the flood was deposited more than along the creek. The GLOF has been attributed to the rapid retreat of the glacier, which has been ongoing since the glacier was first accurately measured in the 1960s.
Peru
A flood caused by a glacial lake outburst flood on 13 December 1941 killed an estimated 1,800 people along its path in Peru, including many in the town of Huaraz. The cause was a block of ice that fell from a glacier in the Cordillera Blanca mountains into Lake Palcacocha. This event has been described as a historic inspiration for research into glacial lake outburst floods. Numerous Peruvian geologists and engineers created techniques for avoiding such floods and exported the techniques worldwide.
Canada
In 1978, debris flows triggered by a jökulhlaup from Cathedral Glacier destroyed part of the Canadian Pacific railway track, derailed a freight train and buried parts of the Trans Canada Highway.
In 1994, a jökulhlaup occurred at Farrow Creek, British Columbia.
In 2003, a jökulhlaup drained into Lake Tuborg on Ellesmere Island, and the events and its aftermath were monitored. The ice-dammed lake drained catastrophically by floating its ice dam. This is an extremely rare occurrence in the Canadian High Arctic, where most glaciers are cold based, and ice-dammed lakes typically drain slowly by overtopping their dams.
It has been suggested that the Heinrich events during the last glaciation could have been caused by gigantic jökulhlaups from a Hudson Bay lake dammed by ice at the mouth of Hudson Strait.
See also
Footnotes
References
Post, A. & Mayo, L.R. Glacier Dammed Lakes and Outburst Floods in Alaska. HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS ATLAS HA-455. Anchorage, Alaska (1971) U.S. Geological Survey, Denver CO.
Rudoy, A.N. (1998) Mountain Ice-Dammed Lakes of Southern Siberia and their Influence on the Development and Regime of the Runoff Systems of North Asia in the Late Pleistocene. Chapter 16, pp. 215–234. – Palaeohydrology and Environmental Change / Eds: G. Benito, V.R. Baker, K.J. Gregory. – Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 353 p.
Rudoy A.N. & Baker, V.R. Sedimentary Effects of cataclysmic late Pleistocene glacial Flooding, Altai Mountains, Siberia // Sedimentary Geology , (1993) Vol. 85. N 1–4. pp. 53–62.
External links
The channeled scabland: a guide to the geomorphology of the Columbia Basin, Washington: prepared for the Comparative Planetary Geology Field Conference held in the Columbia Basin, 5–8 June 1978 / sponsored by Planetary Geology Program, Office of Space Science, National Aeronautics and Space Administration; edited by Victor R. Baker and Dag Nummedal.
Рудой А. Н. Giant current ripples: A Review. Гигантская рябь течения: обзор новейших данных.
Рудой А. Н. Scablands. Скэбленд: экзотические ландшафты.
Chuya Flood Video
Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal. – International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, March 2011
Lasafam Iturrizaga. GLACIER LAKE OUTBURST FLOODS / "Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers" Springer, 2011/Eds. Vijay P. Singh, Pratap Singh and Umesh K. Haritashya
Volcanology
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Flood |
4311927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ombai%20Strait | Ombai Strait | Ombai Strait (, , ) is an international strait in Southeast Asia. It separates the Alor Archipelago from the islands of Wetar, Atauro, and Timor in the Lesser Sunda Islands. The strait is also the western portion of a pair of international straits, the other one being Wetar Strait; the two straits combine to link the Pacific Ocean with the Indian Ocean.
Etymology
Ombai is an alternative name for the island of Alor, in the Alor Archipelago on the other side of the strait's north, north western and western coastline.
In Tetum, the expression tasi feto () is often used to refer to the 'Ombai-Wetar Strait', which extends along most of Timor's northern shores. The counterpart of that body of water, the Timor Sea, which has larger waves, is more turbid, and washes the whole of Timor's southern coastline, is commonly referred to in Tetum as tasi mane ().
Geography
Ombai Strait is relatively narrow and deep (). It has complex and extreme bathymetry, ranging from narrow reef flats (often less than wide) partly covered with seagrass and coral, to depths within of the coast.
The strait separates the Alor Archipelago from the islands of Wetar, Atauro, and Timor in the Lesser Sunda Islands. It also straddles the boundary between the Banda Sea (in its north east) and the Savu Sea (in its south west).
The Alor Archipelago, and the western part of Timor except the coastal exclave of Oecusse, which is on the north coast of western Timor, are part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Wetar is part of the Maluku Province of Indonesia. Atauro, Oecusse, and the eastern part of Timor comprise the nation of East Timor.
The southern limit of the Banda Sea runs along the southern edge of the strait from the eastern extremity of Timor along its north coast as far south west as longitude 125° East. From that point, the Banda Sea's western limit heads north to Alor Island, where it starts a further run, east, along Alor's south coast, around its east point, and beyond.
Meanwhile, Ombai Strait continues to run from longitude 125° East in a south westerly direction, now within the limits of the Savu Sea. It extends, as part of that sea, at least as far south west as Batek Island, at the north western tip of Oecusse.
From Ombai Strait's south western, Savu Sea, end, the strait heads in a generally north eastern direction, while gradually narrowing. At its narrowest point between the Alor Archipelago and Timor, it is wide, and its navigable waters are across.
Beyond the end of the channel at the strait's north eastern extremity, between the islands of Alor and Atauro, is the Flores Sea to the north west and north, and the Banda Sea to the north east. That channel is wide at its narrowest point, where the navigable waters are across. To the east of the strait, and linking with it south of Atauro, is Wetar Strait. To the east of the latter strait are the south eastern reaches of the Banda Sea, and the southernmost of the Maluku Islands.
As such, Ombai Strait is one of two deep water passages in the Indonesian archipelago that link the waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the other one being Wetar Strait. The archipelago is the only interocean connection on earth at low latitudes, and the exchange of water between the two oceans is known as the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF).
The ITF flows in a generally north east to south west direction. Its main pathway runs from the Pacific Ocean into the Banda Sea via the Celebes Sea, Makassar Strait and the Java and Flores Seas. Some of the ITF then passes directly into Ombai Strait, and some of it flows there indirectly, around Wetar Island's eastern end, and then via Wetar Strait.
By this and other ITF pathways, nutrient-rich water from the Pacific Ocean runs into the Indian Ocean, at a rate 50 times faster than the discharge of the Amazon River. During El Niño, the water is cooler and inhibits rain. In Ombai Strait, there is also a counterflowing eastwards current, which affects the strait's overall mix of nutrients, temperatures and salinity levels.
The eastwards current is an extension of the South Java Current (SJC), and its deeper Undercurrent (SJUC), from the Savu Sea into the strait. During the dry season (March–November), the strong, prevailing westwards ITF currents in the strait are at an annual maximum at the surface in the southern part of the strait, and a front appears to trap the portion of the SJC inside the strait to within ~ of the strait's northern boundary. By contrast, the SJUC, when present, is observed across the entire strait. The ITF currents are at their weakest during the north-east monsoon rainy season (December–February), when there are also strong westerly (onshore) winds and waves.
Ecology
Flora
Along the northern littoral of East Timor, including the strait, the shallow coastal waters are dominated by a seagrass bed about in total area. Seagrass beds protect coral reefs from sedimentation and are feeding grounds for dugong (Dugong dugon), an endangered species. Seven genera of seagrass are known to exist off East Timor's coastline as a whole.
East Timor's coastal waters have also traditionally hosted mangrove forests. Together with seagrasses and coral reefs, they are the primary breeding grounds for many species of fish and shellfish. However, the country's mangrove cover has very substantially declined since 1940, and in Ombai Strait is now confined to the coastline and hinterland between and the Bay of Dili.
A survey of Tibar Bay carried out in 2016 found three mangrove species, namely Sonneratia alba, which was the dominant species, Avicennia marina and Rhizophora stylosa. The report of another survey, carried out in 2017, stated that the dominant species in the area was Sonneratia albia, and that there were some clusters of Rhizophora apiculata, Ceriops tagal, and Lumnitzera.
The 2016 survey report estimated the total area of mangrove in the bay to be ; the 2017 survey report's estimate was . According to the latter report, tree density was relatively low, at around 100–400 trees per hectare, and the mangrove cluster was heavily degraded, due to direct and indirect human activities. The former activities included fish pond and salt pan development, mangrove cutting, and cattle grazing. The latter activities were sea level rise, and siltation due to erosion in the hills on the landward side of the mangroves.
In parts of Ombai Strait, and especially close to the coast of Alor Island, elevated phytoplankton blooms or concentrations (and therefore availability of food for other species) have been observed, particularly during the dry south-east monsoon. The physical structure of the strait makes it likely that such concentrations are driven by fronts and vertical flows caused by some combination of tidal currents or topographic effects.
A study published in 2002 noted persistent flow-induced upwelling and frontal features in the strait, together with subjective evidence of extremely strong tides. The study concluded that the upwelling and frontal features coincided with large phytoplankton blooms and significantly affected the concentration and distribution of chlorophyll in the Savu Sea. According to the study report, it is likely that the mean flow associated with the ITF also plays a role in causing the blooms.
Fauna
The Ombai-Wetar corridor is heavily used by whales, dolphins, whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and manta rays. The two straits combine to form a major migratory route for these species between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. East Timor, on the south side of the two straits, is a recognized 'global hotspot' for whales and dolphins.
Ombai Strait in particular has been identified as a critical habitat for sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus), giant oceanic manta rays (Manta birostris) and sea turtles (Cheloniidae), amongst other endangered, threatened and protected species. Other species that have been observed consistently in the strait include false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens), and spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris), both of them in huge pods made up of large numbers of individuals.
The report of a 2013 survey of Tibar Bay, on Ombai Strait's southern shore not far west of Dili, East Timor, noted that a local dive tourism operator had made frequent sightings of dugong along the coast immediately east of the bay, and that there were also anecdotal reports of saltwater crocodiles in the bay.
A short distance further east, at Tasitolu, dugongs are often observed, although detailed information regarding their habitat location, size, and characteristics in the area was not available. The other sea life at Tasitolu includes cephalopods, crustaceans, frogfish, harlequin ghost pipefish, small octopuses, rhinopias, sea horses, and soft coral crabs.
Ombai Strait is also part of the Coral Triangle, which is recognised as a global centre of marine biodiversity. The coastal zones of East Timor have important areas of coral reef ecosystems, such as the ones at Tasitolu and in the Bay of Dili. At Tasitolu, the reefs west of Dili Rock are live, healthy and diverse, but those to the east of the rock have lower coverage and more reef rubble. At the Port of Dili inside the Bay of Dili, there are at least four different species of coral.
The Dili area, on the southern edge of the strait, is a recognised nesting ground for sea turtles, of three different species: hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata; Critically Endangered (CR), according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List), olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea; Vulnerable (VU)), and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas; Endangered (EN)). On both the Tasi Tolu Beach and the Beto Tasi Beach near Dili's international airport, there is regular hatching of sea turtles. However, in most parts of East Timor sea turtles are overharvested for their eggs, skin, meat and carapace for handicraft making.
The northern edge of the strait abuts two Important Bird Areas (IBAs), Gunung Muna (on Alor, Indonesia), and Atauro (East Timor). The southern edge of the strait is also the northern shore of four East Timorese IBAs. From west to east, they are Be Malae (just to the west of the Loes River), Maubara (a short distance east of the village of Maubara), Tasitolu (just to the west of Dili), and Areia Branca no Dolok Oan (on the eastern side of the Bay of Dili).
Humans
The village of Lamalera (pop. 2,500) on the south coast of Lembata, facing the south western entrance to the strait, is known for its hunting of sperm whale and other deep-sea species. The hunting has been taking place for at least six centuries, and is allowed under International Whaling Commission regulations concerning aboriginal whaling. However, conservationists worry that commercial whaling also takes place, and that hunters use their engine-powered boats all year round to catch other protected species such as manta rays, orcas (Orcinus orca), dolphins and oceanic sharks.
Ombai-Wetar Strait Hope Spot
On World Oceans Day 2020, the Ombai-Wetar Strait was designated as a Mission Blue Hope Spot. The designation recognises the importance of conserving the open waters on the north side of East Timor, with their globally-significant coral reefs and marine biodiversity. It also emphasises the potential of the two straits for sustainable marine ecotourism development.
Navigation
Commercial
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a commercial vessel or aircraft has freedom of navigation or overflight solely for the purpose of continuous and expeditious transit of a strait between one part of the high seas or exclusive economic zone and another. That transit passage principle applies to Ombai Strait and Wetar Strait, as they combine to link two oceans.
The Ombai-Wetar route is longer in distance than its Strait of Malacca-Singapore Strait counterpart. The former route is therefore not really a preferred alternative path for west to east commercial traffic. However, it is sometimes used, and is considered the safest route, for the largest oil tankers transiting between the Persian Gulf and Japan, and is also used by vessels transiting between Australia and the Java Sea or East Asia.
The two straits are always critical for East Timor, both in relation to its own international trade and as routes for internal transport. In Ombai Strait, internal East Timorese ferry services operate regularly between Dili and both Atauro and Oecusse. If there were any disruption in the flow of commercial shipping on the Malacca-Singapore route, the Ombai-Wetar route would also have a crucial role to play in global trade, especially for the Asia-Pacific region.
Military
The ships and aircraft of all nations, including warships, auxiliaries, and military aircraft, enjoy the right of unimpeded transit passage through straits such as the Ombai-Wetar route and their approaches. Submarines are free to transit the route submerged, as that is their normal mode of operation.
The channels of the Ombai-Wetar route are extremely deep. East Timor has refused advances by China seeking off-shore oil rights and permission to set up radar arrays ostensibly to counter illegal fishing.
The two straits therefore provide a route for undetected access by nuclear-powered submarines between the two oceans they connect. In particular, they are an alternative deep water route for submerged U.S. submarines moving between Guam and stations in the Indian Ocean via the Molucca Passage, Indonesia, which separates Sulawesi from Halmahera. Although the Ombai-Wetar route is a less direct link between Guam and the Indian Ocean than the Lombok-Makassar route, it is useful because it has limited traffic and very little surveillance, with the consequence that passing submarines are less likely to be tracked.
By the mid-1970s, the Ombai-Wetar route had been identified as one of five international straits essential for passage by U.S. ballistic missile submarines, the others being Gibraltar, Malacca-Singapore, Lombok and Sunda. In 1977, a paper published by the International Institute for Strategic Studies, based in London, ranked the Ombai-Wetar route as the second-most-important strait in the world to U.S. defense interests, after the Strait of Gibraltar. The two straits are now also considered by China to be strategically significant.
Economy
Fishing
In East Timor, involvement in fishing is low by comparison with other small island countries. Along the north coast of Timor and around Atauro, including within the strait, fishing levels are higher than elsewhere in the country, other than in pockets along parts of the south coast. Many of the fishers fish part time or seasonally, and are otherwise occupied in additional activities such as carpentry, labouring or security work. Most of the fish landings are of small pelagic species, including short-bodied mackerel, sardines (Clupeidae), halfbeaks and scads (Carangidae).
A study published in 2019 observed that fishing vessels in and around the border area in Ombai Strait between East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, and Bobonaro, East Timor, were dominated by non-motorized and outboard motorized boats. Gill nets and handlines were widely used. Fishing grounds were limited, and the activities of fishermen were highly disrupted by a growing number of illegal fishing practices. Small pelagic fish in the Indonesia – East Timor border area were regarded as shared fish stock and captured by fishermen from both countries. The report of the study recommended transboundary fisheries management in the border area, using an ecosystem-based approach.
A 2021 study concluded that a number of species of sardines (and also other small pelagic fish) were caught on the north coast of East Timor, with flat-bodied sardinellas (S. gibbosa etc.) being the dominant species group landed at Loes, and relatively abundant at Comoro. At most sites, catches of these pelagic species varied moderately between years, and were larger during the rainy season and when medium-sized turbid plumes were extending from river mouths. Fishers at various sites generally perceived a decline in landings over the previous 20 years. They attributed the decline to several human factors, including higher fishing effort, plastic pollution, motorisation of canoes and larger-scale, less selective fishing gear. Some sardine species were sold readily to traders; others were commonly kept for immediate home consumption.
Another of the strait's pelagic fisheries is flying fish (Exocoetidae); both the meat and eggs of flying fish can be used. According to another 2021 study, the exploitation rate of flying fish in Ombai Strait is relatively low, and at a rational and sustainable utilisation range. Five species of flying fish were found. The waters in the strait were relatively fertile, pattern recruitment occurred throughout the year, and peak recruitment was in September and June. Adult fish groups were dominant, growth was fast, and the natural mortality rate was higher than the fishing mortality rate.
Tourism
East Timor's whale watching industry is focused on the Ombai-Wetar route, and has been growing rapidly since the 2010s. Annual migrations of whales and dolphins through the route's generally calm waters provide some of the best and most accessible whale watching in the world. The cetaceans migrating along the route are often very close to shore; networks of local residents record their movements and behaviour, and then report it in 'real time' to researchers and Dili-based whale watching tour operators.
The island of Atauro, at the north eastern end of the strait, has been described as the highlight of any diving trip to East Timor. Atauro's west coast dive sites, located within the strait, are said to be the best way to experience the island's diving. There are other dive sites in the strait, near Dili including Tasitolu, and dive sites at Alor, but Alor's main diving areas are not within the strait.
References
External links
Straits of Indonesia
Straits of East Timor
Alor Archipelago
East Timor–Indonesia border
International straits
Landforms of East Nusa Tenggara
Banda Sea
Lesser Sunda Islands |
4312006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20military%20rifles | British military rifles | The origins of the modern British military rifle are within its predecessor the Brown Bess musket. While a musket was largely inaccurate over , due to a lack of rifling and a generous tolerance to allow for muzzle-loading, it was cheap to produce and could be loaded quickly. The use of volley or mass firing by troops meant that the rate of fire took precedence over accuracy.
Beginning in the late 1830s, the superior characteristics of the new rifles caused the British military to phase out the venerable .75 calibre Brown Bess musket in favour of muzzle-loading rifles in smaller calibres. Early rifles were non-standard and frequently used adaptations from components of the Brown Bess, including locks and stocks adapted to new rifled barrels. It was not until the late 19th century that the rifle fully supplanted the musket as the weapon of the infantryman.
Rifles before 1800
Civilian rifles had on rare occasions been used by marksmen during the English Civil War (1642–51). In the 1750s, a few German rifles were used by British light infantry regiments in the Seven Years' War.
Pattern 1776 Infantry Rifle
In January 1776, 1,000 rifles were ordered to be built for the British Army. A pattern by gunsmith William Grice, based on German rifles in use by the British Army, was approved for official issue as the Pattern 1776 Infantry Rifle. This weapon was issued to the light company of each regiment in the British Army during the American Revolution; these were probably present at most battles in the conflict in the American Revolution.
Ferguson rifle
Also in 1776, Major Patrick Ferguson patented his breech-loading Ferguson rifle, based on old French and Dutch designs of the 1720s and 1730s. One hundred of these, of the two hundred or so made, were issued to a special rifle corps in 1777, but the cost, production difficulties and fragility of the guns, coupled with the death of Ferguson at the Battle of Kings Mountain meant the experiment was short-lived.
Baker Rifle
The Baker rifle was a muzzle-loading flintlock weapon used by the British Army in the Napoleonic Wars, notably by the 95th Rifles and the 5th Battalion, 60th Regiment of Foot. This rifle was an accurate weapon for its day, with reported kills being made at away. At Cacabelos, in 1809, Rifleman Tom Plunkett, of the 95th, shot the French General Colbert-Chabanais at a range allegedly of . The rifle was in service in the British Army until the 1840s. The Mexican Army, under Santa Anna, used British Baker Rifles during the 1836 Texas-Mexican War.
Brunswick rifle
The Brunswick rifle was a .704 calibre muzzle-loading percussion rifle manufactured for the British Army at the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield in the early 19th century. The weapon was introduced to replace the Baker rifle and weighed from over without its bayonet attached, depending on the pattern. The weapon was difficult to load but remained in production for about 50 years (1836 to 1885) and was used in both the United Kingdom and assorted colonies and outposts throughout the world.
The Brunswick had a two-groove barrel designed to accept a "belted" round ball. There are four basic variants of the British Brunswick Rifle (produced in .654 and .704 calibre, both oval bore rifled and smoothbore). They are the Pattern 1836, the Pattern 1841, the Pattern 1848 and the Pattern 1840 Variant.
Early Enfield rifles
Throughout the evolution of the British rifle, the name Enfield is prevalent; this refers to the Royal Small Arms Factory in the town (now suburb) of Enfield north of London, where the British Government produced various patterns of muskets from components manufactured elsewhere beginning in 1804. The first rifle produced in whole to a set pattern at Enfield was the Baker rifle. Brunswick rifles were also produced there, but, prior to 1851, rifles were considered speciality weapons and served alongside the muskets, which were issued to regular troops.
Pattern 1851
In 1851, the Enfield factory embarked upon production of the Pattern 1851 Minié rifle using the conical Minie bullet, which replaced the Pattern 1842 .753 calibre smoothbore musket as the primary weapon issued to regular troops. The Pattern 1851 was referred to as a rifled musket and was longer than previous production rifles, conforming to the length of prior muskets, which allowed for consistency in standards for firing in ranks and bayonet combat. Relatively few of these were produced since a new design was adopted within two years. The rifle used the lock and bayonet mount from the Pattern 1842, with a barrel.
The new Minie ammunition allowed much faster loading, so that rifles were no longer slower to load than smoothbore muskets. Previous rifles, such as the Baker and the Brunswick, were designated for special troops, such as skirmishers or snipers, while the majority of shoulder-arms remained smoothbore muskets.
Pattern 1853
The Pattern 1853 Enfield used a smaller .577 calibre Minie bullet. Several variations were made, including infantry, navy and artillery versions, along with shorter carbines for cavalry use. The Pattern 1851 and Pattern 1853 were both used in the Crimean War, with some logistical confusion caused by the need for different ammunition. The Pattern 1853 was popular with both sides of the American Civil War; the Confederacy and the Union imported these through agents who contracted with private companies in Britain for production.
Pattern 1858
The Pattern 1858 naval rifle was developed for the British Admiralty in the late 1850s with a heavier 5-grooved barrel. The heavier barrel was designed to withstand the leverage from the naval cutlass bayonet but may have contributed to accuracy.
Pattern 1858 Indian Service
There is also the very short-lived Pattern 1858 developed from the Pattern 1853 for Indian service. A consequence of the rebellion, based on British fears, was to modify the native infantry long arms by reaming out the rifling of the Pattern 1853 which greatly reduced the effectiveness, as was replacing the variable distance rear sight with a fixed sight. This became the Pattern 1858, with an increased bore of 0.656" from 0.577" and a thinner barrel wall. Bulging and bursting of the barrel became an issue, as well as excessive flexing when the bayonet was fitted. To remedy this, new barrels were made with a thicker wall and became the Pattern 1859.
Pattern 1859 Indian Service (modified)
The Indian Service variant became the new standard issue and, when comparing the P1859 with the P1853, side-by-side, the difference would only become apparent if one was to feel just inside the muzzle for the presence of rifling or not. The British retained the superior earlier pattern for their own use.
Pattern 1860
The Enfield "Short Rifle" was a percussion rifle used extensively by the North and South in the US Civil War. It was generally well regarded for its accuracy, even with its short barrel. It was also used by the British Army.
Pattern 1861 Enfield Musketoon
The Pattern 1861 Enfield Musketoon was an alteration to the Pattern 1853 Enfield Musketoon. The alteration gave the Pattern 1861 a faster twist, which gave it more accuracy than the longer Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle. In Britain, it was issued to artillery units, who required a weapon for personal defence. It was imported by the Confederacy and issued to artillery and cavalry units.
Snider–Enfield Rifles
In 1866, the Snider–Enfield was produced as a conversion of Enfield Pattern 1853 with a hinged breechblock and barrel designed for a .577 cartridge. Later Sniders were newly manufactured on the same design.
The action was invented by an American, Jacob Snider, and adopted by Britain as a conversion system for the 1853 Enfield. The conversions proved both more accurate than original muzzle-loading Enfields and much faster firing as well. Converted rifles retained the original iron barrel, furniture, locks and cap-style hammers. The rifles were converted in large numbers, or assembled new with surplus pattern 53 iron barrels and hardware. The Mark III rifles were made from all new parts with steel barrels, flat-nosed hammers and are the version equipped with a latch-locking breech block. The Snider was the subject of substantial imitation, approved and otherwise, including: Nepalese Sniders, the Dutch Sniders, Danish Naval Sniders, and the "unauthorized" adaptations resulting in the French Tabatiere and Russian Krnka rifles.
The Snider–Enfield Infantry rifle was particularly long at over . The breech block housed a diagonally downward-sloping firing pin which was struck with a front-action side-mounted hammer. The firer cocked the hammer, flipped the block out of the receiver with a breech block lever, and then pulled the block back to extract the spent case. There was no ejector, the case had to be pulled out, or more usually, the rifle rolled onto its back to allow the case to fall out. The Snider saw service throughout the British Empire, until it was gradually phased out of front line service in favour of the Martini–Henry, in the mid-1870s. The design continued in use with colonial troops into the 20th century.
Martini–Henry Rifles
The Martini–Henry rifle was adopted in 1871, featuring a tilting-block single-shot breech-loading action, actuated by a lever beneath the wrist of the buttstock. The Martini–Henry evolved as the standard service rifle for almost 20 years, with variants including carbines.
Unlike the Snider it replaced, the Martini–Henry was designed from the ground up as a breech-loading metallic cartridge firearm. This robust weapon uses a tilting-block, with a self-cocking, lever operated, single-shot action designed by a Swiss, Friedrich von Martini, as modified from the Peabody design. The rifling system was designed by a Scotsman, Alexander Henry.
The Mark I was adopted for service in 1871. There were three further main variations of the Martini–Henry rifle, the Marks II, III and IV, with sub-variations of these, called patterns. In 1877, a carbine version entered service with five main variations including cavalry and artillery versions. Initially, Martinis used the short chamber Boxer-Henry .45 calibre black powder cartridge made of a thin sheet of brass rolled around a mandrel, which was then soldered to an iron base. Later, the rolled brass case was replaced by a solid brass version which remedied a myriad of problems.
Martini–Metford and Martini–Enfield
Martini–Enfield rifles were mostly conversions of the Zulu War era .577/450 Martini–Henry, rechambered to the .303 British calibre, although a number were newly manufactured. Early Martini–Henry conversions, began in 1889, using Metford rifled barrels (Martini–Metford rifles), which were more than suitable for the first black powder .303 cartridges, but they wore out very quickly when fired with the more powerful smokeless ammunition introduced in 1895, so that year the Enfield rifled barrel was introduced, which was suitable for smokeless ammunition. The Martini–Enfield was in service from 1895 to 1918 (Lawrence of Arabia's Arab Irregulars were known to have used them during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918), and it remained a reserve arm in places like India and New Zealand well into World War II.
Lee–Metford rifles
The first British repeating rifle incorporated a bolt-action and a box-magazine; this was developed through trials beginning in 1879, and adopted as the Magazine Rifle Mark I in 1888. This rifle is commonly referred to as the Lee–Metford or MLM (Magazine Lee–Metford).
The "Lee" comes from James Paris Lee (1831–1904), a Scottish-born Canadian-American inventor who designed an easy-to-operate turnbolt and a high-capacity box magazine to work with it. The box magazine, either Lee or Mannlicher designed, proved superior in combat to the Kropatschek-style tube magazine used by the French in their Lebel rifle, or the Krag–Jørgensen rotary magazine used in the first US bolt-action rifle (M1892). The initial Lee magazine was a straight stack, eight-round box, which was superseded by the staggered, ten-round box in later versions, in each case more than were accommodated by Mannlicher box magazine designs. The "Metford" comes from William Ellis Metford (1824–1899), an English engineer who was instrumental in perfecting the .303 calibre jacketed bullet and rifling to accommodate the smaller diameter.
During the development of the Lee–Metford, smokeless powder was invented. The French and Germans were already implementing their second-generation bolt-action rifles, the 8 mm Lebel in 1886 and 7.92 mm Gewehr 88 in 1888 respectively, using smokeless powder to propel smaller diameter bullets. The British followed the trend of using smaller diameter bullets, but the Lee–Metford design process overlapped the invention of smokeless powder, and was not adapted for its use. However, in 1895, the design was modified to work with smokeless powder resulting in the Lee–Enfield.
A contrast between this design and other successful bolt actions of the time, such as the Mausers and US Springfield, are the rear locking lugs. This puts the lugs close to the bolt handle, where the pressure is applied by the operator; in essence the force is close to the fulcrum point. Without great explanation, this results in an easier and swifter operation versus the Mauser design, resulting in a greater rate of fire. However, this compromises strength as the fulcrum point has moved away from the force of the explosion, thus making the length of the bolt a lever working against the holding power of the rear lugs. This was a limiting factor in the ballistics capacity of this design.
Another difference between the Lee and the Mauser designs was the use of "cock-on-closing", which also helped to speed cycling by making the initial opening of the breech very easy. The closing stroke, which is generally more forceful than the opening stroke, cocks the rifle, adding to the ease of use. The Lee design also featured a shorter bolt travel and a 60-degree rotation of the bolt; these attributes also led to faster cycle times.
Over the service life of the design, proponents and opponents would stress rate-of-fire versus ballistics respectively. The basic Lee design with some tinkering was the basis for most British front-line rifles until after World War II.
Lee–Enfield rifles
In 1895, the Lee–Metford design was reinforced to accommodate the higher chamber pressures of smokeless powder; more critically, the barrel rifling was changed to one developed by the Enfield factory owing to the incompatibility of the Metford barrel design with smokeless powder (the barrels becoming unusable after less than 5,000 rounds). The designation was changed to Rifle, Magazine, Lee–Enfield Mark I or MLE (magazine Lee–Enfield). The sights also had to be changed to reflect the flatter trajectory and longer ranges of the improved cartridge.
The Martini–Henry, Lee–Metford, and Lee–Enfield rifles have an overall length just under . In each case, several variants of carbines were offered in the under range for uses by cavalry, artillery, constabularies and special troops.
Starting in 1909, MLE and MLM rifles were converted to use charger loading, which was accomplished by modifying the bolt, modifying the front and rear sights, and adding a charger guide bridge to the action body, thereby allowing the use of chargers to more rapidly load the magazines. Upgraded to a more modern standard, these rifles served in combat in the First World War.
The Short Magazine Lee–Enfield (SMLE) – also known as Rifle, Number 1
Before World War I, the Rifle, Short, Magazine Lee–Enfield, or SMLE, was developed to provide a single rifle to offer a compromise length between rifles and carbines, and to incorporate improvements deemed necessary from experience in the Boer War. With a length of , the new weapon was referred to as a "short rifle"; the word "short" refers to the length of the rifle, not the length of the magazine. From 1903 to 1909, many Metford and Enfield rifles were converted to the SMLE configuration with shorter barrels and modified furniture. Production of the improved SMLE Mk III began in 1907. Earlier Mk I and Mk II rifles were upgraded to include several of the improvements of the Mk III. The compromise length was consistent with military trends as the US Springfield M1903 was only produced in the compromise length and the Germans adopted the kurz (short) rifle concept between the world wars for the Mauser 98k (model 1898 short).
Training Rifle – Rifle, Number 2
To conserve resources in training, the British Army converted many .303 rifles to .22 calibre for target practice and training purposes after the First World War. In 1926, the British government changed the nomenclature of its rifles, designating the .303 calibre SMLE as No. 1 Rifles and the .22 calibre training rifles as No. 2 Rifles. For practical purposes "SMLE" and "No. 1 Rifle" are alternate names for the same weapon, but a purist would define a No. 1 as post-1926 production only.
Pattern 1913 Enfield
The Pattern 1913 Enfield (P13) was an experimental rifle developed by the British Army ordnance department to serve as a replacement for the Short Magazine Lee–Enfield (SMLE). Although a completely different design from the Lee–Enfield, the Pattern 1913 rifle was designed by the Enfield engineers. In 1910, the British War Office considered replacing the SMLE based on its inferior performance compared to the Mauser rifles used by the enemy in the Boer War. The major shortcoming was long range performance and accuracy due to the ballistics of the .303 round, but the bolt system of the SMLE was not believed to have the strength to chamber more potent ammunition. A rimless .276 cartridge, which was comparable to the 7 mm Mauser, was developed.
Pattern 1914 – also known as Rifle, Number 3
With the outbreak of the First World War, the change to the ammunition for the Pattern 1913 was abandoned; however, to supplement SMLE production the new design was to be produced chambered for .303. In 1914, the Pattern 1914 rifle (Pattern 13 chambered for .303) was approved for production by British companies, but production was superseded by other war priorities, and three US firms Winchester, Eddystone, and Remington began production in 1916.
The Pattern 14 rifle did not gain widespread acceptance with the British since it was larger and heavier, held fewer rounds and was slower to cycle than the SMLE. The P14 was well regarded as a sniper rifle (with telescopic and fine adjustment iron sights), but largely disregarded outside of emergency use.
US M1917 "Enfield"
To minimise retooling, the US Army contracted with Winchester and Remington to continue producing a simplified Pattern 14 rifle chambered for the US .30-06 ammunition. This weapon was known as the US .30 cal. Model of 1917 (M1917 Enfield rifle). More of these were produced and used by the US Army during the First World War than the official US battle rifle, the Springfield M1903. The M1917 continued in use during World War II as second line and training rifles as the semi-automatic M1 Garands and carbines were phased-in. Many M1917s were sent to Britain under Lend-Lease, where they equipped Home Guard units; these .30-06 rifles had a prominent red stripe painted on the stock to distinguish them from .303 P-14s. Model 1917 rifles were also acquired by Canada and issued in Canada for training, guard duty and home defence.
Rifle Magazine .256 inch Pattern 1900
Early in World War I Britain ordered around 150,000 Type 30, and Type 38 rifles and carbines from Japan as a stopgap until the manufacture of their own Lee–Enfield rifles caught up with demand. Some of these rifles were handed over to the Royal Navy and to Arab forces fighting with Lawrence of Arabia. The majority of these weapons (Type 30s and Type 38s) were handed over to Russia in 1916, who were far more desperate for arms. Russia in turn also bought many more thousands of Type 30s rifles and carbines, Type 35 rifles and Type 38 rifles and carbines from Japan. A number of these rifles ended up being left behind in Finland or captured from Red Finns in the Finnish Civil War as the Soviets armed them with Arisakas. Later on Finland gave some of these rifles to Estonia who also received them from other sources. Estonia later converted some or all to take .303 British as Britain had also supplied Estonia with Vickers machine guns and P14 rifles. The Czechoslovak Legion fighting in the Russian Civil War was also armed with Japanese Arisakas, including the Type 30.
Ross rifle
The Ross rifle was a straight-pull bolt-action .303 calibre rifle produced in Canada from 1903 until the middle of the First World War, when it was withdrawn from service in Europe due to its unreliability under wartime conditions, and its widespread unpopularity among the soldiers. Since the Ross .303 was a superior marksman's rifle, its components were machined to extremely fine tolerances which resulted in the weapon clogging too easily in the adverse environment imposed by trench warfare in the First World War. Additionally, British ammunition was too variable in its manufacturing tolerances to be used without careful selection, which was not possible in trench conditions. It was also possible for a careless user to disassemble the bolt for cleaning and then reassemble it with the bolt-head on back to front, resulting in a highly dangerous and sometimes fatal failure of the bolt to lock in the forward position on firing. Snipers, who were able to maintain their weapons carefully, and hand select and measure every round with which they were equipped, were able to use them to maximum effect and retained a considerable fondness for the weapon.
Ross rifles were also used by Training units, 2nd and 3rd line units and Home Guard units in the Second World War and many weapons were shipped to Britain after Dunkirk in the face of serious shortages of small arms.
Remington Model 1901
During World War I, the Royal Navy purchased 4,500 Remington Rolling Block rifles in 7mm Mauser from Remington's leftover stock after production had ended, issuing them to the crews of minesweepers and Q-ships.
Winchester Model 1894
To release Lee–Enfield rifles for infantry use, the Royal Navy purchased approximately 5,000 .30-30 caliber Model 94 rifles in 1914 for shipboard guard duty and mine-clearing. Winchester '94s were also provided to the British Home Guard in the early years of WWII.
Remington Model 14
4,000 Remington Model 14 1/2 pump action rifles in .44 Winchester calibre were bought for the Royal Naval Air Service.
Rifle, Number 4 aka the Lee Enfield rifle
Beginning shortly after the First World War, the SMLE went through a series of experimental changes that resulted in the Rifle, No. 4 Mk I, which was adopted in 1939 just after the beginning of the Second World War. The changes included receiver-mounted aperture rear sights, similar to that of the Pattern 1914 rifle and changed screw threads, making nearly all threaded components incompatible with those of the SMLE (No. 1) rifle. The No. 4 rifle had a heavier barrel, stronger steel in the action body and bolt body and a short "grip-less" (or "spike") bayonet that mounted directly to the barrel, rather than to a separate nose cap. The latter was the most prominent visual change. Later several models of bladed bayonets were created.
During the Second World War, the British government also contracted with Canadian and US manufacturers (notably Small Arms Limited and Savage) to produce the No. 4 Mk I* rifle. US-manufactured rifles supplied under the Lend Lease program were marked US PROPERTY on the left side of the receiver. Canada's Small Arms Limited at Long Branch made over 900,000. Many of these equipped the Canadian Army and many were supplied to the UK and New Zealand. Over a million No. 4 rifles were built by Stevens-Savage in the United States for the UK between 1941 and 1944 and all were originally marked "U.S. PROPERTY". Canada and the United States manufactured both the No. 4 MK. I and the simplified No. 4 MK. I*. The UK and Canada converted about 26,000 No. 4 rifles to sniper equipment.
The No. 4 rifle has remained on issue until at least 2016 with the Canadian Rangers, still in .303. Some rifles were converted to the NATO 7.62mm calibre for sniping (L42A1) and several versions for target use. L42A1 sniper rifles were used in the 1982 Falklands War.
Rifle, Number 5 and further variants
In 1943, trials began on a shortened and lightened No. 4 rifle, leading to the adoption in 1944 of the No. 5 Mk I Rifle, or "Jungle Carbine", as it is commonly known. The No. 5 rifle was manufactured from 1944 until 1947.
The end of the Second World War saw the production of the Rifle, No. 6, an experimental Australian version of the No. 5, and later the Rifle, No. 7, Rifle, No. 8, and Rifle, No. 9, all of which were .22 rimfire trainers.
Production of SMLE variants continued until circa 1956 and in small quantities for speciality use until circa 1974. In the mid-1960s, a version was produced for the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge by installing new barrels and new extractors, enlarging the magazine wells slightly, and installing new magazines. This was also done by the Indian rifle factory at Ishapore, which produced a strengthened SMLE in 7.62 mm NATO, as well as .303 SMLEs into the 1980s.
Although Mausers and Springfields were being replaced by semi-automatic rifles during the Second World War, the British did not feel the need to replace the faster firing SMLE weapons with the new technology.
The No. 5 rifle was a favorite among troops serving in the jungles of Malaysia during the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) due to its handy size, short length and powerful cartridge that was well suited for penetrating barriers and foliage in jungle warfare. The No. 5's extensive use in the Malayan Emergency is where the rifle gained its "jungle carbine" title.
M1 carbine
During World War II, the British SAS used the M1 and M1A1 carbines after 1943. The weapon was taken into use simply because a decision had been taken by Allied authorities to supply .30 caliber weapons from U.S. stocks in the weapons containers dropped to Resistance groups sponsored by an SOE, or later also Office of Strategic Services (OSS), organizer, on the assumption the groups so supplied would be operating in areas within the operational boundaries of U.S. forces committed to Operation Overlord. They were found to be suited to the kind of operation the two British, two French, and one Belgian Regiment carried out. It was handy enough to parachute with, and, in addition, could be easily stowed in an operational Jeep. Other specialist intelligence collection units, such as 30 Assault Unit sponsored by the Naval Intelligence Division of the British Admiralty, which operated across the entire Allied area of operations, also made use of this weapon.. The carbine continued to be utilized as late as the Malayan Emergency, by the Police Field Force of the Royal Malaysian Police, along with other units of the British Army, were issued the M2 carbine for both jungle patrols and outpost defense. The Royal Ulster Constabulary also used the M1 carbine.
Rifle, Number 8
A .22 subcalibred No. 8 used for cadet training and match shooting. It used a Parker Hale sight, which is no longer in use with the UK cadet forces, replaced with the L144A1.
Rifle, Number 9 (Enfield EM2)
The EM-2 Bullpup Rifle, or "Janson rifle", was an experimental British assault rifle. It was designed to fire the experimental .280 British round that was being considered to replace the venerable .303 British, re-arming the British and allied forces with their first assault rifles and new machine guns. The EM-2 never entered production due to the United States refusing to standardise on the .280 as "lacking power", but the bullpup layout was used later in the SA80.
A somewhat similar Australian concept was the KAL1 General Purpose Infantry Rifle.
L1A1 SLR
The L1A1 SLR (Self Loading Rifle) is the British version of the FN FAL (Fusil Automatique Leger) – Light Automatic Rifle, one of the most famous and widespread military rifle designs of the late 20th century. Developed by the Belgian Fabrique Nationale Company (FN), it was used by some 70 or more countries, and was manufactured in at least 10 countries. The FAL type rifle is no longer in front line service in the developed world, but is still in use in poorer parts of the world.
The history of the FAL began circa 1946, when FN began to develop a new assault rifle, chambered for German 7.92×33mm Kurz intermediate cartridge. In the late 1940s, the Belgians joined with Britain and selected a British .280 (7×43mm) intermediate cartridge for further development. In 1950, both the Belgian FAL prototype and the British EM-2 bullpup assault rifles were tested by the US Army against other rifle designs. The EM-2 performed well and the FAL prototype greatly impressed the Americans, but the idea of the intermediate cartridge was at that moment incomprehensible to them, and the United States insisted on a "reduced full-size" cartridge, the 7.62 NATO, as a standard in 1953–1954. Despite the British Defence minister announcing the intention to adopt the EM-2 and the intermediate cartridge, Winston Churchill personally opposed the EM-2 and .280 cartridge in the belief that a split in NATO should be avoided, and that the US would adopt the FAL in 7.62 as the T48. The first 7.62 mm FALs were ready in 1953. Britain adopted the FAL in 1957 designating it the L1A1 SLR, and produced their own rifles at the RSAF Enfield and BSA factories.
Canada also used the FN, designated the FN C1 and FN C1A1, and like Britain, retained the semi-automatic-only battle rifle well after other countries forces turned to full automatic assault rifles such as the M16 and AK-47. Australia still uses the L1A1 for ceremonial use.
L64/65
During the 1970s, Enfield engineers designed an assault rifle to replace the L1A1 in the Bullpup configuration but chambered in the .190 calibre (4.85 mm). This rifle had better range and ballistics than the 5.56×45mm NATO although it retained the same cartridge, necked-down for the new calibre. Like the previous EM-2, It was a bullpup and also cancelled due to NATO standardisation. However, the L64 was later chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO as the XL70 and is the main rifle that formed the basis of the SA80.
Rifle 5.56mm L85 (SA80)
Bullpup design creatively decreases total weapon length compared with standard assault rifles. It is easy to use not only on the battlefield, but also in areas with limited space, such as armoured personnel carriers.
In 1951, the British officially adopted the EM-2 bullpup design as the "Rifle, Automatic, No.9 Mk.1". However, American insistence on the use of 7.62×51 NATO cartridges as the NATO standard meant that the rifle, which used 7 mm rounds, was shelved and the Belgian FN FAL rifle adopted. It was expected that the US would also adopt the FAL then under trial as the T48 but they selected the M14. Another Enfield attempt in the 1970s was the L64/65.
Britain started a programme to find a family of related weapons to replace the L1A1 battle rifle and the Bren gun titled "Small Arms for the 1980s" or SA80. The L85 is designed for the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge. The gas operated action has a short stroke gas piston, located above the barrel with its own return spring. The gas system has a three position gas regulator, one position for a normal firing, second for a firing in adverse conditions, and the third for launching rifle grenades (gas port is shut off).
The L85A1 was improved in 1997 after constant complaints from the troops. The main problems were difficult maintenance and low reliability. These problems led British troops to nickname the weapon the "civil servant", as, in their estimation, you could not make it work and could not fire it. Improvements were made during 2000–2002 when 200,000 of the existing 320,000 L85A1 Automatic Rifles were upgraded. Improvements were made to the working parts (cocking handle, firing pin etc.), gas parts and magazines.
The improved rifle is named L85A2. During active service, the A2 can be fitted with a 40 mm grenade launcher, a light attachment and a laser sighting device. Sighting systems include the SUSAT (pictured) with 4× magnification and a trilux gas-filled conical reticule or iron sight consisting of a foresight and rear sight with adjustable rear sight for low light conditions.
In light of operational experience gained during Operation Herrick in Afghanistan and Operation Telic in Iraq, a number of additions to the L85A2 entered service as Urgent Operational Requirements, which ultimately became standard fit. The most noticeable addition has been that of a Picatinny Rail Interface System designed and manufactured by US company Daniel Defense, which replaces the original green plastic front furniture. The RIS system often sports rubber rail covers in coyote brown colour and a GripPod vertical down grip/bipod unit. The Oerlikon Contraves LLM-01 laser and sight combo has been standard for some time but a new laser/light unit by Rheinmetall has been recently cleared for service. Two ×4 optical infantry sights have seen service in addition to the SUSAT. The Trijicon TA-31 ACoG with a red dot CQB sight was purchased as a UOR and latterly a replacement for the SUSAT has entered service namely the Elcan Specter OS4X also with a red dot CQB sight mounted on it. An alternative flash eliminator can be fitted, an open ended four pronged design by Surefire. The Surefire flash eliminator gives improved flash elimination, can accept the standard bayonet and also accommodate a Surefire sound suppressor. The Surefire flash eliminator is only for operational use, being incompatible with the standard L85A2 Blank Firing Attachment. Polymer magazines manufactured by Magpul called the EMAG have also been purchased to replace steel magazines in operational environments slightly easing the infantryman's weight burden. It is anticipated that the SA80 will remain in front-line service well into the 2020s.
Rifle, 5.56mm L119A1 and L119A2
The Colt Canada (formerly Diemaco) manufactured C8SFW, a variant of the Canadian Forces C8 carbine, is used by UK Special Forces, elements of the Parachute Regiment and the Royal Military Police. In 2019, it was announced that the carbine would completely replace the L85 in service with the Royal Marines. In 2014, UKSF upgraded to the "L119A2", which features the Integrated Upper Receiver (IUR).
Rifle, 7.62mm L129A1
Lewis Machine & Tool's LM308MWS, was chosen by the MoD in 2010 to meet a £1.5 million urgent operational requirement in the Afghanistan conflict for a semi-automatic 7.62mm rifle with excellent accuracy, whose rate of fire and robustness made them usable within infantry squads, not just by specialised sniper teams. It had to demonstrate lethality in the 500–800-metre range, which was not uncommon in Afghanistan. More than 400 of the semi-automatic Sharpshooter rifles have been bought. It is the first new Infantry combat rifle to be issued to troops for more than 20 years.
Army Special Operations Brigade Alternative Individual Weapon (AIW) System
In 2021 the MoD put out a requirement for an Armalite Rifle (AR) platform based weapon to equip the new Army Special Operations Brigade.
L96 and L115 Sniper Rifles
The L96 is a sniper rifle produced by Accuracy International derived from their PMR (Precision Marksman Rifle), which was designed in conjunction with double Olympic champion Malcolm Cooper. This weapon was adopted into British Service in the early 1980s as a replacement for the Lee–Enfield L42. The L96 in turn was replaced by the Accuracy International L115A3 rifle chambered in .338 Lapua Magnum.
See also
Bolt action
Cartridge (firearms)
Musket
German military rifles
List of assault rifles
List of battle rifles
References
UK-NRA – Historic Arms Resource Centre – Enfield and Lee–Enfield Training Rifles Reference Pages
TheRiflesShoppe.com
MilitaryRifles.com allows attributed use of his photography
AdamsGuns.com allows attributed use of his photography
Baker Rifle – 2/95th Rifles
16th Light Dragoons site
17th Light Dragoons site
British Military Flintlock Rifles 1740–1840 by De Witt Bailey PhD
Percussion guns & rifles;: An illustrated reference guide by De Witt Bailey
British Enfield Rifles, Vol. 1, SMLE (No.1) Mk I and Mk III, by Charles R. Stratton
British Enfield Rifles Vol II 2nd Ed. by Charles Stratton
British Enfield Rifles, Vol. 4, Pattern 1914 and US Model of 1917 by Charles R. Stratton
.577 Snider-Enfield Rifles & Carbines; British Service Longarms, 1866 – c. 1880
Martini-Henry .450 Rifles & Carbines by Dennis Lewis
British Enfield Rifles, by E.G.B. Reynolds
British Infantry Equipments (1), 1808–1908 by Mike Chappell
British Military Rifles: 1800 – 2000 by Peter Duckers
External links
Details of The Enfield Pattern 53, through to the Snider MkIII
Loading and Firing British Muskets in the Crimean War 1854–1856
Martini Henry rifle 1881
Martini Metford MkIV 1886
Rifles of the United Kingdom
de:Bewaffnung der British Army |
4312527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony%20Roll | Anthony Roll | The Anthony Roll is a written record of ships of the English Tudor navy of the 1540s, named after its creator, Anthony Anthony. It originally consisted of three rolls of vellum, depicting 58 naval vessels along with information on their size, crew, armament, and basic equipment. The rolls were presented to King Henry VIII in 1546, and were kept in the royal library. In 1680 King Charles II gave two of the rolls to Samuel Pepys, who had them cut up and bound as a single volume book, which is now in the Pepys Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The third roll remained in the royal collection until it was given by King William IV to his daughter Lady Mary Fox, who sold it to the British Museum in 1858; it is now owned by the British Library.
The Anthony Roll is the only known fully illustrated inventory of ships of the English navy in the Tudor period. As the work of a successful state official in 16th century England, the artistic value of the Anthony Roll has been described as being characterised by "naive draughtsmanship and conformity to a pattern" though its artistic aspects display "a decent amateur grasp of form and colour". While the inventories listed in its text have proven to be highly accurate, most of the ship illustrations are rudimentary and made according to a set formula. The level of detail of the ship design, armament and especially rigging has therefore proven to be only approximate. Nevertheless, through their depiction of the ceremonial ornamentation the illustrations in the Roll have provided relevant secondary information to the study of Tudor period heraldry, flags and ship ornamentation.
The only known contemporary depictions of prominent Tudor era vessels like the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose are contained in the Anthony Roll. As the Mary Rose sank by accident in 1545 and was successfully salvaged in 1982, comparison between the information in the Roll and the physical evidence of the Mary Rose has provided new insights into the study of the naval history of the period.
Author and artist
Anthony Anthony (before 1530-) has been identified as the compiler of the information and the artist behind the illustrations through his signature, which has been compared with holograph letters among the State Papers. Anthony's father was William Anthony (died 1535) a Fleming from Middelburg in Zeeland who migrated to England in 1503. William was a supplier of beer to the army, and Anthony followed in his father's footsteps. He went into beer exporting no later than 1530 and became a supplier of beer to the navy. In 1533 Anthony was appointed gunner at the Tower of London, a position he retained nominally until his death. He rose to the rank of overseer of the Ordnance Office, the government body responsible for supplying the armed forces with artillery, and it was in this position that he compiled his Roll. In 1549 he was promoted to master surveyor of the ordnance in the Tower, Calais, Boulogne, and elsewhere for life. He continued the work of supplying arms to English forces, and was active in the last month of his life supplying guns for an expedition against Le Havre.
In 1939 Dutch historian Nicholas Beets proposed that the Flemish artist and cartographer Cornelis Antoniszoon (or Antonisz., c. 1507–1553) could have been Anthony Anthony's brother. Although Beets' suggestion of kinship was conjectural and without any direct evidence, it was picked up by Geoffrey Callender in the Mariner's Mirror in 1963 and has been relayed by several other authors. The will of William Anthony did not mention any other sons and Anthonisz. is believed to have been the son of Antonis Egbertson, the daughter of Jacob Corneliszoon van Oostzanen. That Cornelis and Anthony were related is, in the words of Ann Payne, "not, presumably, impossible, but there is little evidence that they were connected at all".
History of the manuscript
The "ship portrait" had a long history in maritime art, from medieval seals and coins to early engravings in the 15th century, and the plain side-on view of a ship under sail, often with no crew shown, was well established as the most effective way of recording the build of vessels. The Anthony Roll belongs to a genre of works that was intended to serve a dual role for the king and the military leadership: as reasonably informative overviews listing details of ships or strategic areas of coastlines they could be studied to determine strengths and weaknesses, and as boastful and lively depictions of Tudor military might they could be used to flatter the king, impress courtiers and impose martial authority on foreign ambassadors. Contemporary maps, or "plats", were routinely decorated with detailed pictures of ships, to mark bodies of water as much as to liven up the scenes. Such maps were common at the time, and were even embellished by artists if deemed too simple or drab. The navy was expanded during Henry VIII's reign, and he was known to take an interest in warships, as can be seen by the epic painting Embarkation of Henry VIII at Dover which portrayed, if rather unrealistically, the ships that took the 29-year-old king to the summit meeting with Francis I of France at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. This painting, recently dated to around 1545, has also been suggested as a likely source of inspiration to Anthony for his illustrations.
There are three such plats depicting naval actions and expeditions that are attributed to Anthony: the route of Anne of Cleves from the Low Countries to England (1539), a French attack on a coastal fort (date unknown) and a French raid on Brighton (July 1545). The design of the ships in these paintings, especially that of the Brighton raid, closely match those in the rolls. It is not known exactly when work on the rolls began nor when it was finished. It is only certain that it was presented to the king the year it was dated, 1546. The inclusion of the Mary Rose that sank at the Battle of the Solent 19 July 1545 does not mean it was necessarily started before this date, since it was still considered possible that she could be raised even as late as 1549. The galleasses, the Antelope, Hart, Bull and Tiger, all present in the second roll, were still being built around March 1546, and the Hart was not at sea until October that year. At the same time the Galley Blanchard, captured from the French 18 May 1546 is not included.
After the rolls were presented to the king they were archived in the royal collections. In 1680 Charles II gave two of the rolls to Samuel Pepys, a navy administrator and avid book collector. Pepys did not disclose the details of how the rolls were given to him, but it is believed that the gift came out of a meeting with King Charles where Pepys took down the king's account of how he escaped from the Battle of Worcester (1651). The plan was that Pepys would edit and publish the already famous story, but he never did so. It is also known that Pepys was planning to write a history of the navy and that he was gathering material for this task, but this project also was never finished. It is considered likely that King Charles was aware of Pepys' plans and presented him with two of the rolls either as a gift or as payment for the intended publication of the escape story. The second roll could not be located at that time, and it was not until 1690 that it was discovered by Henry Thynne, keeper of the royal library 1677–89 and a close friend of Pepys. Thynne arranged for Pepys to make copies of some of the illustrations, but by 1690 Charles was dead and James II was in exile. Pepys had resigned from his position as Secretary of the Admiralty that same year and refused to recognize the reign of William III and Mary II, which meant that acquisition of the final roll for his collection was out of the question. The creation of the codex from the first and third rolls is therefore assumed to have been completed shortly after that time. After Pepys' death in 1703 his library passed on to his nephew John Jackson. After the death of Jackson in 1724 the library, along with the codex, was then passed on to Pepys' old college at Magdalene, Cambridge, where it remains to this day.
The second roll was presumed lost by the 1780s, but actually remained in the hands of the royal family. William IV gave it to his illegitimate daughter Mary FitzClarance sometime in the early 19th century. In 1824, FitzClarance married Charles Robert Fox, a major-general and from 1832–35 an officer of the surveyor of the ordnance, the same position Anthony Anthony had three centuries before him. Fox was a bibliophile, and historian Charles Knighton has suggested he knew the value of the roll, but its location nevertheless remained unknown to scholars. In 1857 Frederic Madden, keeper of manuscripts at the British Museum, was shown the second roll and learned that Mary Fox wished to sell it. After negotiations it was sold for £15 to the British Museum and was numbered Add MS 22047. It was kept in its original format as a roll and has been stored in the British Library's manuscript collection at St Pancras since 1999.
The Anthony Roll has been used frequently as a primary source for histories of the English navy of the 16th century but the full text and all illustrations were not collected in one volume until 2000.
Description
The Anthony Roll was originally a set of three separate vellum rolls. It exists today in the form of a bound volume containing the first and third rolls while the second roll is preserved in its original form. The three original rolls were made up out of a total of 17 individual membranes glued to the back of the next membrane. The membranes were of a width of and a height varying from . After receiving the first and third rolls Pepys had his clerks cut the rolls up and bound in a single volume as a book, now known as Pepys 2991. The transformation of the two rolls created a horizontal page structure, and some of the ornamentation that was cut in process was copied into the volume by hand. Pepys also inserted abstracts between the two rolls and a summarizing table that was not Anthony's, but pre-dated Pepys' binding of the rolls. This radical treatment of the original document has damaged some of the illustrations and is today deprecated. The first three illustrations of the Henry Grace à Dieu, Mary Rose and Peter Pomegranate were all too large to fit on one page and were therefore converted to two-page spreads. The resulting bend down the centre of the illustrations led to noticeable loss of detail. Despite this, there are no plans to attempt a recreation of the original structure of the first and third rolls. The second roll, British Library Add MS 22047, is still in its original condition with the exception of a written endorsement by Mary Fox from 1857 and some damage caused by an application of chemicals to reveal faded writing.
The three rolls list 58 ships divided into classes based roughly on size and construction. Each ship is presented along with its name, tonnage, crew size and, in Anthony's own words, "the ordenaunce, artillery, munitions and habillimentes for warre". The first roll lists the carracks and one pinnace, beginning with the largest ship Henry Grace à Dieu. The second roll lists galleasses, a hybrid of oar-powered and sailing vessels, and one galley. Finally, the third roll is reserved for pinnaces and "rowbarges", both basically smaller versions of galleasses.
Artistic analysis
Anthony Anthony was not a trained, professional artist. The illustrations are described as "striking and boldly executed, but [...] have few claims to be fine works of art". The vessels are for the most part painted according to a standard formula, with distinct repetitions even in the more elaborate depictions. Anthony's style is signified by a "naive draughtsmanship and conformity to a pattern [...] consistent with the abilities of a government official with a decent amateur grasp of form and colour".
The rolls were all of roughly the same length, about , and would most likely have been presented side by side for display on a table or hung on a wall. The focal point of the whole composition is in the second, middle roll where the exceptionally well-executed painting of the Galley Subtle is placed. That this ship was intended to be the centrepiece illustration is made clear by the presence of the pinnace Mary James in the first roll, which is otherwise reserved for (sailing) ships. This appears to have originally been placed at the beginning of the third roll, among the other pinnaces and rowbarges, but was moved to achieve more equal lengths. In his pursuit of living up to the image of a Renaissance prince Henry is known to have been particularly fond of galleys, something which would have been known to Anthony.
The lettering, framing lines and floral pattern decorations are painted in red or black with the exception of the first three ships of the first roll, which also feature gold. Most of the illustrations were first sketched with plummet outlines and were then painted over in washes. Ship timbers are a light brown that are shaded in the bow and stern to achieve depth, decorations and anchors are highlighted with red, and green is used for guns. Contours are in black and the sea is in shades varying from "greyish green" to "a richer blue".
The first two rolls were done with roughly the same amount of detail while the lesser rowbarges (essentially small galleys) were done more hastily. The first two ships of the first roll, the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose, have traces of a grid pattern, indicating that they were transferred from a different drawing while the rest are done in freehand. Overall, the ships follow a formula depending on the type of ship. The exceptions are stern galleries of some of the galleasses and the figureheads of the Mary Rose, Salamander and the Unicorn, the latter both captured from the Scots in 1544. The prominent exception is the Galley Subtle placed in the middle of the second roll. It is more consistent in type with Mediterranean-type galleys than the galleasses and small rowbarges, and features a considerable amount of detail not present in the other ships. It is the only ship where any crew is visible, in this case rowers behind pavisades as protection from enemy arrows and an overseer wearing "a bonnet, full skirted armorial doublet and baggy breeches" holding a stick or baton, as if beating the time of the strokes of the rowers.
Use as a historical source
As a historical record, the Anthony Roll is in many ways unique. It is the only known fully illustrated list of a Tudor period royal navy, though the pictures should not be seen as exact depictions drawn from real life. For example, the lists of guns of the individual ships, which are considered to be an accurate record produced by a senior state official, are only approximately matched to the paintings. The rigging is only roughly accurate, and has been described by Margaret Rule, archaeological project leader of the Mary Rose excavations, as "a confusing assemblage of shrouds, ratlines and stays". Many details are present, but others are missing, such as the chain-wales (the horizontal platforms extending from the sides) to which the shrouds (the parallel ropes that stabilized the masts) were attached to keep them clear of the hull.
Comparisons with the Mary Rose
Comparisons with the finds from the salvaged Mary Rose itself have provided an opportunity to compare the accuracy of the records provided in the Roll. The picture of the ship has provided clues about basic structural features, such as the number of masts and sails. When compared with an inventory of the ship from 1514, there is a close match, proving the illustration to be largely accurate. Examination of details in the construction, however, reveals that Anthony allowed himself some artistic licence. The armament in the painted ship appears clearly exaggerated. The heavy stern chasers (cannon placed in the stern aimed backwards) mounted through gun ports on the orlop deck, just about the waterline, would not have been feasible because of the lack of an orlop deck and the steep angle (sheer) of the ship in this area. The number of gunports in the broadside is inaccurate since it implies two slightly staggered rows of nine ports while the surviving starboard side of the Mary Rose has only one row of gunports on the main deck with seven ports. The accuracy of the forecastle has been more difficult to ascertain since none of it remains; conflicting interpretations of what it looked like have been suggested.
The guns in the back of the forecastle have defied explanation, but one theory is that they were included to compensate for the guns that were positioned in the aftcastle, aiming forwards, but which would have been obscured due to the angle from which the ship was depicted. The list of ammunition, small firearms, longbows, arrows, pikes, and bills closely matches the archaeological evidence. As the source that is closest in time to the sinking of the Mary Rose, it has been of central importance for the archaeological project, especially in estimating the size of the crew.
Flags and ornamentation
The Anthony Roll provides detailed information about the flags used on the ships. According to the vexillologist Timothy Wilson, the flags depicted flying from the ships are "the most elaborate source we have for the flags flown on the ships of King Henry VIII, being richer in visual detail than all other sources put together." Among the most striking flags in the illustrations are the elongated ceremonial streamers, shown flying from all ships in varying numbers. These feature a Saint George red cross on white ground on the hoist, nearest the flagpole, and a very long tail striped in green and white. They all feature gold paint on the red and green, and silver paint (now oxidized to black) on the white. This artistic device was used either to simulate the fluttering of the flags or to actually display the metallic thread and paint that was sometimes used to decorate them.
Along the railing of all ships, most prominently on the large carracks and the Galley Subtle, there are rows of banners displaying various heraldic designs, including the English royal arms, one or three fleur-de-lis of the French arms, Saint George's crosses and Henry VIII's monogram ("HR") in gold on blue, what appears to be the Tudor rose, and the green and white of the House of Tudor. The depictions of the flags and banners on the ships are in a heraldic and military sense considered to be roughly accurate but not entirely consistent. A kind of system of command among the various vessels is apparent in how flags are displayed on the masts, but it does not appear to have been carried through systematically. Some of the heraldic designs have been described as "unlikely" by the 20th century herald George Bellew, but have deemed to at least be "plausible" by Wilson.
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links
Article on the flags in the Roll
The Anthony Roll at the British Library
16th-century illuminated manuscripts
16th-century ships
British Library additional manuscripts
History of the Royal Navy
Manuscripts held by the University of Cambridge
Maritime paintings
Military history of the United Kingdom
Tudor England |
4312667 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum%20management | Spectrum management | Spectrum management is the process of regulating the use of radio frequencies to promote efficient use and gain a net social benefit. The term radio spectrum typically refers to the full frequency range from 1 Hz to 3000 GHz (3 THz) that may be used for wireless communication. Increasing demand for services such as mobile telephones and many others has required changes in the philosophy of spectrum management. Demand for wireless broadband has soared due to technological innovation, such as 3G and 4G mobile services, and the rapid expansion of wireless internet services.
Since the 1930s, spectrum was assigned through administrative licensing. Limited by technology, signal interference was once considered as a major problem of spectrum use. Therefore, exclusive licensing was established to protect licensees' signals. This former practice of discrete bands licensed to groups of similar services is giving way, in many countries, to a "spectrum auction" model that is intended to speed technological innovation and improve the efficiency of spectrum use. During the experimental process of spectrum assignment, other approaches have also been carried out, namely, lotteries, unlicensed access, and privatization of spectrum.
Most recently, America has been moving toward a shared spectrum policy, whereas Europe has been pursuing an authorized shared access (ASA) licensing model. President Obama made shared spectrum the policy of the United States on 14 June 2013, following recommendations from the President's Council of Advisors for Science and Technology (PCAST) which advocated the sharing of (uncleared) federal radio spectrum when unused at a place and time provided it does not pose undue risks. In line with this guidance, as of Dec 2014 the FCC was extending the limited success of television band spectrum sharing (TV white space) into other bands, significantly into the 3550–3700 MHz US Navy radar band via a three tier licensing model (incumbent, priority, and general access).
Governments and spectrum management
Most countries consider RF spectrum as an exclusive property of the state. The RF spectrum is a national resource, much like water, land, gas and minerals. Unlike these, however, RF is reusable. The purpose of spectrum management is to mitigate radio spectrum pollution, and maximize the benefit of usable radio spectrum.
The first sentence of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) constitution fully recognises "the sovereign right of each State to regulate its telecommunication". Effective spectrum management requires regulation at national, regional, and global levels.
Goals of spectrum management include: rationalize and optimize the use of the RF spectrum; avoid and solve interference; design short and long range frequency allocations; advance the introduction of new wireless technologies; coordinate wireless communications with neighbours and other administrations. Radio spectrum items which need to be nationally regulated: frequency allocation for various radio services, assignment of license and RF to transmitting stations, type approval of equipment (for countries out of the European Union), fee collection, notifying ITU for the Master International Frequency Register (MIFR), coordination with neighbour countries (as there are no borders to the radio waves), external relations toward regional commissions (such as CEPT in Europe, CITEL in America) and toward ITU.
Spectrum use
Spectrum management is a growing problem due to the growing number of spectrum uses. Uses include: over-the-air broadcasting, (which started in 1920); government and research uses (which include defense, public safety—maritime, air, police—resource management, transport, and radio astronomy); commercial services to the public (including voice, data, home networking); and industrial, scientific and medical services (which include Telemedicine, and remote control).
In the 1980s, the only concern was about radio and television broadcasting; but today mobile phones and wireless computer networks are more and more important as fewer than 15% of US households rely on over-the-air broadcasting to receive their TV signals.
The US spectrum is managed either by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for non-governmental applications or by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) for governmental applications. For shared application, both entities should agree.
The spectrum is divided into different frequency bands, each having a specific application. For instance, the frequency band that covers 300 kHz to 535 kHz is reserved for aeronautical and maritime communications and the spectrum from 520 kHz to 1700 kHz for AM radio. This process is called "allocation".
The next step is to assign frequencies to specific users or classes of users. Each frequency band has a specific assignment that depends on the nature of the application and the numbers of users. Indeed, some applications require a wider band than others (AM radio uses blocks of 10 kHz where FM radio uses blocks of 200 kHz). In addition, "guard bands" are needed to keep the interference between applications to a minimum.
Status quo: the command and control approach
The Command and Control management approach is the one currently employed by most regulators around the globe. This approach advocates that the regulators be the centralized authorities for spectrum allocation and usage decisions. In the US example, the regulator (FCC) determines the use cases for specified spectrum portions, as well as the parties who will have access to them.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) also regulates the physical layer technologies to be employed.
The allocation decisions are often static in temporal and spatial dimensions, meaning that they are valid for extended periods of time (usually decades) and for large geographical regions (country wide). The usage is often set to be exclusive; each band is dedicated to a single provider, thus maintaining interference free communication. The command and control management model dates back to initial days of wireless communications, when the technologies employed required interference-free mediums for achieving acceptable quality. Thus, it is often argued that the exclusive nature of the command and control approach is an artifact of outdated technologies.
The apparent advantages of this model is that services related to public interest could be sustained. In terms of profitability, public interest programs, for example, over-the-air television, may not be as attractive as commercial ones in the provider perspective, but they are nevertheless beneficial for the society. Therefore, these services are often implicitly enforced by the regulator through the license agreements. Another advantage is the standardization that results from such a centralized approach. Such standardization is critical in networked industries, for which the telecommunication industry is a text-book example. One scholar has published a paper that shows how the development of new technologies promises to bring considerably more spectrum to the public, but would require that society embrace a new paradigm of spectrum use.
GAO Report on Spectrum Management (2004)
Excerpt:
Alternative spectrum governance regimes and the spectrum debate
With the digital transition, spectrum management entered a new age. Full conversion to digital TV by 17 February 2009 (Digital Transition and Public Safety Act of 2005) allows broadcasters to use spectrum more efficiently and save space for the possibility of sharing spectrum.
Spectrum sharing is the subject of heated discussion. Exponential growth of commercial wireless calls for additional spectrum to accommodate more traffic. As a regulator, the FCC responded to these needs by making more spectrum available. A secondary market has been allowed to emerge and licensees are encouraged to lease use of the spectrum to third parties temporarily. Making licenses transferable is an important attempt by the FCC to create incentives for broadcasters to share unused spectrum. Another proposed solution to the spectrum scarcity problem is to enable communications systems to occupy spectrum that was previously allocated for radar use and to cooperatively share spectrum. This approach has received increased attention recently with several research programs, including DARPA projects, investigating several methods of cooperative radar-communications spectrum sharing. More alternatives are underway such as spectrum sharing in cellular networks.
Spectrum scarcity has emerged as a primary problem encountered when trying to launch new wireless services. The effects of this scarcity are most noticeable in spectrum auctions where the operators often need to invest billions of dollars to secure access to specified bands in the available spectrum.
In spite of this scarcity, recent spectrum utilization measurements have shown that the available spectrum opportunities are severely underutilized, i.e. left unused. This artificial "access limitation"-based scarcity is often considered to result from the static and rigid nature of the command and control governance regime. Interested parties have started to consider possible improvements in the governance regime by relaxing the constraints on spectrum access. Two prevailing models are the "spectrum commons" and the "spectrum property rights" approaches.
Spectrum commons theory
Under US law, the spectrum is not considered to be the property of the private sector nor of the government except insofar as the term "government" is used to be synonymous with "the people".
The original use of the term "the commons" was the practice by which the public at large had limited rights to use the commons; each person then had an interest in their own usage rights, but the commons themselves were not property, nor were the rights "property" since they could not be traded. The term "tragedy of the commons" was popularized by Garrett Hardin in a 1968 article which appeared in Science. The tragedy of the commons illustrates the philosophy that destructive use of public reservations ("the commons") by private interests can result when the best strategy for individuals conflicts with the "common good". In such a scenario, it asserts that even though the contribution of each "bad actor" may be minute, when the results of these actions are combined the resource could be degraded to the point of uselessness. This concern has led to the regulation of the spectrum.
Spectrum property rights model
The spectrum property rights model advocates that the spectrum resources should be treated like land, i.e. private ownership of spectrum portions should be permitted. The allocation of these portions should be implemented by means of market forces. The spectrum owners should be able to trade these portions in secondary markets. Alternatively, the spectrum owners would be able to use their bands in any way they want through any technology they prefer (service and technology neutrality). Although the spectrum property rights model advocates exclusive allocation of transmission rights, it is not the same as a licensed regime. The main difference is the service and technology neutrality advocated in the spectrum property rights approach, as opposed to strict requirements on services and communications technologies inherent in licensed governance regimes.
The basic idea of spectrum property rights was first proposed by Leo Herzel in 1951, who was a law student at the time, preparing a critique of the US FCC policies in spectrum management. Ronald Coase, a Nobel Prize–winning economist, championed the idea of auctioning off spectrum rights as a superior alternative to the status quo in 1959. Coase argued that, though initial distributions may affect matters, property rights in a frequency will lead to the most efficient usage thereof. When he first presented his vision to the FCC, he was asked whether he was making a joke.
The supporters of the spectrum property rights model argue that such a management scheme would potentially promote innovation and more efficient use of spectrum resources, as the spectrum owners would potentially want to economize on their resources.
The spectrum property rights model is often critiqued for potentially leading to artificial scarcity and the hold-up problem. The hold-up problem refers to the difficulty in aggregation of the spectrum resources (which would be required for high bandwidth applications), as the individual spectrum owners could ask for very high compensation in return for their contribution. Since spectrum is a scarce finite good, there is a perverse incentive to not use it at all. Participants and existing spectrum owners in the spectrum market can preemptively buy spectrum, then warehouse it to prevent existing or newcomer competitors from utilizing it. The existing spectrum owner's official plans for this warehoused spectrum would be save it for an unknown future use, and therefore not utilize it at all for the foreseeable future.
In a partial or incomplete "spectrum as property" regulatory regime, incumbent and grandfathered owners who obtained spectrum under the old cause and merit policy, can obtain windfalls in selling the spectrum they obtained for no cost under the earlier regulatory regime. When a regulatory regime changes to the property model, the original merit and cause guidelines for incumbent and grandfathered users are often removed. No regulatory review mechanism exists to check if the merit guidelines are still being followed, and if not, to then revoke the spectrum license from the incumbent spectrum owner and reissue the spectrum to a new user under old merit guidelines, or sell the spectrum inline with the new "spectrum as property" policy.
U.S. regulatory agencies
The Communications Act of 1934 grants authority for spectrum management to the President for all federal use (47 USC 305). The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) manages the spectrum for the Federal Government. Its rules are found in the NTIA Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management".
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) manages and regulates all domestic non-federal spectrum use (47 USC 301).
Background:
Radio Act of 1927
Communications Act of 1934
Administrative Procedures Act of 1947
Communications Satellite Act of 1962
National Telecommunications and Information Administration
Negotiated Rulemaking Act of 1990
Cable TV Consumer Protection & Competition Act of 1992
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993
Telecommunications Act of 1996
International spectrum management
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the part of the United Nations (UN) that manages the use of both the RF Spectrum and space satellites among nation states. The Plenipotentiary Conference is the top policy-making body of the ITU, meeting every four years in order to set the Union's general policies. The ITU is divided into three Sectors: the Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) determines the technical characteristics and operational procedures for wireless services, and plays a vital role in the Spectrum Management of the radio-frequency; ITU-R Study Group 1 is the Spectrum Management study group; the Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) develops internationally agreed technical and operating standards; and the Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) fosters the expansion of telecommunications infrastructure in developing nations throughout the world, that make up two-thirds of the ITU's 191 Member States. The ITU Radio Regulations set a binding international treaty governing the use of the radio spectrum by some 40 different services.
Frequency Administration
In telecommunication, frequency assignment authority is the power granted for the administration, designation or delegation to an agency or administrator via treaty or law, to specify frequencies, frequency channels or frequency bands, in the electromagnetic spectrum for use in radiocommunication services, radio stations or ISM applications.
Frequency administration is – according to Article 1.2 of the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as «Any governmental department or service responsible for discharging the obligations undertaken in the Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, in the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union and in the Administrative Regulations (CS 1002).» Definitions identical to those contained in the Annex to the Constitution or the Annex to the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union (Geneva, 1992) are marked "(CS)" or "(CV)" respectively.
International frequency assignment authority is vested in the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
Europe
In Europe each country has regulatory input into the progress of European and international policy, standards, and legislation governing these sectors through their respective frequency administration.
European frequency administrations might receive military advice by the appropriate National Radio Frequency Agency (NRFA). Pertaining to NATO-Europe, this expertise is within the Spectrum Consultation Command and Control & Infrastructure Branch (SC3IB). However, the decision making body, pertaining to military access to the radio frequency spectrum, is the NATO Civ/Mil Spectrum Capability Panel 3 (CaP3), on behalf of the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Board (C3B), with participation of competent, authorised and mandated representatives of national frequency administrations''.
Civil frequency management for Europe is driven by a number of organisations. These include the:
European Union (EU)
Independent Regulator's Group (IRG)
European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
European Radiocommunications Office (ERO)
In July 2002, the European Commission also established the European Regulators Group for Electronic Communications Networks and Services; creating, for the first time, a formal structure for interaction and coordination between the European Commission and regulators in all EU Member States to ensure consistent application of European legislation.
United States
In the United States, primary frequency assignment authority is exercised by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) for the Federal Government and by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for non-Federal Government organizations.
See also
Frequency assignment
Military spectrum management
Broadcast license
LTE in unlicensed spectrum
References
Radio spectrum
Radio resource management |
4312717 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%27s%20Anatomy%20%28season%202%29 | Grey's Anatomy (season 2) | The second season of the American television medical drama Grey's Anatomy commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 25, 2005, and concluded on May 15, 2006. The season was produced by Touchstone Television, in association with Shondaland production company and The Mark Gordon Company, the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. Actors Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers, and T. R. Knight reprised their roles as surgical interns Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens, Alex Karev, and George O'Malley respectively. Previous main cast members Chandra Wilson, James Pickens, Jr., Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey also returned, while Kate Walsh, who began the season in a recurring capacity, was promoted to series-regular status, after appearing in 7 episodes as a guest-star.
The season continued to focus on the surgical residency of five young interns as they try to balance the challenges of their competitive careers with the difficulties that determine their personal lives. It was set in the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, located in the city of Seattle, Washington. Whereas the first season put the emphasis mainly on the unexpected impact the surgical field has on the main characters, the second season provides a detailed perspective on the personal background of each character, focusing on the consequences that their decisions have on their careers. Throughout the season, new storylines were introduced, including the love-triangle between Meredith Grey, Derek Shepherd, and Addison Montgomery, this being the main arc of the season. Also heavily developed was the storyline involving Izzie Stevens' relationship with patient Denny Duquette, which resulted in high critical acclaim and positive fan response.
The season kept its original airtime from the previous season, taking over Boston Legal time slot at 10:00 pm on Sundays, while airing as a lead-out to the already-successful ABC series, Desperate Housewives. It contained 27 episodes, out of which 4 were originally produced for the first season. In addition to the regular episodes, 2 clip shows recapped previous events of the show, both narrated by Steven W. Bailey in his recently introduced role as Joe the Bartender. "Straight to Heart" aired 1 week before the winter-holiday hiatus ended, recapping the most memorable events of the first season and the first-half of the second. "Under Pressure" aired before the twenty-third episode. The season finale was conceived as a 3-part story-arc, the first of this kind in the series, and was scheduled to air on 2 consecutive nights.
The show ended its second season with 21.07 million total viewers and a 6.9 ratings share in the 18–49 demographic. The season opened to high critical acclaim, as most agreed on a significant improvement in storylines. The season saw numerous cast and crew members receive awards and nominations at ceremonies like the 58th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 64th Golden Globe Awards. Katherine Heigl and Chandra Wilson were the cast members with the most nominations for their portrayals of Izzie Stevens and Miranda Bailey, respectively. The series was chosen in the top 10 for several 2006 "best of television" lists, including USA Today, San Jose Mercury News, TV Guide, and Orlando Sentinel.
Episodes
Each episode of this season is named after a song.
Cast and characters
Main
Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey
Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang
Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens
Justin Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev
T. R. Knight as Dr. George O'Malley
Chandra Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey
James Pickens Jr. as Dr. Richard Webber
Kate Walsh as Dr. Addison Montgomery-Shepherd
Isaiah Washington as Dr. Preston Burke
Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd
Recurring
Sara Ramirez as Dr. Callie Torres
Brooke Smith as Dr. Erica Hahn
Kate Burton as Ellis Grey
Steven W. Bailey as Joe, the Bartender
Chris O'Donnell as Finn Dandridge
Loretta Devine as Adele Webber
Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Denny Duquette
Notable guests
Eric Dane as Dr. Mark Sloan
Sarah Utterback as Olivia Harper
Kali Rocha as Sydney Heron
Tsai Chin as Helen Yang
Jeff Perry as Thatcher Grey
Mare Winningham as Susan Grey
Laurie Metcalf as Beatrice Carver
Jillian Armenante as Mindy Carlson
Brian Kerwin as Holden McKee
Jesse Plemons as Jake Burton
Tessa Thompson as Camille Travis
Monica Keena as Bonnie Crasnoff
Kym Whitley as Yvonne
Katherine LaNasa as Vera Kalpana
Cress Williams as Tucker Jones
Anjul Nigam as Dr. Raj Sen
Robin Pearson Rose as Patricia Murphy
George Dzundza as Harold O'Malley
Tim Griffin as Ronny O'Malley
Greg Pitts as Jerry O'Malley
Mary Kay Place as Olive Warner
Christina Ricci as Hannah Davies
John Cho as Marshall Stone
Mandy Siegfried as Molly Grey
Kyle Chandler as Dylan Young
Production
Crew
The season was produced by Touchstone Television, currently ABC Studios, in association with ShondaLand Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company. Shonda Rhimes returned as the series' showrunner and executive producer. She also continued her position from the first 2 seasons as one of the most prominent members of the writing staff. Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Mark Wilding, and Rob Corn returned as executive producers, along with James D. Parriott, Peter Horton, and Krista Vernoff, who have been in this position since the inception of the series. Parriott, who also served as an episodic writer, left the series at the conclusion of the season. Joan Rater and Tony Phelan continued to serve as co-executive producers, with Rater being a supervising producer as well. Stacy McKee, who would be promoted to co-executive producer for the third season, returned to the series as a producer and a member of the writing staff. Having written 3 episodes for the first season, Rhimes returned as a writer for 5 episodes. Parriott, Vernoff, Phelan, Rater, Wilding and Mimi Schmir were the most prominent members of the writing staff, with Parriott, Phelan, Rater, Wilding, Clack writing 2 episodes and Schmir producing the script for 3. Gabrielle Stanton and Harry Werksman, Jr. worked together for the writing of 2 episodes, after having written 1 episode for the series in the past.
The season includes the first episode to be written by Zoanne Clack, who would become one of the series' main writers, as well as a co-producer and executive story editor. Other writers include Kip Koenig, Blythe Robe and Elizabeth Klaviter. Executive producer Peter Horton returned to the series to direct 5 episodes for the season, after writing 2 episodes in the second season. Rob Corn directed 2 episodes, whereas Adam Davidson is credited for writing 3 episodes, his last ones in the series. Among the other directors are Wendey Stanzler, Mark Tinker, Jeff Melman, Jessica Yu, Lesli Linka Glatter, Michael Dinner, Dan Minahan, David Paymer, Julie Anne Robinson, Tricia Brock, and Seith Mann. Danny Lux continued his position as the main music composer for the series, while Herbert Davis, Tim Suhrstedt and Adam Kane served as the season's cinematography directors. Susan Vaill and Edward Ornelas resumed their positions as editors, joined by Briana London, who left the series after 9 episodes. Linda Lowy and John Brace, responsible for the casting since the beginning of the series, returned as casting team members. After the departure of Laurence Bennett, the production design team was taken over by Donald Lee Harris, with Amy B. Ancona and Brandee Dell'Aringa joining for 10 episodes each.
The series' set decoration crew was led by Karen Bruck, whereas the costume design department was led by Linda M. Bass, who would leave the show at the conclusion of the season, following her being replaced by Mimi Melgaard. The make-up department was led by head Norman T. Leavitt, along with assistant make-up artist Brigitte Bugayong. The special make-up effects team consisted of Thomas R. Burman, Bari Dreiband-Burman and Bart Mixon. Arleen Chavez was the key hair stylist for the second season. Other makeup artists that contributed in the third season were Vincent Van Dyke, Allan Holt and Christopher Payne. The series production managers were unit production manager Carla Corwin and post-production supervisor Joy Ramos, who both depart from the series at the conclusion of the season, being replaced by unit production manager Jeff Rafner, production manager Chad Alber and production executive Tim Herbstrith. Second assistant directors since the inception of the series, Laura Petticord, Shawn Hanley and Chris Hayden returned to the series for the second season. The art department consisted of construction foreman Bob Huffman, set dressers Stacy Doran and Bruce Purcell, leadman Joseph W. Grafmuller, property master Angela M. Whiting, labor foreman Verne Hammond, art department coordinator Angela Trujillo, construction coordinator Curt Jones, set designer Yvonne Garnier-Hackl, stage foreman Tom Talley and paint foreman Alex Thompson. Joining the art department were set painter Shelley Adajian and assistant property masters Andrew Allen-King and Jeanne Bueche. However, the 3 new additions left the series after the production of the season finale, being temporarily replaced by Nicole Dome and T. Scott Elliott, who joined the team for 2 episodes. Sound editor Anthony Toretto, additional foley artist Mark McBryde, foley mixer Stacey Michaels, production sound mixer Brydon Baker III, foley artist Noel Vought, boom operator Kevin Maloney and sound re-recording mixers Todd Langer, Don Digirolamo, Pete Elia and Kurt Kassulke, the original members of the sound department, all returned for the second season. Production sound mixer Veda Campbell also returned, but departed after 4 episodes into the season, whereas assistant sound mixer Douglas J. Schulman was added to the crew for the first 10 episodes of the season. Joining the production team in the sound crew were boom operator Kevin Maloney, sound mixer Cameron Hamza, Robert Marts and Mick Davies, with both Marts and Davies leaving the show after 2 episodes. The special effects team, which was led by coordinator Jason Gustafson, consisted of make-up artists Anthony Julio, who had been part of the production crew since the beginning of the series, and special effects foreman Ken Rudell. Part of the visual effects team were computer graphic artist Richard Also, visual effects supervisor Rick Cortes and matte artist Kristin Johnson. Whereas Cortes and Johnson joined the crew close to the season finale, Also was the only member of the visual effects team to have been in the crew since the beginning of the series.
Writing and filming
The season was primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. Fisher Plaza, which is the headquarters building for the media company Fisher Communications and Fisher's ABC affiliated Komo radio and television stations for Seattle, is used for some exterior shots of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, such as air ambulances landing on the Komo Television newscopter's helipad. This puts Seattle Grace conveniently close to the Space Needle, which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza, the Seattle Monorail, and other local landmarks. However, the hospital used for most other exterior and many interior shots is not in Seattle, are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills, California. Most scenes are primarily taped in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, at the Prospect Studios, and the set occupies two stages, including the hospital pieces, but some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle. Several props used are genuine medical supplies, including the MRI machine. Prior to being cast, Sara Ramirez was seen by ABC executives, in her Broadway performance of Spamalot, which garnered their attention. Due to their admiration, the network offered Ramirez a role on any ABC television series, of her choice, which ultimately led in her choosing Grey's Anatomy. Ramirez further explained that at her initial audition, the producers liked her, and had intentions to add her to the show, but did not know whom to cast her as. She also said she was in awe of how the executives said, "Pick a show, any show!", a statement she deemed rare. Ramirez's character was given recurring status in the second season, having been conceived as a love-interest for George O'Malley. At Torres' initial appearance on the show, she was disliked by fans, due to her getting in the way of O'Malley and Grey's relationship. When asked of this, Ramirez said: "You do run across a lot of people who are extremely invested in that storyline. Obviously, I've heard some negative stuff." Discussing Izzie Stevens' relationship with Alex Karev, Katherine Heigl described her character as naive enough to believe she can save him, assessing that: "Even when Alex was a complete dirtbag to her, she forgave him and gave him another chance. And he really screwed her over." Writer Stacy McKee described Izzie's moving on from Alex to patient Denny Duquette as "karma", as Alex previously treated Izzie badly, yet as he begins to realize his true feelings, he is forced to watch her embark on a romance with Denny, regarded by her as "undeniably handsome and totally charming." Series writer Blythe Robe commented on Izzie and Denny: "I love the way Izzie lights up when she’s around him. I love their relationship because it's so pure and honest and completely game-free." Writer Elizabeth Klaviter noted at this time the way Izzie "seems to be sacrificing her reputation because of her feelings for Denny." When Izzie deliberately worsened Denny's condition to move him up the transplant list, series writer Mark Wilding questioned the morality of the actions, asking: "Is Izzie bad for doing it? Is she tremendously irresponsible? She cut the wire for love so does that make her action understandable?" Series creator Shonda Rhimes discussed costuming choices in the scene which saw the interns gather around Denny's deathbed, explaining: "Meredith and Cristina and Alex and George and Callie are all dressed, not for a prom, but for a funeral. Everyone in dark colors, everyone dressed somberly. As if they were in mourning. Only Izzie is in happy pink. Only Izzie looks like she didn't know this was coming."
Peter Horton, expressed that his plan of developing Chandra Wilson's character, Miranda Bailey, was to focus on the similarities between her and the actress, noting that "there's not a mean bone in her body, but she's solid and steady, like a rock." Wilson herself noted a significant evolution in her character's personality, noting a transition from the cold attitude that was characteristic to her in the past, to a maternal outlook on her interns. She also noted a number of similarities between her and her character, describing how considers Miranda Bailey an alter-ego of hers, rather than someone living inside her. Wilson also assessed that being a real-life human is what makes Bailey an appreciated character: "She gets to be flawed, she gets to be tired, she can be cranky, she can be grumpy." Showrunner Shonda Rhimes explained that the idea of Miranda Bailey having a child was developed after Chandra Wilson had already been pregnant for 6 months. Cast member Kate Walsh deemed Wilson's portrayal of her character "sweet and wonderful", naming her a professional: "She makes you be a better actor, just by being there." She also described her performance during her character's labor as "heart-breaking, tender, powerful and wonderful", noting how she managed to transform the strong character into "a weak woman, struggling to fight the unusual situation." Fellow cast member James Pickens, Jr. described Wilson's portrayal of Miranda Bailey as "a breath of fresh air, literally and figuratively", also noting how the force she delivers is mainly due to the start of her career being in theater. Horton also described the production process of the 2-part story arc, which he stated to have been planning since the beginning of the series. He stated that the plot of the episodes had to "fill the demands of the Super Bowl", which was scheduled to air in the same night: "We really wanted something different and Shonda [Rhimes] came up with the idea of this bomb, that we found simply outstanding!" Visual effects supervisor Scott Milnex noted how "breaking down the story boards was really the key to getting all the departments to work together." He also assessed that the necessity to use Primacord, an element they had been trying to avoid, for the explosion scene proved excessively dangerous, and was ultimately replaced with wood and clothing material. He described the filming process by emphasizing the transition from mannequin to the real actor: "When we filmed it, there was a moment, a fraction of a second, when we changed the body with the actor."
Casting
The second season had 10 roles receiving star billing, out of whom 9 were returning from the first season. All the actors who appear as series-regulars portray physicians from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, specialized in surgery. Ellen Pompeo acted as Meredith Grey, the protagonist and the narrator of the series, a surgical intern who struggles to balance the difficulties of the competitive career she has chosen, with her troubled personal background. Sandra Oh portrayed highly competitive intern Cristina Yang, who suffers a miscarriage just as she starts accepting her upcoming motherhood. Katherine Heigl played intern Izzie Stevens, in a continuous struggle to be looked upon as a doctor, not the model she used to be. Justin Chambers acted as Alex Karev, who begins to develop an emotional side of his personality, after being introduced as arrogant and selfish. T. R. Knight played the role of intern George O'Malley, whose insecurity and lack of self-confidence evolve due to his unshared feelings for Meredith Grey. Chandra Wilson portrayed surgical resident and brilliant general surgeon Miranda Bailey, the mentor of the five interns, whose rudeness and cold attitude earns her the nickname "The Nazi." James Pickens, Jr. portrayed Seattle Grace Hospital's Chief of Surgery, Richard Webber, whose relationship with Meredith Grey's mother, which occurred 21 years ago, threatens to ruin his marriage. Isaiah Washington played the role of attending physician and cardiothoracic surgeon Preston Burke, who learns that Cristina, with whom he had a sexual relationship, is pregnant with his child. Patrick Dempsey portrayed attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, whose relationship with intern Meredith Grey has been the focal point of the series since its inception. Although originally conceived as a guest-star with a 5-episode story arc, Kate Walsh decided to extend her contract following positive reviews from critics and fans, resulting in her getting promoted to series-regular status. Being the first addition to the original cast from the first season, Walsh began receiving star-billing in the seventh episode of the season, portraying obstetrician-gynaecologist and world-class neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery Shepherd, who comes in Seattle seeking reconciliation with her estranged husband, Derek Shepherd.
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline. Sara Ramirez appeared in a 9-episode arc in the season, portraying orthopedic surgical resident Callie Torres, introduced and developed as a love-interest for the character of George O'Malley. Steven W. Bailey is introduced in the recurring role of Joe, the Bartender, often being portrayed as a confidant of the surgeons of Seattle Grace Hospital. Chris O'Donnell portrayed veterinary physician Finn Dandridge, who became a love-interest for Meredith Grey. Renowned surgeon Ellis Grey, Meredith's mother, who is suffering from Alzheimer's disease, continues her recurring role from the first season, being portrayed by Kate Burton. Brooke Smith portrayed Erica Hahn, a cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, who is revealed to have been a rival of Preston Burke ever since they attended medical school together. Jeffrey Dean Morgan appears in 6 episodes throughout the season, portraying patient Denny Duquette, who begins a relationship with Izzie Stevens, but ultimately dies following an unsuccessful heart transplant surgery. Loretta Devine acted as Adele Webber, Richard's wife, who is revealed to have been aware of her husband's affair since its inception. Other guest-stars include Sarah Utterback in the role of nurse Olivia Harper, love-interest of both George O'Malley and Alex Karev, Kali Rocha portraying fifth-year resident Sydney Heron, who replaces Miranda Bailey temporarily when she takes a maternity leave, Jeff Perry portraying Meredith Grey's father, Thatcher Grey, Mare Winningham in the role of Susan Grey, Tsai Chin in the role of Helen Yang Rubenstein, Cristina's mother, Mandy Siegfried portraying Molly Grey Thompson, Meredith's half-sister and Tessa Thompson portraying Camille Travis, Richard Webber's niece, Christina Ricci portraying paramedic Hannah Davies, and Kyle Chandler in the role of Dylan Young, head of the bomb squad. Eric Dane, who would be promoted to a series-regular in the third season, appeared in the eighteenth episode, portraying attending physician, otolaryngologist and plastic surgeon Mark Sloan, Addison Montgomery's former lover, whose affair with her is presented as the reason behind the estrangement of her husband, Derek Shepherd.
Reception
Ratings
The first 5 episodes of the season were initially planned to be within the first season with the episode "Bring the Pain" as the season 1 finale. According to Rhimes, after airing the ninth episode of the show, the ratings, the time-slots and the really great audience meant that they have to end the season with that episode, and the cliffhanger with the coming of Derek's estranged wife fit perfectly. The season received high critical acclaim, and it performed better than the first season. Due to the success of the first season, Grey's Anatomy took over the Sunday night timeslot along with Desperate Housewives, replacing Boston Legal. The second season averaged 21.07 million viewers, making it the highest-rated season of the series to date. It was ranked #5 in the 2005-2006 television season. The season also includes the series' highest-rated episode, "It's the End of the World" which was watched by 37.88 million viewers.
Critical response
The season opened up to high critical acclaim with many critics calling it "one of the best shows on TV" and was included in the top 10 for numerous "best of television" lists of 2006. Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the show a "Pokémon" and "one of the best TV shows around, burning through plot points at a furious clip, swooning romanticism, at embracing the kind of deeply-earnest, intensely-felt romance that made the show’s relationships so great. Meredith’s famous "Pick Me, Choose Me, Love Me" speech is corny, to be sure, but it's got tremendous rhythm and absolute conviction... season 2 of Grey's was a comet." Todd Gilchrist of IGN Entertainment expressed hope in the further development of the series, noting the complex backgrounds of each character as being the series' focal-point. He noted that the ensemble, composed of "countless comely females and enough strong, competitive males" remains outstanding in primetime, being iconic, due to the vast interpretations regarding the main cast. Whereas Gilchrist acknowledged that the show gives the impression of it being only for women, he stated that he can attest to its universal, equal-opportunity appeal, assessing that the show "explores the medical world with both a sense of testosterone-fueled intensity and estrogen-laced sensitivity" and deserved to have viewers from both genders, championing its merits. In response to the bomb story-arc, he called the 2 episodes "juicy", while assessing that they "followed a storyline that not only explained the series up to that point, but featured all of the characters in their more-or-less purest from." Gilchrist provided an outlook on each character, describing Grey as a "prodigiously talented but insecure surgeon, waylaid by her love for attending Derek Shepherd", while stating that Yang, "an aggressively-ambitious intern" lacks knowledge on any topic, except medicine, comparing her to boyfriend Burke, described as her opposite. In response to George O'Malley's storyline, he noted how his sensitive personality constantly results in difficulty in his path to becoming a proper surgeon. He also expressed excitement in the doors opened by the previous season's cliffhanger, seeing the arrival of Montgomery (Walsh) as "certainly speaking to the show's focus on relationships over the nuts-and-bolts of being a surgeon", while praising Rhimes for continuing to "merge those disparate elements in the way that does, or at least should be a source of enthusiasm for both men and women, creating an atmosphere both professional and intimately personal, often at the same time."
Noting the realism in the writing for the series, Gilchrist stated: "It's as if Rhimes & Co. harnessed the sublime and the mundane of our daily experiences, that strange sense of drama that emerges from even the most unimportant daily conflicts, and it transported it on a world that is legitimately fraught with life-and-death decisions." However, he expressed disappointment in the end of the second season, which he deemed surprisingly less strong, compared to the "powerful" first-half and the "immaculate" first season, describing Stevens' "awkward and self-destructive" relationship with a patient as a way to "slow episodes to a screeching halt with maudlin and painfully-underdeveloped turns towards melodrama", while expressing the predictability of Duquette's death. Gilchrist stated in response to Stevens' development in the last part of the second season: "Izzie's descent into abject hysteria, which followed her season-long sanctimoniousness about everything, actually made me want something terrible to happen to her too." He described how some episodes were not among the show's strongest, noting that the some plot-lines created poignancy, and connected in an unfamiliar way.
The reviews have stood the test of time and the season still remains a huge critical favorite. Entertainment Weekly reviewing the tenth season of the show acknowledged that, "the second season is still the show’s best season to date." The site added, "I do want to talk about what season 10 could learn from what I believe is the show’s best season to date: season 2." calling in all the signature elements of the show that it did the best with listing all the best moments from the season, "the elevator", "the walkway", "Joe’s bar, " Meredith's "Pick Me" speech." and the "memorable patients" adding, " I want 2 people stuck on a pole ("Into You Like a Train") or 2 Amish best friends having to say goodbye, and I want those stories to be given ample time to resonate. More than anything, I want them to affect our doctors in heartbreaking and beautiful ways."
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle was critical of Izzie's ethics in cutting Denny's LVAD wire, writing that she "should not be practising medicine" and stating: "That's the reason I don't watch Grey's Anatomy, anymore, because the super-hot blond chick can make an earth-shattering, fatal decision and she doesn't get canned." Regarding the second season, Kevin Carr from 7M Pictures said "Rhimes really just put Scrubs, E.R., Sex and the City and even a dash of The Love Boat in a blender and poured out Grey's Anatomy." Also in regard to the second season, Christopher Monfette of IGN TV said "[...] The second season of this medical drama expertly wove its signature elements of complex relationships, whimsical banter and challenging life-lessons - all to a montage-fetish, indie-rock soundtrack."
Accolades
In 2006, the series won the Golden Globe for Best Drama Series. Sandra Oh won the 2005 Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries, or TV Film and the 2006 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series for her portrayal of Cristina Yang in the show's second season. Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey were also nominated for the Best Actress in a Drama Series and Best Actor in a Drama Series respectively at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards. In 2006, casting directors Linda Lowy and John Brace won the Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series. The Grey's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards. At the Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast was nominated for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. Isaiah Washington was awarded Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series at the NAACP Image Awards in 2006. Krista Vernoff received an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series nomination for the sixth episode of the season. The sixteenth and seventeenth episodes of the season secured writer Shonda Rhimes a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series in 2006.
DVD release
The second season was officially released on DVD in Region 1 on September 12, 2006, almost 2 weeks before the third season premiere which aired on September 21, 2006. Under the title Grey's Anatomy: The Complete Second Season – Uncut, the box-set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound and widescreen format. It also contained extras available only on DVD, including extended episodes, interviews with cast and crew members, footage from behind-the-scenes and unaired scenes cut from the aired episodes. The same set was released in Region 4 on January 10, 2007, 4 months after its original release in the United States, whereas its first release date in Region 2 was May 28, 2007, being made available first in the United Kingdom. The UK set contained the last 22 episodes of the season, due to the first 5 being released on the first season DVD.
References
External links
2005 American television seasons
2006 American television seasons
Grey's Anatomy seasons |
4312783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931%20in%20baseball | 1931 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: St. Louis Cardinals over Philadelphia Athletics (4–3)
Awards and honors
MLB Most Valuable Player Award
Lefty Grove, Philadelphia Athletics, P
Frankie Frisch, St. Louis Cardinals, 2B
Statistical leaders
1MLB Pitching Triple Crown Winner
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
† Kansas City, Columbus, and HoD were not in the league but their games counted in the standings.
No official standings were published.
St. Louis was declared champion.
East (independent teams) final standings
A loose confederation of teams were gathered in the East to compete with the West, however East teams did not organize a formal league as the West did.
Events
January–April
January 24 – Following his release from the Cleveland Indians four days earlier, Joe Sewell joins the New York Yankees.
February 5 – Chicago Cubs outfielder Hack Wilson, who set National League marks for home runs (56) and runs batted in (191) the previous season, signs for $35,000. His RBI record is still standing today.
February 21 – The Chicago White Sox and New York Giants play a ten inning exhibition game at Buffalo Stadium in Houston, Texas. It is the first major league night game.
April 2 – Seventeen-year-old female Chattanooga Lookouts pitcher Jackie Mitchell takes the mound against the New York Yankees in a Spring training game. She strikes out the first two batters she faces- Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig.
April 24:
Rogers Hornsby has three home runs and eight runs batted in during the Cubs' 10–6 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates.
The New York Giants and Philadelphia Phillies play to a twelve inning 7–7 tie at the Polo Grounds.
April 27 – Boston Braves centerfielder Wally Berger ties a modern record with four assists in a 2–0 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies.
April 29 – Wes Ferrell pitches a no-hitter as the Cleveland Indians defeat the St. Louis Browns, 9–0.
May–August
May 26 – The New York Yankees defeat the Philadelphia Athletics 6–2, snapping the A's seventeen-game winning streak.
June 13 – Pittsburgh Pirates outfielder Adam Comorosky makes an unassisted double play in a 6–4 loss to the New York Giants. It is his second unassisted double play of the season (May 31 against the Chicago Cubs).
June 30 – The Philadelphia Athletics purchased Waite Hoyt from the Detroit Tigers. Despite a 3–8 record with Detroit, Hoyt wins his first four starts with the A's.
July 1 – Chuck Klein hit for a cycle as he bats in 5 runs in the Phillies 11-6 victory over the Chicago Cubs.
July 6 – The Philadelphia Athletics and Washington Senators play to a 0–0 eight inning tie.
July 7 – The Chicago White Sox defeat the St. Louis Browns 10–8 in twelve innings. No one on either team strikes out all game.
July 11 – The New York Giants gets 28 hits in a 23-8 victory over the Philadelphia Phillies in Game 1 of the doubleheader.
August 8 – Washington Senators pitcher Bobby Burke tosses a no-hitter in a 5–0 win over the Boston Red Sox.
August 18 – Claude Passeau pitches a 7-0 3-hit victory over the Boston Braves to end the Phillies' 14-game losing streak, the second longest in team history.
August 23 – Dick Coffman holds the Philadelphia Athletics to three hits on his way to a 1–0 victory, snapping Lefty Grove's sixteen-game winning streak. It is one of only two times the A's are shut out all season (the other being the 0–0 tie with the Senators on July 6).
September
September 1 – The New York Yankees sweep a doubleheader over the Boston Red Sox 11-3 and 5-1. But the big story was the home run race as Lou Gehrig hit 2 home runs to extended the American League lead in home runs to 2 over Babe Ruth who hit his 38th of the season.
September 3 – In a key pennant race, the Cincinnati Reds and the Chicago Cubs we're in a pitchers' dual between Owen Carroll and Pat Malone with the former having a slight edge. With two out in the tenth Taylor Douthit singled, stole second and scored home on an Edd Roush single to give the Reds a 3-2 victory over the Cubs.
September 6 – The New York Yankees scored 8 runs in the first inning en route to a 15-3 win over The Philadelphia Athletics.
September 8 – Hack Wilson of the Chicago Cubs who one year ago set 191 runs batted in to set an MLB record, who failed miserably this year, is exiled from the club and has been ordered to remove his belongings from the clubhouse.
September 16 – The Philadelphia A's defeat the Cleveland Indians 7–5 for their 100th victory of the season.
September 18 – Lefty Grove wins his 30th game of the season, 3–1 over the Chicago White Sox.
September 27:
In a doubleheader on the last day of the season, the St. Louis Cardinals win their 100th & 101st game of the season. The Cardinals spent eight games out of first place all season, and were never more than 1.5 games back.
Lou Gehrig drives in his 184th and 185th runs of the season in a 13-1 blowout victory over the American League champion Philadelphia A's. His 185 runs batted in during the season is still an American League record to this day.
October–December
October 1 – The Reigning World Champion Philadelphia A's take game one of the World Series, 6–2 over the team they defeated in the 1930 World Series, the St. Louis Cardinals.
October 2 – George Earnshaw grounds into a double play and strikes out to end two potential rallies for the Athletics. The Cards take game two of the Series, 2–0, behind Bill Hallahan's three hit performance.
October 5 – Burleigh Grimes gives up just two hits, including a two-run home run by Al Simmons in the ninth, to lead the Cardinals to a 5–2 victory in game three.
October 6 – George Earnshaw two hits the Cards to even the series at two games apiece.
October 7 – Bill Hallahan wins his second start of the series, 5–1.
October 9 – Sloppy play in the fifth and seventh innings leads to five unearned runs as the A's cruise to an 8–1 victory behind Lefty Grove.
October 10 – The St. Louis Cardinals defeat the Philadelphia Athletics, 4–2, in Game seven of the 1931 World Series, earning their second World Championship title. Bill Hallahan pitches the final out for the Cards to end the series with a 0.49 ERA.
October 31- The St. Louis Cardinals release pitcher Burleigh Grimes. Though Grimes would continue his MLB career, Grimes was the last pitcher who was legally allowed to throw a spitball.
November 30 – George Gibson comes out of retirement to manage the Pittsburgh Pirates. Ten years earlier, Gibson had led the Pirates to three first-division finishes.
December 4 – The Washington Senators trade Bump Hadley, Jackie Hayes and Sad Sam Jones to the Chicago White Sox for John Kerr and Carl Reynolds.
December 11 – The Chicago Cubs trade future Hall of Famer Hack Wilson and pitcher Bud Teachout to the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for pitcher Burleigh Grimes. Wilson slumped to .261 with 13 home runs and 61 RBI, after he hit .356 with 56 HR and set a major league record with 191 RBI a year earlier.
Births
January
January 1 – Foster Castleman
January 3 – Laurie Ann Lee
January 6 – Fern Battaglia
January 6 – Dick Tomanek
January 7 – Ray Semproch
January 7 – Bunky Stewart
January 9 – Roy Dietzel
January 17 – Don Zimmer
January 18 – Barbara Hoffman
January 18 – Laurin Pepper
January 19 – Ed Sadowski
January 29 – Jim Baumer
January 29 – Hy Cohen
January 30 – Charlie Neal
January 31 – Hank Aguirre
January 31 – Ernie Banks
January 31 – Ruth Matlack
February
February 1 – Bob Smith
February 2 – Ted Tappe
February 3 – Glenn Cox
February 14 – Joe Caffie
February 16 – Maurice Fisher
February 22 – Chet Nichols Jr.
February 25 – Jim Dunn
March
March 7 – Dick Rand
March 12 – Chuck Oertel
March 13 – Don Bessent
March 13 – Carlos Pascual
March 18 – Shirley Stovroff
March 19 – Al Salerno
March 19 – Paul Smith
March 20 – Hank Izquierdo
March 23 – Stan Pitula
March 27 – Bobby Prescott
March 31 – Gene Snyder
April
April 1 – Betty Bays
April 5 – Fred Besana
April 6 – Sonny Senerchia
April 14 – Don Minnick
April 14 – Kal Segrist
April 15 – Ed Bailey
April 23 – Patricia Brown
May
May 6 – Willie Mays
May 10 – Bob Bowman
May 13 – Jack Shepard
May 14 – Terry Rukavina
May 15 – Ben Johnson
May 20 – Ken Boyer
May 25 – Jim Marshall
May 26 – Jim Frey
May 29 – John Baumgartner
May 31 – Betty McKenna
June
June 1 – Hal Smith
June 2 – Marshall Bridges
June 2 – Larry Jackson
June 6 – Rudy Árias
June 6 – Carl Willey
June 8 – Mary McCarty
June 9 – Bill Virdon
June 19 – Hank Mason
June 22 – Faye Throneberry
June 23 – Doris Cook
June 23 – Ulysses Hollimon
June 23 – Karl Spooner
June 27 – Chuck Coles
June 30 – Don Gross
July
July 3 – Ed Roebuck
July 4 – Bobby Malkmus
July 5 – Arnie Portocarrero
July 7 – Betty Francis
July 8 – Zach Monroe
July 8 – Eddie Phillips
July 9 – Gene Fodge
July 11 – Dick Gray
July 12 – Paul Penson
July 15 – Bob Will
July 16 – Norm Sherry
July 23 – Joe Stanka
July 24 – Marguerite Kerrigan
July 28 – Gus Keriazakos
July 31 – Rip Coleman
July 31 – Joe Durham
August
August 7 – Ray Crone
August 7 – Motoshi Fujita
August 9 – Chuck Essegian
August 13 – William D. Mullins
August 16 – Don Rudolph
August 22 – Curt Barclay
August 27 – Joe Cunningham
September
September 3 – Tom Brewer
September 6 – Stan Pawloski
September 9 – Earl Averill Jr.
September 9 – Pete Naton
September 10 – Harry Anderson
September 13 – George Susce
September 14 – Don Williams
September 16 – Jerry Schypinski
September 19 – Ron Shoop
September 22 – Ken Aspromonte
September 24 – Mike Krsnich
September 29 – Margaret Russo
September 30 – Helen Ketola
October
October 1 – Fred Kipp
October 3 – Bob Skinner
October 4 – Joe Kirrene
October 8 – Patricia Courtney
October 11 – Gary Blaylock
October 13 – Eddie Mathews
October 15 – Gail Harris
October 16 – Janet Rumsey
October 16 – Dave Sisler
October 17 – Dan Porter
October 18 – Andy Carey
October 19 – Don Leppert
October 20 – Mickey Mantle
October 23 – Jim Bunning
October 25 – Dick Murphy
October 28 – Gair Allie
November
November 1 – Russ Kemmerer
November 4 – Marie Mansfield
November 5 – Bill Guilfoile
November 9 – Whitey Herzog
November 11 – Dutch Dotterer
November 16 – Frank Bolling
November 22 – Neal Hertweck
November 24 – Dick Phillips
November 25 – John Pyecha
November 29 – Paul Pettit
November 30 – Ed Mayer
December
December 3 – Bill Harris
December 4 – Jean Buckley
December 10 – Rudy Hernández
December 10 – Bob Roselli
December 13 – Don Erickson
December 13 – Bubba Morton
December 15 – Sammy Esposito
December 16 – Neil Chrisley
December 20 – Julio Bécquer
December 24 – Evelio Hernández
December 30 – Frank Torre
Deaths
January
January 4 – Roger Connor, 73, Hall of Fame first baseman, an outstanding slugger for the New York Giants who posted a .317 career average and held major league home run record until 1921, ranking first all-time in triples and second in hits, runs and RBI and upon retirement, while leading the National League in batting, hits, HRs, RBI and doubles once each, and hitting the first grand slam in major league history.
January 14 – Hardy Richardson, 75, second baseman and outfielder who batted .300 seven times, led National League in hits and home runs with the 1886 Detroit team, and also was among to first ten players to reach 1,500 hits.
February
February 11 – Charles Dryden, 71, sportswriter who made his name with an idiosyncratic style that emphasized personalities in the game for the many nicknames he created, including "The Peerless Leader", "The Old Roman", "Hitless Wonders".
February 13 – Dick Phelan, 76, second baseman for the Baltimore Monumentals, Buffalo Bisons and St. Louis Maroons between the 1884 and 1885 seasons.
February 15 – Billy Kinloch, 56, third baseman for the 1895 St. Louis Browns.
March
March 17 – Tom Gunning, 69, catcher who played from 1884 through 1889 for the Boston Beaneaters and the Philadelphia Quakers/Athletics teams.
March 19 – Joe Gannon, 54, pitcher for the 1898 St. Louis Browns.
March 27 – Ernest Barnard, 56, who served as general manager of the Cleveland Indians from 1903 to 1926, and effectively ran the team following the death of owner James Dunn in 1922, while becoming the second president of the American League in following the retirement of Ban Johnson in 1927.
March 28 – Ban Johnson, 67, founder and president of the American League from 1901 to 1927, who played major role in eradicating rowdyism prevalent in the game of the 1890s, and fiercely protected authority of umpires.
April
April 10 – Mickey Hughes, 64, pitcher from 1888 to 1890 for the Brooklyn Bridegrooms and Philadelphia Athletics.
April 16 – Bucky Veil, 49, pitcher for the 1903-1904 Pittsburgh Pirates. first World Series relief pitcher
April 17 – George Daisy, 74, left fielder for the 1884 Altoona Mountain City.
April 22 – Bill Otey, 44, pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Washington Senators during three seasons between 1907 and 1911.
April 25 – August "Garry" Herrmann, 71, owner of the Cincinnati Reds from 1902 to 1927, who led the sport as chairman of the National Commission from 1903 to 1920, and ensured that the World Series would be held annually.
April 28 – Mike Mattimore, 72, pitcher/outfielder for four seasons from 1887 to 1890.
April 29 – Jimmy McAleer, 66, center fielder for the Cleveland Spiders who later managed American League teams in Cleveland, St. Louis and Washington, and also was part owner of the Boston Red Sox in the 1910s.
April 29 – John Waltz, 71, manager for the Baltimore Orioles of the National League in 1892, and also an American Association executive.
May
May 5 – John Riddle, 67, catcher/outfielder in 11 games from 1889 to 1890 for the Washington Nationals and the Philadelphia Athletics.
May 8 – George Noftsker, 71, outfielder/catcher for the 1884 Altoona Mountain City.
May 14 – Doc Newton, 53, pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Superbas and New York Highlanders in part of seven seasons spanning 1901–1909.
May 17 – Charlie Ferguson, 56, pitcher for the 1901 Chicago Orphans who later umpired 122 games in the American League in 1913 and 1914.
May 18 – Charlie Hamburg, 64, outfielder for the 1890 Louisville Colonels.
May 23 – Bob Miller, 62, pitcher/outfielder from 1890 to 1891 for the Rochester Broncos and the Washington Statesmen.
June
June 8 – Ed Ford, 69, infielder for the 1884 Richmond Virginians.
June 13 – Bill O'Hara, 47, Canadian center fielder who played from 1909 to 1910 with the New York Giants and St. Louis Cardinals.
June 16 – Andy Sommerville, 55, pitcher for the 1894 Brooklyn Grooms.
June 23 – Clarence Cross, 75, shortstop for the Altoona Mountain City, Philadelphia Keystones, Kansas City Cowboys and New York Metropolitans in a span of four seasons from 1884 to 1887.
June 25 – Con Lucid, 57, Irish pitcher who played from 1893 through 1897 with the Louisville Colonels, Brooklyn Grooms, Philadelphia Phillies, and St. Louis Browns.
June 30 – Lee Dressen, 41, shortstop for the 1914 St. Louis Cardinals and the 1918 Detroit Tigers.
July
July 11 – Alexander Donoghue, 67, outfielder/shortstop for the 1891 Philadelphia Phillies.
July 14 – Babe Danzig, 44, first baseman for the 1909 Boston Red Sox.
July 26 – Ben Ellis, 61, infielder for the 1896 Philadelphia Phillies.
July 29 – Conny Doyle, 69, outfielder from 1883 to 1884 for the Philadelphia Quakers and Pittsburgh Alleghenys.
August
August 14 – Bob Edmundson, 52, outfielder who played for the Washington Senators between the 1906 and 1908 seasons.
August 30 – Tinsley Ginn, 39, outfielder who played with the 1914 Cleveland Naps.
September
September 11 – Joe Marshall, 55, outfielder for the 1903 Pittsburgh Pirates and the 1906 St. Louis Cardinals.
September 11 – Carl Sitton, 49, pitcher for the 1909 Cleveland Naps.
September 12 – Pop Dillon, 57, first baseman who played with the Pittsburgh Pirates, Detroit Tigers and Brooklyn Superbas in parts of five seasons spanning 1899–1904.
September 21 – Walter Byrne, 82, American Association umpire.
October
October 2 – George Bradley, 79, St. Louis Brown Stockings pitcher who hurled the first no-hitter in the National's League 1876 inaugural season, also winning 45 games and leading the league with a 1.23 ERA, while setting a major league season record with 16 shutouts tied only by Grover Alexander 40 years later.
October 6 – John Kirby, 66, National League pitcher from 1884 to 1888 for the Kansas City Cowboys, St. Louis Maroons, Indianapolis Hoosiers and Cleveland Blues.
October 14 – Al Niehaus, 32, first baseman who played with the Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds during the 1925 season.
October 15 – Oscar Graham, 53, pitcher for the 1907 Washington Senators.
October 16 – Charles Murphy, 63, owner of the Chicago Cubs from 1906 to 1913.
October 24 – Pete Lamer, 57, catcher for the 1902 Chicago Orphans and the 1907 Cincinnati Reds.
October 26 – Charles Comiskey, 72, Hall of Fame first baseman/manager and owner of the Chicago White Sox since the team's formation in 1901, during which time they won four American League pennants and two World Series (1906, 1917), who previously became the first manager to win four consecutive pennants, with the St. Louis Browns (1885–1888), including the 1886 World Series title. and posted the highest winning percentage (.608) among managers of at least 1200 games.
October 30 – Joe Hornung, 74, solid left fielder and speedy base runner, who played for the Buffalo Bisons, Boston Red Caps/Beaneaters, Baltimore Orioles and New York Giants in a span of 11 seasons between 1879 and 1890.
October 30 – Jim Tyng, 75, known as the first baseball player to wear a catcher's mask while playing for Harvard University (1877), who later pitched in the National League for the Boston Red Caps (1879) and the Philadelphia Phillies (1888).
November
November 6 – Jack Chesbro, 57, Hall of Fame pitcher; a five-time 20-games winner in 12 seasons who led both leagues in wins and winning percentage, topped the National League in shutouts twice, guided the Pittsburgh Pirates to their first pennant in 1901 and the World Series in 1902, and holds modern records with 41 wins and 48 complete games while pitching for the 1904 New York Highlanders of the American League, though he is best remembered for the wild pitch he tossed to score the Boston Red Sox pennant-clinching run on the final day of that season.
November 8 – Sam Brown, 53, catcher for the 1906/1907 Boston Beaneaters/Doves of the National League.
November 8 – Frank Meinke, 68, pitcher who played from 1884 to 1885 for the Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
November 9 – Chris Fulmer, 73, National League catcher who played with the Washington Nationals and the Baltimore Orioles in parts of three seasons spanning 1884–1889.
November 24 – Fred Lake, 65, Canadian catcher for the Boston Beaneaters, Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Pirates and Boston Doves in five season between 1891 and 1910, who also managed the Boston Red Sox in part of the 1909 season.
November 27 – Jack Burdock, 79, National Association second baseman for three teams from 1872 to 1875, and then part of the National League's inaugural year in 1876 while playing for the Hartford Dark Blues, who later played 14 more seasons for the Boston Red Stockings/Beaneaters and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms between 1877 and 1881, became the third out of the first triple play in National League history during the 1876 season, and also batted the first unassisted triple play two years later.
December
December 8 – Jack Bellman, 67, backup catcher for the 1889 St. Louis Browns.
December 10 – Tex Covington, 44, pitcher for the Detroit Tigers from 1911 to 1912.
December 11 – George Harper, 65, pitcher who played with the Philadelphia Phillies in 1894 and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms in 1896.
December 13 – Al Schulz, 42, pitcher for the New York Highlanders/Yankees, Buffalo Buffeds/Blues and Cincinnati Reds from 1912 through 1916.
December 18 – C. V. Matteson, 70, who pitched one game for the 1884 St. Louis Maroons of the Union Association.
References |
4313171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Bevel | James Bevel | James Luther Bevel (October 19, 1936 – December 19, 2008) was a minister and leader of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement in the United States. As a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), and then as its Director of Direct Action and Nonviolent Education, Bevel initiated, strategized, and developed SCLC's three major successes of the era: the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade, the 1965 Selma voting rights movement, and the 1966 Chicago open housing movement. He suggested that SCLC call for and join a March on Washington in 1963. Bevel strategized the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, which contributed to Congressional passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act.
Prior to his time with SCLC, Bevel worked in the Nashville Student Movement, which conducted the 1960 Nashville Lunch-Counter Sit-Ins, the 1961 Open Theater Movement, and recruited students to continue the 1961 Freedom Rides after they were attacked. He helped with initiating and directing the 1961 and 1962 voting rights movement in Mississippi. In 1967, Bevel was chairman of the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. He initiated the 1967 March on the United Nations as part of the anti-war movement. His last major action was as co-initiator of the 1995 Day of Atonement/Million Man March in Washington, D.C. For his work, Bevel has been called the strategist and architect of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and, with Dr. King, half of the first-tier team that formulated many of the strategies and actions to gain federal legislation and social changes during the 1960s civil rights era.
In 2005, Bevel was accused of incest by one of his daughters and abuse by three others. He was tried in April 2008, convicted of incest, sentenced to 15 years in prison, and fined $50,000. After serving seven months, he was freed awaiting an appeal; he died of pancreatic cancer in December 2008 and was buried in Eutaw, Alabama.
Early life and education (1936–1961)
Bevel was born in 1936 in Itta Bena, Mississippi, the son of Illie and Dennis Bevel. He was one of 17 children and grew up in rural LeFlore County of the Mississippi Delta and in Cleveland, Ohio. He worked on a cotton plantation for a time as a youth and later in a steel mill. He was educated at segregated local schools in both Mississippi and Cleveland. After high school he served in the U.S. Navy for a time and pursued a career as a singer.
Feeling an inner call to become a minister, he attended the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee from 1957 to 1961 and became a Baptist preacher. He joined the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. While at seminary, Bevel reread Leo Tolstoy's 1894 book The Kingdom of God Is Within You, which had previously inspired his decision to leave the military. Bevel also read several of Mohandas Gandhi's books and newspapers while taking off-campus workshops on Gandhi's philosophy and nonviolent techniques taught by James Lawson of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Bevel also attended workshops at the Highlander Folk School taught by its founder, Myles Horton, who emphasized grassroots organizing.
Leading the movements (1960s)
Nashville Student Movement (1960–1961) and SNCC
In 1960, along with James Lawson's and Myles Horton's students Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, Diane Nash, C.T. Vivian and others, Bevel participated in the Nashville Sit-In Movement organized by Nash, whom he would later marry to desegregate the city's lunch counters. After the success of this action, and with the aid of SCLC's Ella Baker, activist students from Nashville and across the South developed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). While working on SNCC's commitment to desegregate theaters, Bevel successfully directed the 1961 Nashville Open Theater Movement.
The Open Theater Movement, led by Bevel, had success in Nashville, the only city in the country where SCLC activists had organized such an action. In this same period, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) had organized the 1961 Freedom Rides through the Deep South to challenge southern state laws and practices that interstate buses and their facilities remain segregated despite federal laws for equal treatment. After buses and riders were severely attacked, including a firebombing of a bus and beatings with police complicity in Birmingham, Alabama, CORE suspended the rides. Diane Nash, the Nashville Student Movement's chairman, urged the group to continue the Freedom Rides, and called for college volunteers from Fisk and other universities across the South. Bevel selected the student teams for the buses. He and the others were arrested after they arrived in Jackson, Mississippi and tried to desegregate the waiting rooms in the bus terminal. Eventually, the Freedom Riders reached their goal of New Orleans, Louisiana, generating nationwide coverage of the violence to maintain Jim Crow and white supremacy in the South.
While in the Jackson jail, Bevel and Bernard Lafayette initiated the Mississippi Voting Rights Movement. They, Nash, and others stayed in Mississippi to work on grassroots organizing. Activists encountered severe violence at that time and retreated to regroup. Later efforts in Mississippi developed as Freedom Summer in 1964, when extensive voter education and registration efforts took place. Lafayette and his wife, Colia Lidell, also opened an SNCC project in Selma, Alabama, to assist the work of local organizers such as Amelia Boynton.
Bevel and King join forces (1962)
In 1962, Bevel was invited to meet in Atlanta with Martin Luther King Jr, a minister who was head of the SCLC. At that meeting, which had been suggested by James Lawson, Bevel and King agreed to work together on an equal basis, with neither having veto power over the other, on projects under the auspices of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). They agreed to work until they had ended segregation, obtained voting rights, and ensured that all American children had a quality education. They agreed to continue until they had achieved these goals, and to ask for funding from the SCLC only if the group was involved in organizing a movement.
Bevel soon became SCLC's Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education to augment King's positions as SCLC's Chairman and spokesperson.
Birmingham Children's Crusade (1963)
In 1963, SCLC agreed to assist its co-founder, Fred Shuttlesworth, and others in their work on desegregating retail businesses and jobs in Birmingham, Alabama, where discussion and negotiations with city officials had yielded few results. Weeks of demonstrations and marches resulted in King, Ralph Abernathy, and Shuttlesworth being arrested and jailed. King wanted to fill the jails with protesters, but it was becoming more difficult to find adults to march. They were severely penalized for missing work and were trying to support their families.
Bevel suggested recruiting students in the campaign. King was initially reluctant, but agreed. Bevel spent weeks developing strategy, recruiting and educating students in the philosophy and techniques of nonviolence. Their meetings occurred at Birmingham's 16th Street Baptist Church, and it was from there that Bevel directed the students, 50 at a time, to peacefully walk to Birmingham's City Hall to talk to Mayor Art Hanes about segregation in the city. Almost 1,000 students were arrested on the first day. The following day, when more students arrived at the church and started to walk to city hall, Eugene "Bull" Connor, City Commissioner of Public Safety, ordered that German Shepherd dogs and high-pressure fire hoses be used to stop them. The national and international media covered the story, and photographs of the force used against schoolchildren generated public outrage against the city and its officials.
Dispute with President John F. Kennedy and the March on Washington
During what was later called the Birmingham Children's Crusade, President John F. Kennedy asked King to stop using children in the campaign. King asked Bevel to refrain from recruiting students, and Bevel instead said that he would organize the children to march to Washington D.C. to meet with Kennedy about segregation, and King agreed. Bevel went to the children and asked them to prepare to take to the highways for a march on Washington, with the goal of questioning the President about his plans to end legal segregation in America. Hearing of this plan, and in response to the city's violent treatment of the students, the Kennedy administration asked SCLC's leaders what they wanted in a comprehensive civil rights bill. Kennedy's staff, who already were drafted one, came to an agreement on its contents with SCLC's leadership. Bevel then called off plans for the children's march.
On August 28, 1963, SCLC participated in what became known as the March on Washington, an event organized by labor leader A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, who had planned an earlier 1941 March. Bevel and Nash did not attend, and instead watched Dr. King's "I Have a Dream" speech on television.
Three months after the March on Washington, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president.
Alabama Project and the Selma Voting Rights Movement (1965)
In September 1963, a bombing at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham killed four young girls attending Sunday School and damaged the church. It was later proven that a Ku Klux Klan chapter was responsible. Bevel proposed organizing the Alabama Voting Rights Project, and co-wrote the project proposal with his wife Diane Nash. They moved to Alabama to implement the project along with Birmingham student activist James Orange.
At the turn of the 20th century, southern state legislatures had passed new constitutions and laws that effectively disenfranchised most blacks. Practices such as requiring payment of poll taxes and literacy tests administered in a discriminatory way by white officials maintained the exclusion of blacks from the political system in the 1960s. SNCC had been conducting a Voting Rights Project (headed by Prathia Hall and Worth Long) since the early 1960s, meeting with violence in Alabama. In late 1963 Bevel, Nash, and Orange also worked with local grassroots organizations to educate blacks and support them in trying to gain registration as voters, but made little progress. They invited King and other SCLC leaders to Selma to develop larger protests and actions, and work alongside Bevel's and Nash's Alabama Project. Together the groups became collectively known as the Selma Voting Rights Movement, with James Bevel as its director.
The Movement began to stage regular marches to the county courthouse, which had limited hours for blacks to register as voters. Some protesters were jailed, but the movement kept the pressure on. On February 16, 1965, Jimmie Lee Jackson, his mother, and grandfather took part in a nighttime march led by C. T. Vivian to protest the related jailing of activist James Orange in Marion, Alabama. The street lights were turned off by Alabama State Troopers who attacked the protesters. In the melee, Jackson was shot in the stomach while defending his mother from an attack. A young man, he died a few days later.
Bevel and others were grieved and outraged. He suggested a march from Selma to Montgomery, the capital, to protest Jackson's death and press Governor George Wallace to support voting rights for African Americans. As the first march reached the end of the Edmund Pettus Bridge and passed out of the city, they were attacked by county police and Alabama State Troopers. The large group were bludgeoned and tear-gassed in what became known as "Bloody Sunday". SNCC Chairman John Lewis and Amelia Boynton were both injured.
In March 1965 protesters made a symbolic march, inspired by a fiery speech by Bevel at Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church, where much organizing was done. They were under an injunction by the state, so stayed within the city limits. Organizers appealed to the federal court against an injunction by the state against marching in order to complete their planned march to the capital. Judge Frank Johnson approved a public march. Following the nationwide publicity generated by Jackson's death and the previous attack on peaceful marchers, hundreds of religious, labor and civic leaders, many celebrities, and activists and citizens of many ethnicities traveled to Selma to join the march. By the time they entered Montgomery 54 miles away, the marchers were thousands strong. Even before the final march occurred, President Lyndon Johnson had gone on national television to address a joint session of Congress, appealing for passage of his administration-backed comprehensive Voting Rights Act.
In 1965 SCLC gave its highest honor, the Rosa Parks Award, to James Bevel and Diane Nash for their work on the Alabama Voting Rights Project.
Chicago Freedom Movement (1965–1966) and the Anti-Vietnam War Movement (1967)
In 1966, Bevel chose Chicago as the site of SCLC's long-awaited Northern Campaign. He worked to create tenant unions and build grassroots action to "end" slums. From previous discussions with King, and from work of American Friends Service Committee activist Bill Moyer, Bevel organized, and directed the Chicago open housing movement. Housing in the area was segregated in a de facto way, enforced by covenants and real estate practices. This movement ended within a Summit Conference that included Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley.
As the Chicago movement neared its conclusion A. J. Muste, David Dellinger, representatives of North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh, and others asked Bevel to take over the directorship of the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. Bevel was influential in gaining King's support for the anti-war movement, and with King agreeing to participate as a speaker, Bevel agreed to lead the antiwar effort.
He renamed the organization the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, recruited members of many diverse groups, and organized the April 15, 1967 march from Central Park to the United Nations Building in New York City. Originally planned as a rally in Central Park, the United Nations Anti-Vietnam War March became the largest demonstration in American history to that date. During his speech to the crowd that day, Bevel called for a larger march in Washington D.C., a plan that evolved into the October 1967 March on the Pentagon. This rally was attended by tens of thousands of peace activists who followed the growing counterculture movement.
Memphis sanitation strike (1968)
Although he opposed King's and SCLC's participation in it, Bevel, along with King and Ralph Abernathy, helped lead the Memphis sanitation strike by organizing the protest and work stoppage. Due to the violence that ensued during the strike in which 60 people were injured and one was killed, Bevel was among those whom the city of Memphis filed a formal complaint against in the District Court.
King assassination (April 4, 1968)
In 1968 Dr. King objected to Bevel and other SCLC organizers' opposition to proceeding with King's planned Poor People's Campaign. Historian Taylor Branch quotes King in At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968 (2006) as saying that "Andrew Young had given in to doubt, Bevel to brains, and Jackson to ambition", and said that the movement had made them and now they were using the movement to promote themselves. "He confronted Bevel, who had been a mentor to Jackson and Young, as 'a genius who flummoxed his own heart'. 'You don't like to work on anything that isn't your own idea,' King said, 'Bevel, I think you owe me one.'"
Bevel was in the parking lot of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis and witnessed King's assassination on April 4, 1968. He reminded SCLC's executive board and staff that evening that King had left "marching orders" that, if anything should happen to him, he intended for Abernathy to take his place as SCLC's Chairman. Bevel continued to oppose the Poor People's Campaign, but served as its Director of Nonviolent Education. After King was assassinated, Bevel made a bizarre{{efn|as described by the New York Times}} claim that James Earl Ray was not the killer and that he had evidence that Ray was innocent. Bevel would not reveal the evidence, and Ray was convicted of the crime. SCLC's remaining Board of Directors removed Bevel from his leadership positions in 1969.
Bevel in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s
After leaving the SCLC the year prior, Bevel created the Making of the Man Clinic in 1970.
In the 1980s, Bevel supported Ronald Reagan as president. In 1986, Bevel, Chicago alderman Danny K. Davis, singer-songwriter Kristin Lems, and others participated in an unsuccessful project of creating a summit in Chicago for Gorbachev and Reagan to bring peace and resolution to the ongoing Cold War.
In 1989, Bevel and Abernathy organized the National Committee Against Religious Bigotry and Racism. This was financially backed by the Unification Church of Sun Myung Moon, which appeared to be trying to improve its controversial image by allying with such respected leaders. A year earlier, Bevel had denounced the deprogramming of a Moon follower and called for the protection of religious freedom. He also supported Unification Church members in their protest against news media use of the word "Moonie", which they considered offensive.
Bevel moved to Omaha, Nebraska, in November 1990 as the leader of the "Citizens Fact-Finding Commission to Investigate Human Rights Violations of Children in Nebraska", a group organized by the Schiller Institute. The commission was associated with conspiracy theorist Lyndon LaRouche, and sought to persuade the state legislature to reopen its two-year investigation into the Franklin child prostitution ring allegations. Bevel never submitted the collected petitions and left the state the following summer.
In 1992, Bevel ran on LaRouche's ticket as the vice presidential candidate. At the time, he was living and working in Leesburg, Virginia, near LaRouche's headquarters. LaRouche, characterized as a perennial candidate, was serving a prison sentence for mail fraud and tax evasion. He engaged in LaRouche seminars on issues including "Is the Anti Defamation League the new KKK?" When Bevel introduced LaRouche at a convention of the 1996 National African American Leadership Summit, both men were booed off the stage. A fight broke out between LaRouche supporters and black nationalists.
Criminal charges (2007–2008)
In May 2007, Bevel was arrested in Alabama on a charge of incest committed sometime between October 1992 and October 1994 in Loudoun County, Virginia. At the time, Bevel was living in Leesburg, Virginia, and working with LaRouche's group, whose international headquarters was a few blocks from Bevel's apartment.
The accuser was one of his daughters, who was 13–15 years old at the time and lived with him. At a family reunion, three other daughters had also alleged that Bevel sexually abused them. Virginia had no statute of limitations for the offense of incest. Bevel pleaded not guilty to the one count charged and maintained his innocence. During his four-day trial in 2008, the accusing daughter testified that she was repeatedly molested by him, beginning when she was six years old.
During the trial, prosecutors presented key evidence: a 2005 police-sting telephone call recorded by the Leesburg police without Bevel's knowledge. During that 90-minute call, Bevel's daughter asked him why he had sex with her the one time in 1993, and she asked him why he wanted her to use a vaginal douche afterward. Bevel said that he had no interest in getting her pregnant. At trial, Bevel denied committing the sexual act and his recorded statement was used against him.
On April 10, 2008, after a three-hour deliberation, the jury convicted Bevel of incest. His bond was revoked and he was taken into custody. On October 15, 2008, the judge sentenced him, based on the jury's recommendation, to 15 years in prison and fined him $50,000. After the verdict, Bevel claimed that the charges were part of a conspiracy to destroy his reputation, and said that he might appeal. He received an appeal bond on November 4, 2008, and was released from jail three days later, after a diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. Six weeks later he died of cancer, at the age of 72, in Springfield, Virginia.
Bevel's attorney requested that the Court of Appeals of Virginia abate the conviction on account of Bevel's death. The Court of Appeals remanded the case to the trial court to determine whether there was good cause not to abate the conviction. The trial court found that abating the conviction would deny the victim the closure that she sought and denied the motion to abate. The Court of Appeals affirmed this judgment. Bevel's attorney appealed the denial of the abatement motion to the Supreme Court of Virginia. In an opinion issued November 4, 2011, the commonwealth's Supreme Court held that abatement of criminal convictions was not available in Virginia under the circumstances of Bevel's case. Because the executor of Bevel's estate had not sought to prosecute the appeal, the Court affirmed the dismissal of his appeal as moot.
Marriage and family
In 1961, Bevel married activist Diane Nash after he completed his seminary studies. They worked together on civil rights, and had a daughter and son together. They divorced after seven years. He married two other women in the following decades, and had told the court during his incest case that he had 16 children born of seven women.
Cultural impact
Actor and rapper Common portrays Bevel in the 2014 film Selma.
See also
African American founding fathers of the United States
List of civil rights leaders
List of peace activists
Pacifism
Timeline of the civil rights movement
Notes
References
External links
James Bevel profile, The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute
Statements by Rev. James L. Bevel, The Freedom Rides (see request for download at bottom of page). From the Helen L. Bevel Archives.
SNCC Digital Gateway: James Bevel, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out
Washington Post "A Father's Shadow" Les Carpenter; May 25, 2008Eyes on the Prize''; Interview with James Bevel, 1985-11-13, American Archive of Public Broadcasting
Bevel's Last Sermon, YouTube video by Seth McClellan, filmed 10 days before Bevel's death
1936 births
2008 deaths
1992 United States vice-presidential candidates
20th-century American criminals
20th-century American politicians
Activists for African-American civil rights
Activists from Chicago
African-American activists
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American Christian pacifists
American community activists
American conscientious objectors
American members of the clergy convicted of crimes
American people convicted of child sexual abuse
Deaths from pancreatic cancer in Virginia
COINTELPRO targets
Gandhians
Freedom Riders
LaRouche movement
Nashville Student Movement
Nonviolence advocates
People convicted of incest
People from Itta Bena, Mississippi
People from Leesburg, Virginia
Selma to Montgomery marches
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
Tolstoyans |
4313427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chislehurst%20and%20Sidcup%20Grammar%20School | Chislehurst and Sidcup Grammar School | Chislehurst and Sidcup Grammar School is a mixed-sex grammar school with academy status located in Hurst Road (A222), Sidcup in the London Borough of Bexley, England. It is located adjacent to Lamorbey Park, the Rose Bruford College drama school and Hurstmere School. Pupils at the school are divided into a series of six houses, known as Davies, Edlmann, Lester, Townshend, Williams, and Staff, while an annual school magazine, The Chronicle, is also produced by the students. The current head teacher, Nigel Walker, has held his position since 2009.
Founded as the Sidcup County School for Boys in 1931 to meet the lack of secondary schools in the newly urbanised town, it was initially opened at 27 Station Road, with the position of first headmaster being given to C. R. McGregor Williams. In 1935, the school began moving into a purpose-built site at Crittall's Corner, Footscray, being renamed Chislehurst and Sidcup County School in 1938. Damaged during The Blitz, after the culmination of the Second World War, reforms implemented as a result of the Education Act 1944 led to the local decision that the institution would become a grammar school and that it would relocate to a new, larger building on Hurst Road in the Lamorbey area of Sidcup, a move that took place after the resignation of McGregor Williams in 1954.
As a result of the government's Circular 10/65 in 1965, plans were implemented to merge Chislehurst and Sidcup with the neighbouring Hurstmere into a single comprehensive school, although these were opposed by the successive Conservative Party administrations of Bexley Council, eventually being scuppered under the Conservative government of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. In 1973 the school was made co-educational, admitting female pupils alongside the male, resulting in the adoption of its current name. The school rose to national headlines in January 1983 following the suspension of most of the school's sixth form for drinking alcohol at the preceding Christmas party. In 2004 it became a sports college and in 2011 an academy.
History
Foundation: 1930
Having been an agricultural village since the Late Middle Ages, the Kentish town of Sidcup began to urbanise following the opening of Sidcup railway station on the South Eastern Railway's new Dartford Loop Line in 1866. The new transport links to central London led to increasing numbers of middle class professionals moving to the town, in particular from inner London suburbs such as Camberwell and New Cross, which were experiencing social unrest and a rise in slum housing. After the rail line's electrification following the culmination of the First World War, speculative builders bought up cheap farmland around the town and by 1930 its population had risen to just short of 12,000, and would treble within the next two decades.
Sidcup's dramatic population rise led to a strain on local schooling, with many boys having to travel several miles to Dartford and Erith to attend secondary school. This problem was exacerbated by the government's stated intention of raising the school leaving age to cut the number of unemployed in the midst of the Great Depression. For this reason, the Bexley and Sidcup Urban District Councils, and later the Bromley Rural and Chislehurst District Education Committee, requested that the Maidstone-centered Kent County Council finance the creation of a new school in the area. In April 1930, the council's Secondary and University Education Sub-Committee agreed to open up what they called the Sidcup County School for Boys on the old premises of the County School for Girls, which was then moving from its original site at 27 Station Road to a new, specially constructed site in Beaverwood Road.
27 Station Road: 1931–1935
The red-brick site at 27 Station Road had been built in 1900 to house the Sidcup High School for Girls and Kindergarten, although additional office space was added in 1930 to convert it into the boys school. In July, the Secondary Education Sub-Committee began advertising to find a headmaster for the school, and in the following Spring appointed Welshman C. R. McGregor Williams (1889–1954), who had formerly been the headmaster of the recently closed Uckfield Grammar School, Sussex. The son of a tailor, McGregor Williams was born in Newport and educated at Newport High School and Cardiff College, University of Wales, where he gained a degree in modern languages. Having fought for the British Army at the Battle of the Somme, he later taught at what would become Varndean School in Brighton. He spent his spare time studying for an MA with a thesis on Molière's religious philosophy from the University of Wales and in 1926 obtained a doctorate on the poetry of John Payne from the University of Paris.
Williams chose the school's motto of "Abeunt Studia in Mores", which he had taken from Ovid's Heroides, in which it is proclaimed by the poet Sappho in her love letter to Phaon. Williams also chose purple as the school's colour, supposedly because it was associated with war wounds and liturgical mourning, something that he and his wife considered appropriate following the death toll of the First World War. It was agreed that the school would initially take in 62 boys, of whom 52 would be fee-paying, 8 of whom would have free-place scholarships and 2 of which would be "junior exhibitioners". Fee-paying residents of either Kent or London counties were charged £4 a term, while "outsiders" were instead charged £10. Half of the first intake of students lived in Sidcup itself, while the others mostly came from neighbouring districts such as Petts Wood, Chislehurst, Orpington, Foots Cray and New Eltham. The school opened on Thursday 17 September 1931, with a dedication ceremony taking place on Friday 25 September.
During its first year, the school began production of its own magazine, The Chronicle, while the house system was introduced in the spring term of 1932. Initially, there were only four school houses, known as A, B, C and D. In 1937, two more, E and F, were added. It would only be in 1953 that these houses were renamed. In October 1932, the school first expelled a pupil, William Duck, as punishment for allegedly spitting at passers-by from an open-top bus. Headmaster McGregor Williams was widely known for his scruffy appearance about the school. He was often stern towards the students, and implemented corporal punishment to punish disobedient pupils, beating them with a sawn-off cricket bat; he was twice prosecuted in court for using excessive force in this manner, but was acquitted on both occasions.
This view of Macgregor Williams is not supported by all. Pupils attending in his years as head report that they witnessed no evidence of beatings or indeed that he was a scruffy individual.
A staunch supporter of the Conservative Party, he adored drama and took part in some of the school's early performances, as well as introducing the sport of lacrosse, of which he was a keen fan, to the school. In July 1933, the school's first foreign trip went ahead, with McGregor Williams' taking pupils to the Rhineland in Germany. At the time under the control of the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler, the school continued taking pupils to the region in future years; in 1937 McGregor Williams and his pupils traveled the country wearing swastika armbands which they had been given by members of the Hitler Youth movement.
Crittall's Corner: 1935–1954
The old building at 27 Station Road had always been intended as a temporary site for the school, with a larger, purpose-built building planned for construction at Crittall's Corner, just south of the town. The first wing of the new building opened on 11 November 1935 and for a while the school remained divided between the two sites, with students' often having to travel across Sidcup to get to different lessons. Construction of the building only came to an end in 1938, when the school was moved in its entirety to the new site. The new building, designed by John Poltock – who would later design Cairo's Victoria College – was a modernist construct known for its prominent use of large metal-framed windows that allowed the building to be filled with natural light. Designed to house 660 students, more than were currently enrolled in the school, it was widely acclaimed both in architectural journals and in the popular press. It was also in 1935 that the school introduced purple blazers for uniforms, although the majority of students continued to wear their grey blazers; it would only be in the 1950s that the school's students had gone entirely over to purple. In 1938, the school was renamed Chislehurst and Sidcup County School; this was because the Sidcup Urban District Council had been abolished in 1934, its role being adopted by the newly created Chislehurst and Sidcup Urban District Council.
In 1939, Britain entered the Second World War and a number of the school's teachers were called up to fight in the British Army. Headmaster McGregor Williams meanwhile joined the Home Guard, eventually becoming the head of the Chislehurst platoon. At the school, the students set about digging out trenches to use as bomb shelters and assemblies were cancelled. Students were expected to carry their gas masks around with them in case of chemical attack and during the ensuing Blitz – in which the German Luftwaffe began bombing London and the areas around it – the school was affected by a nearby landmine on 17 September 1940, destroying the glass of all the windows on one side. On 16 June 1944, the school was once more struck, this time by a V-1 flying bomb which destroyed one end of the Assembly Hall; much of the damage to the school would not be permanently repaired until 1951. By the time that the war came to an end in 1945, 280 former pupils and 13 members of staff had fought in the armed forces, with 45 of them having been killed.
In 1944, Conservative politician Rab Butler put forward the Education Act 1944, suggesting a large-scale reform of British schools by introducing a "tripartite system" that divided students based on their academic ability and allocating them to one of three schools: the grammar school, secondary technical school and secondary modern school. Deciding how to implement these reforms on a local scale, in 1946, E. V. Mills chaired a meeting of the Divisional Executive in which they suggested radically changing the schooling system in the area. They decided that Chislehurst and Sidcup County School would become a grammar and would be moved from its site at Crittall's Corner to a much larger space at Lamorbey in Sidcup, where it would be situated alongside a newly built technical school, Hurstmere School. Meanwhile, the site at Crittall's Corner would be converted into a secondary modern, which would later be known as Kemnal Technology College. This was partly to alleviate problems of overcrowding; the population of the local area had tripled since 1931 and the Crittall's Corner building was taking in more than the number of students that it had been built to accommodate.
The decision to move the school was deeply opposed by Headmaster McGregor Williams, who wanted his school to remain within the Crittall's Corner building, of which he was particularly fond; he wrote letters to Members of Parliament suggesting expansion at the present site, but to no avail. He decided to retire prior to the move to the new site, stepping down in July 1953 and dying five months later. Meanwhile, academic achievement at the school remained high in the post-war years, with a large percentage of pupils going on to gain university degrees. Of note is that the July 1946 issue of The Chronicle contained several illustrations by a student, Quentin Blake, later to become a famous illustrator. Blake subsequently became the magazine's editor, a position he retained from 1949 to 1951.
Hurst Road, Sidcup 1954-67
The new building had been constructed on land once belonging to the Medieval manor of Lamorbey House. The manor house to which the school was now adjacent had been rebuilt in the eighteenth century and by 1950 was housing Rose Bruford College. Chis and Sid's new building was designed by Howard C. Lobb & Partners of Gower Street, in conjunction with the Kent County Architects S. H. Loweth and E. T. Ashley Smith. As a result of post-war austerity, the building was constructed on a tight budget of under £300,000 and consisted of reinforced concrete and portal frames, with a brickwork finish. The design was largely deemed to be aesthetically unpleasing by both students and staff, although it did allow them access to twice as much land as they had had at Crittal's Corner. Opening in 1954, it was officially opened in a ceremony led by the Lord Lieutenant of Kent and the Bishop of Rochester. As part of the move, in September 1954 it had been decided that the school houses would be renamed as Davies, Edlmann, Williams, Staff, Townshend and Lester, all figures who had played a prominent role in the school's history. The move also saw a change in the school's winter sport from football to rugby, although cricket remained the school's summer sport.
The new headmaster was Richard "Dick" Pedley (1912–1973); born in Dorset, Pedley had studied English at Downing College, Cambridge before serving in the Royal Artillery during World War II. Prior to becoming Head at Chis and Sid he had taught at City Boys' School, Leicester and St. Olave's School, Southwark. Fiercely competitive, he encouraged a heightened spirit of competitiveness within the school, strongly emphasising academic achievement with the intent of getting as many students as possible to go on to study at the University of Oxford or Cambridge University. His success in this aim led to the school's attaining a national reputation and within the maintained school sector, only Harrow College rivaled its achievements. Opinions about Pedley among staff varied greatly, however, because his autocratic management style was criticised for achieving success for some pupils at the expense of others.
In 1965, the London Government Act 1963 came into force, transferring Chis and Sid from the county of Kent to the newly created Greater London. Now part of the London Borough of Bexley, it lost access to three quarters of its former catchment area, which remained under the jurisdiction of Kent County Council. Further change came under the Labour Party government of Prime Minister Harold Wilson, whose Secretary of State for Education, Anthony Crosland, outlined plans to replace the country's tripartite system of secondary education with the egalitarian comprehensive school system. The Labour-run Bexley Council agreed to this project, pushing ahead with plans to convert Chis and Sid into a comprehensive, as part of which it would be merged with the neighbouring Hurstmere in 1969. Pedley was a vocal critic of the comprehensive system on both a national and a local level. He fought the council's plans to convert the school and was supported by a unanimous resolution passed by staff and by a Parents' Association founded in 1966. When the council nevertheless approved the plan in May 1967, Pedley resigned as headmaster in protest.
Looming comprehensivisation and co-educational status: 1967–79
Pedley was succeeded by Michael Brown (b.1927), who had previously worked as Headmaster of Prescot Grammar School. Born in Lancaster, Brown was a lay Methodist preacher who had a degree in history from Emmanuel College, Cambridge and a master's degree in Theology from St Peter's College, Oxford. Although staff found him to be courteous, modest and a good listener, unlike his predecessors, they were largely unhappy that he was a supporter of the comprehensive system. Despite staff fears that his egalitarian ethos would promote mediocrity, admissions to Oxford and Cambridge rose under Brown's leadership. In April 1968, the Conservatives took control of Bexley council and scrapped plans to merge Chis and Sid and Hurstmere into a single comprehensive. However, still obliged by central government to abolish the eleven plus exam which had allocated primary school children to a particular form of secondary school under the tripartite system, a compromise was developed. Chis and Sid was to officially cease to be a grammar school, although it would still be able to choose which students it would accept, based on their academic ability. At the same time it was decided that Chis and Sid was to become co-educational and thus admit girls as well as boys. The need for this latter change had become acute; the 1960s boundary changes had left the London Borough of Bexley with no grammar schools for girls and only one co-educational grammar (Bexley Grammar School), while the neighbouring London Borough of Bromley had five grammar schools for girls.
In 1971, Labour regained Bexley Council and pushed forward with the plan to merge Chis and Sid and Hurstmere into a single comprehensive, although in May 1972 this plan was denied permission to proceed by the Conservative Secretary of State for Education, Margaret Thatcher. As a step toward the ultimate establishment of comprehensive education throughout the borough, in 1973 the council announced plans to remove the words "secondary modern", "technical high" and "grammar" from all schools under their jurisdiction, resulting in protests from both staff and the parents' association at Chis and Sid. In 1974, the Conservatives then regained the council, proceeding to effectively ignore Labour's 1976 Education Act that required the making comprehensive of all secondary education. The chair of Bexley's Educational Committee, Brian Sams, insisted that the borough would not implement the legally required changes until every school in the area had the facilities capable of supporting a "curriculum adapted to the needs of pupils of all abilities". In the 1979 general election, Thatcher was elected Prime Minister and the pressure for the making comprehensive of all schools, from central government, ceased, allowing Bexley Borough to continue using the grammar school system.
On 4 May 1971, four home-made bombs were found in the woods adjoining the school. The authorities suspected that these belonged to the far left militant group known as Angry Brigade. 1972 witnessed Chislehurst and Sidcup's first school trip outside Europe, as 150 boys traveled to New York City. Soon after, the wearing of caps as part of the school uniform was abolished. Links were established between Chis and Sid and the nearby Marlborough Special School for children with special needs, while in 1974 the school's literary society secured Kenneth Williams to speak to them. The first girls arrived at the school in September 1973, representing the sixty female pupils who had the highest test scores from the local primary system. Accordingly, the term "for Boys" was removed from the school's name, while hockey and netball were introduced as sports for the girls to play. Some resentment arose however over the issue of punishment; while boys were still exposed to corporal punishment in the form of caning and (unofficial) slapping, girls were exempt from these measures.
During the general election of 1974, the BBC filmed their election count, presented by David Dimbleby, from the school's main hall, having chosen the building because it was located in the parliamentary constituency of Old Bexley and Sidcup, which was the seat represented by the sitting Conservative Prime Minister Edward Heath. After losing that election to Labour, Heath spoke to the school's pupils at the following speech day. In 1975, an additional building, the New Block was constructed on a very tight budget.
"Sozzlehurst and Hiccup": 1980–1999
In April 1977, John Sennett (b.1934) was introduced as the new headmaster. Born in Plymouth, he had studied history at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge and subsequently taught at Manchester Grammar School. A Quaker and pacifist, he had refused to serve his national service, resulting in some initial suspicion about him, however his support for the grammar school system and his conscientious, genial nature enabled him to get along with the school's staff.
In 1981, the school celebrated its golden jubilee with a variety of events, including a Jubilee Walk that took in both Station Road and Crittall's Corner; these activities were used to raise money for an extension to the school's library. That year's school play, a performance of William Shakespeare's As You Like It, was directed by English teacher John Hazelgrove and won Bexley Arts Trophy's Best Play of the Year award, beating a variety of adult drama groups.
In December 1982, sixth formers held a morning Christmas party in the sixth-form centre, during which alcohol was consumed. One pupil fell over and was taken away by ambulance with minor injuries, while another pupil was sent home for being drunk. During the ensuing Christmas holidays, Sennet decided that he should punish those who had been involved in the party. In January 1983, at the start of the spring term, he requested written confessions of guilt from those who had consumed alcohol, stating that this would result in a one-day suspension, with 160 pupils producing such confessions. At this point he changed his mind, deciding that he would provide different degrees of punishment based on the quantity of alcohol that each student individually consumed. The sixth form body refused to accept this, deeming it to be a form of victimisation and so insisted that it be judged as a collective and punished accordingly. Sennet then suspended all 160 pupils for a day.
Somebody had contacted a British tabloid, The Sun, to inform them of the events and being a slow news day, they ran the incident on their front page, proclaiming "School Band 157 Boozing Pupils". The journalist responsible, Robert Bolton, added fresh elements to the story, claiming that 5 students had had to be taken to hospital as a result of their drinking, while others had smoked marijuana. Soon, other newspapers had picked up on the story, with journalists offering £5 to students outside the school gates who could provide the most lurid and sensationalist accounts of the events. As a result, The Star went with the headline "Sixth Form Banned After Brandy Orgy" while Daily Express decided on "The Day my Sixth Form went Wild". Broadsheet The Daily Telegraph also reported on the story, but only gave it a few paragraphs under the title of "160 Pupils Suspended after Party". Reporters from the BBC local news picked up on it, while the following day, The Sun returned to the story with an editorial cartoon by Franklin in which the school was referred to as "Sozzlehurst and Hiccup". According to historian Charles Wells, the event represented "the School's one undeniable moment of national fame".
The period between 1983 and 1994 witnessed a rapid array of initiatives introduced by the Conservative government, including GCSEs, the Baker Contract, AS levels, a national curriculum with key stages and attainment targets, local financial management, grant maintained status, SATs, OFSTED inspections, staff appraisal and coursework examination, all of which caused a great deal of disruption to the school and contributed to an increased turnover of new staff in this period, with many new teachers' swiftly exiting the profession. Wells suggested that this chaotic educational environment resulted in more difficulties for Chis and Sid than at any point in its history except during World War II. The school also witnessed a small decline in the grades achieved by its pupils, in part due to the increasingly localised and concomitantly decreasingly selective nature of admissions, although this decline was greatly exaggerated by the local press.
In 1986, corporal punishment was abolished in state schools, including at Chis and Sid. That year, the school won its second Bexley Arts Council Award for its adaptation of Oh What a Lovely War, again directed by Hazelgrove. In 1984 the school celebrated the first red nose day, raising £6000 for charities aiding Ethiopian famine victims, while in 1990 it held its first non uniform day to raise money for charity, an event that became a regular institution in the school.
On 11 July 1992, one of the school's pupils, Rohit Duggal, was stabbed to death in Eltham, with a tree's being planted in his memory outside the dining hall.
In 1994, James 'Jim' Rouncefield (b.1951) was appointed headteacher. Born in Redruth, Cornwall, Rouncefield had studied geography at Goldsmiths College and prior to getting the Chis and Sid job had worked as head of Chatham Grammar School for Boys. Shortly after he started his tenure, the school experienced its first OFSTED inspection, which criticised the condition of the building and endorsed a reduction in the staffing budget, resulting in subsequent staff being hired on lower wages but with higher workloads. In 1996 a new sixth form centre was opened, having cost £100,000 to construct, while in 1997 personal computers were installed in the library, and in 1998 a tannoy system was installed in the school. That year, a second OFSTED inspection concluded that the school had greatly improved since 1994. In December 1999 a newly rebuilt Music Block was ceremonially opened by the Mayor of Bexley, and in 2000 the roof of the New Block was replaced. The school then embarked on plans to construct a new sports' block, the Jubilee Pavilion, and sought sports' college status.
Since 2000
In 2004, Jim Rouncefield left his post as Headmaster and Dr Joe Vitagliano took over. The school soon gained joint sports college status with the neighbouring Hurstmere School and in 2004 the Jubilee Pavilion was built primarily for sports (it contained changing rooms and a dance studio).
By early 2006 the school crest was abolished and a new adaptation was introduced.
A few years later the Quentin Blake Block was built for £3.5 million for the Art and Design Departments, which contained within it the Curve Gallery, which has since held an annual exhibition of student art, along with various other exhibitions (including a retrospective of the work of local artist Bill Hudson, entitled "Routes").
On 1 October 2008, Mayor of London and former Conservative MP Boris Johnson visited the school to officially open the new sports centre. In 2009, Vitagliano left and Mr Nigel Walker, the former deputy head, took over his position.
On 5 November 2009, a team composed of former students from the class of 2004 named "Sozzlehurst and Hiccup" competed on BBC Two quiz show Eggheads, losing narrowly in the final round.
The school converted to academy status on 1 September 2011.
After conversion to academy status the school underwent various building and renovation projects. During the summer holidays of 2012 the school driveway was renovated with the inclusion of gates and railings to separate students from the road. The new gates were designed by pupils through a competition run by the school. The following academic year the windows in the main building were all replaced with double glazing to improve efficiency and comfort. In 2013 the school bought the BMW Group Pavilion Building, which stood in the 2012 London Olympic Park, for £1. The building became the new site for the Sixth Form and Marlborough Special Needs School, as well as the Business, Economics and Psychology departments. Construction of the building began in the summer of 2014 and it was officially opened on 3 March 2016 by Mayor of London Boris Johnson. After opening the building the old study centre was converted into the Learning Support Room. The library was also closed, with the study area being converted to a classroom, and the library being refurbished with new furniture.
From mid-2014 until late-2016 improvement works took place throughout the majority of the school to replace an ageing pipework and central heating system. This was funded by £1.5 million from the Community Improvement Fund. Pipework was replaced in the main building, humanities block, and the music block.
In December 2014 the school acquired planning permission for a new performing arts centre, to be built on the site of the existing Marlborough School classrooms. The proposed building was to include classrooms and performance areas for drama and music students. Also included in the planning application are supplemental projects to extend part of the existing Jubilee Pavilion, and demolish an existing drama classroom to expand the canteen. However, new permission was granted in 2016 for a single story building, to provide two drama studios and 4 general classrooms. This superseded the previously granted planning permission. Work on these projects began in January 2017. These works were completed by September and in use at the beginning at the school academic year.
Notable students and staff
Colin Bennett (actor), former assistant on Take Hart
Air Commodore David Best OBE. MOD Chief Test Pilot, NATO Air Operations Director, Entrepreneur (Founder, Nova Systems Europe). Head of School 1978-1979.
Keith Beven FRS, hydrologist
Peter Birks, Regius Professor of Civil Law from 1989 to 2004 at the University of Oxford
Quentin Blake, illustrator, opened the Quentin Blake Building, the new Art and Technology block, in 2007.
Matthew Brimson, cricketer
Ian Button, musician
Grahame Clinton, opening batsman
Matthew Collings, art writer, married to Emma Biggs
Air Vice-Marshal Michael Donaldson MBE, Station Commander from 1987 to 1989 of RAF Wattisham, Commandant from 1992 to 1993 of the Royal Observer Corps, Commandant from 1993 to 1996 of RAF Staff College, Bracknell and Principal from 1996 to 2003 of Yorkshire Coast College
Air Vice-Marshal John Ernsting CB OBE.
Karl Glazebrook, astronomer
Morris Gleitzman, writer of popular stories for young people, attended the school from 1964 till his family emigrated to Australia in 1969.
Eddie Harvey, jazz trombonist and pianist
Steve Hillier, internationally successful songwriter and record producer attended school from 1980 to 1987
Will Hutton, economics writer and columnist, was a pupil during the 1960s
Henry Kamen, historian
David Masser FRS, Professor of Mathematics at the University of Basel.
Phil Méheux, cinematographer
Billy Mitchell (footballer, born 2001), First team footballer at Millwall F.C.
Beric Morley, architectural historian
Tim Page, war photographer who studied at the school from 1955 to 1961, being expelled during his final week for refusing to submit to a caning.
Mark Philp, political philosopher and historian.
Richard Quinn, Fashion designer awarded inaugural Queen Elizabeth II Award for British Design. Richard Quinn shows at London fashion week and is known for his floral prints.
Roy Rand, physicist (student 1946-1953); accelerator physics (Stanford), gravitational wave detection (UWA), inventions now widely used in ultrafast CT scanners (Imatron, Inc)
Jeffrey Jon Shaw OBE, parasitologist, best known for his work on Leishmania
Stanley Simmonds, painter (art teacher 1949–1983)
Sam Smith, founder and chief executive of FinnCap
Julian Spalding, art critic, curator and broadcaster
Tamer Tuna, footballer
Nigel Warburton, philosopher
Nigel Williamson, former Times journalist
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
External links
Chislehurst and Sidcup Grammar School
EduBase
Grammar schools in the London Borough of Bexley
Academies in the London Borough of Bexley
Educational institutions established in 1931
1931 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in Sidcup |
4313711 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Phillips | Brandon Phillips | Brandon Emil Phillips (born June 28, 1981) is an American former professional baseball second baseman. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Atlanta Braves, Los Angeles Angels and Boston Red Sox. At and , Phillips batted and threw right-handed.
A native of Raleigh, North Carolina, Phillips was drafted by the Montreal Expos in 1999. In 2002, while in the minor leagues of the Montreal organization, he was traded to the Cleveland Indians. After making his major league debut that same year for the Indians, he spent several years moving back and forth between the Indians and the minor leagues. Phillips was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in 2006. After joining the Reds, Phillips developed into one of the best second basemen in baseball. In Cincinnati, he won four Rawlings Gold Glove Awards, one Silver Slugger Award, and was selected to three National League All-Star teams. He became the first player in MLB history to record two three-run home runs, seven RBIs, and two stolen bases in one game. Following this performance, the uniform and pair of cleats he wore during that game were put on display in the Baseball Hall of Fame.
Early life
Phillips' father, James Phillips, runs the Phillips Baseball Center in Pine Lake, Georgia. His sister is WNBA player Porsha Phillips of the San Antonio Silver Stars and his younger brother PJ Phillips is the manager of the Lexington Legends of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.
Phillips attended Redan High School in Stone Mountain, Georgia, where he played basketball and baseball. His #7 at Redan was retired by the school in December 2003. He was the star baseball player at his high school. Phillips' favorite baseball player growing up was Cincinnati Reds shortstop Barry Larkin.
Phillips was selected in the second round of the 1999 MLB draft by the Montreal Expos as a shortstop after signing a letter of intent to play both baseball and football at the University of Georgia. He instead signed with the Expos on June 21, 1999.
Professional career
Cleveland Indians
After several years in the Expos farm system, Phillips was part of a six-player trade that sent him from the Montreal Expos to the Cleveland Indians on June 27, 2002. Phillips was dealt with Grady Sizemore, Cliff Lee, and Lee Stevens in exchange for Bartolo Colón and Tim Drew.
In 2003, Phillips won the starting job at second base for the Indians. During the season, he had a season-high six-game hitting streak. Against the Detroit Tigers on May 20, he hit the first three-run walk-off home run of his career. After that he went 0-for-29 and was sent down to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons after the All-Star break. He was recalled soon after that due to an injury to one of his teammates and finished the season with a .208 average, six homers, 33 RBIs and four stolen bases. Phillips also totaled a .981 fielding percentage.
In 2004, he started the season in Buffalo. He hit .303 with 14 stolen bases on the season and recorded 18-game and 16-game hitting streaks. In the minor league play-offs, Phillips hit .308. He joined the Indians at the end of the season and played six games for them.
Phillips remained with the Bisons for most of 2005. He appeared in six games for the Indians in July but was sent back down following the stint.
In his four seasons with the Indians, Phillips appeared in 135 major league games, batting .206 with six home runs and 38 RBIs.
Cincinnati Reds
2006
On April 7, 2006, Cleveland's frustration with Phillips' slow progress peaked and he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for a player to be named later (pitcher Jeff Stevens). He made an immediate impact, starting the season by being named NL Player of the Week the same month he was acquired by the Reds, hitting .452 (14–31) with three home runs and 17 runs batted in for the week of April 17–23. Phillips' 17 RBI were the most for an NL Player of the Week since Sammy Sosa had 19 RBI the week of August 4–10, 2002. Phillips had his first career grand slam that month and 16 straight stolen bases. leading the Reds in hits (148) and multi-hit games (36). He also led all National League second basemen in stolen bases with 25. Phillips produced two nine-game hitting streaks over the season and finished with a batting average of .276, 17 home runs and 75 RBI.
2007
In 2007, Phillips hit 30 home runs and stole 32 bases to become the first Reds second baseman to join the 30–30 club and just the third 30–30 Red, joining Eric Davis (37 HR, 50 SB in 1987) and Barry Larkin (33 HR, 36 SB in 1996). He also joined Alfonso Soriano as just the second second baseman in the 30–30 club.
In the fourth inning on August 1, 2007, game, against John Lannan of the Washington Nationals Phillips stole two bases on one pitch while the Nationals had a shift on Adam Dunn. On August 30, Phillips made the play of the month to win the game for the Reds against the Pittsburgh Pirates. With the Reds winning 5–4 in the bottom of the ninth, Nate McLouth of the Pirates hit a single into right field. The runner from second, Josh Phelps, appeared likely to score, but Phillips grabbed the ball in shallow right field bare-handed and threw Phelps out at home plate to win the game. On September 5, he hit his 28th home run of the season, breaking the Reds' single-season record for home runs by a second baseman, formerly held by Joe Morgan. On September 26, 2007, Phillips hit his 30th home run of the season.
In addition to the home runs and steals, Phillips ended the 2007 season with 187 hits, 107 runs, 26 doubles, six triples, 94 RBIs, and a .288 batting average. He led the Reds in runs, hits, triples, and stolen bases and was second on the team in doubles and home runs.
Phillips received a four-year, $27 million contract extension on February 15, 2008, instead of going to arbitration.
2008
On April 2, 2008, Phillips hit his first home run of the season against the Arizona Diamondbacks. At the All-Star Break, Phillips was batting .287 with 15 home runs, 58 RBI, 18 stolen bases, and 18 doubles. He ended the season batting .261/.312/.442 with 21 home runs and 23 stolen bases.
Phillips won his first gold glove in 2008, leading National League second basemen with a .990 fielding percentage having made just seven errors in 706 chances, in addition to a 78-game error-less streak. He also won a Fielding Bible Award as the top fielding second baseman in MLB.
2009
In 2009, Phillips hit .276/.329/.447, with 30 doubles, 20 home runs, 98 RBI and 25 stolen bases.
2010
In 2010, Phillips had his first All-Star season. He finished the season batting .275, with 18 homers, 59 RBI, and 16 stolen bases.
In early August, Phillips made national sports headlines with unflattering remarks about the St. Louis Cardinals, a team the Reds were in a hotly contested race with for lead in the National League Central division. Phillips was quoted by the Dayton Daily News as saying "I hate the Cardinals. All they do is bitch and moan about everything, all of them, they're little bitches, all of them. ... I hate the Cardinals." The next night, August 10, Phillips was involved in a large bench-clearing brawl between the Reds and Cardinals at home plate. Coming to bat in the bottom of the first inning, Phillips customarily tapped his bat against the shin pads of Cardinals catcher Yadier Molina and the umpire. Molina kicked Phillips' bat, which led to seven minutes of pushing and shoving between both teams before both team managers were ejected and order was restored.
On November 10, 2010, it was announced that Phillips had won the second Gold Glove of his Major League career.
2011
On May 3, 2011, against the Houston Astros, Phillips threw out speedy Jason Bourgeois by picking up the ball barehanded as it rolled to him and throwing it to first baseman Joey Votto between his legs to record the out.
On July 1, Phillips hit two home runs against the Cleveland Indians, the second homer being his 1,000th career hit. After several great plays in the field earned him fame around the country and his average stayed around .300 the whole first half, Phillips made his second straight All-Star game. He was in first place in voting for most of the year until Milwaukee's Rickie Weeks passed him, getting the starting nod.
On November 1, 2011, it was announced that Phillips had won the third Gold Glove of his major league career. His fielding percentage for the season was .992 in 721 chances.
The next day, it was announced that Phillips had won the first Silver Slugger of his Major League career. He hit an even .300 with 183 hits, 38 doubles, 2 triples, 18 homers, and 82 RBI. His on-base percentage was .353.
2012
On April 10, 2012, it was announced that Phillips and the Reds had agreed to a six-year, $72.5 million contract, through the 2017 season. Phillips was represented in contract negotiations by ACES Inc. When the All-Star game roster was announced on July 1, Phillips was not amongst those voted in by either fans or National League players and coaches. Reds manager Dusty Baker took exception at retired St. Louis Cardinals manager but the National League's All-Star Game manager Tony La Russa, claiming Phillips and fellow Reds teammate Johnny Cueto were left off the roster because they were at the heart of an on-field fight involving Baker's Reds and La Russa's Cardinals in 2010. Baker stated "it just kind of looks bad that Johnny and Brandon were at the center of the skirmish between us and the Cardinals. Some of the Cardinals that aren't there any more are making some of the selections." Phillips, who was hitting just under .290 with 10 home runs and 46 RBI at the time the selections were announced, declined to comment on the matter. USA Today's Mike Jones mentioned the large number of votes for San Francisco Giants players, including Pablo Sandoval (.300, 6 HR, 25 RBI) who was named the All-Star game's third baseman over New York Mets' David Wright (over .350, 9 HR, 50 RBI) was responsible for "taking away an infield spot."
In 2012, Brandon Phillips had a .281 batting average, 18 home runs, and 77 runs batted in. He did not win a Gold Glove for the first time since 2009. He batted .375 in the National League Division Series versus the San Francisco Giants, despite their loss of the series.
2013
Phillips was the Reds' Opening Day number two hitter; however, he became the cleanup hitter after left fielder Ryan Ludwick tore his shoulder on opening day. César Izturis was his backup. He had a 12-game hitting streak from May 12 to 25. Phillips hit .266 with 12 home runs and 74 RBI, good enough to earn him the starting second baseman spot on the National League team in the All-Star Game.
On August 28, Phillips was moved to the second spot in the lineup, and Jay Bruce became the cleanup hitter. While hitting second in 2013, he hit .240 with two home runs and six RBI in 23 games. In 127 games while hitting fourth, he hit .265/.310/.396 with 16 home runs and 96 RBI. In 151 games in 2013, he hit .261 with 18 home runs and 103 RBI. He won a Gold Glove, compiling a .987 fielding percentage, with nine errors.
2014
Phillips was placed on the disabled list July 11, 2014, after suffering a torn thumb ligament while diving for a ground ball in a game against the Chicago Cubs. At the time, he was hitting .272 with seven home runs and 40 RBI, and had only committed one error in 86 games at second base. He was reinstated from the DL on August 18. Phillips finished the season hitting .266 with eight home runs and 56 RBI.
On October 23, 2014, Phillips was nominated for his potential fifth Gold Glove for second base.
2015
The 86th All-Star Game was played at Great American Ball Park, and Cardinals catcher Yadier Molina was selected to play. In the Reds' clubhouse for the All-Star Game, he was assigned Phillips' locker. Since the brawl between the Cardinals and Reds in 2010, the two mended their schism, and Molina has a photograph of their families together. When informed of whose locker he was using, he replied, "This is Phillips' locker? How about that? I'll have to write something to him." However, during pregame roster introductions, Reds fans booed all six Cardinals players in jest who were selected, including Molina, and even former Cardinal Albert Pujols, who was then with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim.
Phillips hit two home runs and stole two bases against the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 30, becoming only the 15th player—and second Red—to have a multi-homer, multi-steal game since 1901. Phillips finished the season hitting .294 (16th in the National League) with 173 hits (eighth in the NL), 12 home runs, 70 RBI, and 23 stolen bases (tenth in the NL). On October 29, 2015, he was named a finalist for the Gold Glove for second base.
2016
In 2016, Phillips appeared in 141 games, batting .291 with 11 home runs and 64 RBIs. He also stole 14 bases while being caught eight times.
Atlanta Braves
On February 12, 2017, Phillips waived his no-trade clause and was traded to the Atlanta Braves in exchange for minor league pitchers Andrew McKirahan and Carlos Portuondo. The Reds also sent $13 million in the deal, leaving the Braves to pay $1 million of Phillips' remaining salary. He made a late-season position switch to third base to facilitate the promotion of Ozzie Albies to the major leagues. On August 30, Phillips hit a bloop single to drive in Ender Inciarte for his 2,000th career hit. In 120 games for the Braves, Phillips batted .291 with 11 home runs and 52 RBIs.
Los Angeles Angels
On August 31, 2017, Phillips was traded to the Los Angeles Angels for cash considerations and Tony Sanchez. In 24 games played with the Angels, Phillips had a slash line of .255/.269/.382 in 102 at bats.
Boston Red Sox
On June 27, 2018, Phillips signed a minor league contract with the Boston Red Sox, and was assigned to the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox. Phillips appeared in 38 games with Pawtucket and six games with the Class A Short Season Lowell Spinners, batting a combined .304 with five home runs and 26 RBIs.
Phillips was added to Boston's active roster on September 4. He made his Red Sox debut the following day, hitting a two-run home run in the ninth inning to carry the Red Sox to a 9–8 victory over the Atlanta Braves, completing a comeback from Atlanta's 7–1 and 8–7 leads late in the game. Phillips was the first player in Red Sox history to wear uniform number 0. Overall with the 2018 Red Sox, Phillips appeared in nine games, batting 3-for-23 (.130) with one home run and two RBIs. The Red Sox finished the year 108–54, clinching the AL East pennant. The Red Sox went on to win the World Series over the Los Angeles Dodgers.
Phillips elected free agency on October 29.
Vallejo Admirals
On June 25, 2019, Phillips signed with the Vallejo Admirals of the independent Pacific Association. The team was managed by his younger brother P.J. Phillips. Phillips played four games for the Admirals before being granted his release.
Diablos Rojos del México
On July 15, 2019, Phillips signed with the Diablos Rojos del México of the Mexican League. During the season, he played in 36 games. Phillips batted .267/.327/.420 with 35 hits in 131 at bats. He had three home runs, 11 doubles and 15 RBIs. Phillips elected free agency on October 5, 2019.
Baseball Brilliance
In July 2020, Phillips played in eight games for the Baseball Brilliance of the Yinzer Baseball Confederacy. Phillips had five hits in 35 plate appearances for the Brilliance, with a .152/.200/.333 batting line. One of those five hits included a July 11 home run against the Steel City Slammin' Sammies at Washington Wild Things Park.
Lexington Legends
On August 19, 2020, Phillips joined the Lexington Legends in their Battle of the Bourbon Trail series. On August 22, Phillips hit a walk-off homer for the Legends, his third homer in three games for the team.
In 2021, the Legends moved to the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball and Phillips became a co-owner of the club in the offseason. On May 31, 2021, the Legends announced he was officially signed as a player, thus becoming the first Atlantic League player to appear on a roster for a team they co-own. He appeared in 54 games, posting a .276/.335/.507 line with 14 home runs and 52 RBIs, as the Legends went on to win the ALPB Championship. In 2022, Phillips played in 40 games, slashing .250/.320/.391 with four home runs and 18 RBIs. Following the season, the club was sold to a new ownership group and Phillips left the franchise.
Personal life
Phillips has a daughter, Bailey Quinn Phillips with his wife, fitness model and professional wrestler Jade Cargill.
In March 2023, Phillips and Cargill were announced as owners of the Texas Smoke, the fourth franchise of Women's Professional Fastpitch (WPF), based in Austin, Texas.
The Texas Smoke won the 2023 WPF regular season with a record of 22–14 and then swept the USSSA Pride in the inaugural Women's Professional Fastpitch championship series with an impressive 14–2 win.
See also
List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders
List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders
List of Gold Glove Award winners at second base
List of Silver Slugger Award winners at second base
References
External links
, or Retrosheet
1981 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Atlanta Braves players
Baseball Brilliance players
Baseball players from Georgia (U.S. state)
Baseball players from Raleigh, North Carolina
Boston Red Sox players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Cape Fear Crocs players
Cincinnati Reds players
Cleveland Indians players
Dayton Dragons players
Diablos Rojos del México players
Gold Glove Award winners
Gulf Coast Expos players
Harrisburg Senators players
Jupiter Hammerheads players
Lexington Legends players
Los Angeles Angels players
Louisville Bats players
Lowell Spinners players
Major League Baseball second basemen
Mexican League baseball second basemen
Mexican League baseball third basemen
National League All-Stars
Ottawa Lynx players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
Sportspeople from Stone Mountain, Georgia
Silver Slugger Award winners
World Baseball Classic players of the United States
2013 World Baseball Classic players |
4313919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey-headed%20flying%20fox | Grey-headed flying fox | The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is a megabat native to Australia. The species shares mainland Australia with three other members of the genus Pteropus: the little red P. scapulatus, spectacled P. conspicillatus, and the black P. alecto. The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia.
The grey-headed flying fox is endemic to the south-eastern forested areas of Australia, principally east of the Great Dividing Range. Its range extends approximately from Bundaberg in Queensland to Geelong in Victoria, with outlying colonies in Ingham and Finch Hatton in the north, and in Adelaide in the south. In the southern parts of its range it occupies more extreme latitudes than any other Pteropus species.
As of 2021 the species is listed as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Taxonomy
A description of the species was published by Coenraad Temminck in his 1825 monograph of mammals. Hybridisation with the species Pteropus alecto has been noted where their ranges intersect.
The common names for Pteropus poliocephalus include grey-headed kalong. The entry in Gould's Mammals of Australia (1863) gave the bat the title grey-headed vampire.
Description
The grey-headed flying fox is the largest bat in Australia, with the adult wingspan reaching up to in length and weighing up to . Weight generally varies between , with an average of . The combined length of the head and body is from 230 to 290 mm. The forearm length is a range from 138 to 180 mm. The length of the ear from the tip to base is 30 to 37 mm.
The overall colour of the pelage is a dark-grey body with a light-grey head, separated by a reddish-brown collar.
The fur on the body is long and streaked with grey, the broad and well defined collar completely encircles the neck with hair that is golden orange in tone. A unique characteristic among bats of the genus Pteropus is fur on the legs that extends all the way to the ankle.
Like many megachiropterans, the species lacks a tail. All of these bats possess claws on its first and second digits.
The head is simple in form, with the characteristic 'dog-like' appearance of the genus.
Since it does not echolocate, it lacks the tragus or leaf ornamentation found in many species of Microchiroptera.
It relies on smell and, predominately, sight to locate its food (nectar, pollen and native fruits) and thus has relatively large eyes for a bat.
The voice of P. poliocephalus consists of a complex series of squeals and screechings. They will flap their wings in hot weather, using blood pumped through the patagium to cool the body temperature.
The grey-headed flying fox is long-lived for a mammal of its size. Individuals reportedly survived in captivity for up to 23 years, and a maximum age of up to 15 years seems possible in the wild.
Ecology
Distribution
The distribution range is at the eastern regions of the Australian continent, mostly within 200 kilometres of the coast, from Gladstone in Queensland through to the southern Gippsland region and populations around the city of Melbourne. The breeding range has been recorded as progressing southward, the temperate climate of Melbourne and Geelong and no further north than Maryborough, Queensland.
Urbanisation may displace the species, or provide habitat that accommodates their feeding or roosting preferences. The city of Brisbane has many roosts occupied by the species; a famous colony at the Indooroopilly Island is noted for the evening departure of the bats across the local river. Within the central business district of Sydney, they can be seen travelling along city streets to feed at Moreton Bay fig trees at Hyde Park. The species was recorded as an occasional visitor to the national capital Canberra, although the flowering eucalypts at Commonwealth Park have seen more permanent camps established close to the city.
The species was surveyed during the 1920s by Francis Ratcliffe, who recorded the populations in estimates of quarter, half, or one million in camps, generally located around 40 kilometres apart. These numbers have greatly declined since this first survey.
Habitat and movements
Grey-headed flying foxes live in a variety of habitats, including rainforests, woodlands, and swamps. These camps are variable in size and are seasonally relocated; the warmer parts of the year find them occupying cool and wet gullies in large groups. During the day, individuals reside in large roosts (colonies or 'camps') consisting of hundreds to tens of thousands of individuals. Colonies are formed in seemingly arbitrary locations. Roost vegetation includes rainforest patches, stands of melaleuca, mangroves, and riparian vegetation, but roosts also occupy highly modified vegetation in urban areas. A prominent example existed for many years at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney. However, the botanic gardens instituted a controversial policy to remove them from the garden grounds. The camp is now dispersed across Queensland.
Movements of grey-headed flying foxes are influenced by the availability of food. Their population is very fluid, as they move in response to the irregular blossoming of certain plant species. They are keystone pollinators and seed dispersers of over 100 species of native trees and plants. The grey-headed flying fox is a partial migrant that uses winds to facilitate long-distance movement. It does not migrate in a constant direction, but rather in the direction that will be the most beneficial at the time.
Although recorded in small numbers sporadically throughout the 20th century, it was not until the 1980s that grey-headed flying foxes routinely visited Melbourne, with a permanent camp since the 1990s. Their residence at the Melbourne Botanic Garden was the subject of controversy, and the bats were eventually discouraged and moved to Yarra Bend at the city's river. The camp at this site was decimated during a heat wave, requiring its rehabilitation to sustain the relocated population. The forced relocations are also said to have led to the discovery of the orchards of the Goulburn Valley. Similarly, the first recorded permanent camp in Adelaide was established in 2010. The spread is likely due to global warming, habitat loss and drought; while the location of the new camps appears to be in response to urbanisation: a reliable food supply (such as native eucalypt plantings and backyard fruit trees) and warmer temperatures due to climate change and urban heat islands.
Diet and foraging
Around dusk, grey-headed flying foxes leave the roost and travel up to 50 km a night to feed on pollen, nectar and fruit. The species consumes fruit flowers and pollens of around 187 plant species. These include eucalypt, particularly Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus muelleriana, E. globoidea and E. botryoides, and fruits from a wide range of rainforest trees, including members of the genus Ficus. These bats are considered sequential specialists, since they feed on a variety of foods. Grey-headed flying foxes, along with the three other Australian flying fox species, fulfill a very important ecological role by dispersing the pollen and seeds of a wide range of native Australian plants. The grey-headed flying fox is the only mammalian nectarivore and frugivore to occupy substantial areas of subtropical rainforests, so is of key importance to those forests.
The teeth, tongue and palate of the pteropodid bats are able to extract plant juices from food, only swallowing smaller seeds of the meal. Incisors hold items such as fruit, and the fibrous material is ejected from the mouth after it is masticated and the juice is swallowed; larger seeds may be held in the mouth and dispersed several kilometres from the tree. The need for the elaborate intestinal tract of most herbivores is consequently removed. Some fruiting plants produce food for flying-foxes, and P. poliocephalus is attracted to the scent of their flowers and fruit and is able to locate the pale colour that indicates the source; the fruit and blooms of species that attract birds in the daylight are usually contrasting reds and purples. The food source is also presented away from the foliage that may obstruct the bat's access.
Most of the trees on which this species forages produce nectar and pollen seasonally and are abundant unpredictably, so the flying fox's migration traits cope with this. The time when flying foxes leave their roosts to feed depends on foraging light and predation risk. Flying foxes have more time and light when foraging if they leave their roosts early in the day. The entire colony may leave later if a predatory bird is present, while lactating females leave earlier. With males, the bachelors leave earlier than harem-holding males, which guard and wait until all their females have left. The flying foxes that leave the roost earlier are more vulnerable to predation, and some flying foxes will wait for others to leave, a phenomenon labelled the "after you" effect.
Social organisation
Groupings and territories
Grey-headed flying foxes form two different roosting camps, summer camps and winter camps. Summer camps are used from September to April or June. In these camps, they establish territories, mate, and reproduce. Winter camps are used from April to September. The sexes are separated in winter camps and most behaviour is characterised by mutual grooming. Summer camps are considered "main camps", while winter camps are referred to as "transit camps".
In their summer camps, starting in January, male grey-headed flying foxes set up mating territories. Mating territories are generally 3.5 body lengths along branches. These flying foxes' neck glands enlarge in males in the mating season, and are used to mark the territories. The males fight to maintain their territories, and this is associated with a steep drop in the males' body condition during this time.
Around the beginning of the mating season, adult females move from the periphery towards the central male territories where they become part of short-term 'harems' that consist of a male and an unstable group of up to five females. Centrally located males are polygamous, while males on the periphery are monogamous or single. The mating system of the grey-headed flying fox is best described as a lek because males do not provide any essential resources to females and are chosen on the basis of their physical location within the roost, which correlates with male quality.
Reproduction
Matings are generally observed between March and May, but the most likely time of conception is April. Most mating takes place in the territories and during the day. Females have control over the copulation process, and males may have to keep mating with the same females. Females usually give birth to one young each year. Gestation lasts around 27 weeks, and pregnant females give birth between late September and November. Late births into January are sometimes observed. The altricial newborns rely on their mothers for warmth. For their first three weeks, young cling to their mothers when they go foraging. After this, the young remain in the roosts. By January, young are capable of sustained flight, and by February, March or April are fully weaned.
Predation
Flying foxes are preyed on by eagles, goannas and snakes.
The camps of P. poliocephalus attract a number of larger predators. including both terrestrial and aerial hunters.
The sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster will capture these bats in flight as they leave their roosts.
The snake species Morelia spilota is frequently found as a resident at these camps, lazily selecting an individual from the apparently unconcerned group at a branch. The bat is seized in the jaws and encircled by the python's body, then swallowed head first to be digested over the next week.
The species was reported by John Gould as being eaten by the indigenous Australians.
Conservation
The grey-headed flying fox is now a prominent federal conservation problem in Australia. Early in the last century, the species was considered abundant, with numbers estimated in the many millions. In recent years, though, evidence has been accumulating that the species is in serious decline. An estimate for the species in 2019 put the number at 586,000 and the national population may have declined by over 30% between 1989 and 1999 alone.
Threats
Grey-headed flying foxes are exposed to several threats, including loss of foraging and roosting habitat, competition with the black flying fox, and mass die-offs caused by extreme temperature events. When present in urban environments, grey-headed flying foxes are sometimes perceived as a nuisance. Cultivated orchard fruits are also taken, but apparently only at times when other food items are scarce. Because their roosting and foraging habits bring the species into conflict with humans, they suffer from direct killing of animals in orchards and harassment and destruction of roosts. Negative public perception of the species has intensified with the discovery of three recently emerged zoonotic viruses that are potentially fatal to humans: Hendra virus, Australian bat lyssavirus and Menangle virus. However, only Australian bat lyssavirus is known from two isolated cases to be directly transmissible from bats to humans. No person has ever died from ABLV (Lyssavirus) after having had the ABLV post-exposure vaccine.
The urbanised camps of cities were noted as succumbing to poisoning during the 1970s to 1980s, identified as the lead in petrol that would accumulate on the fur and enter the body when grooming. The mortality rate from toxic levels of lead in the environment dropped with the introduction of unleaded fuel in 1985.
An introduced plant, the cocos palm Syagrus romanzoffiana, now banned by some local councils, bears fruit that is toxic to this species and has resulted in their death; the Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia and privet present this same hazard. The species is vulnerable to diseases that may kill large numbers within a camp, and the sudden incidence of premature births in colonies is likely to significantly impact the re-population of the group; the cause of these disorders or diseases in unknown.
Recent research has shown, since 1994, more than 24,500 grey-headed flying foxes have died from extreme heat events alone.
Unsuitable backyard fruit tree netting also kills many animals and may bring them into close contact with humans, but can be avoided by using wildlife-safe netting. Barbed wire accounts for many casualties; this can be ameliorated by removing old or unnecessary barbed wire or marking it with bright paint.
The early twentieth century saw the incursion of Pteropus poliocephalus to the opportunities they discovered at orchards, and the government placed a bounty on the declared pest. Their reputation for destroying fruit crops was noted by John Gould in 1863, though the extent of actual damage was often greatly exaggerated. When Ratcliffe submitted his report, he noted the number of paid bounties was 300,000, and this would not have included the mortally wounded escapees or those left suspended at roosts by the grip that is held by their weight. This species continued to be killed or wounded by shotguns, many remaining disabled where they fell after the bounty was stopped, despite the advice of Ratcliffe and later researchers on an ineffective and uneconomical practice and the needless extermination of the population. Orchardists have begun shifting to the use of netting that also discourages the daytime visits of birds. The impact of indiscriminate shooting of bats has resulted in the species being declared vulnerable to extinction, to the tree species that relied on them for regeneration, the subsequent alteration to the forest ecology of the eastern states
Status and protection
To answer some of the growing threats, roost sites have been legally protected since 1986 in New South Wales and since 1994 in Queensland. In 1999, the species was classified as "Vulnerable to extinction" in The Action Plan for Australian Bats, and has since been protected across its range under Australian federal law, listed as Vulnerable under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). A species recovery plan was created by the federal Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment and the South Australian Department for Environment and Water and published in 2021.
the species is listed as "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species under criteria A2ace and A4ac. Justification for the assessment says that "although the population is relatively large (exceeding 10,000 mature individuals) and it has a large extent of occurrence (> 20,000 km²), a continuing population decline is inferred to be more than 30–35% over the last three generations", and that further decline is expected.
Wildlife rescue
Baby flying foxes usually come into care after having been separated from their mothers. Babies are often orphaned during four to six weeks of age, when they inadvertently fall off their mothers during flight, often due to disease or tick paralysis (their own and/or that of the mother).
Bat caregivers are not only specially trained in techniques to rescue and rehabilitate bats, but they are also vaccinated against rabies. Although the chance of contracting the rabies-like Australian bat lyssavirus is extremely small, bat caregivers are inoculated for their own protection.
Gallery
References
Further reading
External links
ARKive - images and movies of the grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus)
Background: P. poliocephalus
Brief history of Megachiroptera / Megabats
Pteropus
Bats of Australia
Vulnerable fauna of Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Victoria (state)
Mammals described in 1825
Taxa named by Coenraad Jacob Temminck |
4313931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel%20economy%20in%20automobiles | Fuel economy in automobiles | The fuel economy of an automobile relates to the distance traveled by a vehicle and the amount of fuel consumed. Consumption can be expressed in terms of the volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance traveled per unit volume of fuel consumed. Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a significant factor in air pollution, and since the importation of motor fuel can be a large part of a nation's foreign trade, many countries impose requirements for fuel economy. Different methods are used to approximate the actual performance of the vehicle. The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses (wind resistance, tire drag, and others) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air conditioning. Various strategies can be employed to reduce losses at each of the conversions between the chemical energy in the fuel and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy; maneuvers such as sudden acceleration and heavy braking waste energy.
Electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them.
Units of measure
Fuel economy is the relationship between the distance traveled and fuel consumed.
Fuel economy can be expressed in two ways:
Units of fuel per fixed distanceGenerally expressed in liters per 100 kilometers (L/100 km), used in most European countries, China, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Irish law allows for the use of miles per imperial gallon, alongside liters per 100 kilometers. Canadian law requires fuel economy to be measured in both liters per 100 kilometers and miles per imperial gallon. Liters per 100 kilometers may be used alongside miles per imperial gallon in the UK. The window sticker on new US cars displays the vehicle's fuel consumption in US gallons per 100 miles, in addition to the traditional mpg number. A lower number means more efficient, while a higher number means less efficient.
Units of distance per fixed fuel unit Miles per gallon (mpg) are commonly used in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada (alongside L/100 km). Kilometers per liter (km/L) are more commonly used elsewhere in the Americas, Asia, parts of Africa and Oceania. In the Levant km/20 L is used, known as kilometers per tanaka, a metal container which has a volume of twenty liters. When mpg is used, it is necessary to identify the type of gallon: the imperial gallon is 4.54609 liters, and the U.S. gallon is 3.785 liters. When using a measure expressed as distance per fuel unit, a higher number means more efficient, while a lower number means less efficient.
Conversions of units:
Fuel economy statistics
While the thermal efficiency (mechanical output to chemical energy in fuel) of petroleum engines has increased since the beginning of the automotive era, this is not the only factor in fuel economy. The design of automobile as a whole and usage pattern affects the fuel economy. Published fuel economy is subject to variation between jurisdiction due to variations in testing protocols.
One of the first studies to determine fuel economy in the United States was the Mobil Economy Run, which was an event that took place every year from 1936 (except during World War II) to 1968. It was designed to provide real, efficient fuel efficiency numbers during a coast-to-coast test on real roads and with regular traffic and weather conditions. The Mobil Oil Corporation sponsored it and the United States Auto Club (USAC) sanctioned and operated the run. In more recent studies, the average fuel economy for new passenger car in the United States improved from 17 mpg (13.8 L/100 km) in 1978 to more than 22 mpg (10.7 L/100 km) in 1982.
The average fuel economy for new 2020 model year cars, light trucks and SUVs in the United States was . 2019 model year cars (ex. EVs) classified as "midsize" by the US EPA ranged from 12 to 56 mpgUS (20 to 4.2 L/100 km) However, due to environmental concerns caused by CO2 emissions, new EU regulations are being introduced to reduce the average emissions of cars sold beginning in 2012, to 130 g/km of CO2, equivalent to 4.5 L/100 km (52 mpgUS, 63 mpgimp) for a diesel-fueled car, and 5.0 L/100 km (47 mpgUS, 56 mpgimp) for a gasoline (petrol)-fueled car.
The average consumption across the fleet is not immediately affected by the new vehicle fuel economy: for example, Australia's car fleet average in 2004 was 11.5 L/100 km (20.5 mpgUS), compared with the average new car consumption in the same year of 9.3 L/100 km (25.3 mpgUS)
Speed and fuel economy studies
Fuel economy at steady speeds with selected vehicles was studied in 2010. The most recent study indicates greater fuel efficiency at higher speeds than earlier studies; for example, some vehicles achieve better fuel economy at rather than at , although not their best economy, such as the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera with the LN2 2.2L engine, which has its best economy at (), and gets better economy at than at ( vs ). The proportion of driving on high speed roadways varies from 4% in Ireland to 41% in the Netherlands.
When the US National Maximum Speed Law's speed limit was mandated from 1974 to 1995, there were complaints that fuel economy could decrease instead of increase. The 1997 Toyota Celica got better fuel-efficiency at than it did at ( vs ), although even better at than at ( vs ), and its best economy () at only . Other vehicles tested had from 1.4 to 20.2% better fuel-efficiency at vs. . Their best economy was reached at speeds of (see graph).
Officials hoped that the limit, combined with a ban on ornamental lighting, no gasoline sales on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gasoline production, would reduce total gasoline consumption by 200,000 barrels a day, representing a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels. This was partly based on a belief that cars achieve maximum efficiency between 40 and 50 mph (65 and 80 km/h) and that trucks and buses were most efficient at .
In 1998, the U.S. Transportation Research Board footnoted an estimate that the 1974 National Maximum Speed Limit (NMSL) reduced fuel consumption by 0.2 to 1.0 percent. Rural interstates, the roads most visibly affected by the NMSL, accounted for 9.5% of the U.S' vehicle-miles-traveled in 1973, but such free-flowing roads typically provide more fuel-efficient travel than conventional roads.
Differences in testing standards
Identical vehicles can have varying fuel consumption figures listed depending upon the testing methods of the jurisdiction.
Lexus IS 250 – petrol 2.5 L 4GR-FSE V6, 204 hp (153 kW), 6 speed automatic, rear wheel drive
Australia (L/100 km) – 'combined' 9.1, 'urban' 12.7, 'extra-urban' 7.0
Canada (L/100 km) – 'combined' 9.6, 'city' 11.1, 'highway' 7.8
European Union (L/100 km) – 'combined' 8.9, 'urban' 12.5, 'extra-urban' 6.9
United States (L/100 km) – 'combined' 9.8, 'city' 11.2, 'highway' 8.1
Energy considerations
Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:
Note: The amount of work generated by the vehicle's power source (energy delivered by the engine) would be exactly proportional to the amount of fuel energy consumed by the engine if the engine's efficiency is the same regardless of power output, but this is not necessarily the case due to the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engine.
For a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of distance (level road) depends upon:
The thermodynamic efficiency of the heat engine;
Frictional losses within the drivetrain;
Rolling resistance within the wheels and between the road and the wheels;
Non-motive subsystems powered by the engine, such as air conditioning, engine cooling, and the alternator;
Aerodynamic drag from moving through air;
Energy converted by frictional brakes into waste heat, or losses from regenerative braking in hybrid vehicles;
Fuel consumed while the engine is not providing power but still running, such as while idling, minus the subsystem loads.
Ideally, a car traveling at a constant velocity on level ground in a vacuum with frictionless wheels could travel at any speed without consuming any energy beyond what is needed to get the car up to speed. Less ideally, any vehicle must expend energy on overcoming road load forces, which consist of aerodynamic drag, tire rolling resistance, and inertial energy that is lost when the vehicle is decelerated by friction brakes. With ideal regenerative braking, the inertial energy could be completely recovered, but there are few options for reducing aerodynamic drag or rolling resistance other than optimizing the vehicle's shape and the tire design. Road load energy or the energy demanded at the wheels, can be calculated by evaluating the vehicle equation of motion over a specific driving cycle. The vehicle powertrain must then provide this minimum energy to move the vehicle and will lose a large amount of additional energy in the process of converting fuel energy into work and transmitting it to the wheels. Overall, the sources of energy loss in moving a vehicle may be summarized as follows:
Engine efficiency (20–30%), which varies with engine type, the mass of the automobile and its load, and engine speed (usually measured in RPM).
Aerodynamic drag force, which increases roughly by the square of the car's speed, but notes that drag power goes by the cube of the car's speed.
Rolling friction.
Braking, although regenerative braking captures some of the energy that would otherwise be lost.
Losses in the transmission. Manual transmissions can be up to 94% efficient whereas older automatic transmissions may be as low as 70% efficient Automated manual transmissions, which have the same mechanical internals as conventional manual transmissions, will give the same efficiency as a pure manual gearbox plus the added bonus of intelligence selecting optimal shifting points, and/or automated clutch control but manual shifting, as with older semi-automatic transmissions.
Air conditioning. The power required for the engine to turn the compressor decreases the fuel-efficiency, though only when in use. This may be offset by the reduced drag of the vehicle compared with driving with the windows down. The efficiency of AC systems gradually deteriorates due to dirty filters etc.; regular maintenance prevents this. The extra mass of the air conditioning system will cause a slight increase in fuel consumption.
Power steering. The older hydraulic power steering systems are powered by a hydraulic pump constantly engaged to the engine. Power assistance required for steering is inversely proportional to the vehicle speed so the constant load on the engine from a hydraulic pump reduces fuel efficiency. More modern designs improve fuel efficiency by only activating the power assistance when needed; this is done by using either direct electrical power steering assistance or an electrically powered hydraulic pump.
Cooling. The older cooling systems used a constantly engaged mechanical fan to draw air through the radiator at a rate directly related to the engine speed. This constant load reduces efficiency. More modern systems use electrical fans to draw additional air through the radiator when extra cooling is required.
Electrical systems. Headlights, battery charging, active suspension, circulating fans, defrosters, media systems, speakers, and other electronics can also significantly increase fuel consumption, as the energy to power these devices causes an increased load on the alternator. Since alternators are commonly only 40–60% efficient, the added load from electronics on the engine can be as high as at any speed including idle. In the FTP 75 cycle test, a 200-watt load on the alternator reduces fuel efficiency by 1.7 mpg. Headlights, for example, consume 110 watts on low and up to 240 watts on high. These electrical loads can cause much of the discrepancy between real-world and EPA tests, which only include the electrical loads required to run the engine and basic climate control.
Standby. The energy is needed to keep the engine running while it is not providing power to the wheels, i.e., when stopped, coasting or braking.
Fuel-efficiency decreases from electrical loads are most pronounced at lower speeds because most electrical loads are constant while engine load increases with speed. So at a lower speed, a higher proportion of engine horsepower is used by electrical loads. Hybrid cars see the greatest effect on fuel-efficiency from electrical loads because of this proportional effect.
Fuel economy-boosting technologies
Engine-specific technology
Other vehicle technologies
Future technologies
Technologies that may improve fuel efficiency, but are not yet on the market, include:
HCCI (Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition) combustion
Scuderi engine
Compound engines
Two-stroke diesel engines
High-efficiency gas turbine engines
BMW's Turbosteamer – using the heat from the engine to spin a mini turbine to generate power
Vehicle electronic control systems that automatically maintain distances between vehicles on motorways/freeways that reduce ripple back braking, and consequent re-acceleration.
Time-optimized piston path, to capture energy from hot gases in the cylinders when they are at their highest temperatures
sterling hybrid battery vehicle
Many aftermarket consumer products exist that are purported to increase fuel economy; many of these claims have been discredited. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency maintains a list of devices that have been tested by independent laboratories and makes the test results available to the public.
Fuel economy data reliability
The mandatory publication of the fuel consumption by the manufacturer led some to use dubious practices to reach better values in the past. If the test is on a test stand, the vehicle may detect open doors and adapt the engine control. Also when driven according to the test regime, the parameters may adapt automatically. Test laboratories use a "golden car" that is tested in each one to check that each lab produces the same set of measurements for a given drive cycle.
Tire pressures and lubricants have to be as recommended by the manufacturer (Higher tire pressures are required on a particular dynamometer type, but this is to compensate for the different rolling resistance of the dynamometer, not to produce an unrealistic load on the vehicle). Normally the quoted figures a manufacturer publishes have to be proved by the relevant authority witnessing vehicle/engine tests. Some jurisdictions independently test emissions of vehicles in service, and as a final measure can force a recall of all of a particular type of vehicle if the customer vehicles do not fulfill manufacturers' claims within reasonable limits. The expense and bad publicity from such a recall encourage manufacturers to publish realistic figures. The US Federal government retests 10–15% of models), to make sure that the manufacturer's tests are accurate.
Real-world fuel consumption can vary greatly as they can be affected by many factors that have little to do with the vehicle. Driving conditions – weather, traffic, temperature; driving style – hard braking, jackrabbit starts, and speeding; road conditions – paved vs gravel, smooth vs potholes; and things like carrying excess weight, roof racks, and fuel quality can all combine to dramatically increase fuel consumption. Expecting to consistently perform in the face of so many variables is impossible as is the expectation for one set of numbers to encompass every driver and their personal circumstances.
The ratings are meant to provide a comparison and are not a promise of actual performance.
Concerns over EPA estimates
For many years critics had claimed that EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) estimated fuel economy figures had been misleading. The primary arguments of the EPA detractors were focused on the lack of real-world testing, and the very limited scale (i.e., city or highway).
Partly as a response to these criticisms, the EPA changed their fuel economy rating system in 2008 in an attempt to more adequately address these concerns. Instead of testing simply in two presumed modes, the testing now covers:
Faster speeds and acceleration
Air conditioner use
Colder outside temperatures
While the new EPA standards may represent an improvement, real-world user data may still be the best way to gather and collect accurate fuel economy information. As such the EPA has also set up a website where drivers can enter and track their own real-world fuel economy numbers.
There are also a number of websites that attempt to track and report individual user fuel economy data through real-life driving. Sites or publications such as Consumer Reports, Edmunds.com, Consumer Guide, and TrueDelta.com offer this service and claim more accurate numbers than those listed by the EPA.
Fuel economy maximizing behaviors
Governments, various environmentalist organizations, and companies like Toyota and Shell Oil Company have historically urged drivers to maintain adequate air pressure in tires and careful acceleration/deceleration habits. Keeping track of fuel efficiency stimulates fuel economy-maximizing behavior.
A five-year partnership between Michelin and Anglian Water shows that 60,000 liters of fuel can be saved on tire pressure. The Anglian Water fleet of 4,000 vans and cars are now lasting their full lifetime. This shows the impact that tire pressures have on the fuel efficiency.
Fuel economy as part of quality management regimes
Environmental management systems EMAS, as well as good fleet management, includes record-keeping of the fleet fuel consumption. Quality management uses those figures to steer the measures acting on the fleets. This is a way to check whether procurement, driving, and maintenance in total have contributed to changes in the fleet's overall consumption.
Fuel economy standards and testing procedures
* highway ** combined
Australia
From October 2008, all new cars had to be sold with a sticker on the windscreen showing the fuel consumption and the CO2 emissions. Fuel consumption figures are expressed as urban, extra urban and combined, measured according to ECE Regulations 83 and 101 – which are the based on the European driving cycle; previously, only the combined number was given.
Australia also uses a star rating system, from one to five stars, that combines greenhouse gases with pollution, rating each from 0 to 10 with ten being best. To get 5 stars a combined score of 16 or better is needed, so a car with a 10 for economy (greenhouse) and a 6 for emission or 6 for economy and 10 for emission, or anything in between would get the highest 5 star rating. The lowest rated car is the Ssangyong Korrando with automatic transmission, with one star, while the highest rated was the Toyota Prius hybrid. The Fiat 500, Fiat Punto and Fiat Ritmo as well as the Citroen C3 also received 5 stars. The greenhouse rating depends on the fuel economy and the type of fuel used. A greenhouse rating of 10 requires 60 or less grams of CO2 per km, while a rating of zero is more than 440 g/km CO2. The highest greenhouse rating of any 2009 car listed is the Toyota Prius, with 106 g/km CO2 and . Several other cars also received the same rating of 8.5 for greenhouse. The lowest rated was the Ferrari 575 at 499 g/km CO2 and . The Bentley also received a zero rating, at 465 g/km CO2. The best fuel economy of any year is the 2004–2005 Honda Insight, at .
Canada
Vehicle manufacturers follow a controlled laboratory testing procedure to generate the fuel consumption data that they submit to the Government of Canada. This controlled method of fuel consumption testing, including the use of standardized fuels, test cycles and calculations, is used instead of on-road driving to ensure that all vehicles are tested under identical conditions and that the results are consistent and repeatable.
Selected test vehicles are "run in" for about 6,000 km before testing. The vehicle is then mounted on a chassis dynamometer programmed to take into account the aerodynamic efficiency, weight and rolling resistance of the vehicle. A trained driver runs the vehicle through standardized driving cycles that simulate trips in the city and on the highway. Fuel consumption ratings are derived from the emissions generated during the driving cycles.
THE 5 CYCLE TEST:
The city test simulates urban driving in stop-and-go traffic with an average speed of 34 km/h and a top speed of 90 km/h. The test runs for approximately 31 minutes and includes 23 stops. The test begins from a cold engine start, which is similar to starting a vehicle after it has been parked overnight during the summer. The final phase of the test repeats the first eight minutes of the cycle but with a hot engine start. This simulates restarting a vehicle after it has been warmed up, driven and then stopped for a short time. Over five minutes of test time are spent idling, to represent waiting at traffic lights. The ambient temperature of the test cell starts at 20 °C and ends at 30 °C.
The highway test simulates a mixture of open highway and rural road driving, with an average speed of 78 km/h and a top speed of 97 km/h. The test runs for approximately 13 minutes and does not include any stops. The test begins from a hot engine start. The ambient temperature of the test cell starts at 20 °C and ends at 30 °C.
In the cold temperature operation test, the same driving cycle is used as in the standard city test, except that the ambient temperature of the test cell is set to −7 °C.
In the air conditioning test, the ambient temperature of the test cell is raised to 35 °C. The vehicle's climate control system is then used to lower the internal cabin temperature. Starting with a warm engine, the test averages 35 km/h and reaches a maximum speed of 88 km/h. Five stops are included, with idling occurring 19% of the time.
The high speed/quick acceleration test averages 78 km/h and reaches a top speed of 129 km/h. Four stops are included and brisk acceleration maximizes at a rate of 13.6 km/h per second. The engine begins warm and air conditioning is not used. The ambient temperature of the test cell is constantly 25 °C.
Tests 1, 3, 4, and 5 are averaged to create the city driving fuel consumption rate.
Tests 2, 4, and 5 are averaged to create the highway driving fuel consumption rate.
Europe
In the European Union, passenger vehicles are commonly tested using two drive cycles, and corresponding fuel economies are reported as "urban" and "extra-urban", in liters per 100 km and (in the UK) in miles per imperial gallon.
The urban economy is measured using the test cycle known as ECE-15, first introduced in 1970 by EC Directive 70/220/EWG and finalized by EEC Directive 90/C81/01 in 1999. It simulates a 4,052 m (2.518 mile) urban trip at an average speed of 18.7 km/h (11.6 mph) and at a maximum speed of 50 km/h (31 mph).
The extra-urban driving cycle or EUDC lasts 400 seconds (6 minutes 40 seconds) at an average speed 62.6 km/h (39 mph) and a top speed of 120 km/h (74.6 mph).
EU fuel consumption numbers are often considerably lower than corresponding US EPA test results for the same vehicle. For example, the 2011 Honda CR-Z with a six-speed manual transmission is rated 6.1/4.4 L/100 km in Europe and 7.6/6.4 L/100 km (31/37 mpg ) in the United States.
In the European Union advertising has to show carbon dioxide (CO2)-emission and fuel consumption data in a clear way as described in the UK Statutory Instrument 2004 No 1661. Since September 2005 a color-coded "Green Rating" sticker has been available in the UK, which rates fuel economy by CO2 emissions: A: <= 100 g/km, B: 100–120, C: 121–150, D: 151–165, E: 166–185, F: 186–225, and G: 226+. Depending on the type of fuel used, for gasoline A corresponds to about and G about . Ireland has a very similar label, but the ranges are slightly different, with A: <= 120 g/km, B: 121–140, C: 141–155, D: 156–170, E: 171–190, F: 191–225, and G: 226+. From 2020, EU requires manufacturers to average 95 g/km emission or less, or pay an excess emissions premium.
In the UK the ASA (Advertising standards agency) have claimed that fuel consumption figures are misleading. Often the case with European vehicles as the MPG (miles per gallon) figures that can be advertised are often not the same as "real world" driving.
The ASA have said that car manufacturers can use "cheats" to prepare their vehicles for their compulsory fuel efficiency and emissions tests in a way set out to make themselves look as "clean" as possible. This practice is common in gasoline and diesel vehicle tests, but hybrid and electric vehicles are not immune as manufacturers apply these techniques to fuel efficiency.
Car experts also assert that the official MPG figures given by manufacturers do not represent the true MPG values from real-world driving. Websites have been set up to show the real-world MPG figures, based on crowd-sourced data from real users, vs the official MPG figures.
The major loopholes in the current EU tests allow car manufacturers a number of "cheats" to improve results. Car manufacturers can:
Disconnect the alternator, thus no energy is used to recharge the battery;
Use special lubricants that are not used in production cars, in order to reduce friction;
Turn off all electrical gadgets i.e. Air Con/Radio;
Adjust brakes or even disconnect them to reduce friction;
Tape up cracks between body panels and windows to reduce air resistance;
Remove Wing mirrors.
According to the results of a 2014 study by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT), the gap between official and real-world fuel-economy figures in Europe has risen to about 38% in 2013 from 10% in 2001. The analysis found that for private cars, the difference between on-road and official values rose from around 8% in 2001 to 31% in 2013, and 45% for company cars in 2013. The report is based on data from more than half a million private and company vehicles across Europe. The analysis was prepared by the ICCT together with the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), and the German Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung Heidelberg (IFEU).
In 2018 update of the ICCT data the difference between the official and real figures was again 38%.
Japan
The evaluation criteria used in Japan reflects driving conditions commonly found, as the typical Japanese driver does not drive as fast as other regions internationally (Speed limits in Japan).
10–15 mode
The 10–15 mode driving cycle test is the official fuel economy and emission certification test for new light duty vehicles in Japan. Fuel economy is expressed in km/L (kilometers per liter) and emissions are expressed in g/km. The test is carried out on a dynamometer and consist of 25 tests which cover idling, acceleration, steady running and deceleration, and simulate typical Japanese urban and/or expressway driving conditions. The running pattern begins with a warm start, lasts for 660 seconds (11 minutes) and runs at speeds up to . The distance of the cycle is , average speed of , and duration 892 seconds (14.9 minutes), including the initial 15 mode segment.
JC08
A new more demanding test, called the JC08, was established in December 2006 for Japan's new standard that goes into effect in 2015, but it is already being used by several car manufacturers for new cars. The JC08 test is significantly longer and more rigorous than the 10–15 mode test. The running pattern with JC08 stretches out to 1200 seconds (20 minutes), and there are both cold and warm start measurements and top speed is . The economy ratings of the JC08 are lower than the 10–15 mode cycle, but they are expected to be more real world. The Toyota Prius became the first car to meet Japan's new 2015 Fuel Economy Standards measured under the JC08 test.
New Zealand
Starting on 7 April 2008 all cars of up to 3.5 tonnes GVW sold other than private sale need to have a fuel economy sticker applied (if available) that shows the rating from one half star to six stars with the most economic cars having the most stars and the more fuel hungry cars the least, along with the fuel economy in L/100 km and the estimated annual fuel cost for driving 14,000 km (at present fuel prices). The stickers must also appear on vehicles to be leased for more than 4 months. All new cars currently rated range from to and received respectively from 4.5 to 5.5 stars.
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia announced new light-duty vehicle fuel economy standards in November 2014 which became effective 1 January 2016 and will be fully phased in by 1 January 2018 (Saudi Standards regulation SASO-2864). A review of the targets will be carried by December 2018, at which time targets for 2021–2025 will be set.
United States
US Energy Tax Act
The Energy Tax Act of 1978 in the US established a gas guzzler tax on the sale of new model year vehicles whose fuel economy fails to meet certain statutory levels. The tax applies only to cars (not trucks) and is collected by the IRS. Its purpose is to discourage the production and purchase of fuel-inefficient vehicles. The tax was phased in over ten years with rates increasing over time. It applies only to manufacturers and importers of vehicles, although presumably some or all of the tax is passed along to automobile consumers in the form of higher prices. Only new vehicles are subject to the tax, so no tax is imposed on used car sales. The tax is graduated to apply a higher tax rate for less-fuel-efficient vehicles. To determine the tax rate, manufacturers test all the vehicles at their laboratories for fuel economy. The US Environmental Protection Agency confirms a portion of those tests at an EPA lab.
In some cases, this tax may apply only to certain variants of a given model; for example, the 2004–2006 Pontiac GTO (captive import version of the Holden Monaro) did incur the tax when ordered with the four-speed automatic transmission, but did not incur the tax when ordered with the six-speed manual transmission.
EPA testing procedure through 2007
Two separate fuel economy tests simulate city driving and highway driving: the "city" driving program or Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or (UDDS) or FTP-72 is defined in and consists of starting with a cold engine and making 23 stops over a period of 31 minutes for an average speed of 20 mph (32 km/h) and with a top speed of 56 mph (90 km/h).
The "highway" program or Highway Fuel Economy Driving Schedule (HWFET) is defined in and uses a warmed-up engine and makes no stops, averaging 48 mph (77 km/h) with a top speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) over a distance. A weighted average of city (55%) and highway (45%) fuel economies is used to determine the combined rating and guzzler tax. This rating is what is also used for light-duty vehicle corporate average fuel economy regulations.
The procedure has been updated to FTP-75, adding a "hot start" cycle which repeats the "cold start" cycle after a 10-minute pause.
Because EPA figures had almost always indicated better efficiency than real-world fuel-efficiency, the EPA has modified the method starting with 2008. Updated estimates are available for vehicles back to the 1985 model year.
EPA testing procedure: 2008 and beyond
US EPA altered the testing procedure effective MY2008 which adds three new Supplemental Federal Test Procedure (SFTP) tests to include the influence of higher driving speed, harder acceleration, colder temperature and air conditioning use.
SFTP US06 is a high speed/quick acceleration loop that lasts 10 minutes, covers , averages and reaches a top speed of . Four stops are included, and brisk acceleration maximizes at a rate of per second. The engine begins warm and air conditioning is not used. Ambient temperature varies between to .
SFTO SC03 is the air conditioning test, which raises ambient temperatures to , and puts the vehicle's climate control system to use. Lasting 9.9 minutes, the loop averages and maximizes at a rate of . Five stops are included, idling occurs 19 percent of the time and acceleration of 5.1 mph per second is achieved. Engine temperatures begin warm.
Lastly, a cold temperature cycle uses the same parameters as the current city loop, except that ambient temperature is set to .
EPA tests for fuel economy do not include electrical load tests beyond climate control, which may account for some of the discrepancy between EPA and real world fuel-efficiency. A 200 W electrical load can produce a 0.4 km/L (0.94 mpg) reduction in efficiency on the FTP 75 cycle test.
Beginning with model year 2017 the calculation method changed to improve the accuracy of the estimated 5-cycle city and highway fuel economy values derived from just the FTP and HFET tests, with lower uncertainty for fuel efficient vehicles.
Electric vehicles and hybrids
Following the efficiency claims made for vehicles such as Chevrolet Volt and Nissan Leaf, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory recommended to use EPA's new vehicle fuel efficiency formula that gives different values depending on fuel used. In November 2010 the EPA introduced the first fuel economy ratings in the Monroney stickers for plug-in electric vehicles.
For the fuel economy label of the Chevy Volt plug-in hybrid EPA rated the car separately for all-electric mode expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) and for gasoline-only mode expressed in conventional miles per gallon. EPA also estimated an overall combined city/highway gas-electricity fuel economy rating expressed in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e). The label also includes a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: , , and driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Also the fuel economy for a gasoline-only scenario (never charge) was included. For electric-only mode the energy consumption estimated in kWh per is also shown.
For the fuel economy label of the Nissan Leaf electric car EPA rated the combined fuel economy in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent, with a separate rating for city and highway driving. This fuel economy equivalence is based on the energy consumption estimated in kWh per 100 miles, and also shown in the Monroney label.
In May 2011, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA issued a joint final rule establishing new requirements for a fuel economy and environment label that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with model year 2013, and voluntary for 2012 models. The ruling includes new labels for alternative fuel and alternative propulsion vehicles available in the US market, such as plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and natural gas vehicles. The common fuel economy metric adopted to allow the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles is miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe). A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas (CNG), or kilograms of hydrogen that is equal to the energy in a gallon of gasoline.
The new labels also include for the first time an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive , providing US consumers with fuel consumption per distance traveled, the metric commonly used in many other countries. EPA explained that the objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the "MPG illusion" – this illusion arises because the reciprocal (i.e. non-linear) relationship between cost (equivalently, volume of fuel consumed) per unit distance driven and MPG value means that differences in MPG values are not directly meaningful – only ratios are (in mathematical terms, the reciprocal function does not commute with addition and subtraction; in general, a difference in reciprocal values is not equal to the reciprocal of their difference). It has been claimed that many consumers are unaware of this, and therefore compare MPG values by subtracting them, which can give a misleading picture of relative differences in fuel economy between different pairs of vehicles – for instance, an increase from 10 to 20 MPG corresponds to a 100% improvement in fuel economy, whereas an increase from 50 to 60 MPG is only a 20% improvement, although in both cases the difference is 10 MPG. The EPA explained that the new gallons-per-100-miles metric provides a more accurate measure of fuel efficiency – notably, it is equivalent to the normal metric measurement of fuel economy, liters per 100 kilometers (L/100 km).
CAFE standards
The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations in the United States, first enacted by Congress in 1975, are federal regulations intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles) sold in the US in the wake of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo. Historically, it is the sales-weighted average fuel economy of a manufacturer's fleet of current model year passenger cars or light trucks, manufactured for sale in the United States. Under Truck CAFE standards 2008–2011 this changes to a "footprint" model where larger trucks are allowed to consume more fuel. The standards were limited to vehicles under a certain weight, but those weight classes were expanded in 2011.
Federal and state regulations
The Clean Air Act of 1970 prohibited states from establishing their own air pollution standards. However, the legislation authorized the EPA to grant a waiver to California, allowing the state to set higher standards. The law provides a “piggybacking” provision that allows other states to adopt vehicle emission limits that are the same as California's. California's waivers were routinely granted until 2007, when the George W. Bush administration rejected the state's bid to adopt global warming pollution limits for cars and light trucks. California and 15 other states that were trying to put in place the same emissions standards sued in response. The case was tied up in court until the Obama administration reversed the policy in 2009 by granting the waiver.
In August 2012, President Obama announced new standards for American-made automobiles of an average of 54.5 miles per gallon by the year 2025. In April 2018, EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt announced that the Trump administration planned to roll back the 2012 federal standards and would also seek to curb California's authority to set its own standards. Although the Trump administration was reportedly considering a compromise to allow state and national standards to stay in place, on 21 February 2019 the White House declared that it had abandoned these negotiations. A government report subsequently found that, in 2019, new light-duty vehicle fuel economy fell 0.2 miles per gallon (to 24.9 miles per gallon) and pollution increased 3 grams per mile traveled (to 356 grams per mile). A decrease in fuel economy and an increase in pollution had not occurred for the previous five years. The Obama-era rule was officially rolled back on 31 March 2020 during the Trump administration, but the rollback was reversed on 20 December 2021 during the Biden administration.
Fuel economy of trucks
Trucks are usually bought as an investment good. They are meant to earn money. As the Diesel fuel burnt in heavy trucks accounts for around 30% of the total costs for a freight forwarding company there is always a lot of interest in both the haulage industry and the truck builder industry to strive for best fuel economy. For truck buyers the fuel economy measured by standard procedures is only a first guideline. Professional trucking companies measure the fuel economy of their trucks and truck fleets in real usage. Fuel economy of trucks in real usage is determined by four important factors: The truck technology that is constantly improved by the various OEMs. The driver's driving style contributes a lot to the real fuel economy (different from the test cycles where a standard driving style is used). The maintenance condition of the vehicle influences the fuel efficiency – again different from standardized procedures where the trucks are always presented in flawless condition. Last but not least the usage of the vehicle influences the fuel consumption: Hilly roads and heavy loads will increase the fuel consumption of a vehicle.
Unit conversions
US Gallons
1 mpg ≈ 0.425 km/L
235.2/mpg ≈ L/100 km
1 mpg ≈ 1.201 mpg (imp)
Imperial gallons
1 mpg ≈ 0.354 km/L
282/mpg ≈ L/100 km
1 mpg ≈ 0.833 mpg (US)
Conversion from mpg
Conversion from km/L and L/100 km
See also
Automobile costs
ACEA agreement
Battery electric vehicle
Car speed and energy consumption
Car tuning
Emission standard
Energy conservation
Energy-efficient driving
FF layout
Fuel efficiency in transportation
Fuel saving devices
Gasoline gallon equivalent
Motorized quadricycle (vehicles with low power engines/low top speed)
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
Passenger miles per gallon
The Very Light Car
Vehicle Efficiency Initiative
Vehicle metrics
Green vehicle
Low-carbon economy
Low-rolling resistance tires
Microcar
Plug-in hybrid
Annotations
References
External links
Real fuel consumption by user reports
Model Year 2014 Fuel Economy Guide , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy, April 2014.
Fuel Efficiency in Electric, Hybrid and Petrol Cars – Model Year 2019
Energy economics
Fuel technology
Green vehicles
Car costs |
4314285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds%20in%20Turkey | Kurds in Turkey | The Kurds are the largest ethnic minority in Turkey. According to various estimates, they compose between 15% and 20% of the population of Turkey. There are Kurds living in various provinces of Turkey, but they are primarily concentrated in the east and southeast of the country within the region viewed by Kurds as Turkish Kurdistan.
During the violent suppressions of numerous Kurdish rebellions since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, such as the Sheikh Said Rebellion, the Ararat rebellion, and the Dersim Rebellion, massacres have periodically been committed against the Kurds, with one prominent incident being the Zilan Massacre. The Turkish government categorized Kurds as "Mountain Turks" until 1991, and denied the existence of Kurds. The words "Kurds" or "Kurdistan" were banned in any language by the Turkish government, though "Kurdish" was allowed in census reports. Following the military coup of 1980, the Kurdish languages were officially prohibited in public and private life. Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned. In Turkey, it is illegal to use Kurdish as a language of instruction in both public and private schools. The Kurdish language is only allowed as a subject in some schools.
Since the 1980s, Kurdish movements have included both peaceful political activities for basic civil rights for Kurds in Turkey as well as armed rebellion and guerrilla warfare, including military attacks aimed mainly at Turkish military bases, demanding first a separate Kurdish state and later self-determination for the Kurds. According to a state-sponsored Turkish opinion poll, 59% of self-identified Kurds in Turkey think that Kurds in Turkey do not seek a separate state (while 71.3% of self-identified Turks think they do).
During the Kurdish–Turkish conflict, food embargoes were placed on Kurdish villages and towns. There were many instances of Kurds being forcibly expelled from their villages by Turkish security forces. Many villages were reportedly set on fire or destroyed. Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, political parties that represented Kurdish interests were banned. In 2013, a ceasefire effectively ended the violence until June 2015, when hostilities renewed between the PKK and the Turkish government over Turkish involvement in the Syrian Civil War. Violence was widely reported against ordinary Kurdish citizens and the headquarters and branches of the pro-Kurdish rights Peoples' Democratic Party were attacked by mobs.
History
Middle Ages
The Marwanid dynasty, which was of Kurdish origin, ruled a territory from Diyarbakir that included parts of Syria and Iraq from 984 to 1083. The Ayyubid dynasty, also of Kurdish origin (but identifying first and foremost as Muslims), ruled parts of Anatolia in the 12th and 13th centuries.
According to Ahmet Nezihî Turan the first Kurdish settlement in Central Anatolia was named Kürtler ("Kurds"), founded in Yaban Âbâd (present-day Kızılcahamam-Çamlıdere near Ankara) in 1463. According to Mark Sykes, the earliest population transfer (or exile) of Kurds to Central Anatolia was carried out during the reign of Selim I (1512–20).
Early modern period
The Mahmudi or "Pinyanişi" was an Ottoman-Kurdish tribe in the Lake Van region, who according to Evliya Çelebi had 60,000 warriors. Their chief, Sarı Süleyman Bey, strengthened the Hoşap Castle in the Lake Van region, in 1643.
19th century
After ca. 1800, the Cihanbeyli, Reşwan and Şêxbizin tribes migrated into central Anatolia from the east and southeast. The total Kurdish population in Turkey was estimated at 1.5 million in the 1880s, many of whom were nomadic or pastoral.
20th century
Before the foundation of Turkey, the Kurds were recognized as an own Nation of themselves. The Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal also recognized the Kurds as a nation at the time and stated that provinces in which the Kurds lived shall be granted autonomy. After the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, which ended the caliphates and sultanate in Turkey, there have been several Kurdish rebellions since the 1920s: Koçkiri Rebellion, Beyitüssebab rebellion, Sheikh Said Rebellion, Dersim Rebellion, Ararat rebellion. The policy towards the Kurds changed most prominently in 1924, as the new constitution denied the Kurds autonomy. The Kurdish people and their language were soon oppressed by the Turkish Government, as the Turkish Constitution of 1924 prohibited the use of Kurdish in public places, and a law was issued which enabled the expropriation of the Kurdish landowners and the delivery of the land to Turkish speaking people. Through the Turkish History Thesis, Kurds were classified as being of Turanian origin, having migrated from Central Asia 5000 years ago. Hence, a Kurdish nation was denied and Kurds were called Mountain Turks. From 1927 on, a General Inspector ruled over the First Inspectorate General through the implementation of emergency decrees and martial law. The areas around Hakkari, Mardin, Siirt, Urfa, Van, Elaziğ and Diyarbakır were under his rule until 1952, when the government of the Democratic Party brought a new approach towards the Kurds and closed the General Inspectorates.
Referring to the main policy document in this context, the 1934 law on resettlement, a policy targeting the region of Dersim as one of its first test cases, with disastrous consequences for the local population. The aim or the law was to spread the population with non-Turkish culture in to different areas than their origin, and to settle people who were willing to adhere to the Turkish culture in the formerly non-Turkish areas. The Fourth Inspectorate General was created in January 1936 in the Dersim region and the Kurdish language and culture were forbidden. The Dersim massacre is often confused with the Dersim Rebellion that took place during these events. In 1937–38, approximately 10,000-15,000 Alevis and Kurds were killed and thousands went into exile. A key component of the Turkification process was the policy of massive population resettlement.
After the 1960 coup, the State Planning Organization (, DPT) was established under the Prime Ministry to solve the problem of Kurdish separatism and underdevelopment. In 1961, the DPT prepared a report titled "The principles of the state's development plan for the east and southeast" (), shortened to "Eastern Report". It proposed to defuse separatism by encouraging ethnic mixing through migration (to and from the Southeast). This was not unlike the policies pursued by the Committee of Union and Progress under the Ottoman Empire. The Minister of Labor of the time, Bülent Ecevit of partial Kurdish ancestry, was critical of the report. From the establishment of the Inspectorate Generals until 1965, South East Turkey, was a forbidden area for foreigners.
During the 1970s, the separatist movement coalesced into the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. From 1984 to 1999, the Turkish military was embroiled in a conflict with the PKK. The village guard system was set up and armed by the Turkish state around 1984 to combat the PKK. The militia comprises local Kurds and it has around 58,000 members. Some of the village guards are fiercely loyal to the Turkish state, leading to infighting among Kurdish militants.
Due to the clashes between Turkish Army and the PKK the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, with Kurdish civilians moving to local defensible centers such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included the Turkish state's military operations against Kurdish population, some PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans they could not control and the poverty of the southeast. In the 1990s, hope for an end to the conflict emerged, as the PKK has declared several ceasefires and the political society has organized several campaigns to facilitate a reconciliation.
"Evacuations were unlawful and violent. Security forces would surround a village using helicopters, armored vehicles, troops, and village guards, and burn stored produce, agricultural equipment, crops, orchards, forests, and livestock. They set fire to houses, often giving the inhabitants no opportunity to retrieve their possessions. During the course of such operations, security forces frequently abused and humiliated villagers, stole their property and cash, and ill-treated or tortured them before herding them onto the roads and away from their former homes. The operations were marked by scores of "disappearances" and extrajudicial executions. By the mid-1990s, more than 3,000 villages had been virtually wiped from the map, and, according to official figures, 378,335 Kurdish villagers had been displaced and left homeless."
21st century
In 2009, under the lead of Interior Minister Beşir Atalay, a short-lived peace process was started, but was not supported by the Republican Peoples Party (CHP) and Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) over concerns over the ethnic and national unity of the state. It ended in December 2009, following an attack on Turkish soldiers by the Kurdistan Workers' Party on the 7 December and the ban of the Democratic Society Party (DTP) on the 11 December 2009. In 2010, after clashes between the PKK and the government forces in eastern and southeastern Turkey, several locations in Iraqi Kurdistan were attacked by the Turkish Air Force early in June 2010. The air attack was reported 4 days later in a news article released immediately after the attack. The tense condition has continued on the border since 2007, with both sides responding to each other's every offensive move.
Following Turkey's electoral board decision to bar prominent Kurdish candidates who had allegedly outstanding warrants or were part of ongoing investigations for PKK-links from standing in upcoming elections, violent Kurdish protests erupted on April 19, 2011, resulting in at least one casualty.
On the eve of the 2012 year (28 December), the prime minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that the government was conducting negotiations with jailed rebel leader Öcalan. On 21 March 2013, after months of negotiations with the Turkish Government, Abdullah Ocalan's letter to people was read both in Turkish and Kurdish during Nowruz celebrations in Diyarbakır. The letter called a cease-fire that included disarmament and withdrawal from Turkish soil and calling an end to armed struggle. The PKK announced that they would obey, stating that the year of 2013 is the year of solution either through war or through peace. On 25 April 2013, the PKK announced that it would be withdrawing all its forces within Turkey to northern Iraq.
On 6 and 7 October 2014, riots erupted in various cities in Turkey for protesting the Siege of Kobani. Protesters were met with tear gas and water cannons; 37 people were killed in protests. Following the July 2015 crisis (after ISIL's 2015 Suruç bombing attack on Kurdish activists), Turkey bombed alleged PKK bases in Iraq, following the PKK's unilateral decision to end the cease-fire (after many months of increasing tensions) and its suspected killing of two policeman in the town of Ceylanpınar (which the group denied carrying out). Violence soon spread throughout the country. Many Kurdish businesses were destroyed by mobs. The headquarters and branches of the pro-Kurdish rights Peoples' Democratic Party were also attacked. There are reports of civilians being killed in several Kurdish populated towns and villages. The Council of Europe raised their concerns over the attacks on civilians and the blockade of Cizre. In 2008 and also in the indictment in the Peoples' Democratic Party closure case the demand for education in Kurdish language or the teaching of the Kurdish language was equated of supporting terrorist activities by the PKK. By 2017, measures taken to curtail efforts to promote Kurdish culture within Turkey had included changing street names that honored Kurdish figures, removing statues of Kurdish heroes, and closing down television channels broadcasting in the Kurdish language. In July 2020, Turkey's Council of Higher Education banned students studying the Kurdish language and literature at Turkish universities from writing their dissertations in Kurdish.
Politics
Kurdish politicians are exercising politics in Turkey's mainstream political parties, as well as smaller parties. Mehmet Mehdi Eker (Agriculture), Mehmet Şimşek (Finance) and Bekir Bozdağ (Deputy Prime Minister) are examples of ministers with Kurdish background who worked as ministers in the 61st government of Turkey.
There are also political parties that supports minority politics, like the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), which holds 58 out of 600 seats in the Parliament, a multi-ethnic society and friendly Turkish-Kurdish relations. Critics have accused the party of mainly representing the interests of the Kurdish minority in south-eastern Turkey, where the party polls the highest. The Turkish Government under Recep Tayyip Erdogan blames the HDP of holding relations with the armed militia PKK and has dismissed and arrested dozens of elected Mayors since the 2016 and since the municipal elections in March 2019 dismissed another 45 Mayors from the 65 Mayorships the party won. Since 2016 also Selahattin Demirtaş and Figen Yüksekdağ (at the time HDP party leaders) and several other members of Parliament of the HDP are imprisoned as part of the 2016 purges in Turkey.
Political parties
Parties in Turkey with high emphasis on Kurdish nationalism or minority politics include Rights and Freedoms Party, Communist Party of Kurdistan, Islamic Party of Kurdistan, Peoples' Democratic Party, Kurdistan Democratic Party/North (illegal), Revolutionary Party of Kurdistan (illegal). Defunct parties include Democracy Party (DEP; 1993–94), Democratic People's Party (1997–2005), Democratic Society Party (DTP; 2005–09), Freedom and Democracy Party (ÖZDEP; 1992–93), Kurdistan Islamic Movement (1993–2004), Peace and Democracy Party (2008–14), People's Democracy Party (HADEP; 1994–2003), People's Labor Party (HEP; 1990–93), Workers Vanguard Party of Kurdistan (1975–92). Banned parties include HEP, ÖZDEP (1993), DEP (1994), HADEP (2003), and DTP (2009).
Public opinion
According to a 2020 poll conducted by Kadir Has University 17.3% of the surveyed people who identify as Kurdish answered the question "Which form of polity do Kurdish people want?" as "an independent Kurdish state". Around 25% of the non-Kurdish participants gave the same answer to the question. Roughly 33% of the Kurdish participants answered "more democratic Turkey", meanwhile those who responded "autonomy" composed 24.5% of the surveyed.
12.3% of those surveyed find the government policies concerning Kurdish issues "definitely successful", while those who said "definitely unsuccessful" were 11.7 percent. 31.5 percent of the respondents stated that the "main element connecting the Kurds and the Turks" was Islam, 24% stated that they shared a common history, and the rate of those who said "democratic society" was 4.5 percent. To the question "How do you evaluate the dismissal of some provincial and district mayorships and the appointment of trustees by proxy after the 31 March local elections?" 26.5 percent of the participants answered the question as positive and 38.2 percent as negative.
Kurdish rebellions
Koçkiri Rebellion (1920)
Sheikh Said rebellion (1925)
Ararat rebellion (1927–30)
Dersim Rebellion (1937–1938)
Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)
According to human rights organisations, since the beginning of the ongoing Kurdish–Turkish conflict in 1978, there have been over 4,000 Kurdish villages depopulated by Turkey and some 40,000 people have been killed. The conflict resumed in 2015. In December 2015, Turkish military operations against Kurdish rebels in Turkish Kurdistan have killed hundreds of civilians, displaced hundreds of thousands, and caused massive destruction in residential areas.
Culture
Music
Between 1982 and 1991, the performance or recording of songs in the Kurdish language on television and radio was banned in Turkey, affecting singers such as Şivan Perwer, Mahsun Kırmızıgül and İbrahim Tatlıses. However, a black market sprang up, and pirate radio stations and underground recordings became available.
Şivan Perwer is a composer, vocalist and tembûr player. He concentrates mainly on political and nationalistic music—of which he is considered the founder in Kurdish music—as well as classical and folk music.
Another important Kurdish musician from Turkey is Nizamettin Arıç (Feqiyê Teyra). He began with singing in Turkish, and made his directorial debut and also stars in Klamek ji bo Beko (A Song for Beko), one of the first films in Kurdish. Arıç rejected musical stardom at the cost of debasing his language and culture. As a result of singing in Kurdish, he was imprisoned, and then obliged to flee to Syria and eventually to Germany.
Literature
Some sources consider Ali Hariri (1425–1495) as the first well-known poet who wrote in Kurdish. He was from the Hakkari region. Other well known are Sharafkhan Bidlisi the author of Sharafname and Ahmad Khani who wrote the Kurdish national epic Mem û Zin. During decades, the letters X, Q, and W which are part of the Kurdish alphabet were prohibited to be used and only in 2013, the ban was lifted.
Film
In 2011, Kanal D, Turkey's largest television station, began filming Ayrılık Olmasaydı: ben-u sen in majority-Kurdish Diyarbakir. The show, written by a Kurdish screenwriter, professed to be the first in the popular genre to portray the Kurds in a positive light. The show was set to debut in early 2012, but suffered numerous delays, some say because of the controversial subject.
Demographics
The majority of Kurds live in Turkey. Estimations on the Kurdish population in Turkey varies considerably according to sources. A professor of political science, Michael Gunter wrote that Kurdish sources tend to exaggerate numbers, while the states that Kurds live in often undercount the Kurdish population.
Their numbers are estimated at 14,000,000 people by the CIA world factbook (18% of population). A report commissioned by the National Security Council (Turkey) in 2000 puts the number at 12,600,000 people, or 15.7% of the population. One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18-19 million people). Kurdish nationalists put the figure at 20,000,000 to 25,000,000. All of the above figures are for the number of people who identify as Kurds, not the number who speak a Kurdish language, but include both Kurds and Zazas. Estimates based on native languages place the Kurdish population at 6% to 23%; Ibrahim Sirkeci claims the closest figure should be above 17.8%, taking into account political context and the potential biases in responses recorded in surveys and censuses. The population growth rate of Kurds in the 1970s was given as 3.27%. According to two studies (2006 and 2008) study by KONDA, people who self-identify as Kurdish or Zaza and/or speaks Kurmanji or Zazaki as a mother tongue correspond to 13.4% of the population. Based on higher birth rates among Kurdish people, and using 2000 Census results, KONDA suggested that this figure rises to 15.7% when children are included, at the end of 2007.
Since the immigration to the big cities in the west of Turkey, interethnic marriage has become more common. A 2013 study estimates that there are 2,708,000 marriages between Turks and Kurds/Zaza.
Turkish government statistics show that Kurdish women in Turkey give birth to about four children, more than double the rate for the rest of the Turkish population. The Kurdish population is growing, while the rest of the country has birth rates below replacement level. In some Kurdish dominated provinces women give birth to 7.1 children on average. Women in Kurdish dominated provinces of eastern Turkey also have an illiteracy rate about three times higher than men, which correlates with higher birth rates. In 2000 66% of 15-year-old girls from Şırnak Province could not read or write.
Language
The majority of people who identify as Kurds speak Kurmanji, meanwhile a minority of them speak Turkish or Zazaki as their mother language. A study published in 2015 that demographically analysed the Kurdish inhabited regions of Turkey (excluding diaspora) concluded that c. 92% people belonging to Kurdish ethnic identity spoke Kurdish languages, 6.4% spoke Turkish, and 1.4% spoke Zaza as their mother language. Around 2% of the surveyed people who identified as Zaza, but not Kurd expressed that their mother tongue was Kurdish. 3.1% of the Turks and 4.6% of Arabs also stated that they spoke Kurdish. Concerning Alevi people, c. 70% spoke Zaza, 20% Kurdish and 10% Turkish.
Around 75% of the Kurds stated that they either had "very good" or "good" proficiency in their respective mother languages. 55% of those who had "very good" or "good" proficiency in their mother language stated that their children were also proficient. Around 75% of the Kurds and 2% of the Zazas (58.4% for Zazaki) declared that they spoke Kurdish at home. Turkish was spoken by 22.4% and 38.3% at home, respectively. Turkish (70%) was the dominant household language for Alevi population.
Religion
Most of the Kurdish people living in Turkey are Sunni Muslims, though Alevism comprises a sizable minority of about 30%. 24.4% of the Kurds and 9.8% of Zazas declared that they were belonging to Hanafi school, meanwhile the vast majority of them were of the Shafiʽi school, which contrasted the local Turkish and Arab population, both of whom were overwhelmingly Hanafi. 3.1% of the Kurds and 14.8% of Zazas were Alevi, compared to 5.4 percent of Turks and 1.1 percent of Arabs.
Kurds and Zazas in Eastern Turkey are found to be more religious compared to both general population of Turkey and the Turkish population in the same region. Religious observance rates such as fasting during Ramadan, praying 5 times a day or going to Jumu'ah regularly show similar patterns. On the other hand, people who are Alevis show the least amount of religiosity and lowest observance rates, both regionally and nationally. 96 to 97 percent of the surveyed Kurd and Zaza groups in Eastern Turkey had someone in their household who wears headscarf, which was higher compared to Turkish population of the region. Only around 11% of Alevis declared that there were someone with headscarf in their household. 4.3% of both Kurd and Zaza groups were members of a specific religious sect, which was roughly double the rate of regional Turkish and Alevi population.
Tribes
33.4% of the Kurds and 21.2% of the Zaza from Eastern Turkey declared that they had tribal affiliations (Kurdish: eşîr, Turkish: aşiret), compared to c. 3% of the Turks in the same region. Tribal affiliation was highest (73%) among the people who declared that they were Alevis. 18.5% of those who were a member of a tribe stated that their tribe was an important factor for their political decisions. Around 10% of the surveyed tribal members claimed it was economically important to be in a tribe.
Central Anatolia
The Kurds of Central Anatolia (Kurdish: Kurdên Anatolyayê/Anatolê, Turkish: Orta Anadolu Kürtleri or İç Anadolu Kürtleri are the Kurdish people who have immigrated and been in Central Anatolia (present day Aksaray, Ankara, Çankırı, Çorum, Eskişehir, Karaman, Kayseri, Kırıkkale, Kırşehir, Konya, Nevşehir, Niğde, Sivas, Yozgat provinces) since about 16th century. They number between 50,000 and 100,000 people. The core of the Kurds of Central Anatolia is formed by Tuz Gölü Kürtleri (Kurds of Lake Tuz) who live in the provinces Ankara, Konya and Aksaray. Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) mentioned them as "Konya çöllerindeki Kürtler" (Kurds in the Konya deserts) in the interview with Ahmet Emin (Yalman) dated January 16/17, 1923.
According to Hermann Wenzel, the original breeders of the Angora goat were the Kurds of Inner Anatolia.
The largest tribes of the Kurds of Central Anatolia are the Bazaini or Shaikh Bazaini, Judikan, Saifkan, Chelebi, Janbeki, Jehanbegli, Khallikan, Mutikan, Hajibani, Barakati, Badeli, Ukhchizhemi, Rashvan, Sherdi, Urukchi, Milan, Zirikan, Atmanikan, and Tirikan. Formerly, some of the Janbegli, Rashvan and Milan tribes were of Alevi origin and followed Alevism.
Two or the four primary dialects of Kurdish are used by the Central Anatolian Kurds. These are Kurmanji and Dimili/Zaza. Generally, their mother language is Kurmanji Kurdish who have difficulty understanding the dialect spoken in Haymana where the Şêxbizin tribe live. It is said that the new generation of Kurdish people in some settlements no longer speak Kurdish.
Human rights
Since the 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has condemned Turkey for thousands of human rights abuses. The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians, torturing, forced displacements, destroyed villages, arbitrary arrests, murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists. To cite a recent case, in 2018 and 2020, the ECHR ruled that the arrest and ongoing imprisonment of Selahattin Demirtaş was contrary to five articles in the European Convention on Human Rights and had the "ulterior purpose of stifling pluralism and limiting freedom of political debate" and ordered Turkey to pay him 25,000 Euros in compensation. Turkey refused to release him.
The European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) reports that (as of April 2010): "The public use by officials of the Kurdish language lays them open to prosecution, and public defence by individuals of Kurdish or minority interests also frequently leads to prosecutions under the Criminal Code." From the 1994 briefing at the International Human Rights Law Group: "the problem in Turkey is the Constitution is against the Kurds and the apartheid constitution is very similar to it."
In 1998 Leyla Zana received a jail sentence. This prompted one member of the U.S. House of Representative, Elizabeth Furse, to accuse Turkey of being a racist state and continuing to deny the Kurds a voice in the state". Abbas Manafy from New Mexico Highlands University claims "The Kurdish deprivation of their own culture, language, and tradition is incompatible with democratic norms. It reflects an apartheid system that victimizes minorities like Armenians, Kurds, and Alevis."
See also
Kurds of Khorasan
Minorities in Turkey
Armenians in Turkey
Human rights in Turkey
List of Kurdish people
Turkification
References
Further reading
Bîrnebûn
Veger
Kurdên Kirşehîrê (Kurdish / Turkish)
Asemblee Parlementaire, Documents De Seance: Session Ordinaire D'octobre 2006
External links
History of the Kurdish people
Kurdish people |
4314381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan%20Johanson | Bryan Johanson | Bryan Johanson (born 1951) is an American classical guitarist and composer.
Johanson was born in Portland, Oregon.
Johanson has performed, recorded and published works internationally. Johanson's works have won major awards from the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra, Aspen Music Festival and School, The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, UCLA and The Esztergom International Guitar Festival. Johanson studied composition with Charles Jones and Pulitzer Prize-winning composer William Bolcom. Johanson's compositions feature three symphonies, concertos for violin, cello and piano, numerous chamber works, song cycles and choral works, as well as compositions for solo instruments including the classical guitar.
Johanson directed the guitar studies program at Portland State University from 1977 to 2015. During that time, he managed a successful concert series and later the Portland International Guitar Festival and Competition, a festival that earned worldwide recognition and attracted some of the finest players.
Johanson studied with the likes of Christopher Parkening, Alirio Diaz, and Michael Lorimer. He has performed with orchestras, chamber music groups, choirs, and in solo recitals throughout the United States and Canada.
In 2010, Johanson became a member of the Oregon Guitar Quartet, a group for which he has created numerous original compositions and arrangements.
Johanson currently lives in Portland, Oregon with his wife and daughter.
Works
Published works
SONATA No. 4 for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2017
SONATINA-CAHIER for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2017
A NIGHT AT THE THIRSTY EAR for guitar quartet. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2017
PAINTED MUSIC for flute and guitar. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2017
A GROOVE OF GUITARS for guitar quartet and orchestra. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2017
LOS PEREGRINOS DEL CAMINO for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2016
PICCOLLA SUITE ITALIANA for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2016
ELEGY for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2016
SONATA No. 3 for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2016
SONATA No. 2 for guitar solo. Les Editions D’OZ, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2016
SONATA for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
THE AUTUMN WIND - traditional Japanese arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
JAVA BY STARLIGHT – traditional from Java arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
MORNING DEW – traditional from China arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
KALINKA – traditional from Russia arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
OLIVES, LEMONS AND LAMB – traditional from Greece arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
BERCEUSE – traditional from Catalonia arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
JAMMUS AFRIKANUS – traditional from Zimbabwe arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
BIALANDO EL GATO – traditional from Argentina arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
LA SANDUNGA – traditional from Mexico arranged for guitar quartet. Eidtions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2014
A DOG FROM EVERY TOWN for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
OPEN UP YOUR EARS for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
I DREAMED ABOUT YOU LAST NIGHT for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
BOPPIN’ for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
THE PHILOSOPHER AND THE FLY for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
MAGIC SERENADE for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
ON ALL FOUR for guitar quartet. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2013
24 PRELUDES for guitar solo. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2012
BRETHEN, WE HAVE MET arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Les Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011.
WHISTLING MOLLY arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011.
BLACK IS THE COLOR arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011.
HARD TIMES by Stephen Foster, arranged for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011
THE SAINT JAMES INFIRMARY arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011
RYE WHISKEY arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011.
SHENANDOAH arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec, City, Quebec, Canada. 2011
PICK A BALE OF COTTON arranged from traditional material for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2011.
LUX AETERNA for chorus and solo cello. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010.
AVE MARIA for chorus and piano. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010.
LIQUID MUSIC for chorus and harp. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010
THE MISTRESS AND THE BEE for chorus and piano. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010
O MAGNUMUM MYSTERIUM for chorus. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010
PSALLITE for chorus and piano. Earthsongs Choral Editions. Corvallis, Oregon. 2010
PLUCK, STRUM AND HAMMER for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
SINFONIA by George Wagenseil, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
DIVERTIMENTO IN Bb by Franz Joseph Haydn, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
CONCERTO GROSSO III, OP. 6 by George Frederic Handel, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
SINFONIA VENEZIANA by Antonio Salieri, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
L’ENCOURAGEMENT, OP. 34 by Fernando Sor, transcribed for guitar duo with guitar ensemble. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
SYMPHONY V by William Boyce, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
TWO SONATAS by Domenico Scarlatti, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
CLARINET CONCERTO by Johann Molter, transcribed for clarinet and guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
SINFONIA, K. 76 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
SONATA IV, Op. 1 by Antonio Vivaldi, transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
TANGO, Op. 165 by Isaac Albeniz transcribed for guitar quartet. Editions D’Oz, Inc. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. 2010
LA FOLIA FOLIO for guitar solo. Editions D’Oz, Inc., Quebec City, Quebec, Canada 2008
CIACCONA for guitar solo. Guitar Solo Publication (GSP) Inc., San Francisco, California. 2007
VARIATIONS ON A FINNISH FOLK SONG for guitar solo in “Mel Bay Presents - The Contemporary Guitar: An Anthology of New Music, edited by Stanley Yates”. Mel Bay Publications, Inc. Pacific Missouri. 2001.
O MAGNUM MYSTERIUM for chorus. Thomas House Publications. 1998. Winner of the 1997 Roger Wagner Center for Choral Studies Contemporary Choral Composition Competition.
AND THE DISH RAN AWAY WITH THE SPOON for solo guitar in "New Classical Guitar Music Volume 1: The Verdery Guitar Series". Frederick Harris Music * Publishers. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 1996.
BRING A TORCH, JEANNETTE ISABELLA arranged for cello and guitar from the traditional Christmas Carol. Earthsongs Music Publishers, Corvallis, Oregon. 1991.
TWO CATS FUGUE for guitar and harpsichord. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. 1991.
TOCCATA FESTIVA, Op. 46 for Guitar and Orchestra. Edizioni Musicali BERBEN, Ancona, Italia. 1990.
MORTUA DOLCE CANO for solo Guitar. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. 1990.
FRESCO I, Op. 33 for solo Guitar. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. 1990.
FRESCO II, Op. 33 for two Guitars. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA 1990.
TIENTO VI, Op. 25 for two Guitars. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. 1990.
SIMPLE SUITE, Op. 13 for solo Guitar. Columbia Music Company, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. 1990.
LABYRINTH, op. 30 for solo Guitar. Edizioni Musicali BERBEN, Ancona, Italia. 1985.
Commissioned works
THE BOOTLEGGER’S TALE for guitar solo. Commissioned by William Kanengiser with funding provided by the Augustine Foundation. 2018.
PAINTED MUSIC for flute and guitar. Commissioned by Jeff LaQuatre and Michelle Stanley with funding from Metropolitan State University, Colorado for their 2017-18 concert season.
FIVE WAYS IN, ONE WAY OUT for clarinet in A and guitar quartet. Commissioned by Chamber Music Northwest for their 2016 Summer Music Festival.
ESSERCIZI for piano solo. Commissioned by Portland Piano International, with the generous support of a Creative Heights Grant from the Fred W. Fields Fund of The Oregon Community Foundation. 2015
SONATA for guitar solo. Commissioned by Michael LeFevre with funds from an anonymous donor.
SONATE DE CHAMBRE for cello and piano. Commissioned by Cheryl Chevis.
CATCH AND RELEASE for clarinet, alto sax, trumpet, trombone, electric guitar and piano. Commissioned by Festival “Agosto 2", Italy.
FORE! for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Oregon Guitar Quartet with funds provide by ArtBeat.
FRESCO for organ and orchestra. Commissioned by the city of Bologna, Italy for their annual summer music festival “Agosto 2". 2008
AS EVENING BECOMES MORNING for guitar solo. Commissioned by guitarist Louis O’Neill. 2008
IF E WAS G for guitar solo. Commissioned by guitarist Louis O’Neill. 2008
QUICK AS A WINK for orchestra. Commissioned by the Orchestra Filarmonica di Torino, Italia 2007
DRINKING BREAKFAST FROM A JELLY JAR for guitar quartet. Commission by the Alexandria Guitar Quartet. 2007
SONATA DA CAMERA for clarinet and guitar. Commissioned by Roger Cole and James Reid. 2007
THE UNDERDOG for guitar and orchestra. Commissioned by Orchestra Seattle and the Seattle Classic Guitar Society. 2006
RECESSIONAL for trumpet and organ. Commissioned by Robert Sandstrom and Lisa Day. 2006. A GRIMM LITTLE SUITE for 11-String guitar. Commissioned by Terry Schumaker. 2006
THE MISTRESS AND THE BEE for choir and piano. Commissioned by the Southern Oregon Repertoire Singers. 2005
BOPPIN’ for guitar solo. Commissioned by Travis Johnson. 2005
CATWALK for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Los Angeles Guitar Quartet. 2005
LUX AETERNA for chorus and cello solo. Commissioned by The Portland Symphonic Choir with funding provide by the Argosy Foundation. 2005
NOTES ON A VAULTED SKY for string quartet. Commissioned by Third Angle New Music Ensemble. 2003
LET’S BE FRANK for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Los Angeles Guitar Quartet. 2003 PLUCK, STRUM AND HAMMER for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Los Angeles Guitar Quartet. 2003
NO YOICKING, GABBLING, QUOTHING for penta armonica and guitar quartet. Commissioned by the New York Guitar Quartet. 2003
LOS ABEJARUCOS for string quartet. Commissioned by Third Angle New Music Ensemble. 2003
FRESCOES for oboe and trumpet. Commissioned by Robert and Lauren Murray. 2003 CONCERTO GROSSO for three guitars and string orchestra. Commissioned by the Alexandria Guitar Trio. 2002
THE BANANA DANCE for two guitars and orchestra. Commissioned by Michael Kudirka and Eric Benzant-Feldra. 2002
THE RED MARE SUITE for clarinet, violin, cello, percussion and balalaika. Commissioned by Third Angle New Music Ensemble. 2002
THE RED MARE for clarinet, violin, cello, percussion, balalaika and guitar. Commissioned by Tears of Joy Puppet Theater Ensemble. 2002
13 WAYS OF LOOKING AT 12 STRINGS for two guitars. Commissioned by Michael Kudirka and Eric Benzant-Feldra. 2002
CIACCONA for lute or guitar. Commissioned by Martha Masters. 2002
ORPHEUS WITH HIS LUTE for voice, lute, baroque flute and viol. Commissioned by Jacob Herringman and Catherine King. 2002
SAKURA SAFARI for guitar trio. Commissioned by the Alexandria Guitar Trio. 2001
PARTITA for guitar solo. Commissioned by The Rosewood Guitar for Michael Partington. 2000
QUATRO SINKO for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Los Angeles Guitar Quartet. 2000 THINK FAST for guitar solo. Commissioned by David Starobin. 2000
DRAGON DANCE for guitar trio. Commissioned by the Virginia Guitar Trio. 2000
PSALLITE for chorus and piano. Commissioned by the Portland Symphonic Choir. 2000.
BAGATELLES for solo cello. Commissioned for cellist Hamilton Cheifetz by friends of Mary Winch. 1999
IN THE DEEP WOOD REFLECTED for viola and chamber ensemble. Commissioned by the Third Angle New Music Ensemble, Jeffrey Peyton, Artistic Director. Portland, Oregon. 1997
STILL LIFE WITH 10 STRINGS for violin and guitar. Commissioned by Kevin Gary. Denver, Colorado. 1996
TWANG for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Alexandria Guitar Quartet. Fairfax, Virginia. 1996
OPEN UP YOUR EARS for guitar. Commissioned by David Starobin. New York, New York. 1996
IN THE DEEP WOOD REFLECTED for viola and orchestra. Commissioned by Anna Schaum. Portland, Oregon. 1996
SONATA for solo cello. Commissioned by Cheryl Chevis for Hamilton Cheifetz. Portland, Oregon. 1996
AVE MARIA for chorus and piano. Commissioned by the Portland Symphonic Choir. Portland, Oregon. 1995
IN STILLNESS IN MOTION for violin, cello and piano. Commissioned by the Florestan Trio. Portland, Oregon. 1995
LOS ABEJARUCOS for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Alexandria Guitar Quartet. Fairfax, Virginia. 1995
PICCOLO SERENATA for viola and guitar. Commissioned by the Alma Duo, San Francisco, California. 1995
Composed and performed music for PROMOTORAS, one of the shows that was part of the National Public Radio series
LEGACIES: TALES FROM AMERICA. 1994
STRUM UND JAM for flute, clarinet, guitar, violin, and cello. Commissioned by the Third Angle New Music Ensemble, 1993
MUTED IN THUNDER for mezzo-soprano, flute, percussion, guitar and female chorus. Commissioned by the Third Angle New Music Ensemble, 1993
SIX ELECTRIC ETUDES for electric guitar solo. Commissioned by John Tamburello as required concert works for his electric guitar program at New York State University. 1993
AND THE DISH RAN AWAY WITH THE SPOON for guitar solo. Commissioned by James Reid, Professor of Music at the University of Idaho. 1993
AUTUMN BURNING for viola and guitar. Commissioned by the Alma Duo, San Francisco, California. 1992
SUITE OF IMAGINARY BEINGS for flute, violin, viola, cello, and piano. Commissioned by the Northwest Chamber Players. 1992
LIQUID MUSIC for mixed chorus and harp. Commissioned by Choral Cross-Ties. 1991
A WEAVE OF SUNLIGHT for guitar and string quartet. Commissioned by David Tanenbaum for California State University's Summer Arts Festival at Humboldt State University. 1991.
HUMORS for flute, cello, and guitar. Commissioned by the Bel Arts Trio, Los Angeles, California. 1990
SERENADE, for Viola and Piano. Commissioned by Oregon Symphony Violist, Stephen Price. 1990
TRIO for Flute, Viola & Guitar. Commissioned by members of The Greater Portland Area Flute Society in memory of John May. 1990
ROUNDELAY, for Men's Chorus. (Text by Samuel Beckett) Commissioned by the Portland Gay Men's Chorus. 1990
TOCCATA FESTIVA, Op. 46 for Guitar and Orchestra. Commissioned by the Second American Classical Guitar Congress. 1989
DUO, Op. 45 for Clarinet and Marimba. Commissioned by Jeffrey Peyton. 1989
PARTITA, Op. 42 for Chamber Orchestra. Commissioned by The West Coast Chamber Orchestra for the inaugural concert of the Portland Center for the Performing Arts. 1988
AMERICAN FOLKSONG SUITE, Op. 41, for Electric Guitar and Wind Ensemble. Commissioned by John Tamburello. 1988
OUTDOOR SERENADE for Electric guitar, electric piano, electric bass and two antiphonal percussionist. Commissioned by the Oregon Arts Commission and U.S. Bank.
SONATA, Op. 39 for guitar quartet. Commissioned by the Oregon Guitar Quartet. 1986
METAMORPHOSIS, Op. 36 for guitar solo. Commissioned by Scott Kritzer. 1986
FRESCO I, Op. 33 for guitar solo. Commissioned by the Guitar Foundation of America for their 1985 International Guitar Festival, held in Los Angeles, California at California State University, Northridge. The work was the required piece for the solo guitar competition. 1985
FRESCO II, Op. 33 for two guitars. Commissioned by the Guitar Foundation of America for their 1985 International Guitar Festival, held in Los Angeles, California at California State University, Northridge. The work was the required piece for the guitar duo competition. 1985
SONATINA, Op. 32 for flute, clarinet, and bassoon. Commissioned by Trio Viento. 1984
LABYRINTH, Op. 30 for guitar solo. Commissioned by David Tanenbaum. 1983
FRESCO for piano, percussion, electric guitar, and string orchestra. Commissioned by Oregon Ballet. 1981
DOUBLE CONCERTO, Op. 14 for viola, guitar, and orchestra. Commissioned by the Whalter/Tanenbaum Duo and the Berkeley Promenade Orchestra. 1981
IPHEGENIA IN AULIS, Op. 10 for viola and guitar. Commissioned by the Whalter/Tanenbaum Duo, Berkeley, California. 1979
SONATA DA CHIESA, Op. 5 for oboe, french horn, and contrabass. Commissioned by Richard Sarpola for his graduate recital from the New England Conservatory of Music. 1979
TRIO, Op. 3 for flute, cello, and guitar. Commissioned by the Summerhill Trio. 1978
External links
Profile - Portland State University
Home - Web page
Art of the States: Bryan Johanson Open Up Your Ears (1997) for guitar
www.oregonguitarquartet.com/about/bryan-johanson/
American classical guitarists
American male guitarists
American male composers
20th-century American composers
1951 births
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians |
4314874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiy%C5%8D-class%20aircraft%20carrier | Hiyō-class aircraft carrier | The two were built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War II. Both ships of the class, and , were originally laid down as luxury passenger liners before being acquired by the IJN for conversion to aircraft carriers in 1941. Jun'yō was the first of the sister ships to be completed in May 1942 and the ship participated in the invasion of the Aleutian Islands the following month. Both ships participated in several battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign in late 1942. Their aircraft were disembarked several times and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific.
Hiyō was torpedoed in June 1943 and Jun'yō in November; both ships spent about three months under repair. They spent most of the time after their repairs training and ferrying aircraft before returning to combat. Hiyō was sunk by a gasoline vapor explosion caused by an American aerial torpedo hit during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid-1944 while Jun'yō was damaged by several bombs. Lacking aircraft, she was used as a transport in late 1944 and was torpedoed in December. The ship was under repair until March 1945 when the repairs were deemed uneconomical. Jun'yō was then effectively hulked for the rest of the war. After the surrender of Japan in September, the Americans deemed the ship not worth her repair costs; she was broken up in 1946–1947.
Design and description
The ships were ordered as the fast luxury passenger liners Izumo Maru and Kashiwara Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company-NYK) in late 1938. In exchange for a 60% subsidy of their building costs by the Navy Ministry, they were designed to be converted to aircraft carriers. To facilitate this process, they were fitted with a double hull, additional fuel oil capacity, provisions for the fitting of additional transverse and longitudinal bulkheads, installation of a longitudinal bulkhead to separate the turbine rooms, a strengthened main deck, more height between decks, rearrangement of the superstructure and passenger accommodations to facilitate the installation of aircraft elevators and hangars, more space for additional wiring, installation of a bulbous bow and the addition of aviation gasoline storage tanks fore and aft of the machinery spaces. NYK was only interested in a maximum speed of to save fuel, but the Navy wanted a maximum speed of no less than so they compromised by limiting the performance of the turbines to 80% of maximum power during peacetime.
The ships had a length of about overall. They had a beam of and a draft of . They displaced at standard load. Their crew ranged from 1,187 to 1,224 officers and enlisted men.
Both ships were fitted with a pair of Mitsubishi-Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of , each driving a propeller. Steam was provided by six water-tube boilers; Jun'yō had Mitsubishi three-drum boilers that operated at a pressure of and temperature of while Hiyō had Kawasaki-LaMont boilers. Their machinery, designed for merchant service, was over four times heavier than that of the purpose-built aircraft carrier . The ships had a designed speed of 25.5 knots, but both exceeded that by small margins during their sea trials. They carried of fuel oil which gave them a range of or more at .
Flight deck arrangements
The flight deck was long and had a maximum width of . A large island was fitted on the starboard side that, for the first time in a Japanese carrier, was integrated with the ship's funnel. This was angled 26° outwards to help keep its exhaust from interfering with flight operations. The ships were designed with two superimposed hangars, each approximately long, wide and high. Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side. The hangars were served by two square elevators with rounded corners, on each side. The elevators had a maximum capacity of and took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck. The ships were fitted with electrically operated Kure type model 4 arresting gear with nine cables. They also mounted two Type 3 crash barricades. No aircraft catapult was fitted. The ships mounted a crane on the port side of the flight deck, just aft of the rear elevator. When collapsed, it was flush with the flight deck.
Their air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M "Claude" fighters, plus 4 in storage, 18 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers, with an additional 2 in reserve, and 18 Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers. This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, plus 3 in storage, for the A5Ms by the time the ships were commissioned in 1942. As a result of the lessons learned from the Battle of Midway in June, the ships' fighter complement was strengthened to 21 Zeros, and the B5Ns were reduced to 9. By the end of the year, 6 more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As, giving totals of 27 A6Ms, 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns. Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars, 8 or 9 were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce crowding below decks.
Armor, armament and sensors
As a conversion from an ocean liner, it was not possible to add much armor, although the ships had a double hull. Two plates of Ducol steel, each thick, protected the sides of the ships' machinery spaces. Their aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel. In addition, their machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding.
The primary armament consisted of a dozen 40-caliber 12.7 cm Type 89 anti-aircraft (AA) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull. They fired projectiles at a rate between 8 and 14 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of ; at 45°, this provided a maximum range of , and a maximum ceiling of . The ships were also initially equipped with eight triple 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns alongside the flight deck. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of , and an effective ceiling of at +85°. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines. In mid-1943, four more triple mounts were added and another four triple mounts in late 1943–early 1944. Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island. A dozen single mounts were also added, some of which were portable and could be mounted on tie-down points on the flight deck. After the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, Jun'yōs anti-aircraft armament was reinforced with three more triple mounts, two twin mounts and 18 single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun. These guns were supplemented by six 28-round AA rocket launchers. Each rocket weighed and had a maximum velocity of . Their maximum range was . In October 1944, Jun'yō had a total of 91 25 mm barrels; 57 in 19 triple mounts, four in two twin mounts, and 30 single mounts.
Two Type 94 high-angle fire-control directors, one on each side of the ship, were fitted to control the Type 89 guns. Each director mounted a rangefinder. When Jun'yō first commissioned only the rangefinders were fitted and the directors were added later. Four Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and another pair were added in early 1943. Early warning was provided by two Type 2, Mark 2, Model 1 air search radars. The first of these was mounted on the top of the island in mid- to late 1942 on each ship, and the other was added during 1943. This latter system was fitted on the port side of the hull, outboard of the rear elevator. A smaller Type 3, Mark 1, Model 3 air search radar was added in 1944 on Jun'yō.
Ships
Service history
The ships were purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry for the price of ¥48,346,000 and their armament and aircraft cost an additional ¥27,800,000. The cost to convert the two ships was budgeted at ¥38,073,000, for a grand total of ¥114,219,000. Kashiwara Maru and Izumo Maru were temporarily referred to as No. 1001 Ship (Dai 1001 bankan) and No. 1002 Ship respectively to keep their conversions secret. Jun'yō was initially classified as an auxiliary aircraft carrier (Tokusetsu kokubokan), but following the loss of four Japanese fleet carriers in the Battle of Midway, she was redesignated as a regular carrier (Kokubokan) in July; Hiyō, completed after the loss of the carriers, received that designation from the beginning.
Despite being launched several days after Hiyō, Jun'yō was the first of the pair to be commissioned in May 1942. She was assigned to the Fourth Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet, together with . The ship was tasked to support the invasion of the Aleutian Islands, an operation designed to coincide with the attack on Midway. Jun'yō carried 18 A6M2 Zeros and 18 D3As for this operation. The ship launched her first airstrike at dawn on 3 June against Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island. She accomplished little during this operation, losing five aircraft to all causes, and her own aircraft only shot down five American aircraft.
Upon arrival at Truk on 9 October, the two sisters were assigned to the Second Carrier Division to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet. On 15 October, the two carriers reached the vicinity of Malaita Island in the Solomon Islands and their aircraft discovered a resupply convoy for Guadalcanal that was escorted by the destroyer . Their aircraft attacked and sank the destroyer. The next day, they found the small seaplane tender, , in Lunga Roads offloading avgas into barges. Dive bombers from the sisters blew the ship's stern off, but failed to sink McFarland. The two carriers were intended to play a prominent role in the Japanese effort to retake Guadalcanal Island and were assigned to the Advance Force for this operation. Their aircraft were supposed to provide air cover after the Japanese night attack that retook Henderson Field and then they were to be flown ashore, but Hiyōs machinery problems caused her to return to Truk. Some of her aircraft were transferred to her sister before she departed.
In late October 1942, during the Guadalcanal Campaign, Jun'yō took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. At this time, her air group consisted of 18 Zeros, 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns. Her aircraft made hits on the carrier , the battleship and the light cruiser , but inflicted little substantial damage. A torpedo hit from one of her B5Ns, however, did force the Americans to abandon their effort to repair Hornet. During this time, Hiyōs remaining aircraft flew to Rabaul on 23 October where they provided air cover for Japanese forces on Guadalcanal. A detachment from the air group was transferred to Buin, Papua New Guinea on 1 November and participated in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal later in the month. Those aircraft that remained at Rabaul flew back to Truk by 11 November, but the Buin detachment was ferried back to Japan on 14 December.
In mid-November 1942, Jun'yō was tasked to provide air cover for the convoy bringing reinforcements for the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal during the three-day-long Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. The ship's fighters were unable to do so; seven transports were sunk and the remaining four transports were damaged. In December 1942 – January 1943, the carrier covered several convoys that brought reinforcements to Wewak, New Guinea and her air group was based there for several days to protect the forces there before returning to Truk on 20 January. The ship then covered the evacuation of forces from Guadalcanal through early February.
Hiyō had returned to Japan in December and Jun'yō followed in February. Both ships returned to Truk in late March and their air groups were detached from in early April to participate in Operation I-Go, a land-based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. The ships returned to Japan in late May and sailed for Truk on 7 June, but Hiyō was torpedoed that evening and forced to return to port for repairs. Her fighters were flown to Truk by 15 July and assigned to the light carrier . The ship was under repair at Yokosuka until 15 September. Jun'yōs air group was deployed to Buin, Papua New Guinea on 2 July in response to the American invasion of Rendova Island on 30 June. Leaving her aircraft behind, the carrier returned to Japan in late July.
Jun'yō ferried aircraft to Singapore in mid-August and troops and equipment to the Caroline Islands the following month. On 5 November 1943, she was hit by a torpedo, but the damage was light, other than the disabled rudder. The ship was under repair and refit until 29 February 1944 at Kure. The air groups of both carriers were reconstituted at Singapore on 1 November. The aircraft transferred to Truk on 1 December and then to Kavieng at the end of December before reaching Rabaul on 25 January 1944; the survivors were back at Truk on 20 February and the air group was disbanded.
Hiyō departed Japan for Singapore on 24 November. She arrived on 3 December and was almost immediately assigned duties as an aircraft ferry until January when the ship returned to Japan. In the meantime, the Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and Air Group 652 was assigned to the 2nd Carrier Division with Hiyō, Jun'yō and Ryūhō on 1 March. The air group was last in priority to be rebuilt and only had 30 Model 21 Zeros, 13 Model 52 Zeros and 4 D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorized 81 fighters, 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers. The ships conducted training for their aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi-Tawi in the Philippines. The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack. However, the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage.
Battle of the Philippine Sea
The Japanese fleet was en route to Guimaras Island in the central Philippines on 13 June, where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines, when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day. Upon reaching Guimaras, the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June. The Americans failed to locate Ozawa's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning. At this time, Air Group 652 consisted of 81 Zeros, 27 D3As, 9 Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers, roughly evenly divided among the three ships. The three carriers launched multiple air strikes against the American ships, but generally failed to locate them and did not inflict any damage while losing most of their aircraft.
At dusk, the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance. They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched. Hiyō was struck by two bombs, one of which detonated above the bridge and killed or wounded virtually everyone there. More seriously, the ship was struck by one torpedo dropped by a Grumman TBF Avenger from . This knocked out the starboard engine room and started fires, but Hiyō was able to continue, albeit at a slower speed. Two hours later, a large explosion occurred when leaking gasoline vapor ignited and it knocked out all power on the ship. The fires raged out of control and Hiyō sank stern first shortly afterwards at . Roughly 1,000 men were rescued by her escorting destroyers, but 247 officers and enlisted men died aboard the carrier.
Jun'yō was hit by two bombs near her island. The ship was not badly damaged, but the damage did stop flight operations. Air Group 652 claimed 2 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters and 9 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers shot down, but lost 11 aircraft, plus another 3 that had to ditch. By the end of the battle, the air group only consisted of 11 A6M5s, 5 A6M2s and 1 B6N and it was disbanded on 10 July. Most of its remaining personnel were assigned to Air Group 653.
After repairs at Kure, the ship remained in the Inland Sea without aircraft until 27 October when she was tasked to transport material to Borneo. On 3 November, she was attacked by the submarine , but her escorting destroyer, , deliberately sacrificed herself by intercepting the torpedoes and sank with no survivors. While returning from Manila, Jun'yō was attacked by the submarines , and early in the morning of 9 December 1944. She was hit by three torpedoes, but she was able to proceed on one engine. She reached Sasebo the following day and began repairs on 18 December.
The repairs were abandoned in March 1945 for lack of materials and the ship was moved from the dock to Ebisu Bay, Sasebo on 1 April. Efforts to camouflage the ship began on 23 April and she was reclassified as a guard ship on 20 June. Jun'yōs armament was ordered removed on 5 August and the ship was surrendered to the Allies on 2 September. An American technical team evaluated the ship's condition on 8 October and deemed her a constructive total loss. Jun'yō was stricken from the Navy List on 30 November and scrapped between 1 June 1946 and 1 August 1947 by the Sasebo Ship Company.
Notes
References
Aircraft carrier classes |
4315113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russet%20sparrow | Russet sparrow | The russet sparrow (Passer cinnamomeus), also called the cinnamon or cinnamon tree sparrow, is a passerine bird of the sparrow family Passeridae. A chunky little seed-eating bird with a thick bill, it has a body length of . Its plumage is mainly warm rufous above and grey below. It exhibits sexual dimorphism, with the plumage of both sexes patterned similarly to that of the corresponding sex of house sparrow. Its vocalisations are sweet and musical chirps, which when strung together form a song.
Three subspecies are recognised, differing chiefly in the yellowness of their underparts. The subspecies rutilans and intensior breed in parts of eastern Asia, where they are usually found in light woodland, and the subspecies cinnamomeus breeds in the Himalayas, where it is usually associated with terrace cultivation. The russet sparrow is the typical sparrow of human habitations in towns where the house and Eurasian tree sparrows are absent. In the southern part of its range, the russet sparrow prefers higher altitudes, but in the north it breeds by the sea. The russet sparrow is known well enough in the Himalayas to have a distinct name in some languages, and is depicted in Japanese art.
This sparrow feeds mainly on the seeds of herbs and grains, but it also eats berries and insects, particularly during the breeding season. This diet makes it a minor pest in agricultural areas, but also a predator of insect pests. While breeding, it is not social, as its nests are dispersed. It forms flocks when not breeding, although it associates with other bird species infrequently. In some parts of its range, the russet sparrow migrates, at least to lower altitudes. Its nest is located in a tree cavity, or a hole in a cliff or building. The male chooses the nest site before finding a mate and uses the nest for courtship display. The typical clutch contains five or six whitish eggs. Both sexes incubate and feed the young.
Taxonomy
The English ornithologist John Gould described a specimen of the russet sparrow collected in the Himalayas at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London in December 1835 under the binomial name Pyrgita cinnamomea. His description was included in the volume of the society's proceedings for 1835 that was published on 8 April 1836. Its specific name comes from the Neo-Latin cinnamomeus, "cinnamon-coloured". The russet sparrow was described as Fringilla rutilans, by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob Temminck, from a specimen collected in Japan. Temminck's description is contained in his Nouveau recueil de planches coloriées d'oiseaux which was issued in 102 livraisons or parts between 1820 and 1839. It was at one time believed that the livraison containing the description of the russet sparrow was issued in 1835 but it has now been established that it appeared sometime in 1836 but as the precise date is not known under the rules of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature it is deemed to have been published on 31 December 1836. Most taxonomists give priority to Gould's publication and use the binomial name Passer cinnamomeus for the russet sparrow.
The russet sparrow has usually been placed in the genus Passer, and within this genus it is seen as a part of the "Palearctic black-bibbed sparrow" group, which includes the Eurasian tree sparrow as well as the house sparrow. It has generally been seen as a close relation of the house sparrow, and Richard Meinertzhagen even considered it to be the same species as the Somali sparrow, one of the house sparrow's closest relatives.
However, studies of mitochondrial DNA indicate that the russet sparrow is an early offshoot or basal species among the Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows. While mitochrondrial DNA suggests speciation in Passer occurred during the Miocene and Pliocene, British ornithologist J. Denis Summers-Smith estimated that the russet sparrow separated from the other Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows about 25,000 to 15,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. During this time, sparrows would have been isolated in ice-free refugia, such as the lower Yangtze valley, which Summers-Smith considered the most likely centre of evolution for the russet sparrow.
Thirteen subspecies have been described, but only three are widely recognised, these differing largely in the colour of their underparts. The subspecies Passer cinnamomea rutilans breeds in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and southeastern and central China. The subspecies intensior, described in 1922 by Walter Rothschild from Yunnan, breeds in southwest China and parts of India, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam. In a large part of Sichuan intensior intergrades with P. c. rutilans, and a number of subspecies names have been proposed for the intergrades. The nominate subspecies cinnamomeus, described by Gould from the northwestern Himalayas, breeds from northern Arunachal Pradesh to Nuristan in Afghanistan.
Description
The russet sparrow is a small chunky bird, with plumage warm rufous in overall colour. It is a medium-sized sparrow at and . It has a thick bill suited to eating seeds, which is black on the breeding male, horn-coloured on the non-breeding male, and yellowish with a dark tip on the female. Wingspans for males range between and those for females from . Tail, bill, and tarsus lengths are , , and , respectively.
Measurements for the russet sparrow vary geographically, between the three subspecies, and also within the Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus. The subspecies cinnamomeus is generally larger than the others, and within this form there is a tendency for birds at higher altitudes to be larger, and a clinal variation in size with the smallest birds in the west of the range and the largest in the east.
The iris is chestnut in colour. The legs of both sexes are pale brown to pinkish-brown. The flight of all sparrows is swift, and that of the russet sparrow is described as swifter and more direct than that of the Eurasian tree sparrow.
Plumage
The sexes differ, or are dimorphic, in their plumage, and have a similar pattern to that in the corresponding sex of house sparrow. There is some variation between the three subspecies, especially in the colouration of the underparts. Birds of the subspecies rutilans are off-white on their cheeks and the sides of their necks, and have pale grey underparts. Birds of the subspecies intensior have a pale yellow wash on their underparts and cheeks, as well as darker upperparts, while those of the subspecies cinnamomeus have a heavy yellow tinge to their underparts.
Moult is poorly recorded, the only records coming from Sakhalin and Himachal Pradesh. In Sakhalin, moult occurs in August and September, between the breeding season and migration. In Himachal Pradesh, aviculturalist G. A. Perreau observed captive and wild birds and reported that they were yellow from December to spring and whitish during the remainder of the year, a pattern which may be atypical.
The breeding male is bright russet or cinnamon red on its upperparts from its crown to its rump, with a black streaking on its mantle. It has a small black bib and black around its eye, separated from the russet of its crown by a very thin white supercilium, a stripe running from the bill to the rear of the head. The side of its neck and cheek are off-white, and its underparts are pale grey or washed with yellow, varying geographically. Shoulders and greater coverts are chestnut, and its median coverts are black at the base with white at the tips. The rest of the wing is light brown with black tinges. Its tail is blackish brown, edged with ashy brown. The non-breeding male differs little from the breeding male, being paler with more orange upperparts. The only species with which the male is easily confused is the Eurasian tree sparrow, which differs in its black cheek spot and brown back.
The female has mostly pale brown upperparts, and pale grey underparts, so it resembles the female house sparrow. It differs from the house sparrow in its slightly darker, russet-tinged plumage. It has a conspicuous cream supercilium from above its eye nearly around its head, and a bold dark brown stripe through its eye. It has mostly greyish brown wings and a back streaked with black and buff. The juvenile is similar to the female, though more pale and sandy. As the male reaches its first winter, it resembles the adult, differing in less bold chestnut and a dusky bib.
Voice
The russet sparrow's vocalisations are described by most sources as "the sweetest and most musical" of any sparrow. Its basic call is a or , similar to that of other sparrows. This call is monosyllabic, unlike the house sparrow's chirrup call, and is softer than that of the other sparrows. This call is given as a flight call, or by displaying males. Recorded variations include a given by males at the nest and a trilled . Sometimes the male strings calls together and sings them in a strident tone, to create a sort of short song, transcribed as or . The song is interspersed with sibilant notes similar to those of the white wagtail. A thin vocalisation not unlike that of an Indian robin has been reported, but the context of this call is unrecorded. During territorial disputes, males give a rapid call.
Distribution and habitat
The russet sparrow is found in parts of eastern Asia and in the Himalayas. It is not known whether its distribution is continuous between these two areas, since the political sensitivity of the Brahmaputra River's valley near the China-India border makes the area less accessible to ornithologists. In the Himalayas the russet sparrow breeds from the far northeast of India through southeastern Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, Uttarakhand, and Himachal Pradesh to Kashmir and Nuristan in Afghanistan. Here, the russet sparrow makes short movements to lower altitudes between November and April in many areas.
In eastern Asia, the russet sparrow is found in Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands, a small part of mainland Russia, Japan, southern Korea, and part of northern China, where it is mostly migratory. It is distributed through southern China and Taiwan, and the mountainous parts of Burma, southern Northeast India, Laos, and Vietnam, where it is mostly resident. The russet sparrow also occurs as a winter visitor in southern Japan, the further south of China, and northern Thailand. In eastern Asia, the autumn migration occurs between August and November.
The russet sparrow appears to be abundant in most habitats across most of its very large range, and in the some areas it is among the most common birds. In Southeast Asia, its range has contracted at lower elevations due to global warming, but it has also moved higher at high elevations and it remains common. Although its global population has not been quantified, it is assessed for the IUCN Red List as least concern for global extinction.
Breeding takes place in mountains and uplands across most of the range. This preference for high altitudes is influenced by latitude: in the farthest south of its range it never breeds below above mean sea level, but in the northernmost part of its range it often breeds by the sea. In eastern Asia, the russet sparrow prefers light woodland, but it is sometimes found in towns and agricultural areas. In Sakhalin, it breeds mostly in riparian forest. In Hokkaidō, the russet sparrow finds a greater food supply for its young in more remote forests, and has greater reproductive success.
In the Himalayas, it is strongly associated with terrace cultivation, and it probably only spread to the Himalayas when these agricultural practices arrived 3000 to 4000 years ago. In towns where it occurs alongside the house or tree sparrow, it is found in gardens and less built up areas. In those hill stations in India where both the house and the russet sparrow occur, the house sparrow breeds around more-built up areas and bazaars, whereas the russet sparrow is "rather more up market at the larger houses with gardens and open spaces". In towns where it is the only sparrow, it is not dependent on trees, breeding around houses and eating scraps in streets. In the winter, migratory birds occur in open cultivated land and riverine grasslands, but are never far from shrubs or trees.
Behaviour
In many aspects of its behaviour, the russet sparrow is similar to the house and Eurasian tree sparrows. Like them, it feeds on the ground, but spends most of its time perching on branches. Unlike those species, it prefers open, exposed branches for perching. The russet sparrow is described as shy and wary by some observers, but J. Denis Summers-Smith found it approachable in Indian hill stations. Flocking russet sparrows feed close to the ground, moving forward as birds from the rear of a flock move to the front, in what is called "roller feeding".
Outside its breeding season, the russet sparrow is gregarious and forms flocks to find food, though it infrequently associates with other birds. Wintering flocks tend to keep away from human habitation. The russet sparrow is also social at night during the winter, and it forms large communal roosts in trees and bushes. In the breeding season, the female roosts in the nests and the male nests in foliage nearby.
The adult russet sparrow is mostly a seed-eater, eating the seeds of herbs and weeds as well as rice, barley, and other grains. Berries, such as those of the kingore (certain Berberis spp.), are also eaten when available. Nestlings are fed mostly on insects, especially caterpillars and larval beetles obtained on trees and flying insects caught by aerial pursuit. During the breeding season adults also consume insects.
Mortality rates in the russet sparrow have not been studied, but it is known that many young birds die from Isospora infections, to which the bird has little resistance. Other recorded parasites of the russet sparrow include Protocalliphora blowflies, and Menacanthus chewing lice.
Breeding
The russet sparrow's breeding season is short, lasting about three months. The Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus has been recorded breeding from April to August, the nominate subspecies breeds from May to July, and the subspecies intensior is believed to breed in March. During its breeding season, the russet sparrow is not gregarious, and its nests are dispersed uniformly rather than clustered. Its nests are most frequently built in tree cavities, often disused woodpecker nests. The russet sparrow has been recorded breeding alongside the Eurasian tree sparrow and white wagtail in black kite nests, taking advantage of the territorial defence of the kites to avoid nest predation. Other nest locations include the eaves of thatched roofs, stone walls and embankments, and electric junction boxes. In Bhutan, it nests in holes in the outer walls of monasteries, often alongside the Eurasian tree sparrow. In Sakhalin, it will sometimes build free-standing nests in bushes. The russet sparrow also uses the disused nests of the red-rumped swallow, and a pair of russet sparrows has been recorded attempting to oust a pair of black-crested tits from their nest.
The male chooses the nest site, and uses it for his courtship display, spending much time calling nearby. When a female comes near a male at his nest the male begins to display by raising his head, drooping his wings, pushing his chest forward, and lowering his tail. He then bows up and down in front of the female, who will lunge and then fly away if unreceptive. Both sexes take part in building the nest, which consists of a loose, untidy bunch of dry grass which fills the nesting cavity, lined with fur and feathers for warmth.
Eggs are elongated ovals, with a fine texture and a slight gloss. They are whitish in overall colour with a grey tinge and brown spots, streaks, or blotches. The average size of the egg is 19.2×14.2 millimetres (0.75×0.55 in). Eggs are similar to those of the Eurasian tree sparrow, differing in a duller colour and more narrow shape, though they cannot be separated from those of the other sparrows with certainty. Two clutches of four or sometimes five or six eggs are laid in a year. In Hokkaidō, clutches are laid between early May and early July, with two peaks in laying around mid May and late June. Both sexes incubate and feed the young, with the male often being more active in feeding the nestlings. In Hokkaidō, nestlings hatch weighing about , and fledge fourteen or fifteen days after hatching, weighing . The common cuckoo has been recorded in old literature as a brood parasite of the russet sparrow.
Relationships with humans
In parts of the range, the russet sparrow inhabits towns, and in most of its range, it occurs near cultivation, and is a minor pest of agriculture. Though it damages crops, it also feeds its nestlings largely on insect pests. In China, the russet sparrow has been recorded as a captive bird, kept with the Eurasian tree sparrow. In Japan it was eaten in the 1870s and sold in the Yokohama game market. The russet sparrow is known well enough in the Himalayas that in most languages it has a different vernacular name from the Eurasian tree sparrow. Examples of these vernacular names include lal gouriya in Hindi and kang-che-go-ma in Tibetan. The Japanese artist Hokusai portrayed the russet sparrow, and due to this, it has appeared on postage stamps featuring Japanese art in Japan, The Gambia, and Guyana.
References
Works cited
External links
Russet sparrow at the Internet Bird Collection
Recording of the russet sparrow's calls
russet sparrow
Birds of the Himalayas
Birds of Eastern Himalaya
Birds of East Asia
russet sparrow
russet sparrow |
4315249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Complete%20Reprise%20Studio%20Recordings | The Complete Reprise Studio Recordings | The Complete Reprise Studio Recordings is a 1995 box set album by the American singer Frank Sinatra. The release coincided with Sinatra's 80th birthday celebration.
The original 1995 packaging had the 20 discs encased in a small, leather-bound trunk. When it was re-released in 1998, it was repackaged in a more-standard (and cheaper) cardboard format.
Features
As the title implies, the set claims to contain every song ever recorded in the studio during Sinatra's career with Reprise Records, but misses the 49-second "I'm Getting Sentimental Over You (Reprise)" included as the closing track from the 1961 album I Remember Tommy and also leaves off a remake of "Body and Soul" and "Leave It All To Me" (a song written by Paul Anka), in addition to several alternate versions of songs included in the set. The set is the largest ever released for Sinatra to-date, containing 452 tracks on twenty compact discs. The albums represented are:
Ring-a-Ding-Ding!
Swing Along With Me
I Remember Tommy
Sinatra and Strings
Sinatra and Swingin' Brass
Sinatra Sings Great Songs from Great Britain
All Alone
Sinatra-Basie: An Historic Musical First (with Count Basie)
The Concert Sinatra
Sinatra's Sinatra
Finian's Rainbow
Guys and Dolls (with Bing Crosby and Dean Martin)
Kiss Me, Kate (with Sammy Davis Jr., Dean Martin and Keely Smith)
South Pacific (with Rosemary Clooney and Keely Smith)
Sinatra Sings Days of Wine and Roses, Moon River, and Other Academy Award Winners
America, I Hear You Singing
Robin and the 7 Hoods (with Bing Crosby, Sammy Davis Jr. and Dean Martin)
It Might as Well Be Swing (with Count Basie)
12 Songs of Christmas (Frank Sinatra, Bing Crosby and Fred Waring album)
Softly, as I Leave You
Sinatra '65: The Singer Today
September of My Years
My Kind of Broadway
A Man and His Music
Moonlight Sinatra
Strangers in the Night
That's Life
Francis Albert Sinatra & Antonio Carlos Jobim (with Antonio Carlos Jobim)
The World We Knew
Movin' with Nancy
Francis A. & Edward K. (with Duke Ellington)
The Sinatra Family Wish You a Merry Christmas
Cycles
My Way
A Man Alone
Watertown
Sinatra & Company
Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back
Some Nice Things I've Missed
I Sing the Songs
Portrait of Sinatra – Forty Songs from the Life of a Man
Trilogy: Past Present Future
She Shot Me Down
L.A. Is My Lady
The set also contained tracks that were never released prior, as well as songs new to compact disc, including those originally recorded for the album America, I Hear You Singing.
They are generally presented in order of when they were recorded, although there are exceptions to that rule, including the concept albums September of My Years and the "Future" section of the triple album Trilogy: Past Present Future. Also, the song cycle Watertown (a story told with its songs) is presented out of order.
Track listing
Disc one
"Ring-A-Ding-Ding" (Jimmy Van Heusen, Sammy Cahn) - 2:44
"Let's Fall in Love" (Harold Arlen, Ted Koehler) - 2:11
"In the Still of the Night" (Cole Porter) - 3:25
"A Foggy Day" (George Gershwin, Ira Gershwin) - 2:17
Recorded on December 19, 1960
"Let's Face the Music and Dance" (Irving Berlin) - 2:58
"You'd Be So Easy to Love" (Porter) - 2:24
"A Fine Romance" (Jerome Kern, Dorothy Fields) - 2:11
"The Coffee Song (They've Got An Awful Lot of Coffee in Brazil)" (Bob Hilliard, Dick Miles) - 2:51
"Be Careful, It's My Heart" (Berlin) - 2:04
Recorded on December 20, 1960
"I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm" (Berlin) - 2:52
"Zing! Went the Strings of My Heart" (James F. Hanley) - 2:48
"You and the Night and the Music" (Arthur Schwartz, Howard Dietz) - 2:36
"When I Take My Sugar to Tea" (Irving Kahal, Sammy Fain, Pierre Norman) - 2:05
"The Last Dance" (Van Heusen, Cahn) - 2:46
"The Second Time Around" (Van Heusen, Cahn) - 3:03
"Tina" (Van Heusen, Cahn) - 2:56
Recorded on December 21, 1960
"In the Blue of Evening" (Tom Montgomery, Tom Adair, Al D'Artega) – 4:03
Recorded on March 21, 1961
"I'll Be Seeing You" (Fain, Kahal) – 2:49
"I'm Getting Sentimental Over You" (George Bassman, Ned Washington) – 3:42
"Imagination" (Johnny Burke, Van Heusen) – 3:05
"Take Me" (Rube Bloom, David) – 2:19
Recorded on May 1, 1961
"Without a Song" (Vincent Youmans, Billy Rose, Edward Eliscu) – 3:39
"Polka Dots and Moonbeams" (Burke, Van Heusen) – 3:43
"Daybreak" (Ferde Grofe, Harold Adamson) – 2:43
Recorded on May 2, 1961
"The One I Love (Belongs to Somebody Else)" [with Sy Oliver] (Isham Jones, Gus Kahn) - 2:49
Recorded on May 3, 1961
Disc two
"There Are Such Things" (George W. Meyer, Stanley Adams, Abel Baer) – 3:13
"It's Always You" (Burke, Van Heusen) - 2:48
"It Started All Over Again" (Bill Carey, Carl T. Fischer) - 2:31
"East of the Sun (And West of the Moon)" (Brooks Bowman) - 3:26
Recorded on May 3, 1961
"The Curse of an Aching Heart" (Henry Fink, Al Piantadosi) – 2:06
"Love Walked In" (G. Gershwin, I. Gershwin) – 2:19
"Please Don't Talk About Me When I'm Gone" (Sidney Clare, Sam H. Stept) – 2:56
"Have You Met Miss Jones?" (Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart) – 2:30
Recorded on May 18, 1961
"Don't Be That Way" (Benny Goodman, Mitchell Parish, Edgar Sampson) – 2:41
"I Never Knew" (Ted Fio Rito, Kahn) – 2:14
"Falling in Love with Love" (Rodgers, Hart) – 1:49
"It's a Wonderful World" (Adamson, Jan Savitt, Johnny Watson) – 2:17
Recorded on May 19, 1961
"Don't Cry, Joe (Let Her Go, Let Her Go, Let Her Go)" (Joe Marsala) – 3:05
"You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You" (James Cavanaugh, Russ Morgan, Larry Stock) – 4:09
"Moonlight on the Ganges" (Sherman Myers, Chester Wallace) – 3:18
"Granada" (Dorothy Dodd, Agustín Lara) – 3:38
Recorded on May 23, 1961
"As You Desire Me" (Allie Wurbel) - 2:52
"Stardust" (Hoagy Carmichael, Parish) – 2:48
"Yesterdays" (Otto Harbach, Kern) – 3:45
"I Hadn't Anyone Till You" (Ray Noble) – 3:44
Recorded on November 20, 1961
"It Might as Well Be Spring" (Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II) – 3:15
"Prisoner of Love" (Russ Columbo, Leo Robin, Clarence Gaskill) – 3:50
"That's All" (Bob Haymes, Alan Brandt) – 3:21
"Don't Take Your Love From Me" (Henry Nemo) - 4:05
Recorded on November 21, 1961
Disc three
"Misty" (Erroll Garner, Burke) – 2:41
Recorded on November 21, 1961
"Come Rain or Come Shine" (Arlen, Johnny Mercer) – 4:06
"Night and Day" (Porter) – 3:37
"All or Nothing at All" (Jack Lawrence, Arthur Altman) – 3:43
"Pocketful of Miracles" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:39
"Name It and It's Yours" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 3:14
Recorded on November 22, 1961
"The Song is Ended (but the Melody Lingers On)" (Berlin) – 3:25
"All Alone" (Berlin) – 2:42
"Charmaine" (Ernö Rapeé, Lew Pollack) – 3:17
"When I Lost You" (Berlin) – 3:43
Recorded on January 15, 1962
"Remember" (Berlin) – 3:23
"Together" (B.G. DeSylva, Lew Brown, Ray Henderson, Stephen Ballantine) – 3:21
"The Girl Next Door" (Hugh Martin, Ralph Blane) – 3:18
"Indiscreet" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 3:52
Recorded on January 16, 1962
"What'll I Do?" (Berlin) – 3:15
"Oh, How I Miss You Tonight" (Benny Davis, Joe Burke, Mark Fisher) – 3:21
"Are You Lonesome Tonight?" (Roy Turk, Lou Handman) – 3:31
"Come Waltz with Me" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:53
Recorded on January 17, 1962
"Everybody's Twistin'" (Bloom, Koehler) – 2:31
"Nothing But the Best" (Johny Rotella) - 3:02
Recorded on February 27, 1962
"The Boys' Night Out" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:48
Recorded on March 2, 1962
Disc four
"I'm Beginning to See the Light" (Johnny Hodges, Harry James, Duke Ellington, Don George) – 2:34
"I Get a Kick Out of You" (Porter) – 3:14
"Ain't She Sweet" (Milton Ager, Jack Yellen) – 2:07
"I Love You" (Porter) – 2:16
"They Can't Take That Away from Me" (G. Gershwin, I. Gershwin) – 2:41
"Love Is Just around the Corner" (Lewis E. Gensler, Robin) – 2:27
Recorded on April 10, 1962
"At Long Last Love" (Porter) – 2:14
"Serenade In Blue" (Harry Warren, Mack Gordon) – 2:58
"Goody Goody" (Mercer, Matty Malneck) – 1:47
"Don'cha Go 'Way Mad" (Jimmy Mundy, Al Stillman, Illinois Jacquet) – 3:12
"Tangerine" (Victor Schertzinger, Mercer) – 2:03
"Pick Yourself Up" (Kern, Fields) – 2:33
Recorded on April 11, 1962
"If I Had You" (Jimmy Campbell, Reginald Connelly, Ted Shapiro) – 4:07
"The Very Thought of You" (Noble) – 3:34
"I'll Follow My Secret Heart" (Noël Coward) – 3:16
"A Garden in the Rain" (James Dyrenforth, Carroll Gibbons) – 3:24
Recorded on June 12, 1962
"London by Night" (Carroll Coates) – 3:20
"The Gypsy" (Billy Reid) – 3:21
"Roses of Picardy" (Frederic E. Weatherly, Haydn Wood) – 3:01
"A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square" (Eric Maschwitz, Manning Sherwin) – 3:54
Recorded on June 13, 1962
"We'll Meet Again" (Hughie Charles, Ross Parker) – 3:44
"Now Is the Hour" (Maewa Kaihan, Clemnet Scott, Dorothy Stewart) – 2:51
"We'll Gather Lilacs in the Spring" (Ivor Novello) – 3:15
Recorded on June 14, 1962
"The Look of Love" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 2:44
"I Left My Heart in San Francisco" (George Cory, Douglass Cross) - 2:54
Recorded on August 27, 1962
Disc five
"Nice Work If You Can Get It" (G. Gershwin, I. Gershwin) – 2:37
"Please Be Kind" (Saul Chaplin, Cahn) – 2:43
"I Won't Dance" (Kern, Jimmy McHugh, Hammerstein, Fields, Harbach) – 4:07
"Learnin' the Blues" (Dolores Vicki Silvers) – 4:25
Recorded on October 2, 1962
"I'm Gonna Sit Right Down (And Write Myself a Letter)" (Fred Ahlert, Joe Young) – 2:36
"I Only Have Eyes for You" (Warren, Al Dubin) – 3:31
"My Kind of Girl" (Leslie Bricusse) – 4:37
"Pennies from Heaven" (Arthur Johnston, Burke) – 3:29
"(Love Is) The Tender Trap" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:37
"Looking at the World Through Rose Colored Glasses" (Jimmy Steiger, Tommy Malie) – 2:32
Recorded on October 3, 1962
"Me and My Shadow" [with Sammy Davis Jr.] (Dave Dreyer, Al Jolson, Rose) - 3:06
Recorded on October 22, 1962
"Come Blow Your Horn" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 3:08
"Call Me Irresponsible" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 2:56
Recorded on January 21, 1963
"Lost in the Stars" (Maxwell Anderson, Kurt Weill) – 4:11
"My Heart Stood Still" (Rodgers, Hart) – 3:06
"Ol' Man River" (Hammerstein, Kern) – 4:29
Recorded on February 18, 1963
"This Nearly Was Mine" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) – 2:49
"You'll Never Walk Alone" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) – 3:11
"I Have Dreamed" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) – 3:01
Recorded on February 19, 1963
"Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered" (Rodgers, Hart) – 3:02
"California" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 3:36
"America the Beautiful" (Katharine Lee Bates, Samuel A. Ward) - 2:21
Recorded on February 20, 1963
Disc six
"Soliloquy" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) – 8:05
"You Brought a New Kind of Love to Me" (Fain, Kahal, Norman) - 2:38
Recorded on February 21, 1963
"In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning" (David Mann, Bob Hilliard) – 2:43
"Nancy (With the Laughing Face)" (Phil Silvers, Van Heusen) – 3:37
"Young at Heart" (Leigh, Johnny Richards) – 2:54
"The Second Time Around" – 3:03
"All the Way" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 3:27
Recorded on April 29, 1963
"Witchcraft" (Cy Coleman, Leigh) – 2:37
"(How Little It Matters) How Little We Know" (Leigh, Phil Springer) – 2:19
"Put Your Dreams Away (For Another Day)" (Paul Mann, Weiss, Ruth Lowe) – 3:12
"I've Got You Under My Skin" (Porter) – 3:26
"Oh! What It Seemed to Be" (Bennie Benjamin, George David Weiss, Frankie Carle) – 2:45
Recorded on April 30, 1963
"We Open in Venice" [with Dean Martin and Sammy Davis Jr.] (Porter) - 2:13
Recorded on July 10, 1963
"Old Devil Moon" (Yip Harburg, Burton Lane) - 2:59
"When I'm Not Near the Girl I Love" (Harburg, Lane) - 3:25
"Guys and Dolls" [with Dean Martin] (Frank Loesser) - 2:50
"I've Never Been in Love Before" (Loesser) - 2:57
Recorded on July 18, 1963
"So in Love" (Reprise) [with Keely Smith] (Porter) - 2:53
"Twin Soliloquies (Wonder How It Feels)" [with Keely Smith] (Rodgers, Hammerstein) - 1:38
Recorded on July 24, 1963
"Some Enchanted Evening" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) - 3:29
"Some Enchanted Evening" (Reprise) [with Rosemary Clooney] - 3:21
Recorded on July 25, 1963
Disc seven
"Luck Be a Lady" (Loesser) - 5:18
Recorded on July 25, 1963
"Fugue for Tinhorns" [with Bing Crosby and Dean Martin] (Loesser) - 1:31
"The Oldest Established (Permanent Floating Crap Game in New York)" [with Bing Crosby and Dean Martin] (Loesser) - 2:33
Recorded on July 29, 1963
"Here's to the Losers" (Jack Segal, Robert Wells) - 3:04
"Love Isn't Just for the Young" (Bernie Knee) - 2:57
Recorded on July 31, 1963
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" (Hugh Martin, Ralph Blane) - 3:54
Recorded on October 13, 1963
"Talk to Me Baby" (Robert E. Dolan, Mercer) - 2:58
"Stay With Me (Main Theme from The Cardinal)" (Leigh, Jerome Moross) - 3:04
Recorded on December 3, 1963
"Early American" (Burke, Van Heusen) - 3:34
"The House I Live In (That's America To Me)" (Lewis Allan, Earl Robinson) – 3:39
"You're a Lucky Fellow, Mr. Smith" (Francis Burke, Hughie Prince, Don Raye) - 3:46
Recorded on January 2, 1964
"The Way You Look Tonight" (Kern, Fields)- 3:22
"Three Coins in the Fountain" (Cahn, Jule Styne) - 3:46
"Swinging on a Star" (Burke, Van Heusen) - 2:53
"The Continental" (Herb Magidson, Con Conrad) - 3:14
"In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening" (Mercer, Carmichael) - 1:51
Recorded on January 27, 1964
"It Might as Well Be Spring" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) - 3:26
"Secret Love" (Paul Francis Webster, Fain) - 3:54
"Moon River" (Henry Mancini, Mercer) - 3:20
"Days of Wine and Roses" (Mancini, Mercer) - 2:16
"Love Is A Many-Splendored Thing" (Webster, Fain) - 3:22
Recorded on January 28, 1964
"Let Us Break Bread Together" [with Bing Crosby] (Roy Ringwald) - 3:39
"You Never Had It So Good" [with Bing Crosby] (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 3:01
Recorded on February 4, 1964
Disc eight
"I Can't Believe I'm Losing You" (Don Costa, Phil Zeller) – 2:43
"My Kind of Town" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 3:09
"I Like to Lead When I Dance" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 4:07
Recorded on April 8, 1964
"Style" [with Bing Crosby and Dean Martin] (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 4:28
"Mister Booze" [with Bing Crosby, Dean Martin and Sammy Davis, Jr.] (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 5:01
"Don't Be a Do-Badder (Finale)" [with Bing Crosby, Dean Martin and Sammy Davis, Jr.] (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 1:16
Recorded on April 10, 1964
"The Best is Yet to Come" (Coleman, Leigh) – 3:10
"I Wanna Be Around" (Mercer, Sadie Vimmerstedt) – 2:25
"I Believe in You" (Loesser) – 2:21
"Fly Me to the Moon (In Other Words)" (Bart Howard) – 2:30
Recorded on June 9, 1964
"Hello, Dolly!" (Jerry Herman) – 2:45
"The Good Life" (Sacha Distel, Jack Reardon) – 3:10
"I Wish You Love" (Léo Chauliac, Charles Trenet, Albert Beach) – 2:56
Recorded on June 10, 1964
"I Can't Stop Loving You" (Don Gibson) – 3:00
"More (Theme From Mondo Cane)" (Riz Ortolani, Nino Oliviero, Marcello Ciorciolini, Norman Newell) – 3:05
"Wives and Lovers" (Burt Bacharach, Hal David) – 2:50
Recorded on June 12, 1964
"An Old-Fashioned Christmas" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 3:45
"I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day" (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Johnny Marks) - 2:36
"The Little Drummer Boy" (Katherine K. Davis) - 3:03
Recorded on June 16, 1964
"Go Tell It on the Mountain" [with Bing Crosby] (Traditional, John Wesley Work III) - 3:23
"We Wish You the Merriest" [with Bing Crosby] (Les Brown) - 2:14
Recorded on June 19, 1964
"Softly, as I Leave You" (Hal Shaper, Antonio DeVito, Giorgio Calabrese) – 2:50
"Then Suddenly Love" (Ray Alfred, Paul Vance) – 2:15
"Since Marie Has Left Paree" (Hy Glaser, Jerry Solomon) - 1:57
"Available" (Cahn, Ned Wynn, L.B. Marks) – 2:47
Recorded on July 17, 1964
Disc nine
"Pass Me By" (Coleman, Leigh) – 2:25
"Emily" (Johnny Mandel, Mercer) – 2:58
"Dear Heart" (Jay Livingston, Ray Evans, Mancini) – 2:43
Recorded on October 3, 1964
"Somewhere in Your Heart" (Russell Faith, Clarence Keltner) - 2:29
"Any Time at All" (Baker Knight) - 2:22
Recorded on November 10, 1964
"Don't Wait Too Long" (Sunny Skylar) – 3:04
"September Song" (Weill, Anderson) – 3:30
"Last Night When We Were Young" (Arlen, Harburg) – 3:33
"Hello, Young Lovers" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) – 3:41
Recorded on April 13, 1965
"I See It Now" (Alec Wilder, William Engvick) – 2:50
"When the Wind Was Green" (Henry Stinson) – 3:22
"Once Upon a Time" (Charles Strouse, Lee Adams) – 3:30
Recorded on April 14, 1965
"How Old Am I?" (Gordon Jenkins) – 3:30
"It Was a Very Good Year" (Ervin Drake) – 4:25
"The Man in the Looking Glass" (Howard) – 3:25
"This Is All I Ask" (Jenkins) – 3:03
"It Gets Lonely Early" (Van Heusen, Cahn) – 2:57
Recorded on April 22, 1965
"The September of My Years" (Van Heusen, Cahn) – 3:12
Recorded on May 27, 1965
"Tell Her (You Love Her Each Day)" (Gil Ward, Charles Watkins) 2:42
"When Somebody Loves You" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 1:54
Recorded on April 14, 1965
"Forget Domani" (Newell, Ortolani) - 2:36
Recorded on May 6, 1965
"Ev'rybody Has the Right to Be Wrong! (At Least Once)" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 2:07
"I'll Only Miss Her When I Think of Her" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 2:52
"Golden Moment" (Kenny Jacobson, Rhoda Roberts) - 2:57
Recorded on August 23, 1965
Disc ten
"Come Fly with Me" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 3:11
"I'll Never Smile Again" (Ruth Lowe) - 2:14
Recorded on October 11, 1965
"Moment to Moment" (Mancini, Mercer) - 2:57
"Love and Marriage" (Cahn, Van Heusen) - 2:12
Recorded on October 21, 1965
"Moon Song" (Sam Coslow, Johnston) – 3:03
"Moon Love" (M. David, André Kostelanetz) – 4:14
"The Moon Got In My Eyes" (Burke, Johnston) – 2:52
"Moonlight Serenade" (Glenn Miller, Parish) – 3:26
"Reaching for the Moon" (Berlin) – 3:05
Recorded on November 29, 1965
"I Wished on the Moon" (Dorothy Parker, Ralph Rainger) – 2:53
"Moonlight Becomes You" (Burke, Van Heusen) – 2:46
"Moonlight Mood" (Adamson, Peter DeRose) – 3:08
"Oh, You Crazy Moon" (Burke, Van Heusen) – 3:12
"The Moon Was Yellow (And The Night Is Young)" (Ahlert, Edgar Leslie) – 3:04
Recorded on November 30, 1965
"Strangers in the Night" (Bert Kaempfert, Charles Singleton, Eddie Snyder) – 2:25
Recorded on April 11, 1966
"My Baby Just Cares for Me" (Walter Donaldson, Gus Kahn) – 2:30
"Yes Sir, That's My Baby" (Donaldson, Kahn) – 2:08
"You're Driving Me Crazy!" (Donaldson) – 2:15
"The Most Beautiful Girl in the World" (Rodgers, Hart) – 2:24
Recorded on May 11, 1966
"Summer Wind" (Heinz Meier, Hans Bradtke, Mercer) – 2:53
"All or Nothing at All" – 3:57
"Call Me" (Tony Hatch) – 3:07
"On a Clear Day (You Can See Forever)" (Alan Jay Lerner, Frederick Loewe) – 3:17
"Downtown" (Hatch) – 2:14
Recorded on May 16, 1966
Disc eleven
"That's Life" (Kelly Gordon, Dean Thompson) – 3:10
Recorded on October 18, 1966
"Give Her Love" (Jim Harbert) - 2:14
"What Now My Love" (Gilbert Bécaud, Pierre Leroyer, Carl Sigman) – 2:32
"Somewhere My Love (Lara's Theme)" (From Doctor Zhivago) (Maurice Jarre, Webster) – 2:19
"Winchester Cathedral" (Geoff Stephens) – 2:38
Recorded on November 17, 1966
"I Will Wait for You" (Jacques Demy, Norman Gimbel, Michel Legrand) – 2:19
"You're Gonna Hear from Me" (André Previn, Dory Previn) – 2:51
"Sand and Sea" (Gilbert Bécaud, M. David, Maurice Vidalin) – 2:29
"The Impossible Dream (The Quest)" (Joe Darion, Mitch Leigh) – 2:34
Recorded on November 18, 1966
"Baubles, Bangles and Beads" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (Robert Wright, George Forrest, Alexander Borodin) – 2:32
"I Concentrate on You" (Porter) – 2:32
"Dindi" (Ray Gilbert, Antonio Carlos Jobim, Aloysio de Oliveria) – 3:25
"Change Partners" (Berlin) – 2:40
Recorded on January 30, 1967
"Quiet Nights of Quiet Stars (Corcovado)" (Jobim, Gene Lees) – 2:45
"If You Never Come to Me" (Jobim, Gilbert, de Oliveira) – 2:10
"The Girl from Ipanema" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (Jobim, Gimbel, de Moraes) – 3:00
"Meditation (Meditação)" (Jobim, Gimbel, Newton Mendonça) – 2:51
Recorded on January 31, 1967
"Once I Loved (O Amor em Paz)" (Jobim, Gilbert, de Moraes) – 2:37
"How Insensitive (Insensatez)" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (Jobim, Gimbel, de Moraes) – 3:15
"Drinking Again" (Mercer, Doris Tauber) – 3:13
"Somethin' Stupid" [with Nancy Sinatra] (Carson Parks) – 2:45
Recorded on February 1, 1967
"You Are There" (Harry Sukman, Webster) – 3:31
"The World We Knew (Over and Over)" (Kaempfert, Herb Rehbein, Sigman) – 2:50
Recorded on June 29, 1967
"Born Free" (Don Black, John Barry) – 2:05
"This Is My Love" (James Harbert) – 3:37
Recorded on July 24, 1967
Disc twelve
"This Is My Song" (Charles Chaplin) – 2:30
"Don't Sleep in the Subway" (Hatch, Jackie Trent) – 2:22
"Some Enchanted Evening" – 2:34
"This Town" (Lee Hazlewood) – 3:05
Recorded on July 24, 1967
"Younger Than Springtime" (Rodgers, Hammerstein) - 2:42
Recorded on September 10, 1967
"All I Need Is the Girl" (Stephen Sondheim, Styne) – 5:01
"Yellow Days" (Alarcon Carrillo, Alan Bernstein) – 5:00
"Indian Summer" (Victor Herbert, Dubin) – 4:14
"Come Back to Me" (Lane, Lerner) – 3:22
Recorded on December 11, 1967
"Poor Butterfly" (Raymond Hubbell, John Golden) – 4:29
"Sunny" (Bobby Hebb) – 4:15
"I Like the Sunrise" (Ellington) – 5:02
"Follow Me" (Lerner, Loewe) – 3:56
Recorded on December 12, 1967
"My Way of Life" (Kaempfert, Rehbein, Sigman) – 3:05
"Cycles" (Judith Caldwell) – 3:07
"Whatever Happened to Christmas?" (Jimmy Webb) – 3:05
Recorded on July 24, 1968
"The Twelve Days of Christmas" [with Nancy Sinatra, Frank Sinatra, Jr., and Tina Sinatra] (Traditional, Cahn, Van Heusen) – 4:26
"The Bells of Christmas (Greensleeves)" [with Nancy Sinatra, Frank Sinatra, Jr., and Tina Sinatra] (Traditional, Cahn, Van Heusen) – 3:41
"I Wouldn't Trade Christmas" [with Nancy Sinatra, Frank Sinatra, Jr., and Tina Sinatra] (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:55
"The Christmas Waltz" (Cahn, Styne) – 3:12
Recorded on August 12, 1968
Disc thirteen
"Blue Lace" (Bill Jacob, Patty Jacob, Ortolani) – 2:43
"Star!" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 2:34
Recorded on November 11, 1968
"Gentle On My Mind" (John Hartford) – 3:25
"By the Time I Get to Phoenix" (Webb) – 3:55
Recorded on November 12, 1968
"Little Green Apples" (Bobby Russell) – 5:00
"Moody River" (Gary D. Bruce) – 2:33
"Pretty Colors" (Al Gorgoni, Chip Taylor) – 2:35
Recorded on November 13, 1968
"Rain in My Heart" (Teddy Randazzo, Victoria Pike) – 3:20
"Wandering" (Caldwell) – 2:45
"Both Sides Now" (Joni Mitchell) – 2:55
Recorded on November 14, 1968
"My Way" (Paul Anka, Claude François, Jacques Revaux, Gilles Thibault) – 4:35
Recorded on December 30, 1968
"One Note Samba (Samba de Uma Nota Só)" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (Jobim, Mendonça) – 2:20
"Don't Ever Go Away (Por Causa de Voce)" (Gilbert, Delores Duran, Jobim) – 2:28
"Wave" (Jobim) – 3:25
Recorded on February 11, 1969
"Bonita" (Gilbert, Jobim, Lees) - 3:39
"Someone to Light Up My Life" (de Moraes, Jobim, Lees) – 2:37
Desafinado" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (Lees, Jobim, Mendonça) – 3:00
"Drinking Water (Agua de Beber)" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (de Moraes, Jobim, Gimbel) – 2:35
Recorded on February 12, 1969
"Song of the Sabiá" (Jobim, Chico Buarque, Gimbel) - 3:38
"This Happy Madness (Estrada Branca)" [with Antonio Carlos Jobim] (de Moraes, Jobim, Lees) – 2:57
"Triste" (Jobim) – 2:40
Recorded on February 13, 1969
Disc fourteen
"All My Tomorrows" (Cahn, Van Heusen) – 4:35
"Didn't We?" (Webb) – 2:55
Recorded on February 18, 1969
"Manhã De Carnaval (A Day in the Life of a Fool)" (Luiz Bonfá, Sigman) – 3:00
"Yesterday" (Lennon–McCartney) – 3:30
"If You Go Away" (Jacques Brel, Rod McKuen) – 3:30
Recorded on February 20, 1969
"Watch What Happens" (Gimbel, Legrand) – 2:17
"For Once in My Life" (Ron Miller, Orlando Murden) – 2:50
"Mrs. Robinson" (Paul Simon) – 2:55
"Hallelujah, I Love Her So" (Ray Charles) – 2:47
Recorded on February 24, 1969
"I've Been to Town" (McKuen) – 3:13
"Empty Is" (McKuen) – 2:46
"The Single Man" (McKuen) – 3:01
"Lonesome Cities" (McKuen) – 3:18
Recorded on March 19, 1969
"The Beautiful Strangers" (McKuen) – 2:41
"A Man Alone" (McKuen) – 3:47
"Love's Been Good to Me" (McKuen) – 3:27
Recorded on March 20, 1969
"Out Beyond the Window" (McKuen) – 2:45
"Night" (McKuen) – 2:25
"Some Traveling Music" (McKuen) – 2:36
"From Promise to Promise" (McKuen) – 1:31
Recorded on March 21, 1969
"A Man Alone (Reprise)" – 1:30
Recorded on March 20, 1969
"In the Shadow of the Moon" (Earl Brown, Heinz Keissling) - 2:55
Recorded on March 25, 1969
"Forget to Remember" (Pike, Randazzo) - 2:58
"Goin' Out of My Head" (Randazzo, Bobby Weinstein) - 2:45
Recorded on August 18, 1969
Disc fifteen
"I Would Be in Love (Anyway)" (Bob Gaudio, Jake Holmes) – 2:31
"The Train" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:26
"She Says" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 1:51
"Lady Day" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 2:47
Recorded on August 25, 1969
"Watertown" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:36
"What's Now Is Now" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 4:04
Recorded on August 26, 1969
"Goodbye (She Quietly Says)" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:06
"What a Funny Girl (You Used to Be)" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:00
Recorded on August 27, 1969
"Elizabeth" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:38
"Michael and Peter" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 5:10
"For a While" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:09
Recorded on October 31, 1969
"Lady Day" (Gaudio, Holmes) – 3:41
Recorded on November 7, 1969
"I Will Drink the Wine" (Paul Ryan) – 3:30
"Bein' Green" (Joe Raposo) – 3:00
"My Sweet Lady" (John Denver) – 3:01
Recorded on October 26, 1970
"Sunrise in the Morning" (Ryan) – 2:50
Recorded on October 27, 1970
"I'm Not Afraid" (Jacques Brel, Gérard Jouannest, McKuen) - 3:39
"Something" (George Harrison) - 3:32
Recorded on October 28, 1970
"Leaving on a Jet Plane" (Denver) – 2:25
"(They Long to Be) Close to You" (Bacharach, H. David) – 2:34
Recorded on October 29, 1970
"Feelin' Kinda Sunday" [with Nancy Sinatra] (Nino Tempo, Annette Tucker, Kathy Wakefield) - 2:52
"Life's a Trippy Thing" [with Nancy Sinatra] (Howard Greenfield, Linda Laurie) - 2:42
"The Game Is Over" (Denver) - 2:37
Recorded on November 2, 1970
Disc sixteen
"Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" (Sonny Bono) - 3:37
"You Will Be My Music" (Raposo) – 3:52
"Noah" (Raposo) – 4:22
Recorded on June 4, 1973
"Nobody Wins" (Kris Kristofferson) – 5:10
"The Hurt Doesn't Go Away" (Raposo) – 2:51
Recorded on June 5, 1973
"Winners" (Raposo) – 2:53
"Let Me Try Again" ("Laisse Moi le Temps") (Anka, Cahn, Michel Jourdon) – 3:31
Recorded on June 21, 1973
"Walk Away" (Elmer Bernstein, Leigh) - 2:57
"Send in the Clowns" (Sondheim) – 4:10
"There Used to Be a Ballpark" (Raposo) – 3:34
Recorded on June 22, 1973
"You're So Right (For What's Wrong In My Life)" (Pike, Randazzo, Roger Joyce) – 4:03
"Dream Away" (John Williams, Paul Williams) – 4:22
Recorded on August 10, 1973
"Bad, Bad Leroy Brown" (Jim Croce) – 2:49
"I'm Gonna Make It All the Way" (Floyd Huddleston) – 2:54
Recorded on December 10, 1973
"Empty Tables" (Mercer, Van Heusen) - 3:03
"If" (David Gates) – 3:10
"The Summer Knows" (Alan and Marilyn Bergman, Legrand) – 2:44
Recorded on May 7, 1974
"Sweet Caroline" (Neil Diamond) – 2:44
"You Turned My World Around" (Kaempfert, Rehbein, Kim Carnes, Dave Ellingson) – 2:50
Recorded on May 8, 1974
"What Are You Doing the Rest of Your Life?" (A. Bergman, M. Bergman, Legrand) – 4:05
"Tie a Yellow Ribbon 'Round the Ole Oak Tree" (Russell Brown, Irwin Levine) – 3:07
"Satisfy Me One More Time" (Huddleston) – 2:22
Recorded on May 21, 1974
Disc seventeen
"You Are the Sunshine of My Life" (Stevie Wonder) – 2:37
Recorded on May 24, 1974
"Just as Though You Were Here" (John Benson Brooks, Eddie DeLange) - 4:23
"Everything Happens to Me" (Adair, Matt Dennis) - 3:43
Recorded on September 24, 1974
"Anytime (I'll Be There)" (Anka) - 3:21
"The Only Couple on the Floor"(Irving Daine, Johnny Durrill) - 3:11
"I Believe I'm Gonna Love You" (Harry Lloyd, Gloria Sklerov) - 2:48
Recorded on March 5, 1975
"The Saddest Thing of All" (M. Legrand, Pierre Leroyer, Edward Ruault, Sigman) - 3:29
Recorded on August 18, 1975
"A Baby Just Like You" (Denver, Joe Henry) - 2:47
"Christmas Memories" (A. Bergman, M. Bergman, Costa) - 2:09
Recorded on October 24, 1975
"I Sing the Songs (I Write the Songs)" (Bruce Johnston) - 3:51
"Empty Tables" - 2:48
"Send in the Clowns" - 3:39
Recorded on February 5, 1976
"The Best I Ever Had" (Danny Hice, Ruby Hice) - 1:57
"Stargazer" (Diamond) - 2:58
Recorded on June 21, 1976
"Dry Your Eyes" (Diamond, Robbie Robertson) - 3:02
"Like a Sad Song" (Denver) - 4:12
Recorded on September 27, 1976
"I Love My Wife" (Coleman, Michael Stewart) - 3:10
Recorded on November 12, 1976
"Night and Day" - 2:11
"All or Nothing at All" - 2:36
"Everybody Ought to Be in Love" (Anka) - 3:19
Recorded on February 16, 1977
"Nancy (With the Laughing Face)" - 2:29
"Emily" - 2:59
Recorded on March 9, 1977
"Linda" (Lawrence) - 2:44
"Sweet Lorraine" (Carter Burwell, Parish) - 2:22
Recorded on March 14, 1977
Disc eighteen
"Barbara" (David, Van Heusen) - 3:14
Recorded on March 14, 1977
"I Had the Craziest Dream" (Gordon, Warren) – 3:13
Recorded on July 17, 1979
"It Had to Be You" (Jones, Kahn) – 3:53
Recorded on July 18, 1979
"You and Me (We Wanted It All)" (Carole Bayer Sager, Peter Allen) – 4:07
"MacArthur Park" (Webb) – 2:45
"Summer Me, Winter Me" (M. Bergman, A. Bergman, Legrand) – 4:02
Recorded on August 20, 1979
"That's What God Looks Like to Me" (Lois Irwin, Lan O'Kun) – 2:55
"For the Good Times" [with Eileen Farrell] (Kristofferson) – 4:41
"Love Me Tender" (Vera Matson, Elvis Presley) – 3:34
Recorded on August 21, 1979
"Just the Way You Are" (Billy Joel) – 3:26
"Song Sung Blue" (Diamond) – 2:47
"Isn't She Lovely?" (Wonder) - 2:04
Recorded on August 22, 1979
"My Shining Hour" (Arlen, Mercer) – 3:21
"All of You" (Porter) – 1:42
"More Than You Know" (Rose, Eliscu, Youmans) – 3:22
Recorded on September 17, 1979
"The Song Is You" (Kern, Hammerstein) – 2:39
"But Not for Me" (G. Gershwin, I. Gershwin) – 3:50
"Street of Dreams" (Sam M. Lewis, Victor Young) – 3:32
"They All Laughed" (G. Gershwin, I. Gershwin) – 2:49
Recorded on September 18, 1979
"Let's Face the Music and Dance" – 2:50
"Theme from New York, New York" (Fred Ebb, John Kander) – 3:26
Recorded on September 19, 1979
"Something" – 4:42
Recorded on December 3, 1979
Disc nineteen
"What Time Does the Next Miracle Leave?" (Jenkins) – 10:44
"World War None!" (Jenkins) – 4:27
Recorded on December 18, 1979
"The Future" (Jenkins) – 4:05
"The Future (Continued): I've Been There" (Jenkins) – 3:33
"The Future (Conclusion): Song Without Words" (Jenkins) – 6:00
Recorded on December 17, 1979
"Finale: Before the Music Ends" (Jenkins) – 9:46
Recorded on December 18, 1979
"Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" - 3:24
"Everything Happens to Me" - 4:11
Medley: "The Gal That Got Away"/"It Never Entered My Mind" (Arlen, I. Gershwin)/(Hart, Rodgers) - 5:05
Recorded on April 8, 1981
"Thanks for the Memory" (Robin, Rainger) - 4:25
"I Loved Her" (Jenkins) - 4:04
"A Long Night" (Wilder, Loonis McGlohon) - 3:44
Recorded on July 20, 1981
"South - To a Warmer Place" (Wilder, McGlohon) - 3:45
"Say Hello!" (Richard Behrke, Cahn) - 2:25
Recorded on July 21, 1981
"Good Thing Going (Going Gone)" (Sondheim) - 3:53
Recorded on August 19, 1981
Disc twenty
"Monday Morning Quarterback" (Costa, Pamela Phillips-Oland) - 4:38
"Hey Look, No Cryin'" (Styne, Susan Birkenhead) - 4:27
Recorded on September 10, 1981
"To Love a Child" [with Nikki Costa] (H. David, Raposo) - 3:21
Recorded on December 5, 1981
"Love Makes Us Whatever We Want to Be" (Cahn, Styne) - 2:39
"Searching" (Cahn, Styne) - 3:47
Recorded on August 17, 1982
"Here's to the Band" (Sharman Howe, Alfred Nittoli, Artie Schroeck) - 4:11
"All The Way Home" (Randazzo) - 3:54
Recorded on January 25, 1983
"It's Sunday" (Birkenhead, Styne) - 3:36
Recorded on February 28, 1983
"L.A. Is My Lady" (A. Bergman, M. Bergman, Quincy Jones, Peggy Lipton) – 3:12
"Until the Real Thing Comes Along" (Mann Holiner, Alberta Nichols, Cahn, S. Chaplin, L.E. Freeman) – 3:03
"After You've Gone" (Henry Creamer, Turner Layton) – 3:15
Recorded on April 13, 1984
"The Best of Everything" (Ebb, Kander) – 2:45
"It's All Right With Me" (Porter) – 2:39
"A Hundred Years from Today" (J. Young, Washington, V. Young) – 3:04
Recorded on April 16, 1984
"How Do You Keep the Music Playing?" (A. Bergman, M. Bergman, Legrand) – 3:49
"Teach Me Tonight" (Cahn, Gene de Paul) – 3:44
"If I Should Lose You" (Rainger, Robin) – 2:36
Recorded on April 17, 1984
"Stormy Weather" (Arlen, Koehler) – 3:38
Recorded on May 13, 1984
"Mack the Knife" (Marc Blitzstein, Bertolt Brecht, Weill) – 4:50
"The Girls I Never Kissed" (Jerry Leiber, Mike Stoller) - 3:31
"Only One to a Customer" (Leigh, Styne) - 2:48
Recorded on October 30, 1986
"My Foolish Heart" (Washington, V. Young) - 2:47
Recorded on June 6, 1988
Contributing performers, arrangers and producers
Frank Sinatra - vocals
Dean Martin
Sammy Davis Jr.
Bing Crosby
Keely Smith
Rosemary Clooney
Nancy Sinatra
Frank Sinatra Jr.
Tina Sinatra
Antonio Carlos Jobim - vocals, guitar
Eileen Farrell
Bill Miller - piano
Count Basie and His Orchestra
Duke Ellington and His Orchestra
Johnny Mandel - arranger
Skip Martin
Dick Reynolds
Nelson Riddle
Sy Oliver - arranger, vocals
Billy May
Don Costa
Gordon Jenkins
Neal Hefti
Robert Farnon
Bill Loose
Marty Paich
Gil Grau
Jack Halloran
Roy Ringwald
Quincy Jones
Harry Betts
Ernie Freeman
Torrie Zito
Laurindo Almeida
Fred Stulce
Claus Ogerman
Billy Strange
H. B. Barnum
Eumir Deodato
Charles Calello
Joseph Scott
Lennie Hayton
Al Capps
Joe Beck
Tony Mottola
Joe Parnello
Sam Nestico
Frank Foster
Bob Florence
References
1995 compilation albums
Frank Sinatra compilation albums |
4315387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambler%20Classic | Rambler Classic | The Rambler Classic is an intermediate sized automobile that was built and sold by American Motors Corporation (AMC) from the 1961 through 1966 model years. The Classic took the place of the Rambler Six and Rambler Rebel V-8 names, which were retired at the end of the 1960 model year.
Introduced a six-passenger four-door sedan and station wagon versions, additional body styles were added. Two-door models became available as a "post" sedan in 1963 as well as a sporty pillar-less hardtop. A convertible was also available for 1965 and 1966.
Motor Trend magazine selected AMC's Classic line as Car of the Year award for 1963.
The Rebel name replaced Classic on AMC's completely redesigned intermediate-sized cars for the 1967 model year, and for 1968 the Rambler Rebel line was renamed the AMC Rebel as AMC began the process of phasing out the Rambler marque.
Throughout its life in the AMC model line-up, the Classic was the high-volume seller for the independent automaker.
First generation
The Rambler was the focus of AMC's management strategy under the leadership of George W. Romney. Their compact cars (for the era) helped AMC to achieve sales and corporate profit successes. In 1961, the Rambler marque ranked in third place among domestic automobile sales behind Chevrolet and Ford.
Ramblers were available in two sizes and built on different automobile platforms. The larger-sized Rambler series was based on a 1956 design and was renamed as the Classic for the 1961 model year to help create a stronger individual identity and contrast from the smaller Rambler American line. American Motors' Edmund E. Anderson designed the new wheelbase Ramblers "that looked new and fresh but were in fact inexpensive reskinned models."
1961
The 1961 Classic featured a new front end with a one-piece, rectangular extruded aluminum grille, new fenders, hood, sculptured door panels, and side trim, as well as one-piece bumpers. Models included the Deluxe, the Super, and the Custom (featuring bucket seats in a four-door sedan). The suggested retail price for the basic Deluxe four-door sedan was US$2,098 and was only $339 more for a station wagon.
In 1961, the Classic was available in either an I6 - - or with a V8 - - engine. A lighter by aluminum block version of the OHV I6 engine, sometimes referred to as the 196, was offered as an option on Deluxe and Super models. The die cast block features iron "sleeves" or cylinder liners with a cast iron alloy cylinder head and produces the same as the cast iron version. The engine was described as one "wave of the future" in automotive engineering as it points the way to higher production rates and lower costs.
American Motors "defied the detractors" with its emphasis on economical and compact-sized cars achieving a sales total of 370,600 vehicles in 1961, "lifting the Rambler to an unprecedented third place in the charts behind Chevrolet and Ford".
1962
For the 1962 model year, the Super models were dropped and replaced by a 400 model. Also, for 1962, AMC's flagship Ambassador models were shortened to the same wheelbase as the Classic's at the same time as the V8 engine was no longer available in the Classic models. This meant the Ambassador models were the only models with V8s in the AMC lineup. The two-door sedan body style Rambler Classic was a unique one-year offering for 1962.
The front grille was modified for 1962, but the free-standing Rambler lettering in the lower center remained. The revised rear end received new round tail lamps, while the previous tailfins were "shaved off". Rambler was one of the last cars to incorporate the tail fin design and became one of the first to "do away with them, and to build clean, simple, uncluttered cars." The back door upper window points were also rounded off for 1962.
Starting in 1962, AMC took a leadership role with safer brake systems in all Ramblers featuring twin-circuit brakes, a design offered by only a few cars at that time. Classics with an automatic transmission continued to use push buttons mounted on the left side of the dashboard with a separate sliding pull tab for the "park" position. The cast-iron block six-cylinder engine was standard on Deluxe and Custom models with the aluminum version optional. The 400 received the aluminum block, but the cast-iron was a no-cost option. Other improvements for 1962 included a price cut of $176 on the popular Custom Classic sedan.
The popularity of the compact-sized Classic continued in the face of a dozen new competitors. Sales of the 1962 model year Classics increased by over 56,000 in the first six months compared to the same period in 1961. A Popular Mechanics nationwide survey of owners that had driven a total of revealed that the Rambler is likeable, easy handling, providing stability and comfortable, roomy ride with low-cost operation. Flaws included inadequate power and poor workmanship. The magazine editors also highlighted that the Classic has approximately the same length as most of the other "compact" cars on the market, but its interior room is equal to the new and larger "family-sized" Ford Failane and Mercury Meteor.
Centaur
American Motors highlighted the Rambler Centaur at the 1962 Chicago Auto Show on a raised platform in the center of automaker's exhibit area. The car was based on a two-door sedan that did "not look remarkably different from regular production models."
Second generation
For the 1963 model year, the Rambler Classic line was completely redesigned with subtle body sculpturing. Outgoing design director, Edmund E. Anderson, shaped the Classic that was named Motor Trend magazine's 1963 "Car of the Year." These were also the first AMC models that were influenced by Dick Teague, the company's new principal designer. He "turned these economical cars into smooth, streamlined beauties with tons of options and V-8 pep."
Being of a suitable size for international markets, this Rambler was assembled in a number of countries. In Europe, Renault built this car in their Haren, Belgium plant and marketed it as a luxury car, filling the gap above the tiny Renault Dauphine.
The 1963 Classics were also the first all-new cars developed by AMC since 1956. Keeping the philosophy of the company, they were more compact – shorter and narrower by one inch (25 mm), as well as over two inches (56 mm) lower – than the preceding models; but lost none of their "family-sized" passenger room or luggage capacity featuring a longer wheelbase.
1963
American Motors' "senior" cars (Classic and Ambassador) shared the same wheelbase and body parts, with only trim differences and standard equipment levels to distinguish the models. Classics came in pillared two- and four-door sedans, as well as four-door wagons. The model designations now became "a Mercedes-like three-number model designation" going from the lowest 550 (essentially fleet cars), 660, to highest 770 trims (replacing the Deluxe, Custom, and 400 versions).
As in 1962, the 1963 Classics were initially available only as 6-cylinder models. In addition to higher trim and features, the Ambassador's standard V8 power, featuring AMC's engine, was a distinguishing feature from the Classic model line.
In mid-1963, a new V8 option was announced for the Classic models. The V8 equipped Rambler Classics combined good performance with good mileage; even with the optional "Flash-O-Matic" automatic transmission from Borg-Warner, they reached 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in about 10 seconds and returned fuel economy from to .
The new AMC cars incorporated numerous engineering solutions. Among these was curved side glass, one of the earliest popular-priced cars with this feature. Another engineering breakthrough was combining separate parts in the monocoque (unit construction) body into single stampings. One example was the "uniside" door surround that was made from a single stamping of steel. Not only did it replace 52 parts and reduce weight and assembly costs, but it also increased structural rigidity and provided for better fitting of the doors.
American Motors' imaginative engineering prompted Motor Trend magazine to give the Classic – and the similar Ambassador models – their Car of the Year award for 1963. Motor Trend's "award is based on pure progress in design, we like to make sure the car is also worthy of the title in the critical areas of performance, dependability, value, and potential buyer satisfaction."
1964
The 1964 model year Classics, were refined with stainless steel rocker moldings, a flush single-plane aluminum grille replacing the previous year's deep concave design, and oval tail lamps replacing the flush-mounted lenses of the 1963's. Classics with bucket seats and a V8 engine could be ordered with a new "Shift-Command" three-speed automatic transmission mounted on the center console providing the driver the ability to manually control shifting.
A new two-door model joined the line only available in the top 770 trim. The pillar-less hardtop offered a large glass area, and "its sales were brisk." The model was the featured-on AMC's marketing brochure. A sporty 770-H version featured individually adjustable reclining bucket seats, as well as center a console. The new hardtop body style "added flash. But wagons still accounted for 34 percent of Classic sales."
Consumers continued to perceive Ramblers as economy cars and the six-cylinder models outsold V8-powered versions. Although the Classic had economy-car roots, it offered plenty of space with "clean, unfettered styling that the Sixties brought." American Motors positioned the Classic line to offer near-Chevelle or intermediate-sized proportions with Chevy II small car pricing." Nevertheless, stronger competition from the domestic Big Three automakers meant total Rambler sales dipped in 1964.
Typhoon
American Motors unveiled the Typhoon in April 1964. This mid-1964 model year introduction was a sporty variant of the Classic 770 2-door hardtop. This special model was introduced to highlight AMC's completely new short-stroke, seven main bearing, 8.5:1 compression ratio "Typhoon" modern era inline-6.
Production of this commemorative model was limited to 2,520 units and it was only available in a two-tone Solar Yellow body with a Classic Black roof, and a sporty all-vinyl interior for US$2,509. The car also featured a distinctive "Typhoon" script in place of the usual "Classic" name insignia, as well as a unique grille with blackout accents. All other AMC options (except engine choices and colors) were available on the Typhoon.
The engine became the mainstay six-cylinder engine for AMC and Jeep vehicles. It was produced, albeit in a modified form, up until 2006. The 232 I6 engine's name was soon changed to "Torque Command", with Typhoon to describe AMC's new line of V8s introduced in 1966.
Cheyenne
The 1964 Chicago Auto Show was used by AMC to exhibit the Rambler Cheyenne in a viewing area made from knotty pine planks. The show car was based on the top-of-the-line Classic Cross Country station wagon finished in white highlighting its full-length gold-tone anodized aluminum trim along the upper part of the bodysides (replacing the side spear that was standard on 770 models) as well as matching gold trim on the lower part of the tailgate between the tail-lights. This was one of AMC's concepts displayed at the Chicago Show that included the Rambler Tarpon fastback and the Rambler Carrousel convertible, but the Cheyenne was likely most significant because AMC "did lots of specially trimmed, production-based show cars in its day" given the large number of station wagon models it sold.
Third generation
The 1965 model year Classics underwent a major redesign of the new platform that was introduced in 1963; essentially the 1963–1964 design with a rectilinear reskin similar to that of concurrent Ambassadors. Fresh sheet metal design was applied to the original wheelbase and long integral body-frame with only the roof, doors, and windshield as carryovers. Unchanged was the suspension system including a torque tube with coil springs with a Panhard rod.
The Rambler Classic was now shorter than – as well as visually distinctive from – the Ambassador line, while still sharing the basic body structure from the windshield back. For the first time, a convertible model was available in the 770-trim version. The two-door sedan was dropped from the 770-model lineup.
1965
The 1965 Classic models were billed as the "Sensible Spectaculars," with emphasis on their new styling, powerful engines, and their expanded comfort and sports-type options, in contrast to the previous "economy car" image.
American Motors now only offered its modern straight-six engine design, retiring the aging versions. The 1965 Classic base 550 models featured the modern and economical six-cylinder, which was basically a de-stroked 232 engine. The 660 and 770 series received the six, while a version was optional. Additionally, the or V8 engines were optional.
Popular Science magazine reported, "you can have a 1965 Classic as a penny-pinching economy car or a storming performance job." Additional performance options for 1965 included power front disk brakes with four-piston calipers that were supplied by Bendix. The standard 4-wheel drum brakes also continued to feature AMC's "Double-Safety" master cylinder system. The dual master cylinder was available in only one "Big Three" car: Cadillac.
Marlin
On March 1, 1965, during the middle of the model year, AMC introduced the Rambler Marlin, a halo car for the company. The fastback design used the Rambler Classic platform. Marketed as a personal luxury car, the Marlin had unique styling and featured an exceptional array of standard equipment.
Rambler Hialeah
A specially prepared Classic two-door hardtop was campaigned for the 1965 auto show circuit. The exterior was finished in yellow pearlescent paint. It was the interior treatment that differentiated the concept car with its yellow and green "Hialeah Plaid" trim. The door panels and bucket seat bolsters were genuine leather while the seats featured yellow and green plaid silk cloth inserts that were woven in Thailand. The same material was also used for the dresses worn by the models that stood by the cars during auto show days. Public reaction to the tartan interior design was favorable. This market study resulted in AMC offering a new large plaid custom fabric upholstery - along with two matching throw pillows - as an option for the 1966 Classic Rebel hardtop model.
1966
The 1966 model year Rambler Classics received minor trim changes and additional standard safety features, including padded dash and visors, left outside mirror, as well as seat belts for the front and rear passengers. The 660 mid-trim level was dropped leaving the 550 and 770 models for 1966. Available for the first time was a floor-mounted four-speed manual transmission and a dash-mounted tachometer.
Classics received particular attention to the styling of the roofs for 1966. The two-door hardtop models received a rectangular rear window and a more formal and angular "crisp-line" roofline that could be covered with vinyl trim. Sedans had an optional trim-outlined "halo" roof accent color. The station wagon's roof area over the cargo compartment was at the same level as the rest of the roof, no longer dipped down as in prior years. The wagons carried Cross Country insignia and featured of cargo space, as well as a standard roof rack. Two wagon seating capacities were available: a standard six-passenger version with two rows of seats with a drop-down bottom-hinged tailgate incorporating a fully retracting rear window for accessing cargo, or in an optional eight-passenger version with three rows of seats (the third rear-facing) and a left-side hinged rear fifth door.
The name Classic was no longer considered a positive factor in the marketplace and AMC began reshuffling model names in 1966.
Rambler Rebel
A top-of-the-line version of the two-door hardtop Classic was offered under the historic Rambler Rebel name. It replaced the 770-H and featured special badges and standard slim-type bucket seats with optional checked upholstery with two matching pillows. Public reaction to the tartan touch appearing in some of AMC's "Project IV" automobile show tour cars, was judged favorable enough to make the unique trim available on the Rebel hardtop.
Serving as one example to verify how AMC products were sometimes derided by the automotive press, Popular Science magazine wrote that the new "Rambler Rebel reveals a sudden interest in performance," but its handling package cannot overcome the car's obsolete suspension design. However, AMC was reluctant to forfeit their Nash engineered suspension design which employed a strut-type front and a Panhard rod controlled torque tube rear-drive system, both having long coil springs to place the upper spring seats higher into the body of the car. This feature was to afford a softer ride quality and better handling by reducing the geometrical leverage of the car's center of gravity for less body roll "sway" in cornering. What was labeled as "obsolete" is juxtaposed by noting how General Motors employed a similar suspension system on their third generation Camaro and Firebird nearly twenty years later which had MacPherson strut front and a torque arm mounted rear-drive axle.
Rambler St. Moritz
A customized show car was displayed along production models during the 1966 automobile show circuit, the snow- and ski-themed Rambler St. Moritz station wagon. The wagon with three rows of seats featured tinted rear side "observation" windows that curved up and over into the roof. The remaining roof over the cargo area was finished with polished stainless steel and equipped with a special ski rack. The exterior was a light ice-blue pearlescent paint, while the car's dark blue interior featured Corfam upholstery with a metallic thread embroidered snowflake in each seat back.
International markets
American Motors was active to direct exports of finished cars from its Canadian and U.S. plants to independent distributors. Generous discounts were also available to U.S. military and diplomatic service personnel for individual purchase while overseas. More significantly, AMC was directly involved in joint ventures or utilized licensees in several overseas business ventures for the production or distribution of Rambler Classics. The cars were marketed in various international markets.
Argentina
Industrias Kaiser Argentina (IKA) produced Rambler Classics in Córdoba, Argentina from 1962 through 1971. Throughout its production, the four-door sedan, and station wagon models were produced, with the sedan being sold as the "Classic" and the station wagon being sold by the name "Cross Country." Each car received a numerical nomenclature, depending on the level of equipment: "400", "440", "550", "660" and "990". All were powered by the overhead camshaft (OHC) straight-six "Tornado Interceptor" engines that were originally developed by Kaiser Motors in the U.S. for the 1963 Jeep Gladiator pickups and Wagoneer vehicles. This engine was later produced in Argentina and increased the domestic (local sourced) content of the automobiles to gain tariff concessions for the imported components from AMC.
In 1963, the best-selling model in Argentina was the IKA Rambler. A road test of an IKA Rambler Classic 660 by the Argentinean automotive magazine, Revista Parabrisas, described significant differences to the 1962 versions, noting the new stylized simple lines and more fluid design, as well as concluding that it is "a large and comfortable ride for both the city and touring, as well as – depending on the driver – can be sporty."
In June 1966 IKA launched a special Taxi version of the Rambler Classic in Buenos Aires. The IKA-modified cars included heavy-duty running gear, vinyl interior, taxi-specific accessories, and were powered with the standard IKA-built "Tornado" overhead cam (OHC) engine.
Australia
Rambler Classics were assembled by Australian Motor Industries (AMI) in Australia from 1961. They were built from semi-Knock-down (SKD) kits. The vehicles were partially assembled and painted at AMC's Kenosha, Wisconsin, factory. They were built with right-hand drive and the body had the engine, transmission, front suspension, rear axle, and doors installed. Some of the other components were boxed and shipped inside the car for final assembly by AMI. Interior components such as upholstery and various other parts were locally sourced to get import tariff concessions. Australian cars were also fitted with amber rear turn signal lights to comply with safety standards in Australia.
The Australian-assembled versions were identical in appearance to the U.S. models through the three generations. The base prices of Rambler Classics dropped with the introduction of the redesigned 1963 models due to the elimination of some standard equipment such as the reclining front seats and heater. Two four-door body styles were available: sedan and station wagon. A Classic sedan was offered in Australia for the first time with a manual transmission. However, the biggest selling model was the six-cylinder Classic sedan with an automatic transmission. The AMI Rambler Classics exhibited high standards of assembly and finish.
Additionally, the Brampton, Ontario AMC plant in Canada sent 8 fully assembled, right-hand-drive Classic 770 hardtops to Australia in 1964 and 1965.
AMI also acted as the State distributor for Ramblers for Victoria. Rambler sales for New South Wales were managed by Sydney company, Grenville Motors Pty Ltd, which was also the State distributor of Rover and Land Rover. A network of Sydney and country NSW dealers were controlled by Grenville which was in direct communication with AMI.
Australian Capital Territory sales were managed by Betterview Pty Ltd in Canberra. Annand & Thompson Pty Ltd in Brisbane distributed Rambler vehicles for Queensland. South Australian sales were managed by Champions Pty Ltd in Adelaide. Premier Motors Pty Ltd in Perth distributed Ramblers for Western Australia, and Heathco Motors in Launceston distributed Rambler vehicles for Tasmania.
Canada
American Motors established a vehicle assembly plant in Brampton, Ontario, Canada in 1961 to assemble AMC vehicles for the Canadian market. With Canada being a Commonwealth country, the Brampton plant also undertook to export complete vehicles to right-hand-drive markets including Australia, India, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. For example, records for the Brampton plant show that 129 RHD Rambler Americans and 255 RHD Rambler Classics were exported in 1964 of which the majority were exported to the United Kingdom.
Chile
Rambler vehicle assembly began in Chile at the beginning of 1964 under a partnership between AMC and Renault. The Rambler Classic was assembled alongside Renault vehicles at the Indauto plant in Arica. Vehicle production was transferred to Automotores Franco Chilena in Los Andes, Santiago after 1967.
Costa Rica
Starting in 1959, Purdy Motor, owned by Xavier Quirós Oreamuno, distributed Rambler vehicles in Costa Rica. Many Central and South American nations established local content regulations during the 1960s. These laws effectively required automobiles sold in those markets to be assembled locally from knock-down kits. A new company, ECASA was established in 1964 by Oreamuno, and by September 1965, the first vehicle to be built in Costa Rica was a 1964 Rambler Classic 660 that still exists. The company assembled Rambler Classics until 1969 and other AMC models until 1974, as well as Toyota's Corona and Land Cruiser. By 1973, Toyota acquired 20% of ECASA.
Finland
Rambler vehicles were imported into Finland by two major Finnish automotive importers, Oy Voimavaunu Ab and Suomen Maanvilelijäin Kauppa Oy (SMK Group.) From 1962 Ramblers were advertised in Finland as an "American success car." The brand's best sales years were 1964 (almost 600 cars) and 1965 (more than 700 cars). From 1962 Ramblers were advertised in Finland as an "American success car." From the mid-1960s, Wihuri Group, a large multi-sector family business, took over import operations using its shipping operation, Autola Oy. Rambler Classics and Americans were quite common in taxi use. Wihuri continued to import AMC vehicles until 1975.
France (and Europe)
All three generations of the Rambler Classics were assembled from CKD (Completely Knocked Down) kits by Renault at the Vilvoorde factory in Haren, Belgium beginning in 1962 and sold through Renault dealers in Algeria, Austria, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg,
The French automaker no longer had a large car after the Renault Frégate in its own model range and the Rambler Classic was chosen for its "European-style" features and sold as an "executive car" in Renault's markets, and badged as the "Rambler Renault", under the terms of a cooperation agreement concluded between the two automakers on 21 November 1961.
The French coach builder, Henri Chapron, modified 1962 Rambler sedans to serve as a presidential limousines for the government of Charles de Gaulle. Modifications included a custom grille and a single chrome strip the full length of the bodyside, a raised roof, as well as the elimination of the stock panoramic rear window by straight back glass framed by large C-pillars. One objective of Renault, the state-owned automaker at the time, was to recapture the French limousine market segment from Citroën. However, de Gaulle selected the slightly less roomy Citroen.
The Classic's successor, the Rambler Rebel, was also built by the Belgium Renault plant for the 1967 year only and was also sold as "Rambler Renault" in France's domestic and export markets.
Mexico
Willys Mexicana S.A. had agreements with AMC to assemble the compact Rambler American models and began preparing for the introduction of the larger Rambler Classic to the Mexican market in 1963. During this time the automaker became Vehiculos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM). This coincided with the launch of the second generation of the U.S. Classic, and the VAM Classic became the second AMC product made by VAM in Mexico. The new model was focused as the luxury companion to the Rambler American compact line and as VAM's flagship automobile as the Ambassador line was not produced in Mexico. A major marketing campaign by VAM promoted the inaugural 1963 models using Motor Trend's Car of the Year award. The VAM Rambler Classic was a success among consumers and the automotive press, obtaining praise for the car's roominess, comfort, styling, advanced engineering, as well as its economy and value.
The 1963 Rambler Classics were available only in two- and four-door sedan body designs, both called Rambler Classic 660. No other trim levels or versions were available. The standard engine and transmission combination was the OHV I6 engine with a single barrel carburetor producing at 4200 rpm with an 8.7:1 compression ratio and coupled to a three-speed manual transmission with column-mounted shifter. The two-barrel version of the 195.6 six was also available at extra cost. Standard equipment for all included built-in flow-through ventilation, four-wheel drum brakes with twin-circuits and a double master cylinder, manual steering, electric wipers and washers, coil-spring-based suspension, carpeting, front and rear bench seats consisting of foam rubber and coil springs, side marker lights, hazard lights, backup lights, luxury steering wheel with horn ring and "R" emblem, 200 km/h speedometer, fuel and water temperature gauges, dual front ashtrays, cigarette lighter, electric clock, AM radio, rearview mirror, front and rear side armrests, dual rear ashtrays, dual coat hooks, round dome light, padded sun visors, driver's side remote mirror, as well as a bright molding package. Optional equipment included power brakes, power steering, front seatbelts, heater, passenger's side remote mirror, bumper guards, bumper tubes, and full wheel covers.
For 1964, the VAM Rambler Classic incorporated the new styling upgrades from its AMC domestic counterpart models. The two-barrel version of the 195.6 six became standard.
The 1965 model year followed the styling changes of the U.S. cars. The biggest change was AMC's new seven-main-bearing I6 engine in version as standard equipment and a double barrel version as optional. The new engines were now manufactured in VAM's own factory that was built in 1964 at Lerma, State of Mexico. The new engines replaced the imported L-head and OHV 195.6 engines in VAM's vehicles.
The cars saw a name change for 1966, from Rambler Classic 660 to Rambler Classic 770. Despite the "trim level" upgrade, the car was mostly the same. The cars became progressively more luxurious over the years. The two-door Rambler Classic 770 featured individual reclining front seats and its marketing focused on sportiness, marking for the first time a difference between the two body styles other than their number of doors.
The VAM Rambler Classic was not available in Mexico as a two-door hardtop, two-door convertible, or four-door station wagon. The Rambler Classic-based Marlin fastbacks were also not produced under VAM as also were not the 1963-1964 Ambassador models based on the same platform. The Rambler Classic model enjoyed popularity and a positive image among the Mexican public. For this reason in 1967, with the arrival of AMC's completely new Rebel line in the mid-size market segment, VAM continued the Rambler Classic name. It went well into the 1970s, by which that time VAM Rambler Classic was now the AMC Matador.
New Zealand
Rambler Classics were assembled by New Zealand company VW Motors in their Volkswagen assembly plant in Otahuhu, Auckland until 1962.
In 1964 Campbell Motors, the importer of Studebaker and Willys vehicles, built a plant in Thames, New Zealand to assemble AMC vehicles. The assembly business was named Campbell Motor Industries (CMI). CMI assembled Peugeots and Ramblers and later Hino, Isuzu, Renault, Datsun, and Toyota. The first Rambler to come off the line was a Rambler Classic in September 1964.
Like Australia, New Zealand cars were assembled from right-hand drive knock-down kits from Kenosha. The vehicles were partially assembled and painted at the factory with the engine, transmission, front suspension, rear axle, and doors installed. Some of the other components were boxed and shipped inside the car for final assembly by CMI. Unlike Australia, interior trim was also supplied with the knock-down kits, as the motor trimming industry in New Zealand had ceased to exist since the end of the 1930s following the demise of local coach building due to the preference of full imports. Hence, New Zealand assembled Ramblers are more "American" than their Australian equivalents. For 1966, CMI assembled 336 Rambler Classics for the New Zealand market, only slightly fewer than the Datsuns and Peugeots they also assembled in the same year.
Norway
Ramblers were imported into Norway during the 1950s and 1960s by Norwegian importer Kolberg & Caspary AS located at Ås, Norway. Kolberg & Caspary was formed in 1906 and imported automotive, industrial, and construction products. The Rambler Classic was imported from 1963 until 1966, with the majority between 1963 and 1965. A total of 558 cars were brought into Norway by 1966. Rambler Ambassadors, Americans, and Rebels were also imported in small numbers.
Peru
Ramblers were marketed in Peru during the 1960s by Rambler del Peru S.A that were sold and serviced by a network of 13 dealers. In January 1966, Renault and AMC created Industria Automotriz Peruana S.A. to locally assemble Renault, AMC, and Peugeot vehicles. Only small numbers were produced of all three brands with AMC vehicles amounting to 750 built between 1966 and 1970, including the Rambler Classic.
Philippines
While the Philippines was almost exclusively an American car market until 1941, the post-World War II years saw an influx of European cars enter the market. Despite a saturation of international brands, American Motors Corporation managed to establish a presence and the Rambler Classic and Rambler American were locally assembled by Luzon Machineries Inc. in Manila during the 1960s.
United Kingdom
The Rambler Classic and Rambler American were first imported into the U.K by London company, Nash Concessionaires Ltd. Nash Concessionaires had previously been the U.K importer of Nash vehicles. U.K vehicles were imported in factory right-hand drive from the Brampton plant in Canada. The dash plaque read "Rambler of Canada." The company also was involved in the export of the British-built Nash Metropolitan to the United States. The 1961 Classic '6' saloon (sedan) sold for £1798 and the Classic station wagon sold for £1963.
Rambler Motors (A.M.C) Ltd of Chiswick in West London, had assembled Hudson motor vehicles for the U.K market since 1926. The operation became a subsidiary of AMC in 1961 and changed its name to Rambler Motors (A.M.C) Ltd in 1966. Rambler Motors went on to import factory right-hand-drive AMC vehicles from 1961 and into the 1970s. Parts and spares were supplied locally out of the Chiswick service center located on Great West Road for the whole of the United Kingdom, Europe, and the Middle East. In addition to Rambler parts, the stock of spares also covered Hudson, Nash, and Austin Metropolitan parts.
Venezuela
Ramblers were assembled in Venezuela from May 1963 under a partnership between the Venezuelan government, AMC, and Renault. Automovil de Francia built an assembly plant at Mariara, north of Caracas to build AMC and Renault vehicles including the Rambler Classic. Partnerships with AMC to locally build AMC vehicles continued throughout the 1960s and early 1970s and as with all export markets vehicles continued to be branded in Venezuela as "Rambler" even after the brand was dropped by AMC after 1969.
Owners
Former U.S. presidential candidate, Mitt Romney, received his first car in 1965 while he was as a student at Brigham Young University, a used 1963 Rambler Classic from his father, AMC President George W. Romney.
Collectibility
Rambler Classics share numerous parts and components with other AMC models. New parts are somewhat plentiful and several vendors specialize in AMCs. There are also active AMC car clubs to assist owners. "Long admired for their simplicity, utilitarian design approach and servicing ease, Ramblers of the early-1960s are an inexpensive way to get into the collector-car hobby."
Among the most collectible models are the 1964 Typhoon hardtop and the 1965–1966 Rambler Classic hardtops and convertibles. At collector auctions, Rambler Classics that are in original condition, such as a low-mileage 1965 convertible, will see bidding soaring "above condition #1 values" with "their continued popularity".
References
Citations
General references
External links
The American Motors Owners Association
The AMC Rambler Car Club
The Renault Rambler Car Club
The Nash Car Club
Ramblers History on amcrc.com
AMC vehicles
Classic
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Mid-size cars
Coupés
Convertibles
Sedans
Station wagons
Cars introduced in 1961 |
4315433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHOIS | WHOIS | WHOIS (pronounced as the phrase "who is") is a query and response protocol that is used for querying databases that store an Internet resource's registered users or assignees. These resources include domain names, IP address blocks and autonomous systems, but it is also used for a wider range of other information. The protocol stores and delivers database content in a human-readable format. The current iteration of the WHOIS protocol was drafted by the Internet Society, and is documented in .
Whois is also the name of the command-line utility on most UNIX systems used to make WHOIS protocol queries. In addition, WHOIS has a sister protocol called Referral Whois (RWhois).
History
Elizabeth Feinler and her team (who had created the Resource Directory for ARPANET) were responsible for creating the first WHOIS directory in the early 1970s. Feinler set up a server in Stanford's Network Information Center (NIC) which acted as a directory that could retrieve relevant information about people or entities. She and the team created domains, with Feinler's suggestion that domains be divided into categories based on the physical address of the computer.
The process of registration was established in . WHOIS was standardized in the early 1980s to look up domains, people, and other resources related to domain and number registrations. As all registration was done by one organization at that time, one centralized server was used for WHOIS queries. This made looking up such information very easy.
At the time of the emergence of the internet from the ARPANET, the only organization that handled all domain registrations was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States government (created during 1958.). The responsibility of domain registration remained with DARPA as the ARPANET became the Internet during the 1980s. UUNET began offering domain registration service; however, they simply handled the paperwork which they forwarded to the DARPA Network Information Center (NIC). Then the National Science Foundation directed that commercial, third-party entities would handle the management of Internet domain registration. InterNIC was formed in 1993 under contract with the NSF, consisting of Network Solutions, Inc., General Atomics and AT&T. The General Atomics contract was canceled after several years due to performance issues.
20th-century WHOIS servers were highly permissive and would allow wild-card searches. A WHOIS query of a person's last name would yield all individuals with that name. A query with a given keyword returned all registered domains containing that keyword. A query for a given administrative contact returned all domains the administrator was associated with. Since the advent of the commercialized Internet, multiple registrars and unethical spammers, such permissive searching is no longer available.
On December 1, 1999, management of the top-level domains (TLDs) , , and was assigned to ICANN. At the time, these TLDs were converted to a thin WHOIS model. Existing WHOIS clients stopped working at that time. A month later, it had self-detecting Common Gateway Interface support so that the same program could operate a web-based WHOIS lookup, and an external TLD table to support multiple WHOIS servers based on the TLD of the request. This eventually became the model of the modern WHOIS client.
By 2005, there were many more generic top-level domains than there had been in the early 1980s. There are also many more country-code top-level domains. This has led to a complex network of domain name registrars and registrar associations, especially as the management of Internet infrastructure has become more internationalized. As such, performing a WHOIS query on a domain requires knowing the correct, authoritative WHOIS server to use. Tools to do WHOIS domain searches have become common and are offered by providers such as IONOS and Namecheap.
CRISP and IRIS
In 2003, an IETF committee was formed to create a new standard for looking up information on domain names and network numbers: Cross Registry Information Service Protocol (CRISP). Between January 2005 and July 2006, the working name for this proposed new standard was Internet Registry Information Service (IRIS) The initial IETF Proposed Standards RFCs for IRIS are:
3981 -
3982 -
3983 -
4992 -
The status of RFCs this group worked on can be found on the IETF Tools site.
As of March 2009, the CRISP IETF Working Group concluded, after a final RFC 5144 was published by the group .
Note: The IETF CRISP working group is not to be confused with the Number Resource Organization's (NRO) Team of the same name "Consolidated RIR IANA Stewardship Proposal Team" (CRISP Team).
WEIRDS and RDAP
In 2013, the IETF acknowledged that IRIS had not been a successful replacement for WHOIS. The primary technical reason for that appeared to be the complexity of IRIS. Further, non-technical reasons were deemed to lie in areas upon which the IETF does not pass judgment. Meanwhile, ARIN and RIPE NCC managed to serve WHOIS data via RESTful web services. The charter (drafted in February 2012) provided for separate specifications, for number registries first and for name registries to follow. The working group produced five proposed standard documents:
7480 -
7481 -
7482 -
7483 -
7484 -
and an informational document:
7485 -
Protocol
The WHOIS protocol had its origin in the ARPANET NICNAME protocol and was based on the NAME/FINGER Protocol, described in (1977). The NICNAME/WHOIS protocol was first described in in 1982 by Ken Harrenstien and Vic White of the Network Information Center at SRI International.
WHOIS was originally implemented on the Network Control Protocol (NCP) but found its major use when the TCP/IP suite was standardized across the ARPANET and later the Internet.
The protocol specification is the following (original quote):
Connect to the service host
TCP: service port 43 decimal
NCP: ICP to socket 43 decimal, establishing two 8-bit connections
Send a single "command line", ending with <CRLF>.
Receive information in response to the command line. The
server closes its connections as soon as the output is
finished.
The command line server query is normally a single name specification. i.e. the name of a resource. However, servers accept a query, consisting of only the question mark (?) to return a description of acceptable command line formats. Substitution or wild-card formats also exist, e.g., appending a full-stop (period) to the query name returns all entries beginning with the query name.
On the modern Internet, WHOIS services are typically communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Servers listen to requests on the well-known port number 43. Clients are simple applications that establish a communications channel to the server, transmit a text record with the name of the resource to be queried and await the response in form of a sequence of text records found in the database. This simplicity of the protocol also permits an application, and a command line interface user, to query a WHOIS server using the Telnet protocol.
Augmentations
In 2014, June ICANN published the recommendation for status codes, the "Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP) domain status codes"
Implementation
WHOIS lookups were traditionally performed with a command line interface application, but now many alternative web-based tools exist.
A WHOIS database consists of a set of text records for each resource. These text records consists of various items of information about the resource itself, and any associated information of assignees, registrants, administrative information, such as creation and expiration dates.
Two data models exist for storing resource information in a WHOIS database, the thick and the thin model.
Thin and thick lookups
WHOIS information can be stored and looked up according to either a thick or a thin data model:
Thick A Thick WHOIS server stores the complete WHOIS information from all the registrars for the particular set of data (so that one WHOIS server can respond with WHOIS information on all .org domains, for example).
Thin A Thin WHOIS server stores only the name of the WHOIS server of the registrar of a domain, which in turn has the full details on the data being looked up (such as the .com WHOIS servers, which refer the WHOIS query to the registrar where the domain was registered).
The thick model usually ensures consistent data and slightly faster queries, since only one WHOIS server needs to be contacted. If a registrar goes out of business, a thick registry contains all important information (if the registrant entered correct data, and privacy features were not used to obscure the data) and registration information can be retained. But with a thin registry, the contact information might not be available, and it could be difficult for the rightful registrant to retain control of the domain.
If a WHOIS client did not understand how to deal with this situation, it would display the full information from the registrar. Unfortunately, the WHOIS protocol has no standard for determining how to distinguish the thin model from the thick model.
Specific details of which records are stored vary among domain name registries. Some top-level domains, including and , operate a thin WHOIS, requiring domain registrars to maintain their own customers' data. The other global top-level registries, including , operate a thick model. Each country-code top-level registry has its own national rules.
Software
The first applications written for the WHOIS information system were command-line interface tools for Unix and Unix-like operating systems (i.e. Solaris, Linux etc.). WHOIS client and server software is distributed as free open-source software and binary distributions are included with all Unix-like systems. Various commercial Unix implementations may use a proprietary implementation (for example, Solaris 7).
A WHOIS command line client passes a phrase given as an argument directly to the WHOIS server. Various free open source examples can still be found on sites such as sourceforge.net. However, most modern WHOIS tools implement command line flags or options, such as the -h option to access a specific server host, but default servers are preconfigured. Additional options may allow control of the port number to connect on, displaying additional debugging data, or changing recursion/referral behavior.
Like most TCP/IP client–server applications, a WHOIS client takes the user input and then opens an Internet socket to its destination server. The WHOIS protocol manages the transmission of the query and reception of results.
Web
With the advent of the World Wide Web and especially the loosening up of the Network Solutions monopoly, looking up WHOIS information via the web has become quite common. At present, popular web-based WHOIS-queries may be conducted from ARIN, RIPE and APNIC. Most early web-based WHOIS clients were merely front-ends to a command-line client, where the resulting output just gets displayed on a web page with little, if any, clean-up or formatting.
Currently, web based WHOIS clients usually perform the WHOIS queries directly and then format the results for display. Many such clients are proprietary, authored by domain name registrars.
The need for web-based clients came from the fact that command-line WHOIS clients largely existed only in the Unix and large computing worlds. Microsoft Windows and Macintosh computers had no WHOIS clients installed by default, so registrars had to find a way to provide access to WHOIS data for potential customers. Many end-users still rely on such clients, even though command line and graphical clients exist now for most home PC platforms. Microsoft provides the Sysinternals Suite that includes a whois client at no cost.
CPAN has several Perl modules available that work with WHOIS servers. Many of them are not current and do not fully function with the current (2005) WHOIS server infrastructure. However, there is still much useful functionality to derive including looking up AS numbers and registrant contacts.
Servers
WHOIS services are mainly run by registrars and registries; for example the Public Interest Registry (PIR) maintains the .ORG registry and associated WHOIS service.
Regional Internet registries
WHOIS servers operated by regional Internet registries (RIR) can be queried directly to determine the Internet service provider responsible for a particular resource.
The records of each of these registries are cross-referenced, so that a query to ARIN for a record which belongs to RIPE will return a placeholder pointing to the RIPE WHOIS server. This lets the WHOIS user making the query know that the detailed information resides on the RIPE server. In addition to the RIRs servers, commercial services exist, such as the Routing Assets Database used by some large networks (e.g., large Internet providers that acquired other ISPs in several RIR areas).
Server discovery
There is currently no widely extended way for determining the responsible WHOIS server for a DNS domain, though a number of methods are in common use for top-level domains (TLDs). Some registries use DNS SRV records (defined in RFC 2782) to allow clients to discover the address of the WHOIS server. Some WHOIS lookups require searching the procuring domain registrar to display domain owner details.
Query example
Normally the contact information of the resources assignee is returned. However, some registrars offer private registration, in which case the contact information of the registrar is shown instead.
Some registry operators are wholesalers, meaning that they typically provide domain name services to a large number of retail registrars, who in turn offer them to consumers. For private registration, only the identity of the wholesale registrar may be returned. In this case, the identity of the individual as well as the retail registrar may be hidden.
Below is an example of WHOIS data returned for an individual resource holder. This is the result of a WHOIS query of example.com:
> whois example.com
[Querying whois.verisign-grs.com]
[Redirected to whois.iana.org]
[Querying whois.iana.org]
[whois.iana.org]
% IANA WHOIS server
% for more information on IANA, visit http://www.iana.org
% This query returned 1 object
domain: EXAMPLE.COM
organisation: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
created: 1992-01-01
source: IANA
Referral Whois
Referral Whois (RWhois) is an extension of the original WHOIS protocol and service. RWhois extends the concepts of WHOIS in a scalable, hierarchical fashion, potentially creating a system with a tree-like architecture. Queries are deterministically routed to servers based on hierarchical labels, reducing a query to the primary repository of information.
Lookups of IP address allocations are often limited to the larger Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) blocks (e.g., /24, /22, /16), because usually only the regional Internet registries (RIRs) and domain registrars run RWhois or WHOIS servers, although RWhois is intended to be run by even smaller local Internet registries, to provide more granular information about IP address assignment.
RWhois is intended to replace WHOIS, providing an organized hierarchy of referral services where one could connect to any RWhois server, request a look-up and be automatically re-directed to the correct server(s). However, while the technical functionality is in place, adoption of the RWhois standard has been weak.
RWhois services are typically communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Servers listen to requests on the well-known port number 4321.
Rwhois was first specified in in 1994 by Network Solutions, but the specification was superseded in 1997 by .
The referral features of RWhois are different than the feature of a WHOIS server to refer responses to another server, which RWhois also implements.
Criticism
One criticism of WHOIS is the lack of full access to the data. Few parties have realtime access to the complete databases.
Others cite the competing goal of domain privacy as a criticism, although this problem is strongly mitigated by domain privacy services. Currently, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) broadly requires that the mailing address, phone number and e-mail address of those owning or administering a domain name to be made publicly available through the "WHOIS" directories. The registrant's (domain owner's) contact details, such as address and telephone number, are easily accessible to anyone who queries a WHOIS server. However, that policy enables spammers, direct marketers, identity thieves or other attackers to loot the directory for personal information about these people. Although ICANN has been exploring changing WHOIS to enable greater privacy, there is a lack of consensus among major stakeholders as to what type of change should be made. Some domain registrars offer private registrations (also known as domain privacy), by which the contact information of the registrar is shown instead of the customer's. With the offer of private registration from many registrars, some of the risk has been mitigated.
Studies have shown that spammers can and do harvest plain-text email addresses from WHOIS servers. For this reason, some WHOIS servers and websites offering WHOIS queries have implemented rate-limiting systems, such as web-based CAPTCHA and limited amounts of search queries per user IP address.
The WHOIS requirements conflict with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), effective in the European Union 25 May 2018, which places strict regulations on the processing and publication of personally identifiable information. ICANN stated in November 2017 that it would not reprimand "noncompliance with contractual obligations related to the handling of registration data" if registrars provide alternative solutions for compliance with its rules, until the WHOIS requirements are updated to take GDPR into account.
The WHOIS protocol was not written with an international audience in mind. A WHOIS server and/or client cannot determine the text encoding in effect for the query or the database content. Many servers were originally using US-ASCII and Internationalization concerns were not taken into consideration until much later. This might impact the usability or usefulness of the WHOIS protocol in countries outside the USA. In the case of internationalized domain names it is the responsibility of the client application to perform the translation of the domain name between its native language script and the DNS name in punycode.
Accuracy of information
In cases where the registrant's (Domain Owner) identity is public, anyone can easily confirm the status of a domain via WHOIS.
In the case of private registrations, ascertaining registration information may be more difficult. If a registrant, who acquired a domain name, wants to verify the registrar has completed the registration process, three steps may be required:
Perform a WHOIS and confirm that the resource is at least registered with ICANN,
Determine the name of the wholesale registrar, and
Contact the wholesaler and obtain the name of the retail registrar.
This provides some confidence that the retailer actually registered the name. But if the registrar goes out of business, as with the failure of RegisterFly in 2007, the rightful domain holder with privacy-protected registrations may have difficulty regaining the administration of their domain name. Registrants using "private registration" can attempt to protect themselves by using a registrar that places customer data in escrow with a third party.
ICANN requires that every registrant of a domain name be given the opportunity to correct any inaccurate contact data associated with their domain. For this reason, registrars are required to periodically send the holder the contact information on record for verification, but they do not provide any guarantee about the accuracy of information if the registrant provided inaccurate information.
Law and policy
WHOIS has generated policy issues in the United States federal government. As noted above, WHOIS creates a privacy issue which is also tied to free speech and anonymity. However, WHOIS is an important tool for law enforcement officers investigating violations like spam and phishing to track down the holders of domain names. As a result, law enforcement agencies have sought to make WHOIS records both open and verified:
The Federal Trade Commission has testified about how inaccurate WHOIS records thwart their investigations.
Congressional hearings have been conducted about the importance of WHOIS in 2001, 2002 and 2006.
The Fraudulent Online Identity Sanctions Act "make it a violation of trademark and copyright law if a person knowingly provided, or caused to be provided, materially false contact information in making, maintaining, or renewing the registration of a domain name used in connection with the violation," where the latter "violation" refers to a prior violation of trademark or copyright law. The act does not make the submission of false WHOIS data illegal in itself, only if used to shield oneself from prosecution for crimes committed using that domain name.
ICANN proposal to abolish WHOIS
The Expert Working Group (EWG) of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) recommended on 24 June 2013 that WHOIS should be scrapped. It recommends that WHOIS be replaced with a system that keeps information secret from most Internet users, and only discloses information for "permissible purposes". ICANN's list of permissible purposes includes domain-name research, domain-name sale and purchase, regulatory enforcement, personal data protection, legal actions, and abuse mitigation. Although WHOIS has been a key tool of journalists in determining who was disseminating certain information on the Internet, the use of WHOIS by the free press is not included in ICANN's proposed list of permissible purposes.
The EWG collected public input on the initial report until 13 September 2013. Its final report was issued on 6 June 2014, without meaningful changes to the recommendations. , ICANN is in the "process of re-inventing WHOIS," working on "ICANN WHOIS Beta."
On January 19th 2023, ICANN opened voting on a global amendment to all its registry and registrar agreements. In it they defined an RDAP Ramp-Up Period of 180 days starting with the effectiveness of this amendment. 360 days after this period is defined as the WHOIS Services Sunset Date, after which it is not a requirement for registries and registrars to offer a WHOIS service and instead only an RDAP service is required. All voting thresholds were met within the 60 day voting period and the amendment will be submitted to the ICANN Board for approval and implementation.
Standards documents
– NICNAME/WHOIS (1982, obsolete)
– NICNAME/WHOIS (1985, obsolete)
– WHOIS protocol specification (2004, current)
See also
Domain name registry
Regional Internet registry
Routing Assets Database
Routing Policy Specification Language
Shared Whois Project
Registration Data Access Protocol
References
Sources
External links
IANA WHOIS Service
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
XML Whois Server list
ICANN Whois Inaccuracy Complaint Form
Whois status codes
Internet protocols
Internet Standards |
4315483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday%20Night%20Baseball | Sunday Night Baseball | Sunday Night Baseball is an exclusive weekly telecast of a Major League Baseball game that airs Sundays at 7 p.m. ET/4 p.m. PT on ESPN during the regular season.
The games are preceded most weeks by the studio show Baseball Tonight: Sunday Night Countdown presented by Chevrolet prior to the first pitch. A few telecasts each season appear on ESPN2 rather than ESPN due to conflicts with other programming; however, starting in 2022, ESPN2 will also air Sunday Night Baseball with alternate commentary for eight games per season.
History
Jon Miller-Joe Morgan era (1990–2010)
The series debuted on April 15, 1990 with coverage of New York Mets against the Montreal Expos in Montreal. From its inception through 2010, the series featured the broadcast team of play-by-play commentator Jon Miller and color commentator Joe Morgan. Steve Phillips joined them for the 2009 season, and Orel Hershiser did so for the 2010 season following Phillips' dismissal by the network.
From 2004 until 2006, Sam Ryan served as the field reporter, but she left to join New York City's WCBS-TV and CBS Sports in June 2006. On July 2, 2006, Bonnie Bernstein joined the crew as the new field reporter, but did not return in 2007 primarily due to her request to cut back her schedule because of her continued recovery from a bout with deep vein thrombosis in October 2006. Beginning in 2006, Peter Gammons joined the broadcasts as a field reporter in the scouts position. Gammons, however, suffered a brain aneurysm and didn't return until September 2006.
In 2010, Miller and Morgan began their 21st consecutive season working together for ESPN. Following the 2010 season, ESPN announced that the television contracts of Miller and Morgan would not be renewed. Miller was offered, but chose to decline, a continued role with ESPN Radio.
Dan Shulman era (2011–2017)
Play-by-play announcer Dan Shulman joined color commentators Hershiser and Bobby Valentine as the new Sunday Night Baseball crew beginning in 2011. In an essential trade deal, following the hiring of Valentine as the Boston Red Sox manager, his predecessor Terry Francona was hired to join Shulman and Hershiser for the 2012 season. Francona stayed with ESPN for only one season before he was hired by the Cleveland Indians to be their manager for the 2013 season. Francona was replaced by John Kruk, who had been part of the Baseball Tonight team since 2004.
Like Miller and Morgan before them, Shulman and Hershiser also formed the lead team on ESPN Radio's World Series coverage. Prior to the 2014 season, Hershiser left ESPN to become an analyst for the Dodgers on SportsNet LA, and was replaced by Curt Schilling; however, Schilling's subsequent diagnosis of and treatment for an undisclosed form of cancer led to his being unavailable to ESPN for most of the season. Shulman and Kruk worked as a two-man booth until Schilling joined them in September.
On August 30, 2015, former softball player Jessica Mendoza joined the Sunday Night Baseball broadcast team as a color commentator. For the 2016 MLB season, former Yankees player Aaron Boone joined Shulman and Mendoza in the broadcast booth as the second color commentator for SNB. Shulman stepped down at the conclusion of the 2017 season, while Boone left the booth after being named new Yankees manager.
Matt Vasgersian–Alex Rodriguez era (2018–2021)
On January 23, 2018, ESPN announced that Alex Rodriguez and Matt Vasgersian would join Jessica Mendoza, Buster Olney, and the SNB team for the 2018 season as analyst and play-by-play respectively. For the 2020 season abbreviated due to COVID-19, Mendoza left SNB as part of her new deal with ESPN, leaving Vasgersian and Rodriguez, who broadcast all games from a studio at ESPN's Bristol, Connecticut headquarters.
ABC televised a Sunday Night Baseball matchup between the Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs on August 8, 2021. The broadcast marked ABC's first broadcast of Sunday Night Baseball and the first regular season matchup it had broadcast since its involvement in the Baseball Network in 1995.
Ravech, Cone and Pérez (2022–present)
In 2021, ESPN and Major League Baseball agreed to a new contract that would last through the 2028 season. Beginning in 2022, ESPN would keep Sunday Night Baseball as its Game of the Week broadcast, but would no longer televise non-exclusive weeknight games unlike in previous years. It also gave ESPN the option to produce an alternate telecast on its sister networks (such as the popular alternate "StatCast" seen on ESPN2), as well as simulcasts on ESPN+.
Matt Vasgersian left ESPN after the 2021 season to focus more on his duties for MLB Network and Bally Sports West, as he is the lead announcer for the Los Angeles Angels, which in part, due to SNB, saw his role taken by Daron Sutton and Rich Waltz for most of the 2021 season. On January 7, 2022, ESPN announced that Karl Ravech would become the fourth play-by-play announcer for Sunday Night Baseball, joined by analysts David Cone and Eduardo Pérez.
On May 14, 2023, ESPN was widely criticized for its decision to implement a split screen between its coverage of Game 6 of the Stanley Cup Playoff series between the Vegas Golden Knights and Edmonton Oilers and a Sunday Night Baseball telecast between the St. Louis Cardinals and Boston Red Sox, which was being played at the same time and was ultimately won by St. Louis by the score of 9–1.
KayRod Cast
Starting in 2022, alternate telecasts of eight Sunday Night Baseball games will air on ESPN2 with Michael Kay and Alex Rodriguez calling the games. The presentation, nicknamed "KayRod Cast", will be similar to the Monday Night Football "Manningcast" hosted by Peyton and Eli Manning.
Notable games aired on Sunday Night Baseball
2000s
On May 28, 2000, Pedro Martínez and Roger Clemens faced off in an epic pitchers' duel at Yankee Stadium. Both pitchers threw complete games and combined for 22 strikeouts, 13 for Clemens, 9 for Martinez. The game was scoreless until Trot Nixon hit a two-run home run in the top of the ninth inning. Martinez then got the final three outs in the bottom of the inning to secure the victory.
ESPN was on hand for the Cleveland Indians' historic comeback against the Seattle Mariners on August 5, 2001. The Indians trailed 14–2 after six innings, but scored twelve runs in the final three innings before winning in the bottom of the eleventh, 15–14. The twelve-run comeback tied the Major League record for largest deficit overcome in a game.
On September 2, 2001, Mike Mussina of the New York Yankees came within one strike of a perfect game against the Boston Red Sox. The effort was broken up on a single by Carl Everett, with Mussina settling for a one-hitter. The game itself was an exciting pitchers' duel, with the Red Sox' David Cone also shutting out the Yankees for eight innings, before allowing an RBI double by Enrique Wilson in the ninth. It was the only scoring of the Yankees' 1–0 win. Additionally, Cone was the most recent pitcher to record a perfect game having done so two years earlier as a Yankee against the Montreal Expos.
On June 16, 2002, Sunday Night Baseball covered a Subway Series at Shea Stadium in which Mo Vaughn hit a game winning three-run home run in the New York Mets' 3–2 win over the New York Yankees.
Rafael Furcal completed an unassisted triple play for the Atlanta Braves against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 10, 2003. It was the 12th such play in baseball history. In the fifth inning, the shortstop caught pitcher Woody Williams' liner with the runners moving in a hit and run attempt, stepped on second base to retire catcher Mike Matheny and tagged Orlando Palmeiro before he could return to first.
On April 22, 2007, the Red Sox became the fifth team in Major League history to hit four consecutive home runs, doing so in the third inning of a 7–6 victory over the Yankees.
On April 29, 2007, a canceled broadcast occurred between the Chicago Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals when Cardinals relief pitcher Josh Hancock was killed in a car accident earlier in the day at 12:35 A.M. while driving under the influence. In place of the game, special programming hosted by Miller and Morgan was shown. The game was later made up on September 10, 2007, where the Cubs defeated the Cardinals 12–3, though the game was not broadcast as the Game of the Week.
On August 5, 2007, Tom Glavine of the New York Mets became the 23rd pitcher in history to record his 300th win. He did it in an 8–3 victory over the Chicago Cubs.
Sunday Night Baseball broadcast the Washington Nationals' very first game at Nationals Park on March 30, 2008. The Nationals beat the Atlanta Braves, 3–2, on Ryan Zimmerman's walk-off home run in the bottom of the ninth. President George W. Bush, who threw out the ceremonial first pitch prior to the game, joined Jon Miller and Joe Morgan in the ESPN booth during the telecast.
The final game played at Yankee Stadium on September 21, 2008, pitting the New York Yankees against the Baltimore Orioles, was broadcast on Sunday Night Baseball.
The Mariano Rivera 500th career save (and also his 1st lifetime RBI) was broadcast on Sunday Night Baseball from Citi Field (home of the New York Mets).
2010s
During the May 1, 2011, broadcast between the New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillies, ESPN announced the death of Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the September 11 attacks, at the end of the 8th inning. At the top of the 9th inning with 1 out and Daniel Murphy at bat, fans at Citizens Bank Park erupted with U-S-A! chants despite the fact that no announcement of the news had been made in the stadium. Fans learned about the events through social media and mobile news apps. Appropriately, the Mets game against the Chicago Cubs on September 11 was a Sunday night game to mark the tenth anniversary of the attacks.
On July 17, 2011, a game between the Boston Red Sox and Tampa Bay Rays went scoreless into the 16th inning before the Red Sox scored in the top of the inning, leading to a 1–0 victory. This game was also notable for a foul ball hit by the Rays' Sean Rodriguez that hit and broke a lamp in the catwalks of Tropicana Field. As the grounds crew cleaned up the broken glass that fell onto the field, the stadium PA system played the music from The Natural.
The Chicago Cubs and the Mets at Citi Field on September 11, 2011, was broadcast on Sunday Night Baseball as part of the 10th anniversary of September 11, 2001; New York was targeted by the terrorists in the attacks of that day and the Mets hosted the first major professional sports event held in New York City since the attacks on September 21.
On August 30, 2015, during a game between the Chicago Cubs and the Los Angeles Dodgers, Jake Arrieta threw a no-hitter. This was the first no-hitter aired on Sunday Night Baseball. This was the first Sunday Night Baseball game to have a female commentator in the booth, Jessica Mendoza.
On July 3, 2016, Sunday Night Baseball aired the Fort Bragg Game, the first professional sporting event held on an active military base, and the first MLB regular season game held in North Carolina. The Miami Marlins defeated the Atlanta Braves, 5–2.
On May 7, 2017, during the game between the Chicago Cubs and the New York Yankees, they broke the MLB strikeout record as both teams combined made 48 strikeouts (Yankees 22 and Cubs 26). In addition, the 18-inning game was also the longest interleague game yet in MLB history and longest Sunday Night Baseball game yet broadcast. The Yankees won, 5–4.
On August 12, 2018, during a game between the Washington Nationals and the Chicago Cubs, David Bote hit a pinch-hit walk-off grand slam with his team down 3–0 and down to their final strike to give the Cubs a stunning 4–3 victory.
2020s
As previously mentioned, on August 8, 2021, the Sunday Night Baseball game between the Chicago White Sox and the Chicago Cubs aired exclusively on ABC. It was the first time since 1995 that a regular season Major League Baseball game aired on ABC. White Sox won the game 9–3.
Features
The telecasts also utilize the K Zone, a computer-generated on-screen graphic that accurately outlines the strike zone and pitch location. A Skycam is also used; it is usually mounted 20 feet above the stands in foul territory and travels back and forth along the first base line from behind home plate to the foul pole.
Commentators
A complete list of broadcasters, with their period of tenure on the show (beginning years of each season shown).
Current
Karl Ravech: play-by-play (2022–present)
Jon Sciambi: fill-in play-by-play (2022–present)
David Cone: color commentator (2022–present)
Eduardo Pérez: color commentator (2022–present)
Buster Olney: field reporter (2011–present)
Tim Kurkjian: fill-in field reporter (2022–present)
Michael Kay: ESPN2 telecast play-by-play (2022–present)
Alex Rodriguez: ESPN telecast color commentator (2018–2021); ESPN2 telecast color commentator (2022–present)
Former
Play-by-play commentators
Jon Miller: lead play-by-play (1990–2010)
Dan Shulman: lead play-by-play (2011–2017)
Matt Vasgersian: lead play-by-play (2018–2021)
Color commentator
Joe Morgan: lead color commentator (1990–2010)
Steve Phillips: color commentator (2009)
Orel Hershiser: color commentator (2010–2013)
Bobby Valentine: color commentator (2011)
Terry Francona: color commentator (2012)
John Kruk: lead color commentator (2013–2016)
Curt Schilling: color commentator (2014–2015)
Jessica Mendoza: color commentator (2015–2017); co-lead color commentator (2018–2019)
Aaron Boone: color commentator (2016–2017)
Alex Rodriguez: lead color commentator (2018–2021)
Field reporters
Álvaro Martín: field reporter (2000–2001)
Sam Ryan: field reporter (2004–2006)
Bonnie Bernstein: field reporter (July–September 2006)
Peter Gammons: field analyst (2006–2008)
Wendi Nix: field reporter (2011)
Other networks
ESPN Domingo de Grandes Ligas (Major League Sunday) is also broadcast in Spanish on ESPN Deportes, with Ernesto Jerez on play-by-play and Luis Alfredo Alvarez as the color analyst. This version is also presented on the Spanish feed of ESPN Latin America. The Brazilian feed, in Portuguese, has Romulo Mendonça doing the play-by-play and Paulo Antunes as the analyst. They broadcast from ESPN Brasil studios in São Paulo.
ESPN Radio has aired a weekly Sunday Night Baseball broadcast since 1998. Currently, Jon Sciambi calls play-by-play of the games, with Chris Singleton serving as color analyst. Sciambi was preceded by Gary Thorne (2008–09), Dan Shulman (2002–07), and Charley Steiner (1998–2001), while Singleton was preceded by Dave Campbell (1999–2010) and Kevin Kennedy (1998). As of 2020, the reserves for Sciambi include Shulman and Roxy Bernstein. In Canada, this program airs on CJCL, the flagship sports radio station for Sportsnet. TUDN Radio also airs Sunday Night Baseball in Spanish, after the dissolution of ESPN Deportes Radio.
From 1990 to 1997, CBS Radio aired Sunday night games, usually with Jerry Coleman and John Rooney announcing.
Outside the US, this weekly game was also broadcast live on Five in the UK from 1997 until 2008 and at the time was the longest running programme on the channel. In Latin America the game is broadcast on ESPN Latin America. When the NFL season begins, the game is moved to ESPN Dos only for the audience in Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, Colombia and the Caribbean Islands.
In Canada, Sunday Night Baseball has aired on the TSN family of channels (usually on TSN2) since May 16, 2010. This was initially under a sublicensing agreement with Sportsnet, the primary Canadian rightsholder for Major League Baseball, in a deal through which TSN transferred its remaining rights to Toronto Blue Jays games to Sportsnet, which is now the exclusive carrier of Blue Jays games, and English-language rightsholder of all post-season games. Beginning in 2014, TSN has contracted directly with MLB for rights to SNB and other ESPN MLB telecasts through 2021. Sportsnet may still air individual games in the event of a scheduling conflict between all of TSN's channels. Previous carriers of Sunday Night Baseball were TSN (1990–2000), The Score (2001–2002), and Sportsnet (2003 – May 9, 2010). In French, the program is carried on Réseau des Sports with Alain Usereau and Marc Griffin working as the announcers.
Notes
References
References
USA Today- Gammons to join Sunday Night Baseball
ESPN.tv
External links
Baseball on ESPN.tv
Searchable Network TV Broadcasts
1990s American television series
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
2020s American television series
ESPN original programming
Major League Baseball on television
ESPN Radio programs
Major League Baseball on the radio
American sports television series
1990 American television series debuts
Sunday mass media |
4315843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20New%20Zealand | Australian rules football in New Zealand | Australian rules football in New Zealand is notable as the first colony outside of Australia to take up the sport as early as the 1860s and was home to the first club formed outside Australia in 1876. The sport's official name was changed in 1890 to Australasian Football acknowledge New Zealand's participation and remained for some time even after the country was expelled from the Australasian Football Council. After a half century hiatus of organised competition, it has grown rapidly as an amateur sport. Today five of New Zealand's sixteen regions have organised competitions: Auckland (Auckland AFL); Canterbury (Canterbury AFL); Wellington (Wellington AFL); Waikato (Waikato AFL) and Otago (Otago AFL). A four-team national competition with a national draft has been contested at the North Harbour Stadium in Auckland since 2016 for men and 2019 for women. The national team were crowned International champions at the 2005 Australian Football International Cup and competed annually against the AFL Academy between 2012 and 2019. Since the 2010s the game has also grown at junior level among New Zealand schools as the "Hawks Cup".
The first Australian Football League match in New Zealand was played in 1991 and the first AFL premiership match played outside of Australia was the April 25, 2013 match held in Wellington. The average attendance for AFL premiership matches is 16,027. New Zealand is now considered as having the potential to host a professional team. The sport's athletes from New Zealand have become a major talent pool for both professional Australian rules and rugby football competitions and an AFL New Zealand Combine has been held since 2012.
More than 25 players have been listed by clubs in both the AFL and the AFLW since 2010, including descendants of both Māori and European New Zealanders. Wayne Schwass played 282 matches and a premiership in the AFL, more than any other New Zealand born player, Trent Croad has kicked the most goals (189) while Jesse Tawhiao-Wardlaw holds similar honours (premiership, most games and goals) in the AFLW.
History of Australian rules football in New Zealand
Beginnings
Before Europeans arrived in New Zealand, the Māori were playing a traditional ball game called ki-o-rahi which resembled Australian Rules Football in that included several features unique to the code including movement of the ball by hand and foot without an offside, protected zones and a rule similar to holding the ball.
Christ's College in Christchurch from 1851 was playing by "College Rules", inspired from public school football game played by the Church of England School in Oxfordshire. Though few details of the rules exists it has been claimed that from descriptions of the way it was played that it was remarkably similar to Melbourne Football Club rules. The college was later to play matches against the Christchurch Football Clubs which was also playing by similar rules.
Victorians accounted for more than half of New Zealand's Gold Rush immigrants, including those at Otago, Aorere and Coromandel in the 1850s and 1860s and the associated settlements were later to exhibit influences of early Australian football.
The Christchurch Football club, founded in 1863 and playing according to its own rules, one of which was the running bounce (every 4 yards) a feature which appeared 2 years later in Victorian rules. The club adopted rugby rules in 1876.
Australian Football is thought to have been first organised in New Zealand around 1868. The Nelson Football Club was formed this year and played a hybrid version of Victorian and Association (soccer) rules in its first two seasons. By the 1860s, there was regular trade between New Zealand ports and Victoria, and the Victorian rules would have been known by some of the immigrants. The Nelson Club was the first club in New Zealand to adopt Rugby rules, in 1870.
The Wellington Football Club was formed on 12 May 1871. The club initially adopted Victorian rules, but it soon switched to Rugby rules "principally for the reason that the clubs in adjoining provinces play under those rules, and as the club contemplate playing a match with the Nelson club before long the necessity of such a course is apparent." The last match played under Victorian rules was on 24 June 1871. This was not the end of the matter, however, with the club for a short period in 1875 adding the Victorian rule of bouncing the ball. The club reverted to full Rugby rules soon thereafter.
The Dunedin Football Club, formed in 1872, initially played under its own rules. Shortly thereafter, a second club in Dunedin, the Union Club, was formed; it is thought to have adopted Victorian rules. Poor weather meant that few games were played in both the 1873 and 1874 seasons. The Dunedin Club adopted Association (soccer) rules in 1875, while the Union club retained Victorian rules. The clubs were able to compromise, and the first match between the clubs that year was played under Victorian rules on 19 June 1875. The return match was played under Association rules a few weeks later. In 1876, a hybrid match was played between the two clubs. The first half was played according to rugby rules, and the second half according to Victorian Rules. By 1877, both clubs had adopted Rugby rules.
"At the annual meeting of the Union Club in 1877 it was decided by 17 votes to five to adopt the Rugby Union Laws, the club in all its matches with the D.F.C. previous to that date having stipulated for one spell of every game being under Victorian rules."
The first games of football in Auckland were played in 1870 with the rules being a mix of Victorian and Association. In 1873, the Auckland Football Club adopted Rugby rules following a visit by two members of the Wellington Club. At the 1874 AGM of the Auckland Football Club, discussion continued around rules, with motions put to either adopt the Victorian Rules of 1866, or form a committee to consider other rules. These motions were defeated in favour of continuing with Rugby rules.
An Auckland team undertook the first inter-provincial Rugby tour in late 1875. This sparked additional interest in Rugby in regions such as Canterbury and Dunedin where several codes were being played. Ultimately, the success of this led to further representative tours, and proved to be a catalyst for Rugby to become the dominant code in the main regions.
The New Zealand Football Association: 1880-1884
The Reform Football Club was formed in Wellington in 1879 to "play under the Victorian rules". In the same article, several clubs are also reported to have been formed in Dunedin as well as one in Nelson. The Reform club's first practice match was held in the Hon. J. Sheehan's paddock, Hobson St, on 5 April 1879 in front of a "considerable number of spectators". The Reform club enjoyed a reasonable amount of press coverage throughout 1879, though faded into obscurity from 1880. Another short lived club formed to play under the code in 1879 was the Victorian Football Club at a meeting at Dunedin's Southern Cross Hotel, however it too was shortlived.
The New Zealand Football Association was formed on 12 July 1880 in Christchurch. The competition continued to operate with several clubs across New Zealand until 1884. However it struggled with the New Zealand press, which was enamoured with rugby and continually derisive toward the Australian code. Although the code struggled with negativity from the media, in these early days rugby authorities were generally cooperative with access to grounds, enabling the codes to coexist.
In 1880, a proposal was put forward to send an Australasian team of players from Melbourne, Sydney and Adelaide to New Zealand and combine and tour England. Otago, one of the game's last strongholds, along with Auckland, pledged to send players for the tour. However the only football team that set sail was the Australian (New South Wales) rugby side in 1881. This helped dispell assurances from Australasian Rules advocates that the Australasian game was fast overtaking Rugby in popularity in Sydney the reaction that year was that in its Otago stronghold 5 of the 8 clubs affiliated with the Otago Rugby Union and saw the code's popularity across the country plummet.
H C A Harrison toured Auckland in 1883 with the cricket team and met with the governing body of Rugby Union proposing that it switch to Victorian Association Rules and would be in turn raising the idea of a universal form of football with football authorities in England. New Zealand football officials also noted English officials rejection of Harrison's suggestion during his visit to London that rugby clubs there adopt some of the Victorian Rules. The fallout would lead to the continually sharp decline in the fortunes of the game locally.
The 1888-1889 New Zealand Native football team matches saw a Māori team visit Victoria, as part of a year long tour of the UK and Australia, to play a program of Victorian Rules games. The team played eight games, winning three and losing five. It defeated South Melbourne Football Club, which at that stage was Victoria's premier club.
New Century: Australasian rules booms
After being virtually nonexistent since the 1880s, interest in Australian football was rekindled on the back of a wave of immigration from Australia in the first decade of the 20th century. In 1903, the 'New Zealand Association of Australian Football' was formed in Christchurch by a committee of expat Victorians. The league had 4 clubs (City Wanderers, Sydenham, Woolston, and Imperial with a fifth, Carlton, formed a year later).
By 1904, a number of leagues were being established throughout the country. In Wellington, a league of five clubs was formed (City, Newtown, Petone, Wanderers, and Federal), and Auckland had three clubs in the new league (Auckland Imperial, Victoria, and Austral football clubs). Other centres also had clubs form in 1904, including Dunedin (Australian Pioneer Football Club), Kaitangata (Wanderers), Waihi and Waikino. Vic Cumberland who played with Auckland Imperial was something of a drawcard for the local game on his arrival from Australia.
The first inter-provincial match was held between Wellington and Christchurch in August 1905.
In 1905, two New Zealand representatives (one from the North Island and one from the South) attended the Australasian Football Conference where the Australasian Football Council was formed. The North and South Islands did not receive separate representation.
In 1906 a Canterbury vs Wellington match was played as a curtain-raiser to a rugby game which attracted 2,000 spectators.
The Auckland league expanded from 1906 to feature additional clubs including the Eden Football Club (who won back-to-back Auckland Australian Football League premierships in 1907 & 1908) and a thriving junior competition. On the south island, regular matches began to be played in Invercargill. All told in 1906 there were more than 60 clubs across 8 associations including the centres of Auckland, Dunedin, Wellington, Palmerston, Christchurch and Napier.
The first national body, the New Zealand Football League, formed in 1907 at the Naval & Family Hotel in Auckland, including representatives from all provinces, which set about planning for the Australian tour, noting the rapidly growing popularity of the code across the country. At the meeting, the NZFL adopted a national code of laws and elected its first president Dr Tracy Inglis.
However the Australasian Football Council president Con Hickey in 1907 was quick to pour cold water on the game's growth in New Zealand, declaring that despite the game being played overseas the primary focus should be on developing the game in Australia, promoting inter-state competition, and that there would be no attempt to "oust rugby" in places where it was growing in popularity.
Wellington defeated Canterbury in a match between the two provinces in July 1907.
In 1908, New Zealand defeated both New South Wales and Queensland at the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival an event held in Melbourne, at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, to celebrate 50 years of Australian Football. Despite the country's onfield success, the Australasian Football Council decided to allocate just 20% of its game promotion fund to New Zealand, with the majority going to New South Wales (50%) and Queensland (30%).
By 1909, the game was rapidly growing had become established in Auckland, Waihi, Poverty Bay, Canterbury, Otago, Taihape and Utiki and moves were being made to establish a league in the Southland at Invercargill.
1910s: Decline and AFC's Exclusion campaign
Many of the leagues went into rapid decline around the end of the decade. This was partly due to the departure of a number of the Australian players back home, but also due to rising conflict with rugby authorities. Leagues were beginning to encounter interference from rugby, the Wellington League of Australian Football for example was denied access to its primary venue the Basin Reserve from 1908 and lack of suitable venues led to it folding and leagues around the country faced similar challenges. However the biggest challenge came from within the game itself.
Since the inception of the AFC Victoria (VFL) and South Australia (SAFL) had been pushing for support for the game overseas to be wound up. Both leagues were invested in protecting their primacy and advocated for the redirection of funds proposed for other nations to New South Wales and Queensland in an effort to instead nationalise the game in Australia. With only one voting member, New Zealand was powerless to defend its position. New Zealand's AFC delegate, E. L. McKeon, in 1908 with the support of AFC president Con Hickey (Victoria), had begun promoting the idea of universal football (amalgamation with rugby league) as the solution to help stave off increased competition to rugby. South Australia's delegate R. F. C Sullivan, strongly in support of the pure Australian Football again moved to exclude New Zealand from the council in 1910 and while the motion was defeated the chair Hickey (Victoria) passed a motion that would withdraw all funding to senior competition, a move which the New Zealand delegate called a "death warrant for the sport" in the country. In 1911, the Council decided to reduce New Zealand's funding to £50 (compared to £225 for New South Wales and for £125 for Queensland) and only on the condition that all of it be spent on juniors (no such restrictions were placed on the Australian member states). The AFC was adamant that its funds be used only to introduce the code into New Zealand schools. New Zealand's delegate had strongly argued that without a viable senior competition schools would simply not take up the game, ultimately this proved true.
The AFC's withdrawal of funding had a detrimental impact with almost all of the senior competitions folding within a year. The last of them, the Auckland competition, folded in 1912 with clubs unable to field sufficient players, and only the junior competition continuing. When New Zealand failed to provide the AFC details on how its 1912 propaganda funds were spent, no subsequent funds were provided in 1913 causing the junior competitions also to fold.
Reported Rugby League "takeover" in Australia and the Effect of World War
The impact of rugby league's expansion was also significant in the sport's complete demise. Rugby league in New Zealand grew rapidly from 1908 and by 1910 many senior players had begun to shift to the new code. Since the early introduction of both codes, New Zealand media regularly took greater interest in interstate contests across all codes between New South Wales and Queensland, particularly in comparing the popularity and progress of rugby football. Though New Zealand teams had toured Australia, due to AFC policy, no Australian Rules teams ever visited New Zealand. When the New South Wales rugby league team toured in 1912, the focus on Australian Rugby League generated the perception of a decline in prominence of the Australian game in Australia, There was an awareness in the growing gap between New South Wales and Queensland, and the closing financial gap between the Sydney and Melbourne professional competitions, with league offering better paying opportunities for players.
By the outbreak of World War I, the code was in serious trouble with many of the remaining players leaving for active service. The war was not all doom for the code however, the formation of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps had a positive effect. In Auckland, 8 clubs reformed at the start of the war with some promising growth prior to the major campaigns.
With the rising popularity of rugby league, the Australasian Football Council ramped up its plans to amalgamate with rugby league in an attempt to stay relevant amid a decline in interest. However this played right into the rugby league's hands. Australian rugby league authorities, pulled out of the plan, and the rugby community in New Zealand used the plan to its own advantage. Erroneous media reports were widely circulated across New Zealand in 1914 declaring the proposed amalgamation to a planned takeover bid by the rugby league that would effectively supplant Australian Football as Australia's national football code. It was also reported that the Australian national team to tour New Zealand would be playing the new National Rugby League code. By the time that the proposed takeover was no longer being reported as a "sure thing" the confusion caused had already been done to the confidence of the code locally, already on hold everywhere but Auckland due to the war. The new focus was on sending a Rugby league team to compete against the National League professionals from Australia with matches to be played in Sydney and Brisbane in June 1915. The belief that Australian rules in Australia was dying was fueled by reports that the replacement of what was Australian Rules would be played as a curtain-raiser to the big match. Adding to the view that the Australian code would not survive the war, the South Australian Football League's ceasing of its competition in 1916 was also widely reported. With the return of the code in Australia and the failure of the NZ league tour, some had regretted putting the focus on sending a League team to tour Australia with most commentators generally agreeing that despite the hype from Sydney, that Union offered a superior spectacle to League.
Expulsion of New Zealand: 1914
Tensions between the Australian delegates and New Zealand became acrimonious and in 1914 after a lengthy debate and 89 page report on the state of the game and the use of propaganda funds the council again moved to exclude New Zealand. The time it was unanimously passed by the council and New Zealand was permanently expelled. The council removed the reference to Australasia.
Post-war efforts
Nevertheless, some efforts were made to rekindle interest in the code during these years. For instance, in 1930 a call was put out through The Sporting Globe for Australians in New Zealand to restart the sport there. An opinion piece in The Argus in Melbourne's 1935 also proposed that the Australian Football Council might be remiss not to put some effort into promoting the game there.
In 1961, the Melbourne Football Club toured New Zealand during its off season, becoming the first VFL/AFL club to do so.
In 1965 Sydney club Western Suburbs Magpies AFC toured New Zealand an played an exhibition match in Auckland which attracted more than 700 spectators, prompting calls for a local club to compete against visiting sides.
Modern Competition, Sport gains an audience
In 1974, senior competitions began in Christchurch (The Canterbury Australian Rules Football Association), Auckland (Auckland Australian Football League) and Wellington.
In 1978 New Zealand sent a representative team to play against a representative test against the South West Gippsland Football Association. This was the earliest recorded overseas match of the national team.
In 1980, the game's premier league at the time, the VFL, sold its first ever television broadcasting rights to New Zealand, with highlight packages with the Grand Final going live into the country. By 1984, the finals series was also televised.
The Australian Rules Football Council of New Zealand formed in the early 1980s and began requesting representative matches against the Australian Capital Territory as early as 1983. However it was not invited to any national carnivals until the 1990s.
In 1996, the Australian Defence Force side visited New Zealand to conduct clinics and promote the game.
The Arafura Games gave the side the first opportunity for the newly branded Falcons to compete at an international level. In 1995, 1997 and 1999, New Zealand took the silver medal in Australian Football at the event in Darwin, Northern Territory, running second to Papua New Guinea.
In 1997, the New Zealand Australian Football Development Foundation (NZAFDF) was formed.
1998 saw the debut of New Zealand born Trent Croad into the Australian Football League, the beginnings of what is a successful career at elite level.
In 1999, NZAFDF incorporated as governing body and was renamed New Zealand AFL.
Exhibition Matches
The years of 1991, 1998, 2000 and 2001 saw official Australian Football League exhibition matches staged in New Zealand so that the AFL could gauge local support.
International Success
In the inaugural Australian Football International Cup in 2002, New Zealand finished 3rd.
In 2003, local Aussie Rules convert Nick Evans debuted for the famous All Blacks rugby union side against England.
Since 2004, there have been talks of a New Zealand Australian Football League franchise or club relocation as a possible expansion plan for the league. New Zealand fields teams in several Australian competitions in other football codes including the National Rugby League and A-League.
The country came to be regarded as an Australian state by the Australian Football League's international development department.
2005 was a huge year for Australian Football in New Zealand. The national team, the Falcons defeated Papua New Guinea to win the International Cup and were later invited to send a team to the Australian Country Championships.
2006 saw the first-ever live regular season AFL matches on television, which were shown by SKY Network Television.
In November 2008, 17-year-old Liam Ackland was invited to the AIS/AFL academy.
The Hawthorn Football Club, which had been involved in New Zealand since about 2004 and at one point in 2009 had 3 players from New Zealand on its senior list, stepped up its involvement in 2009 with development funding to set up a school competition, the "Hawks Cup", for recruiting and talent identification.
The sport boomed at junior levels after approved by the New Zealand Secondary Sports Council. Kurt Heatherley of Tauranga accepted an AFL scholarship in 2010.
2016 saw the successful introduction of a high-level four-team national competition, featuring a national draft with games played out of North Harbour stadium.
In 2021 All Blacks Will Jordan expressed an interest in trialling with an AFL club, describing it as a "a cool game to watch", Jordie Barrett admitted he's a fan, describing it as a "cool sport".
Participation
In 2007 New Zealand had around 600 senior players. In 2010, the AFL hoped to increase registered secondary school participants with the introduction of in-school programs. This introduction was highly successful and at the end of 2012, 25,000 Kiwikick participants had been recorded.
By 2016 the number of registered participants had increased to 35,000.
Leagues & Competitions
National team
The National men's team is the Hawks. Up to 1908 it was known as the "All Blacks" or the "Silver Ferns" like their rugby counterparts. When the team was reformed it adopted the moniker of the Falcons in 1995. In 2018, a poll was held by AFL New Zealand to rename the side with the current named selected. The team intercolonial tests were for the 1908 tour to Australia, when it competed in the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival and travelled throughout Australia playing regional sides. However the team was dormant for three quarters of a century until the first internationals at the Arafura Games where they were Silver medallists in 1995 and 1997. The side has competed internationally since the inaugural Australian Football International Cup in 2002, and was crowned International champions in 2005.
A national women's side, the New Zealand Kahu, began as an under 18 national team in 2015 before representing women's senior football in 2019 with the aim of debuting internationally for the Australian Football International Cup women's division.
AFL games
AFL club signed a historic agreement with, the AFL and Wellington City Council, the Saints will play in New Zealand on Anzac Day each year from 2013 through 2015. They play for the Simpson-Henderson Trophy.
Source: Footy Wire
Principal venues
Audience
Attendance
The record attendance for an Australian rules game in New Zealand is 22,546 which was set in 2013 between vs at Westpac Stadium in Wellington.
The average attendance for AFL premiership matches played in New Zealand is 16,027.
Television
SKY Network Television (one delayed AFL match per week and Highlights)
Sommet Sports (six live games each week, the remaining matches broadcast on delayed coverage)
TVNZ Duke
Players
Men's
Women's
See also
New Zealand AFL
List of New Zealand born AFL players
Books
References |
4316008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYSE%20Euronext | NYSE Euronext | NYSE Euronext, Inc. was a transatlantic multinational financial services corporation that operated multiple securities exchanges, including the New York Stock Exchange, Euronext and NYSE Arca (formerly known as ArcaEx). NYSE merged with Archipelago Holdings on March 7, 2006, forming NYSE Group, Inc. On April 4, 2007, NYSE Group, Inc. merged with Euronext N.V. to form the first global equities exchange, with its headquarters in Lower Manhattan. The corporation was then acquired by Intercontinental Exchange, which subsequently spun off Euronext.
Overview
NYSE Euronext offers a broad and growing array of financial products and services in cash equities, futures, options, exchange-traded products (ETPs), bonds, market data, and commercial technology. Spanning multiple asset classes and six countries, the company's exchanges include the New York Stock Exchange, Liffe, Euronext and NYSE Arca. With more than 8,000 listed issues (which includes 90% of the Dow Jones Industrial Average and 80% of the S&P 500, trading on NYSE Euronext's equity markets represents more than one-third of the world's cash equities volume. The company also manages the leading European derivatives exchange by value of trading.
NYSE Euronext is part of the S&P 500 index and the only exchange operator in the S&P 100 index.
NYSE Euronext is a Delaware corporation, though the principal executive office of NYSE Euronext is located at 11 Wall Street, New York, New York 10005. The European headquarters are at 39 Rue Cambon, 75001 in Paris, France.
Locations
Below is a list of major NYSE Euronext locations:
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Belfast, Northern Ireland
Brussels, Belgium
Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
Lisbon, Portugal
London, United Kingdom
New York City, New York, United States of America
Palo Alto, California, United States of America
Paris, France
San Francisco, California, United States of America
Mergers and acquisitions
NYSE and Archipelago Holdings
The merger between NYSE and Archipelago Holdings was initially approved in 2005 by a 95% majority of voting NYSE members. The acquisition of Archipelago, which held possession of highly regarded market technology at the time, was intended to bring automated trading to NYSE markets (which had previously utilized an "open outcry" system) and increase efficiency.
For the first time in its 213-year history, the New York Stock Exchange became a for-profit company, and began trading publicly on its own stock exchange under the NYX ticker. Owners of the 1,366 NYSE seats received 80,177 shares of NYSE Group stock plus $300,000 in cash and $70,571 in dividends for each seat. The completion of this deal created two new branches of the NYSE Group: NYSE Arca and NYSE Arca Europe, which launched after the acquisition of Euronext.
NYSE Group and Euronext merger April 4, 2007
In April 2006, NYSE Group and Euronext signed a merger agreement, subject to shareholder vote and regulatory approval. Euronext shareholders gave approval to the transaction on December 19, 2006, and shareholders from the NYSE Group followed suit one day later. In April 2007 the Euronext shareholders tendering shares can receive NYSE shares and cash amounting to $11,141 million from NYSE Euronext for their assets. About 94% of the 112,557,259 shares are tendered in the first round.
The NYSE Group and Euronext merger on April 4, 2007, signaled the creation of the world's largest and most liquid exchange group—NYSE Euronext.
NYSE Euronext and NYFIX
NYSE Euronext, through its wholly owned subsidiary NYSE Technologies, Inc. acquired NYFIX, Inc. (Nasdaq: NYFX) for $144 million in November 2009. NYSE Euronext incorporated NYFIX's trading software into the company's package of offerings to customers.
Attempted merger between NYSE Euronext and Deutsche Börse
In 2011, Bloomberg reported that the German exchange operator was in advanced talks to buy NYSE Euronext for $9.53 billion in a deal that would create the world's largest trading powerhouse. The shares of both companies were temporarily frozen on the news due to the risk of large price movements and clarifications of the deal. A successful deal would see the new company becoming the world's largest stock exchange operator with a market capitalization of listed companies equal to $15 trillion.
The proposed group would have dual headquarters, in Deutsche Boerse's newly built green tower near Frankfurt, Germany, and in New York City at 11 Wall Street. It would be led by a board with seventeen members, fifteen directors plus the Chairman and the CEO. Of the fifteen directors, nine to be designated by Deutsche Boerse and six by NYSE Euronext. Current NYSE Euronext CEO Duncan Niederauer would assume the same role with the newly founded company and would lead an Executive Committee with an equal number of current Deutsche Boerse and NYSE Euronext executives.
On July 7, 2011, NYSE Euronext shareholders voted in favor of the merger, and on July 13, 2011, Deutsche Boerse shareholders approved the deal as well. These decisions move the two sides closer to completing the transaction, which must still pass through forty separate regulatory approval processes to be finalized.
The merger was subject to review in both the United States and with the European Union (EU) for concerns it could create a "de facto monopoly".
In October 2011, CEO Niederauer said the company had received the EU's so-called statement of objections, which was more than 100 pages long, and would be responding within two weeks, possibly by asking for the opportunity for an oral hearing with the regulators. The EU examination of the proposal formally began June 29 has said its expanded probe has a Dec. 13 deadline. In March, Joaquín Almunia, the EU's antitrust commissioner, expressed concern that the deal would maybe monopolize the derivatives market due to Deutsche Boerse's "vertical silo" which routes all trade clearing through its own services. Almunia said then he preferred a "more open business model" for markets.
On December 22, 2011, Deutsche Boerse won U.S. antitrust approval to buy NYSE Euronext, on condition that a Deutsche Boerse subsidiary, the International Securities Exchange, divest its 31.5 percent interest in Direct Edge. NYSE Euronext and Deutsche Boerse AG delayed the deadline for completing their merger until March 31, 2012 so the exchange operators could try to persuade European regulators to approve the deal.
On February 1, 2012, the European Union blocked the planned merger between NYSE Euronext and Deutsche Boerse. The European Commission—the EU's executive body—ruled against the merger because, they said, the combined exchange would control more than 90% of the trade in European derivatives. The European Commission report stated, "The merger between Deutsche Boerse and NYSE Euronext would have led to a near-monopoly in European financial derivatives worldwide... These markets are at the heart of the financial system and it is crucial for the whole European economy that they remain competitive".
On February 2, 2012, the NYSE Euronext and Deutsche Börse agreed with strong opposition by the EU for the planned merger, to scrap the merger.
Intercontinental Exchange acquisition of NYSE Euronext
On December 20, 2012, the boards of directors of both Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and the NYSE Euronext approved an $8 billion acquisition of NYSE Euronext. Under the terms shareholders of NYSE would receive either $33.12 in cash for each share or .2581 IntercontinentalExchange Inc. shares, or a combination of $11.27 in cash per share plus .1703 shares of stock. The acquisition is subject to regulator approval, though since the operations of ICE and NYSE have little in common—ICE is largely devoted to trading commodities, as opposed to NYSE's business of trading stocks and securities—the deal is not expected to be blocked. ICE said that after the deal closed it would sell the Euronext portion of the company, including stock exchanges in Amsterdam, Brussels, Lisbon and Paris. The deal went through and Euronext is a sister division to NYSE and part of ICE. ICE CEO Jeffrey Sprecher would continue in that position at the combined company, while NYSE CEO Duncan Niederauer would serve as president. The future of the New York Stock Exchange's historic trading floor under ICE has not been announced. ICE closed the high profile and historic trading floors of its other earlier acquisitions, the International Petroleum Exchange and the New York Board of Trade in New York.
Company structure
Derivatives
The Derivatives segment consists of NYSE Euronext's derivatives trading and clearing businesses. This includes NYSE Liffe, NYSE Liffe Clearing, NYSE Liffe US, NYSE Amex Options, NYSE Arca Option, and related derivatives market data.
NYSE Liffe
NYSE Liffe comprises the derivatives market operated by LIFFE Administration and Management, Euronext Amsterdam, Euronext Brussels, Euronext Lisbon, and Euronext Paris. It offers customers the advantages of one of the most technologically advanced derivatives trading platforms as well as one of the widest choices of products of any derivatives market.
Through a single electronic trading platform, NYSE Liffe offers customers access to a wide range of interest-rate, equity, index, commodity and currency derivative products. This platform has been designed to handle significant order flows and transaction volumes. Orders can be matched either on a price/time or pro rata basis, configurable by contract, with transacted prices and volumes and the aggregate size of all bids and offers at each price level updated on a real-time basis. Users can continually notified of all active orders in the central order book, making market depth easy to monitor.
NYSE Liffe also offers its customers the Bclear and Cscreen services, which bridge the listed and over-the-counter (OTC) markets. This provides a simple and cost-effective way to register and process wholesale derivatives trades through NYSE Liffe to clearing at NYSE Liffe Clearing. Following the launch of NYSE Liffe Clearing, NYSE Liffe assumed full responsibility for clearing activities on its own London market.
NYSE Liffe US, NYSE Euronext's U.S. futures exchange, makes available for trading full- and mini-sized gold and silver futures, options on full-sized gold and silver futures and futures on Morgan Stanley Capital International (MSCI) Indices. A significant minority equity stake in NYSE Liffe US is held by six external investors: Citadel Securities, DRW Investments, Getco, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley and UBS. Under this ownership structure, NYSE Euronext remains the largest shareholder in the entity and consolidates its financial reporting. NYSE Euronext manages the day-to-day operations of NYSE Liffe US, which operates under the supervision of a separate board of directors.
NYSE Amex Options
The NYSE Amex Options business uses a hybrid model combining both auction-based and electronic trading capabilities that is designed to provide a stable, liquid and less volatile market. This feature provides the opportunity for price and/or size improvement.
In 2010, NYSE Euronext announced the sale of a significant equity interest in NYSE Amex Options to seven external investors: Bank of America Merrill Lynch, Barclays Capital, Citadel Securities, Citi, Goldman Sachs, TD Ameritrade, and UBS. Under the framework, NYSE Euronext remains the largest shareholder in the entity and manages the day-to-day operations of NYSE Amex Options, which operates under the supervision of a separate board of directors and chief executive officer. NYSE Euronext consolidates this entity for financial reporting purposes.
NYSE Arca Options
NYSE Arca Options, the other of NYSE Euronext's two U.S. options exchanges, offers immediate, cost-effective electronic order execution in nearly two thousand options issues. The NYSE Arca Options business uses a technology platform and market structure designed to enhance the speed and quality of trade execution for its customers, as well as to attract additional sources of liquidity. Its structure allows market makers to access its markets remotely and integrates floor-based participants as well.
Cash Trading and Listings
The Cash Trading and Listings segment includes the New York Stock Exchange, Euronext, NYSE Amex, NYSE Arca, NYSE Alternext, NYSE Arca Europe, SmartPool, BlueNext, and NYSE Blue, as well as related cash trading market data.
New York Stock Exchange
The New York Stock Exchange is registered as a national securities exchange under the Exchange Act. In addition to common stock, preferred stock and warrants, the NYSE lists debt and corporate structured products, such as capital securities, mandatory convertibles, and repackaged securities.
Euronext
Euronext is the first integrated cross-border exchange, combining the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, Paris, Brussels and Lisbon into a single market. Issuers who meet European Union regulatory standards are qualified for listing on the regulated markets operated by Euronext. The company's exchanges list a wide variety of securities, including domestic and international equity securities, convertible bonds, warrants, trackers and debt securities, including corporate and government bonds.
All of Euronext's markets are operated by its subsidiaries, each of which holds a national license as an exchange operator.
NYSE Amex
NYSE Euronext completed its acquisition of the American Stock Exchange (Amex) on October 1, 2008. The transaction extended NYSE Euronext's leadership in U.S. option, cash equities, and exchange-traded funds (ETFs), making it the third largest U.S. equity options marketplace based on number of contracts traded. Since the merger, Amex has been integrated into the company, with former Amex listings now trading directly on the NYSE, and has begun trading certain Nasdaq-listed securities.
NYSE Arca is the first electronic market to offer listed ETP issuers a Lead Market Maker program, which encourages liquidity provision that contributes to the best prices and depth in the ETP marketplace. It is registered as a national securities exchange under the Exchange Act.
NYSE Alternext
NYSE Alternext was created by NYSE Euronext to meet the needs of small and mid-sized companies seeking simplified access to the stock market. Its streamlined listing requirements and trading rules are suited to the size and business needs of such firms. The rules also ensure investor transparency. NYSE Alternext's special listing procedures, unique market model, and listings of sponsor companies for members are its most notable features.
NYSE Alternext is an exchange-regulated market with a lighter regulatory regime. It is not a regulated market as defined by the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive (MiFID), but rather is regulated by NYSE Euronext through a body of rules applicable to intermediaries and listed companies.
NYSE Arca Europe
NYSE Arca Europe is a pan-European multilateral trading facility (MTF) that extends the trading scope of Euronext's regulated markets by adding blue-chip stocks from 14 European countries: Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Arca Europe integrates this trading facility with the other business components of the company, giving customers the flexibility in trading of an MTF while maintaining the global market reach of NYSE Euronext.
SmartPool
SmartPool Trading Limited is a UK-registered company supplying an MTF approved by the Financial Services Authority (FSA). It provides an exchange-led dark pool for the execution of block orders covering 15 different European markets, with a full central counter party back-end through LCH.Clearnet and EuroCCP. SmartPool was created by NYSE Euronext in partnership with BNP Paribas, HSBC, and J.P. Morgan Chase.
BlueNext and NYSE Blue
NYSE Euronext holds a 60% interest in BlueNext with the remaining 40% held by CDC Climat. BlueNext operates a spot market in carbon dioxide emission allowances and credits that is the European leader in the field. It seeks to establish a leading position in trading in environment-related instruments, and has also launched a futures market with physical delivery of allowances and credits.
In September 2010, NYSE Euronext announced plans to create NYSE Blue, a new global company that will focus on environmental and sustainable energy markets. NYSE Euronext contributed its ownership in BlueNext in return for a majority interest in NYSE Blue, and APX, Inc. (a leading provider of regulatory infrastructure and services for environmental and sustainable energy markets) will contribute its business in return for a minority interest in the venture. The transaction closed on February 18, 2011.
Information Services and Technology Solutions
The Information Services and Technology Solutions segment refers to NYSE Euronext's commercial technology transactions, data, and infrastructure businesses. NYSE Euronext operates NYSE Technologies, Free Market, and also owns NYFIX, Inc.
NYSE Technologies
NYSE Technologies is the commercial technology division of NYSE Euronext.
NYSE Technologies operates five business:
Global Market Data
Trading Solutions
Exchange Solutions
Global Connectivity
Transactions primarily comprises the former NYFIX FIX business and incorporates the NYFIX Marketplace and the FIX Software business.
Marché Libre
The Free Markets of Brussels and Paris, organized by NYSE Euronext, are not regulated markets in the sense of the EU Directive. The criteria for admission to these markets are much simpler, and listing costs are low. They provide a channel for disseminating buy and sell orders, with trades executed by NYSE Euronext member firms. The securities traded on these markets have not gone through any admission procedures and issuers are not subject to any disclosure requirements. The Free Markets serve companies that are too young or too small to be listed on one of the regulated compartments of NYSE Euronext.
NYSE Regulation and FINRA
On May 4, 2010, NYSE Euronext and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) announced that FINRA would assume responsibility for performing the market surveillance and enforcement functions originally conducted by NYSE Regulation. The agreement was subject to review by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and was completed in June 2010.
Under the announced agreement, FINRA assumed regulatory functions for NYSE Euronext's U.S. equities and options markets – the New York Stock Exchange, NYSE Arca, and NYSE Amex. NYSE Euronext, through its subsidiary NYSE Regulation, remains ultimately responsible for overseeing FINRA's performance of regulatory services for the NYSE markets.
Libor administration
In early 2014, NYSE Euronext took over the administration of the London interbank offered rate from the British Bankers Association. The new administrator is NYSE Euronext Rates Administration Limited, a London-based, UK registered company, regulated by the UK’s Financial Conduct Authority.
Global marketing and branding
NYSE Euronext maintains an active marketing campaign, both for its own brand, as well as for its listed companies. The Global Marketing and Branding department is responsible for the full spectrum of NYSE Euronext's brand marketing, including advertising, marketing communications, event management, and market research.
Through the NYSE Global Partnership Program, NYSE Euronext has created a series of strategic resources to support its listed companies' growth initiatives, so as to act as a conduit that enables them to reach new and important audiences. NYSE Euronext's 8,000 listed issues provide members with an extensive network of global investors and business leaders with which to interact. The company offers opportunities for co-branded advertising, linking listed companies to one another, as well as to the powerful brand that is NYSE Euronext.
Events
The Events department of NYSE Euronext is responsible for coordinating bell ceremonies, receptions, conferences, and street events. Beginning in 2010, the NYSE Euronext opened its doors to non-listed companies to utilize NYSE facilities for after-hours events.
Opening and closing ceremonies
The opening and closing bell ceremonies hosted by the NYSE date back to 1903, taking place Monday through Friday at 9:30 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. respectively in New York City.
The opportunity to ring the bell at the New York Stock Exchange has long been considered an honor. Representatives from listed companies, especially newly listed companies and IPOs, celebrities, politicians, and other dignitaries have become fixtures at the bell podium. Bell ceremonies are seen by millions, and are the most widely watched TV events each day.
The bell tradition has been extended to the branches in Paris, Brussels, and Lisbon. In Amsterdam, the opening bell was replaced by a gong, which is sounded the signal the beginning and end of the trading day. In the European offices, the opening and closing ceremonies take place at 9:00 a.m. and 5:30 p.m., respectively.
Experience Square
The Broad Street area in front of the Exchange is known as Experience Square, where listed companies are able to market themselves and their products directly to the thousands of visitors to New York's Financial District each day. The façade of the exchange is often used as a billboard to showcase branding and new listings.
NYSE Magazine
NYSE Magazine is NYSE Euronext's quarterly publication. It provides insights into the world’s best companies, giving readers a close-up look at the distinguished leaders who constitute the Exchange community. Written for a sophisticated audience of CEOs and other senior global executives, each issue centers on what makes companies succeed. Designed to foster a sense of community among the NYSE’s key constituents, NYSE magazine has grown to become a strategic tool for business leaders that delivers opinions, strategies and insights from their peers. Extended articles, Q&As, videos, photo, and slideshows are now available at www.nysemagazine.com and on iPad via the NYSE magazine app. NYSE magazine print and digital editions reach thousands of opinion leaders around the globe, including top management of publicly traded and private companies, government officials, the financial community and the media. NYSE ceased production of the print edition in 2013 and currently publishes content exclusively online.
References
External links
Official website
"NYSE stock soars 25 per cent after it goes public for first time in 214 years", CBC News, 2006-03-08
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Financial services companies established in 2007
2007 establishments in New York City
Companies based in Manhattan
American companies established in 2007
Financial services companies disestablished in 2013
American companies disestablished in 2013
Defunct financial services companies of the United States
Financial services companies based in New York City
Multinational companies based in New York City
Options exchanges in the United States
2013 mergers and acquisitions
Intercontinental Exchange |
4316761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind%20Picard | Rosalind Picard | Rosalind Wright Picard (born May 17, 1962) is an American scholar and inventor who is Professor of Media Arts and Sciences at MIT, founder and director of the Affective Computing Research Group at the MIT Media Lab, and co-founder of the startups Affectiva and Empatica.
She has received many recognitions for her research and inventions. In 2005, she was named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for contributions to image and video analysis and affective computing. In 2019 she received one of the highest professional honors accorded an engineer, election to the National Academy of Engineering for her contributions on affective computing and wearable computing. In 2021 she was recognized as a Fellow of the ACM for contributions to physiological signal sensing for individual health and wellbeing. In 2021 she was elected to the National Academy of Inventors, which recognizes outstanding inventions that have made a tangible impact on quality of life, economic development and the welfare of society. In 2022 she was awarded the International Lombardy Prize for Computer Science Research, which carries a €1 million award, which she donated to support digital health and neurology research to help save the lives of people with epilepsy and children susceptible to sudden infant death syndrome.
Picard is credited with starting the branch of computer science known as affective computing with her 1997 book of the same name. This book described the importance of emotion in intelligence, the vital role human emotion communication has to relationships between people, and the possible effects of emotion recognition by robots and wearable computers. Her work in this field has led to an expansion into autism research and developing devices that could help humans recognize nuances in human emotions.
Academics
Picard holds a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering with highest honors and a certificate in computer engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology (1984), and master's (1986) and doctorate degrees (1991), both in electrical engineering and computer science, from MIT. Her thesis was titled Texture Modeling: Temperature Effects on Markov/Gibbs Random Fields. She has been a member of the faculty at the MIT Media Laboratory since 1991, with tenure since 1998 and a full professorship since 2005.
Picard is a researcher in the field of affective computing and the founder and director of the Affective Computing Research Group at the MIT Media Lab. The Affective Computing Research Group develops tools, techniques, and devices for sensing, interpreting, and processing emotion signals that drive state-of-the-art systems that respond intelligently to human emotional states. Applications of their research include improved tutoring systems and assistive technology for use in addressing the verbal communications difficulties experienced by individuals with autism.
She also works with Sherry Turkle and Cynthia Breazeal in the field of social robots, and has published significant work in the areas of digital image processing, pattern recognition, and wearable computers. Picard's former students include Steve Mann, professor and researcher in wearable computers.
Picard is Faculty Chair of the MIT MindHandHeart Initiative, a "coalition of students, faculty, and staff [...] working collaboratively and strategically to strengthen the fabric of [the] MIT community."
Affective computing
While working in the field of affective computing, Picard published Affective Computing. MIT's press release for Picard's textbook states, "According to Rosalind Picard, if we want computers to be genuinely intelligent and to interact naturally with us, we must give computers the ability to recognize, understand, even to have and express emotions".
Picard explains the need to monitor emotional cues and how this is present with humans when she states:
"Whatever his strategy, the good teacher detects important affective cues from the student and responds differently because of them. For example, the teacher might leave subtle hints or clues for the student to discover, thereby preserving the learner's sense of self-propelled discovery. Whether the subject matter involves deliberate emotional expression as is the case with music, or is a "non-emotional" topic such as science, the teacher that attends to a student's interest, pleasure, and distress is perceived as more effective than the teacher that proceeds callously. The best teachers know that frustration usually precedes quitting, and know how to redirect or motivate the pupil at such times. They get to know their student, including how much distress that student can withstand before learning breaks down."
But such emotional cues are not part of robotic intelligence.
In order to portray how such a recognition would alter interactions with robots, Picard gave an example situation:
Imagine your robot entering the kitchen as you prepare breakfast for guests. The robot looks happy to see you and greets you with a cheery "Good morning." You mumble something it does not understand. It notices your face, vocal tone, smoke above the stove, and your slamming of a pot into the sink, and infers that you do not appear to be having a good morning. Immediately, it adjusts its internal state to "subdued", which has the effect of lowering its vocal pitch and amplitude settings, eliminating cheery behavioral displays, and suppressing unnecessary conversation. Suppose you exclaim, "Ow!!" yanking your hand from the hot stove, rushing to run your fingers under cold water, adding "I can't believe I ruined the sauce." While the robot's speech recognition may not have high confidence that it accurately recognized all of your words, its assessment of your affect and actions indicates a high probability that you are upset and maybe hurt.
In such a situation, it is necessary for the robots to understand the emotional aspects of humans in order to better serve their intended purpose.
Her work has influenced many fields beyond computer science, ranging from video games to law. One critic, Aaron Sloman, described the book as having a "bold vision" that will inspire some and irritate others. Other critics emphasize the importance behind the work as it establishes an important framework for the field as a whole. Picard responded to Sloman's review by saying, "I don't think the review captures the flavor of the book. However, he does raise interesting points, as well as potential misunderstandings, both of which I am grateful for the opportunity to comment on".
In 2009, Picard co-founded Affectiva, along with Rana el Kaliouby, and became the company's chief scientist for the next four years. The company was based on technologies the two began developing at the Affective Computing Research Group within the MIT Media Lab. In April 2014, Picard co-founded Empatica, Inc, a business creating wearable sensors and analytics to help people understand and communicate physiological changes involved in emotion. Her team showed that physiological changes in the emotion system could help identify seizures that might be life-threatening.
Autism research
Besides researching robotic intelligence, Picard has performed research in the field of autism. Her team created an "emotional-social intelligence prosthesis" (ESP), that allowed a person diagnosed with autism to monitor their own facial reactions in order to educate them on social cues in others. This device had a 65% accuracy rate for reading one of eight emotional states from an individual's facial expressions and head movements. She revealed parts of this technology at the 11th Annual International Symposium on Wearable Computers.
Emotion research
Picard has put forward theories to improve the research of emotions through the implementation of new technologies with a focus to gather emotional information outside of a lab setting. With devices that can measure heart-rate, electrodermal activity, and other physiological changes, and that are non-obtrusive and simple to wear (Picard uses an example of the iCalm sensor) emotional responses can be more accurately observed in a real life. She also argues against nomothetic research over idiographic research when it comes to studying emotions claiming that an individualized approach would be more fruitful than just throwing out data when a group correlation is not found. In this way, data from individuals could still be kept and analyzed and then paired (not averaged) with data clusters that were similar.
Religion and science
Picard was raised an atheist, but converted to Christianity as a young adult. She is a practicing Christian and does not believe there is a separation of the "material body and immaterial spirit" but that there is "something else that we haven't discovered yet", and believes "that scientists cannot assume that nothing exists beyond what they can measure". She believes it likely that there is "still something more" to life, beyond what we have discovered, and sees DNA as too complex to have originated through "purely random processes". To her, the complexity of life shows "the mark of intervention", and "a much greater mind, a much greater scientist, a much greater engineer behind who we are". She sees her religious beliefs as playing a role in her work in affective computing, and explains that when "Digging into the models of how the emotions work, I find I feel even greater awe and appreciation for the way we are made, and therefore for the Maker that has brought this about".
Picard is one of the signatories of the Discovery Institute's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism, a petition which states that:
We are skeptical of claims for the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life. Careful examination of the evidence for Darwinian theory should be encouraged. Although her view about the complexity of DNA "sounds similar to the intelligent design debate", reporter Mirko Petricevic writes, "Picard has some reservations about intelligent design, saying it isn't being sufficiently challenged by Christians and other people of faith". She argues that the media has created a false dilemma by dividing everyone into two groups, supporters of intelligent design or evolution. "To simply put most of us in one camp or the other does the whole state of knowledge a huge disservice."
Awards
Georgia Engineering Foundation Fellowship(s) 1980, 81, 82, 83
Society of Women Engineers: "The Outstanding Woman Engineering Student" 1981, 82, 83, 84
National Science Foundation Fellow 1984
AT&T Bell Laboratories "One Year On Campus" Fellow 1984
Georgia Institute of Technology Department of Electrical Engineering Faculty Award 1984
Voted Omicron Delta Kappa, Georgia Tech and Southeast U. S. "Leader of the Year" 1984
AAUW "The Outstanding Georgia Institute of Technology Woman Graduate" 1984
IAPR Pattern Recognition Society Best Paper Prize (with Tom Minka) 1991
GA Tech College of Engineering "Outstanding Young Engineering Alumni Award" 1995
NEC Career Development Chair in Computers and Communications 1992, 96
Assoc. of American Publishers, Inc. Computer Science Book Award, (Hon. Mention) 1997
Senior Member of IEEE 2000
ICALT 2001 Best Theory Paper Prize (with Rob Reilly and Barry Kort) 2001
Creapole's Committee of Honour (Paris) 2002
Fellow of IEEE 2005
Chamblee High School Hall of Fame 2005
Groden Network Distinguished Honorees, Research Award 2008
New York Times' "Best Ideas of the Year" (w/el Kaliouby) 2006
Popular Science Top Ten Inventions of 2011: A mirror that reads vital signs 2011 (with Ming-Zher Poh and Dan McDuff)
Best Paper of the Decade, 2000-2009 IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems (with Jennifer Healey) 2013
Sigma Xi 2014 Walston Chubb Award for Innovation 2014
Epilepsy Foundation Innovation Seal of Excellence (with Empatica) 2015
CNN's 7 tech Superheroes to Watch in 2015
30 Most Innovative Women Professors 2016
Red Dot Award, Product Design, Life Science and Medicine (with Empatica) 2016
Association for Psychological Science Fellow 2017
National Academy of Engineering 2019
2021 ACM Fellow
Bibliography
R. W. Picard, F. Liu, R. Zabih, G. Healey, and M. Swain (Eds.) "Content-Based Access of Image and Video Libraries," Proceedings of IEEE Workshop, IEEE Computer Society. 1997.
J. Tao, T. Tan, and R. W. Picard (Eds.), Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction 2005, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3784, 2005. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2005.
A. Paiva, R. Prada, and R. W. Picard (Eds.), Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction 2007, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4738, 2007. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2007.
Notable articles
T.P. Minka and R.W. Picard (1997), "Interactive Learning Using a 'Society of Models,'" Pattern Recognition, Volume 30, No. 4, pp. 565–581, 1997. (Winner of 1997 Pattern Recognition Society Award)
R.W. Picard, E. Vyzas & J. Healey, (2001), "Toward machine emotional intelligence: Analysis of affective physiological state," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis & Machine Intelligence, (10), 1175-1191.
B. Kort, R. Reilly and R.W. Picard (2001), "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering educational Pedagogy-Building a Learning Companion," In Proceedings of International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2001), August 2001, Madison, WI. (Winner of Best Paper Prize.)
J. Healey and R.W. Picard (2005), "Detecting Stress During Real-World Driving Tasks Using Physiological Sensors," IEEE Trans. on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Volume 6, No. 2, June 2005, pp. 156–166. (Voted "Top 10 best papers of the decade 2000-2009" for the IEEE T. on Intelligent Transportation Systems)
M. E. Hoque, M. Courgeon, J.-C. Martin, B. Mutlu, R. W. Picard, "MACH: My Automated Conversation coacH", 15th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp), 8–12 September 2013. (Winner of Best Ubiquitous Computing Paper Award)
Picard, Rosalind W., Matteo Migliorini, Chiara Caborni, Francesco Onorati, Giulia Regalia, Daniel Friedman, and Orrin Devinsky. "Wrist sensor reveals sympathetic hyperactivity and hypoventilation before probable SUDEP." Neurology 89, no. 6 (2017): 633-635.
Onorati, Francesco, Giulia Regalia, Chiara Caborni, Matteo Migliorini, Daniel Bender, Ming-Zher Poh, Cherise Frazier et al. "Multicenter clinical assessment of improved wearable multimodal convulsive seizure detectors." Epilepsia 58, no. 11 (2017): 1870-1879.
Patents
"Method and Apparatus for Relating and Combining Multiple Images of the Same Scene or Object(s)" . Issued January 6, 1998. (With Steve Mann.)
"Sensing and Display of Skin Conductivity" . Issued July 2, 2002. (With Jocelyn Scheirer, Nancy Tilbury and Jonathan Farringdon.)
"System and Method for Determining a Workload Level of a Driver" . Issued Sep 23, 2008 (with Fehr, Gardner and Hansman).
"Washable wearable biosensor" . Issued Mar 20, 2012 (with Williams, Fletcher, Eydgahi, Poh, Wilder-Smith, Kim, Dobson, Lee).
"Methods and apparatus for Monitoring Patients and Delivering Therapeutic Stimuli" . Issued Feb 18, 2014 (with Fletcher, Eydgani and Williams).
"Video recommendation based on affect" . Issued Aug 11, 2015 (with Kaliouby, Bahgat, Sadowsky and Wilder-Smith).
"Using affect within a gaming context" . Issued February 2, 2016 (with Bender, Kaliouby, Picard, Sadowsky, Turcot, Wilder-Smith).
"Methods and Apparatus for Conversation Coach" . Issued Jun 27, 2017 (with Hoque).
"Methods and apparatus for physiological measurement using color band photoplethysmographic sensor" . Issued Jul 24, 2018 (with Gontarek and McDuff).
See also
Affectiva
Affective computing
Autism
Digital image processing
Pattern recognition
Social robots
Wearable computers
References
External links
Affective Computing Group Web Page
Rosalind W. Picard Homepage
MIT Course on Autism Theory and Technology
1962 births
Living people
American computer scientists
Converts to Protestantism from atheism or agnosticism
Intelligent design advocates
American women computer scientists
American electronics engineers
Artificial intelligence researchers
People from Massachusetts
Georgia Tech alumni
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
MIT Media Lab people
21st-century American women
Scientific American people
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni |
4317337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crabbet%20Arabian%20Stud | Crabbet Arabian Stud | The Crabbet Arabian Stud, also known as the Crabbet Park Stud, was an English horse breeding farm that ran from 1878 to 1972. Its founder owners, husband and wife team Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Lady Anne Blunt, decided while travelling in the Middle East to import some of the best Arabian horses to England and breed them there. They maintained the Sheykh Obeyd estate near Cairo to facilitate this. Their daughter Judith Blunt-Lytton, 16th Baroness Wentworth carried on the stud until her death. The stud was sold up in 1971, but its bloodlines continue to influence the breed worldwide in the 21st century.
Travels in Arabia
The Blunts' Arabian journeys are described in Lady Anne's books Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates and A Pilgrimage to Nejd, based on her journals, though heavily edited by Wilfrid. In the winter of 1877/1878 they left Aleppo for what is now Iraq and reached the camps of Faris, a prince of the Anazzah tribe; Ferhan and other Bedouin leaders. Wilfrid became the blood brother of Faris. On a subsequent trip in 1881 the couple reached the heart of the Najd in what is now Saudi Arabia.
Among the horses the Blunts acquired on these journeys were the bay filly Dajania, purchased on Christmas Day in 1877; a dark bay mare eventually named Queen of Sheba, purchased from the Sheykh of Gomussa and his cousin in the summer of 1878; and a chestnut mare named Rodania. All three have left many descendants. Through their connections among the tribes, the Blunts also heard of a celebrated grey stallion. They sent a trusted friend, Zeyd Saad el Muteyri, to buy him; the horse was named Azrek, and became an influential sire.
Egypt
As important to Crabbet as the desert Arabians were, the collection of Egyptian leader Abbas Pasha proved an equally valuable source. This Governor of Egypt acquired horses from Arabia and Syria; his stock formed the foundation for the stud of Ali Pasha Sherif. The Blunts made their initial visit to Ali Pasha Sherif in 1880 and purchased the stallion Mesaoud, in 1889. Lady Anne wrote of the stallion: "He is four white legged and high up to the knee but surprisingly handsome."
As he aged, Ali Pasha Sherif's health failed and he encountered financial and political problems, leading to the ruin of his stud. In 1896 and 1897 Lady Anne inspected what she called the "sad remnants" before they were sold at auction, and was able to procure several of the best horses that remained. Some of these horses remained in Egypt, at a stud farm owned by the Blunts called Sheykh Obeyd. Thus, according to breed expert Rosemary Archer, some of today's horses of Crabbet breeding carry a higher proportion of Abbas Pasha blood than many present-day Egyptian Arabians.
Difficulties under the Blunts
Thanks to these purchases, Crabbet became a principal centre of Arabian horse breeding in England. However, there were many problems along the way. The Blunts spent much of their time travelling in Arabia and did not know what was going on in their absence. The pastures were ill-tended, the stables and paddocks not cleaned, stallions were shut up without exercise for weeks at a time. The Sheykh Obeyd stud fared little better while the Blunts were in England. Horses in Egypt were cared for by inattentive grooms and alcoholic managers, left tethered in the hot sun without shade or water, and many died. Further, Wilfrid Blunt had no experience of horse breeding and believed that Arabians should live in "desert conditions" - that is, with little food or shelter provided. Lady Anne disagreed, but she was not able to demonstrate the superiority of her methods of horse management until the Blunts separated in 1906.
In that year, Wilfrid's mistress, Dorothy Carleton, moved in with him, and the Blunts agreed to a formal separation. The Stud was divided. Lady Anne signed a deed of partition drawn up by Wilfrid. Under its terms, she kept Crabbet Park and half the horses, while he took Caxtons Farm, also known as Newbuildings, and the rest of the stock. Soon thereafter, Lady Anne retired to Sheykh Obeyd in Cairo, where she lived for most of the remainder of her life. Wilfrid frequently had to sell horses to pay his debts. Lady Wentworth wrote of her husband, "His tyranny and spirit of discord eventually alienated him from his family, from most of his friends, and from several countries...He had a theatrical tendency to thunder and lightning stage effects which verged on melodrama...and his temper was not improved by hashish and morphia..."
Lady Anne died in 1917, passing on her titles to her only child, Judith, who became known as Lady Wentworth. The Crabbet estate went to Lady Anne's granddaughters, as did what horses she still owned in England. Judith had already purchased back some animals that Wilfred had sold to third parties and thus had a small herd of her own. Wilfrid then attempted to seize the horses and land, making a nighttime raid on Crabbet and initially taking all of the horses, including those already legally owned by his daughter. The mare Bukra, too near foaling to travel, was shot on Wilfred's orders. Bitter and anxious to pay off his creditors, Wilfrid sold 37 horses, exporting several to W.R. Brown's Maynesboro stud in the United States. Between thefts and sales of horses at Newbuildings, many horses of the original Blunt breeding program were lost to Crabbet. In turn, Judith and her children forcibly took her favorite mare, Riyala, from Wilfrid's stable, and purchased back many horses from their new owners.
A protracted lawsuit ensued between Wilfred and both his granddaughters' trustee and his daughter. Eventually the courts ruled against him. At one point, after Wilfred had shot seven more horses, the trustee obtained an injunction to prevent the sale or destruction of any more animals. In 1921, the court declared that Wilfrid's seizure of horses was illegal, and that even the deed of partition was invalid, having been signed by Lady Anne "under duress". Judith was able to buy out her daughters' share in the estate from the trustee, who was anxious to liquidate the assets. Upon Wilfrid's death in 1922, Judith bought Caxtons Farm from her father's executors and finally reunited the entire stud.
Crabbet under Lady Wentworth
Lady Wentworth had an unhappy marriage, divorcing in 1923. Upon the death of Lady Anne Blunt in 1917, she obtained her mother's title, and became the 16th Baroness Wentworth. (The Wentworth title, one of the oldest in England, is one of the few that can be passed through the female line.) By the time she took over the Stud, Crabbet Park had been leased. The Stud itself retained only eight horse boxes, some cowsheds and a few weed-choked pastures. The horses had been sorely neglected, some had starved to death, and others took years to recover.
Lady Wentworth spent many years carefully rebuilding her stock and refining her breeding practices. To raise funds, she sold some bloodstock back to Egypt in 1920, including the stallions Kasmeyn, Sotamm, and Hamran, as well as the mares Bint Riyala and Bint Rissala. She also sold a number of horses to Spain's Duke of Veragua, including five Skowronek daughters.
In 1925 the Crabbet Stud was visited by Annie Henrietta Yule (1874-1950) and her only child Gladys Meryl Yule (1903-1957). They were extremely wealthy women from an Anglo-Indian merchant family, and on settling in England had decided to turn their home at Hanstead Park into an Arabian stud farm. This visit began a long relationship of buying and leasing horses; sometimes the studs were adversaries and sometimes partners. A third stud, Courtlands, was also held up to be of the same level, and the three competed against each other at annual shows such as the one at the Roehampton Club.
In 1926, she again received a significant infusion of much-needed cash when the famed Kellogg Arabian Ranch in California, owned by breakfast cereal magnate W. K. Kellogg, spent over $80,000 to purchase a number of Crabbet horses.
Lady Wentworth rejected Wilfred's "desert conditions" theory as well as a prevailing conviction that Arabians were naturally the size of large ponies (that is, under ). She first proved that Arabians could produce taller horses from the progeny of Rijm, a grandson of Rodania, who reached . Her great contribution to Arabian breeding, however, was her outcross of the Blunt bloodstock to Skowronek.
Skowronek
Lady Wentworth knew that she needed additional horses to outcross on descendants of her parents' original bloodstock. Therefore, she added the chestnut stallion Dargee, and her most famous purchase, the gray stallion Skowronek.
The English painter Walter Winans bought Skowronek from Count Josef Potocki's Antoniny Stud in Poland, where he had been foaled in 1909. Winans rode the stallion and used him as a model for several bronzes, then sold him to Webb Wares, who used him as a hack, and eventually sold him to H. V. Musgrave Clark, where he was shown and used at stud for the first time, coming to the attention of Lady Wentworth.
Lady Wentworth bought Skowronek under circumstances that remain a bit confusing even today. Clark believed he was selling the horse to an American exporter, but at the last minute, the export was cancelled and Lady Wentworth suddenly was the owner of Skowronek. Clark was a rival Arabian breeder, and Lady Wentworth may have used the agent as a front; concerned that if Clark had known she was interested, he might have increased the price - or refused to sell the horse at all. Clark was not happy with the result, and the two breeders had a somewhat cool relationship after she purchased the stallion.
While Count Potocki apparently found Skowronek unimpressive as a colt, having sold him to Winans for 150 pounds, the gray became a spectacular stallion and was named "Horse of the Century". Lady Wentworth later turned down an offer of $250,000 from the Tersk Stud, and bragged that she once received a cable "from the Antipodes" addressed to "Skowronek, England." The outcross of the Crabbet stock with Skowronek was extremely successful, and the resulting animals not only sold throughout England but were exported to Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Russia and the USA.
The Skowronek controversy
Lady Wentworth herself was satisfied that Skowronek was a purebred (or asil) Arabian, tracing his pedigree and strain to several reliable desert sources. In the General Stud Book, however, Skowronek's pedigree ends with three grandparents. This has led some Arabian enthusiasts to question if Skowronek was in fact a purebred. His sire, Ibrahim, was desert-bred and imported to Poland. His dam Jaskoulka (variously known as Yascolka or Yaskolka) was a Polish-bred Arabian. However, while the Poles had bred Arabians for centuries and kept careful pedigree records, they also crossed Arabian stallions on Thoroughbred and other non-Arabian mares. In addition, some breeders used different terminology to distinguish horses bred in the desert and imported to Poland from the descendants of those horses bred in Poland, with translation issues leading some English language researchers to argue that second and third generation Polish-bred purebred Arabians were not actually purebred. For these reasons, some people argued that his dam was not asil. However, research of Jaskoulka's pedigree shows that her sire Rymnik and her dam Epopeja (also spelled Epopeia or Epopya) both traced to Abbas Pasha horses. Nonetheless, due to this controversy, some private breeders' organizations, such as Al Khamsa, exclude descendants of Skowronek.
The Depression, World War II, and the postwar years
Crabbet's peak year was 1929, when over 30 mares were bred. But as the Great Depression deepened, it affected Crabbet Park, with Lady Wentworth only breeding 8 foals in 1932, and 2 foals in 1933. To reduce the size of the herd, she made major sales in 1936 to the Tersk Stud of the Soviet Union, selling 25 horses, including the beautiful Skowronek son Naseem. The stud's financial picture also improved by selling 3 more horses to the Kellogg Ranch. In this period, Lady Wentworth also sold horses to Australia, Brazil, Holland and Portugal. Nonetheless, the Depression years resulted in the birth of many fine horses, including Sharima, Indian Gold, Indian Crown, and Sharfina.
During World War II, Lady Wentworth's aunt, Mary Lovelace, died, leaving a large fortune. This inheritance was much needed and marked the end of the financial problems which had been a problem for Lady Wentworth and the Crabbet Stud. In the war years, even though Lady Wentworth cut back her herd due to shortages and the necessity for the Stud to be completely self-supporting in horse feedstuffs, horses such as Grey Royal, Silver Gilt, Indian Magic, Silfina, and Serafina were produced. While Crabbet was bombed during the war, with over 32 incendiaries dropped, all landed on farmland and no humans or horses were injured. A Canadian Army Supply Unit took over part of the stud, with soldiers billeted in the house and even in some of the horse boxes.
After the war, she purchased the stallions Raktha and Oran, and produced other significant breeding stock including Sharima, Silver Fire, Indian Gold, and Nisreen. By the time of her death in 1957 at the age of 84, she owned 75 horses, noted for their height, excellent movement and regal carriage.
Crabbet under Cecil Covey
Lady Wentworth died on 8 August 1957. She left the Stud to its manager, Geoffrey Covey, but as he predeceased her by a few days it passed to his son Cecil. (The Queen Anne house itself passed to Lady Wentworth's daughter Lady Winifred Tryon, who sold it; today, it is an office block and its royal tennis court has been restored.)
Fortunately, Cecil Covey had inherited some other land. Only by selling land and nearly half of the 75 horses was he able to pay the 80% inheritance tax owed on Lady Wentworth's estate and keep the Stud going. What followed was the largest single consignment of Arabians ever made from England, to Bazy Tankersley's Al Marah Stud in the USA. In 1961 Covey also sold the stallion Sindh to Dora Maclean of Fenwick Stud in Australia, where he became one of Australia's most important Arabian sires.
For twelve years the stud ran smoothly under Covey, with twenty to thirty horses plus visiting mares; for the first time, the Crabbet sires were open to outside breeders. In early 1970, however, Covey learned that the government planned to build the M23 motorway connecting South London with Gatwick Airport and Brighton. The motorway eventually bisected Crabbet Park, and, having lost most of the horse pastures to development, in 1972 Covey reluctantly sold off the last of the Stud.
The legacy of Crabbet
At least 90% of all Arabian horses alive today trace their pedigrees in one or more lines to Crabbet horses such as Mesaoud and Skowronek.
Many major Arabian sires worldwide show a strong Crabbet influence in their bloodlines. Polish and Russian bloodlines have a Crabbet influence through the Skowronek son and Mesaoud grandson Naseem, and his son Negatiw (or Negativ). Mesaoud himself was sold to Russia in 1903. Spanish bloodlines have a Crabbet influence through the stallion Nana Sahib and others. Even major historic "Egyptian-bred" sires such as Nazeer trace to Mesaoud through his Crabbet-bred grandson, Sotamm. The Crabbet-owned stallion Raktha, sire of Serafix, was exported to South Africa in 1951, along with several other Crabbet horses. The first Crabbet stallion imported to Australia was Rafyk, who was imported, along with two Crabbet mares, in 1891. Today, Australia now has a significant number of "pure" Crabbet lines, undiluted by infusions from other sources, with possibly the highest percentage of straight-and high-percentage Crabbet blood in the world.
A small number of Arabian horse breeders continue to produce preservation or "straight" Crabbet bloodlines, with all animals produced descending in every line from horses bred or purchased by the Crabbet stud. An even smaller group of breeders maintain preservation bloodlines tracing strictly to the horses imported or bred by the Blunts.
For the average Arabian horse owner, horses with Crabbet ancestry are noted for athletic ability, attractive appearance, and good dispositions. They are popular in under saddle classes and seen in many equestrian disciplines, both those limited to Arabians and those open to all breeds.
The particular virtues of Crabbet horses - sound, athletic conformation, good movement, solid temperament and performance ability - show up especially well in under saddle competition, and particularly in the Arabian-dominated field of endurance riding, highlighted by 100-mile competitions such as the Tevis Cup in the USA and the Australian Quilty 100-Mile Endurance Ride. Crabbet breeding is also popular in the "Sport Horse" disciplines such as Dressage and show jumping, for which the Arabian Horse Association now sponsors a National Championship.
Thus, the modern Arabian of Crabbet ancestry can be seen in the backyard of the single horse owner, on rugged wilderness terrain, or at the highest levels of national performance competition.
References
Bibliography and external links
Archer, Rosemary, Colin Pearson and Cecil Covey. The Crabbet Arabian Stud: Its History and Influence. Crabbet Organisation, 1978.
Blunt, Lady Anne. Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates. ASIN: B00088K2HA
Blunt, Lady Anne. A Pilgrimage to Nejd. Reprint. David & Charles, 1985.
Wentworth, Judith Anne Dorothea Blunt-Lytton. The Authentic Arabian Horse, 3rd ed. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1979.
Winstone, H.V.F. Lady Anne Blunt: A Biography, Barzan Pub., 2003.
The Crabbet Influence Magazine
Mulder, Carol W."Skowronek" originally published in The Crabbet Influence, May/June 1989
Horse farms in the United Kingdom
Arabian breeders and trainers
History of Sussex
1878 establishments in England
Organizations established in 1878
Defunct real tennis venues |
4317398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Bolivia | Human rights in Bolivia | Bolivia's constitution and laws technically guarantee a wide range of human rights, but in practice these rights very often fail to be respected and enforced. “The result of perpetual rights violations by the Bolivian government against its people,” according to the Foundation for Sustainable Development, “has fueled a palpable sense of desperation and anger throughout the country.”
The country's chief human-rights problems, according to a 2010 U.S. State Department report, are “killings and torture by security forces; harsh prison conditions; allegations of arbitrary arrest and detention; an ineffective, overburdened, and corrupt judiciary; a 'partly free' media; corruption and a lack of transparency in the government; trafficking in persons; child labor; forced or coerced labor; and harsh working conditions in the mining sector.” According to human rights watch report the administration of President Evo Morales has created a hostile environment for human rights defenders that undermines their ability to work independently. Threats to judicial independence, violence against women, and child labor are other major concerns. With regard to
the report of The Economist dated Dec 1st 2017, in FEBRUARY 2016 Bolivia's left-wing president, Evo Morales, asked voters through a referendum whether he should be allowed to run for a fourth term in office in 2019. They said no. But on November 28th this year the country's constitutional court gave him what the voters would not, ruling that a clause in the constitution limiting presidents (and other directly elected officials) to two terms can be ignored.
A 2001 report by the UN Committee against Torture praised new legislation and other efforts by the Bolivian government to improve human rights; but the report also expressed concern about the “continuing complaints of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, resulting on many occasions in death, both in police stations and in prisons and military barracks”; the “impunity accorded to human rights violations...resulting from the lack of any investigation of complaints and the slow pace and inadequacy of such investigations”; the lack of enforcement of laws setting maximum detention periods; prison conditions; the sometimes deadly “disciplinary measures” inflicted on soldiers; the “excessive and disproportionate use of force and firearms by the National Police and the armed forces in suppressing mass demonstrations”; the harassment of human-rights activists; and the return to Peru of refugees “without complying with procedural formalities.”
Basic freedoms
Although Bolivian law technically guarantees freedom of speech and of the press, the relationship between the government and the news media is hostile, and the government has been charged with “taking actions designed to restrict independent media or to encourage self-censorship.” While there are a variety of news media that operate without restriction, including many that are critical of the government, people living in some rural regions have no source of news other than government radio.
Also, insulting public officials is a crime punishable by a jail term of up to three years; an independent Press Tribunal has the power to sanction journalists. A 2010 report by Freedom House described the Bolivian press as “partly free” and increasingly unfree. In 2010, there were 60 cases of reported physical aggression or verbal threats directed at 111 journalists.
A group of masked men broke into the radio studio of journalist Fernando Vidal in October 2012 while he was on the air and set him on fire, apparently in reprisal for Vidal's criticism of local smugglers and/or government officials.
Despite all the challenges to free expression that exist in Bolivia, Human Rights Watch describes the country as enjoying “vibrant public debate, with a variety of critical and pro-government media outlets,” although it acknowledges that the national atmosphere is “politically polarized.”
Bolivians enjoy free access to the Internet, academic freedom, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion. They also enjoy freedom of movement within the country, the right to travel abroad, and the right to move abroad and repatriate. In practice, however, protesters frequently make movement within the country difficult by blockading major thoroughfares. Also, the fact that many Bolivians have no identity documents makes it difficult for them to obtain passports.
Elections are free and fair, although the above-mentioned fact that many Bolivians do not have identity documents can prevent them from voting.
While corruption is technically supposed to be punished, it occurs routinely in all branches of the Bolivian government.
Bolivian law does not provide for public access to government information.
Political rights
Bolivians enjoy the right to vote in regular political elections and to assemble for political protests. Often, however, political protests have devolved into violence, and military and police forces have used violent measures to restore order. Bolivian political parties range from far-right to far-left, and citizens are unrestricted in joining the political party of their choice.
Workers' rights
Most workers in companies with 20 or more employees are technically allowed to unionize, provided a majority of the employees want to belong to a union, although this right is not always honored in practice. Board members of unions must be native-born Bolivians, and unions are not allowed to join international organizations. Before striking, unions are obliged to seek official mediation; moreover, the government may force workers and employers to enter into arbitration to conclude a strike.
Public employees are not allowed to strike, although some have done so without being penalized. Some union groups have government ties and act under government pressure. Generally speaking, Bolivian workers enjoy only a limited right to bargain collectively without government involvement. There is a National Labor Court that deals with antiunion discrimination, but it can take more than a year to issue rulings, by which time those rulings may be irrelevant.
Although forced labor is illegal, many children and indigenous workers are effectively slaves. While children under age 14 are technically not allowed to work, in practice the Ministry of Labor rarely enforces this law, and many children are employed in mining and other dangerous professions. Child prostitution is common, and the traditional practice known as “criadito,” whereby indigenous families effectively sell their children to well-off families to work as household servants, is widespread, despite its illegality.
There is a minimum wage, but it is very low, and many people earn even less. There are laws setting a maximum work week and establishing other such limits, but they are not enforced effectively. Many Bolivians die because of unsafe working conditions, especially in the mines and in construction.
Abuse of women and children
Abuse of women and children is widespread and often unreported in Bolivia. Family violence, when reported, results in only a few days in jail and a small fine. The Bolivian government, in cooperation with the United Nations, is working to curb abuse of Bolivian women and children both within Bolivia and abroad. The punishment for rape has become more severe in recent years. Those convicted of rape, including statutory rape, face significant jail time. However, a victim must press charges in order for rape to be a crime.
Women's rights
Under Bolivian law, women enjoy equal rights, but many women do not know what their rights are and are, in practice, generally treated as second-class citizens. Rape and other forms of violence against women are widespread. The Center for the Information and Development of Women (CIDEM) says that 70 percent of Bolivian women suffer abuse of some kind. Statutory rape is punishable by up to 20 years in prison; forcible rape of an adult, by up to 10 years. In 2013, Bolivia passed a new comprehensive domestic violence law, which outlaws many forms of abuse of women, including marital rape. Rural women are often denied their inheritance rights, and women in the workplace are often denied their right to equal pay. Under Bolivian law, half of the candidates in municipal elections must be women.
The abuse of women in Bolivia “is widespread and goes unreported or unpunished,” according to the Foundation for Sustainable Development. “Women's individual, economic, and social rights are inferior, severely limiting their ability to be agents for economic and social change.” A 2008 report by the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women called on Bolivian authorities “to take the necessary measures to ensure the full implementation of existing legislation on gender equality,” “to streamline procedures for review of the compatibility” of its laws with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and “to repeal without delay all legislation that discriminates against women, including discriminatory provisions in its criminal and civil law and to ensure the enforcement of laws prohibiting discrimination against women.”
The UN committee also called on Bolivia to take action to promote women's advancement in society, to fight gender stereotypes, to overcome the institutionalization of traditional sexual attitudes and prejudices, and to combat sexual exploitation and trafficking. It further recommended that Bolivia “ensure that all poverty eradication policies and programmes integrate a gender perspective and explicitly address the structural nature and various dimensions of poverty faced by women, in particular women living in rural areas, indigenous women, older women and women with disabilities.” Also, the committee suggested that Bolivia “strengthen its efforts to implement nationwide effective educational programmes in the areas of functional literacy, skills and income-generating training, including the provision of microfinance schemes, as a means of poverty alleviation, and adopt measures to ensure women's equal access to land, housing, healthcare and basic social services.”
Children's rights
Children born in Bolivia, other than those born to foreign diplomats, are automatically Bolivian citizens, as are children with at least one Bolivian parent.
Physical and verbal abuse of children is common in Bolivian schools. Children between ages 11 and 16 who are believed to have committed an offense have no right to trial and may instead be indefinitely detained in special centers on the orders of a social worker. Thousands of children live on city streets. There are also many child prostitutes, and many children who are trafficked to other countries to perform forced labor. A 2008 report by Pastoral de Movilidad Humana indicated that every month around ten children in southern Bolivia “disappeared and were presumed victims of trafficking.” The Defender of Children and Adolescents, a government agency that is charged with protecting children's rights, has 194 offices around the country.
Bolivia is not a signatory of the 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction.
The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, in a 2009 report, called on Bolivia to “take all appropriate measures to ensure that children are treated as subjects of rights.” In particular it asked Bolivian authorities to address “the low and unequal legal minimum ages for contracting marriage,” as well as the physical abuse of children (including abuse by police), the number of children living without parents or guardians, and the manifold failings of the juvenile justice system. The Committee recommended that Bolivia “establish a Children's Ombudsman either separate or as part of the existing office of the Ombudsman (Defensor del Pueblo)” and ensure that such an Ombudsman “conforms to the Paris Principles.” The committee also mentioned a variety of other problems afflicting Bolivian children, such as widespread malnutrition, the plight of children living in prisons with their inmate parents, “children's right to play,” child labor, and child abduction.
Human trafficking
Economic scarcity has led to human trafficking and Child labor in Bolivia. Children are often trafficked for labor.
Prostitution
Prostitution is legal in Bolivia, but many Bolivian women are taken against their will to other countries and forced to work in prostitution for little compensation.
Disabled persons' rights
Discrimination against disabled persons is illegal, but this prohibition is not effectively enforced. The Law on Disabilities requires all public and private buildings to be wheelchair accessible; there is a National Committee for Handicapped Persons that is charged with protecting disabled people's rights.
Indigenous rights
Indigenous persons, who form a majority of the Bolivian population, have been denied land rights owing to their traditional collective ownership of land under the so-called “ayllu” system. Although Bolivian law technically requires that wrongs against individuals and groups who once owned land under this system be redressed, injustice on this front is still widespread. Indigenous persons are insufficiently represented in government and suffer high unemployment.
Amnesty International complained in a 2012 report that Bolivian authorities had made decisions about construction of a highway across the Isiboro Sécure Indigenous Territory and National Park (Territorio Indígena y Parque Nacional Isiboro Sécure, TIPNIS) without consulting the indigenous persons who live there. This lack of consultation resulted in a good deal of confusion and conflict, with some indigenous people supporting the road and others opposing it, and the government reversing its plans more than once.
Human Rights Watch asked Bolivia in 2011 to ensure “a prompt, thorough, and impartial investigation” of alleged police abuse of peaceful indigenous protestors near Yucomo on September 25 of that year. A report by the UN Committee for the Prevention of Racial Discrimination, issued in the same year, called on Bolivia to adopt urgent means to ensure that the Guaraní people are able to exercise their rights, including their rights to recover their ancestral lands.
In accordance with the Bolivian constitution and law, seven special “indigenous districts” have been established in order to increase the participation of indigenous peoples in national politics.
Asylum-seekers' and refugees' rights
Bolivia provides protection to refugees and asylum seekers, although the number of such individuals in the country is quite low.
Minority-group rights
The Bolivian constitution bans racial discrimination, and the 2010 Anti-Racism Law requires the punishment of discrimination and of racist language, but in reality there is considerable racial discrimination on all these grounds, with the country's small minority of black persons being subject to considerable oppression and mistreatment. The UN Committee for the Prevention of Racial Discrimination, in a March 2011 report, called on Bolivia to intensify its efforts to combat racial discrimination.
LGBT rights
Bolivian law bans discrimination based on sexual orientation, and transgender persons are allowed to legally change their name and gender. In practice, however, discrimination against LGBT persons is widespread. There are LGBT rights groups, and gay-rights marches and gay-pride parades take place with official approval and are protected by police.
Rights of persons under arrest
Arbitrary arrest is illegal, although such arrests do take place. Under the law, detainees have the right to face a judge within 24 hours, although this right is not always honored. Most defendants cannot afford a lawyer and the supply of public defenders is insufficient. Although Bolivian law prohibits pretrial periods exceeding 18 months, it is common for periods of pretrial detention to last longer than this. On the orders of a social worker, children between 11 and 16 may be held indefinitely in special centers without judicial review. Although torture is forbidden under the Bolivian constitution and law, security forces frequently engage in it, and punishment for such violations is rare.
Rights of persons on trial
The Bolivian judiciary has been described as “corrupt, overburdened, and weakened by vacancies at its highest levels.” As of 2010, the Bolivian Supreme Court had an 8000-case backlog, including cases dating back to 2003, and the Judicial Council, which is charged with legal oversight, also had a considerable backlog. The military justice system tends “to avoid rulings that would embarrass the military.”
Officially, defendants enjoy the right under the Bolivian constitution to a speedy trial, to an attorney, to due process, and to appeal. In practice, these rights are often violated. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) reported in December 2009, that only “55 percent of municipalities had judges, 23 percent government investigators, and 3 percent public defenders.”
When it comes to the roles of the police and judiciary, much of Bolivia is, in effect, all but lawless. Although the Bolivian constitution prohibits capital punishment, in many areas the lack of efficient policing and of a well-functioning court system leads to so-called “community justice” – in other words, mobs taking the law into their own hands and violently murdering criminal suspects. In 2010, there were approximately 15 such cases. One 2010 case involved the capture and execution of four policemen in the town of Uncia who reportedly engaged in extortion and extrajudicial killing; another case in that year involve the burial alive of three brothers in the town of Tapacari in connection with a local conflict over property lines.
The Human Rights Foundation, in a 2008 press release, made clear that lynchings and other “barbaric actions such as hanging, crucifixion, stoning, live burial, and burning,” which had been committed by mobs in Bolivia in the name of “communal justice,” could not be reasonably be considered legitimate acts of justice, and warned that more and more such mob actions were taking place. Noting that President Evo Morales had “said that disenfranchised groups should employ communal justice” and that he supported “lashing as a 'symbolic' means of imparting communal justice,” HRF declared that Morales’ position was “untenable in light of guarantees enshrined in Bolivia's constitution.”
Prisoners' rights
Bolivian prisons are overcrowded, dilapidated, and lawless, and food supplies and medical care are almost invariably insufficient. Generally, prison officials only control the “outer security perimeter” of these institutions, while the interior is under the control of prisoners themselves, with inmates directing gang activity from behind bars. There is ample violence in Bolivian prisons involving both prisoners and prison officials, and corruption on the part of wardens and guards is widespread. Well-off inmates can arrange for improved living conditions, more liberal visiting rules, shorter prison terms, and transfer to better prisons. Some prisoners have been known to suffer from diseases such as tuberculosis. Prisoners are routinely able to obtain drugs and alcohol, and in some cases children are used as drug couriers. Juvenile offenders are often imprisoned alongside adults, and in at least one prison men and women are confined together as well. Under Bolivian law, spouses as well as children up to age six are permitted to live with a parent in prison, but in practice children up to 12 years old do so. Prisoners have the right to complain about abuses, but they rarely dare to do so for fear of retaliation.
See also
Internet censorship and surveillance in Bolivia
References |
4317470 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Tsubasa%3A%20Reservoir%20Chronicle%20albums | List of Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle albums | Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle is a fantasy adventure manga series written by Clamp that is currently serializing in Kodansha's Weekly Shōnen Magazine which began publication in 2003. Set in a multiverse, its storyline follows a group of five travelers as they journey across the dimensions in search of Sakura's memories. It was adapted by Bee Train into a fifty-two episode anime television series directed by Kōichi Mashimo and partly by Hiroshi Morioka with music direction by Toru Nakano. The first season was broadcast in 2005 spanning twenty-six episodes. Production I.G adapted the series into an anime film directed by Itsuro Kawasaki and music direction by Kazuhiro Iwabayashi, that premiered in 2006. The second season of the anime series followed the film in 2006 spanning the last twenty-six episodes. Production I.G. adapted an additional two OVA series directed by Shunsuke Tada with music direction for the first OVA by Masafumi Mima that aired between 2007 and 2009 spanning five episodes in total. The discography for these adaptations consist of four soundtrack albums, one compilation album, eight maxi singles, two studio albums, and three drama CDs.
The core of the discography is the four soundtrack albums released by Victor Entertainment between 2005 and 2006, which together contain the original soundtrack for both seasons of the anime television series. The lyrics, arrangement, and composition for the soundtrack albums are provided by Yuki Kajiura who has provided the background music for anime series such as Madlax, Noir, and .hack//SIGN. The eight maxi singles released by both Victor Entertainment and R and C Limited between 2005 and 2006 and two studio albums released by Victor Entertainment during 2009 each contain one piece of theme music used in the various adaptations of the manga series. A vocal compilation album collecting various songs from the studio albums, maxi singles, and drama CDs released between 2005 and 2006.
Three drama CDs have been released by Victor Entertainment between 2005 and 2006 featuring dialogue between the characters from Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle voiced by their respective voice actors as well as theme music provided by various artists and performed by a varying combination of the series' five protagonists. Another three drama CDs have been released between 2006 and 2007, with a fourth to be released in 2009, that follow a spin-off storyline featuring characters from both Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle and its sister manga series, xxxHolic.
Concept and creation
When watching Tsubasa Chronicle, Maaya Sakamoto felt that Syaoran's straightforward feelings and strength to protect Sakura were very touching. Within "Kazemachi Jet", the ending theme of second season of the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle, she tried to capture the image of Syaoran growing from his "naive" self into a young man as a result of experiencing the repetition of meetings and partings over his journey and Syaoran continuing to try to protect his loved one in spite of the mishaps along the way. In "Spica", an insert song into Tsubasa Chronicle that was sold alongside "Kazemachi Jet", she tried to capture the Sakura's feminine and maternal strength as one with courage to continually move forward despite the odds but also ability to show weakness at times. In "Saigo no Kajitsu", the ending of the OVA series Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations, she worked once more with Shōko Suzuki whom she had been with for three years prior and thus was very comfortable working with. She described having created the song as beginning quietly and building up into a magnificent and dramatic song as a wave washes over the surface of still water. She wrote its lyrics trying to capture the feelings of the characters who learn that the Syaoran whom they had been traveling with was in reality a copy and their desire to continue to choose their own future despite knowing the reason why Syaoran was cloned and what they would face by choosing to continuing their journey.
Kinya Kotani has been a fan of Clamp's work for quite some time and was extremely happy when he could take part in creating the theme music for adaptations of the group's work. When Kinya Kotani wrote the lyrics for the theme music for Tsubasa Chronicle and the anime film Tsubasa Chronicle the Movie: The Princess of the Country of Birdcages as if he were Syaoran. Kotani had to deliver both "Blaze" and "Aerial"—the opening themes for the first season of the anime series and the opening for the anime film respectively—on a tight schedule. When first creating "Aerial", he described always having the word "aerial" in his mind. He wrote the lyrics by comparing the universe of Tsubasa Chronicle with the everything that he had written so far. When creating the opening theme song "It's" for the second season of the anime, he tried to capture the sad feel of Syaoran's strength in his singing; he tried to create a clear image of Syaoran's feelings in writing the song's lyrics, both Syaoran's forwarding-facing and backward-facing characteristics. The music was designed to be simple but deep, conveying a sense of something missed and of something new. Kotani feels that "It's" is a song that conveys the feeling of one's back being propelled into a journey. For the film Yuki Kajiura was asked to create a score different from the one used in TV series in order to convey characters' states of mind. Producer Tetsuya Natakate was satisfied with the result, as Kajiura's music ended being what he hoped.
Season 1
"Blaze"
"Blaze" is a maxi single performed by Kinya Kotani first released on June 22, 2005 by R and C under the catalog number YRCN-10092. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Kinya Kotani, Nieve, and HΛL. It contains 3 tracks in regular and instrumental versions. The track "Blaze" is featured as the opening theme to the first season of the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle. Its B-side is titled "Refraction". Lesley Smith of Anime Fringe described "Blaze" as "an upbeat example of J-pop at its finest". It peak ranked 19th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for five weeks.
"Loop"
is a maxi single performed by Maaya Sakamoto first released on May 11, 2005 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-35791. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by h's, Maaya Sakamoto, h-wonder, and Takeshi Nakatsuka. It contains 4 tracks in regular and instrumental versions and covers a duration of 18:08. The track "Loop" was featured as the ending theme to the first season of the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle. Its B-side is titled . Lesley Smith of Anime Fringe described "Loop" as "a powerful ballad, with slight Celtic overtones and a gorgeous melody". It peak ranked 7th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for nine weeks.
Future Soundscape I
Future Soundscape I is one of the four soundtrack albums for the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the album are provided by Yuki Kajiura except for the included pieces of theme music. It features the opening and ending themes for the first season as well as English versions of two of Sakura's image songs: "You Are My Love" performed by Eri Itō and "Yume no Tsubasa" (titled "Tsubasa" for this album) performed by FictionJunction KAORI. It spans 20 tracks and covers a duration of 54:59. It was first released on July 6, 2005 by Victor Entertainment with the catalog number VICL-61661. The limited edition of the album was released on the same day by Victor Entertainment with the catalog number VIZL-137 that features a wide book-case design showing Syaoran holding a golden staff and a pen with Sakura's feather attached to its end.
It peak ranked 39th on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for three weeks. Lesley Smith from webzine Anime Fringe praised it as "a beautiful CD" that has "enchanting" music and "amazing vocals", "round[ing] off ... nicely" with the track "Loop". She praised the music as having a unique fusion of different instruments and giving creating an image or impression appropriate to how it was used in the anime, noting that the female choral back some of the best pieces of the track. However, she criticized "You Are My Love" for being sung badly.
Future Soundscape II
Future Soundscape II is one of the four soundtrack albums for the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the album are provided by Yuki Kajiura. It features performance by Eri Itō, FictionJunction KEIKO, and Makino Yui. The album features two character image songs: Oruha's image song titled performed by FictionJunction KEIKO and Sakura's original image song titled "Yume no Tsubasa" performed by Yui Makino as Sakura. It spans 18 tracks and covers a duration of 51:57. It was first released on September 22, 2005 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-61662. The limited edition of the album was released on the same day by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VIZL-145, featuring a notebook titled "Tsubasa Note". It peak ranked 92nd on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for two weeks.
Tsubasa Chronicle the Movie: The Princess of the Country of Birdcages
Aerial
"Aerial" is a maxi single performed by Kinya Kotani first released on August 17, 2005 by R and C under the catalog number YRCN-10108. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Kinya Kotani and HΛL. It contains 3 tracks in both regular and instrumental versions. The track "Aerial" was featured as the opening theme to the anime film Tsubasa Chronicle the Movie: The Princess of the Country of Birdcages. Its B-side is titled "Season". It peak ranked 45th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for three weeks.
"Amrita"
is a maxi single performed by Yui Makino first released on August 18, 2005 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-35846. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Caoli Cano, Yui Makino, Tetsushi Fujita, Taguchi Toshi, and Sonic Dove. It contains 4 tracks in both regular and instrumental versions. Its B-Sides are titled "You Are My Love" and . The song "Amrita" was featured as the ending theme to the second season of the anime film Tsubasa Chronicle the Movie: The Princess of the Country of Birdcages. It peak ranked 53rd on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for five weeks.
Season 2
"It's"
"It's" is a maxi single performed by Kinya Kotani first released on May 24, 2006 by R and C under the catalog number YRCN-10138. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Taguchi Toshi, Mikio Sakai, Ayuko Akiyama, and Teppei Shimizu. It contains 3 tracks in both regular and instrumental versions. The track "It's" was featured as the opening theme to the second season of the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle. The single's B-side is titled It peak ranked 63rd on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for three weeks.
"Kazemachi Jet / Spica"
is a double A-side maxi single performed by Maaya Sakamoto first released on June 14, 2006 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-36059. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Maaya Sakamoto, Shōko Suzuki, Takehiro Iida, h-wonder, and Udai Shika. It contains 4 tracks in both regular and instrumental versions. The A-side track "Kazemachi Jet" was featured as the ending theme while the second A-side track "Spica" was featured as an insert to episode 43 of the second season of the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle and were meant to represent the perspectives of the two protagonists of Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, Syaoran and Sakura respectively. It peak ranked 14th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for six weeks.
Future Soundscape III
Future Soundscape III is one of the four soundtrack albums for the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the album are provided by Yuki Kajiura except the pieces of theme music featured in the second season of the anime. It features the short versions of the opening and ending themes for the second season of the anime as well as performance by Eri Itō and FictionJunction KAORI. It was first released on July 5, 2006 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-61966. The limited edition of the album was released on the same day by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VIZL-189, featuring a mini clear pouch and a wide book-case design. It peak ranked 83rd on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for two weeks.
Future Soundscape IV
Future Soundscape IV is one of the four soundtrack albums for the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the album are provided by Yuki Kajiura except the pieces of theme music featured in the first season of the anime. It features performance by Eri Itō and FictionJunction Yuuka. It spans 20 tracks and covers a duration of 58:21. It was first released on September 21, 2006 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-62084. The limited edition of the album was released on the same day by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VIZL-203, featuring came with a mousepad and housed in a special package. It peak ranked 80th on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for one week.
Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations
"Synchronicity"
"Synchronicity" is a maxi single performed by Yui Makino first released on November 21, 2007 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VTCL-35007. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Yuki Kajiura, Makino Yui, Caoli Cano and Shunsuke Takizawa. It contains 3 tracks in both regular and instrumental versions. The track "Synchronicity" was featured as the opening theme to the OVA adaptation Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations. Its B-side is titled . Its peak ranked 49th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for three weeks.
"Saigo no Kajitsu / Mitsubachi to Kagakusha"
is a maxi single performed by Maaya Sakamoto first released on November 21, 2007 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VTCL-35008. The lyrics, composition, and arrangement for the single are provided by Maaya Sakamoto, Shōko Suzuki, Neko Saito, and Solaya. It contains 5 tracks in regular, short, and instrumental versions and covers a duration 19:48. The track "Last Fruit" is featured as the ending theme to the OVAs Tsubasa Tokyo Revelations. It peak ranked 19th on the Oricon singles chart and remained on the chart for seven weeks.
Tsubasa Shunraiki
Kazeyomi
is a studio album performed by Maaya Sakamoto first released on January 14, 2009 by Victor Entertainment bearing the catalog number VTCL-60085. The limited edition of the album was released on the same day by Victor Entertainment bearing the catalog number VTZL-8 that includes a bonus region 2 DVD featuring three music videos. It contains 14 tracks. The track "Sonic Boom" is featured as the opening theme to the OVA series Tsubasa Shunraiki. It peak ranked 3rd on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for seven weeks.
Everlasting Songs
Everlasting Songs is a first studio album under the FictionJunction name and was first released on February 25, 2009 by Victor Entertainment with the catalog number VTCL-60106. It contains 15 tracks whose lyrics, composition, and arrangement are provided by Yuki Kajiura with performance provided by the singers of Kajiura's FictionJunction solo project: Asuka Kato (FictionJunction Asuka), Kaori Oda (FictionJunction KAORI), Keiko Kubota (FictionJunction Keiko), Wakana Ootaki (FictionJunction Wakana), Yuuka Nanri (FictionJunction Yuuka), and Yuriko Kaida. It is the first album of where all of the singers of FictionJunction have participated in a single album. The track performed by FictionJunction is the ending theme to the OVA series Tsubasa Shunraiki. It peak ranked 27th on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for one week.
{| class="collapsible collapsed" border="0"
! style="width:16em; text-align:left" |Track listing
! |
|-
| colspan="2" |
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! #
! Title
! Vocalist
! Original vocalist Original album
! Length
|-
| 1
| "Hoshikuzu"
| Kaori Oda, Keiko Kubota
| Noriko Ogawa Fantasy Sound & Reading: The Velveteen Rabbit (disc 1 ~ fantasy reading tracks)
|
|-
| 2
| "Kioku no Mori"
| Yuuka Nanri
|
|
|-
| 3
| "Dream Scape"
| Kaori Oda
| Kaori Oda Future Soundscape III
|
|-
| 4
| "Gin no Hashi"
| Kaori Oda, Keiko Kubota, Wakana Ootaki
| Minami Omi Aquarian Age ~ Sign For Evolution Sphere.4 Influential E.G.O
|
|-
| 5
| "Kaze no Machi e"
| Keiko Kubota
| Keiko Kubota Future Soundscape II
|
|-
| 6
| "Here We Stand in the Morning Dew"
| Yuriko Kaida
| Saeko Chiba Sayonara Solitia
|
|-
| 7
| "Synchronicity"
| Keiko Kubota
| Yui Makino Synchronicity
|
|-
| 8
| "Hanamori no Oka""
| Kaori Oda
| Kaori Oda <small>'</small>
|
|-
| 9
| "Mizu no Akashi"
| Wakana Ootaki
| Rie Tanaka Chara de Rie
|
|-
| 10
| "Cazador Del Amor"| Yuuka Nanri
|
|
|-
| 11
| "Himitsu"
| Yuriko Kaida
| Aya Hisakawa blanc dans NOIR: Kuro no Naka no Shiro
|
|-
| 12
| "Hōseki"
| Keiko Kubota
| Marina Inoue Hōseki
|
|-
| 13
| "Yume no Tsubasa"
| Kaori Oda
| Yui Makino Future Soundscape II
|
|-
| 14
| "Michiyuki"
| Kaori Oda
| Kaori Hikita Tsuki no Curse
|
|-
| 15
| "Everlasting Song"' (Japanese version)
| Asuka Kato
|
|
|}
|}
Compilation albums
Best Vocal Collection
is a compilation album that collects the "best" theme music, insert songs, character songs, and background music from the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle and its adaptation into drama CDs. It was first released on December 20, 2006 by Victor Entertainment with the catalog number VICL-62166. It spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 1:01:45. The only original work in the soundtrack is "Tsuki no Shijima", a Japanese vocal song performed by Yui Makino with lyrics, composition, and arrangement all provided by Yuki Kajiura that was featured in the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle as an insert song. The album peak ranked 103rd on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for three weeks.
Drama CDs
Three drama CDs adaptations of the anime series Tsubasa Chronicle have been released by Victor Entertainment between 2005 and 2006. Some time after leaving Koryo Country, the group of five protagonists arrive in a dimension where the King Yukito, the same Yukito seen in Clow Country, is troubled by an unfeeling heart and is the only one in the country who could open the door to one of Sakura's feathers. All of the releases charted on the Oricon charts for a single week, with the highest ranking album being "The Matinée of the Palace" Chapter.2 ~Impossible Goal~ peak ranking at 161st. Additionally, a spin-off series of three drama CDs titled "Private High School Holitsuba" have been released between 2006 and 2009.
"The Matinée of the Palace" Chapter. 1 ~Coral, the City on the Water~
is a drama CD adaptation of the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle first released on December 16, 2005 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-61794. It contains 7 tracks and covers a duration of 26:12. It features two pieces of theme music in both original and instrumental versions and three tracks of dialogue between Syaoran, Sakura, Kurogane, Fay D. Flourite, Mokona, Tōya, and Yukito with background music taken from the anime. is the opening theme performed by Tetsu Inada. is the ending theme performed by Yui Makino. Additionally, the CD features an original two-page card-shaped calendar. It peak ranked 165th on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for one week.
Some time after leaving Koryo Country, Syaoran, Sakura, Kurogane, Fay, and Mokona arrive in a new dimension where a single island is surrounded by a vast sea. Sensing a strong magical presence they believe to be one of Sakura's feathers, they enter the city where they meet King Yukito and his servant Tōya, the same characters as those found in Clow Country. Although King Yukito is the only one in the country able to open the door to the room that may hold Sakura's feather, he is no longer able to feel any emotion. In order to get hold of the feather, Fay suggests they help Tōya revive Yukito's heart by performing a play.
"The Matinée of the Palace" Chapter. 2 ~Impossible Goal~
is a drama CD adaptation of the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle first released on February 1, 2006 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-61851. It contains 7 tracks and covers a duration of 31:04. It features two pieces of theme music in both original and instrumental versions and three tracks of dialogue between Syaoran, Sakura, Kurogane, Fay D. Flourite, Mokona, Tōya, and Yukito with background music taken from the anime.
is the opening theme performed by Miyu Irino. "Smile" is the ending theme performed by Daisuke Namikawa. Additionally, the CD features an original two-page card-shaped calendar. It peak ranked 161st on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for one week.
Fay writes a play that is essentially a reenactment of the group's journey. In that play, Syaoran and Sakura must confess their love for each other. However, Sakura is unable to say words during practice and also when they perform the play in front of Yukito and Tōya.
"The Matinée of the Palace" Chapter. 3 ~Unspeakable Lines~
is a drama CD adaptation of the anime television series Tsubasa Chronicle first released on March 24, 2006 by Victor Entertainment under the catalog number VICL-61897. It contains 7 tracks and covers a duration of 31:14. It features two pieces of theme music in both original and instrumental versions and three tracks of dialogue between Syaoran, Sakura, Kurogane, Fay D. Flourite, Mokona, Tōya, and Yukito with background music taken from the anime. is the opening theme and is performed by Mika Kikuchi. is the ending theme and is performed by Miyu Irino and Yui Makino. Additionally, the CD features an original two-page card-shaped calendar. It peak ranked 226th on the Oricon albums chart and remained on the chart for one week.
During the play, as Sakura is unable to say that she likes Syaoran, the two decide to instead improvise and speak from the heart. However, this causes Sakura to remember her past although she soon forgets her recollection due to Yūko's magic. Upon hearing their situation, Yukito once more feels sadness and decides to reveal that he sealed his heart, the presence Mokona felt earlier, so as not experience the pain of having a distant relationship with Tōya, his childhood friend. The group then leave for another world.
Private High School Holitsuba series
A series of three spin-off drama CDs have been released, with a fourth to be released, featuring characters from Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle and characters from its sister manga series xxxHolic in an alternative universe attending the same school, Holitsuba, as either teachers or students. is a portmanteau of and . The first three CDs were released to the applicant readers of the Weekly Shōnen Magazine in which Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle is serialized and of the Young Magazine in which xxxHolic is serialized. The first, titled , was released during July 2006. followed during October 2006. The third CD, titled , followed on August 22, 2007 in Shōnen Magazine and on August 27 in Young Magazine. A fourth CD, , was released to customers who bought all four DVDs of the xxxHolic and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle 2009 OVA adaptations, xxxHolic Shunmuki and Tsubasa Shunraiki respectively. The series has also been adapted to short manga one-shots by Clamp.
Release history
Albums
Singles
Reception
The musical score for the anime adaptation have generally received praise by critics. N.S. Davidson of IGN described the soundtrack as some of "some of the most glorious and touching music to be found in anime". Mania Entertainment's Chris Beveridge described the background music as "beautiful" and Bryan Morton of Mania Entertainment described the score as "another excellent soundtrack by Yuki Kajiura". Anime News Network's Carl Kimlinger agreed with Beveridge and Morton, however described the musical score as "apocalyptic" and "gloomy", ill-suited to the mood of the anime that helped transform the "what should have been a breezy lark ... into something muddy, ponderous, and far too serious-minded". However, both Beveridge and IGN's Chris Wyatt noted that the bass levels were overwhelming at times.
The anime's first season's theme music have received good reviews whereas the second season's theme music have not. Anime Fringe Lesley Smith described the first season's theme opening as providing a "breathtaking" introduction to the anime, taking the listener through a journey to unknown worlds similar to what the protagonists of Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle'' do. She described the first season's ending theme as "gorgeous" with "amazing" vocals and "lyrics [that] fit the song perfectly".
References
External links
List of Tsubasa Chronicle Albums @ NHK
List of Tsubasa Chronicle Albums @ Victor Entertainment
List of Tsubasa Chronicle Albums @ Victor Entertainment
Yuki Kajiura and FictionJunction @ Victor Entertainment
Yuki Kajiura and FictionJunction website
Maaya Sakamoto website
Kinya Kotani website
Yui Makino website
Anime soundtracks
Discographies of Japanese artists
Film and television discographies |
4317485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20the%20United%20Arab%20Emirates | Human rights in the United Arab Emirates | According to human rights organisations, the government of the UAE violates a number of fundamental human rights. The UAE does not have democratically elected institutions and citizens do not have the right to change their government or to form political parties. Activists and academics who criticize the regime are detained and imprisoned, and their families are often harassed by the state security apparatus. There are reports of forced disappearances in the UAE; many foreign nationals and Emirati citizens have been abducted by the UAE government and illegally detained and tortured in undisclosed locations. In numerous instances, the UAE government has tortured people in custody (especially expatriates and political dissidents),
and has denied their citizens the right to a speedy trial and access to counsel during official investigations.
According to Human Rights Watch, the UAE detains those who criticize authorities, including hundreds of activists and academics, and Emirati laws discriminate against women, migrants and LGBT individuals.
Flogging and stoning are legal forms of judicial punishment in the UAE due to Sharia courts. The government restricts freedom of speech and freedom of the press, and the local media are censored to avoid criticising the government, government officials or royal families. As a result, the UAE routinely ranks near the bottom of many international measures for human rights and press freedom.
Despite being elected to the UN Council, the UAE has not signed most international human-rights and labour-rights treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. In November 2020, the United Arab Emirates overhauled its legal system to loosen restrictions on alcohol consumption, permit cohabitation, and increase penalty for honor killings, among other changes.
Capital punishment
Although authorised, the death penalty is rarely applied in the UAE as the law requires that a panel of three judges agree on the decision of a sentence to death, which can be commuted if the family of the victim forgives the convicted or accept a financial compensation for the crime. When a family accepts financial compensation, a court can jail a convict to a minimum of three years and a maximum of seven years.
Since the law in the UAE is based on a dual system of Shari'a and civil courts execution, death by stoning may be ruled on only if confession and four witnesses are obtained which is legally binding for a stoning sentence to be carried out, however UAE has so far never carried out any death-by-stoning sentence.
Execution in the UAE is applied mainly through a firing squad.
Sharia law
The legal system in the UAE is based on a hard-line interpretation of Sharia law.
Flogging and stoning
The UAE's judicial system is derived from the civil law system and Sharia law. The court system consists of civil courts and Sharia courts. According to Human Rights Watch, UAE's civil and criminal courts apply elements of Sharia law, codified into its criminal code and family law, in a way which discriminates against women.
Flogging is a punishment for criminal offences such as adultery, premarital sex, and alcohol consumption. Due to Sharia courts, flogging is legal with sentences ranging from 80 to 200 lashes. Verbal abuse pertaining to a person's sexual honour is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes if it happened in public and at least one witness testify. Between 2007 and 2014, many people in the UAE were sentenced to 100 lashes. More recently in 2015, two men were sentenced to 80 lashes for hitting and insulting a woman. In 2014, an expat in Abu Dhabi was sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption and raping a toddler. Alcohol consumption for Muslims is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many Muslims have been sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption. Sometimes 40 lashes are given.
Illicit sex is sometimes penalised by 60 lashes. 80 lashes is the standard amount for anyone sentenced to flogging in several emirates. Sharia courts have penalised domestic workers with floggings. In October 2013, a Filipino housemaid was sentenced to 100 lashes for theft committed after her employer discovered her illegitimate pregnancy. Drunk-driving is strictly illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many expats have been sentenced to 80 lashes for drunk-driving. In Abu Dhabi, a man has been sentenced to 80 lashes for being drunk while with his girlfriend on the Corniche. Under UAE law, premarital sex is punishable by 100 lashes. The law has been changed to exclude expats.
Stoning is a legal punishment in the UAE. In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi. In 2006, an expatriate was sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery. Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning.
Abortion is illegal and punishable by a maximum penalty of 100 lashes and up to five years in prison. In recent years, several people have retracted their guilty plea in illicit sex cases after being sentenced to stoning or 100 lashes which is why no stoning is carried out. The punishment for committing adultery is 100 lashes for unmarried people and stoning to death for married people.
Apostasy from Islam
Apostasy from Islam is a crime punishable by death in the UAE. Blasphemy is illegal, expats involved in insulting Islam are liable for deportation. UAE incorporates hudud crimes of Sharia into its Penal Code – apostasy being one of them. Article 1 and Article 66 of UAE's Penal Code requires hudud crimes to be punished with the death penalty. No one has been executed for apostasy.
Emirati women and Islamic women
Emirati women must receive permission from male guardian to marry and remarry. The requirement is derived from Sharia, and has been federal law since 2005. In all emirates, it is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims. In the UAE, a marriage union between a Muslim woman and non-Muslim man is punishable by law, since it is considered a form of fornication.
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is illegal and is a crime that is punishable with death, life in prison, floggings, fines, deportation, chemical castration, forced psychological treatments, honor killings, vigilante executions, beatings, forced anal examinations, forced hormone injections, and torture.
Public affection
Kissing in public is illegal and can result in deportation. Expats in Dubai have been deported for kissing in public. In Abu Dhabi, people have been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public and being drunk.
Family law
The Sharia-based personal status law regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody. The Sharia-based personal status law is applied to Muslims and sometimes non-Muslims. Non-Muslim expatriates are liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce and child custody. Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction to hear family disputes, including matters involving divorce, inheritances, child custody, child abuse and guardianship of minors. Sharia courts may also hear appeals of certain criminal cases including rape, robbery, driving under the influence of alcohol and related crimes.
Other laws
Article 1 of the Federal Penal Code states that "provisions of the Islamic Law shall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money." The Federal Penal Code repealed only those provisions within the penal codes of individual emirates which are contradictory to the Federal Penal Code. Hence, both are enforceable simultaneously.
A federal law in the UAE prohibits swearing in WhatsApp and penalises swearing by a $68,061 fine and imprisonment; expats are penalised by deportation. In July 2015, an Australian expat was deported for swearing on Facebook.
Legal punishments in the UAE include forced amputations and flogging.
During the month of Ramadan, it is illegal to eat, drink, or smoke in public between sunrise and sunset. Exceptions are made for pregnant women and children. The law applies to both Muslims and non-Muslims, and failure to comply results in arrest.
Forced disappearances and torture
In numerous instances, the UAE government has tortured people in custody (especially expats and political dissidents).
UAE authorities are known to be using torture as a means to extract forced confessions of guilt.
UAE has escaped the Arab Spring; however, more than 100 Emirati activists were jailed and tortured because they sought reforms. Since 2011, the UAE government has increasingly carried out forced disappearances. Many foreign nationals and Emirati citizens have been arrested and abducted by the state, the UAE government denies these people are being held (to conceal their whereabouts), placing these people outside the protection of the law. According to Human Rights Watch, the reports of forced disappearance and torture in the UAE are of grave concern.
The Arab Organisation of Human Rights has obtained testimonies from many defendants, for its report on "forced disappearance and Torture in the UAE", who reported that they had been kidnapped, tortured and abused in detention centres. The report included 16 different methods of torture including severe beatings, threats with electrocution and denying access to medical care.
In 2013, 94 Emirati activists were held in secret detention centres and put on trial for allegedly attempting to overthrow the government. Human rights organisations have spoken out against the secrecy of the trial. An Emirati, whose father is among the defendants, was arrested for tweeting about the trial. In April 2013, he was sentenced to 10 months in jail.
Repressive measures were also used against non-Emiratis in order to justify the UAE government's claim that there is an "international plot" in which UAE citizens and foreigners were working together to destabilise the country. Foreign nationals were also subjected to a campaign of deportations. There are many documented cases of Egyptians and other foreign nationals who had spent years working in the UAE being given only a few days to leave the country.
Foreign nationals subjected to forced disappearance include two Libyans and two Qataris. Amnesty reported that the Qatari men had been abducted by the UAE government that withheld information about the men's fate from their families. Among the foreign nationals detained, imprisoned and expelled is Iyad El-Baghdadi, a popular blogger and Twitter personality. He was arrested by UAE authorities, detained, imprisoned and then expelled from the country. Despite his lifetime residence in the UAE, as a Palestinian citizen, El-Baghdadi had no recourse to contest this order. He could not be deported back to the Palestinian territories, therefore he was deported to Malaysia.
In 2012, Dubai police subjected three British citizens to beatings and electric shocks after arresting them on drugs charges. The British Prime Minister, David Cameron, expressed "concern" over the case and raised it with the UAE President, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, during his 2013 state visit to Britain. The three men were pardoned and released in July 2013.
In April 2009, a video tape of torture was smuggled out of the UAE showed Sheikh Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan torturing a man with whips, electric cattle prods, and wooden planks with protruding nails, and running him over repeatedly with a car.
In December 2009, Issa appeared in court and proclaimed his innocence. The trial ended on 10 January 2010, when Issa was cleared of the torture of Mohammed Shah Poor. Human Rights Watch criticised the trial and called on the government to establish an independent body to investigate allegations of abuse by UAE security personnel and other persons of authority. The US State Department expressed concern over the verdict and said all members of Emirati society "must stand equal before the law" and called for a careful review of the decision to ensure that the demands of justice are fully met in this case.
According to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, Emirates authorities forcibly disappeared and detained people who criticised the government or its allies. In February 2015, Human Rights Watch documented a case in which three Emirati sisters, Asma, Mariam, and Al Yazzyah al-Suweidi, were forcibly disappeared by Emirates authorities. They released them without charge after spending three months in incommunicado detention. The three sisters were arrested after posting comments criticising the government for arresting their brother Dr. Issa al-Suweidi. In August 2015, Emirati academic Nasser bin Ghaith was arrested after posting some comments on social media in which he criticised the mass killing of Rab'a protesters in Cairo in 2013. Bin Ghaith's fate was still unknown at time of writing.
According to Amnesty International annual report (2016) on Human Rights in UAE, enforced disappearance has been widely practiced against citizen and foreign nationals in UAE. The international organisation said UAE government has forcibly disappeared dozens of people for months in secret and unacknowledged detention for interrogation. According to the report, Abdulrahman Bin Sobeih was subjected to enforced disappearance for three months by UAE authorities. In addition, Dr Nasser Bin Ghaith, an academic and economist, was forcibly disappeared by the authorities for more than 10 months. Bin Ghaith was subjected to torture and ill-treatment as he faced charges relating to his right to freedom of expression.
November 2017, Abu Dhabi security forces arrested two journalists covering the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi museum for Swiss public broadcaster. The journalists were held for more than 50 hours, with no ability to communicate with the outside world. According to RTS, The journalists were interrogated for up to nine hours at a time, and were blindfolded as they were shuttled between different locations. Furthermore, their camera, computers, hard drives and other material were confiscated.
In March 2018, an Emirati princess Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum II, daughter of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al-Maktoum, was seized by commandos from a yacht away from the Indian coast, after she fled from UAE. A BBC documentary reported how the princess planned her escape from her residential palace. In a video recorded by Latifa prior to her escape, she claimed to have tried escaping from the UAE previously. However, she was captured at the border and jailed for three years; beaten and tortured. In December, a statement released by her family quoted that the princess was "safe" at her home. Since early March, the whereabouts of the princess were unknown. On 5 March 2020, a UK family court's 34-page ruling confirmed that Sheikha Shamsa bint Mohammed al-Maktoum and Sheikha Latifa bint Mohammed al-Maktoum had been abducted and forcibly detained by their father and the Dubai ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum.
A number of UAEs royals have been charged for abusing and ill-treating servants in overseas countries.
In 2019, a 42-year-old Emirati woman, who was arrested in 2015 by the UAE authorities, grabbed media attention due to the ill-treatment she received during her imprisonment in the UAE. While raising funds for Syrian refugees, Alia Abdel Nour was arrested on the accusations of funding terrorism. She has been imprisoned for 10 years, subjected to immense torture and solitary confinement, with no access to ventilation, toilet, mattress, blanket, proper food and medicine. Despite being diagnosed with cancer – shortly after her arrest - she did not receive any medical treatment. Emirati authorities claim that Nour herself declined the medical treatment, while her family claims she was forced to sign documents that forbid her access to the treatment.
On 4 May 2019, Alia Abdel Nour died in the UAE prison following prolonged mistreatment and denial of medical care by the Emirati authorities. Since her arrest, her hands and feet were shackled to her hospital bed for long periods of time. The UAE authorities ignored requests by the international rights groups, European parliamentarians, and United Nations experts to release her on the grounds of her deteriorating health.
In January 2019, the UAE police detained 26-year-old Ali Issa Ahmad for reportedly wearing a T-shirt with Qatar's flag on it after the Qatar vs Iraq AFC Asian Cup match in Abu Dhabi. Ahmad complains that the FIFA "failed to protect" his human rights. Pictures of scars on Ahmad's body from the torture sustained during detention were released by BBC. The victim complained about racial discrimination and of being stabbed and deprived of food and water while inside the prison. Complaints have been registered against FIFA as well as directed to UAE authorities through the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the UN Human Rights Council. According to UAE authorities, the police took Ahmed to a hospital to be examined for signs of abuse, which he complained of to the police — as is customary in cases of assault in the UAE. A medical report revealed that his injuries were inconsistent with the account of events he gave to police, and that his wounds were self-inflicted. UAE embassy in Britain denied the news allegations that he was arrested for wearing a Qatari shirt, stating "He was categorically not arrested for wearing a Qatar football shirt". Ahmed was charged for wasting police time and filing a false report, which is an illegal act. During the AFC Asian Cup, fans were seen wearing the Qatari football shirt and waving Qatari flags without any instances of arrest.
In June 2020, it was reported that the UAE had been holding captive a Turkish aid worker Mehmet Ali Ozturk, since 2018. Reportedly, Ali Ozturk has been detained on frivolous grounds and was tortured inside UAE's prison. He was arrested in Dubai, where he, alongside his wife Emine Ozturk, was participating in Dubai's food festival. "He lost 25kg after the torture they subjected him to, from denailing to strappado. They would do these things when he refused to take part in a video accusing Erdogan of some crimes," his wife quoted. In 2017, a Yemen human rights activist Huda Al-Sarari exposed a UAE secret detention facility in Yemen where thousands of Emiratis were held and tortured. Al-Sarari was forced into exile.
On 9 July 2020, reports claimed that the UAE authorities declined the requests of human rights organisations to provide information about an Omani man, Abdullah al-Shaamsi, who was sentenced to life imprisonment in May 2020 on a seriously unfair trial. Al-Shaamsi was arrested in 2018 at the age of 19, while attending high school in the UAE. The security forces subjected him to a sustained period of detention without communication, solitary confinement and torture, leaving him with kidney cancer and depression. Despite his health conditions, he was being held in an overcrowded prison known for unsanitary conditions and lack of access to adequate health care, during the COVID-19 crisis.
Since October 2020, UAE authorities on basis of religious background have forcibly disappeared at least four Pakistani men and deported at least six others. Reports of UAE authorities arbitrarily targeting Shia residents, whether Lebanese, Iraqi, Afghan, Pakistani, or otherwise, often emerge at times of increased regional tensions.
In March 2021, the US State Department released a report on the human rights practices in the UAE. It highlighted that while the disappearance cases and unlawful killings were not reported to media throughout 2020, there were cases of torture, arbitrary detentions, abuses, threats of rape, and beatings. The department reported the conditions of Emirati prisons, which remained overcrowded, had poor sanitary conditions and provided no easy access to medical care, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The UAE prisons were described as extremely torturous, where prisoners were discriminated against and abused using various ways. The detainees were in most cases not provided with the details of their case for months, while many receive the charges written in Arabic with no translation and forced to sign such documents.
In July 2021, a private letter written by prominent human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor, detailing his mistreatment in detention and grossly unfair trial, was published by a London-based Arabic news site. Despite having ratified the UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in 2012, the UAE grossly violated the act's obligations by holding Mansoor in isolation for at least four years, amounting to physical and mental torture.
In September 2021, the UAE sentenced an activist from Syria, Abdul Rahman Al-Nahhas, to ten years in prison. Founder of the Insan Watch Organization, the human rights activist was charged by the Public Prosecutor of terrorism for his alleged membership in a terrorist organization as he was linked with the Switzerland-based Al-Karama Organisation for Human Rights. Al-Nahhas was also charged for insulting the prestige of the state by approaching the French embassy seeking political asylum. He was arrested at the end of 2019 and was forcibly disappeared by the UAE authorities until the commencement of his trial in January 2021. During his detention, Al-Nahhas was threatened, tortured, and was not allowed to contact his family.
On 1 October 2021, lawyers submitted a complaint to the French Prosecutor in Paris against Major General Ahmed Naser Al-Raisi for the unlawful detention and torture of two British men, Matthew Hedges and Ali Issa Ahmad. Al-Raisi has been a controversial candidate for the presidency of international policing body Interpol. The complaint against him was made under the principle of universal jurisdiction, allowing the French authorities to investigate and arrest foreign nationals for certain crimes even if they occurred outside France.
In 2021, Ahmed Naser, a UAE senior Policeman was made the chief of Interpol. He has allegedly tortured a number of people in the UAE before.
On 7 January 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that Emirati authorities penalised human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor after he published a prison letter detailing his mistreatment in detention in July 2021. The UAE authorities held Mansoor largely incommunicado and denied him access to critical medical care. The UAE violated Mansoor's rights for many years with arbitrary arrest and detention, death threats, physical assault, government surveillance, and inhumane treatment in custody.
A British businessman, Ryan Cornelius was being held arbitrarily by the authorities in the UAE since 2008. He was arrested from Dubai airport and was detained after some complicated business dealings with influential Emiratis. In 2010, he was sentenced to 10 years in prison after charges of fraud. The UAE authorities sentenced him for additional 20 years, two months before his release date in 2018. Cornelius contracted tuberculosis in detention. He was subjected to human rights abuses, including aggressive interrogations in absence of legal representative and prolonged solitary confinement. In June 2022, the UN officials shed light on the issue and called on the UAE to immediately release Cornelius.
Prisons
The UAE runs secret prisons in Yemen where prisoners are forcibly disappeared and tortured.
On 10 June 2020, Human Rights Watch urged UAE authorities to take care of the mental and physical health of prisoners due to the ongoing COVID-19 outbreak in three detention facilities.
The United States has sent some prisoners to the UAE; these prisoners were held inside Guantanamo Bay jail and they were tortured again. Many of these prisoners were only suspects.
A British football coach, Billy Hood was detained by the Dubai authorities and sentenced to ten years in prison over CBD vape oil left in his car by a visiting friend. Hood suffered rough prison conditions, where he was isolated in a tiny cell. During February 2022 visit of Prince William to the UAE for Dubai Expo 2020, Hood was "violently attacked" by four Emirati prison guards after he punched the wall of his jail cell out of "frustration". The assault against Billy Hood was completely opposite to Prince William's efforts to promote ties between the two nations.
On 28 January 2022, the Emirati authorities arrested Steve Long, a war veteran from Stockport, for telling the Etihad Airlines staff he feared there was a bomb on his plane, after a psychotic breakdown. A court in Abu Dhabi did not accept the medical evidence. Long was diagnosed with acute psychosis and delirium days after he was arrested. He was also ordered to pay £100,000, and was supposed to be jailed unless he paid the money. His family appealed the verdict but it was rejected, despite two medical reports saying Steve lacked capacity at the time and is not responsible for his actions. His family members believed that a drone strike in Abu Dhabi in January 2022 heightened his fears and triggered a mental collapse.
On 17 July 2022, the UAE authorities unjustly arrested US citizen Asim Ghafoor, the former lawyer of murdered journalist Jamal Khashoggi, and sentenced him to three years in prison. Ghafoor is also a co-founder and board member of human rights group Democracy for the Arab World Now (DAWN). The Abu Dhabi Money Laundering Court convicted Ghafoor of committing crimes of tax evasion and money laundering, and also ordered him to pay a fine of more than $800,000 stemming from his in absentia conviction. But the critics and human rights defenders believe that Ghafoor's detention is politically motivated revenge for his association with Khashoggi and DAWN, which has highlighted UAE human rights abuses and war crimes. Ghafoor has stated that he had no knowledge of any legal matter against him and no reason to believe he was involved in any legal dispute in the UAE.
Freedom of speech
In the UAE, there is no formal commitment to free speech. It is not permitted to be in any way critical of the government, government officials, police and the royal families. Any attempt to also form a union in public and protest against any issue, will be met with severe action. Free speech restrictions apply to critics, as well as to ordinary social media users.
On 16 November 2007 Tecom stopped broadcast of two major Pakistani satellite news channels, uplinked from Dubai Media City, which was initially marketed by Tecom under the tagline "Freedom to Create". The Dubai government had ordered Tecom to shut down the popular independent Pakistani news channels Geo News and ARY One World on the demand of Pakistan's military regime led by General Pervez Musharraf. This was implemented by Du Samacom disabling their SDI & ASI streams. Later, policy makers in Dubai permitted these channels to air their entertainment programs, but news, current affairs and political analysis were forbidden. Although subsequently the conditions were removed, marked differences have since been observed in their coverage. This incident has had a serious impact on all organisations in the media city with Geo TV and ARY OneWorld considering relocation.
In 2013, the UAE arrested five men, including an American citizen for making a satirical video. The American, who had moved to Dubai for work, was sentenced to a year in prison.
Andrew Ross, a professor at New York University was not allowed to enter the UAE (where the university has a campus), after he had commented on the treatment of workers who built the campus there. Airline staff at the airport informed him that the UAE authorities told them that they will refuse him entry.
Amnesty International released a report about violating the right to freedom of expression in the United Arab Emirates. According to the report, a prominent economist, academic and human rights defender Dr Nasser bin Ghaith was sentenced to 10 years in jail by the Federal Appeal Court in Abu Dhabi. He was charged of posting false information on Twitter about UAE leaders and their policies; and the comments state that he had not been given a fair trial where he and four other Emirates prosecuted on charges of publicly insulting the countries' leaders over comments posted online. He was forcibly disappeared, held in secret detention for months and subjected to beatings and deliberate sleep deprivation.
Amnesty International published a report about violating the human rights in the United Arab Emirates. According to the report, a prominent human rights defender Ahmed Mansoor was arrested at 3:15 by 10 male and two female uniformed security officials. They raided the family's apartment, carried out a lengthy room-by-room search, including of the children's bedroom, and confiscated electronic devices. He was detained for the peaceful expression of conscientiously held belief.
Human Rights Watch issued a report regarding the violation of the rights to freedom of expression in the United Arab Emirates. On 15 March 2017, Tayseer Najjar, a Jordanian journalist, was sentenced to a three-year prison term and a fine of 500,000 UAE Dirhams by Abu Dhabi Federal Appeals Court. He was charged with insulting the state's symbols and criticising Egypt, Israel and Gulf countries through comments he made on Facebook during Israeli military operations in Gaza in 2014, before he moved to the UAE. Ten days after preventing him to travel to Jordan for his wife and children on 3 December 2015, UAE authorities summoned al-Najjar to a police station in Abu Dhabi and detained him. They also prevented him to contact with a lawyer for more than a year before bringing him to trial in January 2017.
Najjar was set to be released on 13 December 2018, after completing a three-year prison sentence. However, his sentence was extended for another six months as he failed to pay the substantial fine. Human Rights Watch and Reporters Without Borders urged Anwar Gargash, the UAE minister of state for foreign affairs, for an immediate release of the journalist. Sarah Leah Whitson, Director of Human Rights Watch said, "If the UAE were truly committed to its rhetoric of tolerance, it would not have ripped Najjar away from his wife and children for years-old innocuous Facebook posts."
Amnesty International issued a report regarding the violation of the right to freedom of speech in the United Arab Emirates. Hussain al-Najjar has served an 11-year prison sentence; he is one of a number of prisoners convicted in 2013 following the grossly unfair mass trial of 94 government critics and reform advocates. Accordingly, on 17 March 2014, the activist Osama al-Najjar who is a 28-year-old son of Hussain, was sentenced to three years in prison after sending tweets to the Minister of Interior expressing concern about his father who had been ill-treated in jail. During the detention, he was denied access to a lawyer for over six months and held in solitary confinement at a secret detention facility for four days after his arrest.
During the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis, Hamad Saif al-Shamsi, the Attorney-General of the United Arab Emirates announced on 7 June that publishing expressions of sympathy towards Qatar through social media, or any type of written, visual or verbal form is considered illegal under UAE's Federal Penal Code and the Federal law on Combating Information Technology Crimes. Violators of this offence face between 3 and 15 years imprisonment, a fine of up to 500,000 Emirati dirhams ($136,000) or both.
In March 2017, UAE's prominent economist, academic and human rights defender Dr Nasser bin Ghaith was arrested and imprisoned for 10 years, for his comments on Twitter related to the treatment he received during his previous arrest. Amnesty International condemned and criticised the arrest, asking for his immediate release – which is still pending. Ghaith went on a hunger strike in October 2018; his health has been deteriorating since then. Also, he was denied access to a lawyer during his trial period and still awaits justice.
According to Amnesty International, Israeli company NSO Group's Pegasus spyware was used to target human rights activist Ahmed Mansoor. citizen Lab's August 2016 report, "The Million Dollar Dissident", documents the attempts made to infect Mansoor's phone with Pegasus spyware.
On 20 March 2020, Amnesty International and the Gulf Centre for Human Rights wrote a joint-letter and called for the immediate and unconditional release of rights activist Ahmed Mansoor. The groups also called the UAE as an "incubator of tolerance".
In April 2020, the authorities in the United Arab Emirates introduced criminal penalties for the spread of misinformation and rumours related to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Arab Emirates. On 11 May 2020, a US-based gulf rights group, Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain in its report said that "impunity in the United Arab Emirates is endemic." Their study documented tactics used by Emirati authorities to stifle dissidents, besides revealing use of torture against those recognised as imminent threat to national security. "This ‘threat' most commonly includes human rights defenders, political opposition, religious figures, and journalists," a statement from the report read. In June 2020, International Campaign for Freedom in the UAE (ICFUAE) informed that the UAE continues to detain human rights activists who demanded democratic reform in the country. The campaign group stated Fahad al-Hijri, Abdallah Ali Alhajery, Oman Alharethy and Mahmoud Alhoseny, all have completed their sentences, but continued to remain imprisoned.
Alaa al-Siddiq, a UAE dissident and critic of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, allegedly died in a car crash in Oxfordshire, South East England. However, campaigners and a close colleague of Ms al-Siddiq have demanded the British police to thoroughly investigate the incident, claiming that the activist's "life was at risk all the time", Khalid Ibrahim, executive-director of the GCHR. Al Siddiq was a human rights activist, who had been fighting for the release of her father Mohammad al-Siddiq, also an activist, who had been detained since 2013. According to Mr Ibrahim, threat to the life of Al Siddiq heightened since her commencing work for the Saudi human rights firm, ALQST. Other passengers in the BMW car, two adults and a child, received injuries and were taken to the hospital for treatment.
On 16 September 2021, in a strongly worded resolution, European Union legislators condemned alleged human rights violations in the UAE and urged the government to free several prominent human rights activists and other "peaceful dissidents" imprisoned in the country.
An American social media influencer, Tierra Young Allen was being trapped in Dubai for months, after she was arrested over possible charges of “shouting” at an employee of a car rental agency she hired a car from. Allen travelled to the UAE in April 2023. The incident occurred when she went back to get her personal items from the agency, after the car met with an accident. However, she was asked to pay “an undisclosed amount of money”. The car agent allegedly got aggressive and started “screaming at her”. Allen shouted back at the employee, and was also followed out of the building. Shouting is technically a crime under the Emirati laws, which strictly govern speech. Speaking loudly, raising middle finger in a dispute, or swearing in public are all considered offensive crimes. The UAE authorities held Allen’s passport. Radha Stirling, who was helping Allen to depart Dubai, approached the Texas lawmakers like Senator Ted Cruz and Sheila Jackson Lee to work with the US consulate in Dubai to stop her imprisonment.
Human rights advocates were pushing the UK government to attain guarantee from the UAE that Britishers attending the COP28 summit should not face arrests if they protest. They wrote a letter to James Cleverly calling for him to ask for an undertaking from the UAE assuring the security and rights of the UK citizens travelling to the UAE for COP28. The human right activist said dissidents are often arrested in the country, and protests against the Emirati government are crushed. In April 2023, COP28 organizers asked the speakers attending the summit to not protest against the UAE laws.
In August 2023, Human Rights Watch urged the Emirati authorities to release all those detained unlawfully before the COP28 event. The UAE continued to detain people who already completed their prison sentence, including the 55 dissidents, lawyers and others convicted in mass trial of the “UAE94” case. The “UAE94” detainees covered a majority of those held in prison beyond their sentences. The UAE was called for to release the imprisoned human rights activist, Ahmed Mansoor, who was being held in prolonged solitary confinement since his arrest in March 2017. The Emirates was also demanded to immediately release other rights defenders Dr Naseer bin ghai, Amina Al Abdouli and Maryam Al Balushi. HRW also called on the UAE to end the human rights violations, including monitoring through sophisticated surveillance, use of repressive laws to imprison human rights defenders, denying the right to freedom of expression, denying right to peaceful assembly, and denying the right to form union to the migrant workers.
Internet
In 2012, a cybercrime decree was issued, imposing severe restrictions on freedom of speech in social networking, blogs, text messages and emails. The law outlawed criticism of senior officials and demands for political reform. The law stipulates an imprisonment and a fine of up to 1,000,000 dirhams for publishing information which is deemed to be critical towards the state.
In 2015, a man was detained for commenting on his employer's Facebook page after a disagreement with his employer, even though the posts were made while the man was in the United States. Police in Abu Dhabi contacted him after he came back to the UAE and asked him to meet officers at a police station, where he was later detained.
Secret Dubai was an independent blog in Dubai, from 2002 until 2010. It generated a significant following in the Middle East Blogosphere until the UAE's Telecoms Regulatory Authority (TRA) in the UAE blocked the website.
In July 2016, Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain released a report accusing UAE government of enacting further laws to restrict the freedom of political and social expression. According to the organisation, Federal Law No. 12 of 2016 inhibits social and political resistance, by constraining an individual's right to privacy and the right to freedom of expression. ADHR also said counter terrorism Laws in UAE are used to legalise arbitrary arrests, detainment, prosecution and imprisonment of peaceful protestors and government critics.
In 2018, Internet service providers in UAE blocked all VoIP apps, but permitting "government-approved VoIP apps (C'ME and BOTIM)". In opposition, a petition on Change.org garnered over 5000 signatures, in response to which the website was blocked in UAE.
In December 2019, the US intelligence identified that the UAE, which banned VoIP options on several applications, developed its own messaging and video calling app ToTok and has been using it as a spying tool. The country had forbidden the calling options on applications like WhatsApp, FaceTime and Skype, prompting suspicion over the self-developed app.
In July 2023, a social media influencer, Hamdan Al Rind, was detained by the UAE over a TikTok video. Rind, also referred as “Car Expert”, was seen tossing stacks of cash at the employees inside a luxury car showroom in the TikTok video, and offered to buy the most expensive car. The video made fun of Dubai’s luxurious lifestyle, but the video was alleged of promoting “a wrong and offensive mental image of Emirati citizens and ridicules them”. Rind was alleged of “abusing the internet” through a “propaganda that stirs up the public opinion and harms the public interest”. The UAE’s cybercrime laws extensively restrict expression and assembly, and criminalize any form of opposition of the country and its leaders.
Freedom of religion
In recent years, a large number of Shia Muslim expatriates have been deported from the UAE, Lebanese Shia families have been deported for their alleged sympathy for Hezbollah. According to some organisations, more than 4,000 Shia expats have been deported from the UAE in recent years.
The lack of religious freedom in China has led to Uyghur Muslims fleeing the country to take refuge in other parts of the world. However, the diplomatic relations of Beijing have resulted in the abuse and detention of Uyghur Muslims even abroad. The government of UAE was reportedly one of the three Arab nations to have detained and deported Uyghur Muslims living in asylum in Dubai, back to China. The decision received a lot of criticism due to China's poor human rights records and no extradition agreement shared between the two countries.
Women's rights
The United Arab Emirates ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 2004. This Convention regards violence against women as a form of discrimination and calls on participating governments to put measures in place to combat violence in all forms, be it domestic or public. The UAE regularly participates in and hosts international and GCC conferences on women's issues. The UAE has signed several other international treaties on protecting the rights of women. Among these are the Convention on the Rights of a Child, the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, the Equal Remuneration Convention, the Conventions Concerning Employment of Women During the Night and the Minimum Age Convention.
The 2015 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) status report on Millennium Development Goals noted that the state legislations in the UAE do not discriminate on the basis of gender with respect to education, employment or the quality of services provided.
Through several initiatives women in the UAE are playing an increasingly important role in the economy, politics and technology and are viewed by some as leaders of gender equality in the Gulf region.
There is an alternative for women to dissolve their marriage found under article 110 of the Personal Status Code, or khul', however this means a woman relinquishes her right to the mahr – or the dowry she received as part of the marriage contract.
As to custody of children, women are considered physical guardians, they have the right to custody up to the age of 13 for girls and 10 for boys. But if a woman chooses to remarry she automatically forfeits her right to custody of her children. Current laws gives custody of children to the who is suitable.
Furthermore, under article 71, women who leave their husbands can be ordered to return to their marital home.
In November 2021, a report by The Independent highlighted the lack of fundamental protection of women's rights in the UAE. British politicians — Sir Peter Bottomley, Debbie Abrahams and Helena Kennedy — generated a report based on the testimony of British women who experienced the UAE legal system. On the other side of the many reforms and PR experts laundering efforts, the Emirati laws still leave women vulnerable to serious abuses of their rights, with little legal recourse.
Violence against women
Domestic violence
In one case the Federal Court sanctioned a husband's beating of his wife so long as he did not leave physical marks and does so lightly, and in another case a man was ordered to pay a compensation for taking it too far by leaving physical injuries on his beaten wife.
Furthermore, there is growing concern at the UAE's lack of action against domestic violence. Human Rights Watch has documented three cases where it was alleged that police discouraged UK nationals from reporting cases of domestic violence.
On 24 March 2022, a senior British judge concluded that Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al-Maktoum inflicted 'exorbitant' domestic abuse on his ex-wife Princess Haya bint Hussein. Princess Haya was awarded the sole responsibility for their children by the High Court in London, in regards to their medical care and schooling. Sheikh Maktoum was barred from taking any decisions about the children's lives and from having any direct contact with them. The court said that Sheikh Maktoum's "coercive and controlling" behaviour could only have been "most harmful to the emotional and psychological welfare" of their children. As per the previous hearings, he spied on his second wife and her legal team by ordering their phones to be hacked using the Pegasus spyware.
Sexual assault and harassment
Women subjected to sexual assault crimes face several obstacles in seeking justice. They often face zina charges if they report a crime committed against them. Alicia Gali was imprisoned for eight months for sex outside of marriage after reporting an assault by her co-workers. A Norwegian woman was jailed for 16 months for reporting a rape before being pardoned and returned home. However, police said she was imprisoned for filling a false case as she had withdrawn her complaint.
The credibility of the victim's allegations are called into question by the police and Courts will enquire as to whether alcohol was involved, whether the alleged perpetrator was known, and whether the victim resisted the attack.
Migrant workers
According to the International Labour Organization there are 146,000 female migrant domestic workers employed in the UAE. In 2014 a Human Rights Watch report spoke to domestic workers who complained about abuse and not being paid due earnings, getting rest periods or days off and excessive workloads as well as documented some cases of psychological, physical and sexual abuse.
The kafala system ties a migrant worker to their employers, who act as their sponsors and makes it difficult for them to change employers. If a domestic worker attempts to leave her sponsor before the end of her contract without her sponsor's approval she will be deemed to have "absconded" which usually results in fines and deportation. however government has changed the law since then.
Federal law No.8 excludes domestic workers from labour laws and the environment which they work in is not regulated by the Ministry of Labour. This means domestic migrant workers have fewer rights than other migrant workers. In 2012 the government stated that the cabinet had approved a bill on domestic workers, however, Human Rights Watch has received no response to requests to obtain a draft.
In January 2016, Amnesty international said UAE government continues to violate rights of migrant workers in the country. The international organisation said workers have been tied with Kafalah system and denied collective bargaining rights. Amnesty also said that women workers from Asia and Africa are explicitly excluded from labour law protections and particularly vulnerable to serious abuses, including forced labour and human trafficking.
In March 2019, the Human Rights Watch reported that eight Lebanese nationals have been detained by the Emirati authorities on the accusations of terrorism charges, without any evidence. The defendants have been held in prolonged solitary confinement in an unknown location for more than a year, without any access to lawyers and family members. The detainees have also been forced to sign on blank papers while some of them were blindfolded.
In January 2020, Emirati employers were reported to have been hiring the Indian migrant workers on tourist visas, exploiting them and leaving them helpless with illegal status. Recruiters in the UAE chose visit visas because they are cheap and quickly available than the work permits.
Employment
Women's employment in the labour market has risen significantly and in the public sector women make up 66% of employees, with 30% of them in high level positions of responsibility.
The UAE cabinet is made up of 27.5% women, all of whom play key roles in supporting innovation in the country with results indicating that the UAE is a new hub for women in technology. Women represent 50 percent of scientists in STEM programmes at UAE universities and female nationals in the nuclear sector have tripled between 2014 and 2015.
Political affairs
In 2004 the first woman was appointed as minister, Lubna Al Qasimi. In 2006, in the first parliamentary elections, the first woman was elected to the National Federal Council and in 2016, Noura Al Kaabi was named Minister of state for the NFC. Reem Al Hashimi and Shamma Al Mazrui are two other female ministers.
In addition to this the UAE is one of only two countries in the Gulf that permits women to hold the position of a judge or prosecutor, with Bahrain being the first country in the region to elect a female judge in 2006.
Abortion
Under article 340 of the Penal Code abortion is illegal in the UAE except where a woman's life is at risk or the unborn child has a genetic condition that will prove to be fatal. A woman who is found to have undergone an abortion can face a penalty of up to one year in prison and a fine up to Dh10,000. Women that enter hospital seeking treatment for a miscarriage can be accused of attempted abortion if they are unmarried.
Education
Education has been a prime area of growth in the whole Gulf region. Primary school completion rates have grown by 15% for girls and the UAE, as well as Qatar, have the highest female-to-male ratio of university enrolments worldwide. 77% of Emirati women enrol in higher education after secondary school and make up 70% of all university graduates in the UAE.
Traditionally women were encouraged to pursue female disciplines such as education and health care but this has changed recently with surges in areas such as technology and engineering. The UAE currently has four women fighter pilots and thirty trained females in the nation's special security forces. In September 2014, the UAE opened the region's first military college for women, Khawla bint Al Azwar Military School.
Migrant and labour rights
Migrants, particularly migrant workers, make up a majority (approximately 80%) of the resident population of the UAE, and account for 90% of its workforce. They generally lack rights associated with citizenship and face a variety of restrictions on their rights as workers. There are reports of undocumented Emiratis who, because of their inability to be recognised as full citizens, receive no government benefits and have no labour rights. These stateless Emiratis – also known as bidun – either migrated to the UAE before independence or were natives who failed to register as citizens. In addition, there are various incidents where local individuals have ill-treated people from overseas, just on the basis of nationality or race.
Emiratis receive favourability in employment via the Emiratisation programme forcing companies by law to limit the number of migrant workers in a company. This is done for the purposes of stabilising the labour market and protecting the rights of this group as a minority in their own country. At the same time, however, due to the welfare benefits of the UAE government, many Emiratis are reluctant to take up low paying jobs especially those in the private sector; private sector employers are also generally more inclined to hire overseas temporary workers as they are cheaper and can be retrenched for various reasons, for example, if they go on strike Most UAE locals also prefer government jobs and consider private sector jobs to be below them.
Migrants, mostly of South Asian origin, constitute 42.5% of the UAE's workforce and have reportedly been subject to a range of human rights abuses. Workers have sometimes arrived in debt to recruitment agents from home countries and upon arrival were made to sign a new contract in English or Arabic that pays them less than had originally been agreed, although this is illegal under UAE law. Further to this, some categories of workers have had their passports withheld by their employer. This practice, although illegal, is to ensure that workers do not abscond or leave the country on un-permitted trips. In 2012, a workers' camp in Sonapur, Dubai, had their water cut for 20 days and electricity for 10 days, as well as no pay for three months. They were told that they had been forewarned that the lease was about to expire, and their option was to go to the Sharjah camp, which the workers did not want to do because it was "very dirty and [had] a foul smell.
In September 2003 the government was criticised by Human Rights Watch for its inaction in addressing the discrimination against Asian workers in the emirate.
In 2004, the United States Department of State has cited widespread instances of blue collar labour abuse in the general context of the United Arab Emirates.
The BBC reported in September 2004 that "local newspapers often carry stories of construction workers allegedly not being paid for months on end. They are not allowed to move jobs and if they leave the country to go home they will almost certainly lose the money they say they are owed. The names of the construction companies concerned are not published in the newspapers for fear of offending the often powerful individuals who own them."
In December 2005 the Indian consulate in Dubai submitted a report to the Government of India detailing labour problems faced by Indian expatriates in the emirate. The report highlighted delayed payment of wages, substitution of employment contracts, premature termination of services and excessive working hours as being some of the challenges faced by Indian workers in the city. The consulate also reported that 109 Indian blue collar workers committed suicide in the UAE in 2006.
In March 2006, NPR reported that workers "typically live eight to a room, sending home a portion of their wage to their families, whom they don't see for years at a time." Others report that their wage has been withheld to pay back loans, making them little more than indentured servants.
In 2007,
Human Rights Watch reported issues during construction of Louvre Abu Dhabi museum including the confiscation of workers passports resulting in forced labour conditions. High "recruitment loans" paid by migrant workers to construction companies still had not been repaid as of 2019, according to government-paid monitors. 86% of these fees were over $2000.
In October 2020, Dubai witnessed a spike in number of homeless migrant workers. Blue collar workers from Asia and Africa claimed that they were trapped in the city after losing jobs, as the economy tightened due to COVID-19. Reports stated that many migrants gathered in the parks, as they were left abandoned with no money. It was also suggested that migrant workers from poorer countries were paid low wages, worked for long hours and often lived in cramped dormitories that were seen as coronavirus hotbeds in the UAE.
In October 2023, a report based on evidences obtained by FairSquare revealed that migrant workers from Africa and Asia were working in very hot weather and humidity for COP28 conference facilities in the UAE. In September 2023, they were exposed to extreme climate with temperature hitting 42C(107F), despite a “midday ban”.
2006 workers' riots and 2007 strike by foreign workers
On 21 March 2006, tensions boiled over at the construction site of the Burj Khalifa, as workers upset over low wages and poor working conditions rioted, damaging cars, offices, computers, and construction tools. A Dubai Interior Ministry official said the rioters caused approximately US$1 million in damage. On 22 March most workers returned to the construction site but refused to work. Workers building a new terminal at Dubai International Airport went on strike in sympathy.
A strike by foreign workers took place in October 2007, resulting in 159 deportations.
Government action
In the past, the UAE government has denied any kind of labour injustices and has stated that the accusations by Human Rights Watch were misguided. Towards the end of March 2006, the government announced steps to allow construction unions. UAE labour minister Ali al-Kaabi said, "Laborers will be allowed to form unions."
The strikes and negative media attention provided exposure of this regional problem and in 2008 the UAE government decreed and implemented a "midday break" during summer for construction companies, ensuring laborers were provided several hours to escape the summer heat. Illegal visa overstayers were assured amnesty and even repatriated to their home countries at the expense of friends, embassies or charities.
In July 2013, a video was uploaded onto YouTube, which depicted a local driver hitting an expatriate worker, following a road related incident. Using part of his headgear, the local driver whips the expatriate and also pushes him around, before other passers-by intervene. A few days later, Dubai Police announced that both, the local driver and the person who filmed the video, have been arrested. It was also revealed that the local driver was a senior UAE government official, although the exact government department is not known. The video once again brings into question the way that lower classes of foreign workers are treated. Police in November 2013, also arrested a US citizen and some UAE citizens, in connection with a YouTube parody video which allegedly portrayed Dubai in bad light. The parody video was shot in areas of Satwa and depicted gangs learning how to fight using simple weapons, including shoes, the aghal, etc. During the UN Universal Periodic Review (UPR) Pre-session of 2017 addressing the human rights violation affairs, a UAE delegate, Ahmed Awad, departed from the session after pronouncing it as a "waste of time".
A report released by the Human Rights Watch in November 2020 cited that hundreds of Sudanese migrant workers were tricked into fighting alongside the UAE-backed forces loyal to General Khalifa Haftar in the Libya civil war. The Sudanese men were hired as security guards by an Emirati firm, Black Shield Security Services, for working at malls and hotels in the UAE.
Labour law issues
The UAE has four main types of labour laws:
Federal Labour Law – Applies to all the seven Emirates and supersedes free zone laws in certain areas.
JAFZA Labour Law – Applies to the Dubai Jebel Ali Free Zone.
TECOM Labour Law – Applies to all Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone properties: Internet City, Media City, Studio City and International Media Production Zone.
DIFC Labour Law – Applies to all companies in the Dubai International Financial Centre free zone.
Labour laws generally favour the employer and are less focused on the rights of employees. The Ministry of Labour is criticised for loosely enforcing these laws, most notably late or no wage or overtime payment for both blue collar and white collar employees.
How gratuity is calculated in the UAE
Working in the UAE as an employee or an employer is an enough reason to be aware of labour laws of the country regardless of employment status. Companies incorporated within UAE, be it mainland or free zones are bound to comply with the provisions of UAE Labour Law (Federal Law number 8 of 1980) which is further regulated through Ministry of Labour. Such provisions of the Labour Law oblige the employer to pay end of service benefits to the employee post expiration of his employment contract, subject to certain terms and conditions which shall be discussed in this article. End of service benefits is an extensive topic including variety of benefits wherein gratuity holds the biggest proportion thus, can be quite intimidating, considering multiple terms and conditions attached to calculating gratuity.
Human trafficking and prostitution
According to the Ansar Burney Trust (ABT), an illegal sex industry thrives in the emirates, where a large number of the workers are victims of human trafficking and sexual exploitation, especially in Dubai. This complements the tourism and hospitality industry, a major part of Dubai's economy.
Prostitution, though illegal by law, is conspicuously present in the emirate because of an economy that is largely based on tourism and trade. There is a high demand for women from Europe and Asia. According to the World Sex Guide, a website catering to sex tourists, Eastern European and Ethiopian women are the most common prostitutes, while Eastern European prostitutes are part of a well-organised trans-Oceanic prostitution network. The government has been trying to curb prostitution. In March 2007, it was reported that the UAE has deported over 4,300 sex workers mainly from Dubai.
The UAE government enshrines conservative values in its constitution and therefore has adopted significant measures to combat this regional problem. The government of the UAE has worked with law enforcement officials to build capacity and awareness through holding training workshops and implementing monitoring systems to report human rights violations. Despite this, the system led to registration of only ten human-trafficking related cases in 2007 and half as many penalised convictions.
Businesses participating in exploiting women and conducting illegal activities have licenses revoked and operations are forced to close. In 2007, after just one year, the efforts led to prosecution of prostitution cases rose by 30 percent. A year later, an annual report on the UAE's progress on human trafficking measures was issued and campaigns to raise public awareness of the issue are also planned. Internationally, the UAE has led various efforts in combating human trafficking, particularly with the main countries of origin. The state has signed numerous bilateral agreements meant to regulate the labour being sent abroad by ensuring transactions are conducted by labour ministries and not profiting recruitment agencies.
In 2020, International United Nations Watch released a report on trafficking to the Middle East from Europe. The documentation highlighted multiple patterns of trafficking and made a mention of how the number of Moldovan women and girls are being trafficked to the UAE. It also said that although the UAE has anti-trafficking measures in place, Dubai continues to be the "amusement park of the Arabian Peninsula".
Child camel jockeys
A 2004 HBO documentary accuses UAE citizens of illegally using child jockeys in camel racing, where they are subjected also to physical and sexual abuse. Anti-Slavery International has documented similar allegations.
The practice is officially banned in the UAE since the year 2002. The UAE was the first to ban the use of children under 15 as jockeys in the popular local sport of camel-racing when Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, UAE's Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of State for Foreign Affairs announced the ban on 29 July 2002.
Announcing the ban, Sheikh Hamdan made it very clear that "no-one would be permitted to ride camels in camel-races unless they had a minimum weight of 45 kg, and are not less than 15 years old, as stated in their passports." He said a medical committee would examine each candidate to be a jockey to check that the age stated in their passport was correct and that the candidate was medically fit. Sheikh Hamdan said all owners of camel racing stables would be responsible for returning children under 15 to their home countries. He also announced the introduction of a series of penalties for those breaking the new rules. For a first offence, a fine of 20,000 AED was to be imposed. For a second offence, the offender would be banned from participating in camel races for a period of a year, while for third and subsequent offence, terms of imprisonment would be imposed.
The Ansar Burney Trust, which was featured heavily in the HBO documentary, announced in 2005 that the government of the UAE began actively enforcing a ban on child camel jockeys, and that the issue "may finally be resolved".
Victim support
Special funds to provide support for victims have been created such as Dubai's Foundation for the Protection of Women and Children, Abu Dhabi's Social Support Centre, the Abu Dhabi Shelter for Victims of Human Trafficking and the UAE Red Crescent Authority. Services offered include counseling, schooling, recreational facilities, psychological support and shelter. Mainly women and children receive assistance and in certain cases are even repatriated to their home countries.
See also
Human rights in Dubai
LGBT rights in the United Arab Emirates
Freedom of religion in the United Arab Emirates
Communications in the United Arab Emirates
Emirates Centre for Human Rights
Human rights in Islamic countries
References
External links
Women in the United Arab Emirates: A Portrait of Progress (PDF) |
4317487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pararhabdodon | Pararhabdodon | Pararhabdodon (meaning "near fluted tooth" in reference to Rhabdodon) is a genus of tsintaosaurin hadrosaurid dinosaur, from the Maastrichtian-age Upper Cretaceous Tremp Group of Spain. The first remains were discovered from the Sant Romà d’Abella fossil locality and assigned to the genus Rhabdodon, and later named as the distinct species Pararhabdodon isonensis in 1993. Known material includes assorted postcranial remains, mostly vertebrae, as well as from the skull. Specimens from other sites, including remains from France, a maxilla previously considered the distinct taxon Koutalisaurus kohlerorum, an additional maxilla from another locality, the material assigned to the genera Blasisaurus and Arenysaurus, and the extensive Basturs Poble bonebed have been considered at different times to belong to the species, but all of these assignments have more recently been questioned. It was one of the last non-avian dinosaurs known from the fossil record that went extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.
Initially, the material was thought to belong to a rhabdodontid dinosaur, or some other similar type of primitive iguanodontian. Later discoveries of additional material revealed its true nature as a hadrosaur. Its placement within the group remained controversial - in 1999 it was proposed it belonged to the subfamily Lambeosaurinae, making it the first known from the continent of Europe. Later studies questioned this, instead classifying it as a more primitive hadrosauroid. In 2009 evidence was put forward that it was indeed a lambeosaurine, and more specifically a close relative of Tsintaosaurus, a genus from China. This position has been repeatedly found since, and the group containing them was later named Tsintaosaurini. A different position, related to other European lambeosaurs in the group Arenysaurini, was proposed in 2020.
History and assigned material
Sant Romà d’Abella material
Excavation of specimens that would later be used to erect Pararhabdodon began in Spring 1985, at the Sant Romà d’Abella (SRA) locality (in the Pyrenees near Isona, Lleida, Spain) of the Talarn Formation in the Tremp Group. In 1987, Casanovas-Cladellas et al. described remains of an ornithopod from Catalonia, including a cervical vertebra, some partial dorsals, a humerus, and a fragmentary scapula, as Rhabdodon sp. New remains from this site, excavated in 1990, brought about a reconsideration of the material, and Casanovas-Cladellas and colleagues named it as the new genus and species Pararhabdodon isonense in 1993. At the time, it was still considered to be a rhabdodont-like basal iguanodont, hence the name; isonense was in reference to Isona.
Additional material from the type locality was collected in 1994 - including two maxillae, two dorsal vertebrae, a complete sacrum, two fragmentary ribs, and a partial ischium. The species name was corrected to isonensis in 1997 by Laurent et al.. The new material, most importantly cranial and mandibular elements (those from the skull) led to Casanovas-Cladellas' team re-classifying it as a hadrosaurid as opposed to a basal iguanodont. In 1999 it was more specifically identified as a lambeosaurine hadrosaur, in a paper again by Casanovas-Cladellas et al.. This made it the first member of the subfamily from the continent, and the second valid hadrosaur, preceded by Telmatosaurus and the dubious Orthomerus.
In total, known material from the type locality includes: a left and a right maxilla; five cervical, five dorsal, and one caudal vertebra; a sacrum; fragmentary rib bones; one end of the right ; a fragment of the left , an and a . All of this material was excavated from a by surface, and it is thought to have belonged to a single individual. The holotype is a nearly complete caudally located cervical vertebra (a cervical vertebra located near the base of the neck), specimen number IPS SRA-1. Another cervical, a humerus, and an ulna were designated the paratype specimens. In 2020, Jesús F. Serrano and colleagues described new hindlimb material from the site, found in 2018. These are thought to belong to the holotype individual. This includes a , a partial , a complete , and a .
Referred material from other localities
In their 1997 paper, Laurent and colleagues referred remains from the Le Bexen site of the uppermost Cretaceous of Aude, southern France, to the genus. Prieto-Márquez and colleagues commented on this referral in a 2006 paper, although noted they had not examined the material themselves. They concluded all the specimens, excepting one fragmentary humerus, were too poorly preserved to allow proper comparison with the holotype material. As such, they disagreed with the referral. Of the humerus, they found it distinguishable from that of the SRA material, and so also not referable to the species. First hand study for a 2013 re-evaluation of European lambeosaurine material supported these conclusions. Laurent had, in a 2003 dissertation, referred more French lambeosaurine material to Pararhabdodon, held at the Musée des Dinosaures d’Espéraza; the referral was made as the genus was at that point the only named lambeosaurine from the continent. Prieto-Márquez et al. (2013) used this material to establish a new taxon, Canardia garonnensis.
A maxilla, specimen MCD 4919, was referred to P. isonensis in 2013. It possessed traits of the tsintaosaurin tribe which Pararhabdodon was by that point assigned to. It was referable to Pararhabdodon in particular because of the rostrocaudally broad rostrocaudal region of the maxilla, a trait unique to P. isonensis among the tribe. The specimen was discovered at the Serrat del Rostiar 1 locality, part of the Conques Formation; this is part of the Tremp Group just like the type locality, but in a lower section of the strata, making it older. The referral to Pararhabdodon thus extended the range of the genus further within the upper Maastrichtian. A 2019 paper questioned the referral of MCD 4919 to P. isonensis. The specimen was found to have a differing compared to the maxilla of the holotype, which would conflict with belonging to the same species. As the specimen was still recognized as having tsintaosaurin characteristics, the authors still considered it to likely belong to a close relative of P. isonensis.
The same 2013 study also evaluated Blasisaurus canudoi, from the Blasi 1 locality of the underlying Arén Formation, and Arenysaurus ardevoli, from the Blasi 3 locality of the La Posa Formation, another part of the Tremp Group. Previously claimed diagnostic traits of the two taxa were shown to be found in other hadrosaurs. This left the former with two unique characteristics - both in the jugal - and a unique combination of other characteristics, and the latter with only one unique characteristic - in the frontal. As overlapping fossils were not known for the relevant areas, it could not be ruled out that they were indeed synonymous, representatives of a single species. The same re-evaluation could not rule out that this single species or either of the separated species were synonyms of Pararhabdodon isonensis, as no taxonomically informative areas of the skeleton are known from both Pararhabdodon and the other two taxa. The authors refrained from considering any of them representatives of one species pending data from more material. The Pararhabdodon himdlimb described in 2020 allowed for synonymy with Arenysaurus to be ruled out, as the femurs of the two taxa were anatomically distinct.
A hadrosaur mega-bonebed, later termed the Basturs Poble bonebed, was discovered in outcrops of the Conques Formation during the late 1990s. The taxonomic status of this bonebed has fluctuated over time. It has been debated whether the material represents a singular species or a combination of two distinct ones; but today a single, variable species is considered most likely. It was suggested the material likely belong to Koutalisaurus, based on geographic proximity, but this reassignment was abandoned when that genus was recognized as indeterminate. Since then, it has instead been tentatively assigned to the genus Pararhabdodon. However, due to the lack of any suitable material for comparison and the lack of tsintaosaurin characteristics in the bonebed material, it has been more recently suggested that it should instead be considered indeterminate lambeosaur material. The 2020 hindlimb description allowed for distinction between Pararhabdodon and the Basturs Poble material to be solidified, with the bonebed material showing inconsistent femoral anatomy with the genus.
Relationship with "Koutalisaurus"
Near the village Abella de la Conca, in the 1990s, palaeontologist Marc Boada discovered a new site in the Talarn Formation, bearing dinosaur fossils. From this site, later named Les Llaus (LL), a right dentary, specimen designation IPS SRA 27, was excavated. In 1997, Casanovas-Cladellas and colleagues stated this dentary was discovered from SRA, the site where the original Pararhabdodon remains were found. The following year, they described the specimen and referred it to P. isonensis, and again stated it was from the same stratigraphic level. In 2006, the stratigraphy of the region was re-evaluated by Albert Prieto-Márquez and colleagues, and the dentary's location was corrected to the LL locality, away from and below the SRA locality. They noted that no dentary had been found at the SRA locality to compare to the LL specimen, and so they restricted P. isonensis to material known from its original locality. Additionally, they named a genus and species for IPS SRA 27, Koutalisaurus kohlerorum. One autapomorphy (unique trait) was used to diagnose the taxon as a new species: a very elongated edentulous section on the dentary, which was medially (inwardly) extended. The authors noted the possibility that future discoveries could lead to synonymization of their taxon with P. isonensis
Evidence for this synonymy would later come in a 2009 study, from Prieto-Márquez alongside Jonathan R. Wagner. Material from Pararhabdodon, the holotype of Koutalisaurus, and material of the Chinese species Tsintaosaurus spinorhinus were examined and compared, and the edentulous slope previously thought unique to Koutalisaurus was found to be nearly identical in T. spinorhinus. No material had, as yet, been discovered from the SRA locality permitting comparison with Pararhabdodon. However, traits uniting P. isonensis with T. spinorhinus were found. As both taxa from the Talarn Formation uniquely shared traits with the Asian genus, the authors decided to treat the two as one species, as maintaining them as provisionally separate would in their eyes be misleading to non-specialists, who would likely not distinguish that the two taxa were being kept separate to be conservative and not due to strong evidence for two hadrosaurs in the area.
Prieto-Márquez returned again to the dentary in 2013, in a study alongside colleagues providing a review and investigation of hadrosaurs from all over Europe. Further preparation of the specimen in the time since his last study regarding it revealed the uniqueness of the dentary had been exaggerated significantly by reconstruction of the specimen when it was first prepared in the 1990s. The Tsintaosaurus specimens showing the similar condition were found to have been distorted from a similar process. Correcting for the inaccuracies, the Los Llaus dentary is indistinguishable from that of multiple lambeosaurines, and shares no particular connection to Tsintaosaurus. With this, their reasoning for assignment of the specimen to Pararhabdodon was voided, and the specimen is now considered a completely indeterminate lambeosaurine dentary.
Description
Pararhabdodon would have been a bipedal-quadrupedal herbivore. The holotype specimen is estimated to have been around long. Histological analysis indicates the individual was not fully grown, and so the species likely reached similar sizes to North American and Asian relatives such as Corythosaurus and Tsintaosaurus (around long). This is despite Pararhabdodon living on an island, something generally associated with insular dwarfism, a phenomenon exhibited in other European hadrosaurs; Adynomosaurus was cited as a similar example, being around the same size.
Classification
Pararhabdodon has been classified in a number of different positions within Iguanodontia since its remains were first discovered in the mid-1980s. When the first specimens were originally discovered and described by Casanovas-Cladellas and colleagues, they were not thought to belong a new taxon at all, but merely to belong to the genus Rhabdodon, and of an uncertain species. Not long after, they would be recognized of those of a unique species, and in 1993 they were given their modern name. At this point it was still thought to be a rhabdodontid or some other type of primitive iguanodont closely related to them. This was based on the characteristics of its vertebrae, as the cranial remains had not yet been found. In 1994 these cranial remains would be found - two maxilla - and these would be used by the original authors to establish it as a species of hadrosaur.
Casanovas-Cladellas et al. revised their position for a final time in 1999, when they published a paper arguing for a position as a primitive member of the hadrosaur subfamily Lambeosaurinae - this made it the first such species known from the continent of Europe. Characters of the skeleton supporting this viewpoint were the truncated and rounded anatomy of the articulation of the maxilla to the jugal, the truncated nature of the back of the maxilla itself, the ventral deflection of the front of the dentary (thought the only known dentary was later referred to a new species, Koutalisaurus, and later declared that of indeterminate lambeosaurine), its tall neural spines, and of the humerus being distally projected.
The proposal that P. isonensis was the first known European lambeosaurine was soon challenged, however, in 2001 by Jason Head, in a study re-evaluating the status of another species, Eolambia caroljonesa, as a primitive lambeosaur. Both Pararhabdodon and Eolambia were found to instead be more primitive hadrosauroids more basal than the split between Lambeosaurinae and "Hadrosaurinae" (later renamed to Saurolophinae). In regards to Pararhabdodon, this was based on a rebuttal of arguments put forward in the 1999 study; the present anatomy maxilla-jugal articulation was not considered a synapomorphy in Lambeosaurinae, merely the presence of this in the jugal itself, unknown in the species, and the angular deltopectoral crest is a trait present even in primitive iguanodontians. Additionally, its tooth count was lower than those of known lambeosaurs. In the 2006 re-evaluation of the genus by Albert Prieto-Márquez and colleagues, it was included in a phylogenetic analysis for the first time. This found it to be a non-hadrosaurid hadrosauroid, a similar position as had been argued by Head. The cladogram of Prieto-Márquez et al. (2006) is seen below on the left:
Prieto-Márquez would return to the issue in 2009 along with Jonathan R. Wagner. They once again turned to the articulation between the maxilla and the jugal, finding this to link Pararhabdodon to the Asian lambeosaurine, Tsintaosaurus spinorhinus. In the 2006 phylogenetic analysis, P. isonenis had been scored as having an ancestral hadrosauroid condition for this trait, which had a strong effect on its position. Upon instead coding it for a modified version of the more advanced hadrosaurid condition, the connection between the two species to the exclusion of other lambeosaurines was supported. Multiple synapomorphies were found uniting to the two taxa, as well as identifying Pararhabdodon as a member of the subfamily as opposed to outside of Hadrosauridae. This relationship was again supported in Prieto-Márquez et al. (2013), where the group containing the two genera was coined as the taxonomic tribe Tsintaosaurini; a diagnosis for the tribe was provided. Their cladogram is reproduced above, on the right.
In a 2020 study describing and naming Ajnabia, Nicholas Longrich and colleagues found a novel arrangement of lambeosaur phylogeny. As opposed to European lambeosaurs being spread across different lineages, all members of the subfamily from the continent — including Pararhabdodon — were found to form one monophyletic clade, which was therein named Arenysaurini. A unique combination of primitive and derived anatomical features, as well as some unique to the group, supported them forming a clade. Tsintaosaurus was not found to be close to Pararhabdodon, instead taking a more basal position.
See also
Timeline of hadrosaur research
References
Notes
Citations
Lambeosaurines
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Europe
Cretaceous Spain
Fossils of Spain
Tremp Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1993
Ornithischian genera |
4317552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Thailand | Human rights in Thailand | Human rights in Thailand have long been a contentious issue. The country was among the first to sign the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and seemed committed to upholding its stipulations; in practice, however, those in power have often abused the human rights of the Thai nation with impunity. From 1977 to 1988, Amnesty International (AI) reported that there were whitewashed cases of more than one thousand alleged arbitrary detentions, fifty forced disappearances, and at least one hundred instances of torture and extrajudicial killings. In the years since then, AI demonstrated that little had changed, and Thailand's overall human rights record remained problematic. A 2019 HRW report expanded on AI's overview as it focuses specifically on the case of Thailand, as the newly government of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha assumes power in mid-2019, Thailand's human rights record shows no signs of change.
History
In the Ayutthaya period, 14th–18th centuries, the slaves were the lowest rank in the social hierarchy system known as sakdina, and were bound under servitude to a master, who according to the law "had absolute power over their slaves other than the right to take their lives". People could become slaves through various means, including being taken as war captives, through debt, and being born to slave parents. Masters' employment of their slaves varied, as was recorded by Simon de la Loubère, who visited Ayutthaya in 1687. The abolition of slavery in Thailand occurred during the reign of King Chulalongkorn, gradually implemented reforms over several decades, beginning in 1874, with a royal act stipulating that those born into slavery since 1868 be free upon reaching twenty-one years of age. A final Act, dated 1905, which introduced decreasing freedom-price caps and age limits, eventually ended the practice within the next few years. Slavery was explicitly criminalized by the 1908 penal code, section 269, which prohibited the sale and acquisition of slaves. Acts from 1911–13 expanded the coverage of previous laws. Slavery, finally, legally ceased in 1915.
The revolution of 1932 that ended an absolute monarchy increased people rights, influenced by a social democrat, Pridi Banomyong, introduced a democracy and the first constitution of Thailand. It stated in the first article that sovereign power belongs to the people of Siam. The first election began in 1937, with the half of the parliament appointed by nine-year-old King Ananda Mahidol's regent, Aditya Dibabha. Women also had the right to vote and stand for elections.
From 1977 to 1988, Amnesty International reported that there "...were 1,436 alleged cases of arbitrary detention, 58 forced disappearances, 148 torture [sic] and 345 extrajudicial killings in Thailand....The authorities investigated and whitewashed each case."
Many new rights were introduced in the 1997 constitution. These included the right to free education, the rights of traditional communities, and the right to peacefully protest coups and other extra-constitutional means of acquiring power, the rights of children, the elderly, rights of the handicapped, and equality of the genders. Freedom of information, the right to public health and education, and consumer rights were also recognized. A total of 40 rights, compared to only nine rights in the constitution of 1932, were recognized in the 1997 constitution. The 2007 constitution reinstated much of the extensive catalogue of rights explicitly recognized in the People's Constitution of 1997. That constitution outlined the right to freedom of speech, freedom of press, peaceful assembly, association, religion, and movement within the country and abroad.
Legal framework
International treaties
In 1948, Thailand was among the first nations to sign the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It committed to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights international treaty in regard to freedom, political rights and civil liberties since 1997.
Domestic legal protection structure
The current (2016) constitution, drafted by a body appointed by the military junta (NCPO), states in section 4: "The human dignity, rights, liberty and equality of the people shall be protected". This is unchanged from the 2007 constitution. Sections 26 to 63 set out an extensive range of specific rights in such areas as criminal justice, education, non-discrimination, religion, and freedom of expression. Additionally the 2017 constitution introduced the Right to a healthy environment.
Rights and liberties ratings by NGOs
In 2020, Freedom in the World annual survey and report by US-based Freedom House, which attempts to measure the degree of democracy and political freedom in every nation, improved the rating of Thailand from Not Free to Partly Free due to a small decrease in limitations on assembly and strictly controlled elections that, despite significant shortcomings, ended a period of direct military junta. However, it was downgraded again from Partly Free to Not Free due to the dissolution of a popular opposition party, Future Forward Party, that had performed favorably in the 2019 Thai general election, and the military-dominated government's, led by Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha, crackdown on the 2020–2021 Thai protests calling for democratic reforms. By 2021, the Monarchy and the authoritarian government worsened a civil liberty by using a harsh Lèse-majesté law against activists, untrustful justice system, constrained freedom of expression, and lack of freedom of association. Corruption index was also downgraded from 36 to 35, ranking 110 from 180 countries.
Equality
Racial
Racial discrimination is a prevalent problem in Thailand but is only infrequently publicly discussed. Thailand has made two submissions to the UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, with ongoing issues including government policy towards ethnic groups, especially the Thai Malays, and the country's lack of racial discrimination legislation.
Sex
To mark International Women's Day 2020 on 8 March, Protection International and a network of Thai grassroots organizations handed the government its "Women's Report Card". The government flunked in all major areas of rights protection. The assessment indicates that the government's promise to protect the rights of women is not only perceived as empty, but that the state itself is believed to be the perpetrator of violence against grassroots efforts by Thai women. Thailand is obligated under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) to safeguard women's rights and to follow policy recommendations from the CEDAW committee to right wrongs.
On 30 September 2020, 110 Chief Executives of Thailand-based companies signed Women's Empowerment Principles by UN, committing to gender equality, equal pay and a safer workplace for women. The document was signed on the 10th anniversary of the Women's Empowerment Principles (WEP). The event was hosted by "WeEmpowerAsia".
Privacy
In late 2016, the Thai Hacktivist group accused the Thai military of buying decryption technology for monitoring messaging software and social network sites. In 2020, the security forces began using a facial recognition system linked to cellphones in southern Thailand; people who failed to register their phones were shut off from the system. Deputy-Prime Minister Prawit Wongsuwan announced that the 8,200 security cameras operating in the southern Thailand could be fitted with a facial recognition system and could be run with artificial intelligence (AI) in the future. In October 2020, a U.N. report accused the Thai military of spying on people using an AI-enabled CCTV system, collecting biometric information; The Thai military later denied it.
In September 2021, Nattacha Boonchaiinsawat, a Move Forward Party MP, released videos, voice clips, and documents regarding military operations creating fake social media accounts to operate information warfare against the people. The Internal Security Operations Command also involved in deep monitoring of opposition politicians, seen as Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha's political enemies, and Thai activists.
In late 2021, at least 17 activists in Thailand using Apple devices were warned by Apple that they had been targeted by 'state-sponsored' attackers. They include Panusaya Sithijirawattanakul and Arnon Nampa, who have called for reform of the monarchy, Prajak Kongkirati, an academic at Thammasat University, Puangthong Pawakapan, an academic at Chulalongkorn University, Piyabutr Saengkanokkul, a prominent opposition politician, and Yingcheep Atchanont, of the legal rights non-profit iLaw.
LGBTQ
Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal in Thailand, but same-sex couples and households headed by same-sex couples are not eligible. Since 2011, same sex marriage laws have been proposed by LGBTQ groups. In 2021, the Constitutional Court ruled that the definition of marriage as between a man and a woman was constitutional. The verdict stated that members of the LGBTQ community cannot reproduce, as it is against nature, and they are unlike other animals with unusual behaviours or physical characteristics. The ruling was deemed by some as sexist and politically incorrect and enraged the LGBTQ community and rights defenders.
In June 2022, a group of bills that could legalize same-sex unions were passed by the lower house. The most liberal of these bills, proposed by the Move Forward Party, would legalize full same-sex marriage.
Economic & social
In 2021, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha gave a definition of an equality that the riches use a toll elevated road, and the poor use a road under it, he tried to build both ways so that people can live in dispersion.
Craft brewery and microbrewery are illegal in Thailand, as Thai alcohol law has one of the strictest advertisement control and a large fine, it prevents small businesses to compete with large companies. In June 2022, craft brewery and microbrewery have been unofficially discriminalized because the bill of Move Forward Party MP, Taopiphop Limjittrakorn, passed the lower house.
Freedoms
Freedom of expression
Critics charge that the Thai criminal code's defamation provisions are de facto threats to free speech. Both the civil and commercial codes have provisions to deal with defamation, but plaintiffs often prefer to file criminal cases against activists or the press. Criminal charges, which can result in arrest, seizure of the accused's passport if they are a foreigner, and court proceedings that may last for years, do not require the participation of police or government prosecutors but can be filed directly with a court by the accuser; courts rarely reject these cases. Slander carries a maximum sentence of one year's imprisonment and/or a fine of up to 20,000 baht, while libel is punishable by up to two years in jail and/or a fine of up to 200,000 baht.
Freedom of the press
The Southeast Asian Press Alliance noted that freedom of speech in Thailand's domestic media environment—prior to the 2006 coup considered one of the freest and most vibrant in Asia—had quickly deteriorated following the military ousting of Thaksin Shinawatra. It noted the closure of community radio stations in Thai provinces, the intermittent blocking of cable news channels and the suspension of some Thai websites devoted to discussing the implications of military intervention to Thai democracy. SEAPA also noted that while there seemed to be no crackdown on journalists, and while foreign and local reporters seemed free to roam, interview, and report on the coup as they saw fit, self-censorship was a certain issue in Thai newsrooms.
In 2018, British journalist Suzanne Buchanan reported on a series of tourist deaths and sexual assaults on Ko Tao. Though she has not been to Thailand in years, she is wanted by police who say she is peddling fake news. In 2022 she published a book on the subject called The Curse of the Turtle "The True Story of Thailand's Backpacker Murders" published by Wild Blue Press. In December 2019 a Thai reporter was sentenced to two years in prison for a comment she made about worker's grievances filed against a Thammakaset Company poultry farm. She sent a tweet in 2016 in response to a ruling that the company pay 14 migrant workers 1.7 million baht in compensation and damages for having to work 20 hours a day without a break for 40 consecutive days at a wage less than the legal minimum. In her description of the ruling, she used the term "slave labour" to describe the workers' employment. Thammakaset sued her and the workers for criminal defamation, but lost the case against the workers. The court ruled that her choice of words misrepresented the facts and damaged the firm's reputation. In October 2020, Human Rights Watch wrote a letter demanding the end of harassment of Thai journalist Suchanee Cloitre. The joint letter was also signed by twelve other human rights organizations, calling on the Thailand government to protect journalists and human rights defenders from insignificant criminal proceedings.
In October 2020, Thailand's Ministry of Digital Economy and Society announced an emergency decree to censor blunt Voice TV on all online media channels. The ministry alleged the station of violating media restrictions under the Emergency Decree on Public Administration in Emergency Situations and the Computer-Related Crime Act, over their coverage on pro-democracy protest in Thailand. In November 2021, the NBTC office led by Lt Gen Peerapong Monakit, an NBTC commissioner, gave a warning to TV operators and concessionaires to reconsider carefully or even refrain from presenting content on some monarchy-related issues from the 2020–2021 Thai protests, in particular the 10-point monarchy reform manifestos. Media outlets viewed the move as a threat, while academics may be reluctant to express opinions on the monarchy for fear of being punished. Analysts said such self-censorship could put all public debate down.
Same Sky Books owner and chief editor, Thanapol Eawsakul was arrested by Technology Crime Suppression Division police on 29 June 2022 for keeping a top secret document. Thanapol had been harassed by Royal Thai Police officers several times since he founded a company which printed critical political books related to the Monarchy of Thailand.
Lèse-majesté
Lèse-majesté law in Thailand is a crime according to Section 112 of the Thai Criminal Code. It is illegal to defame, insult, or threaten the king, queen, heir-apparent, heir-presumptive, or regent. Modern Thai lèse-majesté law has been on the statute books since 1908. Thailand is the only constitutional monarchy to have strengthened its lèse-majesté law since World War II. With penalties ranging from three to fifteen years imprisonment for each count, it has been described as the "world's harshest lèse majesté law" and "possibly the strictest criminal-defamation law anywhere";
Anchan P. was handed 87-year prison sentence for uploading and sharing videos on the internet of an online talk show, after she had been detained in jail for nearly 4 years from 2015, then in 2021, the court convicted her by half to 43 and a half years due to her guilty plea. The UN Human Rights Committee has declared that "imprisonment is never an appropriate penalty" for lèse majesté case.
On 21 May 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that a pro-democracy activist, Tantawan “Tawan” Tuatulanon, has been detained and unjustly charged for her peaceful protests. Tawan has advocated reforming the monarchy and abolishing draconian lese majeste. She also started a hunger strike on 20 April 2022, to protest her pre-trial detention. In 2023, Tawan and a fellow prisoner Orawan "Bam" Phupong have been taking part of a hunger strike to protest their imprisonment under the Lese-majeste laws. Both are in weak conditions and have reportedly experienced chest pains and nosebleeds.
Law enforcement abuse on people
In November 2021, Yan Marchal, an 18-years French expatriate in Thailand, was deported to his homeland after he had been mocking the Prayut Chan-o-cha's Thai junta and so on the military dominated government in TikTok. He was stopped by immigration officials in Phuket, after he just arrived from France to Thailand. The reason by the official was Marchal behaviour indicated that he was a possible danger to the public.
On 1 December 2021, the 28-year-old noodle vendor made a headline news, asked Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha to retire quickly to allow others to perform the duties and voiced that Thailand needs a lot of development, while he was welcomed by people in Ban Dung District in Udon Thani. Later Ban Dung police came to her house, asking to see her so that they could keep a record of her, but she declined to meet them, saying she had done nothing wrong. The police denied it later.
Assaults on activists
Between 2018–2019, there had been 11 physical assaults on political activists in Thailand. Police investigations of the assaults have shown no progress.
Regime critic Ekachai Hongkangwarn has been assaulted seven times since 2017. Attacks have targeted his property and his person. The latest assault took place in May 2019, when he was beaten by four attackers in front of a court building. Authorities appear powerless to stop the attacks. One culprit was arrested in 2018, paid a fine, and was released.
On 28 June 2019, anti-junta activist Sirawith "Ja New" Seritiwat was attacked by four assailants wielding baseball bats on a busy Bangkok thoroughfare. Earlier in June, Sirawith was attacked by five men when traveling home from a political event. In the case of the latest attack, the deputy prime minister broke the government's silence on political attacks and ordered the police to act swiftly to find the attackers.
Forced disappearances
According to Amnesty Thailand, at least 59 human-rights defenders have been victims of forced disappearance since 1998. The Bangkok Post counts 80 confirmed disappeared, and likely murdered, since 1980. A report compiled in 2018 by the Thai Lawyers for Human Rights Centre showed that at least 86 political refugees left the country after the 2014 coup d'état for coup-related reasons. The government of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha continues to refuse to criminalize torture and enforced disappearances.
Human rights advocates across Asia fear that Southeast Asian countries, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Cambodia, and Laos, have jointly agreed to cooperate to ensnare political activists who have fled their own borders and send them back to their home nations without due process to face torture and possible death. The Bangkok Post has noted that disappearances began to happen after the Thai and Lao governments agreed in December 2017 to cooperate in tracking down persons deemed "security threats".
Among those who disappeared:
Haji Sulong, a reformist and a separatist who disappeared in 1954. He sought for greater recognition of the Jawi community in Patani.
Tanong Po-arn, Thai labour union leader who disappeared following the 1991 Thai coup d'état by National Peace Keeping Council against the elected government.
Somchai Neelapaijit, human rights attorney who championed the rights of Thai-Malay Muslims in the deep south. He was abducted and killed in 2004 during the Thaksin Shinawatra administration. His body was never found and no one has been punished.
Porlajee "Billy" Rakchongcharoen, Karen-ethnic activist whose murdered remains were later discovered.
Den Khamlae, villager-turned-activist
On 22 June 2016, an anti-monarchist in Laos, Itthipol Sukpan, a 28-year-old pro-democracy broadcaster known as DJ Zunho, was snatched by unknown assailants and pulled into the woods. He was never seen again.
Wuthipong Kachathamakul, also known as Ko Tee, red shirt activist, disappeared in July 2017.
Surachai Danwattananusorn, also known as Surachai Sae Dan, a radical red shirt and critic of the monarchy, together with two aides, Chatchan "Phoo Chana" Boonphawal and Kraidet "Kasalong" Luelert. Surachai's family, a year after his disappearance, is still being held liable for 450,000 baht in bail bond fees by the Thai courts system. , the Thai police still consider Surachai a "missing person". They have failed to make progress on the case and the Thai government "...seems to have ignored these cases,..."
Siam Theerawut, Chucheep Chivasut, and Kritsana Thapthai, three Thai anti-monarchy activists, went missing on 8 May 2019 when they are thought to have been extradited to Thailand from Vietnam after they attempted to enter the country with counterfeit Indonesian passports. The trio are wanted in Thailand for insulting the monarchy and failing to report when summoned by the junta after the May 2014 coup. Their disappearance prompted an "alert statement" from the Thai Alliance for Human Rights. Their disappearance passed the one-year mark on 8 May 2020 with still no sign of the trio.
Od Sayavongm, a Lao refugee and critic of the Laotian government, disappeared from his Bangkok home on 26 August 2019 and has not been seen since.
Wanchalearm Satsaksit, an exile who left after the 2014 coup, first for Laos and then Cambodia. He was abducted in Phnom Penh on 4 June 2020 in broad daylight by several men. The Cambodian authorities initially refused to investigate the case, calling it "fake news". The Cambodians relented on 9 June, saying they would investigate while denying any responsibility. The case has galvanized numerous groups into action on Wanchalearm's behalf.
According to the legal assistance group, Thai Lawyers for Human Rights, at least 86 Thais left Thailand seeking asylum abroad following the military takeover in May 2014. Among them are the five members of the Thai band Faiyen. Their music is their crime, as some of their songs mock the monarchy, a serious offense in Thailand. The band, whose name means 'cool fire', announced on social media that its members feared for their lives after "many trusted people told us that the Thai military will come to kill us." In August 2019 Fai Yen band members were admitted to France to seek refugee status. All of those who disappeared in late 2018 and early 2019 were accused by Thai authorities of anti-monarchical activity.
Arbitrary arrest and detention
Since the beginning of 2021, prominent human rights defenders and democracy activists were charged with possibility of more than 100 years each on criminal charges due to involvement in pro-democracy activism. The leading figures of the 2020–2021 Thai protests that called reforms to the monarchy, Arnon Nampa, Panupong Jadnok, Parit Chiwarak, Jatupat (Pai Dao Din), Panusaya (Rung), and Benja Apan were all detained await trial in 2021, in series of detainments and releases, some were imprisoned accumulatively for more than 200 days, after Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha declared to use all laws including Lèse-majesté to the protesters in November 2020.
In 2022, there are series of systematic harassment and detention against young monarchy-reform activists such as Tantawan Tuatulanon case. Tantawan was imprisoned which she protested by hunger strike throughout 37 days. Most activists who mentioned the monarchy were also forced to wear an electronic monitoring (EM) on an ankle by the criminal court. There are more than 15 activists, dissident to the moarchy, still imprison until current day.
Political abuse of psychiatry
On 9 July 2020, Tiwagorn Withiton, Thai political and human rights activist, was forcedly carried out by a group of 6 officers and taken to hospital. In a car, the officers tied his hands with a cloth and inject him with unknown medication. The police searched his house and took his computer and smartphone, and made his mother sign a consent of bringing him to be admitted to Rajanagarindra Psychiatric Hospital in Khon Kaen. Hospital director, Nattakorn Champathong, explained that Tiwagorn had not been forced to enter the hospital. Khon Kaen's police chief, Major General Puttipong Musikul explained that he was getting treatment because his relatives had him admitted.
Freedom of association
In the wake of the 2006 and 2014 coup d'états, the right to free speech, association, and freedom of movement were seriously eroded. Military governments have implemented bans on political meetings and prohibited media criticism. Political activities of all types were prohibited. The Public Assembly Law enacted in 2015 by the military government requires a protest notice to be filed with authorities 24 hours prior to an event. A violation carries a maximum fine of 10,000 baht. The law has been repeatedly invoked by authorities to suppress gatherings since its enactment.
Elections, political parties, and representation
Regarding 2019 Thai general election, the military junta government failed to make terms for a free and fair national election, according to the Human Rights Watch. The procedure for forming a new government, 250 military-appointed Senates have half the total number of votes for the government as the elected House of Representatives, severely undermines the right of Thai citizens to choose their leaders. Moreover, the electoral process problems consisted of repressive laws restricting freedom of speech, association, and assembly, media censorship, lack of equal access to the media, and lack of independence and impartiality of the national election commission, leading to the dissolution of a major opposition Thai Raksa Chart Party, in which King Vajiralongkorn prohibited Ubol Ratana from entering politics. HRW also stated that the junta disregarded Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
On 20 November 2019, the court convicted Thanathorn Juangroongruangkit, disqualifying his MP status. On 21 February 2020, Future Forward Party was dissolved by the Constitutional Court. Amnasty International stated it violated rights to freedom of expression and association, and HRW condemned that it seriously damaged the return to genuine democratic rule.
Attitude adjustment
Since the 2014 Thai coup d'état, the National Council for Peace and Order had made full use of martial law to prosecute opponents, ban political activity, and censor the media. More than 1,000 people, including academics, political bloggers, activists and politicians, have been detained or sent for "attitude adjustment" at military installations. There are allegations of torture. Prosecutions under the country's strict lèse majesté laws, which protect the monarchy from insult, have risen sharply. The victims said that they were taken out of their house and detained in the military base. Renowned dissents such as Yingluck Shinawatra, Watana Muangsook, Pravit Rojanaphruk, and Karun Hosakul were abused by the NCPO since the coup. Deputy Prime Minister Prawit Wongsuwan told reporters that "If they speak so 100 times, they will be summoned 100 times." Prawit added that "attitude adjustment" can last between three and seven days.
Peaceful protests
On 6 December 2021, the Royal Thai Police arrested more than fifty local villagers from Chana District that came to sit in near the government house, protesting against plans for industrial park in "Southern Economic Corridor".
Freedom of religion
Although Thailand describes itself as a Buddhist State, all religious groups have the freedom to practice and maintain communal institutions in Thailand. The constitution prohibits discrimination based on religious belief and protects religious liberty, as long as the exercise of religious is not harmful to the security of the State. Thai law prohibits alcohol sale on Buddhist holidays, as it violates the 5th of the Five Precepts, the basic Buddhist code of ethics. The Muslim community in the Deep south Thailand continued to express frustration with perceived discriminatory treatment by security forces and what they said was a judicial system that lacked adequate checks and balances.
South Thailand insurgency
Problems have been reported in the southern provinces related to the South Thailand insurgency. Some 180 persons are reported to have died there while in custody in 2004. In a particularly high-profile case, Muslim human rights lawyer Somchai Neelaphaijit was reportedly harassed, threatened, and finally forcibly disappeared in March 2004 following his allegations of torture by state security forces. In 2006, Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra stated that he believed that Somchai was dead and that state security forces appeared to be responsible. Five policemen were eventually charged in Somchai's death, though the trial only resulted in one conviction that was overturned on appeal in March 2011. The verdict was denounced by the Asian Human Rights Commission, and Somchai's wife Angkhana declared her intention to continue to appeal the case to the Thai Supreme Court. Since 2007, a number of suspected insurgents in custody have died, some with suspicious injuries.
In late 2019, three young woodcutters were murdered by Thai troops in Bo-ngo Subdistrict, Ra-ngae District, Narathiwat Province. The government claimed initially that the killings occurred in a clash between paramilitary Rangers and terrorists. Later, the Human Rights Protection Committee, appointed by the Fourth Army Area Commander, concluded that soldiers mistook the dead men for terrorists and killed them as they were running away. Families of the deceased pointed out that the young men possessed nothing but wood cutting tools. Images of the dead men on social media showed that each of them was shot in the head—two of them sitting crossed-leg on the ground, leaning forward. The Commander of the Fourth Army Area issued an apology, a compensation payment of 500,000 baht for each death, and transferred the responsible commander of the 45th Ranger Forces Regiment elsewhere.
The Suicide of Khanakorn Pianchana October 2019 called for improvement on the justice in Muslim community in deep south. Judge Khanakorn told the accused, five Muslims, and their family members that he wanted to acquit them due to lack of evidence, but was being forced from above to convict.
From January 2004 to June 2020, Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat Provinces, together with four districts of Songkhla Province have suffered at least 20,323 violent incidents, resulting in at least 6,997 deaths and 13,143 casualties, 61% of whom were civilians.
Right of asylum
Human rights NGOs consider Thailand "...a place that's no longer safe for refugees." Since the 2014 Thai coup d'état, Thailand has sent 109 Uighurs back to China and a further 52 have been detained for about five years. Gulenists have been refouled to Turkey and others to repressive regimes in the Middle East.
Vietnamese journalist Truong Duy Nhat has been detained in Hanoi (as acknowledged by Vietnamese authorities) after being picked up on 26 January 2019 in Bangkok, right after filing for refuge with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Thai authorities are now being pressured to investigate Thai police involvement in the abduction and detention of Nhat, according to human rights NGO Amnesty International.
Burmese refugees
Burmese refugees in Thailand can stay in one of the refugee camps along the border with Burma, which protect them from arrest and summary removal to Burma but they lack freedom to move or work. Or, they can live and work outside the camps, but typically without recognized legal status of any kind, leaving them at risk of arrest and deportation. From 2005 to 2011, more than 76,000 Burmese refugees were resettled from the border camps to third countries, though the total number of camp residents has remained at about 140,000.
Camp refugees who venture out of the camps are regarded by the Thai government as illegal aliens and are subject to arrest. Thai police or paramilitaries regularly apprehend camp residents and either return them to camp if the refugees pay sufficient bribes, or send them to one of Thailand's Immigration Detention Centers and then deport them to Burma. Refugees in the camps find themselves subject to abuse and exploitation at the hands of other refugees. Refugees working as camp security as well as camp leaders and camp residents with hidden connections to ethnic armed groups inside Burma all wield power in the camps.
Justice system
Thailand has serious problem in a justice system, reflected on the Suicide of Khanakorn Pianchana, a Thai judge who made a suicide attempt in October 2019 in order to protest against interference in the justice system, and died in a second, fatal suicide attempt in March 2020, after being subject to investigations following his actions. At the time of his first suicide attempt, he was a senior judge in the Yala Provincial Court in south Thailand.
Judicial harassment
Thai government
On February 19, the deputy national police chief, Gen. Sriwara Rangsipramanakul, publicly intimidated Chuchart Kanpai to prosecute him with an insult and making false statements stating Bilal Mohammad (Adem Karadag), his client, was tortured into confessing to the 2015 Bangkok bombing at Erawan Shrine.
In late 2017, Arnon Nampa, human rights activist, criticized the court for punishing his particular group of clients by restricting them from seeing each other. He said that the court had no right to order that. On 5 December, he was charged with violating the Computer Crime Act and contempt of court by Lt.Col.Supharat Kam-in. He denied all charges and believed it was politically motivated against exercising rights to freedom of expression. Human rights NGOs demanded military junta to stop a strategic litigation against public participation (SLAPPs). Front Line Defenders condemned the military junta on judicial harassment of him, strongly believed it linked to his human rights lawyer duty and demanded junta drop all charges against him.
Business sector
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) raised deep concern for judicial system abused by business, Thai poultry producer Thammakaset, to intimidate and silence human rights defenders that exposed the company's exploitative and abusive labour systems. It may create 'chilling effect' on human rights defenders, journalists, and encourage other businesses to do the similar case, particularly against women. The Human Rights Council pressured Thailand to address the abuse of the judicial system and to protect human rights defenders. Angkhana Neelaphaijit is also in the defenders.
In February 2013, the Thai pineapple company 'Natural Fruit' has filed four civil and criminal lawsuits against Andy Hall for computer crimes and defamation, including 300 million Thai baht civil defamation lawsuit. Hall reported to the Finnish NGO Finnwatch for serious labour abuses at the factory in Prachuap Khiri Khan. He also gave an interview to Al-Jazeera on the same report. The report is “Cheap has a high price: Responsibility problems relating to international private label products and food production in Thailand, including allegations of underpaid wages, child labour, distraint of migrant workers' documents, and unsuccessful to provide legally labor leaves.
Torture
The Constitution of Thailand prohibits acts of torture, but the Thai legal system has no definition of torture and torture is not recognized as an offence by Thailand's legal system.
In a report entitled, "Make Him Speak by Tomorrow": Torture and other Ill-Treatment in Thailand that was to have been formally released in Bangkok on 28 September 2016, Amnesty International accused the Thai police and military of 74 incidents of brutality. An Amnesty International press conference to unveil the report was halted by Thai authorities who cited Thai labour laws prohibiting visiting foreigners from working in Thailand. The three foreign speakers were Rafendi Djamin, Amnesty International Director for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Yubal Ginbar, a lawyer working for the rights group, and Laurent Meillan, acting Southeast Asia representative for the United Nations High Commission on Human Rights. The Thai government denied the torture allegations. The government spokesman, General Sansern Kaewkamnerd, emphasized that, "Our investigations into such allegations have shown no indication of torture, I have seen no indication of torture and the Thai people have seen no indication of torture,..." Jeremy Laurence, a representative of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR) had been scheduled to speak at the press conference. "This incident is another striking illustration of a new pattern of harassment of human rights defenders documenting torture in Thailand," he said.
Thailand has been a signatory to the United Nations Convention against Torture since 2 October 2007. Section 28 of the Thai 2016 constitution states, "A torture, [sic] brutal act or punishment by cruel or inhumane means shall be prohibited."
A bill to prevent torture and enforced disappearance will be put before Thailand's National Legislative Assembly (NLA) in late-December 2018. The bill would criminalise torture and enforced disappearances, including during wars and political unrest. The draft law specifies that the Department of Special Investigation (DSI) be responsible for investigating cases of enforced disappearance and torture. Only in events where DSI officials are accused of such crimes would police be assigned to investigate. Imprisonment for five to 25 years, and/or a fine of 100,000 to 300,000 baht would be levied on guilty parties. Were the bill to become a law, every government agency restricting people's rights would be required to maintain a database of people whose rights are restricted, actions taken, and the disposition of their cases.
On 5 August 2021, the Thai police assaulted Jeerapong Thanapat, a 24-year-old drug suspect, during an interrogation to force him to reveal hidden methamphetamines and to pay a two million baht or US$60,000 bribe for his release. The video appears to show the director of the Muang Nakhon Sawan Province police station, Thitisan Utthanaphon widely known by the nickname "Jo Ferrari", and other police officers suffocating Thanapat with plastic bags until he collapsed and died. The police reportedly ordered doctors at Sawanpracharak Hospital to write in a medical report that the cause of Jeerapong's death was methamphetamine overdose. In June 2022, Thitisan was convicted of suspect killing and sentenced to a life in prison.
2003 war on drugs
The government's anti-drug war in 2003 resulted in more than 2,500 extrajudicial killings of suspected drug traffickers. Prison conditions and some provincial immigration detention facilities are characterized as poor. In 2004 more than 1,600 persons died in prison or police custody, 131 as a result of police actions.
There were summary executions and their innocent victims, such as the 16-month-old girl who was shot dead along with her mother, Raiwan Khwanthongyen, Daranee Tasanawadee, the 8-year-old boy, Jirasak Unthong, who was the only witness to the killing of his parents, Suwit Baison, 23, a cameraman for a local television station, who fell to his knees in tears in front of Thaksin Shinawatra and begged for an investigation into the killing. Both parents were shot dead as they returned home, Suwit said 10 other people in his neighborhood had also been killed after surrendering to the police.
Surayud Chulanont, the junta prime minister vowed to right Mr Thaksin's wrongs.
Human Rights Watch, says that the panel's original report named the politicians who egged on the gunmen. But after the PPP won the 2007 elections, those names were omitted.
Human trafficking
Human trafficking is a major issue in Thailand. This includes misleading and kidnapping men from Cambodia by traffickers and selling them into illegal fishing boats that trawl the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea. These men are promised better paid jobs but instead forced to work as sea slaves for as long as 3 years. Numerous international news organizations including The Guardian, AP, and The New York Times have extensively covered the topic; The Associated Press, in particular, has won prominent awards for their coverage (although not without controversy for overstating their role in combating trafficking).
Child trafficking is also another major issue in Thailand, with forced kidnapping of children as young as four, to use as sex slaves in major cities like Bangkok and Phuket. Such activities are especially rife in rural areas of Thailand.
Instances of forced labor in the fish and shrimp industry, as well as child labour in the pornography industry, are still observed in Thailand and have been reported in the 2013 U.S. Department of Labor's report on the worst forms of child labor and in the 2014 List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.
Paween Pongsirin, high ranking police officer who was investigating human trafficking in Thailand, sought asylum in Australia in 2015. After Paween investigated many high-profile and high ranking police and army officers, due to fear of reprisals from the authorities, he fled to Singapore, and from there entered Australia.
Military conscription
Conscription was introduced in Thailand in 1905, according to the Constitution of the Kingdom, serving in the armed forces is a national duty of all Thai male citizens, but it has disregarded human rights in the military institution, each year reports of abuse, torture, and killing against draftees are common. A violent punishment in the Thai military culture called 'repair' (Thai: ซ่อม), had caused 11 deaths of conscripts during 2009 to 2018. In 2017, Deputy Prime Minister and Defence Minister Prawit Wongsuwon stated a lack of empathy to the victims, pointed that it was common way in Thai military culture.
In a report issued in March 2020, Amnesty International charged that Thai military conscripts face institutionalised abuse systematically hushed up by military authorities. According to Amnesty, the practice has "long been an open secret in Thai society". One of infamous cases was in 2011 which 10 officers torturing Wichian Pueksom to death. Until today there is still no verdict to the officials
Children's rights
Child prostitution
Thailand has an unfortunate reputation for being a centre for child sex tourism and child prostitution. Even though domestic and international authorities work to protect children from sexual abuse, the problem still persists in Thailand and many other Southeast Asian countries.
Child abuse
Child abuse often goes unnoticed in Thailand, except the victim is raped or becomes pregnant. Incest and pedophilia cases in Thailand had been taken lightly, as Thai society deems as famous Thai proverb, 'Their personal family matter, we don't mess.'
In October 2021, a renowned music producer, Jakkawal 'Neung' Saothongyutitum, made many Instagram posts, seen clowning around with his nine-year-old daughter and touching her buttocks, hugging and rubbing her tummy with both his arms under her shirt, rubbing near her crotch area, which Jakkawal later explained that he was scratching at the request of the child. There was public uproar due to the sexual nature of these posts, mentioned over 1.84 million times after a video of one of the incidents was released on TikTok. Jakkawal had not been charged of any crime and denied to go to a counselling after this incident.
Government attitude toward NGOs and activists
In early 2021, Thai government led by Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha had adopted a draft law, Draft Act on the Operations of Not-for-Profit Organizations, to regulate non-governmental organization (NGOs). The bill was mentioned by Amnesty International as an effort to pass repressive legislation to silence civil society groups and NGOs.
In November 2021, Prayut's government started an investigation whether Amnesty International Thailand (AITH) has broken any laws after ultra-royalists called for AITH to be expelled for its support of pro-democracy activists, such as Panusaya (Rung), facing prosecution on royal defamation cases. Under the strict laws against insulting the monarchy, more than 1,600 activists were charged on security laws, including at least 160 people charged with a potential prison term of up to 15 years. Prayut had assigned the Ministry of Interior and the Royal Thai Police to look into the matter, meanwhile the yellow-shirts, pro-government groups rallied in front of the Silom Complex in Bangkok to gather up to one million signatures in support of a campaign to expel AITH from Thailand.
In 1976, Thai police, military personnel and others, were seen shooting at protesters at Thammasat University. Many were killed and many survivors were abused.
See also
Lèse-majesté in Thailand
Censorship in Thailand
Internet censorship in Thailand
Constitution of Thailand
LGBT rights in Thailand
Notes
References
Bibliography
News
Books
External links
Freedom of expression in Thailand - IFEX
Asian Human Rights Commission - Thailand homepage
Rule of Lords Weekly column on human rights & the rule of law in Thailand and Burma
Royal Thai Police catalogue or torture and murder
Thailand 2003. Extrajudicial drug-war killings of innocent people. December 6, 2009. Photo gallery. Press/media links, and human rights reports.
Political history of Thailand
Social history of Thailand
Thailand |
4317586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muthu%20%28film%29 | Muthu (film) | Muthu () is a 1995 Indian Tamil-language masala film written and directed by K. S. Ravikumar, and produced by Kavithalayaa Productions. The film stars Rajinikanth, Meena and Sarath Babu; with Radha Ravi, Senthil, Vadivelu, Jayabharathi, Subhashri and Ponnambalam all acting in supporting roles. It is a remake of the Malayalam film Thenmavin Kombath (1994). The film revolves around a zamindar and his worker falling in love with the same woman who, unknown to the zamindar, loves the worker exclusively.
After Rajinikanth narrated the outline of Thenmavin Kombath, he told Ravikumar to develop the screenplay of the remake without watching the original film. Although largely written to suit the tastes of Tamil-speaking audiences, the remake retains the core premise of the original, while adding new plot details and characters. Ashok Rajan acted as the film's cinematographer. Principal photography began in June 1995 and took place in Mysore, Madras and Kerala. The film was edited by K. Thanikachalam and the music composed by A. R. Rahman, with lyrics written by Vairamuthu.
Muthu was released on 23 October 1995, during the Diwali holiday period. It became a silver jubilee hit. Rajinikanth won various awards for his performance, including the Tamil Nadu State Film Award and the Cinema Express Award, both for Best Actor. A dubbed Japanese version titled Muthu Odoru Maharaja () was released in 1998 and became the highest-grossing Indian film in Japan until it was surpassed by RRR (2022). The film sparked a short-lived boom of Indian films released in Japan and helping Rajinikanth gain a large fan following there. The film was remade in Kannada as Sahukara in 2004.
Plot
Muthu is a charioteer working for zamindar Raja Malayasimman. While watching a play, Raja falls in love with an actress, Ranganayaki, when the garland she throws inadvertently falls on him. When Raja sees another of her plays and witnesses her being harassed by a local village chief, he tells Muthu to rescue her. Muthu fights the village chief's goons and rescues Ranganayaki. When more goons appear, Raja advises Muthu to take Ranganayaki safely away in their two-horse chariot while he manages the goons. Muthu agrees and escapes with her.
Ranganayaki dislikes Muthu's company but is forced to continue accompanying him. They both become tired and leave the horses to seek their own route, landing in Kerala. Muthu, not knowing Malayalam, gets into trouble for asking passersby for a kiss as wrongly tutored by Ranganayaki. Finally, she comes to his rescue. After learning what she had meant, Muthu surprises Ranganayaki by kissing her. They fall in love and return to Raja's palace.
Ranganayaki is secretly escaping her abusive brother-in-law, Pratap Rayudu, who killed her sister and is now searching for her. So, she requests to continue staying at the palace. Her associates also join. Raja's maternal uncle Ambalathar, keen to take control of Raja's wealth, plans to get his daughter Padmini married to Raja. Raja's mother Sivakamiyammal keeps requesting her son to marry, referring to Padmini. But Raja, dreaming of marrying Ranganayaki, nods his head, and Sivakami sends word to her brother Ambalathar. When Ambalathar arrives and speaks of marriage, Raja reveals his intention to marry Ranganayaki. Angered, Ambalathar brings Rayudu to the palace, who forcibly tries to take Ranganayaki until Muthu subdues him and sends him away.
To remove Ranganayaki and Muthu from the palace and get his daughter married, Ambalathar provokes Raja, through his informer Kaali at the palace, by alleging that Muthu is romancing Ranganayaki. Kaali deliberately misinterprets the discussions between Muthu and Ranganayaki (who are at a distance) as Muthu compelling Ranganayaki to marry him. Believing Kaali's words and what he had seen, an enraged Raja throws Muthu out of the palace after having him beaten up by Kaali. Muthu, who is in shock, does not fight back. Sivakami, who had gone to a temple with Ranganayaki, returns and is shocked on learning what happened. She berates Raja, revealing the fact that Ranganayaki loves Muthu (not Raja) as well as the truth about Muthu's past.
Years ago, Muthu's father was the zamindar of the estate. Since he was childless, he named Raja, the son of his cousin Rajasekhar, his successor. Soon after, his wife conceived and died while giving birth to Muthu. At Ambalathar's instigation, Rajasekhar fraudulently obtained the zamindar's signature on blank papers and forced all of the property to be transferred to his name. Oblivious, the zamindar donated land to the villagers who returned to complain that the lands were not in his name. The zamindar realised what happened, but instead of punishing Rajasekhar, handed over the entire property to him and decided to leave the palace with his infant son Muthu. Sivakami pleaded that she be given the responsibility of raising Muthu. The zamindar agreed but said that his son must be raised as a commoner. After the zamindar left, a remorseful Rajasekhar committed suicide, and Sivakami moved to another village.
Sivakami says she had lied to the public that the zamindar's son had died, and that the zamindar currently lives nearby as a mystic nomad. Raja, realising his mistake, decides to go meet the zamindar and bring him back. Kaali, having overheard this conversation, reports to Ambalathar, who decides to murder Raja and frame Muthu so that he can take over the property. Kaali beats Raja, throws him into a waterfall and informs everyone that Muthu killed Raja. Muthu beats Kaali and makes him reveal that Ambalathar asked him to kill Raja. The villagers chase Ambalathar until Raja arrives with his bride Padmini. Raja was rescued by the zamindar and decided to marry Padmini. He forgives Ambalathar. Raja tells Muthu of his true identity, and Muthu rushes to meet his father, only to find that he has already left the place. Muthu becomes the new zamindar but prefers to identify as a worker.
Cast
Rajinikanth as Muthu and his father
Meena as Ranganayaki
Sarath Babu as Raja Malayasimman
Radha Ravi as Ambalathar
Senthil as Thennappan
Vadivelu as Valayapathy
Jayabharathi as Sivakamiyammal
Subhashri as Padmini
Ponnambalam as Kaali
Vichithra as Rathidevi
Raghuvaran as Rajasekhar
Tiger Prabhakar as S. P. Pratap Rayudu
Gandhimathi as Poongavanam
Pandu as Pallavarayan
Jyothi Lakshmi (special appearance in the song "Kokku Saiva Kokku")
Kumarimuthu as Kamalakannan
K. S. Ravikumar as the Tamil-speaking Malayali
Production
Development
Rajinikanth wanted K. S. Ravikumar to direct a film for him, and Ravikumar agreed to do so once he finished work on Periya Kudumbam (1995). After buying the rights to remake the 1994 Malayalam film Thenmavin Kombath, Rajinikanth narrated the outline of that film and so told Ravikumar to develop a screenplay of the remake, but he did not let Ravikumar watch the film. The project did not initially have a producer, so Rajinikanth offered to take care of financial matters, but Ravikumar refused. Ravikumar developed the screenplay at the Woodlands Hotel with help from his assistant directors including Ramesh Khanna, while occasionally going to Rajinikanth's office. The film was initially titled Velan before being retitled Muthu. This also marks Rajinikanth’s first collaboration with the director. Although Ravikumar was the primary dialogue writer, Rajinikanth wrote certain "punch" dialogues like "Kedaikkaradhu kedaikkama irukkadhu. Kedaikkama irukardhu kedaikadhu" ().
After completing three-fourths of the script, Ravikumar got permission to watch Thenmavin Kombath and was shocked to see the film's lack of resemblance to his screenplay. Rajinikanth told Ravikumar he did not want him to watch the film to avoid getting "inspired". Though Ravikumar took enough liberties to suit the tastes of Tamil-speaking audiences, the remake retained the original's core premise of a boss and his worker falling in love with the same woman and several other plot points such as the worker and his lover losing their way and ending up in a new land. New plot details and characters were added, including the protagonist's zamindar father and flashback scenes revolving around him. According to Kalaipuli S. Thanu, he was originally going to produce the film, but could not due to "various reasons". It was soon picked up by K. Balachander's Kavithalayaa Productions, and produced by Rajam Balachander and Pushpa Kandaswamy. The cinematography was handled by Ashok Rajan, and editing was handled by K. Thanikachalam.
Casting
Rajinikanth played two roles: Muthu and his unnamed father. According to Madhuvanti Arun, Rajinikanth offered her to do the role of Ranganayaki, but she was not selected because she was considered too young. Television anchor Pepsi Uma said Rajinikanth offered her the role as well, but she declined. Ravikumar, however, has stated that Meena was his first choice for the role. Her mother was concerned about the amount of screen time Meena would receive when compared to Subhashri (who was cast as Padmini), but Meena still took the role. Arvind Swamy was initially approached to portray Raja Malayasimman but was hesitant to act the scene where his character would slap Muthu. He was a fan of Rajinikanth and felt slapping the actor would anger his fans. Jayaram was later approached for the role but hesitated for the same reason. Though Jayaram suggested making changes to the scene, Ravikumar refused to do so. Sarath Babu was finally cast for the role, at Rajinikanth's suggestion. Vadivelu and Radha Ravi were cast as Valayapathy and Ambalathar, characters not present in the Malayalam original but created by Ravikumar. Radha Ravi was not initially interested in playing Ambalathar since he had grown weary of playing negative roles, but Rajinikanth's insisted. Rajinikanth wanted Ravikumar to make a cameo appearance as a Tamil-speaking Malayali. Ravikumar agreed after initial reluctance and dyed his hair white to portray the character.
Filming
Principal photography began on 1 June 1995. The first shooting schedule took place in Mysore. While filming the introductory song "Oruvan Oruvan", the team brought two horses via lorry to each place where the film was to be shot. Ravikumar did not want to allocate four or five days for filming the song; instead he "used up about 2030 minutes every day at all the locations we shot at. That way, [he] had a very colourful introduction song". After filming the opening scenes of the song, the team shot the climax scene involving a crowd of more than 5,000 people. Following this, scenes including Muthu's father were shot at the Lalitha Mahal. The rest of the film was shot at Travancore Palace in Madras (renamed Chennai in 1996), and Kerala. A blue skirt Meena had worn while shooting some scenes had faded as a result of her sitting under the "scorching" sunlight for so long, so an identical skirt was prepared before she began filming the "Kuluvalile" song sequence.
The song "Thillana Thillana" was shot at AVM Studios, during the final shooting schedule which took place alongside post-production. According to Ravikumar, the song's dance choreographer, B. H. Tharun Kumar, told him "he just needed one set on a single floor in AVM and that he'd change the colour of the set to suit the mood of the song. Everything – from the costumes of Rajini and Meena and dancers to the background – were matching". He added, "We'd pack up by night and the technicians would change the colour of the entire set overnight, and be ready for shoot at 7 am again. The top lights had already been fixed, so they'd do the other small lights and we will go for take by 9 am. We'll wrap up by 6 pm, and then, the technicians would start work on the colour of the set again". The introductory "Super Star" title card first used in Annaamalai (1992) was also used here.
Music
Muthu soundtrack was composed by A. R. Rahman, with lyrics written by Vairamuthu. It is the first film where Rahman, Rajinikanth and Ravikumar worked together. A Hindi version of the soundtrack, titled Muthu Maharaja, features lyrics by P. K. Mishra, whereas the Telugu soundtrack contains lyrics written by Bhuvana Chandra. The songs were recorded at the Panchathan Record Inn in Madras. The soundtrack was released on 8 October 1995 under the Pyramid label. The audio launch was held at Kalaivanar Arangam in Madras, where Rajinikanth, Kamal Haasan along with Ravikumar, Rahman and Vairamuthu unveiled the audio cassettes to the public. The songs from Muthu were later retained in its Kannada remake in 2004, Sahukara, though Rajesh Ramanath was credited for its music.
Themes
Some critics have felt that the dialogue "Naan eppo varuven, epdi varuvennu yarukkum theriyathu. Aana vara vendiya nerathula correcta vandhuduven" () hinted at Rajinikanth's political aspirations. Writing for PopMatters, Ranjani Krishnakumar felt that Muthu singing "Katchiyellam ippo namakkedhukku, kaalathin kaiyyil adhu irukku" () also underlined Rajinikanth's political manoeuvres, while critic Naman Ramachandran feels Rajinikanth was actually dispelling rumours of him joining politics through those lyrics. Writing for Mint, Shoba Narayan said that Rajinikanth's heroines play to every traditional stereotype and cited Ranganayaki's name as an example, adding, "the names set the tone for the character."
Release
Muthu was released on 23 October 1995, during the Diwali holiday frame, and began screening during the openings of Kuruthipunal and Chandralekha. In Madras, the film was distributed by Sivasakthi Pandian through Sivasakthi Movie Makers, and in Coimbatore by Tirupur Subramaniam. Though Ravikumar initially feared the film would fail since screenings were declining during the third week of its run at Udhayam Theatre, Rajinikanth was confident it would succeed; it ultimately ran there for over 88 days at full capacity and became a silver jubilee hit. The film was dubbed into Telugu under the same title and Rajinikanth's voice was dubbed by Mano. It was also dubbed in Hindi as Muthu Maharaja.
Reception
Ananda Vikatan gave the film a rating of 42 out of 100, wrote that the film was consistent and described it as an engaging masala entertainer. They also praised the song sequences for their vibrancy. R. P. R. of Kalki felt the film was not as fast-paced as most Rajinikanth films, unsure whether this was the editor's fault or the writer's. He said the film put more emphasis on the songs than the dialogues. D. S. Ramanujam of The Hindu gave a mixed review, comparing it unfavourably to Thenmavin Kombath and criticising the "wishy-washy" screenplay, but appreciated the flashbacks focusing on Muthu's father and the cinematography. Reviewing the Telugu dubbed version, Bhargav Shastry of Fullhyd.com wrote, "The lingual divide should not be a problem to have a try at this entertainer. The dubbing is a bit patchy. Rehman scores on the music front. People unaware of Rajnikanth's popularity can go and check out on what makes this star is an icon."
Accolades
Japanese version
In 1996, Japanese film critic Jun Edoki discovered the film at a video shop in Little India, Singapore. He said, "[Muthu] was absolutely fascinating—even without subtitles". Edoki then approached several Japanese distributors, wanting release the film in Japan. Eventually, agreed to release it. In 1998, they dubbed the film in Japanese. It was given the Japanese title , meaning Muthu – The Dancing Maharaja.
Muthu Odoru Maharaja initially had a limited release, starting on 13 June 1998 at Cinema Rise in Tokyo's Shibuya district, where it completed a 23-week run. It sold 127,000 tickets and grossed (), becoming the theatre's highest-grossing film of 1998, with distributor Atsushi Ichikawa describing it as "the Titanic of the art theaters". It then received a nationwide release across 100 theatres, drawing nearly 250,000 in audiences and grossing ().
Prior to Muthu, the previous highest-grossing Indian film in Japan was the Hindi film Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman from 1992, which was released there in 1997. Muthu surpassed it and became the most successful Indian film in Japan, as well as 1998's top film in the category of independent "first-run show" theatres. The success of Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman and Muthu sparked a short-lived boom of Indian films released in Japan, ending in 1999. Muthu was also the second highest-grossing 1995 Indian film overseas, behind only another Hindi film, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. In 2022, the Telugu film RRR surpassed the gross collection of Muthu Odoru Maharaja and became the highest-grossing Indian film in Japan.
On 14 December 2006, the then Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, made a special note about the reach of Muthu in Japan during his speech at the National Diet of Japan. A 4K remaster of the film was released in Japan on 23 November 2018.
Legacy
Muthu helped Rajinikanth and Meena gain a large fan following in Japan. The video for "Thillana Thillana" became famous for Meena's belly dance, which features many closeup shots of her navel. Meena danced to the song on an episode of the talk show Simply Kushboo. The film itself has been frequently aired on Sun TV and recorded large viewership there. As well, many dialogues attained popularity such as "Kedaikkaradhu kedaikkama irukkadhu. Kedaikkama irukardhu kedaikadhu", "Naan eppo varuven, epdi varuvennu yarukkum theriyathu. Aana vara vendiya nerathula correcta vandhuduven", and the Malayalam dialogue "Eruki anachu oru umma tharum" (Hug me tight, and kiss me). Sivasakthi Pandian used the profits he made from distributing Muthu to finance his first film as a producer, Vaanmathi (1996).
The attire worn by Rajinikanth in "Kuluvalile" – a white shirt and lungi – became popular. A 100-second fight sequence from Muthu was used in the French film I Do (2006) with permission from Kavithalayaa Productions. In 2017, artist Rajesh Arachi released an English-language comic book adaptation of Muthu. It was published by Chelvam Comics. In the same year, a film tribute to Rajinikanth titled 12-12-1950 was released. The main characters are named after Rajinikanth's films, one of them being Muthu. In 2018, GRT Hotels in Chennai started creating dishes named after Rajinikanth's films, with one being named Muthu, consisting of "gun powder arancini in the shape of pearls". In early 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in India, a song spreading awareness about COVID-19, titled "Corona Corona" and set the tune of "Thillana Thillana", became viral.
A dialogue by Muthu, "Indha thummalu, irumalu, vikkalu, kottavi, nalladhu, kettadhu, pasi, thookkam, porappu, irappu, panam, pattam, padhavi, idhellam thaana varum. Vandhalumm yaennu ketka mudiyadhu. Ponalum thadukka mudiyathu" () was used by Suriya in his dubsmash for spreading awareness on voting rights in 2016.
References
Bibliography
External links
1990s masala films
1990s Tamil-language films
1995 films
Films adapted into comics
Films directed by K. S. Ravikumar
Films scored by A. R. Rahman
Films shot in Chennai
Films shot in Karnataka
Films shot in Kerala
Films shot in Palakkad
Tamil remakes of Malayalam films |
4317712 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racialization | Racialization | In sociology, racialization or ethnicization is a political process of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify itself as such for the purpose of domination and social exclusion. Racialization or ethnicization often arises out of the interaction of a group with a group that it dominates or wants to dominate, and the group that wants to dominate ascribes a racial identity to the other group for the purpose of reproducing or continuing their ways of domination, and for reinforcing their social exclusion practices. It is a dehumanization process that evolved from racism, distinguishing the dominant group's identity as comparatively different and superior to the non-dominant group for the purpose of oppression. Over time, the racialized and ethnicized group develop the society enforced construct (internalized oppression) that races are real, different and unequal in ways that matter to economic, political and social life, an unhealthy norm that strips them of their dignity of full humanity. This systemic tool used for oppression and to induce trauma have been commonly used in varying flexibility throughout the history of imperialism, nationalism, racial and ethnic hierarchies.
History
Racial categories have historically been used as a way to enable an oppressive figure or group to discriminate against other groups or individuals which were seen as different from that of the oppressor. In nineteenth and early twentieth century Europe, artwork was a common form of racialization which targeted countries in the Middle East and Asia. The artwork, predominantly paintings, were portrayed in order to instill prejudice in the Western populations through sexualizing and manipulating images. One of the most prominent examples of Orientalist work in art is a piece by Eugène Delacroix titled Women of Algiers in their Apartment. Dating back to 1834, it portrays three women resting in a harem in exotic clothing while an African woman is dressed in plain clothing, depicting her role as a servant. Fine textiles, hookahs, and other paraphernalia adorn the room, which represents a European fantasy of an exotic scene. Attempts to portray these cultures as strange, foreign and exotic through Orientalism led to intolerance towards the Arab and Asian communities in Europe and the United States. Others argue that Delacroix, who travelled in North Africa sketching extensively, was depicting a realistic scene of the era based on his first-hand knowledge and experience. In such an interpretation the clothing, for example, is consistent with the times, as Arab North Africans dressed differently from Europeans, and kept black slaves who would not have been treated as equals.
Many North African and Middle Eastern countries, such as Tunisia, Algeria, and Syria, were colonized by European nations. These countries were not fully independent until the mid-twentieth century, a time in which globalization began to rise both economically and politically. With the rise of globalization came an expanding cultural influence and an increase in immigration to Western nations. New cultures, ethnic groups, and ideals have contributed to the process of racialization which is familiar in modern society. Racialization is a long process, and members of each group are categorized based on their perceived differences relative to those who are considered elite within a society. Another major contributor to the process of racialization is the media. News outlets, films, television shows, and other forms of public communication portray racial groups to often reflect stereotypes which contribute to the public’s opinion of certain cultural groups. These opinions and stereotypes may become institutionalized and racial groups must then encounter the institutionalized racism that is a result. Dominant groups in a society tend to racialize others because new cultural and racial groups are seen as threatening to their society. These threats instill fear into the dominant members of the society due to the possibility of downward mobility or perceived loss of national security. While threats can be imagined or real, they are most prominent when there is some other issue in the nation, such as a poorly performing economy. The effects of racialization are often more harmful to racial and ethnic groups than the actual racialization itself, a few examples being systemic and structural racism. Further significant research in this area is aiding politicians and policy makers in creating a more equal society that embraces and supports different racial and ethnic groups.
Racialized incorporation
The process of racialization can affect newly arriving immigrants as well as their second-generation children in the United States. The concept of racialized incorporation bridges the idea of assimilation with critical race studies in general and the concept of racialization in particular. While immigrants may possess specific ethnic and cultural identities associated with their countries of origin, once they arrive in the U.S., they are incorporated into a society that is largely organized along the lines of race. The racial hierarchy in the United States is pervasive in many aspects of life including housing, education, and employment. The racialized incorporation perspective argues that regardless of the ethnic and cultural differences across immigrant groups, racial identification is the ultimate and primary principle of social organization in the United States. So an immigrant from Sweden and his/her U.S. born second-generation children are likely to be incorporated into the White mainstream, while an immigrant from Ghana and his/her U.S. born second-generation children are likely to be incorporated into the Black community. Because the lived experiences of Whites and Blacks in U.S. society diverge in most areas of social life, the racialized category that immigrants and their children are incorporated into will largely determine their experiences and opportunities in the United States. The concept of racialized incorporation is relatively new and was recently applied in a study of self-employment in the United States.
Racialization of religion
An ongoing scholarly debate covers the racialization of religious communities. Adherents of Judaism, Islam, and Sikhism can be racialized when they are portrayed as possessing certain physical characteristics, despite the fact that many individual adherents of those religions do not possess any of those physical characteristics. This racialization extends to the descendants of the adherents, even though those descendants may often convert away from the active observance of the religion of their forebearers but they may also retain the lingering cultural aspects of that religion for familial and communal purposes.
The most immediate effect of the racialization of religion is said to be the internalization of the racialization by the descendants of a religion's adherents, whereby the descendants of a religion's adherents accept and internalize their religiously-influenced familial culture as an ethnoracial distinction and identity. A positive application of racialization is nationalism, whereby the created race seeks to assert cultural and national aspirations which are compatible and accommodating to other groups. A negative application of racialization is racism and discrimination, whereby those who are racialized are barred from participating in any public or private functions of society due to the negative "attributes" of the race which has been assigned to them.
Racialization of labor
The racialization of labor is said to involve the segregation and appointment of workers based on perceived ethnic differences. This racialization of labor is said to produce a hierarchical arrangement which limits employee agency and mobility based on their race. The process of racialization is reinforced through presupposed, stereotypical qualities which are imposed upon the racialized person by the racializer. Racialization is then normalized by the promotion of "colorblindness" through the use of "soft" language which avoids highlighting ethnic differences.
The racialization of labor specially limits upward mobility of a person based on race. Dominant racialized labor groups, mainly White/European workers, are generally presented more privileges than subordinate labor groups, mainly Black or Hispanic workers. The subordinate labor groups face the denial of basic citizenship rights, more exploitation, and inferior working conditions. Furthermore, they are less likely to move up in rank within a company or advance to a higher job position.
Members of the dominant race (e.g., whites) benefit from the privileges of whiteness, whether these are material or psychological, and are maintained and reproduced within social systems As a result, immigrant workers, especially Latino and Black workers, experience poor working conditions in day labor work. Day laborers experience "race" and this has impacted their integration into the labor market.
Furthermore, research by Edna Bonacich, Sabrina Alimahomed Jake B. Wilson, 2008 regarding the effects of race and criminal background on employment indicates that Black men need to work more than twice as hard as white men to secure the same job. Being Black in America today is about the same as having a felony conviction in terms of one’s chances of finding a job. Specifically, “the combination of minority status and criminal background appears to intensify employers’ negative reactions, leaving few employment prospects for black ex-offenders (200 applications resulted in only 10 callbacks)”. Additionally, According to Chetty, Hendren, Kline, and Saez, the effect of race segregation impacts the labor market, saying “upward income mobility is significantly lower in areas with larger African American Populations”. Race segregation may lead to divergent economic outcomes due to the fact that areas with larger black population tend to be more segregated by income and race and have adverse effects.
Lastly, the decline of labor unions has negatively affected racialization of labor. Those who would have benefited from union membership no longer will as labor unions continue to diminish. In Jake Rosenfeld’s article, Little Labor: How Union Decline Is Changing the American Landscape, he describes people who can no longer benefit from labor unions: “an immigrant employee who once would have been organized, a female African-American worker no longer able to rely on a union wage to reduce pay gaps with her white counterpart, or a less-educated worker lacking the training, resources, and knowledge to participate in politics”.
Racialization in education
Racialization in an educational setting is apparent based on the teacher and the background they come from. The teacher’s race along with their views that came along through socialization growing up can affect the way the students portray themselves in a classroom setting. It also has to do with the number of people who come from the same background because the majority of a population will dictate which group is being racialized. An example of students being racialized by their teachers and institutions can be seen through the way high schools teach in America today. Schools tend to teach classes that focus on a more Anglo-Saxon point of view without incorporating any diverse classes that would accommodate for the population of students that come from diverse backgrounds like Latinos, African, and Native Americans.
For example, Desert View High School in Arizona has a great population of Native American students who wish to learn more about their cultural background and where they came from. However, author Timothy J. San Pedro who wrote “Truth, in the End, Is Different From What We Have Been Taught: Re-Centering Indigenous Knowledges in Public Schooling Spaces” found that the school mainly focuses on the “Americanized” perspective of history that does not tell the whole story on what came to be in the Native American population. For example, San Pedro describes how the Desert View High School has posters of history classes that glorify “explorers” that were really conquerors of people who initially settled in areas that were “discovered”. That idea of limiting the Native American population from learning about themselves forces them to assimilate to the culture where they are being racialized in an educational setting. They are forced to conform and be put under a racial category among their American teachers and learn things that do not pertain to their culture or social identity.
Racialization and gender
Through the process of racialization, social groups are distinguished and subjected to different treatment on the basis of supposedly biological, phenotypic, cultural, and gender characteristics. Racialization can affect anyone in any race. Therefore, racialization and gender can often intersect Just as racism and gender intersect or discrimination and gender intersect it is easy for racialization to overlap with gender. During racialization, certain racial categories are created and distinctive and stereotypical characteristics are attributed to that specific category. Within these categories, there can also be subcategories of racialization such as Euro American men or African American women. Often immigrants who migrate to the U.S. are affected by racialization if they are not white and fit more into a minority group. For example, African American women may often be stereotyped as uneducated, loud, or improper. Through racialization, if a woman of African descent immigrated to the U.S people will attribute those same stereotypes to her because through a racial lens, she fits the African American woman category. Therefore, those same stereotypes will be applied to her as well. Racialization combined with gender can also be seen through the actions of the person that is racializing the other.
Racialization and incarceration
Coming to fruition in the 1980s, the United States began to enact extensive legal reforms that worked to create a more punitive society. These reforms include mandatory minimum sentences, trying juveniles as adults, three strikes and you’re out laws, truth in sentencing practices, and many other policies and practices which served to increase reliance on imprisonment in response to crime. As a result, U.S. society has been pegged with a “mass incarceration” structure. A recent report has concluded that nearly 1 in 100 U.S. adults are incarcerated and nearly 7.3 million Americans are either in prison or under parole. Although these reforms were intended to apply to all citizens regardless of race, this has not proven to be the reality. Statistically, these punitive reforms have disproportionately impacted African Americans. Specifically, those who are uneducated and/or live in low-income areas. Some have renamed the emergence of the “mass incarceration” society as rather the emergence of “racialized mass incarceration.” The numbers are much more alarming for African Americans behind bars; nearly 1 in 15 African Americans are incarcerated and more narrowly 1 in 9 African American men are incarcerated. These numbers point to an obvious discrimination towards blacks in the U.S. criminal justice system.
One clear reason for these disproportionate imprisonment rate can be tied to poverty and social structures. In particular, a pronounced weak attachment to labor among many working-age adults in black communities has fostered a common experience of poverty and economic hardship. Ultimately this has served to create social spaces where bonds of family and community begin to fray and fall apart. These types of environments have created higher levels of juvenile crime, drug use, and even violent and gang-oriented crimes. Although white Americans too have a history of living in poverty, the average national rate of family disruption and poverty among blacks is two to four times higher than among whites. Furthermore, another reason for the United States racialized prison system can be seen with the war on drugs. Despite similar rates of drug use among blacks and whites, blacks make up 50% of those incarcerated for drug use compared to only 26% of whites.
While the two examples above point to definite explanations for the United States racialized prison system, ultimately the most salient explanation for disproportionate imprisonment rates is public opinion and prejudice. Social stereotypes and stigmas have created assumptions about African Americans that make them more susceptible to arrest and imprisonment. These latter factors are often influenced by society’s outlook on the prison system. Most educated middle- or upper-class individuals are for things such as the death penalty, minimum sentences, and trying juveniles as adults, which combined with social stigmas make blacks unfairly disadvantaged in the realm of criminal justice. For example, in recent times, these effects can be seen in an increase in police brutality towards minorities. Statistically, it is 2.5 times more likely for blacks to be killed than whites.
See also
Critical race theory
Postcolonialism
Racialized society
Scientific racism
Notes
References
Race and society |
4317858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni-Vanuatu | Ni-Vanuatu | Ni-Vanuatu (informally abbreviated Ni-Van) is a large group of closely related Melanesian ethnic groups native to the island country of Vanuatu. As such, Ni-Vanuatu are a mixed ethnolinguistic group with a shared ethnogenesis that speak a multitude of languages.
Ni-Vanuatu or Ni-Van is usually restricted to the indigenous population of Vanuatu. It contrasts with the demonym Vanuatuan, which in principle refers to any citizen of Vanuatu, regardless of their origin or ethnicity. (The form Vanuatuan is in fact rarely used in English, and is regarded as incorrect by some authors and style guides.)
Indigenous people of Vanuatu have English and French influences due to the history of colonialism from the British and French, which leads to the main languages of English, Bislama and French being spoken.
The cultural aspects of Ni-Vanuatu society have been instilled on the indigenous community and are expressed through clothing, rituals, ceremonies, music, performing and fine arts, and cuisine. The spiritual ties Ni-Vanuatu have with their land and ancestors are conveyed through these traditions and some of these remaining artefacts have been preserved and displayed in galleries of Vanuatu.
Etymology
Ni-Vanuatu is a recent coinage. It combines the name of the country (Vanuatu, etymologically "land that stands [by itself]", i.e. ‘independent country’) with a particle ni, which encodes the genitive in indigenous languages such as North Efate similar to "of" in English. Etymologically, the particle descends from Proto-Oceanic, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Austronesian *ni. The word Ni-Vanuatu thus simply means "of Vanuatu".
The Bislama dictionary defines Ni-Vanuatu as a "Vanuatu citizen of Melanesian descent but not limited to".
The term is mostly used in English and French, and is rarely used in Bislama, the country's lingua franca. The term is never used in the indigenous languages of the archipelago.
The form Ni-Van is a colloquial abbreviation of Ni-Vanuatu. This form was pejorative in its original usage in the 1980s by Anglophone European expatriates, similar to its French equivalent , but according to New Zealand linguist Terry Crowley, by the 2000s the term Ni-Van saw increasing usage among Ni-Vanuatu.
History
The indigenous population of Vanuatu
The first inhabitants of Vanuatu were Austronesian people, carriers of the Lapita culture, who settled the archipelago about 1200-1300BC. They were later followed by Melanesians around 500BC.
European settlement
European explorers discovered Vanuatu in 1606 by Captain Pedro Gernandez De Quiros, however settlement did not happen until Captain James Cook charted the islands and deemed it The New Hebrides. At the end of the 19th century, Ni-Vanuatu were regularly kidnapped and forced to work in plantations in Fiji and Australia, a practice now known as "blackbirding".
In 1906, France and Britain established the Condominium of the New Hebrides. During the joint rulership from the two countries, the Ni-Vanuatu lived under French and British authorities. On 30 July 1980, the New Hebrides gained independence under the new name of Vanuatu.
Land and nationalism
During the Condominium period, European regulations sometimes resulted in land disputes, particularly around plantations.
Upon independence, the new constitution determined that land ownership would belong to native ni-vanuatus: the land rights were given to the traditional owners and community to make decisions.
Society
Economic impact of economy on the people
Workers on the copra plantations were generally Melanesian. Melanesian workers were occupied with their own plantations which led to European owners sourcing labour from foreign countries such as French Indochina for general agricultural labour and construction. After World War II, American soldiers introduced Eurocentric items such as camp supplies, construction aviation, electricity and running water. The two factors of introducing overseas workers in combination with the introduction of modern facilities led to Vanuatu's economic momentum which helped create the backbone of the island's copra production. Copra production such as was the main focus as other areas such as forestry, fishing and native crafts were underdeveloped at the time. Food crops, including yams, taro and cassava, are used for local consumption; copra production such as coconuts and cocoa make up the majority of Vanuatu's exports.
Profiles of labour workers, miners and construction workers were mainly of Melanesian descent as labour job demands rose with the economic boom. In 1953, Vietnamese workers started returning to their home country, and most of them had done so by 1963. This caused a shortage in plantation workers which led to recruitment from other islands such as Tahiti.
Temperamental weather strongly impacted plantations, as hurricanes destroyed the main copra of coconut plantations. Competition from overseas in combination with natural disasters led to a solution of sourcing different agricultural mediums such as cattle. Local demands of meat as well as international export welcomed another economic boom in Vanuatu.
Education
Prior to Vanuatu's independence in 1980, the French government offered additional effort into support the French population. Free education and buildings were developed whilst the British government required education fees from parents. The competition between the two ruling governments caused a division in the education system, as Ni-Vanuatu based their decisions on financial and political reasons. The French system was popular to Melanesians however the British system was still an option to many as Ni-Vanuatu parents say "Yumi no save yet se wanem saed bae i win" translating to "We don't know yet which side is going to win out". The rational of many feared the unknown of which ruling government would take over the nation. Tertiary education was often presented with a bias from the French government, based on the fears of higher education presenting ideas of anti-colonialism to the general population. English-medium to French-medium university scholars reflected this concept with a ratio of 120:1 in 1983, three years after the independence of Vanuatu.
The Vanuatu Cultural Centre established a scheme whereby some of its researchers were indigenous; they were called "filwoka" (from Eng. fieldworker).
Ni-Vanuatu women
Recognition of Ni-Vanuatu women in the political, business and social bubble has been growing recently however there are barriers that impede this growth. Social standards of Pacific women heavily emphasise on the women's role as nurturers, which consists of domestic tasks of washing clothes, cooking, gardening and cleaning the house. Women who went overseas for their tertiary studies and returned have expressed the contrasting differences of Western and Vanuatu lifestyles. Particularly independence was viewed differently, as privacy in Western cultures was looser.
Although there are no laws against women participating in politics, there were no women serving in parliament during the 2016 election. Hilda Lini of the Vanuatu's parliament puts promotes women participating in politics however she predicts that it would take time to convince to public to do so. In October 2020, "Vote for Women" campaign was coordinated to encourage and support women in the political scene. The municipal council reserves seats for women to represent the community and are encouraged to participate with government training programs readily available.
Population
Demographics
75% of the Ni-Vanuatu population live in rural areas, whereas the remaining 25% population live in urban areas. Port Vila and Luganville are the primary urban cities populated with Port Villa having a population of 35,901. The total land area is 12,189 km2 with a population growth rate of 1.67%. Christianity makes up the majority of the religious community as 93.5% of the population identify as Christians as of 2020.
Languages
Vanuatu is the country with the world's highest language density per capita, with 138 languages for a population of 0.3 million. These 138 indigenous languages are still used today by two-thirds of the country's population, mainly in rural areas. These are Oceanic languages, descended historically from the country's first Austronesian settlers.
Despite the first European contact in Vanuatu in 1606, English was not introduced to Ni-Vanuatu until the 1840s when English-speaking missionaries arrived. This was around the same time when European sourcing of sandalwood in the Pacific turned to Vanuatu. During the time of the Condominium of the New Hebrides, French and English competed for the status of main language; the population spontaneously turned to Bislama as used as a tool of unity. Bislama is often essential as the privileged population are educated in English and middle to lower class population were often educated in French. Few people mastered both French and English, hence the use of Bislama.
Upon independence in 1980, three languages have become official in Vanuatu: English, French and Bislama. French and English are used mainly for written communication whereas Bislama is widely used for verbal communication.
Bislama serves as the country's lingua franca: it serves as a bridge between citizens educated in French vs. English; and it also allows speakers of different indigenous languages to communicate among themselves.
Official welcoming speeches, opening of parliament and most official events use Bislama. Ni-Vanuatu of different ethnic backgrounds, such as Chinese and Vietnamese often use Bislama as greetings and opening introductions as a form of communication.
Culture
Kastom
Indigenous Ni-Vanuatu communities describe their traditional values and beliefs using the modern (Bislama) term kastom.
Kastom was expressed through religion, clothing, native arts, indigenous culture and languages. The development of kastom was a symbolism between the traditional native values compared to the foreign concepts of Eurocentric ideals. It represents the unity and national identity of Ni-Vanuatu. In 1979, a year before independence, the Vanua'aku Pati of Parliament vowed to promote the "preservation and promotion of New Hebrides culture and languages" and thereby sponsoring a first National Arts Festival in Port Villa to express the support of kastoms in the community. Parliament faced ongoing pressure from the community to preserve the traditions of Ni-Vanuatu, particularly in the post-colonial era leading to attempts of teaching indigenous culture being implemented in schools and development of art centres.
Masks called Tamate are worn by men during ceremonies and rituals. These masks are used to hide the faces of dancers and the notion of the ancestral spirits will enter the dancer. After the ritual is complete, it is thought that the ancestor's spirit is rebirthed as a tamate spirit. Although the masks are no longer used, the aesthetics and representations of the ancestral world continue to embody the kastoms of ni-vanuatus.
Clothing
Women particularly had a unique perspective of differentiating traditional customs to colonial ideas. Island dresses represented a national connection to Vanuatu however many Ni-Vanuatu women consciously choose to shift their options to modern clothing as their attitudes towards convenience, aesthetics and gender equality are considered. Although modern clothing is preferred on most occasions, the respect for kastom in island dresses are incorporated into special events such as festivals, ceremonies and church gatherings.
Pandanus grass skirts are worn by women and men wore penis wrappers and bark belts. Barkcloths were also a staple of Ni-Vanuatu clothing and sleeping mats. Different styles and variations of draping the barkcloths indicated the different status of the individual. Men would wear the barkcloth around their waist or drape it between their thighs and women would wear it around their waist and drape it behind their back where European stories of "tailed women" would originate. Young tree bark was the choice of creating these barkcloths as they didn't break so easily and would generally take three to four days to make. The sheets of bark would be soaked with water and women would beat layers of barks together whilst singing a special song. The layers of bark would alternately be soaked, beaten and dried until it was deemed ready. Generally Ni-Vanuatu women would create barkcloth for the community.
Penis sleeves worn by men are called yelau and they would hang down at various lengths depending on the man's status. In particular cases, some chiefs would have penis sleeves that hung down to their ankles.
Music and Dance
Musical instruments and traditional dances played a big role in the practicing rituals of indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. Dances were coordinated with specific anti-clockwise directions of circling dances to represent the notions of male "hardness" during ceremonies and clockwise directions were only accepted to a certain age for males. Musical instruments were created with organic material such as wood, bones, leafs, rocks, vegetables and fruits. Bamboo flutes were carved in a fashion that would represent a flute, a V-notch on one end and one to three holes on the other. These instruments would be blown on one end and played with their arms extended to their waist. Hollowed cylinders were also hung from tree branches and audible sounds created by the wind would be interpreted as ancestral voices. Dried seeds were tied to wrists and ankles by dried coconut fibres to act as rattles and coconut shells would be banged against the ground for some games.
Literature
Oral literature was common amongst Ni-Vanuatu as written literature wasn't introduced until European missionaries created formal schools. Folk tales, myths, legends, songs, and poetry were passes across generations by word of mouth until written literature was developed.
Fine arts
Kastom can be interpreted by different forms of visual and material arts by indigenous Ni-Vanuatu. Material forms of art are passed down generations as they represent customary practices such as fishing, rituals, clothing and food preparations. The Vanuatu Cultural Centre and National Museum displays artefacts collected by anthropologists and donations from 150 years ago. These artefacts are representations of cultural practices of the indigenous community of Vanuatu however disruption from colonialism have halted and destroyed records of these cultural and social remnants.
Pottery could be dated back as early 1000BC on the islands of Efate and the pots were found to be decorated with different styles in different regions of Vanuatu. Two main techniques were used to make these pots. The first one being a long coil of clay being attached to a bamboo cylinder and continuously coiled until a circular sheet of clay was added to make the base of the pot. The bamboo base was removed and the result of this process created the conical shape of pots. The second technique was a ball of clay was hollowed out on moulded onto the knee which created the bowl shape. The pots were then dried out and fired. The hearth was prepared by hot stones and dried coconut fronds and bamboo were used to fuel the fire.
Contemporary arts have been criticised due to the non-indigenous forms of using western media such as watercolour and acrylic paint to portray the kastoms of Ni-Vanuatu. However, contemporary Ni-Vanuatu artists have argued the representations of their cultural ties to Vanuatu are being represented in their artistic forms. Foundation Suzanne Bastien is a contemporary art gallery in Port Vila that Suzanne Bastien opened in hopes of "continued nurturing of contemporary art for future generations". The spiritual, social and physical connection expressed by contemporary artists have indicated different communities, regions and islands of Vanuatu with the onging Western influence on Melanesian culture.
Cuisine
Indigenous communities have diets that involved foraging and fishing as their main method of sustenance. It wasn't until European involvement of livestock a copra production that cattle meat and cocoa were introduced. Root vegetables such as taro and yams were a main staple of traditional ni-vanatu communities as they were considered as "strong foods" that make the people strong and energetic.
Hunting and fishing were designated as a role for men due to cultural beliefs of women on a boat would make her infertile. Thus men would hunt for fish and women would feed pigs and forage for root vegetables. Roles for men and women would be divided equally in food preparation as they have different roles in the household hut or men's hut. However division of the food would be dependent on the ranking of female and males status in the community. Food prepared in the separate fire closest to the entrance of the household hut are reserved for women, children and ungraded boys and the fire closest to the back of the hut is reserved for men and graded boys. The food prepared in the men's hut would further be divided into four separate fires and subsequently, for the four different rankings of the men in the community.
Kava drinking
Kava is a beverage in the Oceanic regions of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia. Kava plays a central role in spiritual, cultural and social practices of indigenous ni-vanatu. There are remedial notions of kava that it could be used for medicinal purposes.
Kava bowls are used in preparation and serving of the beverage with different types of materials being used. Kava bowls are considered sacred and have been traditionally used exclusively for kava drinking.
See also
Kanak people
Kastom
Vanuatu Cultural Centre
References
Ni-Vanuatu
Vanuatuan culture
Demonyms
Indigenous peoples of Melanesia |
4317982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videha | Videha | Videha (Prākrit: ; Pāli: ; Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of north-eastern Indian subcontinent whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The population of Videha, the Vaidehas, were initially organised into a monarchy but later became a (an aristocratic oligarchic republic), presently referred to as the Videha Republic, which was part of the larger Vajjika League.
Location
The borders of the Videha kingdom were the Sadānirā river in the west, the Kauśikī river in the east, the Gaṅgā river in the south, and the Himālaya mountains in the north. To the west of the Sadānirā river, the neighbour of the Vaidehas was the kingdom of Kosala.
The Sadānirā and Kauśikī rivers remained the respective western and eastern boundaries of the later Videha republic, although its territory covered only the northern part of that of the former Videha kingdom, with the latter hence being called Mahā-Videha ("greater Videha"). The Videha republic was located along the foothills of the Himalaya mountains, in what are now the Tarāī region and the south-eastern parts of Nepal including the lower hill ranges, as well as the northern part of what in present time is the Indian state of Bihār. The Malla republics were the neighbours of Videha to the west of the Sadānirā during the republican period.
Name
The name is the Prākrit version of the name whose Sanskrit form was . The capital of the Vaidehas was the city of Mithilā, whose name was derived from that of the Vaideha king Mithi.
History
Monarchic period
The Vaidehas were an Indo-Aryan tribe in the eastern Gangetic plain in the Greater Magadha cultural region. The Mahā-Videha ("greater Videha") kingdom, located between the Sadānirā river in the west, the Kauśikī river in the east, the Gaṅgā river in the south, and the Himālaya mountains in the north, was founded around 800 BCE, according to the by the king Reṇu with the help of his steward, Mahāgovinda Jotipāla, and claimed by the 5th century CE Buddhist commentator Buddhaghosa to have been colonised by the king Mandhātā with settlers from a place he retroactively referred to as ("old Videha"). The Prākrit name , meaning "without walls or ramparts," was an epithet used in the sense of "destroyers of walls and ramparts".
Despite being an Indo-Aryan people, the Vaidehas were not fully Brahmanised, lived in the Indo-Aryan but non-Vedic cultural region of Greater Magadha located to the east of the Gaṅgā-Yamunā confluence along with the similarly Greater Magadhan non-Vedic Indo-Aryan Kāśya and Kauśalya tribes, with whom they had close cultural relations from early times, and along with whom the Vaidehas would be continually mentioned in ancient South Asian literature. Brahmanical literature therefore grouped them along with the Kāśyas, Kauśalyas, Māgadhīs, and Āṅgeyas, as s (meaning "Easterners") not belonging to the , that is the land of the s where Vedic rituals and customs were followed, and consisting of the areas of the Kuru, Pāñcāla, Matsya, and Śūrasena tribes. Brahmanical literature also referred to the Vaidehas and the Māgadhīs with less prestige than the Brahmanised Kuru-Pāñcālas and with language referring to mixed castes.
The Vaidehas were initially organised into a monarchical regime during the era of the s, lasting from around 900 BCE to around 700 BCE. One attested king of Mahā-Videha was Mithila, who gave his name to the tribe's capital of Mithilā.
The Vaidehas were Brahmanised during the later period, shortly after Kosala's Brahmanisation. This Brahminisation of Mahā-Videha happened during the reign of the king Janaka, who was one of the leading patrons of the new doctrine of and whose Yājñavalkya was a disciple of the Kuru-Pāñcāla Vedic sage Uddālaka Āruṇi. Janaka and Yājñavalkya together provided spiritual and intellectual leadership to the s of the . And although Mahā-Videha had not previously been included among the four ancient holy lands of , it came to acquire sanctity because the s approved of it as a pure land, although the later the mentions the Vaidehas with contempt, following the earlier Brahmanical tradition of opposition to the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan tribes.
The close relations between the Vaidehas, the Kāśyas, and the Kauśalyas continued after the Brahminisation of these states: at one point Jala Jātūkarṇya was the of all three kingdoms; and the king Para Āṭnāra, who was a descendant of the Kauśalya king Hiraṇyanābha, ruled over both Mahā-Videha and Kosala.
This monarchical period of the Vaidehas lasted between 150 and 200 years, and the maximum estimated number of Vaideha kings during this phase amounts to eight.
Republican period
Shortly before or during the lifetime of the Buddha, around the 7th or 6th century BCE, the Licchavi tribe invaded the territory of the Mahā-Videha kingdom and temporarily occupied the Vaideha capital of Mithilā, from where they could best administer the territory of Mahā-Videha. The consequence of the occupation of Videha by the republican Licchavikas was that the Licchavikas relatively peacefully overthrew the already weakened Vaideha monarchical system and Janaka's dynasty, and replaced them by a republican system.
Facing the rising power of Magadha to the south of the Gaṅgā, the Licchavikas established their republic in the southern part of the former Mahā-Videha kingdom's territory and moved their political centre to Vesālī, while the new Videha republic centred around Mithilā existed in a limited territory covering only the northern part of Mahā-Videha. Many members of the Vaideha aristocracy who had submitted to the Licchavikas joined them in moving to Vesālī, and therefore became members of the Licchavi ruling aristocratic Assembly. Vaideha politicians also moved to Vesālī and obtained high posts there, such as the Vaideha minister Sakala who had to flee from his colleagues' jealousy and moved to Vesālī where he became a prominent citizen and was elected ; Sakala had two sons, Gopāla and Siṃha, who both married Vesālia women, and Siṃha's daughter Vāsavī married the Māgadhī king Bimbisāra.
The Licchavikas themselves henceforth became the leading power within the territory of the former Mahā-Videha kingdom, with the Licchavika Assembly holding the sovereign and supreme rights over this territory while the Videha republic was ruled by an Assembly of the s residing in and around Mithilā, and which governed in the name of the Licchavika Assembly. The Videha republic was thus under significant influence of Licchavi, and it joined the latter as one of the two most important members of the Vajjika League, which was a temporary league led by Licchavi, with the Vaideha s holding an undetermined number out of the nine non-Licchavika seats of the eighteen-member Vajjika Council. Despite being a prominent member of the Vajjika League, Videha was a minor power within it compared to the Licchavikas and the Mallakas, and Videha maintained limited autonomy within the league concerning its domestic administration under the supervision of Licchavi, who fully controlled Vaideha foreign policy. The Videha republic's relations with other members of the Vajjika League, such as the Malla republics, were good, although occasional quarrels arose between the various member states of the league.
During the life of the Buddha, Videha abandoned Brahmanism and embraced Buddhism.
After the death of the Buddha, the Licchavikas, the Mallakas, and the Sakyas claimed shares of his relics while the Vaidehas and the Nāyikas did not appear among the list of states claiming a share because they were dependencies of the Licchavikas without their own sovereignty, and therefore could not put forth their own claim while Licchavi could.
Conquest by Magadha
The relations of the Licchavikas, who led the Vajjika League which the Vaidehas were part of, with their southern neighbour, the kingdom of Magadha, were initially good, and the wife of the Māgadhī king Bimbisāra was the Vesālia princess Vāsavī, who was the daughter of the Licchavika Sakala's son Siṃha. There were nevertheless occasional tensions between Licchavi and Magadha, such as the competition at the Mallaka capital of Kusinārā over acquiring the relics of the Buddha after his death.
In another case, the Licchavikas once invaded Māgadhī territory from across the Gaṅgā, and at some point the relations between Magadha and Licchavi permanently deteriorated as result of a grave offence committed by the Licchavikas towards the Māgadhī king Bimbisāra.
The hostilities between Licchavi and Magadha continued under the rule of Ajātasattu, who was Bimbisāra's son with another Licchavika princess, Vāsavī, after he had killed Bimbisāra and usurped the throne of Magadha. Eventually Licchavi supported a revolt against Ajātasattu by his younger step-brother and the governor of Aṅga, Vehalla, who was the son of Bimbisāra by another Licchavika wife of his, Cellanā, a daughter of Ceḍaga, who was the head of both the Licchavi republic and the Vajjika League; Bimbisāra had chosen Vehalla as his successor following Ajātasattu's falling out of his favour after the latter had been caught conspiring against him, and the Licchavikas had attempted to place Vehalla on the throne of Magadha after Ajātasattu's usurpation and had allowed Vehalla to use their capital Vesālī as base for his revolt. After the failure of this rebellion, Vehalla sought refuge at his grandfather's place in the Licchavika and Vajjika capital of Vesālī, following which Ajātasattu repeatedly attempted to negotiate with the Licchavikas-Vajjikas. After Ajātasattu's repeated negotiation attempts ended in failure, he declared war on the Vajjika League in 484 BCE.
Tensions between Licchavi and Magadha were exacerbated by the handling of the joint Māgadhī-Licchavika border post of Koṭigāma on the Gaṅgā by the Licchavika-led Vajjika League who would regularly collect all valuables from Koṭigāma and leave none to the Māgadhīs. Therefore Ajātasattu decided to destroy the Vajjika League in retaliation, but also because, as an ambitious empire-builder whose mother Vāsavī was Licchavika princess of Vaidehī descent, he was interested in the territory of the former Mahā-Videha kingdom which by then was part of the Vajjika League. Ajātasattu's hostility towards the Vajjika League was also the result of the differing forms of political organisation between Magadha and the Vajjika League, with the former being monarchical and the latter being republican, not unlike the opposition of the ancient Greek kingdom of Sparta to the democratic form of government in Athens, and the hostilities between the ancient Macedonian king Philip II to the Athenian and Theban republics.
As a prominent member of the Vajjika League, the Videha republic was also threatened by Ajātasattu, and it therefore fought on the side of the other confederate tribes of the league against Magadha. The military forces of the Vajjika League were initially too strong for Ajātasattu to be successful against them, and it required him having recourse to diplomacy and intrigues over the span of a decade to finally defeat the Vajjika League by 468 BCE and annex its territories, including Videha, to the kingdom of Magadha. Mention of the Vaidehas end after the Māgadhī conquest, and Kauṭilya and Pāṇini did not mention them as an independent polity, but instead included them as part of Vṛji (the country of Mahā-Videha, which by then was known by the name of the Vajjika League).
Social and political organisation
Monarchical institutions
The kings of Videha were titled or , meaning "Lord of Videha."
Republican institutions
The Assembly
Like the Licchavikas, the republican Vaideha (aristocratic oligarchic republic) had their own ruling Assembly. The Vaidehas, like their Licchavika, Mallaka, Nāyika confederates within the Vajjika League, were a tribe, and the Vaidehas' Assembly was largely constituted of the heads of the clans of the tribe, although it was smaller than the Licchavika Assembly and the heads of non- clans were allowed to join it: s were either allowed to become members of the Assembly or, as heads of families, were able to influence it; since Mithilā was a centre of trade, wealthy merchants also either were members of the Assembly or were able to influence it. Of the 84,000 to 100,000 population of Videha, the 6,000 heads of the clans were automatically accorded membership within the Vaideha Assembly (called s, meaning "ruler"), similarly to how membership to the Licchavika Assembly functioned.
Like the Licchavika Assembly, the Vaideha Assembly possessed a santhāgāra as meeting place, although it normally met only once a year.
The (Consul)
The ("Head of the Republic") was a consul chosen by the citizen body, and who maintained the old title of or ("Lord of Videha"). The position of was accessible only to a who had the support of his clan and of influential people, and criteria for his election included personal leadership, strength, eloquence, and popularity.
Like the Licchavika , the of Videha shared his power with a body of four public officers, consisting of the himself, as well as a ("Viceroy"), a ("General-in-Chief"), and a ("Treasurer").
The Council
Since the Vaideha Assembly met only once a year, it was the Council, that is the inner body of the Assembly, which met more frequently to administer the Videha republic. The Vaideha Council was the body with the supreme authority of the internal administration of the republic, although in practice it held the supreme power of the republic under the administration of the Licchavikas.
This Council was similar to that of the Licchavikas, being composed of members elected from within the Assembly, but was smaller and might have been composed of four s, consisting of the and three councillor s, who were in charge of the public administration of the republic and recommended measures of importance to the Assembly. The Council also received envoys of other states and took important decisions in the name of the Assembly, which had to approve them.
Courtesanry
An unusual custom of the Vaidehas was that every one of their villages and towns had a dancing girl of courtesan, and Videha had a troop composed of panegyrists, music instrument players, and those dancing girls who were considered to be the most beautiful.
At the state level, a beauty competition was held to choose who was the most beautiful woman of the whole state. This woman, who possessed talents and traits such as significant beauty, charm, and was accomplished in dance and music, was not allowed to lead a normal married life, and she was instead chosen to be the ("courtesan of the republic"), and spent her life as a public woman with political influence. One such courtesan of Videha was Piṅgalā, who was mentioned in the , which is a later text.
Legacy
Beginning with the Gupta period, the names Mithilā and Tirabhukti replaced that of Videha as the appellation of the whole former territory of the Mahā-Videha kingdom.
Videha and Mithilā appear in the later Itihasa texts such as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, with the protagonist of the being the Vaidehī princess Sītā. The narrative of these epics is based on the monarchical period of Videha.
Rulers
There were 52 Janaka (kings) ruled Videha dynasty of Mithila-
Mithi - (founder of Mithila and the first Janaka)
Udavasu
Nandivardhana
Suketu
Devarata
Brihadvrata
Mahavira
Sudhriti
Dristaketu
Haryasva
Maru
Pratindhaka
Kritiratha
Devamidha
Vibhuta
Mahidhrata
Kirtirata
Mahorama
Svarnorama
Hrasvaroma
Seeradhvaja (father of Sita)
Bhaanumaan
Shatadyumna
Shuchi
Oorjanaamaa
Kriti
Anjana
Kurujit
Arishtanemi
Shrutaayu
Supaarshva
Srinjaya
Kshemaavee
Anenaa
Bhaumaratha
Satyaratha
Upagu
Upagupta
Svaagata
Svaananda
Suvarchaa
Supaarshwa
Subhaasha
Sushruta
Jaya
Vijaya
Rita
Sunaya
Veetahavya
Dhriti
Bahulaashwa
Kriti - (last King of Videha or Janaka dynasty, Kirti Janak was atrocious ruler who lost control over his subjects. He was dethroned by public under leadership of Acharyas (Learned Men).
During this period of fall of Videha dynasty, the famous republic of Licchavi was rising in Vaishali and Mithila region came under control of Licchavi clan of Vajji confederacy in around eight century BCE.
See also
Maithils
Vedic period
Mithila, India
Mithila (region)
History of India
History of Hinduism
History of Mithila Region
Ancient Mithila University
Janapada and Mahajanapada
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
External links
Gaṇa saṅghas
Mithila
Kingdoms in the Ramayana
Kingdoms of the Vedic period
Historical Indian regions
History of Bihar
Populated places in Mithila, India
1st millennium BC in India
9th-century BC establishments
5th-century BC disestablishments in India
Dynasties of Nepal
1st millennium BC in Nepal |
4318040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannin%20shogi | Sannin shogi | Sannin shōgi (三人将棋 three-person chess), or in full kokusai sannin shōgi (国際三人将棋 international three-person chess), is a three-person shogi variant invented circa 1930 by Tanigasaki Jisuke and recently revived. It is played on a hexagonal grid of border length 7 with 127 cells. Standard shogi pieces may be used, and the rules for capture, promotion, drops, etc. are mostly similar to standard shogi. (See that article for an explanation of these terms.) While piece movement differs somewhat from standard shogi, especially in the case of the powerful promoted king, the main difference in play is due to the rules for voluntary and mandatory alliance between two of the three players.
Board and setup
The board is thought to have originally been in the shape of an equilateral triangle bordered by three rectangles which contained the players' home territories and promotion zones. However, in terms of movement this was equivalent to a hexagon, and the modern form of sannin shogi is played on a hexagonal board, rather like the central portion of a Chinese checkers board. The three players occupy non-adjacent sides of the board; the three ranks nearest to them are their territories and their opponents' promotion zones. The 'international' arena inside the three territories remains triangular.
The board is presented here with substitutions by standard shogi pieces; for the names actually used, see below.
The central cell is called the Pleasure Garden and is an additional promotion zone, except for the king. It is drawn with a heavy or double border or otherwise made visually distinct.
In the modern game, standard shogi pieces are used. Each player wields 18 pieces, the standard shogi set of 20 less one knight and one pawn. The pieces face away from the players: That is, they point toward the gap between the opposing players' territories.
The three players represent three countries, and are called First, Middle, and Last. If two players start the game as allies, the remaining player is automatically First. Otherwise any random method may be used to determine the order of play. Play then precedes clockwise from First to Middle to Last.
Board notation
Standard shogi notation is used, with allowance made for the shape of the board. Numbering the ranks poses no problem: They are the rows that are horizontal from the viewpoint of Middle, and are given the letters a through m from top to bottom, with g being the central and widest rank. That is, the territories of First (top right player) and Last (top left player) span ranks a through i, and that of Middle (bottom player) occupies the three ranks k, l, m.
The numbered "columns" are the rows that run from top left to bottom right from the viewpoint of Middle. They are given the numbers 1 to 13 from right to left, with 7 being the central and longest column. That is, First occupies columns 1 to 3, while the territories of Middle and Last span columns 5 through 13.
The Pleasure Garden is thus cell 7g; the corners are at 1a, 1g, 7a, 7m, 13g, 13m; and at setup the three kings occupy 1d, 10m, and 10d; and the three knights 3e, 9k, and 9e.
Movement on a hexagonal board
Because each cell of a sannin shogi board is a hexagon rather than a rectangle as in other shogi variants, the pieces will necessarily move differently. Instead of four faces with adjacent squares and four corners, for eight directions total, there are six each for a total of twelve. However, except for castling and the promoted king, which is reminiscent of the queen of Western chess (indeed, it moves like the queen in Gliński's hexagonal chess), the pieces are fair analogues of their standard-shōgi counterparts.
Except when castling, all pieces move in straight lines. These may be step moves, where a piece moves to the nearest cell in a particular direction, or ranging moves, where a piece may continue in a particular direction as long as it does not pass through an occupied cell.
There are two kinds of paths along which pieces move:
Passing through one of the faces of the starting cell to one of the six adjacent cells, or through this adjacent cell to continue straight in that direction. These six contiguous paths are called orthogonals in this article. They are equivalent to the four orthogonal directions on a rectangular board.
Passing through one of the corners of the starting cell and between two adjacent cells to reach one of the six cells just beyond, or continuing in a straight line in that direction, alternatingly passing through and passing between the cells. These six skipping paths are called diagonals in this article. They are equivalent to the four diagonal directions on a rectangular board. A piece may travel along a diagonal even if the adjacent cells it passes between are occupied, since it doesn't actually pass through these adjacent cells, and this is not considered a jump, just as on a rectangular board. There are no jumping moves in sannin shogi except for the king when castling.
These twelve directions correspond to the twelve hours on a clock: The orthogonals correspond to the odd hours (the direction of the hour hand at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 o'clock), and the diagonals correspond to the even hours (the hour hand at 12, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 o'clock). Only the promoted king has the power to move in all twelve.
The pieces and their moves
Tanigasaki named the pieces after elements he considered basic to international affairs. However, they parallel the pieces of standard shogi, which are substituted for them in modern play; since the reader is likely familiar with these already, this article will use the piece names from standard shogi.
{| border="1" class="wikitable"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background:#e0e0e0;" | Color coding for different types of movement
|-
| align=center width="20" style="background:#d0d0f0;" | || The piece may step here, to the nearest cell (orthogonal or diagonal).
|-
| align=center width="20" style="background:#f0d0d0;" | || The piece may range along these rows, crossing any number of empty cells.
|-
| align=center width="20" style="background:#ffdead;" | || The promoted king may range in one of these directions, or illuminate (kill at a distance) in all.
|}
The king
The king (K; "public opinion" in Tanigasaki's nomenclature) may step to any adjacent (orthogonal) cell (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, or 11 o'clock). A king may also castle on its first move, subject to certain restrictions (see below).
A promoted king (+K; "rising sun" or "sunlight") may range along any of the twelve orthogonals or diagonals.
A promoted king also gains the power to "kill by illumination": It may capture, without moving, any pieces that it could capture if it were to move. That is, it may capture more than one piece, but only one piece in any direction and only if they are unprotected by either opposing player. (It is not clear if it must capture all such pieces, or if it may be selective.) It cannot combine this power with a physical move.
A king automatically promotes if the other two players enter into an alliance. A non-allied king (promoted or otherwise) that reaches the central cell of the board (the Pleasure Garden) wins the game.
The rook
The rook (R; "military education") may range along one of the forward or side orthogonals (9, 11, 1, or 3 o'clock), or along the diagonal directly backwards (6 o'clock).
A promoted rook (+R; "heroism") has a more powerful retreat: It may range along any one of the six orthogonals.
The bishop
The bishop (B; "diplomacy") may range along any one of the six diagonals, and can reach only one-third of the board. (Compare Gliński's hexagonal chess, which has three bishops for this very reason.)
A promoted bishop (+B; "witchcraft") gains the power to step to any adjacent (orthogonal) cell. That is, it may move as a bishop or as a king, and can therefore reach every cell on the board.
The gold general and the knight
The gold general, or simply 'gold' (G; "financial influence") may step to one of the orthogonal forward or side cells (9, 11, 1, or 3 o'clock), or to the diagonal cell directly forward or backward (6 or 12 o'clock).
The knight (N; "customs") may step to any side cell, orthogonal (3 or 9 o'clock) or diagonal (2, 4, 8, or 10 o'clock).
Neither has the ability to promote.
The silver general
The silver general, or simply 'silver' (S; "trade and industry") may step to one of the orthogonal forward or rear cells (11, 1, 5, or 7 o'clock), or to one of the forward side diagonal cells (10 or 2 o'clock).
A promoted silver (+S; "treasure") gains the power to range along the forward and rear diagonals (12 and 6 o'clock).
The lance
The lance (L; "propaganda") may range along either of the two forward orthogonals (11 or 1 o'clock). As a consequence, it may run out of room to move, and will thus be required to promote so that it can move further, although it is always advantageous to promote a lance.
As a lance can get stuck between the two promotion zones, it is unclear whether it's forced to promote, or simply stuck there until captured, since the former is true in shogi, and the latter is true in some of its variants.
A promoted lance (+L; "transformation") gains the power to range along the rear orthogonals (5 and 7 o'clock) as well.
The pawn
The pawn (p; "colonist" or "pioneer") may step to either of the two forward orthogonal cells (11 or 1 o'clock). As a consequence, it may run out of room to move, and will thus be required to promote so that it can move further, although it is always advantageous to promote a pawn.
As a pawn can get stuck between the two promotion zones, it is unclear whether it's forced to promote, or simply stuck there until captured, since the former is true in shogi, and the latter is true in some of its variants.
A promoted pawn (+p; "dollar") moves like a gold general.
Capture
Capturing is done by displacement as in standard shogi. The one exception is the power of "illumination" of the promoted king.
A piece may be captured regardless of any alliance the mover may have with its owner. A castling king may capture as any other moving piece does.
Drops
Captured pieces are truly captured in sannin shogi. They are retained "in hand", and can be brought back into play under the capturing player's control. On any turn, instead of moving a piece across the board, a player can take a piece he has previously captured and place it on any empty cell, facing away from himself. The piece is now part of the forces controlled by that player. This is termed dropping the piece, or just a drop.
However, unlike in standard shogi, there being no proper files on a hexagonal board, there is no limit on the number of pawns per file. The restriction against dropping on the far rank (row a in the case of Middle) applies only to pawns and lances, as all other pieces can move from that position.
Castling
On its first move only, a king may jump to any vacant or enemy-occupied cell within its territory. There are two limitations to castling:
The king must not be, or ever have been, in check.
Once an alliance is formed, kings may no longer castle.
Promotion
Promotion rules are similar to standard shogi, except for the larger number of promotion zones and the restriction against allied players promoting.
There are three promotion zones: Both of the opposing player's territories, plus the Pleasure Garden (the central cell of the board). In the case of the latter, only moves into or out of the Pleasure Garden are promotable moves: Passing through the cell does not count.
Unlike standard shogi, the sannin shogi king can promote; indeed, when an alliance is formed, the non-allied king is automatically promoted. (However, a king cannot kill by illumination when it promotes. That requires an additional turn, as promotion does not take effect until the end of the promoting move.) When using standard game pieces, promotion entails turning the king blank side up.
Checkmate and winning the game
A player may not move into check or remain in check, even check by an ally. Likewise, a player may not check or checkmate an ally, and each player regardless of alliance must defend against check or threat of checkmate on the next move. (That is, if Middle and Last are allies, and First places Middle in check, Middle must answer the threat, even if he knows or thinks Last will come to the rescue.)
A player loses the game upon checkmate, and is not given the opportunity to resign on his next turn. (That is, if Middle and Last are allied, and First checkmates Middle, the game is over, regardless of whether Middle or Last recognize this and resign.) When mated, all the player's pieces are removed from the board and from the game. They are not captured by the mating player. Play then shifts to the mating player, regardless of whose turn it would otherwise have been.
There are three ways to win sannin shogi:
If each player plays independently, the player remaining after the other two have been mated is the winner.
If there is an alliance, then the non-allied player wins by mating either opposing player, and the game ends. That is, a player whose ally loses, loses as well. However, if the non-allied player is mated, the alliance is dissolved, and the two erstwhile allies continue the game between them.
If any player not in an alliance (whether there is one or not) moves the king or promoted king (that is, the Public Opinion or the Sunlight) to the Pleasure Garden, that player wins and the game ends. (Note that the prohibition against moving into check holds for this move as for any other. This is similar to the King of the Hill chess variant.)
Alliances
Two players may team up against the third, forming an alliance. They may attack each other, but not place each other in check until the third player is defeated, at which point the alliance is annulled–alliances cannot otherwise be broken. They may not move each other's pieces.
Allies may attack each other to gain pieces-in-hand for drops, or to weaken each other in anticipation of the two-player end game. However, if either ally is checkmated by the third player, both lose, so these are dangerous tactics.
Formation
An alliance may be entered voluntarily before the start of the game. However, if two players gang up on the third at any time during the game, subject to the following definitions, an alliance is automatically formed.
There are two types of coordinated attack that force an alliance:
Discovered attack: One player moves out of the way of a second so that the second threatens the third with "material loss", and
Dual attack: Two players in turn make threats of "material loss" against separate pieces of the third player, so that the third player cannot escape both threats.
Material loss is defined as any exchange that materially benefits the attacking player. This includes check, threatened checkmate on the next move, threats against undefended pieces (something for nothing), and threats by less valuable (weaker) pieces on defended but more valuable (stronger) pieces (uneven exchange).
Possible gain by the third player elsewhere is disregarded, even if this were to make up for the material loss caused by the coordinated attack. Likewise, the sequences of the moves are disregarded, even if they prove the loss of material is more apparent than real.
For the purposes of calculating threats of uneven exchange, promoted values are ignored; the ranging pieces rook and bishop are considered equivalent and more valuable than the step movers gold, silver, knight, and the lance, which are in turn considered equivalent and more valuable than a pawn. Finally, check can be considered the extreme case of uneven exchange, so the value scale is
K > (R = B) > (G = S = N = L) > p
Regardless of whether the situation is a discovered or a dual attack, it does not force an alliance if any attacking move is a direct defense against a threat of material loss, as defined above. That is, if First attacks Middle, and Middle defends by moving in such a way that First now checks Last (a discovered attack), this does not force an alliance between First and Middle. Or, if Last attacks First, and First defends by checking Last, and then Middle threatens Last's rook, this does not force an alliance between First and Middle either.
Rules changes
Several rules that change or come into force when an alliance is made have been mentioned above:
Any of the three kings which has not already castled loses the ability to do so;
The non-allied king is immediately promoted;
Allied players lose the ability to promote their pieces, though any pieces already promoted remain so (it is not clear if the ability to promote returns once the alliance is dissolved);
The two allied kings lose the right to win by reaching the Pleasure Garden (it is not clear if this ability returns once the alliance is dissolved);
Neither ally may check or checkmate the other, and
Both allies lose if either is checkmated.
Sample game
Here are the first six rounds of a game played at a meeting of the International Shogi Research Group on 28 May 1932. John Fairbairn describes some of the moves as "strange" considering the professional level of the players.
The players were,
First: Kimi Kinjiro (8-dan)
Middle: Miyamatsu Kanzaburo (7-dan)
Last: Yamamoto Kusuro (7-dan)
The game began without an alliance.
See also
Yonin shogi (four-person shogi)
Shogi variant
Three-player chess
References
Article from Shogi Magazine
Japanese page
Board games introduced in 1930
Shogi variants |
4318047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/355th%20Fighter%20Squadron | 355th Fighter Squadron | The 355th Fighter Squadron, nicknamed the Fightin' Falcons, is a United States Air Force unit stationed at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. It is an active-duty unit assigned to the 354th Fighter Wing and operates the Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II. The squadron is tasked with the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses. Between 2015 and 2019, the unit's assignment was that of a subordinate unit of the 495th Fighter Group based at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth in Texas, flying the General Dynamics F-16C/D Fighting Falcon.
History
World War II
Activated on 15 November 1942 at Hamilton Field, California, initially equipped with P-39 Airacobras and assigned to IV Fighter Command for training. Moved to several bases in California and Nevada then to Portland Army Air Base, Oregon in June 1943 and re-equipped with new North American P-51B Mustangs. Transitioned to the Mustang throughout the summer of 1943 the deployed to the European Theater of Operations, being assigned to IX Fighter Command in England.
In late 1943, the strategic bombardment campaign over Occupied Europe and Nazi Germany being conducted by VIII Bomber Command was taking heavy losses in aircraft and flight crews as the VIII Fighter Command's Lockheed P-38 Lightnings and Republic P-47 Thunderbolts lacked the range to escort the heavy B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator bombers deep into Germany to attack industrial and military targets. The P-51 had the range to perform the escort duties and the unit's operational control was transferred to Headquarters, Eighth Air Force to perform escort missions. From its base at RAF Boxted, the unit flew long-range strategic escort missions with VIII Bomber Command groups, escorting the heavy bombers to targets such as Frankfurt, Leipzig, Augsburg, and Schweinfurt, engaging Luftwaffe day interceptors frequently, with the P-51s outperforming the German Bf 109 and Fw 190 interceptors, causing heavy losses to the Luftwaffe. Remained under operational control of Eighth Air Force until April 1944, when sufficient numbers of P-51D Mustangs and arrived from the United States and were assigned to VIII Fighter Command units for escort duty.
Was relieved from escort duty and reassigned to RAF Lashenden on the southern coast of England. Mission was redefined to provide tactical air support for the forthcoming invasion of France, to support the Third, and later Ninth United States Armies. Flew fighter sweeps over Normandy and along the English Channel coast of France and the Low Countries, April–June 1944, then engaged in heavy tactical bombing of enemy military targets as well as roads, railroads and bridges in the Normandy area to support ground forces in the immediate aftermath of D-Day.
Moved to Advanced Landing Grounds in France beginning at the end of June 1944, moving eastwards to combat airfields and liberated French airports supporting Allied Ground forces as the advanced across Northern France. Later, in 1944, the squadron became involved in dive-bombing and strafing missions, striking railroad yards, bridges, troop concentrations, and airfields. As winter set in the squadron temporarily re-equipped with the P-47 Thunderbolt. Participated in attacks on German forces in Belgium in the aftermath of the Battle of the Bulge, then moved eastward as part of the Western Allied invasion of Germany. The squadron flew its last mission of the war on 7 May 1945 from the captured Luftwaffe airfield at Ansbach (R-45).
Remained in Occupied Germany as part of the United States Air Forces in Europe XII Tactical Air Command occupying force after the German Capitulation, being stationed at AAF Station Herzogenaurach. Was inactivated on 31 March 1946.
The last remaining soldier of this squadron, Robert E. Kuhnert, passed away October 4, 2022, at the age of 102.
Cold War
Reactivated by Tactical Air Command, United States Air Force on 19 November 1956, being assigned to the reactivated 354th Fighter-Day Group at the new Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina. Equipped with North American F-100 Super Sabre fighters, the squadron participated in exercises, operations, tests, and firepower demonstrations conducted by the Tactical Air Command within the US and abroad. The unit frequently deployed to Aviano Air Base, Italy and Wheelus Air Base, Libya. Was deployed to Europe during the 1958 Lebanon crisis and was moved to McCoy Air Force Base, Florida in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Vietnam War
On 3 February 1968, the 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron was deployed to support the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing at Phù Cát Air Base, South Vietnam for five months' Temporary Duty (TDY).
At the end of the TDY on 5 July, the 355 TFS was permanently assigned to the 37th, with activated New Jersey and District of Columbia Air National Guard personnel from the 113th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach replacing them and manning the unit.
On 15 May 1969, with the reassignment of the 612th and 174th Tactical Fighter Squadrons, it was decided to convert the 37th to a McDonnell F-4 Phantom II wing. The F-100 equipped 355th, along with the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron were reassigned to the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing at Tuy Hoa Air Base, replacing the Air National Guard 136th and 188th Tactical Fighter Squadrons which were returning to New York and New Mexico, respectively.
At Tuy Hoa, the tail code of the 355th F-100s was changed to "SP", and deployed Air National Guard personnel from New York and New Mexico and regular Air Force personnel manned the 355th until its inactivation on 30 September 1970.
During its time in Vietnam, the 355th flew more than 17,000 combat sorties flying close air support, interdiction, search and rescue, and helicopter support missions. The squadron was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award, and the Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm for its service.
On 1 November 1970, the 355 TFS was reactivated at Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina as part of the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing. Upon its return, the unit transitioned to the new LTV A-7D Corsair II aircraft before redeploying to Southeast Asia in the fall of 1972 as the first A-7 unit to fight there. In 10 weeks of combat before the end of that conflict, the squadron participated in the Linebacker II campaign, generated more than 4,000 sorties, and was credited with 22 rescues of downed airmen. The unit returned to Myrtle Beach in April 1974.
A-10 Thunderbolt II (1978–2007)
Post-Vietnam era
In February 1978, the 355th TFS transitioned to the new Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, a close air support aircraft, becoming the second operational squadron in the nation's first A-10 wing.
Duty called again in August 1990 when the unit deployed to King Fahd International Airport, Saudi Arabia in support of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. There, the squadron's pilots inflicted heavy damage to Iraqi armor and artillery emplacements, helped cut off enemy supply lines, and conducted search and rescue missions. The squadron contributed greatly to the 4,200 artillery, tank and other vehicle kills credited to A-10s during the war.
Modern era
Inactivated at Myrtle Beach on 31 March 1992, the 355 FS was reactivated on 20 August 1993, replacing the inactivating 11th Tactical Air Support Squadron at Eleison AFB, Alaska. The unit's primary missions included air strike control, close air support, interdiction, joint air attack team, escort, and combat search and rescue.
With a dual role A/OA-10 Warthog squadron commitment and night vision goggles, the squadron had the ability to deploy forward air controllers with attack aircraft for a complete day and night employment capability.
355th FS deployed to Aviano Air Base, Italy from January 1996 to March 1997, supporting Operation Joint Guard. No ordnance was employed, but pilots flew sorties and sat alert with combat loaded aircraft.
In October 1998, the 355 FS deployed to support Operation Southern Watch. Only two months later, the Warthogs saw their second tour of combat duty over Iraq while participating in the 16–19 December 1998, Operation Desert Fox strike missions. In 2.5 months, the 355 FS flew 597 combat and combat support sorties leading up to, then conducting, National Command Authority directed strikes on Iraqi military facilities and suspected weapons of mass destruction storage areas. They achieved 100 percent target hit rate.
The 355FS was the first air combat unit to deploy to the Middle East after the Towers Fell on 11SEP2001. The unit deployed to Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base, Kuwait, in support of Operation Southern Watch, Operation Northern Watch, and even Operation Enduring Freedom from November 2001 – March 2002 with Air Expeditionary Force 10 (AEF). The aircraft flew from Eielson AFB, Alaska all the way to Ahmed Al Jaber Air Base, Kuwait making brief (crew rest only stops) at Westover, Massachussettes (not Barnes), then Lajes in the Aczores, then Trapani Sicily, then Kuwait, arriving 05DEC2001. The A-10s utilized Air to Air Refueling (AAR or Aerial Refueling) in between ground stops, thus proving once again that the USAF Tanker force is one of the reasons that the US military truly has global reach (YCKAWTG). In Kuwait, the 355th FS joined the 338th AEG (Air Expeditionary Group) The Panthers/Red Tag/Tail Bastards.
The 355th FS also provided Battalion Air Liaison Officers (BALOs) to 6 dedicated Army Combat Units as a regular part of their combat mission. BALOs are considered Forward Air Controllers or FACs (specifically GFAC or Ground FAC) whether or not they also hold an Airborne FAC qualification. Typically these BALOs also hold JTAC-qualified certifications. These BALOs continuously support Army and other combat units (air, ground, sea, and space) during exercises while currently serving as combat-ready and combat-qualified A-10 pilots. They provided advice on the use of all aerial assets (fixed-wing, rotary, drone, etc.) as well as all munitions that fly through their battlespace (this includes Rockets, Artillery, mortars, etc.). Although not often called to actual battle, the 355th did provide Battalion Air Liaison Officers (BALOs) to multiple Army Units, to include one Airborne Unit the 1-501st Airborne. In particular, the Chief BALO/A-10 FAC, Captain A. Rodell Severson (while serving as an operational A-10 pilot with the 355th), actually deployed to combat with the 1-501, becoming a Tactical Air Control Party Commander (TACP), commanding two consecutive special operations teams from 25OCT2003 through 04MAY2004 for Joint Task Force 1-501 earning a Bronze Star through approximately 155 ground combat missions: 17 sustained rocket attacks, 7 troops in contact, and 5 direct fire fights: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/501st_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States).
The 355 FS also exercised at Hurlburt Field, Florida, to train with Special Forces units, October 2003.
In Spring 2004 the unit deployed to Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. The unit redeployed there again early 2006. During both deployments the unit was responsible to provide close air support to Army ground forces and convoys in Afghanistan.
Base realignment and closure
On 13 May 2005, The Department of Defense proposed a major realignment of the base as part of the Base Realignment and Closure program. The A-10 aircraft were to be distributed to the 917th Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana (three aircraft); to a new active-duty unit at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia (12 aircraft); and to backup inventory (three aircraft).
Lt. Col. Quentin "Q-Tip" Rideout, 355th Fighter Squadron Commander, flew the last operational A-10 sortie at Eielson AFB on 31 July 2007. The last three A-10A aircraft departed Eielson AFB on 15 August 2007. Lt. Col. Kevin "Crotch" Blanchard flew 81-0944, Capt. Sean "Shark" Hall flew 79-0172, and Capt. Dale "Porkchop" Stark flew 80-0259.
Fort Worth (2015–2019)
In 2010, Detachment 457, a geographically separated unit of the 20th Operations Group at Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina, stood up at Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas. The unit oversaw the integration of over 130 active-duty General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon pilots and maintenance personnel into the Air Force Reserve Command's 301st Fighter Wing under the Total Force Initiative. On 8 March 2013, the 495th Fighter Group was stood up at Shaw as a dedicated unit overseeing ten active associate fighter units, including Detachment 457. On 5 October 2015, Detachment 457 discontinued and was replaced by the 355th Fighter Squadron, which reactivated the same day. It was under the administrative command of the 495th Fighter Group and flying and maintaining General Dynamics F-16C/D Fighting Falcons assigned to the 301st's 457th Fighter Squadron at Fort Worth.
Current Operations (2020–present)
On 18 December 2020, the 355 Fighter Squadron was activated and assigned to the 354 Operations Group. The 355th FS became the second Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II equipped unit in Alaska after the 356th Fighter Squadron.
Lineage
Constituted as the 355th Fighter Squadron on 12 November 1942
Activated on 15 November 1942
Redesignated 355th Fighter Squadron, Single Engine on 21 August 1944
Inactivated on 31 March 1946
Redesignated 355th Fighter-Day Squadron on 28 September 1956
Activated on 19 November 1956
Redesignated 355th Tactical Fighter Squadron on 1 July 1958
Inactivated on 30 September 1970
Activated on 1 November 1970
Redesignated 355th Fighter Squadron on 1 November 1991
Inactivated on 31 March 1992
Activated on 20 August 1993
Inactivated on 15 August 2007
Activated on 5 October 2015
Inactivated on 25 October 2019
Activated on 18 December 2020
Assignments
354th Fighter Group, 15 November 1942 – 31 March 1946
354th Fighter-Day Group, 19 November 1956
354th Fighter-Day Wing (later 354th Tactical Fighter Wing), 25 September 1957
Attached to: Seventeenth Air Force, 15 July – 26 October 1958; 19 May – 17 September 1959; 10 September 1960 – 16 January 1961; 7 July – 14 October 1962; 3 July – 17 September 1963; 8 June – 28 August 1964; 2 July – 25 September 1965; and 4 December 1965 – 23 April 1966, 50th Tactical Fighter Wing, 5 September – 19 November 1961, 2d Air Division Provisional, 21 October – 1 December 1962, Alaskan Air Command, 6–20 February 1963, 37th Tactical Fighter Wing, 3 February – 22 April 1968
113th Tactical Fighter Wing, 22 April 1968 (remained attached to 37th Tactical Fighter Wing until 4 July 1968
37th Tactical Fighter Wing, 5 July 1968
31st Tactical Fighter Wing, 19 May 1969 – 30 September 1970
354th Tactical Fighter Wing (later 354th Fighter Wing), 1 November 1970 – 31 March 1992 (attached to 354th Combat Support Group, 15 – 16 August 1990, 354th Tactical Fighter Wing Provisional, 20 December 1990 – 2 August 1991
354th Operations Group, 20 August 1993 – 15 August 2007
495th Fighter Group, 5 October 2015 – 25 October 2019
354th Operations Group, 18 December 2020 – present
Stations
Hamilton Field, California, 15 November 1942
Tonopah Army Air Field, Nevada, 20 January 1943
Hayward Army Air Field, California, 4 May 1943
Portland Army Air Base, Oregon, 3 June – 6 October 1943
RAF Greenham Common, England, 4 November 1943
RAF Boxted, England, 13 November 1943
RAF Lashenden, England, c. 14 April 1944
Cricqueville-en-Bessin (A-2), France, c. 18 June 1944
Gaël (A-31), France, 14 August 1944
Orconte (A-66), France, 21 September 1944
Operated from Saint-Dizier/Robinson (A-64), France, c. 18 November – 1 December 1944
Rosieres en Haye (A-98), France, 1 December 1944
Mainz-Finthen Airdrome (Y-64), Ober-Olm, Germany, c. 4 April 1945
Ansbach Airdrome (R-82), Germany, 1 May 1945
Herzogenaurach Airdrome (R-29), Germany, c. 15 May 1945 – 15 February 1946
Bolling Field, District of Columbia, 15 February – 31 March 1946
Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina, 19 November 1956 – 5 July 1968
Deployed to Adana Air Base, Turkey, 15 July – 26 October 1958; Aviano Air Base, Italy, 19 May – 17 September 1959, 10 September 1960 – 16 January 1961, 7 July – 14 October 1962, 15 June – 28 August 1964, 2 July – 25 September 1965; Hahn Air Base, West Germany, 5 September – 19 November 1961; McCoy Air Force Base, Florida, 21 October – 1 December 1962; Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, 6 – 20 February 1963; Incirlik Air Base, Turkey, 3 July – 17 September 1963, 4 December 1965 – 23 April 1966; Orland, Norway, 8 – 15 June 1964; Phu Cat Air Base, South Vietnam, after 3 February 1968
Phu Cat Air Base, South Vietnam, 5 July 1968
Tuy Hoa Air Base, South Vietnam, 15 May 1969 – 30 September 1970
Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina, 1 November 1970 – 31 March 1992
Deployed to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, 10 October 1972 – 16 March 1973, 15 October 1973 – 26 April 1974; King Fahd International Airport, Saudi Arabia, 15 August 1990 – 2 August 1991
Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, 20 August 1993 – 15 August 2007
Fort Worth Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base, Texas. 5 October 2015 – 25 October 2019
Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, 18 Dec 2020 – present
Major aircraft assigned
Bell P-39 Airacobra, 1943
North American P-51 Mustang, 1943–1944; 1945–1946
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, 1944–1945
North American F-100 Super Sabre, 1956–1970
LTV A-7 Corsair II, 1970–1977
Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, 1978–1992; 1993–2007
General Dynamics F-16C/D Fighting Falcon, 2015–2019
Lockheed Martin F-35A Lightning II, 2020–present
Campaign streamers
World War II: 7 - Air Offensive, Europe; Normandy; Northern France; Rhineland; Ardennes-Alsace; Central Europe; Air Combat, EAME Theater.
Vietnam War: 10 - Vietnam Air Offensive, Phase II; Vietnam Air Offensive, Phase III; Vietnam Air Ground; Vietnam Air Offensive, Phase IV; TET 69/Counteroffensive; Vietnam Summer-Fall, 1969; Vietnam Winter-Spring, 1970; Sanctuary Counteroffensive; Southwest Monsoon; Vietnam Ceasefire.
Southwest Asia: 2 - Defense of Saudi Arabia; Liberation and Defense of Kuwait.
Decorations
Distinguished Unit Citations: ETO, [Dec] 1943 – 15 May 1944; France, 25 August 1944
Presidential Unit Citations: Southeast Asia, 1 July – 31 December 1968; Southeast Asia, 10 October 1972 – 30 April 1973.
Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards: 1 October 1962 – 31 December 1963; 3 February – 30 June 1968; 1 November 1970 – 31 May 1972; 1 May 1974 – 30 April 1976; 1 January 1978 – 31 March 1979; 1 July 1985 – 30 June 1987; 1 May 1990 – 15 March 1992; 1 June 2017 - 31 May 2019.
French Croix De Guerre with Palm: 1 December 1943 – 31 December 1944.
Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm: 22 January 1968 – 31 August 1970.
References
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
A Look at the history of the 355th Fighter Squadron, 354th TFW History Office
External links
355th Fighter Squadron (official site)
355
Military units and formations in Alaska
Fighter squadrons of the United States Army Air Forces |
4318522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical%20Art%20Ensemble | Critical Art Ensemble | Critical Art Ensemble (CAE) is a collective of five tactical media practitioners of various specializations including computer graphics and web design, film/video, photography, text art, book art, and performance. For CAE, tactical media is situational, ephemeral, and self-terminating. It encourages the use of any media that will engage a particular socio-political context in order to create molecular interventions and semiotic shocks that collectively could diminish the rising intensity of authoritarian culture.
Since its formation in 1987 in Tallahassee, Florida, CAE has been frequently invited to exhibit and perform projects examining issues surrounding information, communications and bio-technologies by museums and other cultural institutions. These include the Whitney Museum and the New Museum in NYC; the Corcoran Museum in Washington D.C.; the ICA, London; the MCA, Chicago; Schirn Kunsthalle, Frankfurt; Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris; the London Museum of Natural History; Kunsthalle Luzern, and dOCUMENTA 13.
The collective has written 7 books, and its writings have been translated into 18 languages.
Its work has been covered by art journals, including Artforum, Kunstforum, and The Drama Review. Critical Art Ensemble is the recipient of awards, including the 2007 Andy Warhol Foundation Wynn Kramarsky Freedom of Artistic Expression Grant, the 2004 John Lansdown Award for Multimedia, and the 2004 Leonardo New Horizons Award for Innovation.
History
1986–1990
Formed in 1987, CAE's focus has been on the exploration of the intersections between art, critical theory, technology, and political activism. In 1986, Steve Kurtz and Steve Barnes began a collaboration to make low-tech videos with students. They credited each person who contributed to the productions under the signature of Critical Art Ensemble. During the summer of 1987, the group transformed into a broad-based artist and activist collective with six core members: Steve Kurtz, Steve Barnes, Dorian Burr, Beverly Schlee, Ricardo Dominguez (professor) and Hope Kurtz. In 1987, the group's first multimedia exhibitions were held at Club Nu in Miami and Pappy's Lounge in Jackson, Mississippi. In 1988, the group's first events are produced: Political Art In Florida? in collaboration with Group Material, and Frontier Production in collaboration with Thomas Lawson. In 1988-89, CAE begin to release their books of plagiarist text poetry (of which there are six in all). In 1989, the group collaborated with Gran Fury to release Cultural Vaccines, a multimedia event in Tallahassee, Florida, which critiques U.S. policy on HIV. In 1990, the group collaborated with Prostitutes of New York to create Peep Show which premiered at Window on Gaines in Tallahassee, Florida.
1991–1995
In 1991, a body of work titled Fiesta Critica was developed in Indiantown, Florida, with local migrant workers; addressing Floridian agricultural labour relations. CAE produces an Easter fiesta platform to show the works. In 1992, the group produces Exit Culture as a series of works developed for Highway Culture. They also propose The Electronic Disturbance to Autonomedia publishers. In 1993, the group is invited to perform their first appearance in Europe at the Audio/Visual Experimental festival in the Netherlands. They complete the associational documentary series Apocalypse and Utopia. In 1994, Autonomedia publishes The Electronic Disturbance and construction begins to create CAE's website Critical Art Ensemble. CAE projects begin to appear in both real and virtual forms as the Useless Technology project is performed as street action and launched online. The concept of electronic civil disobedience is introduced at the Terminal Futures conference in London. In 1995, the concept of the data body is introduced in lectures at the Ars Electronica. The group tours around Europe with the performance of Body Count.
1996–2000
In 1996, Autonomedia publishes Electronic Civil Disobedience (the companion text to The Electronic Disturbance), and research begins for the book Flesh Machine. In 1997, the group tours Flesh Frontiers and Shareholder's Briefing. Castelvecchi publishes the Italian translation of The Electronic Disturbance. The group goes to Documenta X in Kassel, Germany to begin the editing and conceptualizing process for the book README: Ascii Culture and the Revenge of Knowledge at Hybrid Workspace. The performance of Flesh Machine is toured, premiering in Vienna and closing in Helsinki at Kiasma Museum of Contemporary Art in summer 1998. L'Eclat publishes the French anthology of CAE's writings titled La Resistance Electronique. In 1998, Autonomedia publishes Flesh Machine and the German translation is published by Passagen. The group's street action occurs in Sheffield, UK, with the performance of The International Campaign for Free Alcohol and Tobacco for the Unemployed. Castelvecchi publishes the Italian translation of Electronic Civil Disobedience. In 1999, The Society for Reproductive Anachronisms is premiered at Rutgers University in the student cafeteria. Work begins on Cult of the New Eve (CoNE) and is premiered at St. Clara Hospital in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. A new book project is begun, entitled Digital Resistance: Explorations in Tactical Media. In 2000, Autonomedia publishes Digital Resistance: Explorations in Tactical Media and the German anthology of CAE's writings on electronic media is published by Passagen.
The group has exhibited and performed at diverse venues internationally, ranging from the street, to the museum, to the internet. Museum exhibitions include the Whitney Museum and The New Museum in NYC; The Corcoran Museum in Washington D.C.; The ICA, London; The MCA, Chicago; Schirn Kunsthalle, Frankfurt; Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris; and The London Museum of Natural History. Critical Art Ensemble
2003–2004
Free Range Grain was a performance-based project which tested foods to contest the global food trade system. The project used basic molecular biology techniques over a 72-hour period to test foods that others deemed suspicious of "contamination" even when the authorities were guarding against them. This performance sought to explore biotechnology and the science behind it, as the artists felt it was "one of the most misunderstood areas of production in the cultural landscape".
Works and artistic approach
Performance style
In its performances, CAE creates various performative identities, such as that of a group of scientists or a corporation. Instead of using fancy, high-tech machinery they use 'high school lab equipment as well as common household supplies and groceries', which brings the scientific difficulty down to a level at which the public can understand and engage with because the worlds of science and technology in the modern world are 'increasingly privatised'. This playful style, however, contrasts with the groups numerous books and manifestos which have an analytical focus.
Nicola Triscott is the founder of The Arts Catalyst. In her writings about the CAE, she states that their participatory theatre 'aims to involve the public in the processes of biotechnology in order to contribute to the development of an informed and critical public discourse on contemporary bioscience'. This provides people with knowledge of how science can be interesting and that it can be misused if in the wrong hands. Their works have ranged from genetically modified food, the Human Genome Project (CoNE), reproductive technologies, genetic screening and transgenics. The way they approach this style is through directly engaging with the science and presenting techniques generally unknown to the public in a performative way.
The work of the CAE continues to entertain, inform and show the public how biotechnology can be demonstrated via performance.
As part of their critical objectives, they target their attention on private corporations unknown in the public sector who misuse biotechnology. This tactical response is what the CAE have termed 'Fuzzy Biological Sabotage' (or FBS if abbreviated).
Using harmless biological species including plants, insects and reptiles, they make sophisticated pranks 'to operate in the grey, in-between spaces as yet unregulated by institutional regimes'
Publications
The collective has written 7 books, and its writings have been translated into 18 languages. Its books include: The Electronic Disturbance (1994), Electronic Civil Disobedience & Other Unpopular Ideas (1996), Flesh Machine: Cyborgs, Designer Babies, & New Eugenic Consciousness (1998), Digital Resistance: Explorations in Tactical Media (2001), Molecular Invasion (2002), Marching Plague (2006), and the project book Disturbances (2012).
CAE is noted for having written the article Nomadic Power and Cultural Resistance, in which CAE argues that with the creation of the internet the power of the elite has become mobile to the extent that it is difficult for a dissident to directly confront the authority, comparing the untrackable, elusive mobility to that of the Scythians. They demolished the idea that power cannot corrupt and co-opt network and hypertext technologies, that such technologies have a predetermined and manifest destiny of freedom. CAE goes on to observe that occupation theory itself is challenged by cyberspace and the difficulties it presents in terms of focusing a group effort against one authority as opposed to a singular hacker, fiddling with code. An important distinction is made that when rebellious acts are carried out by an individual as opposed to a group in singularity, that the dissenter is seen as a vandal instead of a protester. The article mentions that resistance in the form posters, pamphleteering, street theater and public art have been useful in the past but now that the public is electronically engaged one must bring their resistance methods online.
Molecular Invasion
In correlation to CAE's work "Molecular Invasion (2002)," the collective hosted an exhibit about genetically modified crops. They planted Monsanto's genetically modified seeds that were designed to be immune to Monsanto's commercial pesticide roundup (Glyphosate). They successfully grew these crops in their exhibit however once the plants were fully grown they applied an enzyme inhibitor that was reverse engineered to the plants that eradicating the protection that these crops had against the pesticide. The plants quickly died.
Though CAE has been showing visualized traces of criticalized artworks that shows paradox of modern agriculture systems, CAE's been tried to make stance that they do not have general position whether if CAE is for or against genetically modified organisms(GMOs).
Cult of the New Eve
In 1999, CAE began a new project to draw attention to the ways in which scientific discourses surrounding biotechnologies drew upon promissory religious rhetoric. This participatory performance was titled Cult of the New Eve (or CoNE when abbreviated) and included a "communion" using a random library of the entire genome of the first female donor to the Human Genome Project taken from a blood sample. CAE spliced the genome and inserted it into yeast, which was then placed into host wafers and beer given to audience members who were willing to participate. The genome from the donor is intended to represent a 'New Eve… a sacrosant Messiah'. The project also offers public and online preaching, baptisms, communion, sacred theological and cosmological texts and prophecies.
GenTerra
CAE created a performance titled GenTerra which raised issues surrounding ethics and safety in performative science. This was done through an investigation into creating transgenic life forms and seeing the consequences of potentially releasing them into the environment. It was the audience members who had to decide whether the bacteria was harmful or not in a game of 'genetic Russian roulette'. Triscott states through her own experience of participating in the performance that members of the audience were given the opportunity to grow and store their own bacteria, with full instructions and guidance. With the aid of a spinning machine, bacteria were spun with only one of ten chambers holding active bacteria. The purpose of GenTerrra is to 'introduce bioproducts to the audience, and demonstrate the practical applications of such research, such as disease treatment and xenotransplantation'. As CAE wear lab-coats and appear as professional scientists, they simulate actual biotechnology corporations, emphasizing their intentions even further.
Collective structure
CAE attributes the collective's longevity to their structure which has contributed to positive attitudes throughout the group. The number of members, ranging from three to eight and known as a 'cellular structure' has managed to be sustained without members feeling alienated. As each member has the opportunity to show off their individual strengths and weaknesses, the risk of conflict and mistrust is reduced. They do not believe in equality; rather that every member has 'a voice in the production process [of a project]; however the member with the greatest expertise in the area has authority over the final product'.
Amateurism
CAE has also stated that amateurs have the ability to see through dominant paradigms, are more free to recombine elements of paradigms thought long dead, and can apply everyday life experience to their deliberations. Most important, however, amateurs are not invested in institutional systems of knowledge production and policy construction, and hence do not have irresistible forces guiding the outcome of their process…'.
Future projects
'Since 2006, CAE has changed the focus of its work towards a critique of US defense policy, and has moved away from its interrogation of biotechnology'.
Controversy
Steve Kurtz's Trial
In 2004, one of its founders, Steve Kurtz, was arrested on suspicion of bioterrorism. On the morning of 11 May 2004, he woke to find that his wife Hope had died in her sleep. He called 911. Police became suspicious after noticing his biology lab which he kept in his own home. They contacted the FBI and Kurtz was detained for 24 hours before being interrogated and his house searched for biohazardous materials. The house was given the all clear, yet a week later, Kurtz's CAE collaborators were ordered to appear before a grand jury to investigate possible violations of the law regarding biological weapons. The jury met in July 2004 and cleared Kurtz of all "bioterrorism" charges, however the FBI continued to press charges against the artist and the case dragged on for four years. The case was widely covered in the US and international press, and sparked outrage among artists and scientists worldwide. A website was created for people to donate money to help Kurtz pay his mounting legal fees. The case was dismissed in 2008. According to Nicola Triscott, the FBI 'thought they had a situation out of which they could manufacture a terrorism case, which potentially brought great personal rewards', based upon the 'Lackawanna Six Sleeper Cell' case where six Yemeni Americans were convicted of supporting al-Qaeda
Awards
Critical Art Ensemble is the recipient of awards, including the 2007 Andy Warhol Foundation Wynn Kramarsky Freedom of Artistic Expression Grant UB Art Professor "Strange Culture" Case Goes to Court | WBFO , the 2004 John Lansdown Award for Multimedia , and the 2004 Leonardo New Horizons Award for Innovation. Rhizome | [Leonardo/ISAST Network] Leonardo/ISAST gives New Horizons Award for Innovation to Critical Art Ensemble (Leonardo/ISAST)
CAE's work has been covered by art journals, including Artforum, Kunstforum, and The Drama Review. Calendar | The Humanities Project | University of Rochester
See also
Autonomedia
BioArt
Biopunk
Electronic Disturbance Theatre
Institute for Applied Autonomy
Steve Kurtz
Tactical media
Internet activism
Wayne Roberts
Notes
References
Critical Art Ensemble, 2000 winter, 'Timeline', The Drama Review 1988-, vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 132–135 MIT Press.
Sholette, G., 2005 summer, 'Disciplining the avant-garde: The United States versus the Critical Art Ensemble', Circa, No. 112, pp. 50–59 Circa Art Magazine.
Triscott, N., (2009) Interfaces of Performance, Surrey, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Chatzichristodoulou, M., Jefferies, J., and Zerihan, R. (eds.), 'Performative Science in an Age of Specialization: The Case of Critical Art Ensemble', pp. 151–166.
Critical Art Ensemble, 'Fuzzy Biological Sabotage', Molecular Invasion, 2009, accessed 2010-02-17.
Critical Art Ensemble, (2001) Digital Resistance: Explorations in Tactical Media, New York, Autonomedia, pp. 9, 70-73.
Critical Art Ensemble, 2000 winter, 'Performing a Cult', The Drama Review 1988-, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 167–173 MIT Press.
Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort. "Nomadic Power and Cultural Resistance." The New Media Reader. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 2003. Print.
Further reading
Critical Art Ensemble, (1994), The Electronic Disturbance, New York, Autonomedia/Semiotext.
Critical Art Ensemble, (1996), Electronic Civil Disobedience and Other Unpopular Ideas, New York, Autonomedia.
Critical Art Ensemble, (1998), Flesh Machine: Cyborgs, Designer Babies, and New Eugenic Consciousness, New York, Autonomedia.
Critical Art Ensemble, (2001), Digital Resistance: Explorations in Tactical Media, New York, Autonomedia
Critical Art Ensemble, (2002), The Molecular Invasion, New York, Autonomedia.
Critical Art Ensemble, (2006), Marching Plague: Germ Warfare and Global Public Health, New York, Autonomedia.
Critical Art Ensemble, (2012), Disturbances, London, Four Corners.
External links
Official Site
Gregory Sholette Disciplining The Avant-Garde, The United States versus The Critical Art Ensemble
Interview with Critical Art Ensemble PORT
Interview with Steve Kurtz of Critical Art Ensemble Plazm Magazine
Nomadic Power and Cultural Resistance
Presentation by Steve Kurtz at the Cyprus University of Technology
American artist groups and collectives
Arts organizations established in 1987
American contemporary artists
Postmodern artists
Culture jamming
Political artists
Politics and technology
Internet-based activism
Hacker culture
American performance artists |
4318577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore%20classification | Baltimore classification | Baltimore classification is a system used to classify viruses based on their manner of messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis. By organizing viruses based on their manner of mRNA production, it is possible to study viruses that behave similarly as a distinct group. Seven Baltimore groups are described that take into consideration whether the viral genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), whether the genome is single- or double-stranded, and whether the sense of a single-stranded RNA genome is positive or negative.
Baltimore classification also closely corresponds to the manner of replicating the genome, so Baltimore classification is useful for grouping viruses together for both transcription and replication. Certain subjects pertaining to viruses are associated with multiple, specific Baltimore groups, such as specific forms of translation of mRNA and the host range of different types of viruses. Structural characteristics such as the shape of the viral capsid, which stores the viral genome, and the evolutionary history of viruses are not necessarily related to Baltimore groups.
Baltimore classification was created in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore. Since then, it has become common among virologists to use Baltimore classification alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history. In 2018 and 2019, Baltimore classification was partially integrated into virus taxonomy based on evidence that certain groups were descended from common ancestors. Various realms, kingdoms, and phyla now correspond to specific Baltimore groups.
Overview
Baltimore classification groups viruses together based on their manner of mRNA synthesis. Characteristics directly related to this include whether the genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), the strandedness of the genome, which can be either single- or double-stranded, and the sense of a single-stranded genome, which is either positive or negative. The primary advantage of Baltimore classification is that by classifying viruses according to the aforementioned characteristics, viruses that behave in the same manner can be studied as distinct groups. There are seven Baltimore groups numbered with Roman numerals, listed hereafter.
Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses
Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses
Group III: double-stranded RNA viruses
Group IV: positive sense single-stranded RNA viruses
Group V: negative sense single-stranded RNA viruses
Group VI: single-stranded RNA viruses with a DNA intermediate in their life cycle
Group VII: double-stranded DNA viruses with an RNA intermediate in their life cycle
Baltimore classification is chiefly based on the transcription of the viral genome, and viruses within each group typically share the manners by which the mRNA synthesis occurs. While not the direct focus of Baltimore classification, groups are organized in such a manner that viruses in each group also typically have the same mechanisms of replicating the viral genome. Because of this, Baltimore classification provides insights into both the transcription and replication parts of the viral life cycle. Structural characteristics of a virus particle, called a virion, such as the shape of the viral capsid and the presence of a viral envelope, a lipid membrane that surrounds the capsid, have no direct relation to Baltimore groups, nor do the groups necessarily show genetic relation based on evolutionary history.
Classification
DNA viruses
DNA viruses have genomes made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and are organized into two groups: double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses. They are assigned to four separate realms: Adnaviria, Duplodnaviria, Monodnaviria, and Varidnaviria. Many have yet to be assigned to a realm.
Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses
The first Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the site where transcription begins, allowing for the recruitment of a host RNA polymerase. Second, once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands. Third, the RNA polymerase terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site.
dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. Bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions of each other, is widely used. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around the circular genome is also common. Some dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the prior synthesized strand, forming a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition whereby a viral genome in a host cell's DNA is replicated to another part of a host genome.
dsDNA viruses can be subdivided between those that replicate in the nucleus, and as such are relatively dependent on host cell machinery for transcription and replication, and those that replicate in the cytoplasm, in which case they have evolved or acquired their own means of executing transcription and replication. dsDNA viruses are also commonly divided between tailed dsDNA viruses, referring to members of the realm Duplodnaviria, usually the tailed bacteriophages of the order Caudovirales, and tailless or non-tailed dsDNA viruses of the realm Varidnaviria.
dsDNA viruses are classified into three of the four realms and include many taxa that are unassigned to a realm:
All viruses in Adnaviria are dsDNA viruses. Viruses in this realm infect archaea.
All viruses in Duplodnaviria are dsDNA viruses. Viruses in this realm belong to two groups: tailed bacteriophages in Caudovirales and herpesviruses in Herpesvirales.
In Monodnaviria, members of the class Papovaviricetes are dsDNA viruses. Viruses in Papovaviricetes constitute two groups: papillomaviruses and polyomaviruses.
All viruses in Varidnaviria are dsDNA viruses. Viruses in this realm include adenoviruses, giant viruses, and poxviruses.
The following taxa that are unassigned to a realm exclusively contain dsDNA viruses:
Classes: Naldaviricetes
Families: Ampullaviridae, Bicaudaviridae, Clavaviridae, Fuselloviridae, Globuloviridae, Guttaviridae, Halspiviridae, Ovaliviridae, Plasmaviridae, Polydnaviridae, Portogloboviridae, Thaspiviridae
Genera: Dinodnavirus, Rhizidiovirus
Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses
The second Baltimore group contains viruses that have a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genome. ssDNA viruses have the same manner of transcription as dsDNA viruses. Because the genome is single-stranded, however, it is first made into a double-stranded form by a DNA polymerase upon entering a host cell. mRNA is then synthesized from the double-stranded form. The double-stranded form of ssDNA viruses may be produced either directly after entry into a cell or as a consequence of replication of the viral genome. Eukaryotic ssDNA viruses are replicated in the nucleus.
Most ssDNA viruses contain circular genomes that are replicated via rolling circle replication (RCR). ssDNA RCR is initiated by an endonuclease that bonds to and cleaves the positive strand, allowing a DNA polymerase to use the negative strand as a template for replication. Replication progresses in a loop around the genome by means of extending the 3′-end of the positive strand, displacing the prior positive strand, and the endonuclease cleaves the positive strand again to create a standalone genome that is ligated into a circular loop. The new ssDNA may be packaged into virions or replicated by a DNA polymerase to form a double-stranded form for transcription or continuation of the replication cycle.
Parvoviruses contain linear ssDNA genomes that are replicated via rolling hairpin replication (RHR), which is similar to RCR. Parvovirus genomes have hairpin loops at each end of the genome that repeatedly unfold and refold during replication to change the direction of DNA synthesis to move back and forth along the genome, producing numerous copies of the genome in a continuous process. Individual genomes are then excised from this molecule by the viral endonuclease. For parvoviruses, either the positive or negative sense strand may be packaged into capsids, varying from virus to virus.
Nearly all ssDNA viruses have positive sense genomes, but a few exceptions and peculiarities exist. The family Anelloviridae is the only ssDNA family whose members have negative sense genomes, which are circular. Parvoviruses, as previously mentioned, may package either the positive or negative sense strand into virions. Lastly, bidnaviruses package both the positive and negative linear strands. In any case, the sense of ssDNA viruses, unlike for ssRNA viruses, is not sufficient to separate ssDNA viruses into two groups since all ssDNA viral genomes are converted to dsDNA forms prior to transcription and replication.
ssDNA viruses are classified into one of the four realms and include several families that are unassigned to a realm:
In Monodnaviria, all members except viruses in Papovaviricetes are ssDNA viruses.
The unassigned families Anelloviridae and Spiraviridae are ssDNA virus families.
Viruses in the family Finnlakeviridae contain ssDNA genomes. Finnlakeviridae is unassigned to a realm but is a proposed member of Varidnaviria.
RNA viruses
RNA viruses have genomes made of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and comprise three groups: double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, positive sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) viruses, and negative sense single-stranded RNA (-ssRNA) viruses. The majority of RNA viruses are classified in the kingdom Orthornavirae in the realm Riboviria. The exceptions are generally viroids and other subviral agents. Some of the latter category, such as the hepatitis D virus, are classified in the realm Ribozyviria.
Group III: double-stranded RNA viruses
The third Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome. After entering a host cell, the dsRNA genome is transcribed to mRNA from the negative strand by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The mRNA may be used for translation or replication. Single-stranded mRNA is replicated to form the dsRNA genome. The 5′-end of the genome may be naked, capped, or covalently bound to a viral protein.
dsRNA is not a molecule made by cells, so cellular life has evolved antiviral systems to detect and inactivate viral dsRNA. To counteract this, many dsRNA genomes are constructed inside of capsids, thereby avoiding detection inside of the host cell's cytoplasm. mRNA is forced out from the capsid in order to be translated or to be translocated from a mature capsid to a progeny capsid. While dsRNA viruses typically have capsids, viruses in the families Amalgaviridae and Endornaviridae have not been observed to form virions and as such apparently lack capsids. Endornaviruses are also unusual in that unlike other RNA viruses, they possess a single, long open reading frame (ORF), or translatable portion, and a site-specific nick in the 5′ region of the positive strand.
dsRNA viruses are classified into two phyla within the kingdom Orthornavirae of the realm Riboviria:
All viruses in Duplornaviricota are dsRNA viruses.
In Pisuviricota, all members of the class Duplopiviricetes are dsRNA viruses.
Group IV: positive sense single-stranded RNA viruses
The fourth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a positive sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genome. For +ssRNA viruses, the genome functions as mRNA, so no transcription is required for translation. +ssRNA viruses will also, however, produce positive sense copies of the genome from negative sense strands of an intermediate dsRNA genome. This acts as both a transcription and a replication process since the replicated RNA is also mRNA. The 5′-end may be naked, capped, or covalently bound to a viral protein, and the 3′-end may be naked or polyadenylated.
Many +ssRNA viruses are able to have only a portion of their genome transcribed. Typically, subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) strands are used for translation of structural and movement proteins needed during intermediate and late stages of infection. sgRNA transcription may occur by commencing RNA synthesis within the genome rather than from the 5′-end, by stopping RNA synthesis at specific sequences in the genome, or by, as a part of both prior methods, synthesizing leader sequences from the viral RNA that are then attached to sgRNA strands. Because replication is required for sgRNA synthesis, RdRp is always translated first.
Because the process of replicating the viral genome produces intermediate dsRNA molecules, +ssRNA viruses can be targeted by the host cell's immune system. To avoid detection, +ssRNA viruses replicate in membrane-associated vesicles that are used as replication factories. From there, only viral +ssRNA, which may be mRNA, enters the main cytoplasmic area of the cell.
+ssRNA viruses can be subdivided between those that have polycistronic mRNA, which encodes a polyprotein that is cleaved to form multiple mature proteins, and those that produce subgenomic mRNAs and therefore undergo two or more rounds of translation. +ssRNA viruses are included in three phyla in the kingdom Orthornavirae in the realm Riboviria:
All viruses in Lenarviricota are +ssRNA viruses.
All viruses in Pisuviricota are +ssRNA viruses, excluding the class Duplopiviricetes, whose members have dsRNA genomes.
All viruses in Kitrinoviricota are +ssRNA viruses.
Group V: negative sense single-stranded RNA viruses
The fifth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a negative sense, single-stranded RNA (-ssRNA) genome. mRNA, which is positive sense, is transcribed directly from the negative sense genome. The first process for -ssRNA transcription involves RdRp binding to a leader sequence on the 3′ end of the genome, transcribing a 5′ triphosphate-leader RNA that is capped, then stopping and restarting on a transcription signal which is capped, continuing until a stop signal is reached. The second manner is similar but instead of synthesizing a cap, RdRp may make use of cap snatching, whereby a short sequence of host cell mRNA is taken and used as the 5′ cap of the viral mRNA. Genomic -ssRNA is replicated from the positive sense antigenome in a similar manner as transcription, except in reverse using the antigenome as a template for the genome. RdRp moves from the 3′-end to the 5′-end of the antigenome and ignores all transcription signals when synthesizing genomic -ssRNA.
Various -ssRNA viruses use special mechanisms for transcription. The manner of producing the polyA tail may be via polymerase stuttering, during which RdRp transcribes an adenine from uracil and then moves back in the RNA sequence with the mRNA to transcribe it again, continuing this process numerous times until hundreds of adenines have been added to the 3′-end of the mRNA. Additionally, some -ssRNA viruses are ambisense, as both the positive and negative strands separately encode viral proteins, and these viruses produce two separate mRNA strands: one directly from the genome and one from a complementary strand.
-ssRNA viruses can be subdivided informally between those that have nonsegmented and segmented genomes. Nonsegmented -ssRNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm, and segmented -ssRNA viruses replicate in the nucleus. During transcription, the RdRp produces one monocistronic mRNA strand from each segment of the genome. All -ssRNA viruses are classified in the phylum Negarnaviricota in the kingdom Orthornavirae in the realm Riboviria. Negarnaviricota only contains -ssRNA viruses, so "-ssRNA virus" is synonymous with Negarnaviricota. Negarnaviricota is divided into two subphyla: Haploviricotina, whose members synthesize a cap structure on viral mRNA required for protein synthesis, and Polyploviricotina, whose members instead obtain caps on mRNA via cap snatching.
Reverse transcribing viruses
Reverse transcribing (RT) viruses have genomes made of either DNA or RNA and replicate via reverse transcription. Two groups of reverse transcribing viruses exist: single-stranded RNA-RT (ssRNA-RT) viruses, and double-stranded DNA-RT (dsDNA-RT) viruses. Reverse transcribing viruses are classified in the kingdom Pararnavirae in the realm Riboviria.
Group VI: single-stranded RNA viruses with a DNA intermediate
The sixth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a (positive-sense) single-stranded RNA genome that has a DNA intermediate ((+)ssRNA-RT) in its replication cycle. ssRNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as DNA viruses, but their linear genomes are first converted to a dsDNA form through a process called reverse transcription. The viral reverse transcriptase enzyme synthesizes a DNA strand from the ssRNA strand, and the RNA strand is degraded and replaced with a DNA strand to create a dsDNA genome. The genome is then integrated into the DNA of the host cell, where it is now called a provirus. The host cell's RNA polymerase II then transcribes RNA in the nucleus from the proviral DNA. Some of this RNA may become mRNA whereas other strands will become copies of the viral genome for replication.
ssRNA-RT viruses are all included in the class Revtraviricetes, phylum Arterviricota, kingdom Pararnavirae of the realm Riboviria. Excluding Caulimoviridae, which belongs to Group VII, all members of the Revtraviricetes order Ortervirales are ssRNA-RT viruses.
Group VII: double-stranded DNA viruses with an RNA intermediate
The seventh Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA genome that has an RNA intermediate (dsDNA-RT) in its replication cycle. dsDNA-RT viruses have a gap in one strand, which is repaired to create a complete dsDNA genome prior to transcription. dsDNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as dsDNA viruses, but make use of reverse transcription to replicate their circular genome while it is still in the capsid. The host cell's RNA polymerase II transcribes RNA strands from the genome in the cytoplasm, and the genome is replicated from these RNA strands. The dsDNA genome is produced from pregenomic RNA strands via the same general mechanism as ssRNA-RT viruses, but with replication occurring in a loop around the circular genome. After replication, the dsDNA genome may be packed or sent to the nucleus for further rounds of transcription.
dsDNA-RT viruses are, like ssRNA-RT, all included in the class Revtraviricetes. Two families of dsDNA-RT viruses are recognized: Caulimoviridae, which belongs to the order Ortervirales, and Hepadnaviridae, which is the sole family in the order Blubervirales.
Multi-group characteristics
A number of characteristics of viruses are not directly associated with Baltimore classification but nonetheless closely correspond to multiple, specific Baltimore groups. This includes alternative splicing during transcription, whether the viral genome is segmented, the host range of viruses, whether the genome is linear or circular, and different methods of translating viral mRNA.
Alternative splicing
Alternative splicing is a mechanism by which different proteins can be produced from a single gene by means of using alternative splicing sites to produce different mRNAs. It is found in various DNA, -ssRNA, and reverse transcribing viruses. Viruses may make use of alternative splicing solely to produce multiple proteins from a single pre-mRNA strand or for other specific purposes. For certain viruses, including the families Orthomyxoviridae and Papillomaviridae, alternative splicing acts as a way to regulate early and late gene expression during different stages of infection. Herpesviruses use it as a potential anti-host defense mechanism to prevent synthesis of specific antiviral proteins. Furthermore, in addition to alternative splicing, because cellular unspliced RNA cannot be transported out of the nucleus, hepadnaviruses and retroviruses contain their own proteins for exporting their unspliced genomic RNA out of the nucleus.
Genome segmentation
Viral genomes can exist in a single, or monopartite, segment, or they may be split into more than one molecule, called multipartite. For monopartite viruses, all genes are on the single segment of the genome. Multipartite viruses typically package their genomes into a single virion so that the whole genome is in one virus particle, and the separate segments contain different genes. Monopartite viruses are found in all Baltimore groups, whereas multipartite viruses are usually RNA viruses. This is because most multipartite viruses infect plants or fungi, which are eukaryotes, and most eukaryotic viruses are RNA viruses. The family Pleolipoviridae varies as some viruses are monopartite ssDNA while others are bipartite with one segment being ssDNA and the other dsDNA. Viruses in the ssDNA plant virus family Geminiviridae likewise vary between being monopartite and bipartite.
Host range
Different Baltimore groups tend to be found within different branches of cellular life. In prokaryotes, the large majority of viruses are dsDNA viruses, and a significant minority are ssDNA viruses. Prokaryotic RNA viruses, in contrast, are relatively rare. Most eukaryotic viruses, including most animal and plant viruses, are RNA viruses, although eukaryotic DNA viruses are also common. By group, the vast majority of dsDNA viruses infect prokaryotes, ssDNA viruses are found in all three domains of life, dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses are primarily found in eukaryotes but also in bacteria, and -ssRNA and reverse transcribing viruses are only found in eukaryotes.
Linear vs circular genomes
Viral genomes may be either linear with ends or circular in a loop. Whether a virus has a linear or circular genome varies from group to group. A significant percentage of dsDNA viruses are both, ssDNA viruses are primarily circular, RNA viruses and ssRNA-RT viruses are typically linear, and dsDNA-RT viruses are typically circular. In the dsDNA family Sphaerolipoviridae, and in the family Pleolipoviridae, viruses contain both linear and circular genomes, varying from genus to genus.
RNA editing
RNA editing is used by various ssRNA viruses to produce different proteins from a single gene. This can be done via polymerase slippage during transcription or by post-transcriptional editing. In polymerase slippage, the RNA polymerase slips one nucleotide back during transcription, inserting a nucleotide not included in the template strand. Editing of a genomic template would impair gene expression, so RNA editing is only done during and after transcription. For ebola viruses, RNA editing improves the ability to adapt to their hosts.
Alternative splicing differs from RNA editing in that alternative splicing does not change the mRNA sequence like RNA editing but instead changes the coding capacity of an mRNA sequence as a result of alternative splicing sites. The two mechanisms otherwise have the same result: multiple proteins are expressed from a single gene.
Translation
Translation is the process by which proteins are synthesized from mRNA by ribosomes. Baltimore groups do not directly pertain to the translation of viral proteins, but various atypical types of translation used by viruses are usually found within specific Baltimore groups:
Non-canonical translation initiation:
Viral initiation of translation: used primarily by +ssRNA and ssRNA-RT viruses, various viruses have evolved mechanisms to initiate translation, such as having internal ribosomal entry sites to allow for cap-independent translation, having downstream hairpin loops that allow for cap-dependent translation in the absence of an eIF2 initiation factor, and initiation at a CUG or other start codon with a leucine amino acid.
Leaky scanning: used by various viruses in all Baltimore groups, the 40S ribosomal subunit may scan through a start codon, thereby skipping an ORF, only initiating translation with the 60S subunit at a subsequent start codon.
Ribosomal shunting: used by various dsDNA, +ssRNA, -ssRNA, ssRNA-RT, a dsDNA-RT viruses, ribosomes will start scanning from a 5′-cap structure then bypass a leader structure in the mRNA, initiation translation downstream from the leader sequence.
Termination-reinitiation: used by some dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses, ribosomes may translate an ORF, but following termination of translation of that ORF, a proportion of 40S subunits of the ribosome remain attached to the mRNA as a way to reinitiate translation of a subsequent ORF.
Non-canonical elongation and termination of translation:
Ribosomal frameshifting: used by various dsDNA, dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses, produces merged proteins from overlapping ORFs. This is executed simply by ribosomes slipping one nucleobase forward or backward during translation.
Suppression of termination: also called stop-codon readthrough, used by various dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses, certain viruses contain codons in their mRNA that would normally signal for termination of translation upon being recognized by a release factor but are instead partially recognized by tRNA during translation, which allows for continued translation up to the next stop codon in order to produce an extended end of the viral protein. In viruses, this is often used to express replicase enzymes.
Ribosomal skipping: also called stop-carry on, used by various dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses, a viral peptide, or amino acid sequence, may prevent a ribosome from covalently linking a new inserted amino acid, which blocks further translation. Consequently, the polyprotein is co-translationally cleaved, and a new amino acid sequence is started, leading to the production of two individual proteins from one ORF.
History
Baltimore classification was proposed in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore in a paper titled Expression of Animal Virus Genomes. It initially contained the first six groups but was later expanded to include group VII. Because of the utility of Baltimore classification, it has come to be used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary relationships and governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
From the 1990s to the 2010s, virus taxonomy used a 5-rank system ranging from order to species with Baltimore classification used in conjunction. Outside of the ICTV's official framework, various supergroups of viruses joining together different families and orders were created over time based on increasing evidence of deeper evolutionary relations. Consequently, in 2016, the ICTV began to consider establishing ranks higher than order as well as how the Baltimore groups would be treated among higher taxa.
In two votes in 2018 and 2019, a 15-rank system ranging from realm to species was established by the ICTV. As part of this, the Baltimore groups for RNA viruses and RT viruses were incorporated into formal taxa. In 2018, the realm Riboviria was established and initially included the three RNA virus groups. A year later, Riboviria was expanded to also include both RT groups. Within the realm, RT viruses are included in the kingdom Pararnavirae and RNA viruses in the kingdom Orthornavirae. Furthermore, the three Baltimore groups for RNA viruses are used as defining characteristics of the phyla in Orthornavirae.
Unlike RNA viruses and RT viruses, DNA viruses have not been united under a single realm but are instead dispersed across four realms and various taxa that are not assigned to a realm. The realms Adnaviria and Duplodnaviria exclusively contains dsDNA viruses, Monodnaviria primarily contains ssDNA viruses but also contains dsDNA viruses, and Varidnaviria exclusively contains dsDNA viruses, although some proposed members of Varidnaviria, namely the family Finnlakeviridae, are ssDNA viruses.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General bibliography
Systems of virus taxonomy
Viruses |
4318583 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Andrews | Daniel Andrews | Daniel Michael Andrews (born 6 July 1972) is an Australian former politician who served as the 48th premier of Victoria from 2014 to 2023. He held office as the leader of the Victorian branch of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) from 2010 and was a member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly (MLA) for the district of Mulgrave from 2002 until his resignation in 2023. Andrews is the longest-serving Labor premier and fourth-most-tenured premier in Victorian state history.
He entered the Bracks Ministry in 2006, serving as the Minister for Consumer Affairs. The following year he was later appointed Minister for Health in the Brumby Ministry until the defeat of the government at the 2010 election by Ted Baillieu. Whilst in opposition, Andrews was elected Leader of the Labor Party in Victoria, and became Leader of the Opposition.
After one term in opposition, Andrews led Labor to victory in the 2014 election. He was sworn in Premier in December of that year. He led his party to an increased majority of ten seats in the lower house during the 2018 election, and to a third landslide victory at the 2022 election again increasing the party's majority in the house. Significant historical events during Andrews's time as premier included the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season and the COVID-19 pandemic.
He is regarded a prominent figure among progressive politicians in Australia. Major accomplishments of the Andrews Government included the 'Big Build' infrastructure projects, rental law reforms, voluntary assisted dying, legalisation of medicinal cannabis, adoption reforms, sex work decriminalisation, first nations treaties, safe injection rooms, compensation reform for victims of institutionalised child-sex abuse, and the introduction of exclusion zones for protests outside abortion clinics. Major political liabilities during his time as premier included the red shirts scandal, public housing tower lockdowns, and rising public debt.
Early life
Andrews was born in Williamstown, a southwestern suburb of Melbourne, to Bob (1950–2016) and Jan Andrews (born 1944). In 1983, his family moved from Glenroy to Wangaratta in northeastern Victoria, where he was educated at the Marist Brothers' Galen Catholic College. Andrews moved back to Melbourne in 1990 to attend Monash University, where he was a resident of Mannix College and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in politics and classics in 1996. After graduating, Andrews became an electorate officer for federal Labor MP Alan Griffin. He worked at the party's head office from 1999 to 2002, initially as an organiser, and then as assistant state secretary. Andrews is a member of the Socialist Left faction of the Labor Party.
Political career
Bracks Government (2002–2007)
Following his election to parliament in the Legislative Assembly seat of Mulgrave at the 2002 election, Andrews was appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Health in the Steve Bracks Labor government. Following the 2006 election, Andrews was appointed to the Cabinet, becoming Minister for Gaming, Minister for Consumer Affairs, and Minister Assisting the Premier on Multicultural Affairs.
Andrews is one of the few state politicians in Australia to have never spent a day on the backbench. He spent his entire tenure in the Legislative Assembly as a junior minister (2002–2006), minister (2006–2010), opposition leader (2010–2014), and premier (2014–2023).
Brumby Government (2007–2010)
In 2007, Andrews became Minister for Health in the John Brumby Labor government.
In 2008, Andrews voted in favour of abortion law reform in Victoria. As Health Minister during the passing of the Abortion Law Reform Act 2008, Andrews sought counsel from senior church clergy who advised him that the act was contrary to Church teaching. Andrews replied that he "... did not intend to be a Catholic health minister. It was my intention to be a Victorian health minister".
Opposition (2010–2014)
Brumby resigned as leader of the Victorian Labor Party following the Labor defeat at the 2010 election, after 11 years of Labor governments. On 3 December 2010, Andrews was elected Victorian Labor Party leader, becoming Leader of the Opposition in Victoria, with former Deputy Premier Rob Hulls staying on as his deputy. Hulls resigned in early 2012 and was replaced as deputy by James Merlino.
Labor took the lead in the polls in mid-2012 and held it for all but a few months until the election, though Andrews consistently trailed his Liberal counterparts, Ted Baillieu (2010–2013) and Denis Napthine (2013–2014) as preferred premier.
Premier of Victoria (2014–2023)
2014 state election
Labor held 43 seats at dissolution but notionally held 40 after the redistribution of electoral boundaries. It thus needed a swing to win five seats to form government. At the election, Labor gained seven seats for a total of 47, a majority of two. The election was the first time since 1955 that an incumbent government was removed from office after a single term.
In his victory speech, Andrews declared, "The people of Victoria have today given to us the greatest of gifts, entrusted to us the greatest of responsibilities, and bestowed upon us the greatest of honours. We will not let them down!" He was sworn in as premier on 4 December.
First term (2014–2018)
On winning office, Andrews government cancelled the East West Link project and initiated the level crossing removal project and the Melbourne Metro Rail Project.
On 24 May 2016 Andrews made an official apology in parliament for gay men in Victoria punished during the time homosexuality was a crime in the state. It was decriminalised in 1981.
In August 2018 Andrews announced plans to build a $50 billion suburban rail loop connecting all major rail lines via Melbourne Airport.
Ending ambulance dispute
Shortly after his taking office in 2014, Daniel Andrews ended the pay dispute with ambulance paramedics, which had started with the previous government. During the dispute, paramedics had protested by covering their ambulances with colourful slogans. The slogans were removed after Andrews promised to end the dispute.
China
Upon his election, Andrews fast-tracked Victoria's ties with the PRC. Firstly, he led a group of prominent Victorians to China on his first overseas trip and promised to send his entire cabinet there during his first term. Eyeing the enormous opportunities with tourism, education and investment, his government signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Chinese government under the Belt and Road Initiative in October 2018, but kept its details secret until he released it five weeks later. The MoU involves cooperation on facilities connectivity, unimpeded trade, finance, people-to-people bond[s], and the "Digital Silkroad". Cooperation will be in the form of "dialogue, joint research, pilot programs, knowledge sharing, and capacity building". Andrews said that the MoU "does not bind Victoria to be involved in any specific project or initiative" and "the government will consider both the Victorian and national interest before agreeing to be involved in any specific activity".
On 21 April 2021, the Commonwealth Government used its veto powers to cancel the agreements made between Victoria and China under the Belt and Road Initiative.
Port of Melbourne lease
In September 2016, the Andrews Government privatised the Port of Melbourne for a term of 50 years in return for more than $9.7 billion.
Euthanasia
On 20 September 2017, the Voluntary Assisted Dying Bill 2017 was introduced into the Legislative Assembly of the Victorian Parliament by the Andrews Labor Government. The bill is modelled on the recommendations of an expert panel chaired by former Australian Medical Association president Professor Brian Owler. The proposed legislation was said by proponents to be the most conservative in the world and contain 68 safeguards including measures designed to protect vulnerable people from coercion and abuse, as well as a board to review each case. Labor and Coalition MPs were allowed a conscience vote on the Bill. The bill was debated in the lower house over three sitting days, passing the Assembly without amendment on 20 October 2017 after an emotional and tense debate which lasted more than 24 hours. The bill was passed by 47 votes to 37. The Bill finally passed through parliament, with amendments made in the Victorian Legislative Council, on 29 November 2017. In passing the bill, Victoria became the first state to legislate for voluntary assisted dying. The law received royal assent on 5 December 2017, and came into effect on 19 June 2019.
2018 state election
At the November 2018 state election, Labor won a comprehensive victory, picking up an eight-seat swing for a total of 55 seats, tying Labor's second-best seat count in Victoria. The party recorded substantial swings in Melbourne's eastern suburbs; as the ABC's election analyst Antony Green put it, eastern Melbourne was swept up in a "band of red". Labor also took a number of seats in areas considered Liberal heartland, including Baillieu's former seat of Hawthorn. It is only the fifth time that a Labor government has been reelected in Victoria.
Second term (2018–2022)
In 2019, an independent tribunal granted Andrews an 11.8% salary increase, giving him a total salary of $441,000 and making him the highest-paid state premier in the country.
Andrews received praise for his leadership during the 2019–20 Victorian bushfires. Andrews faced criticism and praise from various groups for his response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Victoria.
Privatisation
In 2018, The Andrews government oversaw the Privatisation of the Land Titles and Registry office for $2.8 billion.
In 2022, The Andrews government oversaw the privatisation of the operation of the registration and licensing part of VicRoads.
COVID-19 pandemic
During his second term, Andrews led the State's response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In late June 2020, cases began to rise primarily originating from breaches in hotel quarantine. On 20 June, with the state recording 25 cases, Andrews mostly delayed the planned easing of restrictions and reinstated stricter home gathering rules. On 30 June, with the state recording 64 new infections, Andrews announced stage 3 restrictions for 10 postcodes within metropolitan Melbourne, suspended international flights and announced a judicial inquiry into the state's hotel quarantine program. Andrews announced a further two postcodes would return to stage 3 restrictions and a 'hard lockdown' of public housing towers in North Melbourne and Kensington on 4 July. The Ombudsman later criticised the timing and conduct of the lockdown as potentially violating the residents' charter rights
. On 7 July, Andrews announced the reimposition of stage 3 restrictions for metropolitan Melbourne and Mitchell Shire as the state recorded 191 new cases. Under these restrictions, residents in the affected area could only leave the home for exercise, obtaining supplies, work if it couldn't be done from home and to provide care and compassion.
In early August 2020, following a spike in COVID-19 infections in Victoria with up to 750 new infections detected per day, Andrews declared a State of Disaster and announced Stage 4 lockdown rules for 31 metropolitan Melbourne municipalities and Stage 3 rules for regional parts of the state. The Stage 4 rules for Melbourne included compulsory face masks, all but essential businesses closed, residents only being allowed to leave their homes once a day to shop for essential items only, and once a day to exercise for a maximum of one hour. Both these activities were restricted to within five kilometres of home. All schooling was to be done remotely using electronic communication. A nightly curfew from 8 pm to 5 am was introduced. Exemptions existed for workers deemed essential.
The restrictions correlated with a reduction in the rate of infections, such that by mid-September 2020 the 14-day case average was 44.4 rather than 63 predicted by the modelling done when they were introduced. Restrictions began to ease from that time.
On 26 October 2020, Victoria recorded no new cases and no new deaths, its first day of no cases since early June. The achievement was called "Donut Day".
In 2021, further COVID-19 outbreaks in Victoria led to lockdowns being reinstated a further four times, with restrictions including a 9:00 pm–5:00 am curfew and 5 km travel limit reinstated for residents of metropolitan Melbourne.
In October 2021, Andrews was fined $400 for breaching face mask rules on two occasions, in both cases he walked through a car park at Parliament House to his press conference without wearing a mask.
Public opinion
In April 2020, 77% approved of Andrews' handling of the coronavirus pandemic; this was the third highest figure out of all of Australia's premiers. Andrews' approval ratings dropped due to the acceleration of Victoria's second wave of infections and harsh restrictions aimed at suppressing the spread of infections. A September 2020 Roy Morgan Research poll showed that 70% approved of the way Andrews was handling his job as Premier of Victoria, and a September 2020 Newspoll showed that 62% agreed that Andrews handled Victoria's COVID-19 response well. In November 2020, a Roy Morgan Research showed that Andrews' approval rating had increased by 9%, with 71% of Victorian electors approving of his handling of his job. By the time of the 2022 state election, Andrews' approval ratings had declined, but still remained relatively high, and he consistently led Opposition Leader Matthew Guy in opinion polling throughout his term.
Media coverage
During the early years of the COVID-19 pandemic, conservative commentators criticised the Andrews' government for its introduction of vaccination mandates, prolonged lockdowns and failures in hotel quarantine in 2020. Conservative-leaning media outlets, in particular those owned by News Corp Australia, gave Andrews the label "Dictator Dan" because of the strict measures his government took to suppress the spread of COVID-19. His popularity remained high and the daily media conferences he gave to explain his position and reasoning were a television ratings hit. Several media outlets and commentators have accused News Corp of biased reporting against Andrews, including former prime minister Kevin Rudd.
2022 state election
Andrews led the Victorian Labor Party to a further emphatic victory over the Liberal party at the 2022 election, securing a third term as Premier and for the Labor Party. Despite heavy swings against the party in some Northern and Western suburb electorates, the party increased its majority with a net gain of 1 seat, according to ABC News. Many Eastern suburbs seats which were unexpectedly won in the landslide result of 2018 increased their margins for Labor, and the party also gained the electoral districts of Glen Waverley, Hastings and Ripon from incumbent Liberal MPs, and also retained the electoral districts of Bayswater and Bass which became notionally Liberal after the redistribution.
Andrews also easily withstood an Independent challenger, Ian Cook, in his electorate of Mulgrave, winning more than 50% of the primary votes in the electorate.
Third term (2022–2023)
Having served more than 3,000 days as Victorian Premier as of February 2023, Andrews is entitled to a statue in his likeness outside 1 Treasury Place. He became the longest-serving Labor Premier in Victoria's history in April 2023, overtaking John Cain Jr., who served from 1982 to 1990.
Andrews pledged to re-establish the state-owned State Electricity Commission, remove a total of 110 Level Crossings, establish free kindergarten and commence construction on the Suburban Rail Loop (SRL) and SRL Airport Line during his third term. On 18 July 2023, Andrews and Deputy Premier Jacinta Allan announced the state government intended to cancel the 2026 Commonwealth Games. Fifteen months after agreeing to host the Games, the Premier said the cost had escalated to an estimated $6–7 billion, double the estimated benefits, and the government could not justify the expense.
Resignation
At a media conference on 26 September 2023, Andrews announced his resignation as premier, leader of the Victorian Labor Party, and member for Mulgrave, to take effect the following day at 5pm. He cited thoughts of life following his premiership, which he felt meant "it is time to go". Prime minister Anthony Albanese said he was "surprised by the date of the resignation" and praised Andrews's career and character. Other current and former state premiers congratulated Andrews on his premiership. Andrews was succeeded as premier and party leader by his deputy Jacinta Allan after she was elected unopposed by the Labor caucus.
Political positions
Andrews has been a member of Labor's socialist left faction since he joined the party in 1993. Having been an advocate for environmentalism and climate change, he supported the pledge for net zero emissions by 2050, and has started plans to renationalise the state electricity grid following the 2022 state election. Andrews has furthermore been a long time republican, and supports abolishing Australia's constitutional monarchy in favour of a federal republic.
Andrews has voiced support throughout his career for same sex marriage, the protection and expansion of LGBT rights and the promotion of awareness and respect for transgender and transitioning people, particularly amongst young Victorians. On 24 May 2016, Andrews issued a formal apology on behalf of the Victorian Government, to the LGBT community, and specifically members of the community who had been charged with homosexual offences and crimes in the state prior to the decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1981. Premier Andrews said in a speech to the Victorian Parliament:
Andrews, who is Catholic himself, has also been an outspoken critic of the Catholic Church in Australia, for their failure to adequately respond to extensive issues relating to child sexual abuse. On the death of Australia's most senior Catholic, Cardinal George Pell, Andrews remarked that his government would make no offer for a state funeral and instead made the following statement: “For victim-survivors, [I want] to send the clearest possible message: We see you, we believe you, we support you and you’re at the centre of not only our thoughts, not only our words, but our actions."Andrews has somewhat conservative views towards illicit drugs, being against the decriminalisation of recreational marijuana and against pill testing at music festivals.
Personal life
Andrews married Catherine Kesik on 31 December 1998. They live in Mulgrave with their three children. Andrews had a Roman Catholic upbringing, although he rarely attends church.
On the morning of 9 March 2021, Andrews slipped and fell on wet steps while on holiday on the Mornington Peninsula. He was taken to hospital where he was placed under intensive care. He suffered several broken ribs and a broken vertebra from the fall but did not have any head injuries. Deputy Premier James Merlino was the Acting Premier until Andrews returned on 28 June 2021.
Andrews contracted COVID-19 in March 2022. He continued to carry out his duties from isolation, and made a full recovery.
Andrews is a supporter of the Essendon Football Club.
References
External links
Premier of Victoria official government website
Dan Andrews official website
Member profile at the Parliament of Victoria
Parliamentary voting record of Daniel Andrews at Victorian Parliament Tracker
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1972 births
Living people
Premiers of Victoria
Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Ministers for Health (Victoria)
Leaders of the Opposition in Victoria (state)
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Victoria
Australian republicans
Monash University alumni
Politicians from Melbourne
People from Williamstown, Victoria
Australian Roman Catholics
Labor Left politicians
21st-century Australian politicians
People from Mulgrave, Victoria
Ministers Assisting the Premier on Multicultural Affairs (Victoria)
Ministers for Casino, Gaming and Liquor Regulation (Victoria)
Ministers for Consumer Affairs (Victoria) |
4318777 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cox%20%28surname%29 | Cox (surname) | The surname Cox is of English or Welsh origin, and may have originated independently in several places in Great Britain, with the variations arriving at a standard spelling only later. There are also two native Scottish & Irish surnames which were anglicised into Cox.
An early record of the surname dates from 1556 with the marriage of Alicea Cox at St. Martin in the Fields, Westminster, London. Cox is the 69th-most common surname in the United Kingdom.
Origin
One possibility of the origin is that it is a version of the Old English which means "the little", and was sometimes put after the name of a leader or chieftain as a term of endearment. Surnames such as Wilcox, Willcocks and Willcox are examples of this practice: all are composed of the name William and the archaic word , coming together to mean "little William". The suggestion is that only the element -cox may have endured as a surname for some families.
Another opinion is that the name is derived from the Old English , which means a "heap" or "mound", and was a topographic name for a man living near any heap, hill or other bundle. Names like Haycock or Haycox come from such practice, meaning from "the hay mounds" or "the hay fields". Again, the element -cox may have only been carried on in some families.
The third possibility is that it comes from the Welsh , meaning "red". In this opinion, the word could have either been applied to a man with red hair, calling him in essence "the Red", or else served as a topographic name for someone living near the ruddy-hued hills found in Wales, implying that the man is "from the red hills". In Cornwall, the surnames Cock and Couch (pronounced 'cooch') also derive from Cornish "red, scarlet".
As a Cornish surname, Cock can also derive from , "fishing boat", the Cornish surname "Cocking" being the diminutive form , "small fishing boat". In these cases, the surname is likely to derive from occupation.
The English word "cock", meaning "rooster", is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word , and a fourth possibility is that the surname came about as a nickname.
Another possibility is that the name is of Norman origin. In the Battle of Hastings in October 1066, Alric Le Coq was one of Duke William's companions. Alric was said to have been a "a strutting {as a rooster struts} Norman soldier ... who was nicknamed '' and his children 'little cockes.'" could easily have been Anglicized to Cox as seen in the previous possibility.
The surname Cox is also native to Belgian and Dutch Limburg. This name, like the related Cockx, is a degenerate form of , a latinization of Kok (English: cook).
Noticeably similar surnames include Cock, Cocks, Coxe, Coxen and Coxon. There is no evidence beyond similar spellings and phonetics that these surnames are related. Given that the origins of the Cox surname are uncertain, it is possible that these names developed as spelling variations, or that each of these names has an origin in a separate word and language.
The origins of the surname in North America are speculated across several written accounts, with most sources pointing toward three distinct families arriving from England in the 17th and 18th Centuries: in 1690, brothers Thomas, William, and Walter Cocke originally of Surry; in 1705, the family of Dr. Wilham Cocke of Williamsburg; and at an unknown time before 1658, Nicholas Cocke of Middlesex.
Notable people with the surname "Cox" include
A
Aaron Cox (born 1965), American football player
Abbie Cox (1902–1985), Canadian ice hockey player
Adam Cox (born 1986), British artistic gymnast
Adrian Cox (born 1980), Australian rules footballer
Aimee Cox, American anthropologist
Ainslee Cox (1936–1988), American conductor
Alan Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Alaqua Cox (born 1997), American actress
Albert Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Alexander Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Alf Cox (1919–2008), Australian rugby league footballer
Alfred Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Alison Cox (born 1979), American rower
Allyn Cox (1896–1982), American artist
Alphonso Cox (1908–1964), American baseball player
Amanda Cox (born 1980), American journalist
Amber Cox (born 1973/1974), American sports executive
Ana Marie Cox (born 1972), American blogger
André Cox (born 1954), Zimbabwean General of The Salvation Army
Andrew Cox (born 1964), Australian rower
Andy Cox (born 1956), British guitarist
Anna Cox, British neuroscientist
Anthony Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Archibald Cox (1912–2004), American politician
Arisa Cox (born 1978), Canadian television personality
Arthur Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Ashley Cox (born 1956), American model and actress
Austin Cox (born 1997), American baseball player
B
Barbara Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Barry Cox (born 1949), Australian rugby league footballer
Barry Cox (singer), British-Chinese singer
Bell Cox (1826–1897), Irish priest
Ben Cox (born 1992), English cricketer
Benjamin Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Berkley Cox (born 1935), Australian rules footballer
Bill Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Billy Cox (born 1941), American bass guitarist
Billy Cox (baseball) (1919–1978), American baseball player
Bobby Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Brad Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Bradford Cox (born 1982), American singer-songwriter
Brandon Cox (born 1983), American football player
Brenda Cox (1944–2015), Australian sprinter
Brennan Cox (born 1998), Australian rules footballer
Brenton Cox Jr. (born 2000), American football player
Brian Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Britteny Cox (born 1994), Australian skier
Bronwyn Cox (born 1997), Australian rower
Bruce Cox (1918–2004), American photographer
Bryan Cox (born 1968), American football player and coach
Bryan Cox Jr. (born 1994), American football player
Bryan-Michael Cox (born 1977), American songwriter
Bud Cox (born 1960), American tennis player
C
Calli Cox (born 1977), American pornographic actress
Canela Cox (born 1984), American singer-songwriter
Captain Cox, English collector
Carl Cox (born 1962), British musician
Carmiesha Cox (born 1995), Bahamian sprinter
Carol Cox, American drag racer
Caroline Cox (born 1937), English politician
Cary Cox (1917–1991), American football player
Casey Cox (born 1941), American baseball player
Cassidy Cox (born 1998), American archer
Catherine Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Cathy Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
C. C. Cox (1887–1915), American race car driver
Cedric Cox (1913–1993), Canadian technician and politician
Cedric Cox (footballer) (born 1997), Australian rules footballer
Chandler Cox (born 1996), American football player
Channing H. Cox (1879–1968), American politician
Chapman B. Cox (born 1940), American military advisor
Charles Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Charly Cox (born 1995), British poet
Cheryl Cox (born 1949), American politician
Chip Cox (born 1983), American football player
Chris Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Christina Cox (born 1971), Canadian actress
Christopher Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Chubby Cox (born 1955), American basketball player
Cindy Cox (born 1961), American composer
Claire Cox (born 1975), British actress
Clay Cox (born 1968), American politician
Colin Cox (1922–1989), Australian rules footballer
Comer Cox (1905–1971), American baseball player
Constance Cox (1912–1998), British scriptwriter
Courteney Cox (born 1964), American actress
Courtney Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Crystal Cox (born 1979), American track and field athlete
Curome Cox (born 1981), American football player
D
Damien Cox (born 1961), Canadian journalist
Daniel Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Danielle Cox (born 1992), English footballer
Danny Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Darius Cox (born 1983), Bermudian footballer
Darren Cox (born 1974), British businessman
Darron Cox (born 1967), American baseball player
Darryl Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Dave Cox (1938–2010), American politician
David Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Dayna Cox (born 1993), Australian rules footballer
Dean Cox (born 1981), Australian rules footballer
Dean Cox (English footballer) (born 1987), English footballer
Deb Cox (born 1958), Australian screenwriter
Deborah Cox (born 1971), Canadian singer
Demetrious Cox (born 1994), American football player
Denise Cox, American geologist
Dennis Cox (1925–2001), English cricketer
Derek Cox (born 1986), American football player
Derek Cox (athlete) (1931–2008), English athlete
Dick Cox (1897–1966), American baseball player
Doak Cox (1917–2003), American geologist
Doc Cox (born 1946), British television personality
Donald Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Donna Cox, American professor
Dorinda Cox (born 1977), Australian politician
Dorothy Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Doug Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Douglas Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
E
Earnest Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
E. B. Cox (1914–2003), Canadian sculptor
Ed Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Edgar William Cox (1882–1918), British intelligence officer
Edward Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Edwin Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Elbert Frank Cox (1895–1969), American mathematician
Eleanor Worthington Cox (born 2001), British actress
Elijah Albert Cox (1876–1955), British painter
Elijah Allen Cox (1887–1974), American judge
Elizabeth Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Emily Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Emma Cox (born 1992), Australian sport shooter
Emmett Ripley Cox (1935–2021), American judge
Eric Cox (1923–2006), Australian rugby league footballer
Erin Nealy Cox (born 1970), American attorney
Erle Cox (1873–1950), Australian writer
Ernest Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Ernie Cox (1894–1962), Canadian football player
Ernie Cox (baseball) (1894–1974), American baseball player
E. S. Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Ethan Cox (born 1987), Canadian ice hockey player
Euan Hillhouse Methven Cox (1893–1977), English botanist
Eugene Saint Julien Cox (1834–1898), American politician
Eva Cox (born 1938), Australian writer
F
Fletcher Cox (born 1990), American football player
Frances Elizabeth Cox (1812–1879), English translator
Francis Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Francisco José Cox (1933–2020), Chilean prelate
Frank Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Franklin Cox (born 1961), American composer
Freddie Cox (1920–1973), English football player
Frederic Cox (1905–1985), British singer
Frederick Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Frosty Cox (1908–1962), American basketball coach
F. W. Cox (1817–1904), Australian pastor
G
Gardner Cox (1920–1988), American sailor
Garfield V. Cox (1893–1970), American economist
Gary Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Gene Cox (1935–2009), American football coach
Geoffrey Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
George Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Geraldine Cox (born 1945), Australian orphanage administrator
Gerard Cox (born 1940), Dutch singer
Gershom Cox (1863–1918), English footballer
Gertrude Mary Cox (1900–1978), American statistician
Gilbert Cox (1908–1974), English cricketer
Glenn Cox (1931–2012), American baseball player
Grace Victoria Cox (born 1995), Australian actress
Graham Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Greg Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Guillermo Larco Cox (1932–2002), Peruvian politician
Gustavus Cox (1870–1958), Barbadian cricketer
H
Hampden Cox (1886–1940), Barbadian cricketer
Han Cox (1899–1979), Dutch rower
Hardin Cox (1928–2013), American politician
Harold Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Harry Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Harvey Cox (born 1929), American theologian
Hayden Cox (born 1982), Australian entrepreneur
Heather Cox (born 1970), American sportscaster
Herbert Charles Fahie Cox (1893–1973), British lawyer
Henry Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Hiram Cox (1760–1799), British diplomat
Homer Harold Cox (1921–1954), American policeman
Homersham Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Horace Cox, English publisher
Howard Cox, British academic
H. R. Cox (1907–1986), American bacteriologist
Hudson B. Cox, American lawyer
I
Ian Cox (born 1971), Trinidadian footballer
Ian Cox (cricketer) (born 1967), English cricketer
Ida Cox (1896–1967), American musician
Idris Cox (1899–1989), Welsh community activist
Ingemar Cox, English professor
Irwin Cox (1838–1922), British barrister
Isaac Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
J
Jabril Cox (born 1998), American football player
Jacob Cox (1810–1892), American painter
Jacob Dolson Cox (1828–1900), American soldier and politician
Jack Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jackie Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jamael Cox (born 1992), American soccer player
James Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jamie Cox (born 1969), Australian cricketer
Jamie Cox (boxer) (born 1986), British boxer
Jan Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Janae Cox (born 1985), American gymnast
Jane Cox (born 1952), American actress
J. B. Cox (born 1984), American baseball player
J'den Cox (born 1995), American wrestler
Jean Cox (1922–2012), American tenor
Jeff Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jennifer Elise Cox (born 1969), American actress
Jennings Cox, American mining engineer
Jeremy Cox (born 1996), American football player
Jeromy Cox (born 1970), American colorist
Jesse Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jessica Cox (born 1983), American pilot
Jim Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Jimmy Cox (1882–1925), American vaudeville performer
Jo Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Joanna Cox, British mariner
Joel Cox (born 1942), American film editor
John Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Johnny Cox (born 1936), American basketball player
Jolan Cox (born 1991), Belgian volleyball player
Jon Cox (born 1986), American soccer player
Jordan Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Joseph Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Josephine Cox (1938–2020), English author
Josh Cox (born 1975), American runner
Julian Cox (??–1663), English witch
Julie Cox (born 1973), Scottish actress
Justin R. Cox (born 1981), American soccer player
K
Kadeena Cox (born 1991), British athlete
Karen L. Cox, American historian
Karl Cox, American business executive
Katelyn Cox (born 1998), Australian rules footballer
Katelynne Cox (born 1994), American singer
Katherine Laird Cox (1887–1938), British socialist
Kathleen Cox (1904–1972), Irish artist
Kathy Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Keith Cox (1933–1998), British geologist
Keith Cox (cricketer) (1903–1977), New Zealand cricketer
Kennard Cox (born 1985), American football player
Kenneth A. Cox (1916–2011), American attorney
Kenny Cox (1940–2008), American pianist
Kenyon Cox (1856–1919), American artist
Kerrianne Cox, Australian singer
Kevin R. Cox (born 1939), British-American geographer
Kirk Cox (born 1957), American politician
Kris Cox (born 1973), American golfer
Kristen Cox (born 1969), American politician
Kristy Cox, Australian singer-songwriter
Kurt Cox (1947–2018), American golfer
L
Lance Cox (1933–2016), Australian rules footballer
Lara Cox (born 1978), Australian actress
Larry Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Laura Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Lauren Cox (born 1998), American basketball player
Lauren Cox (swimmer) (born 2001), English swimmer
Laurence Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Laurie D. Cox (1883–1968), American landscape architect
Laverne Cox (born 1972), American actress
LaWanda Cox (1909–2005), American historian
Leander Cox (1812–1865), American politician
Lee Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Leonard Cox (1495–1549), English author
Leonard Bell Cox (1894–1976), Australian neurologist
Leroy M. Cox (1906–1981), American entrepreneur
Les Cox (1904–1934), American baseball player
Leslie Reginald Cox (1897–1965), British malacologist
Linda C. Cox (1946–2008), American politician
Lionel Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Lois Cox, New Zealand writer
Louis Cox (1874–1961), American judge
Louise Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Lucy Cox (artist) (born 1988), British artist
Lynne Cox (born 1957), American swimmer
M
Maarten Cox (born 1985), Belgian singer
Madison Cox (born 1995), Puerto Rican footballer
Madisyn Cox (born 1995), American swimmer
Margaret Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Margie Cox, American singer
Marian Roalfe Cox (1860–1916), English folklorist
Marie C. Cox (1920–2005), American activist
Marion Cox (1920–1996), NASCAR owner
Mark Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Marsha Cox (born 1983), South African field hockey player
Marta Cox (born 1997), Panamanian footballer
Martin Cox (born 1956), American football player
Martyn Cox, English politician
Marvyn Cox (born 1964), German race car driver
Mason Cox (born 1991), American Australian rules footballer
Matthew Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Maurice Cox (born 1959), English footballer
Meghan Cox (born 1994), American soccer player
Mekia Cox (born 1981), American actress
Mia Cox, American singer-songwriter
Michael Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Michele Cox (born 1968), New Zealand footballer
Michelle Cox (born 1991), Australian softball player
Mike Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Minnie M. Cox (1869–1933), American teacher
Mitchell Cox (born 1993), English rugby league footballer
Molly Cox (1925–1991), British television producer
Monica Cox, American professor
Montana Cox (born 1993), Australian model
Morgan Cox (born 1986), American football player
N
Nagin Cox (born 1965), Indian aeronautical engineer
Nancy Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Nathalie Cox, British actress
Nathan Cox (born 1971), American music video director
Neil Cox (born 1971), English footballer
Newman Cox (1867–1938), Guyanese cricketer
Nicholas Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Nico Cox, American horologist
Nigel Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Nikki Cox (born 1978), American actress
Noel Cox (born 1965), New Zealand lawyer
Noel Cox (politician) (1911–1985), American politician
Norman Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
O
Oliver Cox (1901–1974), Trinidadian-American sociologist
Oscar Cox (1880–1931), Brazilian sportsman
Oscar Cox (lawyer) (1905–1966), American lawyer and judge
Owen Cox (1866–1932), Welsh-Australian businessman
Owen DeVol Cox (1910–1990), American judge
P
Paige Cox (1855–1934), British archdeacon
Palmer Cox (1840–1924), Canadian inventor
Pat Cox (born 1952), Irish politician
Patrick Cox (born 1963), Canadian-British fashion designer
Patrick L. Cox, American historian
Paul Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Paula Cox (born 1964), Bermudian politician
Percy Cox (1864–1937), British diplomat
Percy Cox (cricketer) (1878–1918), Barbadian cricketer
Percy S. Cox (1872–1911), American photographer
Perrish Cox (born 1987), American football player
Perry D. Cox (born 1957), American memorabilia expert
Peter Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Phil Cox (born 1974), American political operative
Philip Cox (born 1939), Australian architect
Philip Cox (businessman) (born 1951), British businessman
Philip Joseph Cox (1922–2014), British naval officer
Pierre Cox (born 1956), French astronomer
R
Rachael Cox (born 1975), Australian Paralympic sailor
Rachel Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Rakim Cox (born 1991), American football player
Ralph Cox (born 1957), American ice hockey player
Ramsay Cox (1911–2005), English cricketer
Raphael Cox (born 1986), American soccer player
Rawle Cox (born 1960), American field hockey player
Ray Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Raymond Cox (1951–2017), American businessman and politician
Rebecca Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Red Cox (1895–1984), American baseball player
Reginald Cox (1865–1922), English banker
Renard Cox (born 1978), American football player
Renee Cox (born 1960), American artist
Richard Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Roderick Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Roger Cox (born 1947), English cricketer
Rohanee Cox (born 1980), Australian basketball player
Rónadh Cox (born 1962), Irish geologist
Ronald Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Roosevelt Cox (1914–??), American baseball player
Rory Cox (born 1991), English cricketer
Roxbee Cox (1902–1997), British aeronautical engineer
Rupert Cox (born 1967), English cricketer
Russell Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Ryan Cox (1979–2007), South African cyclist
S
Sabian Cox (born 1991), Trinidadian sprinter
Sammy Cox (1924–2015), Scottish footballer
Samuel Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Sara Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Sarah Cox, British civil servant
Schaeffer Cox (born 1984), American political activist and felon
Scott William Cox (born 1963), American serial killer
Sean Cox (born 1963), American judge
Sean Cox (rugby union) (born 1985), English rugby union footballer
Shana Cox (born 1985), American track and field athlete
Shannon Cox (born 1986), Australian rules footballer
Shawn Cox (born 1974), Barbadian boxer
Sidney E. Cox (1887–1975), English-Canadian religious figure
Simon Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Somers Cox (1911–1997), New Zealand rower
Sonia Cox (1936–2001), New Zealand tennis and badminton player
Sonny Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Sophie Cox (born 1981), British judoka
Spencer Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Stanley Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Stephen Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Stephanie Cox (born 1986), American soccer player
Steve Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Susan Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Susanna Cox (1785–1809), American domestic servant
Suzanne Cox (born 1972), English aerobic instructor
Sydney Cox, English cricketer
T
Tara Cox (born 1971), New Zealand footballer
Ted Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
TJ Cox (born 1963), American engineer and politician
Terry Cox (born 1937), English drummer
Terry Cox (baseball) (born 1949), American baseball player
Theodolphus Cox (1855–1908), New Zealand cricketer
Thomas Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Tiequon Cox (born 1965), American murderer
Tim Cox, American TV director
Timothy Cox (baseball) (born 1986), Australian baseball player
Tomás Cox (born 1950), Chilean journalist
Tony Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Torrie Cox (born 1980), American football player
Trena Cox (1895–1980), English artist
Trenchard Cox (1905–1995), British museum director
Trevor Cox, English academic
Trevor Cox (ice hockey) (born 1995), Canadian ice hockey player
Tricia Nixon Cox (born 1946), American daughter of Richard Nixon
V
Vaughan Cox (1860–1923), British general
Vivienne Cox (born 1959), British businesswoman
V. L. Cox (born 1962), American artist
W
Wally Cox (1924–1973), American actor
Walter Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Warren J. Cox (born 1935), American architect
Wendell Cox, American public policy consultant
Wesley Cox (born 1955), American basketball player
West Cox (born 1986), American politician
W. F. Cox, American football player
W. H. Lionel Cox (1844–1921), British lawyer and judge
Wiffy Cox (1896–1969), American golfer
William Cox (disambiguation), multiple people
Z
Zack Cox (born 1989), American baseball player
Fictional characters
Julianna Cox, fictional character from Homicide: Life on the Street
Perry Cox, fictional character on the TV series Scrubs
Reg Cox, fictional character in East Enders soap opera
Rodney Cox, man supposedly executed by Thomas Jefferson for treason
See also
Cocks (surname), people surnamed Cocks
Cockx, people surnamed Cockx
Cox (disambiguation), a disambiguation page
Coxe, people surnamed Coxe
Kox, people surnamed Kox
General Cox (disambiguation), a disambiguation page with Generals surnamed Cox
Governor Cox (disambiguation), a disambiguation page with Governors surnamed Cox
Justice Cox (disambiguation), a disambiguation page with Justices surnamed Cox
Senator Cox (disambiguation), a disambiguation page with Senators surnamed Cox
Sources
Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967.
Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.
Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.
References
Welsh-language surnames
Cornish-language surnames
English-language surnames
Surnames of English origin
Surnames of Welsh origin
English toponymic surnames |
4319079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Canadian%20nationality%20law | History of Canadian nationality law | The history of Canadian nationality law dates back over three centuries, and has evolved considerably over that time.
During the early colonial period, residents of the French colonies were French subjects, governed by French nationality law, while residents of British colonies were British subjects, governed by British law. Prior to Confederation in 1867, the residents of the various provinces of British North America were British subjects, governed primarily by British law.
After Confederation, as Canada evolved to full nationhood, it gradually enacted laws relating to rights of domicile and entry to Canada, although Canadians continued to be British subjects under British law.
In 1946, the federal Parliament enacted the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946, which created fully independent Canadian citizenship, separate from British law and status as British subjects. That Act came into force on January 1, 1947, and remained in force for thirty years. It conferred citizenship in different ways, by birth in Canada, birth to a Canadian parent, and by naturalisation. Since 1977, Canadian nationality has been regulated by the Citizenship Act, enacted in 1976 and brought into force in 1977.
The Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946 imposed restrictions on multiple citizenship. The current Canadian Citizenship Act does not restrict multiple citizenship.
Background
Canada became a French possession in 1663 and Louis XIV established that the laws and ordinances of France governed the territory. The Ancien Régime of France developed a system of feudal allegiance in which subjects were bound together by a scheme of protection and service tied to land ownership. Possession of land was typically tied to military and court service and omitted women because they could not perform those obligations. Thus, French nationality also derived from place of birth in French territory, until the nineteenth century, but under feudal law married women were subjugated to the authority of their husbands under coverture.
In 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Canada was transferred to British control and converted to the laws of Britain. For a decade, English Common Law defined civil status in the territory. In Britain, allegiance, in which subjects pledged to support a monarch, was the precursor to the modern concept of nationality. The crown recognised from 1350 that all persons born within the territories of the British Empire were British subjects. Those born outside the realm — except children of those serving in an official post abroad, children of the monarch, and children born on a British sailing vessel — were considered by common law to be foreigners. Marriage did not affect the status of a subject of the realm, except that under common law, single women, including divorcées, were not allowed to be parents thus their children could not derive nationality maternally and were stateless unless legitimated by their father.
Nationality acts passed in Britain did not extend beyond the bounds of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Other than common law, there was no standard statutory law which applied for subjects throughout the realm, meaning different jurisdictions created their own legislation for local conditions, which often conflicted with the laws in other jurisdictions in the empire. Thus, a person who was naturalised in Canada, for example, would be considered a foreigner, rather than a British national, in Australia or South Africa. In 1774, the Quebec Act restored French civil law in the territory of Quebec. The Constitution of 1791, divided Canada into two provinces and reaffirmed that Quebec, known as Lower Canada, was to retain French law as it existed up to 1763, while English law would be applicable in Upper Canada.
In 1849, Upper Canada passed a statute to bring its law into line with the British Naturalisation Act of 1844, requiring foreign women to automatically derive their nationality from their spouse. In 1866, the Civil Code of Lower Canada was drafted to modernize and codify the legal system in place for Lower Canada, creating a coherent compilation of the various laws in effect in the territory in both English and French. Under the terms of the Code, foreign women automatically acquired the nationality of their spouse upon marriage. Married women were legally incapacitated and subject to their husband's authority. They were also required to share his domicile, which under French law is tied to the place from which one derives their civil rights.
Imperial and federal legislation, 1868–1914
Upon passage of the British North America Act, 1867, the Parliament of Canada was given authority over "Naturalization and Aliens", by virtue of section 91(25).
The Aliens and Naturalization Act, 1868 was the first federal Act to be passed, and it provided that persons who had been previously naturalized in any part of the Dominion possessed the same status as anyone naturalized under that Act. In addition:
Aliens could apply for naturalization after three years' residence in Canada.
Alien-born women became naturalized by marriage to a natural-born subject or to a husband naturalized under the Act.
The laws in Nova Scotia and the former Province of Canada that allowed aliens to hold property were kept in force.
The 1868 Act was replaced by the Naturalization and Aliens Act, 1881, which came into force on 4 July 1883. It made the rules allowing aliens to hold property uniform throughout the Dominion, and otherwise standardized the law along the same lines as the Naturalization Act 1870 of the United Kingdom. It also provided that Canadian women automatically derived their nationality upon marriage from their husbands.
From the late nineteenth century, English or Anglo-Canadians viewed their nation as a white, British society; whereas, those in Quebec identified as nationals of Canada, with unique ties to French culture and Catholicism. The policies adopted for immigrants, and indigenous peoples, were aimed to include those who could quickly assimilate into the mainstream culture and exclude those who could not. In 1885, the government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, requiring payment of a $50 head tax for all Chinese immigrants. In 1907, an agreement was reached with Japan to restrict emigration to 400 persons per year and only allow contract labourers who had been government-approved, domestic workers for Japanese families, and persons who had been previous residents to enter Canada. With increasing Indian/South Asian (primarily Punjabi Sikh) immigration to Canada between 1897 and 1907, the Continuous journey regulation was passed in 1908 to prevent Asian immigrants from entering Canada unless they arrived from their birth country; since there was no direct route to Canada from India, the law effectively barred Indian immigration.
From 1869 to 1985, First Nations women in Canada who were Status Indians under the Indian Act were required to follow the status of their husband. This meant primarily that if they married a person who was not a Status Indian, they lost their Indian status. Likewise, being a Status Indian person was described in law until 1951, as a male person who had native blood with a tribal affiliation. His children or legal wife derived their Indian status from their father or husband.
Canadian citizens and Canadian nationals, 1910–1947
The status of "Canadian citizen" was first created under the Immigration Act, 1910, which included anyone who was:
a person born in Canada who had not become an alien;
a British subject possessing Canadian domicile; and
a person naturalized under the laws of Canada who had not subsequently become an alien or lost Canadian domicile.
Aliens, as well as all other British subjects, who wished to immigrate to Canada required permission to land. "Domicile" was declared to have been acquired by a person having his domicile in Canada for three years after having been landed therein, excluding any time spent in "any penitentiary, jail, reformatory, prison, or asylum for the insane in Canada."
Although the terms "Canadian citizen" and indeed "Canadian citizenship" were used in this Act, they did not create the legal status of Canadian citizen in a nationality sense. People who had the status of "Canadian citizen" were merely free from immigration controls.
In 1911, at the Imperial Conference a decision was made to draft a common nationality code defining British nationals for use across the empire.
The status of all British subjects in the Empire (whether by birth or naturalization) was standardized by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914, which was adopted in Canada by the Naturalization Act, 1914. The uniform law, which went into effect on 1 January 1915, required a married woman to derive her nationality from her spouse, meaning if he was British, she was also, and if he was foreign, so was she. It stipulated that upon loss of nationality of a husband, a wife could declare that she wished to remain British and provided that if a marriage had terminated, through death or divorce, a British-born national who had lost her status through marriage could reacquire British nationality through naturalisation without meeting a residency requirement. The statute reiterated common law provisions for natural-born persons born within the realm on or after the effective date. By using the word person, the statute nullified legitimacy requirements for jus soli nationals. For those born abroad on or after the effective date, legitimacy was still required, and could only be derived by a child from a British father (one generation), who was natural-born or naturalised. Naturalisations required five years residence or service to the crown.
By 1918, the rise of women's suffrage motivated new federal interest in the question of women's nationality, but the country's legislative ability to change its nationality laws was limited by the common code for Dominions of Britain that required legal changes to be unanimous among all member countries. In 1919, women were successful in lobbying for foreign women to be able to naturalise independently of their spouse in Canada, but by law they were still required to have the same nationality as their husband in the empire.
A separate status of "Canadian national" was created under the Canadian Nationals Act, 1921, which was defined as being any British subject who was a Canadian citizen as defined above, the wife of any such citizen, and any person born outside Canada whose father was a Canadian national at the time of that person's birth.
Canada later passed the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 on June 30, 1923, which barred Chinese immigration except for a very restricted group of diplomats, merchants, missionaries, students and returning residents. In 1928, the Japanese government agreed to amend their emigration agreement, limiting immigration to Canada to 150 persons annually. After the World Conference on the Codification of International Law held in The Hague in 1930, Canada became the first Commonwealth country to modify its laws to conform with the provisions to prevent statelessness in the Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws. In 1931, under the government of R. B. Bennett the Nationality Act was reformed to prevent women from losing their nationality through marriage if they would be rendered stateless. The amendment also introduced the concept of consent, meaning that alien women did not automatically derive the nationality of a spouse, but could obtain his nationality if they requested it within six months of his change of status.
Once ratified, the 1931 Statute of Westminster gave the Dominions the ability to govern independently on behalf of their constituents, rather than implementing governance on behalf of the British crown. This allowed Commonwealth members to define members of their own communities separately from that which defined British subjects, opening the door to nationality in member states of the realm. Because of this Canadians, and others living in countries that became known as Commonwealth realms, were known as subjects of the Crown. However in legal documents the term "British subject" continued to be used.
Prior to 1947, Canada issued two types of passports:
those to British subjects by birth (coloured blue), and
those to naturalized British subjects or citizens (coloured red).
Eligibility of married women
There were complex rules for determining whether married women qualified as British subjects. Until 14 January 1932, the rule was that the wife of a British subject was deemed to be a British subject as well, and the wife of an alien was deemed to be an alien. After that date, and until 31 December 1946, the rules were generally as follows:
At time of marriage:
If husband was a British subject → then wife automatically became a British subject on marriage.
If husband was an alien → then wife only ceased to be a British subject if she automatically acquired her husband's alien nationality upon marriage.
During the marriage:
If husband naturalized as a British subject → then wife must apply to become a British subject and obtain a Series H certificate.
If husband naturalized in a foreign country → then wife's status changed only if she was automatically included in her husband's alien naturalization. However, she could apply to retain British subject status and be issued a Series I certificate.
World War II-era war brides
By marrying a Canadian soldier, a woman, if not already British, acquired the status of British subject and Canadian national. If she then landed in Canada, she became a British subject of Canadian domicile.
In addition, Order in Council P.C. 7318 of 21 September 1944 stated:
This was later replaced by P.C. 858 of February 9, 1945, which declared:
On May 15, 1947, P.C. 858 was replaced with an amendment to the Immigration Act, which provided that, subject to medical examination, war brides and children of Canadian servicemen, who were still in Europe, were automatically entitled to admission and landing in Canada.
Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946
Canadian citizenship, as a status separate from British nationality, was created by the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946 (popularly known as the 1947 Act), which came into effect on 1 January 1947. The Act meant that nationals in Canada were finally described as Canadian, rather than British, and it also granted married women greater choice over their own nationality status. The law redefined the order of nationality, stipulating that Canadians were nationals of Canada first and only secondarily nationals of Britain. This served as a catalyst to restructure the nationality laws throughout Britain. Under its terms, anyone born in Canada would now automatically be granted Canadian nationality, and marriage to a non-Canadian spouse would no longer strip a Canadian woman of her nationality. The Act permitted Canadian men to have Canadian nationality granted to children born outside the country, but Canadian women could only apply to do the same if their children had been born out of wedlock. Canadian citizenship was generally conferred immediately on the following persons:
a person who was born in Canada (or on a Canadian ship) on or before January 1, 1947, and had not become an alien before January 1, 1947;
a person other than a natural-born Canadian citizen:
who was granted, or whose name was included in, a certificate of naturalization under any act of the Parliament of Canada and had not become an alien at the commencement of the Act, or
who was a British subject who had acquired Canadian domicile (i.e. five years' residence in Canada as a landed immigrant) before 1947;
a British subject who lived in Canada for 20 years immediately before 1947 and was not, on 1 January 1947, under order of deportation;
women who were married to a Canadian before 1947 and who entered Canada as a landed immigrant before 1947;
children born outside Canada to a Canadian father (or mother, if born out of wedlock) before 1947.
In the latter two cases, a "Canadian" was a British subject who would have been considered a Canadian citizen if the 1947 Act had come into force immediately before the marriage or birth (as the case may be). Where the child born outside Canada was not a minor (i.e. was not under 21 years in age) at the time the Act came into force, proof of landed immigrant status was required to confirm Canadian citizenship.
Acquisition and loss of citizenship
In addition to those people who became Canadian citizens upon the coming into force of the Act, citizenship afterwards was generally acquired as follows:
birth in Canada
naturalization in Canada after five years' residence as a landed immigrant
grant of citizenship to a foreign woman married to a Canadian man after one year's residence as a landed immigrant
grant of citizenship to women who lost British subject status prior to 1947 upon marriage to a foreign man or his subsequent naturalization
registration of a child born outside Canada to a Canadian "responsible parent" (being the father, if the child was born in wedlock, or the mother, if the child was born out of wedlock and was residing with the mother, if the father was deceased or if custody of the child had been awarded to the mother by court order)
Loss of Canadian citizenship generally occurred in the following cases:
naturalization outside Canada
in the case of a minor, naturalization of a parent
service in foreign armed forces
naturalized Canadians who lived outside Canada for 10 years and did not file a declaration of retention
where a Canadian had acquired that status by descent from a Canadian parent, and who was either not lawfully admitted to Canada for permanent residence on the commencement of the Act or was born outside Canada afterwards, loss of citizenship could occur on the person's 22nd birthday unless the person had filed a declaration of retention between their 21st and 22nd birthday and renounced any previous nationality they possessed.
Although Canada restricted dual citizenship between 1947 and 1977, there were some situations where Canadians could nevertheless legally possess another citizenship. For example, migrants becoming Canadian citizens were not asked to formally prove that they had ceased to hold the nationality of their former country. Similarly children born in Canada to non-Canadian parents were not under any obligation to renounce a foreign citizenship they had acquired by descent. Holding a foreign passport did not in itself cause loss of Canadian citizenship.
Impact
The Canadian Citizenship Act replaced the following phrases throughout all federal legislation:
"natural-born British subject" became "natural-born Canadian citizen"
"naturalized British subject" became "Canadian citizen other than a natural-born Canadian citizen"
"Canadian national" became "Canadian citizen"
The Citizenship Act of 1946 did not contain provisions to automatically repatriate Canadian women who had lost their nationality before 1 January 1947. This meant that between two and three thousand women, who married allies of Britain during the Second World War, in Canada or overseas, were still deprived of their original nationality. To recover their nationality, women were required to obtain permanent residency through family sponsorship, meet medical and suitability requirements, and apply to be naturalised after living in Canada for a year. They were also required to take an oath of allegiance if they were approved. The Citizenship Act of 1946 also made no mention of First Nations people.
An Act passed later in 1946 amended the Immigration Act, in order to specify that a "Canadian citizen" was one as defined in The Canadian Citizenship Act.
These amendments would lead to later jurisprudence that addressed a transition that was problematic in certain cases. Although the 1946 Act did not deprive any Canadian national of such status, being a Canadian national did not automatically confer Canadian citizenship, as the Act represented a complete code for defining such status. The Act together with later retroactive amendments in 1953, had significant effects upon children of war brides. As Canadian soldiers fathered some 30,000 war children in Europe (including 22,000 in Britain and 6,000–7,000 in the Netherlands), of which a great number were born out of wedlock, the Act's provisions had differing impacts depending on how they were born:
In 1947, the Chinese Exclusion Act ended, but was replaced by an act which limited immigration to the spouses and minor unmarried children of Chinese and other Asian persons who already had Canadian nationality. In 1950, an amendment to the Citizenship Act removed the one-year residency requirement for repatriation of married women, but still required them to apply for naturalisation. It also allowed foreign husbands of Canadian nationals and minor children to be admitted for immigration.
Extensions of citizenship
The Dominion of Newfoundland joined Confederation on 31 March 1949, and British subjects in Newfoundland acquired Canadian citizenship on broadly similar terms to those applying in the rest of Canada since 1947.
In 1956, Parliament amended the Citizenship Act to retroactively grant citizenship to a small group of First Nations and Inuit who had entered Canada from Alaska at some point before 1947 but had not made formal application to enter Canada. The amendment provided that anyone who was defined as "Indians" (First Nations) or "Eskimos" (Inuit), and who were not natural-born citizens, but were domiciled in Canada on 1 January 1947, and had been resident in Canada for ten years as at 1 January 1956, were granted citizenship retroactive to January 1, 1947.
1967 amendment
The rule relating to loss of citizenship by naturalized Canadians living outside Canada for more than ten years was repealed on 7 July 1967, with provision made for such loss to be reversed through a petition for resumption of citizenship. Immigration restrictions based on race and national origin were removed from Canadian legislation in 1967.
Citizenship Act, 1976
Citizenship law was reformed by the Citizenship Act, 1976 (popularly known as the 1977 Act), which came into force on 15 February 1977. Under its provisions, children who were legitimate or adopted were allowed for the first time to derive nationality from their Canadian mother. Canada removed restrictions on dual citizenship, and many of the provisions to acquire or lose Canadian citizenship that existed under the 1947 Act were repealed.
Under the new Act, Canadian citizenship is acquired by:
birth in Canada (except where neither parent is a citizen or permanent resident and either parent is a representative of a foreign government, their employee, or anyone granted diplomatic privileges or immunities)
birth outside Canada to a Canadian parent
grant after three years' residence in Canada
notification in the case of a woman who lost British subject status by marriage before 1947
delayed registration of a foreign birth under the Act before 15 February 1977 (This provision was repealed on 14 August 2004.)
Canadian citizens are in general no longer subject to involuntary loss of citizenship, barring revocation on the grounds of:
false representation,
fraud, or
knowingly concealing material circumstances.
Section 8 of the Act provides that Canadians born outside Canada, to a Canadian parent who also acquired Canadian citizenship by birth outside Canada to a Canadian parent, will lose Canadian citizenship at age 28 unless they have established specific ties to Canada and applied to retain Canadian citizenship. Children born outside Canada to naturalized Canadian citizens are not subject to the section 8 provisions, nor is anyone born before 15 February 1977.
Amendments
2009
On 17 April 2008, An Act to amend the Citizenship Act received Royal assent, coming into force one year later.
Among the changes made:
There is no longer a requirement to apply to maintain citizenship.
Individuals can now only become Canadian citizens by descent if one of their parents was either a native-born citizen of Canada or a foreign-born but naturalized citizen of Canada. This effectively limits citizenship by descent to one generation born outside Canada. Such an individual might even be stateless if he or she has no claim to any other citizenship.
The second generation born abroad can only gain Canadian citizenship by immigrating to Canada – this can be done by their Canadian citizen parents sponsoring them as dependent children, which is a category with fewer requirements and would take less time than most other immigration application categories.
Foreign-born citizens being adopted in a foreign country by Canadian citizens can now acquire Canadian citizenship immediately upon completion of the adoption, without first entering Canada as a permanent resident, as was the case under the previous rules.
Provision was also made for the reinstatement of Canadian citizenship to those:
who became citizens when the first citizenship act took effect on 1 January 1947 (including people born in Canada prior to 1947 and war brides) and who then lost their citizenship;
who were born in Canada or had become a Canadian citizen on or after 1 January 1947, and had then lost citizenship; or
who were born abroad to a Canadian citizen parent on or after 1 January 1947, if not already a citizen, but only if they were the first generation born abroad.
2014
The Strengthening Canadian Citizenship Act received royal assent on 19 June 2014. Several provisions had retroactive effect to 17 April 2009, in order to correct certain situations that arose from the 2009 amendments, with the remainder coming into effect on 1 August 2014, 28 May 2015, and 11 June 2015.
Among the Act's significant changes:
Citizenship was granted retroactively to those individuals who were born or naturalized in Canada as well as to those who were British subjects residing in Canada prior to 1947 (or prior to April 1949, in the case of Newfoundland) who were not eligible for Canadian citizenship when the first Canadian Citizenship Act took effect.
The required residence prior to application for citizenship was lengthened to four years (1,460 days) out of the previous six years, with 183 days minimum of physical presence in four out of six years. Residency is defined as physical presence.
Adult applicants must file Canadian income tax returns, as required under the Income Tax Act, to be eligible for citizenship.
Time spent in Canada before being granted Permanent Resident status does not apply towards the residency period
A fast-track mechanism for citizenship was established for permanent residents serving withand individuals on exchange withthe Canadian Armed Forces to honour their service to Canada.
Knowledge and language requirements were unchanged, except that the knowledge test must be taken in English or French.
Authority was provided for revoking or denying citizenship in specified circumstances.
Provision was made for the regulation of consultants, as well as for certain anti-fraud measures.
2017
On February 25, 2016, as a consequence of the Liberal victory in the 2015 election, An Act to amend the Citizenship Act and to make consequential amendments to another Act was passed on June 19, 2017. Most provisions took effect upon Royal Assent, with the remainder coming into force on October 11, 2017 January 24, 2018 and December 5, 2018.
The Act provided for the following changes:
The period required for physical presence in Canada was reduced from 1,460 days over six years to a total of 1,095 days over the five years immediately prior to submitting an application for citizenship.
The requirement that a person intend to reside in Canada if granted citizenship was repealed.
The adult maximum age limit applicable for the requirements to demonstrate adequate knowledge of one of the official languages is now applicable to those under 55 years of age, rather than by those under 65.
The requirement to file income tax returns was clarified, so that persons must provide such returns for three years within the five-year period before applying for citizenship.
"Statelessness" was added to the available grounds for the Minister to exercise his or her discretion in granting citizenship to any person "to alleviate cases of special and unusual hardship or to reward services of an exceptional value to Canada."
The prohibition on receiving a grant of citizenship, or taking the citizenship oath, while serving a term of imprisonment was broadened to include being held under any form of incarceration.
The power to revoke citizenship on grounds of national security was repealed.
The provision specifying that a person whose citizenship is revoked reverts to being a foreign national was amended to provide that the person's status reverts to that of a permanent resident.
The Minister was granted the power to seize or detain any document submitted for the purposes of the Act if there are reasonable grounds to believe the document was fraudulently or improperly obtained or used.
Transitional provisions provided for certain of the 2014 amendments to be deemed to have never had effect.
Judicial review of Citizenship Act provisions
Definition of "residence requirement"
There have been several court decisions dealing with the subject of Canadian citizenship. In particular, the interpretation of the 3-year (1,095-day) residence requirement enacted by the 1977 Citizenship Act, which does not define the term "residence" and, further, prohibits an appeal of a Federal Court decision in a citizenship matter to the Federal Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court, has "led to a great deal of mischief and agony" and generated considerable judicial controversy.
Over the years two principal schools of thought for residence have emerged from the Federal Court.
Early on, Associate Chief Justice Arthur L. Thurlow in Papadogiorgakis (Re), [1978] 2 F.C. 208, opined that residency entails more than a mere counting of days. He held that residency is a matter of the degree to which a person, in mind or fact, settles into or maintains or centralizes their ordinary mode of living, including social relations, interests, and conveniences. The question becomes whether an applicant's linkages suggest that Canada is their home, regardless of any absences from the country.
In Re Koo, Justice Barbara Reed further elaborated that in residency cases the question before the Court is whether Canada is the country in which an applicant has centralized their mode of existence. Resolving such a question involves consideration of several factors:
The general principle is that the quality of residence in Canada must be more substantial than elsewhere.
In contrast, a line of jurisprudence flowing from the decision in Re Pourghasemi (1993), 62 F.T.R. 122, 19 Imm. L.R. (2d) 259, emphasized how important it is for a potential new citizen to be immersed in Canadian society and that a person cannot reside in a place where the person is not physically present. Thus, a potential citizen must establish that they have been physically present in Canada for the requisite period of time.
In the words of Justice Francis Muldoon:
The co-existence of such disparate, yet equally valid approaches has led some judges to comment that:
the "[citizenship] law is in a sorry state;"
"there cannot be two correct interpretations of a statute;"
"it does not engender confidence in the system for conferring citizenship if an applicant is, in the course of a single application, subjected to different legal tests because of the differing legal views of the Citizenship Court;"
there's a "scandalous incertitude in the law;" and that
"there is no doubt that a review of the citizenship decisions of this Court, on that issue, demonstrates that the process of gaining citizenship in such circumstances is akin to a lottery."
In 2010, it seemed that a relative judicial consensus for decision-making in residence cases might emerge. In several Federal Court decisions it was held that the citizenship judge must apply a hybrid two-test approach by firstly ascertaining whether, on the balance of probabilities, the applicant has accumulated 1,095 days of physical presence. If so, the residency requirement is considered to have been met. If not, then the judge must additionally assess the application under the "centralized mode of existence" approach, guided by the non-exhaustive factors set out in Koo (Re).
However, most recently, this compromise formula was rejected by Federal Court judges, with some judges commenting on the need for legislation to resolve the issue.
Other significant cases
Canadians, British nationality, and immigration law (1947–1981)
The Canadian Citizenship Act, 1976 replaced the term "British subject" with "Commonwealth citizen" in 1977, but the UK did not follow suit until 1 January 1983, when the British Nationality Act 1981 went into effect.
While Canada created Canadian citizenship on 1 January 1947, the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 continued to confer British subject status (the only nationality and citizenship status of the United Kingdom and its colonies and dominions before 1949) on Canadians until the British Nationality Act 1948 came into effect on 31 December 1948. That, together with succeeding Acts, changed the nature of Canadian citizenship status as it could apply within the UK:
Timeline
See also
Canadian immigration law
Canadian nationality law
Immigration to Canada
Canadians of convenience
Lost Canadians
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Nationality law
Immigration to Canada
Nationality law
Canada
Canada |
4319142 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartier%20Mangin | Quartier Mangin | Laon-Couvron Air Base is a former French and United States Air Force base in France. It is located in the Aisne département of France, less than one mile southeast of the village of Couvron and 6 miles northwest of Laon; on the southwest side of the Autoroute des Anglais (A26 autoroute)
1 Mile (1.6 km) east of the village of Couvron-et-Aumencourt.
After 1967, the facility was a French Army Armée de Terre station, renaming the base Quartier Mangin sur l'ancienne base de Couvron. From 1980 to 2012 it was the home of the 1st Marine Artillery Regiment (1er Régiment d'Artillerie de Marine (1er RAMa)).
History
The location was used for the first time for aviation purposes at the end of the First World War, when the Germans built an airstrip for defending the Paris Gun.
The facility was re-established in 1938 as a French Air Force grass airdrome named "Laon-Chambry". It was headquarters of Groupement de Chasse 23 (Hunting Group 23) with G.C. II/2 being the operational squadron. There were about 26 Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 fighters assigned, along with 2 Curtiss Hawk 75s in May 1940, just prior to the Battle of France.
German use during Second World War
The airfield was seized by the Germans in late May during the Battle of France. The Luftwaffe quickly moved in combat strike units to continue the Blitzkrieg against French and British Expeditionary Force units in the battle. Known units assigned were:
Jagdgeschwader 53 (JG 53) 26 May-1 June 1940 Messerschmitt Bf 109E
Jagdgeschwader 2 (JG 2) 26 May-1 June 1940; 2–16 June 1940 Messerschmitt Bf 109E
Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 (StG 2) 12 June–July 1940, Junkers Ju 87B Stuka
The Battle of France saw these JG 53 score heavily during May and June 1940 against Armee de l'Air and Royal Air Force forces, while JG 2 was tasked with escorting raids and defending German airspace to the south of Heinz Guderian's Panzer forces which were encircling the French and the British Expeditionary Force. StG 2 provided air-ground support of Wehrmacht units moving rapidly south into France and along the channel coast against mostly French Army units.
In the immediate aftermath of the German victory in France, the Luftwaffe moved in Kampfgeschwader 77 (KG 77), a bomber wing. KG 77 was initially equipped with Dornier Do 17Z, and later with Junkers Ju 88As in mid July 1940. carrying out attacks on England during the Battle of Britain. Initially having 35 Ju 88s, This unit suffered losses of 9 Ju 88s on a single mission against Gravesend on 18 September, one of the highest losses of any units in a single mission. On 27 September I./KG 77 lost six J 88s when raiding London, while II./KG 77 lost another six on the same night. In February 1941, the unit moved to Reims.
When the bombers moved out, the Luftwaffe improved the airfield, putting down two 1600m concrete runways (02/20, 10/28), along with concrete taxiways, dispersal hardstands and improved the support station and barracks.
The improved airfield came back onto operational status in October 1942 when a Luftwaffe pathfinder group, Kampfgeschwader 100 (KG 100) moved in on 7 October. Flying Heinkel He 111H, the group led night bombing attacks over England for other Luftwaffe units. It remained until December 1942 when it moved to Glifada, Greece (Athens).
Laon's next use by the Luftwaffe was by Kampfgeschwader 101 (KG 101) in March 1944, followed by Kampfgeschwader 30 (KG 30) in July 1944. KG 101 was part of the Mistel (German: Mistletoe), project, in which Junkers Ju 88A, bombers were controlled by a Messerschmitt Bf 109E, which was flown to the target by the fighter, then separated and guided, with a shaped 1,800 kg charge at the nose of the aircraft, and used as unmanned powered bomb. KG 101 flew several attacks against hardened Allied targets along the English channel coast, and later KG 30 flew conventional bombing attacks against Allied harbors in newly liberated areas of the French channel coast. These activities drew Allied attention to the base, with it being attacked by B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers of the Eighth Air Force 100th Bombardment Group on 5 May 1944
With the bombers moving out, the Luftwaffe turned Laon-Couvron into a fighter-interceptor base, with Jagdgeschwader 27 (JG 27) flying Bf 109G day interceptors against Eighth Air Force bomber groups over Occupied Europe. Largely due to its use as a base for interceptors, Laon-Couvron was attacked by USAAF Ninth Air Force B-26 Marauder medium bombers and P-47 Thunderbolts mostly with 500-pound General-Purpose bombs; unguided rockets and .50 caliber machine gun sweeps when Eighth Air Force heavy bombers (B-17s, B-24s) were within interception range of the Luftwaffe aircraft assigned to the base. The attacks were timed to have the maximum effect possible to keep the interceptors pinned down on the ground and be unable to attack the heavy bombers. Also the P-51 Mustang fighter-escort groups of Eighth Air Force would drop down on their return to England and attack the base with a fighter sweep and attack any target of opportunity to be found at the airfield.
American wartime use
In August 1944, the Laon area was liberated by the Third Army and Laon-Couvron was captured about 7 September. The airfield was repaired by the IX Engineering Command, 820th Engineer Aviation Battalion, and declared operationally ready for combat on 10 September. Under American control it was designated as Advanced Landing Ground "A-70 Laon-Couvron".
Ninth Air Force assigned the 50th Fighter Group, based P-47 Thunderbolt fighters to the airfield on 15 September, remaining until 28 September. The fighter planes flew support missions during the Allied invasion of France, patrolling roads, strafing German military vehicles, and dropping bombs on gun emplacements, anti-aircraft artillery and concentrations of German troops when spotted. Afterwards, the A-26 Invader-equipped 409th Bombardment Group, arrived in February 1945, remaining until June when the base was closed.
After the end of the Second World War, Laon Air Base was returned to the French on 23 October 1945 and the facility was unused for several years, the land being leased by the French Air Ministry to farmers for agricultural use.
U.S. acquisition and use
With the outbreak of the Cold War in the late 1940s and the Berlin Airlift and the ongoing threat from the Soviet Union to Western Europe, the Soviet threat appeared to be growing. Thus negotiations began in November 1950 between NATO and the United States to station combat forces in France to meet European defense needs. During the site selection negotiations, Laon-Couvron was initially proposed by the USAF to become a Light Bomber air base, and also an Air Division Headquarters base. Also, the USAF had historically used the base, and it was presently unused. An agreement was reached with the French Air Ministry in early 1951 for the Americans to return to Laon-Couvron and redevelop the base, and that a USAF light bomber wing would be stationed there as soon as possible.
On 15 June 1951 construction began to upgrade the wartime facilities to NATO standards. When USAF engineers arrived they found the base much as the USAAF had left it in 1945, with wrecked hangars and support facilities full of garbage and vermin after years of abandonment, still in ruins from the numerous bombing raids; two patched runways, and various amounts of aircraft wreckage moved off the grass areas which were leased to farmers in the postwar years. The entire base had to be bulldozed and cleared before construction could begin. New water wells were dug and new water lines and sewage pipes were laid. A new water treatment plant, along with upgraded roads were built. A new jet runway was constructed over the existing wartime secondary runway, the primary being resurfaced and used as a taxiway to a new maintenance support site.
The design of the airfield was to space park aircraft as far apart as possible by the construction of a circular marguerite system of hardstands that could be revetted later with earth for added protection. Typically the marguerite consisted of fifteen to eighteen hardstands around a large central hangar. Each hardstand held one or two aircraft, and allowed the planes to be spaced approximately 150 feet (50 m) apart. Each squadron was assigned to a separate hangar/hardstand complex. This construction can be seen clearly in the satellite image link at the bottom of this article. By 1954 the base was ready for use by operational Air Force Wings.
126th Bombardment Wing (Light)
The first USAF unit to use Laon AB was the activated Air National Guard 126th Bombardment Wing, flying the Second World War vintage Douglas B-26B/C "Invader" light bomber.
The wing consisted of the 108th, 168th and 180th Bomb Squadrons (Light). The aircraft were marked by various color bands on the vertical stabilizer and rudder. Black/Yellow/Blue for the 108th; Black/Yellow/Red for the 168th, and Black/Yellow/Green for the 180th.
The 126th BW was called to active service on 1 April 1951 and was initially deployed to Bordeaux AB in November 1951. On 25 May 1952 the wing was relocated to Laon, with Bordeaux becoming a support base. A total of 5 B-26Bs, 6 TB-26Bs, and 26 B-26Cs were transferred from Bordeaux, and an additional 48 B-26C's painted black and equipped for night missions were deployed from CONUS to Laon.
At Laon, the 126th used its B-26's for training and maneuvers at Laon until December until being relieved from active duty and transferred, without personnel and equipment, back to the control of the Illinois Air National Guard on 1 January 1953.
38th Tactical Bombardment Wing
On 1 January 1953, the flying assets of the 126th Bomb Wing were transferred to the 38th Tactical Bombardment Wing. The 38th's squadrons were designated the 71st, 405th, and 822nd Bomb Squadrons. The wing continued flying the B-26's until 1956.
In April 1955 the 38th Bomb Wing converted to the Martin B-57 "Canberra". The B-57 was a replacement for aging Douglas B-26 "Invader", and with their arrival, the B-26's were returned to CONUS. Because English Electric was unable to meet the USAF delivery schedule, the design was licensed to Martin for US manufacture. A total of 49 B-57B and 8 2-seat B-57C models were deployed to Laon.
The mission of the B-57 was to provide a nuclear deterrent for NATO and to deliver nuclear weapons against pre-selected targets, day or night. The aircraft at Laon were painted a gloss black. An acrobatic team was organized and named the Black Knights using five B-57's. The Black Knights performed at several air shows around Western Europe, including the 1957 Paris Air Show. The Black Knights were the only tactical bomber show team in the world.
In 1958, General De Gaulle announced that all nuclear weapons and delivery aircraft had to be removed from French soil by July 1958. Since NATO strategy had evolved into "massive nuclear retaliation" this meant all tactical fighter and bombing wings had to depart France. The 38th TBW was inactivated at Laon on 18 June 1958 and redesignated as the 38th Tactical Missile Wing at Hahn Air Base West Germany, operating and maintaining the TM-61 "Matador" cruise missile.
The support personnel of the 38th were reassigned to the incoming 66th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing.
The B-57's were returned to CONUS and transferred to the Air National Guard and some were converted into various other versions (reconnaissance, electronic warfare) of the B-57. Aircraft from Laon were assigned to the following units:
117th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, Kansas ANG, Hutchinson, KS
154th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, Arkansas ANG, Little Rock, AR
165th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, Kentucky ANG, Louisville, KY
172nd Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, Michigan ANG, Battle Creek, MI
Many of these aircraft were deployed to Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. By 1973, most of the surviving B-57s had been consigned to the boneyards at Davis Monthan AFB.
66th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing
With the forced withdrawal of the nuclear-equipped B-57s from France, USAFE decided to move the 66th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing to Laon. In 1955 the 66th TRW was assigned to Sembach AB in West Germany, however the flying facilities were inadequate and the base was too small to support flying operations. This move was also in accordance with USAFEs plan to realign the posture of various bases in anticipation of aircraft conversion. The 66th was to convert to the RF-101 Voodoo.
On 10 July 1958, 66th TRW Wing Headquarters was transferred to Laon, however its flying squadrons, the 32nd, 38th, 302nd and 303rd, were located at Phalsbourg AB until considerable runway improvements, in particular the preparation of runway overruns could be made at Laon.
In September, the 64 RF-84F "Thunderstreak" tactical reconnaissance aircraft of the 66th arrived at Laon. Just prior to the move, in a public relations exercise, the 302nd engaged in some large-scale oblique photo coverage of all towns and cities within a 30-mile radius of Laon. The processed photos were presented to the various town and city officials as a means of introducing the newcomers to the community.
In early 1959 it was announced that the 302nd and 303rd TRS were to be inactivated and their places in the 66th taken by the 17th and 18th TRS from Shaw AFB, South Carolina. These two units arrived at Laon in May 1959, with the 302nd and 303rd inactivated on 20 June. All the RF-84s were ferried to the IRAN facility at Naples for eventual distribution to NATO forces.
In January 1959 the announcement was made that the 32nd and 38th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadrons were to receive the McDonnell RF-101C "Voodoo". Many of the pilots of the 302nd and 303rd squadrons were transferred to the new Voodoo squadrons.
Capt. Neely was the chief test pilot from 1959 to 1962.
Capt. Everhart commissioned officer in charge, with Chief Master Sergeant Carl L. Molis as NCO were in charge of field maintenance operations from December 1959 to October 1962.
USAF Closure
On 7 March 1966, Gen Charles De Gaulle announced that France would withdraw from NATO's military structure but not leave the political organization. He gave NATO forces one year (until 1 April 1967) to depart France.
On 10 June 1966 the 7379th Tactical Group was activated at Laon AB to facilitate the closure of the base. There was no space available in Germany to relocate the 66th TRW, so the Strategic Air Command's standby base at RAF Upper Heyford, England, was transferred to USAFE and the wing relocated to the UK after eight years at Laon AB.
The relocation of the 66th TRW was completed by November 1966. Under the US Embassy in Paris, a caretaker force, 7260th Support Group, DET 18 MLS, provided security, with 6 French nationals for records and utility system operations remained until 30 March 1967 when the remaining USAF equipment and personnel were transferred out of Laon and the base was returned to the French.
Current uses
With the withdrawal of the USAF, the French Army moved into Laon Air Base and renamed the facility Quartier Mangin sur l'ancienne base de Couvron. From 1980 it was the home of the 1st Marine Artillery Regiment (1er Regiment d'Artillerie de Marine (1er RAMa)).
Many of the old USAF buildings remain at the technical area and support base, and were used by the French. The three large hangars on the main parking ramp have been removed, with new-purpose-built structures being erected on the parking ramp area. The hangars in the two northern squadron marguerites have been removed, but both parking areas are still relatively intact, albeit with deteriorating hardstands; the marguerite to the east having had much additional construction of army facilities over the years. The main NATO jet runway is no longer in use, however it appears well maintained along with the main taxiway. A small section of the runway has been used for helicopter operations.
Much of the wartime base remains, the entire length of the German 10/28 runway is visible, being used as an east–west access road and storage area for excess vehicles. The north–south 02/20 runway remains in part, with some buildings erected on parts of it, other parts reduced to a double road with, and other parts of broken-up, deteriorating concrete, with a parallel taxiway also still existing in part, being used as a perimeter road of the facility. A large area in the southwest of the base consists of abandoned streets, with concrete foundations of former buildings still remaining in the grass areas between them. It is not known if the foundations are from wartime or NATO buildings.
In addition, to the southeast just outside the current facility, are the remains of what was probably a German aircraft dispersal area with large, unconnected concrete areas in agricultural fields connected by single-lane concrete farm roads.
On 19 Juin 2012, the 1st Marine Artillery Régiment took up new quarters at Châlons-en-Champagne where it relieved the disbanded 402nd Artillery Regiment.
British company MotorSport Vision will build a racing circuit at Laon.
Notes
References
McAuliffe, Jerome J. (2005). US Air Force in France 1950–1967. San Diego, California: Milspec Press, Chapter 13, Laon-Couvron Air Base. .
Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. .
External links
126th Bombardment Wing (Light)
66th Air Base Wing
66th Supply Squadron Website
Welcome To Laon Air Base Website
1er régiment d'artillerie de marine Website (In French)
Laon Couvron Air Base: Charts
French Army installations
World War II airfields in France |
4319287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration%20to%20Canada | Immigration to Canada | According to the 2021 Canadian census, immigrants in Canada number 8.3 million persons and make up approximately 23 percent of Canada's total population. This represents the eighth-largest immigrant population in the world, while the proportion represents one of the highest ratios for industrialized Western countries.
Following Canada's confederation in 1867, immigration played an integral role in helping develop vast tracts of land. During this era, the Canadian Government would sponsor information campaigns and recruiters to encourage settlement in rural areas; however, this would primarily be only towards those of European and religious Christian backgrounds, while others—particularly Hindus, Buddhist, Shinto, Sikh, Muslim, and Jewish immigrants—as well as the poor, ill, and disabled, would be less than welcome. Following 1947, in the post-World War II period, Canadian domestic immigration law and policy went through significant changes, most notably with the Immigration Act, 1976, and the current Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) from 2002.
The main drivers of population growth are immigration, driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification. A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021, with plans to increase the annual intake of immigrants to 500,000 per year. New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.
Statistics and sources of immigration
Canada receives its immigrant population from almost 200 countries. Statistics Canada projects that immigrants will represent between 29.1% and 34.0% of Canada's population in 2041, compared with 23.0% in 2021, while the Canadian population with at least one foreign born parent (first and second generation persons) could rise to between 49.8% and 54.3%, up from 44.0% in 2021. The number of visible minorities will double and make up the majority of the population of cities in Canada.
Economic impact of immigration
Economic impact of Immigration on Canada is a divisive topic. Two main narratives exist on this matter, one is based on an educated prediction that higher immigration rates increases the size of the economy (GDP) for government spending, and the other is based on studies that it decreases living standards (GDP per capita) for the resident population. According to a 2011 report by The Fraser Institute, immigrants to Canada cost the federal government up to $23 billion annually and was found to be a large fiscal burden on Canadian taxpayers. Many sources consider the reason for Canada's mass immigration is because of “dependency ratio,” in Canada this ratio in total is rising hence the government wants mass immigration to increase the taxpayer base for Canada to be a total welfare state. Many consider this as a low-wage-low-productivity model of immigration that does not focus on creating wealth, and as a failed approach due to not having systems and settings in place for smoothly transitioning new immigrants into jobs in skill shortage sectors that they were invited to fill, and that can empower them for being highly productive and contributing citizens, and top rate tax payers. Among other factors, a major systemic impediment to this transition is the prevalent socioeconomic racialization of immigrants and its life-course altering impact on their quality of life. A popular narrative that exists for immigration is that mass immigration can provide a solution to an aging population. This narrative has been questioned by some and they state immigration alone "can do little" in addressing the issue. Many critics consider Canada has to systematically re-focus on legislating and promoting pro-family policies, and have to work actively in raising the living standard of Canadians. In 2023, Statistics Canada released a report indicating that the longstanding concern regarding labor shortages has ceased to be a predicament, a major objective of the immigration policy. The report recommends to incorporate workers at all levels for employment by deflating hiring requirements, prioritizing on-the-job training, and establishing sustainable workplace practices. Critics of mass immigration state that Canada does not have the infrastructure and public services to accommodate immigrants and temporary residents in large numbers. Added to this they observe Canada's moral responsibility (Duty of care) to the welcomed refugees is as bad as its responsibility to the bulging homelessness issue.
History of immigration
Following initial British and French colonization, what is now Canada has seen four major waves (or peaks) of immigration and settlement of non-Aboriginal Peoples take place over a span of nearly two centuries. Canada is currently undergoing its fifth wave.
Periods of low immigration in Canada have also occurred: international movement was very difficult during the world wars, and there was a lack of jobs "pulling" workers to Canada during the Great Depression in Canada. Statistics Canada has tabulated the effect of immigration on population growth in Canada from 1851 to 2001.
First wave, pre-1815
The first significant wave of non-Aboriginal immigration to Canada occurred over almost two centuries with slow, but progressive, French settlement in Quebec and Acadia, along with smaller numbers of American and European entrepreneurs in addition to British military personnel. This wave culminated with the influx of 46–50,000 British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States, mostly into what are now Southern Ontario, the Eastern Townships of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. 36,000 of these migrants went to the Maritimes, and some would later make their way to Ontario.
Another wave of 30,000 Americans settled in Ontario and the Eastern Townships between the late 1780s and 1812 with promises of land. From forcibly having cleared land in Scotland, several thousands of Gaelic-speaking Scottish Highlanders migrated to Cape Breton, Nova Scotia and parts of Eastern Ontario during this period, marking a new age for Canada and its people.
Second wave (The Great Migration), 1815–50
The second wave of immigrants, known as the Great Migration of Canada, saw the arrival of at least 800,000 people between 1815 and 1850, 60% of whom were British (English and Scottish), while the remainder was mostly Irish.
The Great Migration encouraged immigrants to settle in Canada after the War of 1812, including British army regulars who had served in that war. In 1815, 80% of the 250,000 English-speaking people in Canada were either American colonists or their descendants. By 1851, the percentage of Americans had dropped to 30%. Worried about another American attempt at invasion—and to counter the French-speaking influence of Quebec—colonial governors of Canada rushed to promote settlement in backcountry areas along newly constructed plank roads within organized land tracts, mostly in Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). Much of the settlements were organized by large companies to promote clearing, and thus farming of land lots.
With this wave, Irish immigration to Canada had increased in small numbers to organize land settlements and, mostly, to work on canals, timber, railroads. Irish immigration would peak from 1846 to 1849 due to the Great Famine of Ireland, which resulted in hundreds of thousands more Irish migrants arriving on Canada's shores, with a portion migrating to the United States, either in the short-term or over the subsequent decades.
This movement of people boosted Canada's population from approximately 500,000 in 1812 to 2.5 million by 1851. The Francophones would make up roughly 300,000 of the population in 1812, increasing to approx. 700,000 by the 1851 census, however, demographically Canada had swung to a majority Anglophone country. Canada's 1851 population by region would look as follows:
Upper Canada (Ontario): 952,000;
Lower Canada (Quebec): 890,000—about a quarter of whom spoke English as a first language;
The Maritimes: 550,000.
Canada-US
The Dominion Lands Act of 1872 copied the American system by offering ownership of 160 acres (65 ha) of land free (with a small registration fee) to any man over the age of 18, or any woman heading a household. They did not need to be citizens but had to live on the plot and improve it.
Also during this period, Canada became a port of entry for many Europeans seeking to gain entry into the United States. Canadian transportation companies advertised Canadian ports as a hassle-free way to enter the US, especially as the States began barring entry to certain ethnicities. Both the US and Canada mitigated this situation in 1894 with the Canadian Agreement which allowed for U.S. immigration officials to inspect ships landing at Canadian ports for immigrants excluded from the US. If found, the transporting companies were responsible for shipping the persons back.
Clifford Sifton, Ottawa's Minister of the Interior (1896–1905), argued that the free western lands were ideal for growing wheat and would attract large numbers of hard-working farmers. He removed obstacles that included control of the lands by companies or organizations that did little to encourage settlement. Land companies, the Hudson's Bay Company, and school lands all accounted for large tracts of excellent property. The railways kept closed even larger tracts because they were reluctant to take legal title to the even-numbered lands they were due, thus blocking the sale of odd-numbered tracts. With the goal of maximizing immigration from Britain, eastern Canada and the US, Sifton broke the legal log jam, and set up aggressive advertising campaigns in the U.S. and Europe, with a host of agents promoting the Canadian West. He would also broker deals with ethnic groups who wanted large tracts for homogeneous settlement.
Third wave, 1890–1920
Canada's third wave of immigration came mostly from continental Europe, and peaked before World War I from 1911 to 1913, with over 400,000 migrants in 1912—many of whom were from Eastern and Southern Europe.
Chinese immigration
Prior to 1885, restrictions on immigration were imposed mostly in response to large waves of migrants rather than planned policy decisions. Such restrictions, at least as official policy, would not explicitly target any specific group or ethnicity of people until 1885, with the passing of the first Chinese Head Tax legislation by the MacDonald government in response to a growing number of Chinese migrants working on the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Subsequent increases in the head tax in 1900 and 1903 limited Chinese entrants to Canada, and it was followed by 1907 major riots against 'Oriental' people (i.e. Asians) in Vancouver, BC by Asiatic Exclusion League. In 1923, the government passed the Chinese Immigration Act which excluded Chinese people from entering Canada altogether between 1923 and 1947. In recognizing Canada's historical discrimination against Chinese immigrants, an official government apology and compensations were announced on 22 June 2006.
Fourth wave, 1940s–60s
The fourth wave came from Europe following World War II, and peaked at 282,000 in 1957. With many of these migrants coming from Italy and Portugal, Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia proved to be an influential port for European immigration. From 1928 until ceasing operations in 1971, the Pier would receive 471,940 Italians, becoming the third-largest ethnic group to immigrate to Canada during that time period.
Immigrants from Britain, however, were still given the highest priority, and 'Canadianization' would become of great importance for new arrivals who lacked a British cultural background. There would be no such effort to attract Francophone immigrants. In regard to economic opportunity, Canada was most attractive to farmers headed to the Prairies, who typically came from Eastern and Central Europe, as immigrants from Britain preferred urban life. As such, the Church of England took up the role of introducing British values to farmers newly arrived in the Prairie provinces, although, in practice, they clung to their traditional religious affiliations. Nonetheless, around the 1960s, Indo-Canadians would establish themselves in Canada's exurban and rural agriculture and become a dominant feature in British Columbia's farming sector, having already primarily been established in the provincial forestry industry since the turn of the 20th century. Hispanic immigrants would follow similar lines, particularly in regions that were linked with strong farming settlements immediately south of the border.
With the economy still expanding, Canadians did not always demonstrate sufficient mobility to fill the hiring needs of some regions, nor to fill some economic niches (particularly “entry-level jobs”). Due to these circumstances, in 1967, the Canadian Government would introduce a points-based system, under which applicants were given preference if they knew either French, English, or both; were non-dependent adults (i.e., not too old to work); already had prospective employment lined up in Canada; had relatives in the country (who could support them if necessary); were interested in settling in the parts of Canada with the greatest need for workers; and were trained or educated in fields that were in demand. The new legislation would prove to be an integral element in attracting large numbers of immigrants from sources that were considered “non-traditional.”
From then on, Canada would start to become a more multi-ethnic country with substantial non-British or non-French European elements. Ukrainian Canadians, for instance, accounted for the largest Ukrainian population outside of the Soviet Union. Also in the 1960s, young American men fled to Canada in order to avoid the U.S. draft for the Vietnam War. Especially large numbers were established in BC's Kootenays, Gulf Islands, and Sunshine Coast, followed by others, including counterculture, back-to-the-land advocates who were more drawn to Canada.
Contemporary immigration, 1970s–present
Immigration in Canada since the 1970s, or the fifth wave, has been mostly from Asia. This was largely influenced in 1976 when the Immigration Act was revised and was maintained as official government policy. The regulations introduced in 1976 consisted of 9 categories: education, occupation, professional skills, age, arranged employment, knowledge of English and/or French, relatives in Canada and “personal characteristics.” To qualify for immigration 50 points out of 100 were necessary in 1976.
On 20 February 1978, Canada and Quebec sign an immigration agreement allowing Quebec decision-making power in independently choosing its immigrants, who would then still have to be approved by Ottawa.
During the Mulroney administration, immigration levels were increased. From the late 1980s, the 'fifth wave' of immigration has since maintained, with slight fluctuations (225,000–275,000 annually). Today, political parties remain cautious in criticizing high levels of immigration, because in the early 1990s, as noted by The Globe and Mail, Canada's Reform Party "was branded 'racist' for suggesting that immigration levels be lowered from 250,000 to 150,000". However, the Coalition Avenir Québec who were elected in the 2018 Quebec election advocated for a reduction to the number of immigrants, to 40,000 for the province of Quebec, a reduction of 20%.
In 2008, Stephen Harper gave then-parliamentary secretary and Minister of Multiculturalism and Citizenship Jason Kenney, established a mandate to integrate immigrants, while improving relationship between the government to communities to gain votes. In November 2017, Immigration Minister Ahmed Hussen announced that Canada would admit nearly 1 million permanent residents over the following three years, rising from 0.7% to 1% of its population by 2020. This increase was motivated by the economic needs of the country caused by an aging population.
In 2008, Citizenship and Immigration Canada (now Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) ) made changes to immigration policy, such as reducing professional categories for skilled immigration and eliminating caps for immigrants in various categories. Likewise, in 2015, Canada introduced the 'Express Entry' system, providing a streamlined application process for many economic immigrants.
From 2013–2014, most of the Canadian public, as well as the country's major political parties, supported either sustaining or increasing the current level of immigration. A sociological study conducted in 2014 concluded that "Australia and Canada are the most receptive to immigration among western nations." In 2017, an Angus Reid poll indicated that a majority of respondents believed that Canada should accept fewer immigrants and refugees.
According to 2016 Census data via Statistics Canada, over one in five Canadians were born abroad, while 22.3% of the Canadian population belonged to visible minorities, of whom three in ten were born in Canada. Moreover, 21.9% of the Canadian population reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—close to the 1921 Census record of 22.3%, the highest level Canada has seen since Confederation in 1867.
In 2019, Canada admitted 341,180 permanent residents, compared to 321,055 the previous year. Among those admitted, 58% were economic immigrants and their accompanying immediate families; 27% were family class; 15% were either resettled refugees or protected persons or were in the humanitarian and other category. India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada. A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021, surpassing the previous annual record of 400,900 set in 1913.
In 2022, the Government of Canada stated plans to increase immigration to 500,000 people per year until 2025.
Immigration rate
Since confederation in 1867, the highest annual immigration rate in Canada occurred during the early 20th century, including 1913 (new immigrants accounted for 5.3 percent of the total population), 1912 (5.1 percent), 1911 (4.6 percent), 1907 (4.3 percent) and 1910 (4.1 percent). At this time, immigration from the British Isles increased, supplemented by a rapid increase in immigration flows from continental Europe, especially Germany, Scandinavia, and the Soviet Union.
Per the Canada–Quebec Accord of 1991, Quebec has sole responsibility for selecting most immigrants destined to the province. However, once immigrants are granted permanent residency or citizenship they are free to move between and reside in any provinces under Section 6 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
In 2001, 250,640 people immigrated to Canada, relative to a total population of 30,007,094 people per the 2001 Census. Since 2001, immigration has ranged between 221,352 and 262,236 immigrants per annum. In 2017, the Liberal government announced Canada will welcome nearly one million immigrants over the next three years. The number of migrants would climb to 310,000 in 2018, up from 300,000 in 2017. That number was projected to rise to 330,000 in 2019, then 340,000 in 2020. Accordingly, between 2017 and 2018, net immigration accounted for 80% of Canada's population increase.
The three main official reasons given for the level of immigration were:
The social component – Canada facilitates family reunification.
The humanitarian component – Relating to refugees.
The economic component – Attracting immigrants who will contribute economically and fill labour market needs.
Canada's level of immigration peaked in 1993 in the last year of the Progressive Conservative government and was maintained by the Liberal Party of Canada. Ambitious targets of an annual 1% per capita immigration rate were hampered by financial constraints. The Liberals committed to raising actual immigration levels further in 2005.
As Canadian political parties have been cautious about criticizing high levels of immigration, immigration levels to Canada (approx. 0.7% per year) are considerably higher per capita than to the United States (approx. 0.3% per year).
Furthermore, much of the immigration to the US is from Latin America and relatively less from Asia, though admitting about twice as many immigrants from Asian countries (e.g. China, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan) as Canada. As such, the Hispanic/Latin American population makes up the largest minority group in the United States, whereas such is true for the Asian population in Canada.
Immigrant population growth is concentrated in or around large cities (particularly Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal). These cities have experienced increased service demands that accompany strong population growth, causing concern about the capability of the infrastructure to handle influxes in such places. For example, as noted in a Toronto Star article from 14 July 2006, 43% of Canada's immigrants move to the Greater Toronto Area and that, "unless Canada cuts immigrant numbers, our major cities will not be able to maintain their social and physical infrastructures." Most of the provinces that do not have one of those destination cities have implemented strategies to try to boost their share of immigration. Within cities, immigrants are more likely to settle in areas with better public transit service compared to non-immigrants, and are more likely to use public transit for travelling to work, partly because of costs and barriers to car ownership While cities are a popular destination for new immigrants, some small towns have seen an influx of immigration due to economic reasons and local schools districts are working to adjust to the change.
Canada's plan to increase immigration aims to address labor shortages and demographic changes that threaten the country's future. While experts acknowledge the benefits of increased immigration, they emphasize the need for comprehensive solutions that extend beyond simply raising immigration levels. Matching newcomers' skills with available job opportunities, streamlining recognition of foreign credentials through regulatory bodies, and expanding the focus to encompass a wider range of job sectors are crucial steps. Additionally, they express concerns regarding the strain on essential services and potential stakeholder influence on policy-making require careful consideration. The experts concur that achieving a balance between the country's economic needs and the well-being of both newcomers and existing residents will be key to effectively addressing labor market challenges and ensuring successful immigration integration.
Illegal migration
Estimates of undocumented immigrants in Canada range between 35,000 and 120,000. James Bissett, a former head of the Canadian Immigration Service, has suggested that the lack of any credible refugee screening process, combined with a high likelihood of ignoring any deportation orders, has resulted in tens of thousands of outstanding warrants for the arrest of rejected refugee claimants, with little attempt at enforcement. A 2008 report by the Auditor General Sheila Fraser stated that Canada has lost track of as many as 41,000 illegal immigrants.
In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York, most notably the former Roxham Road port of entry, saw an influx of up to 500 crossings each day outside of official ports of entry by people seeking asylum in Canada. Entering Canada outside of a port of entry is not an offence under either the Criminal Code or Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, and regulations under the IRPA only require that a person seeking to enter Canada outside a point of entry to "appear without delay" at the nearest port of entry. While entering Canada outside of a port of entry may represent an unlawful act, section 133 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act requires that charges related to any offences associated with entering Canada are stayed while an entrant's claim is being processed in accordance with the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.
As result, Canada increased border patrol and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating that crossing the border outside ports of entry (referred to as 'irregular migration') had no effect on one's asylum status. It is reported that over 38,000 'irregular migrants' arrived in Canada since early 2017.
For the same reason, both Ontario and Quebec requested the Government of Canada to provide or more to cover their cost of burden to house and provide services to asylum seekers. Related to asylum seekers, Canada joined 164 countries in signing the UN Global Compact for Migration in 2018. The 2017 government claims it is for following careful measures and to meet international obligations in accommodating irregular migrants.
While it is impossible to determine, it is generally accepted that there are tens of thousands of illegal immigrants living in Canada. There were 2,560 removal orders issued against illegal immigrants in 2018, according to a report by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. An internal audit report surfaced in 2023 from the Canada Border Security Agency (CBSA) revealing that nearly half of the flagged foreign nationals with serious offences including war crimes, espionage and terrorism were allowed to gain residency in Canada from 2014 to 2019. Immigration officials granted residency for 46% of over 7,000 cases where the CBSA recommended against entry. The audit evaluated the Immigration National Security Screening Program, which is responsible for preventing inadmissible individuals from entering or staying in the country.
Settlement workers
Settlement workers help immigrants into Canada understand their rights and responsibilities and find the programs and services they need to integrate with the new culture and the prospects of a livelihood. They motivate organizations to hire immigrants and support immigration through recruiting new members/ employees. They work with government agencies, school boards, libraries and other community organizations with networks of resources. These working relationships also help to provide families with the tools necessary to manage the changing identities of new immigrant families to Canada. Non-profit organizations such as Mennonite New Life Centre of Toronto were founded as early as 1983 to help with immigrant settlement.
Dual intent migration: International students
Canada is an education haven for international students desirous to gain a North American education. According to Project Atlas, Canada is the world's fourth most popular destination for foreign students. The government by opening its gates to international students across the country has given an economic boom to the education sector. In 2019 alone, it is estimated that a revenue of $21 billion was gained from tuition alone. In a given year it is estimated that around 600,000 international students reside in the country as temporary residents.
In 2019 it was reported that there is a new trend in exploiting Canadian visa process, where immigrant consultants/lawyers with food franchises, motels, gas stations, and family run businesses collect substantial cash from students and foreign nationals for supporting them with LMIA and in their permanent resident applications.
Also in 2019, many international student advocacy protested for receiving permanent residence status at the time of their arrival in Canada and
commented that "migrant students should have the same rights, and that means full labour rights, the same fees, and permanent resident status from day one and that's just fair for the money they spend in Canada." One of their objectives are to equalize their tuition fees to the subsidized fees of domestic students. In 2020, international student bodies across Canada once more pleaded for the same rights being faced with the COVID-19 pandemic.
Attitudes towards immigration
The vast majority of the Canadian public as well as the major political parties support immigration.
2016
In October 2016, the Angus Reid Institute partnered with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) to conduct a study of 'Canadian values.' Survey results would indicate that about 68% of those polled said that they wanted minorities to do more to fit into the mainstream. However, the same number also said that they were nonetheless happy with how immigrants have integrated themselves into the community. Moreover, 79% of Canadians believe immigration policy should be based on the country's economic and labour needs, rather than on the needs of foreigners to escape crises in their home countries.
Canada's finance minister Bill Morneau established the Advisory Council on Economic Growth, which called for a gradual increase in permanent immigration to Canada to 450,000 people a year.
In an analysis of the survey, Angus Reid, himself, wrote that Canadians' commitment to multiculturalism is not increasing and that Canadian attitudes have been affected by the wake of North American and European nationalist movements, due to which certain provinces have even begun to develop colourist preferences. Reid also expressed his discomfort in the effect that an increase in illiterate refugees may have on Canadian society. Nonetheless, he found that the majority of newcomers and refugees feel that they are treated fairly and welcomed as a "Canadian."
2017–2018
According to a 2017 poll, 32% of Canadians—up from 30% in 2016—believed that too many refugees were coming to Canada. The poll also asked respondents about their comfortability with surface-level diversity (e.g. around people of a different race), to which 89% said they were comfortable—a number that dropped from 94% in 2005–06.
In 2018, an Angus Reid poll found that two-thirds (67%) of Canadians agreed that the situation of illegal immigration to Canada constitutes a "crisis" and that Canada's "ability to handle the situation is at a limit." Among respondents who voted in the 2015 election, 56% of those who voted Liberal and 55% of those who voted NDP agreed that the matter had reached a crisis level—agreed upon with 87% of respondents who voted Conservative in the 2015 election. Six out of ten respondents also told the pollster that Canada is "too generous" towards would-be refugees, a spike of five percentage points since the question was asked the previous year.
2019
EKOS Research Associates, in a 2019 poll, found that about 40% of Canadians feel that there are too many non-white immigrants coming to the country. EKOS expressed this number as demonstrating an increase from those who opposed immigration in previous years, and as an evidence for resurgence of colonial depictions that can lead to racialization of new non-white immigrants.
In a 2019 poll by Léger Marketing, 63% of respondents wanted limits to be set on immigration, while 37% said immigration should be expanded. The results would show a split along party lines, as Green and Conservative Party supporters favoured a reduction, while Liberal and NDP supporters favoured the opposite. Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship, Ahmed Hussen felt that the poll results may be indicative of the concerns of some Canadians about housing shortages and the ability of communities to absorb more people.
2020
In a 2020 poll conducted by Nanos Research Group, 17 percent of respondents said an increase to the number of immigrants accepted into the country (compared to 2019) was acceptable, 36 percent said there should be no change, and 40 percent wanted a reduction. Rima Wilkes, a University of British Columbia professor raised a question about why consultation with First Nations is not made for shaping immigration policies while in almost every aspect there is one when it comes to sharing of unceded land and water resources. Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) data in 2020 shows that there were 12,122 deportations and out of them 1,657 were administrative removals.
History of citizenship and emigration
Citizenship
The word 'Canadian' as a term of nationality or citizenship was first used under the Immigration Act, 1910, to designate those British subjects who were domiciled in Canada, whereas all other British subjects required permission to land. A separate status of "Canadian national" was created under the Canadian Nationals Act, 1921, which would broaden the definition of 'Canadian' to include such citizen's wife and children (fathered by the citizen) who had not yet landed in Canada. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the monarchy ceased to be an exclusively British institution. Thus, Canadians—as well as all others living among what is known today as the Commonwealth realms—were regarded as subjects of the Crown. However, in legal documents, the term 'British subject' continued to be used, hence 'Canadians' were still, officially, British subjects born or regularly domiciled in Canada.
In 1946, Canada would be the first nation in the then-British Commonwealth to establish its own nationality law, with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act, 1946, taking effect on 1 January 1947. In order to be deemed a Canadian citizen, one generally had to be a British subject on the date that the Act took effect, or had been admitted to Canada as landed immigrants before that date. First Nations people were later included by amendment in 1956. The phrase 'British subject' referred generally to anyone from the United Kingdom, its colonies at the time, or a Commonwealth country. Acquisition and loss of British-subject status before 1947 was determined by British law.
Many of the provisions to acquire or lose Canadian citizenship that existed under the 1946 legislation were repealed, whereby Canadian citizens generally would no longer be subject to involuntary loss of citizenship, barring revocation on the grounds of immigration fraud. On 15 February 1977, Canada removed restrictions on dual citizenship.
Present
Canada offers Canadian citizenship through naturalization. In 2006, the Canadian government reduced the landing fee per immigrant by 50%.
In June 2017, the implementation of the first of a series of important reforms to the Citizenship Act took effect. These reforms restored many of the previous requirements that were in place for over 3 decades in Canada before they were removed and replaced with more stringent criteria by the former Conservative government in 2015. The most important of these changes include:
The requirement of permanent residence for 3 out of 5 years during the period immediately prior to filing the application.
Removal of a physical presence rule.
Persons aged 14 to 54 years must pass a Canadian knowledge test and demonstrate a basic ability in either of English or French, Canada's official languages.
Revocation of citizenship must follow a more formal and balanced process.
Emigration
While emigration from Canada to the United States has historically exceeded immigration, there have been short periods in which the reverse was true, such as:
during the American Revolution, with the migration of Loyalist refugees;
during the various gold rushes of British Columbia, and the later Klondike Gold Rush, which saw many American prospectors inhabiting B.C. and the Yukon;
in the early 20th century, when land settlers moved from the Northern Plains to the Prairies
Canada would also see mass emigration during periods of political turmoil or war, such as the Vietnam War. There are over 1 million Americans living in Canada, and over 1 million Canadians living in the US, with many millions more who are descendants of Canadian immigrants to the US—New England alone is 20–25% of Canadian descent.
Immigration has always been offset by emigration: at times this was of great concerns of governments intent on filling up the country, particularly the western provinces. The United States was overall the primary destination followed by reverse migration. As a result, the population of Canada at Confederation (1867) was 3.75 million, or 10% of the US population, an average that maintained from about 1830 to 1870. This number would drop to 6% by 1900 due to large emigration to the US, despite large-scale immigration to Canada. Emigration to the US was only 370,000 in the 1870s; averaged a million a decade from 1880 to 1910; almost 750,000 from 1911 to 1920 and 1.25 million from 1921 to 1930. They consisted of both native-born Canadians and recent immigrants from various, mostly European nations. Between 1945 and 1965, emigration to the US averaged 40–45,000 annually. It was not until 1960 that the population of Canada reached the 10% mark again, or 18 million.
As of 2017, with over 35 million people, Canada has 10.8% of the population of its southern neighbour. In times of economic difficulty, Canadian governments frequently resorted to deportation and coerced "voluntary" deportation to thin out ranks of unemployed workers. However, by the time of the administration of Mackenzie King, it was realized that this was an improvident short-term solution that would result in future labour shortages (that immigration was initially intended to overcome).
Immigration categories
In current Canadian law, immigrants are distinguished by four categories:
Family: persons closely related to one or more Canadian residents who live in Canada.
Economic: skilled workers, caregivers, or business persons.
Protected person or Refugee: persons who are escaping persecution, torture, and/or cruel and unusual punishment.
Humanitarian or other: persons accepted as immigrants for humanitarian or compassionate reasons.
In March 2019, the Canadian Government announced its Francophone Immigration Strategy as an initiative to increase immigration outside of Quebec for French-speaking individuals in all admission categories.
In 2010, Canada accepted 280,681 immigrants (permanent and temporary) of which 186,913 (67%) were Economic immigrants; 60,220 (22%) were Family class; 24,696 (9%) were Refugees; and 8,845 (2%) were others through working holidays, internships, and studies. In 2019, with 341,180 admissions, Canada achieved its highest level of permanent resident admissions in recent history.
Economic immigrants
The Economic Immigration Class is the largest source of permanent resident admissions in Canada. In 2019, 196,658 individuals were admitted to Canada under the Economic Class, making up approximately 58% of all admissions that year, and a 5.5% increase from 2018. This represents a record-high number of admissions under this category.
IRCC uses several sub-categories of economic immigrants, including skilled workers, under the following classes:
The basic immigration programs that offer permanent admission to Canada to those who are skilled include:
Quebec skilled worker;
Federal skilled trades
Federal skilled worker
The immigration programs that offer permanent admission to onshore, temporary residents (or who once were) include:
Canadian experience class: the process is applicable to only those who have a Canadian Experience, they are eligible to apply to any immigration programs through submitting an online profile to the Express Entry pool. The highest ranked candidates are then invited to apply for permanent residence
Provincial Nominee Program/class (PNP)
Rural and Northern Immigration Program (RNIP)
Regional Immigration Pilot Program (RIPP)
Municipal Nominee Immigration Program (MNIP)
Atlantic Immigration Pilot Program (AIPP)
Yukon Community Pilot
The refugee immigration programs that offer permanent admission to Canada include:
Economic Mobility Pathways Pilot (EMPP): for displaced persons
The business immigration programs that offer permanent admission to Canada include:
Quebec Immigrant Investor Program (QIIP)
Quebec Entrepreneur Program
Quebec Self-Employed
Federal Start-Up Visa program
Federal Start-Up Visa program
This program grants Canadian permanent residence to qualified entrepreneurs wishing to establish their start-up business in Canada. Successful candidates must get the support of one or more of the designated organizations: Venture capital funds, Angel investor groups, Business incubators.
Applicants must also supply proof of sufficient settlement funds to apply for the program.
Individuals with a certain net worth can also apply for permanent residence via certain programs. For business owners and investor immigrants who do not fit into the Start-Up business class or Quebec Provincial programs, there is a Federal Owner Operator LMIA pathway that if executed correctly can lead to permanent admission to Canada.
The high-profile Skilled worker principal applicants group comprised 19.8% of all immigration in 2005. Canada has also created a VIP Business Immigration Program which allows immigrants with sufficient business experience or management experience to receive the Permanent Residency in a shorter period than other types of immigration.
As of May 1, 2014, the Federal Skilled Worker Class opened once again accepting 25,000 applicants with intake caps at 1,000 per category. A New Economic Action Plan 2015 took effect in January 2015 in which the skilled worker program will be more of an employer based program. The current list of accepted occupations for 2014 includes many occupations such as senior managers, accountants, physicians and medical professionals, professionals in marketing and advertising, real estate professionals and many more.
A candidate's eligibility for Federal Skilled Worker category is assessed based on six selection factor points and scored on a scale of 100. The current pass mark is 67 points.
Six Selection Factor Points:
Language skills points
Education points
Work experience points
Age points
Arranged employment in Canada points
Adaptability points
The changes in 2015 moved permanent residency in Canada away from the "first come, first served" model, and towards a new structure that took on permanent residents based on Canada's economic need. The system is called "Express Entry". Alberta's Immigrant Nominee Program (AINP), in particular, allows skilled workers, along with their families, to make application for permanent residency, and several large Alberta employers with operations in rural areas actively recruit employees from abroad and support them and their families in seeking permanent residency.
Canada announced a new immigration quota of 1.2 million for 2021-2023, with targets of 401,000 new permanent residents in year 2021, 411,000 in 2022 and 421,000 in 2023.
In an effort to meet the 2021 target, on April 14, 2021 Canada created a new immigration pathway to permanent residency for essential workers and international graduates already in Canada. Temporary workers with at least one year of Canadian work experience in a health-care profession or another pre-approved essential occupation, and international students who graduated from a Canadian institution in 2017 or later are eligible. The maximum numbers of immigrants under this program are 20,000 temporary workers in health care,
30,000 temporary workers in other selected essential occupations, and 40,000 international students.
Family class
Both citizens and permanent residents may sponsor family members to immigrate to Canada as permanent residents, under the requirement that the sponsor is able to accept financial responsibility for the individual for a given period of time.
In 2019, 91,311 individuals were admitted under the Family Reunification category, which is a 7.2% increase from 2018 and a record high. Also that year, 80% of parent and grandparent applications were processed within 19 months, an improvement from 72 months in 2017.
Humanitarian and compassionate immigration
Canada also grants permanent residency based on humanitarian and compassionate grounds on a case-by-case basis, or certain public policy considerations under exceptional circumstances. In 2019, there were 4,681 permanent residents admitted through these streams.
Refugees and protected persons
Each year, IRCC facilitates the admission of a targeted number of permanent residents under the refugee resettlement category. Under Canadian nationality law, an immigrant can apply for citizenship after living in Canada for 1095 days (3 years) in any five-year period provided that they lived in Canada as a permanent resident for at least two of those years. Opposition parties have advocated for providing one-year free residency permits for refugees as an opportunity to increase their living standards until they are ready to migrate back to their home countries, rather than uprooting them from their heritage and culture in forms of relief.
The CBSA is responsible for administering persons who enter Canada through its designated ports of entry (POE); the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) are responsible for those who enter Canada unlawfully, i.e., enter between designated POEs.
A person who is seeking asylum in Canada must be first considered eligible by the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRB). The IRB classifies eligible refugees into two separate categories:
Convention Refugees: Someone who is outside and unable to return to their home country due to a fear of persecution based on several factors including race, religion, and political opinion. (This is outlined by the United Nations' multilateral treaty, Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.)
Protected Persons: Claims for asylum under this category are usually made at a point of entry into Canada. Those claiming to be a person in need of protection must be unable to return to their home country safely because they would be subjected to a danger of torture, risk for their life, or risk of cruel and unusual treatment.
Claiming asylum in Canada
Individuals can make an asylum claim in Canada at a port of entry, at a CBSA inland office or an IRCC inland office. CBSA or IRCC officials will then determine if an individual is eligible to make an asylum claim.
After entry, an interview for eligibility is conducted to deem whether the asylum seeker is allowed or declined admission into Canada. Those who are admitted submit their reasons for admissibility, in writing. The IRB hears their case after 60 days; in favorable terms, the claimants are accepted as refugees. If the claims are not deemed appropriate by the interviewer, the asylum seeker may be deported.
According to the Canadian government, anyone can make a claim for refugee protection once they are physically present in Canada, regardless of how they arrived in the country. This includes those who have entered Canada without proper documentation or who have overstayed their visas. Asylum seekers can make a claim at a port of entry, such as an airport or border crossing, or at an inland office of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC). It is important to note that claiming asylum in Canada can be a complex and lengthy process, and there are many factors that can affect an individual's chances of success. For example, the availability of evidence to support the individual's claim, the individual's ability to communicate effectively in English or French, and the political climate in their home country can all have an impact on the outcome of the asylum claim.
There are many instances in which claims have been deemed ineligible for referral to the IRB, notably those by migrants who seek entry into Canada through the United States, where the Safe Third Country Agreement (STCA) is applied. The STCA dictates persons seeking asylum must make their claim in the first country in which they arrive—either the US or Canada—unless they qualify for an exception. Therefore, if an asylum seeker were to enter the US (as a non-U.S. citizen), make their way to the Canada–U.S. land border, and then attempt to enter Canada with a claim for asylum, they would be denied entry under the STCA. The Agreement is responsible for limiting refugee eligibility to enter Canada and the rejection of several hundred claims a year since its implementation. The CBSA reported that 6,000–14,000 claims were made before the implementation of the STCA, and dropped to an average of 4,000 claims per year after its implementation.
Asylum claimants have been subjected to "indirect refoulment", a consequence of a person's claim in Canada being refused under the STCA, subjecting them to deportation to the destination in which the person was originally seeking asylum from, due to more conservative immigration and refugee policies in the U.S.
Protected persons
The IRCC provides support for protected persons and their dependants, whereby protected persons are defined as asylum claimants who are granted protected status by Canada. In 2019, 18,443 individuals obtained permanent residence under the protected persons in Canada and dependents abroad category.
Refugees in detention
As part of the passing of Bill C-31 in December 2012, asylum seekers arriving at a point of entry on the Canada–United States border have been subject to incarceration and detention. Claimants are subject to detention for failing to provide sufficient identification documents, which is in violation with the United Nations Refugee Convention, to which Canada is a signatory. In 2010–2011, Canada detained 8,838 people, of which 4,151 of them were asylum seekers or rejected refugee claimants. There is a requirement to the maximum time limit spent in detention upon being released, a situation which has been subject to criticism held in contrast to areas in Europe: Ireland (30 days), France (32 days), Spain (40 days), and Italy (60 days).
Refugees programs
The IRCC funds several programs that provide supports and services to resettled refugees.
The Private Sponsorship of Refugees Program is an initiative whereby refugees may resettle in Canada with support and funding from private or joint government-private sponsorship. Established under Operation Lifeline in 1978, the program has since resettled and provided support for over 200,000 refugees under various initiatives and with fluctuating annual intakes.
Pre-departure services backed by IRCC include Canadian Orientation Abroad training and coverage for certain medical services received prior to arriving in Canada. All resettled refugees in Canada receive temporary health care coverage; the IRCC, along with civil-society and sponsorship organizations, also provide:
income support
immediate and essential supports and services upon arrival (e.g., housing)
assistance in securing housing
settlement services, including language training
Other refugee-support programs
Asylum statistics
Individuals can make an asylum claim in Canada at a port of entry, at a CBSA inland office or an IRCC inland office. CBSA or IRCC officials will then determine if an individual is eligible to make an asylum claim.
Francophone Immigration Strategy
In March 2019, the Canadian Government announced its Francophone Immigration Strategy purposed to achieve a target of 4.4% of French-speaking immigrants of all admissions, outside of Quebec, by 2023.
The strategy's Welcoming Francophone Communities Initiative provides $12.6 million to 14 selected communities (2020 to 2023) for projects to support and welcome French-speaking newcomers. In 2019, IRCC's Settlement Program launched new official-language training services for French-speaking newcomers who settle in Francophone communities outside of Quebec. Seven organizations were selected to receive up to $7.6 million over 4 years.
Accommodations and Inclusivity
Disabilities
In 2011 and 2012, several families were denied immigration to Canada because members of their family have an autism spectrum diagnosis and Citizenship and Immigration Canada (now IRCC) felt the potential cost of care for those family members would place an excessive demand on health or social services. People with autism disorders can be accepted if they are able to depend on themselves. According to the Canadian Human Rights Act, discrimination based on disability is prohibited in all areas of society, including housing. Therefore, it is essential for the accommodation industry in Canada to provide accessible accommodations for disabled people. There are various types of accommodations available in Canada for disabled people, including hotels, motels, bed and breakfasts, resorts, and other types of lodging. The housing and support services for individuals with disabilities are the focus of several non-profit organizations in Canada. The Canadian Association for Community Living (CACL) is one such group that promotes the rights of those with disabilities and offers housing and other services to both individuals and families. Several housing initiatives, including group homes and supportive housing, are run by the CACL around the nation.
Job market and education
The federal government was asked by businesses to expand programs for professional immigrants to get Canadian qualifications in their fields. In response, the Multiculturalism Act of 1988 was passed, and Canadian Council on Learning was created by the federal government to promote best practices in workplace learning. Additionally, the credentials of immigrant workers are assessed through Canadian agencies by the IRCC for immigration. Ideally, this credential equalization assessment reduces the gap between education and suitable jobs. However, strains of discrimination, i.e. statistical discrimination lead to a systemic process of rejecting and discouraging immigrants (racialization), which is an antithesis for an anti-oppressive culture. In 2023, discrimination against immigrants in Canada based on their origin and color was reported to be at a high 22 percent. In 2022, a significant portion (43 - 47%) of late Generation Y and Generation Z, the working population in Canada, finds that their country and societal systems have a racial bias. A 2021 study reveals that 71 percent of the Canadian workforce experienced workplace harassment and violence, and workplace prevention policies for penalizing harassers were mostly just paper tigers and remained only on paper.
Across Canada, businesses have proposed to allow unpaid or basic-pay internships as part of a rewards system, which were considered illegal (both in government and private) in many provinces at the time, which posed a major obstacle to integrate immigrants into the job market. The lack of collective ethnic bargaining and active citizenship from minority immigrants, and the lack of policy leadership in this sector from the government has resulted in a "catch-22” situation in which employers want job experience, but potential employees cannot get Canadian experience without first working in Canadian jobs/internships. The Ontario Human Rights Commission has acknowledged the racist effects of Canadian work experience requirement for jobs, and has declared it to be "prima facie discrimination," and an inadmissible criterion for exclusion of applicants. However, this and the employment equity act has not translated into a nationwide inclusive policy.
An article points out that simply increasing immigration levels without considering the underlying issues in the labor market may not effectively address skills shortages or unemployment rates. Experts emphasize the importance of aligning immigration policies with targeted skills training programs to ensure that incoming immigrants possess the skills needed in the labor market. Furthermore, they stress the significance of investing in education and upskilling programs for both newcomers and the existing workforce to bridge the skills gap. The 1966 White Paper on Immigration advocated for the selection of skilled immigrants, as an influx of unskilled immigrants during a strong economy could exacerbate poverty issues during economic downturns. In 1994, the Chretien Liberals prioritized immigrants with skills and abilities conducive to higher incomes and economic growth, reducing reliance on social welfare. However, despite the White Paper on Immigration's anti-discriminatory stance, achieving full economic and social inclusion for immigrants remained elusive. They often encounter explicit and implicit oppression due to the absence of policies aimed at preventing and penalizing it. This policy of inaction echoes historical Canadian policies that marginalized Chinese immigrants following the completion of the railway in 1885. Many observe Canada faces the same "soft trade barriers" that it has been facing for more than half a century with regards to helping immigrants transition into careers they were trained for or to better careers even with Canada's modern educational capacity and political opportunity that can fix them.
Quebec
In 2017, the Province of Quebec stated that they will prohibit offering or receiving public services for individuals who cover their face, such as those who wear chadors, niqabs or burqas. The reasoning behind the bill was to ensure protection of Quebecois, but the discriminatory strain of the political ideology was reported to be aimed at articles of certain religious faiths. The bill would come under question of in regards to Canadian policy on religious tolerance and accommodation. A qualitative study found that taste-based discrimination is more prevalent in cities than semi-urban areas, as major factors that contribute to less hostility seem to be regional differences in industrial composition and attendant labour demand. There have been demands for the province to charge additional fees from immigrants before landing in Quebec. Quebecois have also urged the province to impose French language training in order for newcomers to become better integrated with the language and culture of their communities. As a result the government initiated a subsidized linguistic integration program in 2019.
Recently, the province saw a 20% gap in earnings between immigrants and Canadian-born individuals in Quebec, largely due to the discrepancy between their respective literacy rates. In 2008, the Canadian Council on Learning reported that almost half of Canadian adults fall below the internationally-accepted literacy standard for coping in a modern society.
In late 2019, under Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ) government they introduced a Quebec values test where immigrants would have to pass.
During the 2022 Quebec general election, the Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ) government of François Legault which increased it majority ran on getting more immigration powers from Canada to the Province of Quebec. Legault has raised the idea of even having referendum on immigration powers.
After their election win they repeated their pledge for Quebec getting more immigration powers.
See also
Canada immigration statistics
Visa policy of Canada
Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v. Khosa
History of Chinese immigration to Canada
Ministry of Immigration, Diversity and Inclusion — government of Quebec's immigration department
Top 25 Canadian Immigrants Award
Immigrant benefits urban legend — a hoax regarding benefits comparison
Immigration Watch Canada, a lobby group pushing for cutting immigration to Canada
Century Initiative - a lobby group pushing for increased immigration to Canada
Notes
References
Further reading
History
Adelman, Howard; Borowski, Allan; Burstein, Meyer; and Foster, Lois, eds. Immigration and Refugee Policy: Australia and Canada Compared (1996)
Avery, Donald H. Reluctant Host: Canada's Response to Immigrant Workers, 1896–1994 (1996)
a standard scholarly history
McLean, Lorna "'To Become Part of Us': Ethnicity, Race, Literacy and the Canadian Immigration Act of 1919", Canadian Ethnic Studies, 36#2 (2004): pp. 1–28.
Guides
Other
Can Canada Handle a Polite, Rational and Fact-Based debate on immigration?, Herbert Grubel
David Suzuki's statements on immigration to Canada
Marsden, Lorna. "Population Issues in the Immigration Debate." Canadian Ethnic Studies= Etudes Ethniques au Canada 7.1 (1975): 22.
External links
History of Canadian immigration at Marianopolis College
Library and Archives Canada
Going to Canada – Immigration Portal: A source of free and useful information for newcomers and prospective immigrants to Canada.
Demographics of Canada |
4319334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash%20Rambler | Nash Rambler | The Nash Rambler is a North American automobile that was produced by the Nash Motors division of Nash-Kelvinator Corporation from 1950 until 1954 in sedan, wagon, and fixed-profile convertible body styles.
On 1 May 1954, Nash-Kelvinator merged with the Hudson Motor Car Company to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). The initial run of the Nash Rambler was then built by AMC in Kenosha, Wisconsin, until 1955.
The Nash Rambler established a new segment in the automobile market and is widely acknowledged to be the first successful modern American compact car. The original Rambler also established the idea of a small but luxurious economy car.
The 1950 through 1955 Nash Rambler was the first model run for this platform. Using the same tooling, AMC reintroduced an almost identical "new" 1958 Rambler American for a second model run. This was a rare feat of having two distinct and successful model runs, an almost unheard-of phenomenon in automotive history.
Development
Nash-Kelvinator's President George W. Mason saw that the company needed to compete more effectively and insisted a new car had to be different from the existing models in the market offered by the "Big Three" U.S. automakers. Mason also realized the basic problem that had eluded others trying to market smaller-sized cars to Americans: low price was not enough to sell in large volumes, but "also had to be big enough to appeal to families as their primary car." Therefore, the Rambler was designed to be smaller than contemporary cars, yet still able to accommodate five passengers comfortably. Nash engineers had originally penned the styling during World War II.
The new model was the company's entry into the lower-price segment dominated by models from Chevrolet, Ford, and Plymouth. The Rambler was designed to be lighter and have smaller dimensions than the other popular cars. With a strategy of efficiency, Nash could save on materials in its production while owners would have better fuel economy compared to the other cars of the era. The Nash Rambler rode on a wheelbase, and power came from Nash's proven L-head (flathead) straight-6 cylinder engine that produced .
Following the design of the larger "senior" Nash models, the compact Rambler's styling was rounded in form and also had an envelope body – Nash's characteristic styling with fender skirts that also enclosed the front wheels. This design feature did not impair the car's cornering ability significantly.
The compact Rambler line was designed with several body styles, but the inaugural year was limited to a single model: a fully equipped 2-door fixed-profile convertible. The decision to bring the new car out first in a higher market segment with more standard features was a calculated risk by Mason. Foremost in this strategy was the need to give the new Rambler a positive public image. Mason knew the car would fail if seen by the public as a "cheap little car". This was confirmed in small car comparisons in the media that described the "well-equipped and stylish, the little Rambler is economical and easy to drive" with no "stripped-down" versions, but available in only high-end convertible, station wagon, or hardtop (no "B-pillar") body styles. He knew what Crosley was just finding out with its line of mini cars, and what the Henry J would teach Kaiser Motors; namely, that Americans would rather buy a nice used car than a new car that is perceived as inferior or substandard.
Like other fixed-profile convertibles,
but unlike traditional convertibles that used frame-free side windows, the Rambler retained the bodywork's doors and rear-side window frames. This metal structure served as the side guides or rails for the retractable waterproof canvas top. This design allowed Nash to utilize its unibody construction on its new compact. It made the body very rigid for an open-top car, without additional bracing. The strength of the windshield pillars and roof-rail structure was demonstrated by the entire car flipped upside down and the rails and supports were undamaged. The convertible top is cable-driven and electrically operated. The design is similar to other fixed-profile convertibles including the 1936 Fiat 500 "Topolino", Nissan Figaro (1991), Citroën 2CV (1948–1990), Vespa 400 (1957), and the 1957 Fiat 500 (1957) as well as its 2007 Fiat 500 successor.
In developing this new car, Nash had originally planned to call it the Diplomat. This name would have rounded out the Nash family of cars; as for 1950, the 600 line was renamed the Statesman, and the Ambassador remained the flagship line. When the managers learned that Dodge had already reserved the Diplomat name for a planned two-door hardtop body style, Nash delved into its own past, and resurrected the Rambler name from an 1897 prototype and its first production model, in 1902. Rambler was also one of the popular early American automobile brands. On 22 May 1950, the automaker filed trademarks for the Rambler and also the Statesman names.
The historical context of the Nash Rambler, along with the Nash-Healey and later the Metropolitan, was that U.S. citizens were exposed to and gained experience with the smaller, more efficient compact, and sporty European cars during the Second World War. Nash's CEO had also visited Italy, France, and England to observe the development of small cars had developed in those markets. Some of the styling cues for the convertible Rambler came from Italian designs. The new car's input included the approach of more compact cars that came from Nash-Kelvinator having a wide market overseas. This influence is also seen directly in the Pininfarina designed models. American Motors would later continue to import European design and styling flair for its products, such as the Hornet Sportabouts by Gucci, the Javelins by Pierre Cardin, and the Matador coupes by Oleg Cassini.
Model years
1950
The Nash Rambler was introduced on 13 April 1950, in the middle of the model year. The new Rambler was available only as an upmarket two-door convertible – designated the "Landau". Without the weight of a roof, and with a low wind resistance body design for the time, the inline 6-cylinder engine could deliver solid performance and deliver fuel economy up to and even more with the optional automatic overdrive.
Several factors were incorporated into the compact Nash Rambler's marketing mix that included making the most from the limited steel supplies during the Korean War, as well as the automaker selecting a strategy for profit maximization from the new Rambler line. The new Nash Rambler came only in a convertible body, a style that had a higher price in the marketplace and incorporated more standard features that make the open-top models suitable more for leisure-type use than ordinary transportation. With a base price of $1,808 (equivalent to approximately $ in today's funds), the Nash Rambler was priced slightly lower than the base convertible models from its intended competition. To further increase the value to buyers, the Nash Rambler was well equipped compared to the competition and included numerous items as standard equipment such as whitewall tires, full wheel covers, electric clock, and even a pushbutton AM radio that were options available at extra cost on all other cars at that time.
In summary, "it was a smartly styled small car. People also liked its low price and the money-saving economy of its peppy 6-cylinder engine." The abbreviated first year of production saw sales of 9,330 Nash Rambler convertibles.
1951
In 1951, the Nash Rambler line was enlarged to include a two-door station wagon and a two-door pillarless hardtop – designated the Country Club. Both the hardtop and convertible models included additional safety features.
Two levels of trim were available: Custom and Super.
A car tested by the British magazine The Motor in 1951 had a top speed of and could accelerate from in 21.0 seconds. Fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost $1,808 in the U.S., but British sales had not at the time started.
A 1951 Nash Rambler convertible was used by Tunku Abdul Rahman in Melaka in 1957 when as Federation of Malaya's first prime minister he declared the country free from British rule.
1952
There were no major changes for the 1952 model year. Models included a new Deliveryman 2-door utility wagon for $1,892. The "Custom" models featured Nash's Weather Eye conditioning system and an AM radio as standard equipment. The new Greenbrier station wagons received upgraded trim with two-tone painted exteriors and they were priced at $2,119, the same as the Custom Landau Convertible model.
The 1950–1952 Nash Ramblers "gained instant popularity with buyers who liked its looks, as well as loyalty among customers who appreciated its quality engineering and performance." A total of 53,000 Nash Ramblers were made for the year.
1953
The Rambler received its first restyling in 1953 and resembled the "senior" Nash models that had received all-new "Airflyte" styling the year before. The new styling was again credited to Italian automobile designer Battista "Pinin" Farina. The hood line was lowered and a new hood ornament, designed by George Petty was optional. The "racy" ornament "was a sexy woman leaning into the future, bust down, and pointing the way."
The standard engines were increased with manual transmission cars receiving a I6 producing , while a I6 powered cars with the optional "Hydra-Matic" automatic supplied by General Motors. The Custom models added Nash's "Weather Eye" heating and ventilation system, as well as a radio as standard equipment, with the convertible and hardtop versions all getting a continental tire at no extra cost.
The marketing campaign focused on the Nash Rambler as a second family car. Advertisements also featured the wife of Jimmy Stewart and her Country Club 2-door hardtop she described as "a woman's dream-of-a-car come true!" and promoting buyers to spend "one wonderful hour" test driving to discover how "among two-car families – four out of five prefer to drive their Rambler."
A survey of owners of 1953 Ramblers conducted by Popular Mechanics indicated the majority listed their car's economy as the feature they like best. After they had driven a total of , owners' complaints included a lack of rear-seat legroom, water leaks, and poor dimmer switch position, but none of the Rambler drivers rated acceleration as unsatisfactory. Fully 29 percent had no complaints and "only four percent of Rambler owners described the car as too small and 67 percent rated their Ramblers as excellent over-all."
Production for the model year was 31,788 and included 9 Deliveryman models in the station wagon body, 15,255 Country Club hardtops, 10,598 Convertible Landaus, 10,600 Custom station wagons (of which 3,536 were in the Greenbrier trim and 7,035 with 3M's DI-NOC simulated wood-grain trim), and 1,114 standard wagons.
1954
After offering only two-door-only models, Nash introduced a four-door sedan and a four-door station wagon in the Nash Rambler line starting with the 1954 model year. This was the automaker's response to demands of larger families for more roomy Ramblers. The four-door body styles rode on a longer, wheelbase. Following the industry practice at the time, the heater and radio were now made optional. Added to the options list was Nash's exclusive integrated automobile air conditioning system, a "very sophisticated setup" for the time incorporated heating, ventilation, and air conditioning in one system that was "priced lower than any other competing system; at $345, it was a remarkable advance."
The four-door Rambler sedan was at first only available in "Custom" trim. The "Country Club" hardtop became available in the lower-priced "Super" trim and without the "Custom" model's standard Continental tire (external spare tire carrier). The 4-door station wagons were designated Cross Country. They featured an unusual roofline that followed the slope of the sedan's roof, then dipped down behind the rear seat area before leveling and continuing rearward. The design by Bill Reddig allowed the use of the same dies to produce door framing for sedans and station wagons, while the dip in the rear portion of the roof included a roof rack as standard equipment to reduce the visual effect of the wagon's lowered roofline.
There was turmoil in the U.S. automobile market as the Ford-Chevy sales war broke out and the two largest domestic automakers cut prices to gain sales volume. This battle decimated the remaining independent automakers in their search for customers. The marketing battle put a squeeze on the much smaller independent automakers, so even though the Nash Rambler economy cars proved popular in the marketplace, they were not particularly profitable for the company.
On 1 May 1954, Nash and Hudson Motor Car Company announced a merger, and the successor corporation was named American Motors Corporation (AMC). Following the merger, Hudson dealers began receiving Ramblers that were badged as Hudson brand cars. The Hudson Ramblers and Nash Ramblers were identical, save for the brand name and minor badging.
1955
The Nash Rambler's most significant change for the 1955 model year was opening the front wheel wells resulting in a decrease in the turn-circle diameter from previous year's versions, with the two-door models having the smallest in the industry at . The "traditional" Nash fixed fender skirts were removed and the front track (the distance between the center points of the wheels on the axle as they come in contact with the road) was increased to be even greater than was the Rambler's rear tread. Designers Edmund Anderson, Pinin Farina, and Meade Moore did not like the design element that was insisted by George Mason, so soon as Mason died, "Anderson hastily redesigned the front fenders." Tongue-in-cheek, Popular Science magazine described the altered design for 1955: the "little Rambler loses its pants."
As part of the facelift for 1955, the Rambler's grille was also redesigned with only the center emblem differentiating the cars now sold by both Nash and Hudson dealers. The Rambler was a new model for Hudson dealers and it replaced the compact Hudson Jet.
The interiors of the economical Nash Rambler were designed by Helene Rother to also appeal to the feminine eye. American Motors featured "Created to Your Discriminating Taste" in the car's marketing knowing what women looked for in a car and Rother's designs featured elegant, stylish, and expensive fabrics that coordinated in colors and trim.
Model and trim combinations were again reshuffled with a two-door Suburban and Club two-door sedans available in "Deluxe" or "Super" versions. Four-door sedans and wagons came as Super or Custom models, while a new Deluxe four-door sedan was introduced. The pillarless Country Club hardtop was reduced to only the "Custom" trim, while the convertible model was no longer available.
Fleet sales-only versions included a Deliveryman wagon that was not shown in the regular catalog, as well as another new model, a three-passenger business coupe: a two-door sedan with no rear seat.
The automaker's marketing efforts included sponsorship of the Disneyland television show on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network. The inaugural broadcast was on 25 October 1955; just five days after the new Ramblers debuted in both Nash and Hudson dealerships, and the Disney show quickly become one of the top-watched programs in the U.S., thus helping AMC sell more cars.
The focus continued on economy and a Rambler four-door set an all-time record for cars with automatic transmissions of in the 1955 Mobil Economy Run.
The U.S. domestic market was turning to bigger and bigger cars; therefore, prospects for the compact Nash Rambler line were limited and production was discontinued after the 1955 model year.
Motorsports
The smallest car in the 13 July 1951, 400-lap NASCAR sanctioned Short Track Late Model Division race in Lanham, Maryland, was a Nash Rambler Country Club (two-door hardtop). Owned by Williams Nash Motors of Bethesda, Maryland, the car was driven to victory by Tony Bonadies of Bronx, New York. He stayed in the back of the 25-car field on the quarter-mile (0.40 km) track until making a steady move up to the lead position. The Nash Rambler was also the only car to run the entire race without making a pit stop.
On 18 July 1952, the NASCAR Short Track race at the Lanham Speedway, was 400 laps on a paved oval for a total of . Tony Bonadies finished the race in 4th place in a 1952 Nash.
Replacement
The sales war between Ford and Chevrolet that took place between 1953 and 1954 reduced the market share for the remaining automakers trying to compete against the standard-sized models offered by the domestic Big Three (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler). American Motors responded to the changing market by focusing development on the wheelbase four-door versions that it had introduced in 1954. Production of the original compact Nash Rambler ended in 1955 as AMC introduced an all-new Rambler for the 1956 model year. These used the wheelbase and became larger cars, but were "compact" compared to ones made by the Big Three. The bigger Rambler models were sold by both Nash and Hudson dealers and they carried respective Nash and Hudson brand logos.
The new for 1956 Rambler was arguably "the most important car American Motors ever built" in that it not only created and defined a new market segment, emphasized the virtues of compact design, but also enabled the automaker to prosper in the post-World War II marketplace that shifted from a seller's to a buyer's market. The new Ramblers came only as four-door models. Along with the usual four-door sedan and the station wagon was a new four-door hardtop sedan, as well as an industry first, a four-door hardtop station wagon. An OHV version of the engine was also introduced for 1956 to replace the L-head version that was used in previous models. The OHV I6 was the only engine available in the 1956 Ramblers, as the new AMC V8s did not appear until the 1957 model year.
Nash Rambler Palm Beach
American Motors' relationship with the Italian designer Battista 'Pinin' Farina as a styling consultant resulted in the 1956 Nash Rambler Palm Beach. All the major mechanical components for the concept car came from a wheelbase Nash Rambler. The only indication of the origin of the car are the Rambler "R" emblems on the hubcaps.
Influenced by aerodynamic and technical innovations, the Palm Beach was constructed "so that it could be introduced to the market in a short period of time." The fully functional show car was intended as a replacement for the Nash-Healey, but AMC no longer included a sports car in its lineup by 1956.
Revival
With AMC's focus on economical automobiles, management saw an opportunity with the economic recession of 1958 to revive the small wheelbase Nash Rambler. The automaker had retained the old tooling and the old model would fit between the bigger wheelbase family-sized Ramblers and the imported two-seat wheelbase Nash Metropolitan. This would be a smaller and more efficient alternative to the standard-sized cars that were marketed by the domestic Big Three at that time. The old Nash design was slightly modified and used for AMC's "new" 1958 Rambler American.
Epilogue
The book listing the 75 noteworthy American automobiles that made news from 1895 until 1970, documents "the 1950 Nash Rambler was a historic car on two counts: its ancestry and its small size." While other compact-sized cars were introduced by the small independent automakers, such as the Henry J, Hudson Jet, and Willys Aero, only the Rambler survived long enough to establish a real place in automotive history.
Moreover, the compact-sized Nash Rambler automobile evolved into a business strategy for American Motors as the company firmly associated itself with small cars in the U.S. marketplace. In the 1960s, the automaker "prospered on the back of the Nash Rambler, the compact that recalled the name of the vehicle Thomas B. Jeffrey built in 1902 at the Kenosha, Wisconsin factory that continued to be AMC's main production plant."
The Nash Rambler succeeded where others "tried to entice US consumers looking for practical, economical automobiles" during an era "when all Detroit had to offer were pricey, ostentatious behemoths." The Big Three domestic automakers exited the entry-level car market to foreign makes starting in the early 1950s. Nash was the only American manufacturer to get the compact formula right by offering Rambler "well equipped and priced sensibly"; "styling that was fresh, distinctive, and attractive"; and for developing "the original Rambler's run in 1950–55 was that there was a full line of Ramblers in many body styles, including a jaunty convertible."
According to automotive historian Bill Vance, the Nash Ramblers "are not much remembered, but they did provide reliable, economical, and sturdy service." "Nash's reputation for building eminently sensible vehicles means that their products are often overlooked by the modern-day enthusiast." Cars professionally restored to factory condition have been auctioned to collectors.
In popular culture
The Nash Rambler is featured in the 1958 hit song "Beep Beep." The singer, driving a Cadillac, is shocked to see a "little Nash Rambler" apparently trying to drag-race his bigger, stronger car, and keeping up with it. In the end, it turns out the Rambler's driver did not know how to get out of second gear. At the end of 1959, Time magazine reported that the song helped push Rambler to set sales records along with AMC doubling production compared to the previous year.
Notes
References
External links
Nash Car Club
AMC Rambler Club
American Motors Owners Association
Nash in the UK
Rambler
Rambler, Nash
Compact cars
Cars introduced in 1950
Coupés
Convertibles
Sedans
Station wagons
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars discontinued in 1955 |
4319518 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodrigo%20Palacio | Rodrigo Palacio | Rodrigo Sebastián Palacio Alcalde (; born 5 February 1982) is an Argentine professional basketball player and former footballer who played as a second striker. He is the son of José Ramón Palacio, a historic player of Club Olimpo during the 1980s. Palacio holds a Spanish passport, allowing him to be counted as an EU player.
At international level, Palacio has represented the Argentina national team at two FIFA World Cups and a Copa América, winning runner-up medals at the 2014 World Cup and the 2007 Copa América.
Beyond his qualities as a footballer, Palacio is also known for his rattail braid hairstyle.
Club career
Early career
At age 12, he joined Bella Vista de Bahía Blanca's youth academy, and made his first team debut aged 17 in 2002, in a Torneo Argentino B (fourth division) match.
Palacio began his professional career as a 20 year old in 2002, when he signed for Huracán de Tres Arroyos of the Primera B Nacional (second division).
He made his debut on 25 August 2002, in a 2–0 victory against Juventud Antoniana. Palacio played two years for the club, and left in 2004.
Banfield
In 2004, Primera División club Banfield signed Palacio. He spent two seasons at the club, scoring 11 goals in 38 appearances.
In August 2004, he played his first match in a continental competition and scored in a 1–1 draw against Arsenal de Sarandí as part of the 2004 Copa Sudamericana. He scored in the second leg as well, but Banfield lost the match 4–3 and were eliminated.
Boca Juniors
In January 2005, Palacio completed a transfer to Boca Juniors shortly before the 2005 Clausura began. He scored his first goal for the club on 18 January, in a 2–0 victory against Independiente.
In the 2005 Copa Sudamericana, Palacio scored a hat trick in the quarter finals against Sport Club Internacional on 10 November 2005, which ended in a 4–1 for CABJ. He also scored the opening goal in the first leg of the finals against Pumas UNAM, contributing greatly to Boca's championship, which was eventually won on penalties. Palacio was the third top scorer with 5 goals, behind Bruno Marioni and Jorge Quinteros.
In the 2006 Recopa Sudamericana, Palacio scored two goals in the first leg and one in the second leg to help Boca beat São Paulo and win their third Recopa.
On 26 April 2007, Palacio scored two goals in a 7–0 demolishing of Club Bolívar in the 2007 Copa Libertadores. On 24 May, he scored the last goal in a 2–0 win over Club Libertad in the quarter-finals. Palacio also scored the opening goal of the finals 1st leg against Grêmio, which ended in a 5–0 aggregate win for Boca (2–0 and 3–0).
On 16 December, he would score an equalizer to make the score 1–1 against Milan, although the Italian side eventually won the Club World Cup final 4–2. Palacio earned the Bronze Ball trophy in the tournament, being ranked as the third best player behind Milan players Clarence Seedorf and Kaká respectively. Palacio's performance in the 2008 Copa Libertadores helped Boca avoid elimination from the group stage by scoring twice against Mexico's Atlas in a 3–0 home victory and scoring the third goal in Boca's dramatic 4–3 win against Chile's Colo-Colo. On 7 May 2008, Palacio scored the first goal in a 2–1 second-leg win against Brazilian club Cruzeiro. Boca eventually reached the semi-finals, where they would lose to Fluminense 4–1 on aggregate.
Despite a minor injury that would see him sidelined for a small portion of the second half of the year, Palacio would then go on to win the Recopa Sudamericana against Arsenal de Sarandí, scoring one goal in the first leg and another goal in the second leg. He later won the 2008–09 Torneo Apertura after the title had to be fought out between the top three teams that were equal on points, Boca, San Lorenzo and Tigre. The championship play-offs were all held at Racing Club's stadium in a round-robin format and were held in December 2008. Palacio would score in a 3–1 win against San Lorenzo to help claim the title.
Genoa
In July 2009, Palacio signed a contract with Italian club Genoa. His debut in Serie A was on 23 August, in a 3–2 win over Roma. On 5 November, he scored his first goal for the club in the UEFA Europa League match against Lille, which ended in a 3–2 victory for Genoa. In Serie A, the striker scored his first goal against Parma, the team in which he also scored a double against in the return leg, a 3–2 away win. 2 years after his debut, Palacio also entered in Coppa Italia statistics with a brace in a 4–3 win against AG Nocerina. In the last two weeks of January 2012, Palacio scored two braces: one in a 5–3 loss against Palermo, and the other in a 3–2 win against Napoli. On his last appearance for Genoa, the hundredth overall, he received a red card against Udinese.
Internazionale
On 22 May 2012, Genoa president Enrico Preziosi confirmed that Palacio would join Inter for the 2012–13 season. On 7 June, he was officially sold to Inter for €10.5 million, signing a three-year contract paying the player €2.7 million per year.
2012–13 season
Palacio debuted in a UEFA Europa League qualification match against Croatian side Hajduk Split. He scored his first Inter double in a friendly against Bizertin of Tunisia on 18 August. He then scored his first official goal for Inter on 23 August in the play-off round of Europa League qualifiers against Romania's Vaslui. He scored again in the return leg in Milan on 30 August, making the final score 1–1 as Inter progressed to the competition's group stage.
He scored his first goal in Serie A for Inter on 21 October in a 2–0 victory at the San Siro against Catania. On 4 November, he scored the final goal in a 1–3 win against defending league champions Juventus, which ended the Bianconeri's 49 game-winning streak. On 8 November, he scored a brace in a Europa League match against Partizan (1–3) that took Inter into the competition's round of 32 with two group stage matches to spare. During a second round match in the Coppa Italia against Hellas Verona on 18 December, after an injury to goalkeeper Luca Castellazzi and after all three of the club's substitutions were exhausted, Palacio, wearing Vid Belec's jersey number 27, was put into goal for the final 15 minutes of the match. He did not concede any goals in a 2–0 win and even made a fine save in the 91st minute, stopping a diving header from Verona midfielder Alessandro Carrozza.
On 14 February 2013, in a match against Romanian side CFR Cluj in the first leg of the Europa League Round of 16, Palacio was substituted in seven minutes into the game after a season-ending injury to starter Diego Milito. Palacio came on and finished the game with both goals scored in a 2–0 victory. On 3 March, against Catania, Palacio was substituted in at the beginning of the second half at a time when the Nerazzurri were down 2–0. Palacio went on to provide an assist for Ricky Álvarez's goal, then scored twice himself, leading Inter to a 2–3 comeback victory. On 3 April, Palacio scored his second double of the league season against Sampdoria, raising his tally to 12 goals scored; in the same game, however, he strained his left hamstring, ultimately ending his season prematurely.
2013–14 season
In the first fixture of the season, Palacio scored a brace against Cittadella in the third round of the Coppa Italia.
He also scored in the first league game of the season, against Genoa on 25 August; his goal came in injury time, giving Inter a 2–0 win, which was followed by another goal and an assist in a 3–0 win against Catania. On 20 October, Palacio scored twice to give Inter a 3–3 draw against Torino at the Stadio Olimpico, and six days later scored in a 4–2 triumph against recently promoted Hellas Verona at San Siro. On 3 November, Palacio continued his fine form, scoring a header and assisting in a 0–3 away win against Udinese at the Stadio Friuli. On 22 December, he scored a superb goal in the 86th minute with the back of his heel after an assist from Fredy Guarín, which proved to be decisive with Inter winning 1–0 against Milan. That was his first competitive goal in the Derby della Madonnina.
On 15 February 2014, Palacio scored his first goal of 2014 after some negative displays during the 2–1 away win against Fiorentina. On 9 March, he scored the winning goal against Torino at the San Siro, giving Nerazzurri three important points. Five days later, Palacio signed a new two-and-a-half year contract with Inter which will keep him at the club until 2016. One day after he extended his contract, Palacio scored the opening goal and assisted Jonathan Moreira's goal in the 2–0 away win against Hellas Verona. Palacio continued with his good appearances by scoring his 15th league goal in the 4–0 thrashing of Sampdoria at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris. He also assisted both goals from Mauro Icardi.
On 10 May, in Javier Zanetti's last competitive match at the San Siro in which Inter defeated Lazio 4–1 to secure a place in Europa League play-off for next season, Palacio scored a brace and in both occasions went to celebrate with Zanetti. He was first assisted by Mateo Kovačić and later by Yuto Nagatomo. Palacio ended the 2013–14 season with 39 appearances (37 in Serie A) and 19 goals (17 in Serie A), finishing as Inter's top goalscorer.
2014–15 season
Palacio missed all of the pre-season phase due to his international duties with Argentina at the 2014 World Cup. He was not called upon for the first official match of the season against Icelandic side Stjarnan in the first leg of the play-off round for the Europa League, after Inter head coach Walter Mazzarri decided to let him rest. He also did not play in the returning leg as Inter comfortably secured qualification for the group stage with an aggregate 9–0 score. After missing the opening match of the Serie A season, Palacio made his first appearance of the season on 14 September, playing the last 14 minutes of the 7–0 thrashing of Sassuolo.
On 19 February 2015, Palacio scored two goals in a 3–3 draw vs Celtic, which helped Inter qualify for the round of 16 of the Europa League. In the round of 16 against Wolfsburg, he scored both goals in Inter's 5–2 aggregate loss (3–1 and 2–1). He opened the scoring in the final game of the season, a 4–3 win against Empoli. Palacio finished behind Mauro Icardi for top scorer with 12 goals, scoring 8 in the league and 4 in the Europa League.
2015–16 season
Palacio scored his first goal of the season on 15 December 2015 in a 3–0 win over Cagliari at the San Siro, moving Inter on from the Coppa Italia's round of 16. On 8 January 2016, he extended his contract with Inter for a further season, keeping him at the club until June 2017. He didn't score his first Serie A goal for the season until 24 January 2016, opening the scoring in a 1–1 draw against Carpi. On 2 March, in a Coppa Italia match against Juventus, Palacio missed a penalty, which contributed to Inter's elimination after tying 3–3 on aggregate and losing 3–5 on penalties. Over all it was a subpar season from him, scoring just 3 goals in 30 appearances across all competitions.
2016–17 season
On 29 September 2016, he scored Inter's only goal in the 3–1 defeat Europa League group stage defeat against Sparta Praha. He scored a goal against his future club Bologna to eliminate them from the Coppa Italia round of 16 with a 3–2 win on 17 January 2017. The Argentine forward played 20 games but only scored 2 goals that season; one in the Europa League, one in the Coppa Italia, and none in Serie A. With his contract lasting until the end of this season, he played his last game for Inter on 28 May 2017.
Bologna
2017–18 season
On 17 August 2017, Palacio signed a one-year contract with Bologna.
He made his debut in a 1–1 draw vs Torino on 20 August, coming on as a substitute in the 82nd minute for Simone Verdi. He made his first full start on 10 September in a 0–3 loss against Napoli, being substituted off in the 77th minute for Bruno Petković. A week later, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–2 loss against Fiorentina at the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara, this was also the first time he played the full 90 minutes since his arrival in the summer.
2018–19 season
On 6 July 2018, Palacio renewed his contract, signing an additional year until 30 June 2019.
Palacio began the season with a muscle injury in training, which ruled him out for 3 weeks. He returned to the team on 21 October 2018, in a 2–2 draw against Torino, being subbed off at the 80th minute. In the next game, he scored just 2 minutes into the game in a 2–2 draw at Sassuolo. On 16 March 2019, Palacio assisted Bologna's third goal to help Bologna beat Torino 2–3 in Turin.
2019–20 season
Palacio renewed his contract again on 4 July 2019, adding another year that will run through 30 June 2020.
Palacio kicked off the season in the Coppa Italia, scoring the last goal in a 0–3 away win at AC Pisa on 18 August 2019. On 15 September, he scored and assisted Riccardo Orsolini's winning goal in a 3–4 victory against Brescia after trailing 3–1 at half-time. On 1 February 2020, he assisted Mattia Bani's 90th minute game winner versus Brescia, a 2–1 victory.
Retirement
On 26 September 2022, Palacio retired from professional football and started playing basketball.
International career
Palacio played his first match with the Argentina national team on 8 March 2005 in a friendly match against Mexico which ended in a 1–1 draw at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Later that month, on 25 March, he played his first competitive match, a 2–1 away victory in a 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Bolivia, with Palacio playing the last eight minutes of the match. He was selected by the coach José Pékerman for the following year's World Cup, and was given the shirt number 14. He made his debut in the tournament, entering the pitch in the 64th minute and helping the team win the first match of Group C against the Ivory Coast in a 2–1 victory. He did not play any more matches until the end of the tournament, with Argentina being eliminated from the tournament in the quarter-finals after losing 4–2 on penalties (1–1 in extra time) against Germany.
Under new Argentina coach Alfio Basile, Palacio was selected for the 2007 Copa América and given the shirt number 7. He played his first match of the tournament in the team's last match in Group C against Paraguay, starting and playing 90 minutes in a 1–0 victory at the Estadio Metropolitano de Cabudare. Argentina finished as group winners, beating the United States, Colombia and Paraguay. He made his second appearance after playing the last 12 minutes in a 3–0 win against Mexico, securing Argentina's place in the semi-finals of the tournament. In the final, he was an unused substitute as Argentina lost 3–0 to rivals Brazil.
On 15 June 2008, more than three years after his debut with Argentina, Palacio scored his first goal for his country via equalizer in the 93rd minute in a 1–1 draw against Ecuador for the 5th round of 2010 World Cup qualification. He played only two matches in 2008, and did not play any minutes for the national team during 2009 and 2010, meaning that he was not included in the squad for the 2010 World Cup by coach Diego Maradona.
After his good form with Genoa during the second part of the 2010–11 season and first part of 2011–12, Palacio received his first call-up by new national team coach Alejandro Sabella for the 2014 World Cup qualifying match against Venezuela. On 11 October 2011, he played his first match for the national team after a three-year absence, entering the field in the final 15 minutes of a 1–0 loss against Venezuela, with defender Fernando Amorebieta scoring the only goal of the match.
After an impressive 2012–13 season with Inter, Palacio became a regular member of the Argentina national team under Sabella. During the qualifiers for the 2014 World Cup, he played eight matches and assisted several goals that helped Argentina finish first place in its group with 32 points. He scored his second goal for Argentina on 11 October 2013, scoring the third goal in the 3–1 victory against Peru in round 17 of the qualifiers.
Palacio's good form continued in 2014, scoring the opening goal of the match after a corner kick taken by Ángel Di María on 4 June in a 3–0 win against Trinidad and Tobago. Later in that match, he made a good run by dribbling the goalkeeper and assisted the third goal of the match scored by winger Ezequiel Lavezzi. After playing another friendly match against Slovenia, the team traveled to Brazil to play in the 2014 World Cup; he was included on the list of 23 players selected by coach Alejandro Sabella to participate. Notably he received a brilliant opportunity to score in the final against Germany during the 7th minute of extra time, when he received an exceptional pass from Marcos Rojo and controlled it with his chest, which left him one-on-one with the keeper, but his attempt to lob the ball over Manuel Neuer missed the goal completely. After the match, a phrase that said "Era por abajo, Palacio" (It was through the bottom, Palacio) became viral.
On 8 September 2014, at the age of 32, Palacio retired from international football, saying that there are better players to take his spot on the national team.
Personal life
Palacio has a daughter named Juana that was born in May 2010 in Bahía Blanca. He is in a relationship with Wendy Palacio. They have known each other since they were kids.
His father, José Ramón Palacio, was also a footballer.
Style of play
Palacio is a diminutive, tactically intelligent, and technically gifted player, with an eye for goal. A versatile and creative forward, he is capable of playing in several offensive positions, and has been deployed as a striker, as a second striker, and as a winger. In addition to his skills, he is also known for his defensive work-rate.
Career statistics
Club
International
Source:
International goals
Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first. Score column indicates score after each Palacio goal.
Honours
Club
Boca Juniors
Primera División: 2005 Apertura, 2006 Clausura, 2008 Apertura
Copa Libertadores: 2007
Copa Sudamericana: 2005
Recopa Sudamericana: 2005, 2006, 2008
FIFA Club World Cup runner-up: 2007
International
Argentina
FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2014
Copa América runner-up: 2007
Individual
South American Team of the Year: 2005, 2006
Primera División top scorer: 2006 Apertura
FIFA Club World Cup: Bronze Ball 2007
References
External links
Player profile at Genoa official site
Argentine Primera statistics at Fútbol XXI
1982 births
Living people
Argentine men's footballers
Argentina men's international footballers
Argentine expatriate men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Huracán de Tres Arroyos footballers
Boca Juniors footballers
Club Atlético Banfield footballers
2006 FIFA World Cup players
2007 Copa América players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Copa Libertadores-winning players
Footballers from Bahía Blanca
Argentine Primera División players
Primera Nacional players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Genoa CFC players
Inter Milan players
Bologna FC 1909 players
Brescia Calcio players
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Argentine people of Spanish descent
Citizens of Spain through descent
Argentine emigrants to Spain
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Bella Vista de Bahía Blanca footballers |
4319535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MasterChef%20%28British%20TV%20series%29 | MasterChef (British TV series) | MasterChef is a competitive cooking reality show produced by Endemol Shine UK and Banijay and broadcast in 60 countries around the world. In the UK, it is produced by the BBC. The show initially ran from 1990 to 2001 and was revived in 2005 as MasterChef Goes Large. The revival featured a new format devised by Franc Roddam and John Silver, with Karen Ross producing. In 2008, the name was changed back to MasterChef but the format remained unchanged.
The series currently appears in four versions: the main MasterChef series; Celebrity MasterChef; MasterChef: The Professionals, with working chefs; and Junior MasterChef, with children between the ages of nine and twelve. The format and style of the show have been reproduced around the world in various international versions.
Original series
In the original series, amateur cooks competed for the title of Master Chef. The show featured nine rounds leading up to three semifinals and a final. In each round, three contestants were tasked with preparing a gourmet three-course meal in under two hours. The contestants could choose the meal, although there was a price limit on ingredients. "Everyday" ingredients and equipment were provided, and contestants could also bring up to five "speciality" ingredients or utensils.
The first incarnation of the series was presented by Loyd Grossman, who was joined each week by a professional chef and a celebrity to act as judges. In each episode, Grossman and the guest judges discussed the menus, talked to the contestants, and finally ate and judged the food. The judges' "cogitations" originally took place off-camera, but later episodes included edited highlights of the discussions after the food had been tasted and before the winner was announced.
In 1998, Grossman decided to take a sabbatical and the series was not made in his absence. He returned to present the 1999 series but left the show in 2000.
Grossman's departure and 2001 revamp
In 2001, the show underwent a makeover in response to declining ratings. It was moved from its traditional Sunday afternoon slot on BBC One to a Tuesday night slot on BBC Two and the format of the show was modified. The celebrity judge was no longer included and the contestants had to cook two courses in 90 minutes, which was extended to two-and-a-half hours for three courses in the final episode. As an additional requirement, each contestant had to use the same key ingredient in each course.
In October 2000, Grossman left in anger over the proposed changes and was replaced by chef Gary Rhodes, who had previously presented MasterChef USA. Rhodes' advice to contestants was more critical than Grossman's and the show was acclaimed for its more serious tone, which later inspired the MasterChef Goes Large format and other cooking competitions like Hell's Kitchen. However, the new version of the show did not revive ratings as hoped and was cancelled by the BBC after the first series.
Revived series
In 2005, the executive producers Franc Roddam and John Silver, with the series producer Karen Ross, radically overhauled the show's format and introduced a new series. It was initially titled MasterChef Goes Large, but the name reverted to MasterChef in 2008. The new series is judged by John Torode and Gregg Wallace, with voice-over narration provided by India Fisher.
The show proved very popular and became one of BBC Two's more successful early evening programmes, leading to an announcement by the BBC in 2009 that it would be promoted to BBC One.
In February 2022, the BBC and Shine TV announced that they have agreed a multi-series six-year deal for the programme, and from 2024 the production base would move from London to Birmingham. In January 2023, it was reported that Birmingham City Council has approved BBC plans to use the old Banana Warehouse in Digbeth as the new MasterChef studios.
Format
Each series is broadcast on five nights a week for eight weeks. During the first six weeks, the first four episodes of each week are heats and the fifth episode is a quarter-final. Six contestants enter each heat and the winner becomes a quarter-finalist. At the end of each week, the four quarter-finalists compete and a semi-finalist is chosen. After six weeks, the six semi-finalists compete in the final two weeks.
In 2010, the judges were given more flexibility, allowing them to advance more than one contestant to the quarter-finals or, in one instance, none at all. Series 7 of Master Chef had auditions with a format similar to The X Factor, in which hopeful chefs cooked in front of the judges to secure a spot in the competition. More than 20,000 people applied to audition for the series.
Heats
The heats follow a three-round format:
The Market Test: the contestants must invent a dish using ingredients from the show's market. They have 15 minutes to select ingredients and 1 hour and 10 minutes to cook the meal. Three contestants are eliminated from the competition and those remaining advance to the Impression Test.
The Calling Card: the contestants must invent a dish from scratch in 75 minutes (originally 40 minutes until 2009). The contestants can choose any ingredients they like.
The Invention Test: the contestants are given two boxes: one with sweet items and the other with savoury items. They must pick a box and make a dish using its ingredients within 75 minutes.
The Impression Test: the contestants must cook a two-course meal in 75 minutes for past winners and finalists of MasterChef. They are given one hour to serve the main course and 15 minutes afterwards to serve dessert. This segment was first featured in 2017.
Quarter-finals
The format of the quarter-finals has changed over the years. Before 2010, the format featured three rounds:
The Ingredients Test: the contestants were asked to identify a selection of ingredients or produce.
The Passion Test: the contestants each had one minute to convince the judges of their overwhelming passion for food.
After eliminating one contestant, the remaining three quarter-finalists each produced a three-course meal in 1 hour and 20 minutes.
In 2010, the quarter-final format was cut to two rounds:
The Choice Test: the contestants were given 15 minutes to cook their choice of either a pre-selected fish recipe or meat recipe with the judges supervising. At least one contestant was eliminated after this round.
The remaining quarter-finalists each produced a two-course meal in one hour.
The current quarter-final format consists of two rounds:
The Palate Test: Judge John Torode cooks a dish for the contestants, and they must identify the ingredients and try to recreate the dish using the ingredients available to them.
The Choice Test: the contestants have 80 minutes to create a showstopping dish for the judges and a special celebrity food critic.
Comeback Week
The sixth week is called "Comeback Week" and features contestants from previous series of MasterChef who did not advance past the heats or quarter-finals. The format changes for this special week. It includes:
The Skill Test: the contestants have 25 minutes to cook one of two pre-selected recipes. Some contestants may be eliminated after this round.
The Palate Test: Torode cooks a complex dish and asks the contestants one by one to taste the dish and identify its ingredients. Some contestants may be eliminated after this round.
The Pressure Test: the contestants work a lunchtime shift at a busy restaurant under the supervision of a professional chef who comments on their performance.
The remaining contestants have one hour to cook a two-course meal. One contestant is selected to advance to the quarter-final.
The comeback quarter-finalists then cook head-to-head in a larger version of the Invention Test, cooking one dish in an hour. One contestant is selected to advance to the semi-finals.
MasterChef Live
MasterChef Live is an extension of the television programme. It has been held each November since 2009 and the event lasts three days. It is hosted at London Olympia and is co-located with the annual Wine Show. Highlights of the event include live cooking demonstrations in the Chefs' Theater, celebrity chefs, former contestants, critics and MasterChef-style cook-offs.
Celebrity MasterChef
Celebrity MasterChef was devised as a celebrity version of MasterChef Goes Large. The show was screened on BBC One from 2006 to 2011. Originally, 24 celebrities participated in each series with three contestants per episode following the full MasterChef Goes Large test.
In 2011, the programme was moved to a daily daytime slot with 30 episodes screened over six weeks and with only 16 celebrities. Catch-up shows were broadcast on Fridays at 20:30 (30 minutes) and on Saturdays at various times (60 minutes). In 2012, the show moved to BBC Two due to low ratings and returned to an evening 18:30 slot. In 2013, it moved back to BBC One prime time, shown at 20:00. Since 2014, the show has had 20 celebrities competing for the title.
Contestants
The winner from each year is in bold text.
Series 1 (2006)
Matt Dawson, Arabella Weir, Charlie Dimmock, David Grant, Fred MacAulay, Graeme Le Saux, Hardeep Singh Kohli, Helen Lederer, Ian McCaskill, Jilly Goolden, Kristian Digby, Lady Isabella Hervey, Linda Barker, Marie Helvin, Paul Young, Richard Arnold, Roger Black, Rowland Rivron, Sarah Cawood, Sheila Ferguson, Simon Grant, Sue Perkins, Tony Hadley and Toyah Willcox.
Series 2 (2007)
Nadia Sawalha, Midge Ure, Craig Revel Horwood, Jeremy Edwards, Chris Bisson, Martin Hancock, Sunetra Sarker, Gemma Atkinson, Sherrie Hewson, Pauline Quirke, Rani Price, Chris Hollins, Matthew Wright, Angela Rippon, Sue Cook, Lorne Spicer, Emma Forbes, Jeff Green, Darren Bennett, Sally Gunnell, Mark Foster, Matt James, Robbie Earle and Phil Tufnell.
Series 3 (2008)
Liz McClarnon, Linda Robson, Louis Emerick, Debra Stephenson, Christopher Parker, Joe McGann, Steven Pinder, Mark Moraghan, Vicki Michelle, Sean Wilson, Clare Grogan, Hywel Simons, DJ Spoony, Claire Richards, Denise Lewis, Noel Whelan, Andi Peters, Andrew Castle, Michael Buerk, Kaye Adams, Julia Bradbury, Josie D'Arby and Ninia Benjamin.
Series 4 (2009)
Jayne Middlemiss, Colin Murray, Wendi Peters, Simon Shepherd, Janet Ellis, Deena Payne, Iwan Thomas, Rav Wilding, Pete Waterman, Stephen K. Amos, Gemma Bissix, Shirley Robertson, Ian Bleasdale, Paul Martin, Tracy-Ann Oberman, Brian Moore, Saira Khan, Rosie Boycott, Michael Obiora, Joel Ross, Shobna Gulati, Dennis Taylor, Siân Lloyd, Jan Leeming and Joe Swift.
There was also a week of Comeback contestants featuring Joe McGann, Marie Helvin, Linda Barker, Claire Richards, Rowland Rivron, Ninia Benjamin, Steven Pinder, Wendi Peters, Helen Lederer, Tony Hadley, Martin Hancock and Jeff Green.
Series 5 (2010)
Lisa Faulkner, Neil Stuke, Richard Farleigh, Nihal Arthanayake, Alex Fletcher, Tessa Sanderson, Jenny Powell, Colin Jackson, Tricia Penrose, Martin Roberts, Christine Hamilton, Chris Walker, Dick Strawbridge, Danielle Lloyd, Marcus Patric, Dean Macey, Mark Chapman, Jennie Bond, Mark Little and Kym Mazelle.
Series 6 (2011)
Phil Vickery, Kirsty Wark, Nick Pickard, Darren Campbell, Linda Lusardi, Michelle Mone, Ruth Goodman, Aggie MacKenzie, Ricky Groves, Margi Clarke, Colin McAllister, Justin Ryan, Shobu Kapoor, Sharon Maughan, Tim Lovejoy and Danny Goffey.
Series 7 (2012)
Emma Kennedy, Danny Mills, Michael Underwood, Zoe Salmon, Gareth Gates, Cheryl Baker, Laila Rouass, George Layton, Diarmuid Gavin, Richard McCourt, Rebecca Romero, Jamie Theakston, Jenny Eclair, Javine Hylton, Steve Parry and Anne Charleston.
Series 8 (2013)
Ade Edmondson, John Thomson, Heidi Range, Shane Lynch, Miranda Krestovnikoff, Denise Black, Phillips Idowu, Speech Debelle, Brian Capron, Les Dennis, Matthew Hoggard, Katy Brand, Shappi Khorsandi, Joe Calzaghe, Jo Wood and Janet Street-Porter.
Series 9 (2014)
Sophie Thompson, Christopher Biggins, Todd Carty, Tina Hobley, Kiki Dee, JB Gill, Wayne Sleep, Alison Hammond, Tania Bryer, Amanda Burton, Jason Connery, Ken Morley, Millie Mackintosh, Emma Barton, Russell Grant, Alex Ferns, Leslie Ash, Jodie Kidd, Charley Boorman and Susannah Constantine.
Series 10 (2015)
Kimberly Wyatt, Keith Chegwin, Sarah Harding, Yvette Fielding, Arlene Phillips, Samira Ahmed, Andy Akinwolere, Syd Little, Amanda Donohoe, Craig Gazey, Tom Parker, Patricia Potter, Chesney Hawkes, Danny Crates, Mica Paris, Sheree Murphy, Natalie Lowe, Scott Maslen, Rylan Clark and Sam Nixon.
Series 11 (2016)
Alexis Conran, Donna Air, Neil Back, Amelle Berrabah, Marcus Butler, Tommy Cannon, Amy Childs, Richard Coles, David Harper, Audley Harrison, Cherry Healey, Liz Johnson, Tina Malone, Louise Minchin, Laila Morse, Jimmy Osmond, Sid Owen, Gleb Savchenko, Sinitta and Simon Webbe.
Series 12 (2017)
Angellica Bell, Rebecca Adlington, Abdullah Afzal, Kate Bottley, Patti Boulaye, Brian Bovell, Tyger Drew-Honey, Lesley Garrett, Dev Griffin, Barney Harwood, Stephen Hendry, Jaymi Hensley, Ulrika Jonsson, Henri Leconte, Debbie McGee, Aasmah Mir, Jim Moir, Nick Moran, Julia Somerville and Rachel Stevens.
Series 13 (2018)
John Partridge, Michelle Ackerley, Chizzy Akudolu, Keith Allen, Clara Amfo, Martin Bayfield, Jay Blades, Frankie Bridge, Gemma Collins, Josh Cuthbert, Carol Decker, Anita Harris, Jean Johansson, Zoe Lyons, Spencer Matthews, Lisa Maxwell, Monty Panesar, Stella Parton, AJ Pritchard and Stef Reid.
Series 14 (2019)
Greg Rutherford, Élizabeth Bourgine, Joey Essex, Alex George, Andy Grant, Rickie Haywood-Williams, Judge Jules, Josie Long, Oti Mabuse, Kellie Maloney, Dominic Parker, Vicky Pattison, Martha Reeves, Zandra Rhodes, Neil Ruddock, Jenny Ryan, Tomasz Schafernaker, Mim Shaikh, Dillian Whyte and Adam Woodyatt.
Series 15 (2020)
Riyadh Khalaf, Shyko Amos, John Barnes, Jeff Brazier, Baga Chipz, Phil Daniels, Karen Gibson, Gethin Jones (withdrew due to illness), Amar Latif, Lady Leshurr, Dominic Littlewood, Judi Love, Felicity Montagu, Judy Murray, Matthew Pinsent, Sam Quek, Crissy Rock, Thomas Skinner, Myles Stephenson and Pete Wicks.
Series 16 (2021)
Kadeena Cox, Nabil Abdulrashid, Bez, Kem Cetinay, Munya Chawawa, Michelle Collins, Dion Dublin, Gavin Esler, Patrick Grant, Duncan James, Melissa Johns, Will Kirk, Penny Lancaster, Megan McKenna, Su Pollard, Katie Price, Johannes Radebe, Rita Simons, Joe Swash and Melanie Sykes.
Series 17 (2022)
Lisa Snowdon, Richard Blackwood, Melanie Blatt, Jimmy Bullard, Paul Chuckle, Nancy Dell'Olio, Chris Eubank, Kirsty Gallacher, Danny Jones, Katya Jones, Lesley Joseph, Kae Kurd, Gareth Malone, Queen MoJo, Cliff Parisi, Adam Pearson, Clarke Peters, Kitty Scott-Claus, Ryan Thomas and Faye Winter.
Series 18 (2023)
Wynne Evans, Richie Anderson, apl.de.ap, Dave Benson Phillips, Luca Bish, Marcus Brigstocke, James Buckley, Remi Burgz, Dianne Buswell, Terry Christian, Dani Dyer, Sam Fox, Max George, Cheryl Hole, Jamelia, Leon "Locksmith" Rolle Rudimental, Shazia Mirza, Michael Praed, Mica Ven and Amy Walsh.
Other versions and spin-offs
MasterChef: The Professionals
MasterChef: The Professionals, a version for professional chefs, was introduced in 2008.
Junior MasterChef
Junior MasterChef originally ran from 1994 to 1999 for contestants under 16 years old. It was revived in 2010 with contestants between nine and twelve years old. A second series of the revived format ran in 2012 and a third series followed in 2014.
Young MasterChef
In February 2022, BBC Three commissioned Young MasterChef. The series aired in 2023. The judges are Poppy O'Toole and Kerth Gumbs.
Controversy
During the 13th episode of its 14th series when Wallace and Torode criticised a rendang dish made by the Malaysian-born contestant Zaleha Kadir Olpin for its poor quality. Zaleha had been given a task to make a chicken dish in thirty minutes and chose to attempt rendang, which takes several hours to prepare. The judges deemed the dish inedible because the chicken skin was rubbery and undercooked and advised her that with a thirty-minute task she should have made a crispy fried chicken with a sauce. Malaysian and Indonesian commentators pointed out that rendang is usually cooked as a stew and is not intended to be crispy., and that both judges had failed to differentiate between "crispy" and "under-cooked".
Najib Razak, the Malaysian Prime Minister at the time, joined the conversation with a subtle tweet denouncing the judges' opinion. The former Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamed also joined in, suggesting that the judges were confusing rendang with KFC.
Winners
MasterChef (original series)
Note: The original MasterChef series did not appear in 1998.
MasterChef Goes Large and MasterChef (revived series)
MasterChef Goes Large
MasterChef
The show's original name returned in series 4 in 2008.
Celebrity MasterChef
Young MasterChef
Charity specials
Other notable contestants
Transmission guide
Original series
Specials
Happy 10th Birthday MasterChef: TX 18 June 2000
Tales from the MasterChef Kitchen: Series 1, 10 editions from 2 July 2000 – 3 September 2000
Celebrity Special: TX 27 August 2000
Revived series
MasterChef Goes Large
MasterChef
The show's original name returned in series 4 in 2008.
Specials
What The Winners Did Next – featured winners from series 1 and 2 of MasterChef Goes Large, broadcast on 22 January 2007
Notes
1. The final was postponed from its 9 April 2021 air date due to the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
Celebrity MasterChef
Specials
A Recipe for Success
A six-part series looking back over 15 years of Celebrity MasterChef, first episode broadcast on 6 August 2020.
Christmas Cook-Off
Christmas special episodes, where past contestants competed to hold the title of Christmas champion; first episode broadcast on 21 December 2020, second episode broadcast on 23 December 2020.
The winner from each episode is in bold text.
21 December 2020: Janet Street-Porter, Christopher Biggins, Dev Griffin and Vicky Pattison
23 December 2020: Craig Revel Horwood, Amar Latif, Crissy Rock and Spencer Matthews
21 December 2021: Joey Essex, Judi Love, Neil Ruddock, Oti Mabuse and Su Pollard
23 December 2021: Gemma Collins, Joe Swash, Les Dennis, Mica Paris and Rev. Richard Coles
23 December 2022: Bez, Josh Cuthbert, Lesley Garrett and Iwan Thomas
30 December 2022: AJ Pritchard, Chizzy Akudolu, Kitty Scott-Claus and Megan McKenna
Books
See also
MasterChef: The Professionals
Junior MasterChef
References
External links
Celebrity MasterChef
UK
1990 British television series debuts
BBC television game shows
British cooking television shows
1990s British game shows
2000s British game shows
2010s British game shows
2020s British game shows
English-language television shows
British television series revived after cancellation
Television series by Banijay
1990s British cooking television series
2000s British cooking television series
2010s British cooking television series
2020s British cooking television series |
4319752 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirleton%20Castle | Dirleton Castle | Dirleton Castle is a medieval fortress in the village of Dirleton, East Lothian, Scotland. It lies around west of North Berwick, and around east of Edinburgh. The oldest parts of the castle date to the 13th century, and it was abandoned by the end of the 17th century.
Begun in around 1240 by John De Vaux, the castle was heavily damaged during the Wars of Scottish Independence, when it was twice taken by the English. In the 14th century, Dirleton was repaired by the Haliburton family, and it was acquired by the Ruthvens in 1505. The Ruthvens were involved in several plots against Mary, Queen of Scots, and King James VI, and eventually forfeited the castle in 1600. Dirleton ceased to be a residence, although Oliver Cromwell was forced to besiege the castle to flush out a band of "mosstroopers" (marauders), during the Third English Civil War in 1650. The damaged castle was then acquired by John Nisbet, Lord Dirleton, who decided to build a new country house on the nearby Archerfield Estate. The Nisbet family of Dirleton continued to maintain the castle's gardens, before handing Dirleton into state care in 1923. The ruins and gardens are now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland.
Dirleton Castle stands on a rocky outcrop, at the heart of the rich agricultural lands of the barony of Dirleton, and guards the coastal approach to Edinburgh from England, via the port of North Berwick. The ruins comprise a 13th-century keep, and a 16th-century house which the Ruthvens built adjacent. Only the basement levels survive of the 14th- and 15th-century additions built by the Haliburtons, although these comprised a large hall and tower house along the east range. Other buildings within the courtyard have also been demolished. Surrounding the castle are gardens, which may have been first laid out in the 16th century, although the present planting is largely of the 20th century. The garden walls enclose a 16th-century doocot, or pigeon house.
History
de Vaux
[[File:Arms of William de Vaus, Lord of Dirleton (d.1392).svg|thumb|200px|Arms of de Vaux, Vaus, Vass, Vauss, etc., Latinised to de Vallibus, lairds of Dirletoun: Argent, a bend gules. De Vaux, Baron of Gilsland in Cumberland, bore arms: Argent, a bend checqy or and gules<ref>Nisbet, Alexander, A System of Heraldry Speculative and Practical : with the True Art of Blazon ..., p.93 and: Vans Agnew, Sketch of a genealogical and historical account of the family of Vaux, Vans ..., p.23 The English family of de Vaux, Baron of Gilesland in Cumberland, bore arms: Argent, a bend checqy or and gules (Vans Agnew, p.23)</ref>]]
The Norman family of de Vaux originated in Rouen, northern France, and settled in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066. Two de Vaux brothers, or cousins, were among a number of Anglo-Norman knights invited to Scotland, and granted land, by King David I of Scotland in the 12th century. Hubert de Vaux was given the barony of Gilsland in Cumbria, at that time part of Scotland, while John de Vaux was granted the barony of Dirleton. John built a castle at Eldbotle, probably to the north-west of modern Dirleton, and another, named Tarbet Castle, on the island of Fidra, although neither survives.
In 1220, Fidra was gifted to the monks of Dryburgh Abbey by William de Vaux. William's son, another John, had been held hostage in England as surety for the good conduct of King William the Lion in 1213, and succeeded to the barony in the 1220s. He then began the construction of a replacement for Tarbet at Dirleton, which was recorded as a "castellum" in 1225, although this may refer to an earlier timber structure. In 1239, de Vaux was appointed seneschal, or steward, to Marie de Coucy, on her marriage to King Alexander II. Marie de Coucy was the daughter of Enguerrand III, Lord of Coucy (d.1242), builder of the Château de Coucy, in Picardy (c.1220s), which probably served as a model for Dirleton. The 13th-century stone castle, of which only the donjon, or keep, remains, represented a show of de Vaux's status, and would have required peaceful times to permit a prolonged construction project.
Peaceful times ended in 1296, with the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence. Dirleton, which guarded the route between Edinburgh and the English border, changed hands several times through the invasions of the English under King Edward I. During the campaign of summer 1298, the castle was besieged by English forces under Antony Bek, the Bishop of Durham. Dirleton withstood the assault for several months, until the English victory at Falkirk allowed them to bring up large siege engines, after which the castle was soon reduced. Dirleton was garrisoned by the English, but must have been retaken by the Scots before 1306, when the English commander Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke recaptured Dirleton once more. It was finally retaken by the Scots some time before 1314, and was slighted, or deliberately damaged, to prevent its reuse by the English.
Haliburton
The castle and lands of Dirleton passed to the Berwickshire family of Haliburton (or Halyburton) when John Haliburton (d.1355) married the heiress of the de Vaux family, shortly before 1350. The castle had been repaired by 1363, when it was seized by William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas, during his brief rebellion against King David II, although it was later returned to the Haliburtons. In the 1420s, Sir Walter Haliburton (d. before 1447) acted as a hostage in exchange for the release of King James I, who had been held captive by the English since 1406. He was rewarded in 1439 by being appointed Treasurer of Scotland. Either Walter, or his eldest son John (d. before 1454), was ennobled as a Lord of Parliament in the 1440s, with the title Lord Dirletoun. The Haliburtons carried out extensive works at Dirleton, heightening the original towers, and constructing a new gatehouse to the south-east. A large hall and tower house were added to the castle in the 15th century, forming the east range.
King James IV visited Dirleton in September 1505, and gave money to the masons then engaged on works in the north-east part of the castle. Later that year, Patrick, the last Haliburton of Dirleton, died, and his estates were divided among his three daughters, Janet, Margaret, and Mariotta. James IV made Patrick Haliburton's widow Christiane Wawane and her brother William Wawane keepers of Dirleton in August 1507.
Ruthven
The eldest daughter, Janet, married William Ruthven, 2nd Lord Ruthven (d. 1552) in 1515, and the castle and lordship of Dirleton passed to the Ruthven family. The son of William and Janet, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520–1566), was one of the leaders of the group who murdered David Riccio, private secretary to Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1566. Patrick was forced to flee to England, where he died, leaving Dirleton to his son William (c. 1541–1584), who was created Earl of Gowrie in 1581. Lord Gowrie led a plot, later known as the Raid of Ruthven, in which the 16-year-old King James VI was seized, in August 1582. Ruthven then ruled in the king's name, while James was held captive. Although Gowrie was pardoned the following year, he was executed in 1584 for his part in another plot to seize Stirling Castle, and his lands were forfeited to the crown. A keen amateur arboriculturalist, Lord Gowrie is thought to have laid out the gardens at Dirleton, and planted numerous trees.
After the attempted coup failed in May 1584, Dorothea Stewart, Countess of Gowrie, was commanded to surrender Dirleton, Ruthven, Cousland, and the Gowrie lodging in Perth to the crown. James VI granted Dirleton to the Earl of Arran, who entertained the King there for twelve days in May 1585, while there was plague in Edinburgh. The entertainment included a sumptuous banquet and a Robin Hood play. The following year, the castle was restored to Dorothea Stewart, widow of the first Earl, and by 1600 had passed to John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (c. 1577–1600), their second son. Dorothea Stewart and her new husband Andrew Kerr of Faldonsyde complained in 1597 about a group of local men who stole rabbits from the links of Dirleton and terrorised her tenants. She was still living in the castle in November 1600.
Dirleton played a role in the story of the “Gowrie Conspiracy” of 1600 in that there has long been suspicion that the castle was taken from the Ruthvens and given to Thomas Erskine as a reward for assisting James VI in the murder of Patrick Ruthven's sons: John, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, and his brother Alexander. The official narrative of the Gowrie Conspiracy, provided afterwards by the king, was that he and fifteen retainers, Erskine among them, had arrived at Gowrie House one night in August 1600 because he had been invited there by Alexander. However, as the narrative goes, the two brothers attempted to assassinate James, and in the melee that followed, the two Ruthvens were killed. While this was happening at Gowrie House, the other two Ruthven brothers, William and Patrick, were at Dirleton, apparently unaware of the plot afoot. Finding much to doubt in the king's account, many have argued that James went to Gowrie House with his retinue for the express purpose of murdering John and Alexander, partly because the king owed the Earl of Gowrie a large sum of money and partly because there had long been a rumor that Gowrie was the grandson of James IV, which, if true, would have put him in line for the throne ahead of James VI. After the killings, the king divided the Gowrie estates and bestowed them on the men who had been with him that night. Erskine received the gift of Dirleton Castle in November 1600, which some perceive to be a form of "blood money". This perception is further substantiated by the fact that Erskine was created Baron Erskine of Dirletowne in 1604.
Erskine sold the castle to Sir James Douglas in 1625. Douglas sold it on to Alexander Morieson of Prestongrange, who sold it in turn, in 1631, to James Maxwell of Innerwick (d. c. 1650), who was created Earl of Dirletoun in 1646. In October 1641 the Earl of Argyll, Marquess of Hamilton and Earl of Lanark were forced to flee from Edinburgh to Dirleton, the home of Hamilton's mother-in-law, Elizabeth de Boussy, due the conspiracy known as the Incident.
Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell's army invaded Scotland in 1650, during the Third English Civil War, and defeated the Scots Royalists at Dunbar on 3 September. With this victory, Cromwell gained effective control of southern Scotland, but bands of Royalist moss-troopers continued to harry the English supply lines. One such band was based at Dirleton, and Cromwell ordered General Monck and General Lambert, with 1,600 troops, to capture the castle. This was achieved on 10 November, using mortars to destroy the drawbridge and inner gate. The captain of the moss-troopers was hanged from the walls with two of his comrades. The castle was slighted once more, and although briefly used as a field hospital, it was then left to decay. The soldier and engineer responsible for Cromwell's effective use of artillery was a German, Major Joachim Hane. He also designed fortresses near Inverness and in Ayr, and directed the mortar fire at the siege of Stirling Castle in August 1651. He later spent a year spying for Cromwell's Secretary of State, John Thurloe.
Nisbet
Dirleton Castle and estate were purchased, from the widowed Countess of Dirletoun, by the lawyer John Nisbet (c. 1609–1687) in 1663. Nisbet, who took the title Lord Dirleton when he was appointed as a judge, built a new house at Archerfield, to the north-west of the village. The Nisbets continued to maintain the gardens around the castle as part of the park around Archerfield, and installed the bowling green. The 19th-century garden walls were added by Mary Nisbet, Lady Elgin (1778–1855), wife of the Earl of Elgin, as part of a "beautification" of Dirleton village. In the mid-19th century, two new parterres were laid out by the head gardener, David Thompson. Although neither survived, the west garden was restored, based on 19th-century plans, in 1993. The north garden was replaced in the 1920s with an Arts and Crafts-style garden of herbaceous borders. Also in the 1920s, the castle was passed into state care, and is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland, an agency of the Scottish Government.
The castle and grounds are protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument, while the gardens appear on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland, the national register of historic gardens. The castle, doocot, and boundary walls are Category A listed buildings, the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland.
Description
The castle is built on a natural rocky outcrop, on a low ridge overlooking the farmland of East Lothian. It comprises a kite-shaped courtyard, by , flanked by buildings on the south and east sides. The most substantial remains are the Ruthven Lodging, the gatehouse, and the de Vaux keep to the south, while only the basement of the east range survives. Fragments of the north and west curtain walls outline the courtyard, which was formerly divided in two by further 16th-century buildings. The castle was originally approached from the south, via a bridge and drawbridge, across a wide ditch. In the 16th century, steps were built to access the Ruthven lodging from the west.
The keep
The keep, or donjon, survives largely intact from the 13th century, and forms the south-west part of the present castle. Described by architectural historian W. D. Simpson as a "cluster keep", it comprises a large round tower to the south, a smaller round tower to the west, with the two joined by a square tower. The masonry is of squared ashlar, or dressed stone blocks. Internally, the original use of the rooms is difficult to interpret, although the round towers may have served as private suites for Lord Dirleton and his Lady. The large tower contains a six-sided chamber at ground level, possibly a kitchen, with a seven-sided main chamber above. This room has a pointed vaulted ceiling, window seats in the large windows around the south wall, and a carved fireplace at the north. To the east is a postern, or side door, and beyond is a well. Adjacent to the well is a floor hatch, which would have allowed food to be transferred directly from the kitchen to a servery above. A room in the square tower to the west, possibly the lord's bedroom, has holes in the ceiling to allow smoke from braziers to escape. The more ruined west round tower probably contained another hall, with chambers above and storage below. In the 17th century, the top of the main round tower was lowered and remodelled to form a gun platform.
Only fragments of the rest of the 13th-century castle remain. A fourth tower, where the Ruthven lodging now stands, may have completed the "cluster keep". Bases of round towers at the south-east and north-east corners of the castle are visible below the later walls. Parts of the north-west wall are 13th-century work, as is the blocked postern in the basement of the east range. The overall plan of the castle, however, was not greatly changed through later rebuilding work. Dirleton is the earliest dated example in Scotland of a castle with round towers that project beyond the curtain wall, as opposed to those at Dunstaffnage, for example, where the towers are contained within the walls. This new form was subsequently used in other 13th-century Scottish castles, including Bothwell and Kildrummy.
The east range and gatehouse
The gatehouse, kitchens, and east range were built by the Haliburtons in the 14th and 15th centuries. The gatehouse, built in the 14th century to the east of the keep, is similar to the one at nearby Tantallon Castle. It is fronted by a high, pointed arch, formerly with bartizans, small round turrets, at the top. The gate was protected by a drawbridge over the outer ditch, a portcullis, and three sets of doors. Guard rooms open off the entrance passage, and a round opening in the roof, known as a "murder hole", allowed defenders to drop objects on to any attacker who breached the outer gate.
The large kitchens occupy the south-east angle of the castle. The high main kitchen has two wide fireplaces for cooking, and a circular vent in the vaulted ceiling. Hatches in the floor give access to a well ( deep) and cellars below. The adjacent passage linked the kitchen to the hall in the east range.
The east range itself runs the length of the east side of the castle, and originally comprised a large hall, with a square tower house at the north-east corner. Although only the basement survives, this once formed one of the finest noble residences of its time in Scotland, and would have been similar to the contemporary buildings at Doune Castle. The basement is a single tunnel vault, with low walls subdividing the area into stores. Two large ovens and a well lie at the south end, while at the east is the 13th-century postern, blocked when the wall was thickened to support the new buildings above, and re-used as a fireplace. At the north end of the basement is a vaulted prison for freemen, and below this, a rock-cut pit, square, to house prisoners of the peasant classes. Above the prison, but still within the basement, is a vaulted chapel with various ceremonial recesses, such as a sacristy and a piscina, or water basin. A private chamber for the priest is next door. The hall above is by , and once had a high timber roof, and a minstrel's gallery at the south end. An ornately carved stone buffet, or cupboard, is located on this wall, which formed part of the servery next to the kitchen. At the north-east corner of the castle, a tower house provided accommodation for the Lord's family and guests. Again, only the lowest floor remains, above the chapel. This probably formed a private chamber for the Lord, and was connected to the adjacent hall.
The Ruthven Lodging
Constructed by the Ruthvens after they acquired the castle around 1515, the Ruthven Lodging represents the final stage of building at Dirleton. In the later part of the 16th century, it served as the main residence of Lady Dorothea, wife of the first Earl of Gowrie, and their 15 children. The three-storey building is constructed, like the Haliburton range, from undressed stone, although the Ruthven Lodging is decorated with string courses, horizontal mouldings running around the walls. The large windows were protected by iron grilles and small gun holes. The rectangular Lodging is immediately to the north of the de Vaux building, separated by a narrow irregular courtyard, which is accessed via a passage in the ground floor of the Lodging. The remainder of the ground floor was occupied by cellars, with family rooms and bedrooms on the upper floors. The first-floor dining room was paved with patterned floor tiles, and may once have had a painted timber ceiling.
The gardens
The castle is set within extensive gardens, bounded by a 19th-century wall. The gardens were first laid out in the 16th century, but have undergone many changes. A bowling green lies to the west of the castle, fringed by yew trees, which may once have formed a hedge around a parterre in this area. West of the bowling green is a flower garden, laid out in 1993 to an 18th-century design, and containing yew, cedar, monkey puzzle and Lawson's cypress trees. To the north is the 1920s Arts and Crafts garden, which is home to a -long herbaceous border, and is overlooked by a castellated 19th-century gazebo, or summer house. The border is recognised by the Guinness Book of Records as being the longest in the world. The rest of the gardens comprise lawns, with numerous mature specimen trees, including redwood, beech, and sycamore.
There is a well-preserved 16th-century beehive-shaped doocot, or pigeon house, in the castle grounds. The doocot is high, and contains around 1000 nesting boxes for pigeons, which were an important source of food for the castle's inhabitants. To the north-east, now located outside the castle gardens, is a 16th-century gateway which formerly served the castle, but now serves the adjacent farm.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Lindsay, Maurice. (1986) The Castles of Scotland. Constable & Co.
McWilliam, Colin. (1978) The Buildings of Scotland: Lothian, except Edinburgh. Penguin.
Salter, Mike. (1994) The Castles of Lothian and the Borders. Folly Publications.
Tabraham, Chris. (1997) Scotland's Castles. BT Batsford/Historic Scotland.
Tabraham, Chris. (2007) Dirleton Castle'' 2nd edition. Historic Scotland.
External links
Historic Environment Scotland: Visitor guide
Dirleton Castle in the Gazetteer for Scotland
Images from RCAHMS, including aerial views, plans, and historical photographs.
The Dirleton Witch Hunts: HES blog
History of the Barony of Dirleton
Reconstruction of Dirleton Castle
Tate Turner Dunbar sketchbook (a) and Tate, Turner Dunbar sketchbook (b), two sketches of Dirleton by J. M. W. Turner, Tate.
13th-century establishments in Scotland
Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century
13th-century fortifications
Castles in East Lothian
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in East Lothian
Category A listed buildings in East Lothian
Listed castles in Scotland
Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes
Ruins in East Lothian
Gardens in East Lothian
Historic house museums in East Lothian |
4320523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Albert%20%281914%29 | Battle of Albert (1914) | The Battle of Albert (also known as the First Battle of Albert) began on 25 September 1914, in what became known as the "Race to the Sea", during the First World War. It followed the First Battle of the Aisne as both sides moved northwards, trying to turn the northern flank of their opponent. The Second Army (Noël de Castelnau), began to assemble at Amiens in mid-September and was directed by General Joseph Joffre, the Generalissimo of the French Army, to attack near Albert.
On 25 September, the Second Army advanced eastwards but instead of advancing round an open northern flank, encountered the German 6th Army which had attacked in the opposite direction, reaching Bapaume on 26 September and Thiepval the next day. The Germans had intended to outflank the French and drive westward to the English Channel, seizing the industrial and agricultural regions of northern France and isolating Belgium. Neither side could defeat their opponent and the battle ended in stalemate around 29 September, as both sides made another outflanking attempt to the north of Albert, at the Battle of Arras (1–4 October).
Background
Battle of the Frontiers
On 18 August, General Albert d'Amade formed a defence line from Maubeuge to Dunkirk, to prevent the disruption of railways by German cavalry raids. The Scarpe, Escaut and Rhonelle sluices were opened to extend the floods of the Scarpe and the old forts of de Maulde, Flines, Curgies, Condé and Le Quesnoy around Valenciennes were re-occupied. On 20 August, d'Amade formed a line of three territorial divisions , with the 84th Territorial Division from the Scarpe to the Sambre, the 82nd Territorial Division from the Sambre to the Lys and the 81st Territorial Division from the Lys to the sea. When the BEF advanced to the west of Maubeuge, the 84th Territorial Division advanced to Condé and formed a new defensive line along the Escaut, from Condé to Maulde. On 23 August, the 88th Territorial Division arrived near Lille from Paris, with orders to recapture Tournai. The division was bombarded by heavy artillery when close to Cysoing the next morning and slowly retired to Templeuve and Arras. After the Battle of Charleroi (21 August) and the Battle of Mons (23 August), Amiens became vulnerable to the advance of the 1st Army as it pursued the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and the Fifth Army. At on 24 August, the Siege of Maubeuge began and the 84th Territorial Division fell back towards Cambrai and Marquion. The rearguard was attacked near Fresnes, just south of Condé and next day, the division was engaged near Haspres and defeated.
Orders came from Paris to abandon Lille, which was evacuated on 24 August and the 82nd Territorial Division formed a line from La Bassée to Corbehem, with the 81st Territorial Division forming a line from Aire to the sea. The Sixth Group of Reserve Divisions (also known as , with the 61st and 62d Reserve divisions) were sent from Paris, increasing d'Amade's force to six divisions, to hold a line from Douai to Béthune and Aire, to the sea, with another of the Lille garrison. On 25 August, the German II Corps advanced westwards through Denain, to get behind the left flank of the BEF and after dark reached the vicinity of Cambrai, where rearguards of the 84th Territorial Division defended the Sensée Canal at Bouchain, against a German attempt to cross. During 26 August, the division slowly retreated west of Cambrai; arrived at Marquion and were then ordered by Joffre to Combles and Péronne, to become part of the Sixth Army. The divisions retreated westwards, covered by the 84th Territorial Division, in actions which diverted part of the German II Corps from the BEF during the Battle of Le Cateau (26 August).
Action of Mesnil
Early on 28 August, the two reserve divisions advanced from Bapaume, taking the German II Cavalry Corps by surprise in its billets around Péronne. The action continued into the next day and the French divisions were then driven back from Manancourt, south-west of Bapaume, by elements of II Corps and the IV Reserve Corps. Further to the east, the French II Cavalry Corps on the left of the BEF, failed to prevent the Germans from reaching the outskirts of Péronne on the evening of 27 August. The cavalry withdrew south of the Somme and next day Péronne was captured. The German advance continued towards Amiens and on 29 August, the Sixth Army counter-attacked the German advance guards, which had reached Bray-sur-Somme, Chuignolles and Framerville near Amiens. A Moroccan Chasseur brigade, the 14th division of VII Corps, the 45th and 55th battalions of Chasseurs and the 55th Division on the right flank near Nesle, captured Proyart as the four Territorial divisions advanced on Amiens. During the evening, a German counter-attack retook Proyart and forced the French to the south. The Territorial divisions retreated from Amiens on 30 August, skirmishing with German patrols near Cagny. On 11 September, the German garrison withdrew from Amiens and next day the Territorial divisions arrived from Rouen and captured a few stragglers. The Territorial divisions advanced to the north-east towards Péronne and Fricourt on 17 September.
Prelude
German offensive preparations
General Erich von Falkenhayn replaced Colonel-General Helmuth von Moltke the Younger as Chief of the German General Staff on 14 September, when the German front in France was being consolidated in Lorraine and on the Aisne. The open western flank beyond the 1st Army and the danger of attacks from the National redoubt of Belgium, where the Siege of Antwerp had begun on 20 August, created a dilemma. The German positions in France had to be maintained, when only offensive operations could lead to decisive victory. Appeals for the reinforcement of the Eastern Front could not be ignored and Falkenhayn cancelled a plan for the 6th Army to break through near Verdun. The army was sent to the right wing of the German armies, where the flank of 1st army was at Compiègne, beyond which there were no German forces until Antwerp. Falkenhayn could reinforce the 1st Army with the 6th Army, send it to Antwerp or divide the army by reinforcing the 1st Army and the Antwerp siege with part of the army, while the rest operated in the area between. Falkenhayn chose to move the 6th Army to Maubeuge and outflank the Franco-British left wing, withdrawing the 1st, 7th and 2nd armies to La Fère, Laon and Reims while the 6th Army was redeploying. The 3rd, 4th and 5th armies were to defend if the French attacked first and then attack to the south-west beginning on 18 September.
General Karl von Bülow, the 2nd Army commander and Colonel Gerhard Tappen of the Operations Branch of the (OHL, Supreme Army Command) objected because the time needed to move the 6th Army, would concede the initiative to the French. Bülow and Tappen recommended an attack by the 1st and 7th armies, with reinforcements from the armies to the east, for an offensive from Reims to Fismes and Soissons, since the French could redeploy troops on undamaged railways. The risk of separating the 1st and 2nd armies again would be avoided; Falkenhayn agreed and ordered the 6th Army to assemble at St. Quentin. Attacks to encircle Verdun from the south and from Soissons to Reims would pin down French troops. On 21 September, Falkenhayn met Bülow and agreed that the 6th Army should concentrate close to Amiens, attack towards the Channel coast and then envelop the French south of the Somme, in a (decisive battle). The XXI Corps, which had moved from Lunéville on 15 September and the I Bavarian Corps which marched from Namur, arrived during 24 September but were diverted against the Second Army as soon as they arrived on 24 September, with orders to extend the front northwards from Chaulnes to Péronne, attack the French bridgehead and drive the French back over the Somme.
French offensive preparations
French attempts to advance after the German retirement to the Aisne were frustrated after 14 September, when German troops were discovered to have stopped their retirement and dug in on the north bank of the Aisne. Joffre ordered that the German 1st and 2nd armies be attacked but attempts by the Fifth, Ninth and Sixth armies to advance from had little success. French Military Intelligence reported German troop movements from east to west, which led Joffre to continue moving French troops from the east, which had begun on 2 September with IV Corps and continued on 9 September with XX Corps, 11 September with XIII Corps and XIV Corps on 18 September. The depletion of the French forces in the east, took place just before the Battle of Flirey , a German offensive against the Third Army on either side of Verdun, the Fifth Army north of Reims and the Sixth Army along the Aisne, which ended with the creation of the St Mihiel Salient. Joffre maintained the French emphasis on the western flank, after receiving intercepted wireless messages, which showed that the Germans were moving an army to the western flank. Joffre continued to send units to the Second Army, north of the Sixth Army. On 24 September, the Second Army was attacked and found difficulty in holding ground, rather than advancing round the German flank as intended.
General Ferdinand Foch ordered the left flank of the French armies to move northward to Arras, Lens and Lille, to recreate a threat to the German northern flank, by moving through Arras to Cambrai and Le Cateau and from Lens to Valenciennes and Maubeuge. If the French occupied the area between Cambrai, Valenciennes, Maubeuge and Le Cateau, the German forces on the upper Somme, Oise and the Aisne would lose the use of the two main railways to Liege, although this would not be decisive, since the line from Laon to Vervins, Hirson, Charleroi, Namur and Liege and that from Laon to Mézières and Montmédy to either Luxemburg and Treves or Thionville and Metz, would still be available to the Germans. French moves to the north were also influenced by events in the siege of Antwerp, where Termonde fell on 26 September and increased the danger that the city and the Belgian army would be lost. The new Tenth Army was ordered to concentrate around Arras and Lens.
First Battle of Picardy
On 18 September, the Sixth Army advance was stopped on a south-east to north-west line at Carlepont on the south bank of the Oise and Noyon on the north bank, which ended the first French outflanking move. Joffre dissolved the Second Army in Lorraine and sent Castelnau and the Second Army headquarters to the north of the Sixth Army, to take over the IV and XIII corps, along with the 1st, 5th, 8th and 10th Cavalry divisions of the French II Cavalry Corps (General Louis Conneau) from the Sixth Army. The XIV Corps was transferred from the First Army and XX Corps from the original Second Army, to assemble south of Amiens, behind a screen of the 81st, 82nd, 84th and 88th Territorial divisions protecting French communications. The Second Army prepared to advance on 22 September, on a line from Lassigny northwards to Roye and Chaulnes, around the German flank. Next day, the German II Corps joined the right flank of the 1st Army, for an attack to the south-west with the IV Corps, IX Reserve Corps and the 4th and 7th cavalry divisions. Bülow, ordered Kluck to cancel the offensive and withdraw the two corps behind the right flank of the 1st Army. On 16 September, the 2nd and 9th Cavalry divisions were dispatched from the Aisne front as reinforcements but before the retirement began, the French XIII and IV corps on the left flank of Sixth Army, with the 61st and 62nd divisions of the 6th Group of Reserve Divisions, began to advance along the Oise and met the right flank of the 1st Army between Carlepont and Noyon on 17 September. On the right flank, the French 17th and 45th divisions attacked near Soissons and gained a foothold on the plateau of Cuffies, just north of the city.
The First Battle of Picardy from was the first of the reciprocal outflanking attempts by the French and German armies after the First Battle of the Aisne and resulted in an encounter battle in Picardy. The French Sixth Army attacked up the Oise river valley towards Noyon, as the Second Army assembled further north, ready to advance round the northern flank of the German 1st Army. The Second Army crossed the Avre on a line from Lassigny northwards to Roye and Chaulnes but met the German II Corps from the 1st Army that had arrived from the Aisne front, where new entrenchments had enabled fewer men to garrison the front line. The corps moved into line on on the right flank of the IX Reserve Corps. Despite the assistance of four divisions of the II Cavalry Corps (Lieutenant-General Georg von der Marwitz), the Germans were pushed back to a line from Ribécourt to Lassigny and Roye, which menaced German communications through Ham and St. Quentin.
On 21 September, the German XVIII Corps had begun a forced march from Reims and reached Ham on the evening of 23 September. On 24 September, the corps attacked towards Roye and with II Corps, forced back the French IV Corps of the Sixth Army. To the north, the Second Army reached Péronne and formed a bridgehead on the east bank of the Somme, which exhausted the offensive capacity of the Second Army. Joffre sent the XI Corps, the last French reserve, to the Second Army and began to withdraw three more corps for dispatch to the Second Army. On 25 September, a German attack near Noyon pushed back the Second Army. French reinforcements attacked again and from a general action took place along the Western Front from the Vosges to Péronne, after which the main effort of both sides took place further north.
Battle
25–29 September
The offensive by the French Second Army forced Falkenhayn to divert the XXI and I Bavarian corps as soon as they arrived, to extend the front northwards from Chaulnes to Péronne on 24 September and drive the French back over the Somme. Overcrowded and damaged railways behind the German front slowed the transit of German forces and infantry marched from Namur and Cambrai. On 25 September, the German reinforcements attacked, crossed the Somme south of Péronne and then advanced to take a bridge between Hem and Feuillères. A French attack north of the Somme against the II Bavarian Corps, forced a hurried withdrawal. As more Bavarian units arrived in the north, the 3rd Bavarian Division advanced north of the Somme through Bouchavesnes, Leforest and Hardecourt until held up at Maricourt. The 4th Bavarian Division further to the north, defeated the French Territorials and then attacked westwards towards Albert, through Sailly, Combles, Guillemont and Montauban.
On 27 September, the II Cavalry Corps drove back the 61st and 62nd Reserve divisions (General Joseph Brugère, d'Amade had been replaced), to make way for the XIV Reserve Corps to link with the right flank of the II Bavarian Corps, ready for an attack towards Albert. The French (General Louis de Maud'huy) began to assemble at Arras and de Maud'huy found that instead of making another attempt to get round the German flank, the was menaced by a German offensive. The II Bavarian and XIV Reserve corps pushed back a French Territorial division from the area around Bapaume and advanced towards Bray-sur-Somme and Albert, as part of the offensive down the Somme valley to reach the sea. The German offensive was confronted north of the Somme by the French XXI and X corps and the 81st, 82nd, 84th and 88th Territorial divisions (Brugère) further north and the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 10th Cavalry divisions of the II Cavalry Corps (General Louis Conneau), east of Albert.
The XIV Reserve Corps attacked on 28 September, along the Roman road from Bapaume to Albert and Amiens, intending to reach the Ancre and then continue westwards along the Somme valley. The 28th Reserve Division advanced close to Fricourt, against scattered resistance from French infantry and cavalry. On 28 September, the French were able to stop the German advance, on a line from Maricourt to Fricourt and Thiépval. The German II Cavalry Corps, moved north but was held up near Arras, by the French II Cavalry Corps. On 29 September, the 28th Reserve Division attacked Fricourt and captured the village but was prevented by French small-arms and artillery-fire, from advancing beyond. North of the road, the 26th Reserve Division advance was also stopped by the French. Next day French units counter-attacked several times and almost recaptured Fricourt.
A lull in the fighting occurred overnight and then both sides began to dig in haphazardly, where the opposing lines had stopped moving, which was not always on easily defended ground. At Maricourt, about to the south, the German advance had been stopped short of the village. North of the road, the 26th Reserve Division fought to capture the high ground of Bazentin Ridge, which overlooked the Ancre valley but instead of rolling up the French northern flank, was endangered by a reciprocal French attack. (The French attack reached Sapignies behind the right flank, until counter-attacked by the Guards Corps, which arrived at Bapaume on 2 October.) Joffre added X Corps, north of Amiens, the II Cavalry Corps, south-east of Arras and a provisional corps under General Victor d'Urbal, which had the 77th Reserve Division south-east of Arras and the 70th Reserve Division in Lens, to the which was renamed the Tenth Army, to make another outflanking move near Arras.
Aftermath
Analysis
The French had been able to use the undamaged railways behind their front to move troops more quickly than the Germans, who had to take long detours, wait for repairs to damaged tracks and replace rolling stock. The French IV Corps moved from Lorraine on 2 September in and assembled by 6 September. The French had been able to move troops in up to per day and use hundreds of motor-vehicles, which were co-ordinated by two staff officers, Commandant Gérard and Captain Doumenc. The French could also use Belgian and captured German rail wagons and the domestic telephone and telegraph systems. The initiative held by the Germans in August was not recovered and the troop movements to the right flank were piecemeal.
Until the end of the Siege of Maubeuge only the single line from Trier to Liège, Brussels, Valenciennes and Cambrai was available and had to be used to supply the German armies on the right as the 6th Army travelled in the opposite direction, limiting the army to forty trains a day, taking four days to move a corps. Information on German troop movements from wireless interception enabled the French to forestall German moves but the Germans had to rely on reports from spies, which were frequently wrong. The French resorted to more cautious infantry tactics, using cover to reduce casualties and a centralised system of control as the German army commanders followed contradictory plans. The French did not need quickly to obtain a decisive result and could concentrate on conserving the French army.
Subsequent operations
On 30 September, a French division arrived at Arras and on 1 October was slowly pushed back from Guémappe, Wancourt and Monchy-le-Preux until the arrival of X Corps. Two more French corps, three infantry and two cavalry divisions had been sent northwards to Amiens, Arras, Lens and Lille, which increased the Second Army to eight corps, along a front of . On 28 September, Falkenhayn had ordered the 6th Army to conduct an offensive on the existing northern flank by the IV, Guard and I Bavarian corps near Arras and offensives further north. On 1 October, the French attacked to the south-east, expecting only a cavalry screen.
Three German corps attacked from Arras to Douai on 1 October, forestalling the French. From costly German attacks were made on Beaurains, Mercatel and the Arras suburbs of St. Laurent-Blangy and St. Nicolas, which were repulsed and Lens fell. German attacks were made from the north of Arras to reach the Scarpe but were eventually repulsed by the X Corps. By 4 October, German troops had also reached Givenchy-en-Gohelle and on the right flank of the French to the south, several Territorial divisions were separated from X Corps. Joffre made Maud'huy's independent as the Tenth Army and told Castelnau to keep the Second Army in position, to wait while the increasing number of troops further north diverted German pressure.
By 6 October, the Second Army front from the Oise to the Somme and the Tenth Army front from Thiepval to Gommecourt, Blaireville, the eastern fringe of Arras, Bailleul, Vimy and Souchez had been stabilised. The operation by the cavalry under Marwitz to the north of the 6th Army, had pushed back the French Territorial divisions to a line between Lens and Lille and on 5 October, Marwitz issued orders for the cavalry to advance westwards to Abbeville on the Channel coast and cut the railways leading south. At the end of 6 October, Falkenhayn terminated attempts by the 2nd Army to break through in Picardy. To the north, the I and II Cavalry corps attacked between Lens and Lille, were quickly repulsed and forced back behind the Lorette Spur. Next day the cavalry was attacked by the first troops of the French XXI Corps, advancing from Béthune.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Encyclopaedias
Websites
Further reading
External links
Battle of Albert 1914
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Race to the Sea
1914 in France
Conflicts in 1914
History of Somme (department)
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving France
September 1914 events |
4320615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Meurig%20Thomas | John Meurig Thomas | Sir John Meurig Thomas (15 December 193213 November 2020), also known as JMT, was a Welsh scientist, educator, university administrator, and historian of science primarily known for his work on heterogeneous catalysis, solid-state chemistry, and surface and materials science.
He was one of the founders of solid-state chemistry, starting with his work at the University of Wales, Bangor, in 1958 when he investigated the various ways in which dislocations influence the chemical, electronic and excitonic properties of a range of solids. He was one of the first to exploit electron microscopy as a chemical tool, especially to deduce active-site reactivities from the surface topography of many minerals and crystal hydrates. At the University of Aberystwyth (1969–1978) he elucidated the surface chemistry of diamond, clay minerals, metals and intercalates by pioneering UV and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. He also initiated the field of crystal engineering of organic molecules. As head of physical chemistry department at the University of Cambridge (1978–1986), then a separate department to chemistry, he used magic-angle-spinning NMR and high-resolution electron microscopy to characterize and determine the structures of zeolites and other nanoporous catalysts. As Fullerian Professor and Director of the Royal Institution and of the Davy–Faraday Research Laboratory, he utilized synchrotron radiation to characterize, in situ, new catalysts designed for green chemistry and clean technology.
He was the recipient of many national and international awards; and, for his contribution to geochemistry, the mineral meurigite was named in his honour. He was Master of Peterhouse, University of Cambridge (1993–2002), and was knighted in 1991 "for services to chemistry and the popularisation of science".
Thomas authored more than 1200 scientific articles and several books, including Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place (1991),
Principles and Practice of Heterogeneous Catalysis (with W. John Thomas, 1997, 2014), and Design and Applications of Single-Site Heterogeneous Catalysts: Contributions to Green Chemistry, Clean Technology and Sustainability (2012).
Biography
Early life and education
Thomas was born and brought up in the Gwendraeth Valley, Carmarthenshire, Wales, near the mining town of Llanelli, where his father and brother were miners.
Thomas earned a BSc degree from the University College of Wales, Swansea (later Swansea University) in 1954. He earned a PhD from Queen Mary College (later Queen Mary University of London) in 1958, working with Keble W. Sykes.
Personal life
In 1959, Thomas married Margaret Edwards with whom he had two daughters, Lisa and Naomi. Margaret Thomas died in 2002.
In April 2010, Thomas married Jehane Ragai of the American University in Cairo; the events took place in Cambridge and London.
The recreations he lists in Who's Who include ancient civilisations, bird watching, and Welsh literature.
Early career
After a year's work for the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority as scientific officer (1957–1958), Thomas joined the Department of Chemistry at the University College of North Wales (later Bangor University) as of September 1958. There he rose through the ranks from Assistant Lecturer (1958), to Lecturer (1959), to Senior Lecturer (1964) and then to Reader in 1965.
Thomas demonstrated the profound influence of dislocations and other structural imperfections upon the chemical, electronic, and surface properties of solids.
In 1969 Thomas became Professor and Head of Chemistry at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, where he broadened his interests in solid-state, surface and materials chemistry and pioneered new techniques for the application of electron microscopy in chemistry. In 1977 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
In 1978, Thomas succeeded Jack Linnett as Head of the Department of Physical Chemistry at the University of Cambridge (then a separate department from the Department of Chemistry, which covered Organic, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry). He also became a Professorial Fellow at King's College, Cambridge, holding both positions until 1986.
Thomas continued developing new techniques in solid-state and materials science, and designing and synthesising new catalysts. For example, he extended his earlier electron microscopic and surface studies of minerals and intercalates to encompass the synthesis and structural determination of zeolitic materials by a combination of solid-state NMR, neutron scattering, and real-space imaging.
Director of the Royal Institution
In 1986, Thomas succeeded Sir George Porter as Director of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. He also became the holder of the Michael Faraday chair, and the Director of the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory (DFRL). The Royal Institution was founded in 1799. Its earliest directors were Humphry Davy (1801–1825) and Michael Faraday (1825–1867). The Davy Faraday Research Laboratory opened on 22 December 1896, with funding from Ludwig Mond. It was "unique of its kind, being the only public laboratory in the world solely devoted to research in pure science".
At this time, Thomas began using synchrotron radiation and devised techniques which combine X-ray spectroscopy and high-resolution X-ray diffraction to determine the atomic structure of the active sites of solid catalysts under operating conditions. He also devised new mesoporous, microporous, and molecular sieve catalysts.
In 1987 the BBC televised Thomas' Royal Institution Christmas Lectures on crystals, continuing the tradition of lectures for children started by Faraday in 1825.
In 1991 Thomas published the book Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place, which has since been translated into Japanese (1994) and Italian (2007).
In 1991, Thomas resigned as Director of the Royal Institution and the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory, to be succeeded by Peter Day.
Return to Cambridge
After a period as Deputy Pro-Chancellor of the University of Wales (1991–1994), Thomas returned to Cambridge in 1993 as Master of Peterhouse, the oldest college of the university. He was the first scientist to hold the position.
In 1997 Thomas co-authored the text Principles and Practice of Heterogeneous Catalysis with W. John Thomas (no relation). In 1999 John Meurig Thomas was elected Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering for work that "has profoundly added to the science-base of heterogeneous catalysis leading to the commercial exploitation of zeolites through engineering processes".
Thomas was the author of some thirty patents, some of which have made chemical processes more environmentally benign ("greener") by eliminating the use of solvents and reducing the number of manufacturing steps involved. The single-step, solvent-free catalytic synthesis of ethyl acetate that he invented is the basis of a 200,000 ton/year plant in the UK, the largest of its kind in the world. He devised single-step, solvent-free processes for the production of caprolactam (the raw material for nylon-6) and vitamin B3 (niacin).
In 2002, Thomas stepped down from his position as Master of Peterhouse. He became Honorary Professor of Materials Science at the University of Cambridge and Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at the Davy Faraday Research Laboratory of the Royal Institution. He continued to be active in research at the Davy Faraday laboratory until 2006.
Thomas' death was reported on 13 November 2020, aged 87.
Awards and honours
Thomas held an Honorary Distinguished Professorship of Materials Chemistry at Cardiff University. He was an Advisory Professor at Shanghai Jiao Tong University and at the Catalysis Center of Hokkaido University. He was an Honorary Bencher of Gray's Inn.
Thomas received twenty-three honorary degrees from Australian, British, Canadian, Chinese, Dutch, Egyptian, French, Italian, Japanese, Spanish, and U.S. universities, including an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Science from the University of St Andrews in 2012. He was elected to honorary membership of over fifteen foreign academies, including the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (2013), the American Philosophical Society (1992), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1990), the Accademia dei Lincei (Rome, 2012), and the Russian Academy of Sciences (1994). In 1993 he was elected a Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Other awards included the Kapitza Gold Medal from the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (2011), the Jayne Prize Lectureship of the American Philosophical Society (2011), the Bragg Prize Lectureship of the British Crystallographic Association (2010), the Sven Berggren Prize Lectureship, Lund (2010), the Ertl Prize Lectureship of the Max Planck Gesellschaft (2010), the Sir George Stokes Medal from the Royal Society of Chemistry (2005), the Giulio Natta Gold Medal from the Società Chimica Italiana (2004), the Linus Pauling Gold Medal from Stanford University (2003), and the American Chemical Society Annual Award (first recipient) for Creative Research in Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Catalysis (1999). He won the Davy Medal of the Royal Society and the Faraday Lectureship Prize (1989) of the Royal Society of Chemistry. In 1995 he became the first British scientist in 80 years to be awarded the Willard Gibbs Award by the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society. In 1967 he was a recipient of the Corday–Morgan Prize.
In recognition of his contributions to geochemistry, a new mineral, meurigite, was named after him in 1995 by the International Mineralogical Association.
A hydrated potassium iron phosphate, meurigite is described as "tabular, elongated crystals forming spherical and hemispherical clusters and drusy coatings. The colour ranges from creamy white to pale yellow and yellowish brown." It is found in only a few locations worldwide, of which the designated type locality is the Santa Rita mine in New Mexico.
Thomas's 75th birthday was celebrated at the University of Cambridge with a symposium and several musical and social events. It was attended by Angela Merkel and Ahmed Zewail. The papers presented were published in 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry as Turning Points in Solid-State, Materials and Surface Science: A Book in Celebration of the Life and Work of Sir John Meurig Thomas.
In 2010 Imperial College Press published 4D Electron Microscopy: Imaging in Space and Time, which he co-authored with Ahmed Zewail (Nobel Laureate, Chemistry, 1999). His most recent publication is Design and Applications of Single-Site Heterogeneous Catalysts: Contributions to Green Chemistry, Clean Technology and Sustainability (2012)
In 2003, he was the first scientist to be awarded the Medal of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (London) for services to Welsh culture and British public life. He was also a Founding Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales and a Member of its inaugural Council. From 2011 he was a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee for Wales. He was an overseer of the Science History Institute (Philadelphia), and a member of the International Advisory Board of the Zewail City of Science and Technology (Egypt).
Thomas was appointed as a Honorary Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in 2013. In 2016, he was conferred an Honorary Fellowship by Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University United International College (UIC), in view of his distinguished achievements in catalysis and materials science, and his dedication and outstanding contributions to the popularisation of science.
In October 2016, the Royal Society awarded Thomas the Royal Medal for Physical Sciences "for his pioneering work within catalytic chemistry, in particular on single-site heterogeneous catalysts, which have had a major impact on green chemistry, clean technology and sustainability." Prince Andrew, Duke of York represented queen Elizabeth II at the ceremony.
Also in 2016, the UK Catalysis Hub launched a new medal that "honours the achievements of Sir John Meurig Thomas, a distinguished professor in the field of catalysis." The JMT Medal will be awarded every year, to a person working in the United Kingdom, for outstanding achievement in catalysis or a closely related field.
Selected scientific publications
Books
Part 1: On the design and application of solid catalysts
Sheet silicates: Broad spectrum catalysts for organic synthesis.(See also U.S. Patent 4,999,319 (1985), which is the basis of the world's largest solvent-free, single-step production of ethyl acetate.)
Uniform heterogeneous catalysts: The role of solid-state chemistry in their development and design.
New micro-crystalline catalysts Bakerian Lecture 1990.
Solid acid catalysts
Heterogeneous catalysts obtained by grafting metallocene complexes onto mesoporous silica
Design, synthesis and in situ characterisation of new solid catalysts (Linus Pauling Lecture, California Institute of Technology, March 1999 and Karl Ziegler Lecture, Max Planck Institute, Mülheim, November 1998.)
Molecular sieve catalysts for the regioselective and shape-selective oxyfunctionalization of alkanes in air
Solvent-free routes to clean technology
Constraining asymmetric organometallic catalysts within mesoporous supports boosts their enantioselectivity
Highly efficient, one-step conversion of cyclohexane to adipic acid using single-site heterogeneous catalysts
Design of a "green" one-step catalytic production of ε-caprolactam (precursor of nylon-6) See also
The advantages and future potential of single-site heterogeneous catalysts
Single-site photocatalytic solids for the decomposition of undesirable molecules (Focus Article)
Innovations in oxidation catalysis leading to a sustainable society
Systematic enumeration of microporous solids: Towards designer catalysts
Facile, one-step production of niacin (vitamin B3) and other nitrogen-containing pharmaceutical chemicals with a single-site heterogeneous catalyst
Nanoporous oxidic solids: The confluence of heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis(Based on a lecture at the Symposium of Molecular Frontiers held at the Swedish Academy of Sciences in May 2008).
Heterogeneous catalysis: Enigmas, illusions, challenges, realities, and emergent strategies of design
Can a single atom serve as the active site in some heterogeneous catalysts?
The principles of solid state chemistry hold the key to the successful design of heterogeneous catalysts for environmentally responsible processes
Part 2: On new techniques
Tracing the conversion of aurichalcite to a copper catalyst by combined X-ray absorption and diffraction
Review lecture: Topography and topology in solid-state chemistry
Resolving crystallographically distinct tetrahedral sites in silicalite and ZSM-5 by solid-state NMR
Revolutionary developments from atomic to extended structural imaging
Nanotomography in the chemical, biological and materials sciences see also
Mono- bi- and multifunctional single sites: exploring the interface between heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis
The modern electron microscope: A cornucopia of chemico-physical insights
References
External links
Interviewed by Alan Macfarlane 29 November and 5 December 2007 (video)
Curriculum Vitae, Awards and Honours Professor Sir JOHN MEURIG THOMAS
The Papers of Sir John Meurig Thomas held at Churchill Archives Centre
1932 births
2020 deaths
Academics of Aberystwyth University
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Academics of the University of Southampton
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Alumni of Queen Mary University of London
Alumni of Swansea University
British chemists
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Directors of the Royal Institution
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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4320672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Shanghai | History of Shanghai | The history of Shanghai spans over a thousand years and closely parallels the development of modern China. Originally a small agricultural village, Shanghai developed during the late Qing dynasty (1644–1912) as one of China's principal trading ports. Although nominally part of China, in practice foreign diplomats controlled the city under the policy of extraterritoriality. Since the economic reforms of the early 1990s the city has burgeoned to become one of Asia's major financial centers and the world's busiest container port.
Early Era
Around 6000 BCE, only the western part of the Shanghai region encompassing today's Qingpu, Songjiang and Jinshan districts were dry land formed by lacustrine silting from ancient Lake Tai. The modern Jiading, Minhang and Fengxian districts emerged around 1,000 BC while the downtown area remained underwater.
The earliest Neolithic settlements known in this area date to the Majiabang culture (50003300 BCE). This was overlapped by the Songze culture between around 3800–3300 BCE. In the lower stratum of the Songze excavation site in the modern-day Qingpu District, archaeologists found the prone skeleton of one of the Shanghai's earliest inhabitantsa 25-30-year-old male with an almost complete skull dated to the Majiabang era.
By the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317420), a thriving fishing industry had developed along the Song Rivernow known as Suzhou Creek,a tributary of the Huangpu River. Located some from the Yangtze River estuary, China's largest inland waterway, the creek was at that time known as the Hu (), a character that represents a fishing trap, of which there were a number in the river. The character Hu is still used as an abbreviation to denote the city, for example on car license plates. Qinglong Zhen (), the "Garrison of the Green Dragon", the first garrison in this area, was founded in 746 during the Tang dynasty (618–907) in what is now the Qingpu District of Shanghai. Five years later, Huating Zhèn () followed, demonstrating the growth of the region and its increasing political and geographical importance.
In 1074, Emperor Shenzong of Song, established a Marine Office and a Goods Control Bureau north-west of Huating Zhen at the approximate location of Shanghai's old city, adjacent to a ditch or pu () that ran north into Suzhou Creek and allowed for the loading and unloading of freight.
Later on, the area's proximity to Hangzhou, the capital of the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279), proved beneficial. Along with its commercial activities, Qinglong Zhen became a military and naval base and by the early 12th century a Superintendent of Foreign Trade was established in the settlement to supervise trade and tax collections across five counties. As a result, the flourishing and prosperous town earn the sobriquet "Little Hangzhou."
According to official government sources, Shanghai first became a city in 1291 during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). At this time, five of Huating Zhen's villages were amalgamated to form a new Shanghai County () on the site of the modern city centre. This new settlement had a population of about 300,000 with many engaged in the shipping trade.
Ming dynasty
By the early 15th century, Shanghai had become important enough for Ming dynasty engineers to begin dredging the Huangpu River (also known as Shen). In 1553, a city wall was built around the Old Town (Nanshi) as a defense against the depredations of the Wokou (Japanese pirates). Shanghai had its first contact with the Jesuits in 1603 when the Shanghai scholar-bureaucrat Xu Guangqi was baptized by Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci. Xu later bequeathed some of his land in Shanghai, today's Xujiahui, meaning Xu family village, to the Catholic Church. By the end of the Ming dynasty in 1644, Shanghai had become a major cotton and textile center with a population that would soon reach 200,000.
Qing dynasty
During the late Qing dynasty, Shanghai's economy began to rival that of the traditionally larger market at Suzhou. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, exports of cotton, silk, and fertilizer reached as far as Polynesia and Persia.
In 1832, the East India Company explored Shanghai and the Yangzi River as a potential trading center for tea, silk, and opium, but were rebuffed by local officials. Chinese attempts to prohibit the opium trade into China led to the First Opium War (1839–1842) with the United Kingdom; the Treaty of Nanjing, which concluded the war with a British victory, opened up five treaty ports in China to British merchants, including Shanghai. Similar treaties were quickly signed with other Western nations, and French, American and German merchants joined their British counterparts in establishing a presence in Shanghai, residing in sovereign concessions where they were not subject to Chinese laws. The British established their concession in 1845, the Americans in 1848 in Hongkou, north of Suzhou Creek, and the French set up their concession in 1849 west of the old Chinese city and south of the British Concession. In 1846, Peter Richards founded Richards' Hotel, the first western hotel in China. It would later become the Astor House. In 1850, the first English-language newspaper in Shanghai, the North China Herald, was launched.
The Taiping Rebellion was the largest of a number of widespread rebellions against the hugely unpopular Qing regime. In 1853, Shanghai was occupied by a triad offshoot of the rebels called the Small Swords Society. The fighting devastated much of the countryside but left the foreign settlements untouched.
In 1854 a group of Western businessmen met and formed the Shanghai Municipal Council to organise road repairs, refuse clearance and tax collection across the concessions. In 1863 the American concession (land fronting the Huangpu River to the north-east of Suzhou Creek) officially joined the British Settlement (stretching from Yang-ching-pang Creek to Suzhou Creek) to become the Shanghai International Settlement. Its waterfront became the internationally famous Bund. The Shanghai French Concession, to the west of the old town, remained independent and the Chinese retained control over the original walled city and the area surrounding the foreign enclaves. By the late-1860s Shanghai's official governing body had been practically transferred from the individual concessions to the Shanghai Municipal Council. The International Settlement was wholly foreign-controlled with the British holding the largest number of seats on the council and heading all the Municipal departments. No Chinese residing in the International Settlement were permitted to join the council until 1928.
Jardine's attempt to construct the Woosung "Road" railway in 1876China's firstproved initially successful until the death of a soldier on the tracks prompted the Chinese government to demand its nationalization. Upon the last payment in 1877, the local viceroy ordered the profitable railway dismantled and removed to Taiwan. The telegraph that had been strung along the line of the railwayalso China's firstwas, however, allowed to remain in operation.
By the mid-1880s, the Shanghai Municipal Council had a practical monopoly over a large part of the city's services. It bought up all the local gas-suppliers, electricity producers and water-companies. In the early 20th century, it took control over all non-private rickshaws and the Settlement tramways. It also regulated opium sales and prostitution until their banning in 1918 and 1920 respectively.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ended the First Sino-Japanese War, saw Japan emerge as an additional foreign power in Shanghai. Japan built the first factories in Shanghai, which were soon followed by other foreign powers. The Chinese defeat also spurred reformers within the Qing government to modernize more quickly, leading to the reëstablishment of the Songhu Railway and its expansion into the Shanghai–Nanjing Railway.
Republic of China
The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, spurred in part by actions against the native-owned railways around Shanghai, led to the establishment of the Republic of China. During that time, Shanghai became the focal point of many activities that would eventually shape modern China.
In 1936, Shanghai was one of the largest cities in the world with 3 million inhabitants. Of those, only 35,000-50,000 were of European origin, but these controlled half the city under the unequal treaties that provided extraterritoriality until 1943. Many White Russians fled to China after the 1917 Russian Revolution, trickling to Shanghai along the 1920s. The number of people with Russian origins was about 35,000 by the 1930s, well exceeding number of other people with European origin. These Shanghai Russians were sometimes poorly regarded by westerners, as their general poverty led them to take jobs considered unsuitable for Europeans, including prostitution. However, among Russian emigration was layered, also including several well-to-do members. Russian artists dominated Shanghai's artistic life almost single-handedly. Many Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany arrived in the 1930s.
The city was thus divided between its more European western half and the more traditionally Chinese eastern half. New inventions like electricity and trams were quickly introduced, and Westerners helped transform Shanghai into a metropolis. British and American businessmen made a great deal of money in trade and finance, and Germans used Shanghai as a base for investing in China. Shanghai accounted for half of the imports and exports of China. The western part of Shanghai grew to a size four times larger than the Chinese part had been in the early 20th century.
European and American inhabitants of Shanghai called themselves the Shanghailanders. After problems during its initial few years, the Public Garden north of the BundChina's first public park and today's Huangpu Parkwas for decades reserved for the foreign nationals and forbidden to Chinese natives. The International Settlement was built in the British style with a large racetrack at the site of today's People's Square. A new class emerged, the compradors, which mixed with the local landlords to form a new class, a Chinese bourgeoisie. The compradors were indispensable mediators for the western companies. Many compradors were on the leading edge of the movement to modernize China. Shanghai was then the biggest financial city in East Asia.
Chinese society
Chinese society was divided into native place associations or provincial guilds. These guilds defended the interests of traders from shared hometowns. They had their own dress codes and sub-cultures. Chinese government was hardly organized, for the foreign governments controlled the economy. Instead, society was controlled by the native place associations. The Guangdong native place associations represented the skilled workers of Shanghai. These native place associations belonged to the top of Shanghainese society. The Ningbo and Jiangsu native place associations were the most numerous. They represented the common workers. Some came from the north of China. They were on the bottom rung of the social ladder. Many of them were forced to work as seasonal workers or even mobsters.
Shanghai Grand
During the 1920s and 1930s Shanghai became known as "The Paris of the East, the New York of the West". Shanghai was made a special city in 1927, and a municipality in May 1930. The city's industrial and financial power increased, because the merchants were in control of the city, while the rest of China was divided among warlords.
Artistically, Shanghai became the hub for three new art forms: Chinese cinema, Chinese animation, and Chinese popular music. Other forms of entertainment included Lianhuanhua comic books. The architectural style at the time was modeled after British and American designs. Many of the grandest-scale buildings on The Bundsuch as Shanghai Club, the Asia Building and the HSBC Buildingwere constructed or renovated at this time. The city created a distinct image that separated it from all other Chinese cities that had come before it.
"Bizarre advertising displays were an everyday reality ... though I sometimes wonder if everyday reality was the one element missing from the city", British novelist J. G. Ballard, who was born and raised in Shanghai during this era, recalled in his autobiography. "I would see something strange and mysterious, but treat it as normal ... Anything was possible, and everything could be bought and sold". The experience inspired much of his later fiction.
Economic achievements include the city becoming the commercial center of East Asia, attracting banks from all over the world. When movies and literature depict the golden days of by-gone Shanghai, it is generally associated with this era.
Power struggle
The city was also the center of national and international opium smuggling during the 1920s. In the 1930s, "The Great World" amusement palace was a place where opium, prostitution and gambling came together under the leadership of gangster Huang Jinrong also known as "Pockmarked Huang". Huang was the highest-ranked Chinese detective in the French Concession Police (FCP) and employed Green Gang (Qing Bang) leader Du Yuesheng as his gambling and opium enforcer. The Green Gang became a major influence in the Shanghai International Settlement, with the Commissioner of the Shanghai Municipal Police reporting that corruption associated with the trade had affected a large proportion of his force. An extensive crackdown in 1925 simply displaced the focus of the trade to the neighboring French Concession.
Meanwhile, traditional division of society by native place associations was falling apart. The new working classes were not prepared to listen to the bosses of the same native place associations during the 1910s. Resentment against the foreign presence in Shanghai rose among both the entrepreneurs and the workers of Shanghai. In 1919, protests by the May Fourth Movement against the Treaty of Versailles led to the rise of a new group of philosophers like Chen Duxiu and Hu Shih who challenged Chinese traditionalism with new ideologies. Books like New Youth disseminated the new school of thought, while crime and warlord banditry convinced many that the existing government was largely ineffective. In this atmosphere, the Chinese Communist Party was founded in Shanghai in 1921.
The Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek and the Shanghailanders entered into an informal alliance with the Green Gang, which acted against the Communists and organized labor unions. The nationalists had cooperated with gang leaders since the revolution. Although sporadic fighting between gangsters and communists had occurred previously, many communists were killed in a major surprise attack during the April 12 Incident in the Chinese-administered part of Shanghai. Suspected leftists were shot on sight, so that manyincluding Zhou Enlaifled the city.
In the late 1920s and early '30s, large residential areas were built north of the foreign concessions. These residential areas were modern, with good roads and parking lots for automobiles. A new Chinese port was built, which could compete with the Shanghailanders' ports. Chiang Kai-shek continuously demanded large amounts of money from the financial world in Shanghai. Most bankers and merchants were willing to invest in the army, but this stopped in 1928. Chiang responded by nationalizing all enterprises. T. V. Soong, Chiang's brother-in-law, chastised his erstwhile relative, writing that it is better to strengthen the party and the economy as well instead of focusing only on the army.
Supported by the progressive native place associations, Chiang Kai-shek's rule turned increasingly autocratic. The power of the gangsters rose in the early 1930s, especially the power of the Green Gang leader Du Yuesheng who started his own native place association. Chiang Kai-shek chose to cooperate with gangsters in order to maintain his grip on Chinese society. This meant that the gangsters remained middlemen during the rule of the nationalists, controlling society by frequently organizing strikes. Mobsters stormed the Shanghai Stock Exchange to gain control over it. No one interfered: the police because they had been dominated by the mobsters since 1919, the Shanghailanders because it was an internal Chinese affair, and the nationalists because they were trying to break the power of the entrepreneurs. The entrepreneurs were forced to make a deal after a second raid.
Greater Shanghai Plan
In 1927, the government of the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China drew up a plan to develop land in the north east of the city adjacent to the Huangpu River. In 1922, this area had also been earmarked by Sun Yat-sen, founder of the Chinese Republic, as the center of China's development plans with a view to Shanghai becoming a global commercial centre. By 1931, the new Shanghai Special City Government had approved and started work on the Greater Shanghai Plan utilising ideas drawn from British expert Ebenezer Howard's 1902 book Garden Cities of Tomorrow. The grid layout of the new area also followed contemporary trends in European and American urban planning.
End of Old Shanghai (1937–1945)
World War II and the Japanese Occupation
The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service bombed Shanghai on January 28, 1932, nominally to crush Chinese student protests against the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. The Chinese fought back in what was known as the January 28 Incident. The two sides fought to a standstill and a ceasefire was brokered in May.
During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese-controlled parts of the city fell after the 1937 Battle of Shanghai (known in China as the Battle of Songhu). The foreign concessions entered what became known as the "Solitary Island" period. Many foreign institutions, such as banks, continued operating in this areas. With the beginning of the Pacific War, Japan occupied the foreign areas of Shanghai on 8 December 1941. It seized most of the banks in these areas of Shanghai and declared that the Nationalist currency fabi had to be exchanged for bank notes of the Wang Jingwei regime.
Tensions within the city led to a wave of assassinations against Chinese officials who worked with the Japanese authorities: during January and February, 1939, 16 pro-Japanese officials and businessmen were assassinated by Chinese resistance organizations.
Shanghai suffered less than many other cities during World War II, and the Japanese occupiers attempted to maintain many aspects of life as they had been before. The Shanghai Race Club reopened soon after the occupation and continued to host races throughout the war, even after most British and American Shanghai residents were interned. The races continued as late as August, 1945.
During World War II, the extraterritoriality of the foreign concessions provided a haven for visa-less European refugees. It was, along with Francoist Spain, the only location in the world unconditionally open to Jews at the time. However, under pressure from their ally Nazi Germany, the Japanese removed the Jews in late 1941 to what became known as the Shanghai ghetto, where hunger and infectious diseases such as dysentery became rife. The foreign population rose from 35,000 in 1936 to 150,000 in 1942 (Jewish immigration was 20000-25000 from 1933 to 1941). The Japanese were still harsher on belligerent nationals: Britons, Americans and the Dutch. These slowly lost their privileges and had to wear lettersB, A, or Nwhen walking in public places; their villas were turned into brothels and gambling houses., and they were finally interned in concentration camps, notably Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center, in 1943. The whole of Shanghai remained under Japanese occupation until the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945.
After the ending of the Japanese occupation of Shanghai, the poorly-paid Chinese Nationalist forces sometimes engaged in looting.
End of the Foreign Concessions
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese ended all foreign concessions in Shanghai except for the French. This state of affairs was conceded by an Anglo-Chinese Friendship Treaty in 1943. The French themselves ceded their privileges in 1946 following the end of World War II.
Tightened Communist rule (1949–1980s)
Communist Transition
Towards the end of the Chinese Civil War on May 27, 1949, Shanghai came under Communist control. Although the Republic of China Army vowed to make the city "China's Stalingrad" and the local population supported the Kuomintang, it surrendered to Chen Yi's People's Liberation Army forces with minimal resistance.
One of the first actions taken in the Chinese Communist Revolution was to kill people considered counter-revolutionaries. Places such as the Canidrome were transformed from elegant ballrooms to mass execution facilities. This included the mass arrest of thousands of vagrants, criminals, and rickshaw drivers beginning in December 1949, alongside a broader crackdown on gambling and prostitution. This reality has been largely censored, despite numerous western texts describing the hostile takeover following the arrival of the People's Liberation Army.
Most foreign firms moved their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong, specifically North Point, whose Eastern District became known as "Little Shanghai". Although the Communists initially tried to allow the city relative autonomy, its economy declined due to a Taiwanese blockade and Communist restrictions on foreign trade.
Home of leftism
Shanghai was, along with Beijing, the only former ROC municipality not merged into neighboring provinces over the next decade. Shanghai then underwent a series of changes in the boundaries of its subdivisions.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Shanghai became an industrial center and center for revolutionary leftism. The city stagnated economically during the Maoist era. Shanghai remained the largest contributor of tax revenue to the central government, but this came at the cost of severely crippling Shanghai's infrastructure, capital, and artistic development. This also initially denied economic freedoms to the city that were later available to southern provinces such as Guangdong. During the mid-1980s, Guangdong province paid nearly no taxes to the central government and thus was perceived as fiscally expendable. Guangdong would benefit from Chinese economic reform under Deng Xiaoping, while Shanghai would have to wait another decade until 1991.
Economic and cultural rebound (1990s–Present)
Although political power in Shanghai has traditionally been seen as a stepping stone to higher positions within the PRC central government, the city's modern transformation really did not begin until the third generation General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Jiang Zemin came to power in 1989. Along with his premier Zhu Rongji, Jiang represented the politically right-of-center "Shanghai clique", and began reducing the tax burden on Shanghai. Encouraging both foreign and domestic investment, he sought to promote the cityparticularly the Lujiazui area of Pudongas the economic hub of East Asia and gateway to the Chinese interior. Since that time, Shanghai has led China's overall development and experienced continuous economic growth of between 9–15% annuallyarguably at the expense of Hong Kong.
Shanghai is China's largest and greatest commercial and industrial city. With 0.1% of the land area of the country, it supplies over 12% of the municipal revenue and handles more than a quarter of total trade passing through China's ports. Its year 2010 population, according to China's latest census, was 23.02 million and represented an increase of 6.61 million from the 2000 census.
The average size of a family in Shanghai declined to fewer than three people during the 1990s, and it is clear that most of Shanghai's population growth is driven by migration rather than natural factors based on high birth and fertility rates. Shanghai has for many years had the lowest birth rate in China, a rate lower than large American cities such as New York.
As with most cities in China, Shanghai is overbounded in its administrative territory. The city in the year 2010 was composed of 16 districts and one county, together occupying of land area. Chongming contains substantial rural land and a number of rural residents who continue to farm for their livelihood. The city has the highest population density of all the first-order administrative units in China, with 3630.5/km2 (9402.9/sq mi) in 2010. Owing to its continued growth and industrial and commercial development, Shanghai also has the highest index of urbanization among all of China's first order administrative units, with 89.3% of the official population (20.6 million) classified as urban.
The amount of building activity in Shanghai fueled by government investment expenditures continues to be astounding. Since the 1980s, Shanghai's economy shifted from over 77% of gross domestic product in secondary sector manufacturing to a more balanced sectoral distribution of 48% in industry and 51% in services in 2000 and 2001. Employment in manufacturing reached almost 60% in 1990 and has declined steadily since to 41% in 2001, while employment in the tertiary sector has grown from 30% in 1990 to more than 47% in 2001.
The rapid growth in population, factories and motor vehicles has generated environmental issues. Experts say the chief problems involve air and water pollution and the accumulation of solid wastes.
See also
Timeline of Shanghai history
The Shanghai Document, a documentary film portraying Shanghai in the early 1920s
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Arkaraprasertkul, Non. "Power, politics, and the making of Shanghai." 'Journal of Planning History 9.4 (2010): 232-259, since 1980
Balfour, Alan and Zheng Zhiling, Shanghai (Chichester 2002).
Bergère, Marie-Claire. Shanghai: China's Gateway to Modernity (Stanford University Press, 2009). 497pp
Bickers, Robert. "Shanghailanders: The formation and identity of the British settler community in Shanghai 1843-1937." Past and Present (1998): 161-211. in JSTOR
Bracken, Gregory. "Treaty Ports in China: Their Genesis, Development, and Influence." Journal of Urban History (2019), Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp 168-176. online
Carter, James. Champions Day: The End of Old Shanghai (W.W. Norton, 2020). abstract; about November 12, 1941
Chen, Xiangming. Shanghai Rising: State Power and Local Transformations in a Global Megacity (2009) excerpt and text search
Denison, E. and Guan Yu Ren. Building Shanghai: The Story of China's Gateway (Wiley-Academy, 2006)
Dillon, Nara, and Jean Oi, eds. At the Crossroads of Empires: Middlemen, Social Networks, and State-Building in Republican Shanghai (2007) excerpt and text search
Fung, Ka‐Iu; Yan, et al. “Shanghai: China’s World City.” In Yue‐man Yeung and Xu‐wei Hu, eds., China's Coastal Cities: Catalysts for Modernization (University of Hawaii Press, 1992)
Gamble, Jos. Shanghai in Transition: Changing Perspectives and Social Contours of a Chinese Metropolis (2002) excerpt
Horesh, Niv. "Location Is (Not) Everything: Re-Assessing Shanghai’s Rise, 1840s-1860s." Provincial China 1.2 (2009). online
Horesh, Niv. Shanghai, past and present: A concise socio-economic history, 1842–2012 (Sussex Academic, 2015).
Ji, Zhaojin. A History of Modern Shanghai Banking: The Rise and Decline of China's Financial Capitalism (2003)
Johnson, Linda. Shanghai: From Market Town to Treaty Port, 1074-1858 (Stanford University Press, 1995)
Keller, Wolfgang, Ben Li, and Carol H. Shiue. "Shanghai's Trade, China's Growth: Continuity, Recovery, and Change since the Opium Wars." IMF Economic Review 61#2 (2013): 336-378. covers 1840s-2010. online; many tables and graphs.
King, A. H. ed. Eastern banking: essays in the history of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (1983) online
Lee, Leo Ou-fan, and Oufan Li. Shanghai modern: The flowering of a new urban culture in China, 1930-1945 (Harvard University Press, 1999).
Lu Hanchao. Beyond the Neon Lights: Everyday Shanghai in the Early Twentieth Century (U of California Press, 1999)
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. "New approaches to old Shanghai." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 32.2 (2001): 263-279 online review of Lu
Murphey, Rhoades. Shanghai, Key to Modern China (Harvard University Press, 1953)
Nield, Robert. "The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports". Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co, 2010.
Tian, Gang. Shanghai's role in the Economic Development of China: Reform of Foreign Trade and Development (Praeger, 1996)
Wakeman Jr., Frederic. Policing Shanghai, 1927-1937 (1996) excerpt
Walker, Kathryn. Shanghai (1957), 48pp; for middle schools. online
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. Global Shanghai, 1850-2010: A History in Fragments (2008) excerpt and text search
Xu, Xiaoqun. Chinese professionals and the republican state: The rise of professional associations in Shanghai, 1912–1937 (Cambridge University Press, 2000)
Yan Jin. "Shanghai Studies: An evolving academic field" History Compass (October 2018) e12496 Historiography of recent scholarship. online
Yeh, Wen-hsin. Shanghai Splendor: A Cultural History, 1843-1949 (2008)
Yeh, Wen-hsin. "Corporate space, communal time: everyday life in Shanghai's Bank of China." American Historical Review 100.1 (1995): 97-122 online.
Yeung, Y.M. and Sung Yun‐wing, eds.Shanghai: Transformation and Modernization under China's Open Policy (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1996).
Historiography
Jin, Yan. "Shanghai Studies: An evolving academic field." History Compass 16.11 (2018): e12496 https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12496
Scheen, Lena. "History of Shanghai." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History 18 (2022) History of Shanghai
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. "Is global Shanghai 'good to think'? Thoughts on comparative history and post-socialist cities." Journal of World History (2007): 199-234.
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. "New approaches to old Shanghai." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 32.2 (2001): 263-279 online review of Lu (1999)
Primary sources
Historical accounts written about Shanghai
Arnold Wright, Twentieth century impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other treaty ports of China: their history, people, commerce, industries, and resources'' (1908). online |
4320762 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20LGBT%20rights%20activists | List of LGBT rights activists | A list of notable LGBT rights activists who have worked to advance LGBT rights by political change, legal action or publication. Ordered by country, alphabetically.
Albania
Elton Ilirjani was the first CEO of a major company in Albania who came out of the closet as gay in 2016. He is the founder of the Dignity Global non-government organization for LGBT rights in the workplace, founded in 2019. He is also known as an LGBT activist and model, making history as the first genderless model to walk Seoul Fashion Week in 2023.
Argentina
Claudia Castrosín Verdú, she and her partner were the first lesbian couple to form a civil union in Latin America; vice president of FALGBT
María Rachid, politician and LGBT rights activist, partner of Claudia Castrosín Verdú
Diana Sacayán, board member of the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association and a leader of the Antidiscrimination Liberation Movement
Australia
Ron Austin
Peter Bonsall-Boone
Bob Brown
Lyle Chan, member of ACT UP
Rodney Croome
Peter De Waal
Craig Johnston (politician)
Grace Hyland
Julie McCrossin
Michael Kirby (judge), Justice of the High Court of Australia
Austria
Helmut Graupner
Gery Keszler, organiser of the Life Ball
Alex Jürgen
Ulrike Lunacek
Bangladesh
Xulhaz Mannan
Belize
Derricia Castillo-Salazar
Caleb Orozco
Brazil
Luiz Mott
Jean Wyllys
Toni Reis
João Silvério Trevisan
Míriam Martinho
Bulgaria
Desislava Petrova
Cameroon
Joel Gustave Nana Ngongang
Alice Nkom
Canada
Barry D. Adam
Enza Anderson
Florence Ashley
Alec Butler
Michelle Douglas
Jim Egan
Brent Hawkes
George Hislop
K.d. Lang
Irshad Manji
Christin Milloy
Arsham Parsi
Svend Robinson
Bill Siksay
Clara Sorrenti
Jenna Talackova
Mark Tewksbury
Chile
Luis Larraín
Pedro Lemebel
Jaime Parada
Pablo Salvador
China, People's Republic of
Li Tingting, LGBT rights and feminist activist
Li Yinhe
Cui Zi'en
Xian, LGBT rights activist and founder of Beijing-based lesbian organization Tongyu
Colombia
Virgilio Barco Isakson (b. 1965)
Armando Benedetti Villaneda (b. 1962)
Blanca Inés Durán Hernández
Angélica Lozano Correa
Tatiana de la Tierra
Juliana Delgado Lopera
Denmark
Axel Axgil
Lili Elbe (b. 1882)
Egypt
Maher Sabry
Omar Sharif Jr.
Sarah Hegazi
Shrouk El-Attar
Estonia
Lisette Kampus
Peeter Rebane
Finland
Sakris Kupila
Sofi Oksanen
France
Camille Cabral
Pierre Guénin
Christiane Taubira
Lilian Thuram, former French soccer player
Rama Yade, former Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Human Rights of France
Germany
Adolf Brand
Manfred Bruns
Volker Beck
Benedict Friedlaender
Magnus Hirschfeld
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs
India
Akkai Padmashali
Anand Grover
Anjali Gopalan
Ashok Row Kavi
Gopi Shankar Madurai
Harish Iyer
Laxmi Narayan Tripathi
Manvendra Singh Gohil
Menaka Guruswamy
Rose Venkatesan
Sridhar Rangayan
Indonesia
Dede Oetomo
Iran
Alireza Shojaian
Arsham Parsi
Elham Malekpoor
Shadi Amin
Iraq
Amir Ashour
Zhiar Ali
Israel
Imri Kalmann, former co-chairperson of the Israeli LGBT Association
Yair Qedar, founder of Israel's first LGBT newspaper
Apollo Braun, the first man who waved the pride flag inside of Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi.
Ireland
Mary Dorcey
Lydia Foy
David Norris
Tonie Walsh
Katherine Zappone
Italy
Franco Grillini
Vladimir Luxuria
Imma Battaglia
Japan
Taiga Ishikawa
Wataru Ishizaka
Maki Muraki (born 1974), head of Nijiro Diversity in Osaka
Kanako Otsuji, first openly lesbian politician in Japan
Kenya
Denis Nzioka
Edwin Chiloba (deceased)
Kyrgyzstan
Dastan Kasmamytov
Lithuania
Romas Zabarauskas
Marija Aušrinė Pavilionienė
Lebanon
Georges Azzi
Hamed Sinno
Sandra Melhem
Mexico
Patria Jiménez
Nancy Cardenas, playwright, director, and LGBT+ activist
Agnés Torres Hernández, psychologist and transgender activist
Nepal
Sunil Babu Pant, first openly gay Nepali politician, former head of Blue Diamond Society
Bhumika Shrestha
Netherlands
Willem Arondeus
Vera Bergkamp, former chairman of the world's oldest LGBT organization
John Blankenstein
Boris Dittrich
Coos Huijsen, first openly gay parliamentarian
Henk Krol
Betty Paërl
Marjan Sax
New Zealand
Georgina Beyer, first openly transgender mayor in NZ.
Suran Dickson
Kevin Hague
Ngahuia Te Awekotuku
Nigeria
Bisi Alimi
Matthew Blaise, activist involved in End SARS
Philippines
Tonette Lopez
Boy Abunda
Poland
Robert Biedroń
Anna Grodzka
Krzysztof Garwatowski
Krystian Legierski
Paweł Leszkowicz
Szymon Niemiec
Russia
Nikolai Alekseev
Ali Feruz
Igor Kochetkov, head of the LGBT Network
Yekaterina Samutsevich
Evgeny Shtorn
Mikhail Tumasov
Yulia Tsvetkova
Serbia
Dejan Nebrigić
Jelena Karleuša
Sierra Leone
FannyAnn Eddy
Singapore
Alex Au
Paddy Chew, first person in Singapore to come out as HIV-positive
Jean Chong
Somalia
Amal Aden
Farah Abdullahi Abdi
Sumaya Dalmar
South Africa
Abdurrazack "Zackie" Achmat
Dawn Cavanagh
Busi Khewsa
Simon Nkoli, LGBT activist, founder of the Gay and Lesbian Organisation of the Witwatersrand
Noxolo Nogwaza
Funeka Soldaat, leader of Free Gender Organisation in Khayelitsha, Western Cape
Midi Achmat, LGBT activist, co-founder of Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), Association of Bisexuals, Gays, and Lesbians (ABIGALE) and the National Coalition of Lesbian and Gay Equality (NCLGE)
Spain
Oriol Pamies
Ángeles Álvarez
Carla Antonelli
Sri Lanka
Rosanna Flamer-Caldera
Sudan
Ahmed Umar
Syria
Abdulrahman Akkad
Taiwan
Josephine Ho
Chi Chia-wei
Trinidad and Tobago
Jason Jones
Jowelle de Souza
Tunisia
Mounir Baatour
Turkey
Barış Sulu
Demet Demir
Hande Kader (deceased)
Mehmet Tarhan
Yasemin Öz
Uganda
David Kato
Kasha Nabagesera
Pepe Julian Onziema
Ukraine
Bogdan Globa
Vitalina Koval
United Kingdom
Jeremy Bentham, 19th-century jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer.
Bette Bourne, actor, performer, founder of the Gay theatrical troupe Bloolips, and one of the first modern-day UK LGBTQ+ activists and campaigners.
Michael C. Burgess, courier and co-treasurer of OutRage!
Christine Burns, trans rights campaigner, formerly a vice president of PfC, awarded MBE for work with PfC and on the GRB
Tanya Compas, queer Black rights activist based in London
A.E. Dyson, literary critic and founder of the Homosexual Law Reform Society
Jackie Forster, actress, TV personality and lesbian campaigner
Moud Goba, LGBTIQ+ human rights activist.
Ray Gosling, writer, broadcaster and gay rights activist in the Campaign for Homosexual Equality.
Antony Grey, Secretary of the Homosexual Law Reform Society; the public face of the Albany Trust
Liam Hackett, founder of anti-bullying website and charity Ditch the Label
Derek Jarman, film director
Paris Lees, trans rights campaigner, part of Trans Media Watch
Denis Lemon, Editor of Gay News, involved in blasphemy prosecution brought by Mary Whitehouse
Andrew Moffat, LGBT education advocate, author and founder the No Outsiders programme
Ian McKellen, actor and spokesperson for Stonewall (UK)
Robert Mellors, 20th-century writer and Gay Liberation Front campaigner
Phyll Opoku-Gyimah, British political activist and co-founder of UK Black Pride
Paul Patrick, anti-homophobia activist and educator
Saima Razzaq, LGBT inclusive education activist and Birmingham Pride Head of Diversity and Inclusion
Michael Schofield, sociologist and early gay rights campaigner
Michael Steed, Liberal politician, academic and gay rights activist in the Campaign for Homosexual Equality
Ben Summerskill, former chief executive of Stonewall
Peter Tatchell, politician, human rights and LGBT rights campaigner
Stephen Whittle, trans rights campaigner and former vice president of PfC and president of HBIGDA, Law Professor at MMU, awarded OBE for work with PfC and on the GRB
United States
Kimball Allen, author of Secrets of a Gay Mormon Felon and Be Happy Be Mormon
Jacob Appel, New York City-based lawyer, advocate for reparations for gays and lesbians
Gilbert Baker (1951–2017), designer of the rainbow flag
Christopher R. Barron, co-founder of GOProud, a political organization representing gay conservatives
Paul Barwick
Vic Basile, first executive director of the Human Rights Campaign
Wayne Besen, founder of Truth Wins Out, former spokesman for the Human Rights Campaign
Elizabeth Birch, former executive director of the Human Rights Campaign
Dustin Lance Black, founding board member of the American Foundation for Equal Rights
Chaz Bono, transgender son of Sonny Bono and Cher
Jennifer Finney Boylan (1958 - ), transgender author, professor, and trans rights activist, former co-chair of GLAAD's National Board of Directors.
David P. Brill (1955–1979), Boston-based journalist
Blake Brockington (1996–2014), African American transgender rights activist.
Judith Butler, philosopher and gender theorist
Margarethe Cammermeyer, former colonel in the Washington National Guard whose coming out story was made into the 1995 movie Serving in Silence
Gloria Casarez (1971–2014), Latina lesbian civil rights leader and LGBT activist in Philadelphia. Philadelphia's first director of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) affairs.
Ryan Cassata, American transgender activist, public speaker and singer-songwriter
June Chan, Asian American lesbian activist
RuPaul Andre Charles, known as RuPaul, American drag queen and gay activist known for the TV show RuPaul's Drag Race
Madonna Louise Ciccone, known as Madonna (born 1958), entertainer and long-term human and civil rights activist; has offered outspoken support for the gay rights movement
Joanne Conte, trans woman, former Arvada, Colorado City Councilor, currently hosts a radio show on KGNU
Lynn Conway, trans woman computer scientist and electrical engineer
Ruby Corado, Salvadoran activist and founder of Casa Ruby
James Dale, known for landmark US Supreme Court case Boy Scouts of America v. Dale (2000) that challenged the Boy Scouts of America policy of excluding gay youth and adults
Alphonso David (born 1970), the first person of color to serve as president for the Human Rights Campaign, as of August 2019, served as a staff attorney for Lambda Legal where he worked on New York State's first same-sex marriage case, Hernandez v. Robles also the Former Deputy Secretary and Counsel for Civil Rights for New York State under Andrew Cuomo
Ellen DeGeneres (26 January 1958, Metairie, Louisiana), American comedian, television host, actress, writer, producer, and LGBT activist
Stephen Donaldson (1946–1996), early bisexual LGBT rights activist founder of the first American gay students' organization, first person to fight a discharge from the U.S. military for homosexuality, also an important figure in the modern bisexual rights movement
Julie Dorf (born 1965, Milwaukee, Wisconsin), international LGBT human rights advocate and founder of OutRight Action International
Fran Drescher, (born 1957, Flushing, New York) is an outspoken healthcare advocate and LGBT rights activist.
John Duran
Steve Endean, (1948–1993), founder of the Human Rights Campaign Fund
Arden Eversmeyer (born 1931), Founder of Lesbians Over Age Fifty (LOAF) and the Old Lesbian Oral Herstory Project (OLOHP)
Matt Foreman (born 1953), Executive Director of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force (NGLTF)
Barney Frank (born 1940), member of the Democratic Party who served as a member of Congress from Massachusetts from 1981 to 2013
Aaron Fricke (born 1962), sued the Cumberland, Rhode Island school system in 1980 and won a landmark First Amendment case granting him the legal right to attend prom with another boy, an experience he chronicled in the gay coming-of-age memoir Reflections of a Rock Lobster
Lady Gaga, bisexual singer/songwriter who campaigned for the DADT repeal; released pro-gay anthem "Born This Way" (2011)
Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Beat poet and political activist.
Barbara Gittings (1932–2007), founder of the New York City chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis who also pushed for the American Psychological Association to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
Neil Giuliano
Alexander John Goodrum (1960–2002) was an African-American transgender civil rights activist
Chad Griffin (born 1973), Former president of the Human Rights Campaign , and founder of American Foundation for Equal Rights, a nonprofit organization that supports the plaintiffs in the California Proposition 8 trial
James Gruber (1928—2011), original member of the Mattachine Society
Hardy Haberman, author, filmmaker, prominent member of the Leather/Fetish/BDSM community, and activist involved in founding of first LGBT group in Dallas, TX
David M. Hall, author of Allies at Work: Creating a Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Inclusive Work Environment, speaks to corporate audiences across the country, co-founder of Out & Equal Philadelphia.
Harry Hay (1912–2002), co-founder of the Mattachine Society
John Heilman
Essex Hemphill (1957–1995), African American poet
Daniel Hernandez Jr. (born 1990), member of Tucson's city commission on gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender issues, who was credited with saving the life of U.S. Representative Gabby Giffords after the 2011 Tucson shooting
Brenda Howard (1946–2005), bisexual LGBT rights activist, an instrumental figure in the immediate post-Stonewall era in New York City, also an important figure in the modern bisexual rights movement
John Paul Hudson (1929–2002), activist, journalist, actor, and author; helped organize NYC's first gay pride parade following the Stonewall riots, serving as the parade's first grand marshal
Sally Huffer (born 1965), board member of multiple LGBT non profit organizations
Richard Isay (1934–2012)
Cheryl Jacques (born 1962), former member of the Massachusetts State Legislature and the president of the Human Rights Campaign from January through November 2004. She resigned from this post less than a month after the passage of 11 state constitutional amendments banning gay marriage.
Helen G. James
Dale Jennings (1917–2000), co-founder of the Mattachine Society
Marsha P. Johnson (1945–1992)
Cleve Jones (born 1954), conceived the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt and worked with Harvey Milk; co-founded the San Francisco AIDS Foundation
Christine Jorgensen (1926–1989), first person to become widely known for having sex reassignment surgery in the United States
Frank Kameny (1925–2011), participant in many gay rights rallies of the 1960s and 1970s, most notably the push in 1972–1973 for the American Psychological Association to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Norm Kent
Morris Kight (1919–2003), founder of Los Angeles' Gay and Lesbian Front and Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center
Lisa Kove (born 1958), Executive Director of the Department of Defense Federal Globe and President of Empowering Spirits Foundation
Larry Kramer (1935–2020), author and playwright who helped form the prominent gay rights organizations Gay Men's Health Crisis and AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT-UP)
Janice Langbehn (born 1968), campaigner for same-sex marriage and same-sex hospital visitation after being denied access to her dying partner, Lisa Marie Pond, in 2007
Cyndi Lauper (born 1953), founder of the True Colors Fund charity which promotes equality for members of the LGBT community
Malcolm L. Lazin
Audre Lorde
Courtney Love (born 1964), a musician and singer, has advocated for LGBT rights and acceptance since the beginning of her career in the early 1990s
Scott Long (born 1963), Executive Director of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights Program at Human Rights Watch.
Phyllis Lyon (1924–2020), lesbian activist who co-founded the Daughters of Bilitis with longtime partner Del Martin
Del Martin (1921–2008), lesbian activist who co-founded the Daughters of Bilitis with longtime partner Phyllis Lyon
Tim McFeeley
Harvey Milk (1930–1978), openly gay city supervisor of San Francisco, California who was assassinated (along with mayor George Moscone) in 1978 by Dan White
David Nelson (born 1962), founder of Gay and Lesbian Utah Democrats, and Stonewall Shooting Sports of Utah.
Gavin Newsom (born 1967), heterosexual mayor of San Francisco, California, who directed his office to issue wedding licenses to same-sex couples in February 2004, although this process was halted the next month by the California Supreme Court
Jack Nichols (1937–2005), journalist, writer, activist and co-founder of the Mattachine Society of Washington, D.C., with Frank Kameny
Tyler Oakley
Romaine Patterson (1978–), lesbian talk show host and founder of Angel Action
Troy Perry
Charles Pitts
Sylvia Rivera
Brandan Robertson
Geena Rocero
Craig Rodwell
Abby Rubenfeld
Vito Russo
Bayard Rustin (1912–1987), openly gay civil rights activist, principal organizer and co-leader of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and advisor to Martin Luther King Jr.; gay rights activist in later life
Ryan Sallans (born 1979), out trans man and public speaker – travels around US educating high school and college students on LGBT issues
José Sarria (born 1922 or 1923), first openly gay candidate for political office in the United States, founder of the Imperial Court System
Tully Satre
Dan Savage
Josh Seefried, United States Air Force first lieutenant and co-director of OutServe, the association of actively serving LGBT military.
Drew Shafer (1936-1989), gay activist from Kansas City, Missouri, known for bringing the homophile movement to KC, and publishing The Phoenix: Midwest Homophile Voice.
Michelangelo Signorile
Charles Silverstein (1935–2023), gay psychologist who was the founder of the Journal of Homosexuality and key in testifying against the classification of homosexuality as a mental disorder.
Ruth Simpson (1926–2008), founder of the first lesbian community center, former President of Daughters of Bilitis New York, author of From the Closet to the Courts
Joe Solmonese (born 1965), former political fundraiser and past president of the Human Rights Campaign
A. Latham Staples (born 1977), founder and Chairman of the Empowering Spirits Foundation, current President & CEO of EXUSMED, Inc.
Abby Stein (born 1991) is an American advocate for transgender people of Orthodox Jewish background
Lou Sullivan
Andy Thayer
Urvashi Vaid (1958–2022) is an Indian-American activist who has worked for over 25 years promoting civil rights for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender persons.
Phill Wilson (born 1956, Chicago, Illinois), co-founder of the National Black Lesbian & Gay Leadership Forum and founder of The Black AIDS Institute.
Evan Wolfson
William E. Woods (1949–2008), a gay rights activist in Hawaii who in 1991 set in motion the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States.
Chely Wright
Kiyoshi Kuromiya (1943–2000), author and civil rights, anti-war, gay liberation, and HIV/AIDS activist.
See also
List of LGBT rights organizations
LGBT social movements
List of LGBT firsts by year
List of years in LGBT rights
References
Further reading
External links
Gay rights and LGBTQI movements in Europe at Encyclopedia of European History
LGBT Rights Movement & Activitsts at Gale Publishing
LGBT rights activists
Activists |
4320781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Syria | Human rights in Syria | The situation for human rights in Syria is considered one of the worst in the world and has been globally condemned by international organizations like the United Nations, Human rights Watch, Amnesty International, and the European Union. Civil liberties, political rights, freedom of speech and assembly are virtually non-existent under the Ba'athist government of Bashar al-Assad; which is regarded as "one of the world's most repressive regimes". The 50th edition of Freedom in the World, the annual report published by Freedom House since 1973, designates Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries. The report lists Syria as one of the two countries to get the lowest possible score (1/100).
Since the 1963 coup d'etat by its Military Committee that propelled the neo-Ba'athists to power, the Syrian Ba'ath party has operated a totalitarian state in Syria. Following a period of intra-party power-struggles that culminated in the 1970 coup, General Hafez al-Assad became the Syrian President; establishing a hereditary dictatorship of the Assad family. During the six decades of its rule, the security apparatus has banned all social, political and economic groups independent of the Ba'ath party or the regime; ensuring that the state has total monopoly over all forms of organizations. A state of emergency was in effect from 1963 until April 2011, giving security forces sweeping powers of arbitrary arrests and detentions of civilians; including prisoners of conscience. From 1973 to 2012, Syria was a single-party state. While the 2012 Syrian constitution nominally affirms the formation of political parties; registration process is difficult and thoroughly scrutinized by the regime. Political activities independent of the Ba'ath are discouraged in regime-controlled territories and strictly monitored by the Mukhabarat.
There is no independent judiciary, as it is mandatory for all judges and prosecutors to be approved members of the Ba'ath party. The armed forces has the power to arbitrarily arrest civilians and put them to trial. The authorities have been accused of harassing and imprisoning human rights activists and other critics of the government. Freedom of expression, association and assembly are strictly controlled, and women and ethnic minorities face discrimination. Throughout the decades-long reign of Assad dynasty between 1970 and 2011; over 70,000 Syrians were subjected to forced disappearances, more than 40,000 were executed through extrajudicial killings and hundreds of thousands of civilians became displaced through deportations.
After an initial period of economic liberalization that failed to improve human rights in the early 2000s, Bashar al-Assad launched a string of crackdowns that imprisoned numerous intellectuals and cultural activists; thereby ending the Damascus Spring. At the onset of the Arab Spring in 2011, the country's human rights situation remained among the worst in the world; characterized by arbitrary arrests, mass surveillance by the dreaded secret police and systematic repression of ethnic minorities, such as the Kurds. The government is guilty of crimes against humanity based on witness accounts of deaths in custody including extrajudicial executions, torture, rape, arbitrary detentions, ethnic cleansing, genocides, massacres, state terrorism and forced disappearances during the crackdown against the 2011 Syrian Revolution and the ensuing Civil War. The government has also conducted numerous chemical attacks against its own civilians.
History of human rights
French rule (1920–1946)
From the early 1920s until 1946, Syria and Lebanon were under the control of a French Mandate, officially ratified by the League of Nations on 29 September 1923. Human rights concerns during this period included the colonialist treatment of the Druze within their autonomous state in the southern portion of the mandate, as prisoners and peasants there were often used for forced labor.
During the Great Revolt, French military forces sieged much of Damascus and the countryside, killing at least 7,000 rebels and displacing over 100,000 civilians. Authorities would publicly display mutilated corpses in central squares within Damascus and villages throughout Syria as a means of intimidating opponents of the government. In 1926, the Damascus military court executed 355 Syrians without any legal representation. Hundreds of Syrians were sentenced to death in absentia, prison terms of various lengths, and life imprisonment with hard labour.
Additionally, it was during this period that Syrian Women's Rights groups began to assert themselves, led by individuals like Naziq al-Abid.
Post–1948
Jews in Syria have been discriminated against, especially since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. In 1948, Jews were banned from leaving the country and from selling their property. In 1953, all Jewish bank accounts were frozen and Jewish property confiscated. In 1954, Jews were temporarily permitted to emigrate, but they had to leave all their property to the government.
Ba'athist Era: 1963-Present
The coup d'etat in 1963 staged by the Military Committee of the Syrian Ba'ath party overthrew the Second Syrian Republic headed by President Nazim al-Qudsi, ushering in decades-long Baathist rule. The new regime implemented social engineering policies such as large-scale confiscation of properties, state directed re-distribution of lands and wealth, massive censorship, elimination of independent publishing centres, nationalization of banks, education system and industries. A state of emergency was declared which abolished all other political parties and bestowed sweeping powers upon the military; effectively ruling the country as police state. Purges were carried out throughout the civil society, bureaucracy; and the army was packed with party loyalists. Syrian Ba'athists were highly influenced by Akram Hawrani's Arab Socialist party which adhered to Marxism.
In March 1964, Jews were banned from traveling more than from their hometowns. Jews were not allowed to work for the government or banks, could not acquire drivers' licenses, and were banned from purchasing property. Although Jews were prohibited from leaving the country, they were sometimes allowed to travel abroad for commercial or medical reasons. Any Jew granted clearance to leave the country had to leave behind a bond of $300–$1,000 and family members to be used as hostages to ensure they returned. An airport road was paved over the Jewish cemetery in Damascus, and Jewish schools were closed and handed over to Muslims. The Jewish Quarter of Damascus was under constant surveillance by the secret police, who were present at synagogue services, weddings, bar mitzvahs, and other Jewish gatherings. The secret police closely monitored contact between Syrian Jews and foreigners and kept a file on every member of the Jewish community. Jews also had their phones tapped and their mail read by the secret police. After Israel's victory in the 1967 Six-Day War, restrictions were further tightened, and 57 Jews in Qamishli may have been killed in a pogrom. The communities of Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishli were under house arrest for eight months following the war. Many Jewish workers were laid off following the Six-Day War.
After purging rival Baathist factions through a coup in 1970, General Hafez al-Assad established total dominance over the Ba'ath party and established a dictatorship centred around his personality cult. Structure of Assad's police state revolved around the Ba'ath party organization, Syrian military establishment packed with Ba'athist elites and Assad family's Alawite loyalists. Hafez ruled Syria for 3 decades with an iron first; deploying repressive measures ranging from censorship to violent methods of state terror such as mass murders, deportations and practices such as torture, which were unleashed collectively upon the civilian population.
In 1982, Hafez al-Assad responded to an insurrection led by the Muslim Brotherhood in the city of Hama by sending a paramilitary force that indiscriminately killed between 10,000 and 55,000 civilians including children, women, and the elderly during the Hama massacre. State-violence perpetrated by Assad's reign have targeted women extensively, subjecting them to discrimination and gender-based violence. Between 1980 and 2000, more than 17,000 Syrian civilians were subjected to forced disappearance from the Syrian regime. During Baathist occupation of Lebanon, numerous Lebanese, Palestinian and other Arab civilians went missing. More than 35 torture techniques were reported to be employed in Syrian prisons and military detention centres during this time. A 1983 report published by Amnesty International revealed that Assad regime routinely committed mass-executions of alleged dissidents and engaged in the extensive torture of prisoners of conscience. Various torture methods in Syrian prisons include electrocutions, ablazing, sexual violence, castration, etc.
In 2000, Bashar al-Assad inherited the totalitarian system of Ba'athist Syria following the death of his father. His regime was characterized by even more systemic violence and repression than that of Hafez al-Assad. This has been widely attributed to Bashar's inexperience in security and political affairs, in addition to personal insecurities regarding the survival of his family regime. 2006 Freedom House report listed Syria amongst the worst countries to restrict civil liberties and political freedoms; giving it the lowest possible scores in both measures. In 2023, Freedom House rated people's access to political rights in Syria as the lowest on its Freedom in the World annual report on 210 countries. Syria ranked "-3" in political rights – lower than its scale of 1 to 7, alongside South Sudan and Western Sahara – and Syria was given a rating of "Not Free." Since 2022, Syria has the lowest ranked country in report.
According to the 2008 report on human rights by the U.S. State Department, the Syrian government's "respect for human rights worsened". Members of the security forces arrested and detained individuals without providing just cause, often held prisoners in "lengthy pretrial and incommunicado detention", and "tortured and physically abused prisoners and detainees". The government imposed significant restrictions on freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association, amid an atmosphere of government corruption. According to Arab Press Network, "despite a generally repressive political climate", there were "signs of positive change," during the 2007 elections. According to a 2008 report by Reporters without Borders, "Journalists have to tightly censor themselves for fear of being thrown into Adra Prison."
In 2009 Syria was included in Freedom House's "Worst of the Worst" section and given a rating of 7 for Political Rights: and 6 for Civil Liberties. According to Human Rights Watch, as of 2009 Syria's poor human rights situation had "deteriorated further". Authorities arrested political and human rights activists, censored websites, detained bloggers, and imposed travel bans. Syria's multiple security agencies continue to detain people without arrest warrants. No political parties were licensed and emergency rule, imposed in 1963, remained in effect. Various torture techniques deployed in Syrian detention centres and prisons include routine beatings, rapes, sexual violence, "Bisat al-rih" (flying carpet), etc.
The scale of the brutal violence and state terrorism unleashed by the Assad regime and his foreign backers across the country after the eruption of the 2011 Syrian revolution was unprecedented, far outstripping the actions of other Arab autocrats who repressed the Arab Spring. It even exceeded the brutal violence unleashed by Hafez al-Assad during the Hama Massacre. By pursuing scorched-earth policies to crush the armed resistance, Bashar had destroyed majority of Syria's civilian, cultural and economic infrastructure. Unlike his father, Bashar killed far more Syrian civilians and has also lost significant amount of his political independence to foreign actors like Russia and Iran. As of 2023, more than a third of Syrian territories remain outside the control of the Ba'athist regime.
In April 2017, the U.S. Navy carried out a missile attack against a Syrian air base which had been used to conduct a chemical weapons attack on Syrian civilians. This attack is also known as the 2017 Shayrat missile strike. In 2018, coalition forces including United States, France, and the United Kingdom also carried out a series of military strikes in Syria.
Judicial process
Syria has a long history of arbitrary arrest, unfair trials and prolonged detention of suspects. Thousands of political prisoners remain in detention, with many belonging to the banned Muslim Brotherhood and the Communist Party. Since June 2000, more than 700 long-term political prisoners have been freed by President al-Asad, though an estimated 4,000 are reportedly still imprisoned. Information regarding those detained in relation to political or security-related charges is not divulged by the authorities. The government has not acknowledged responsibility for around 17,000 Lebanese citizens and Palestinians who "disappeared" in Lebanon in the 1980s and early 1990s and are thought to be imprisoned in Syria. In 2009, hundreds of people were arrested and imprisoned for political reasons. Military police were reported to have killed at least 17 detainees. Human rights activists are continually targeted and imprisoned by the government.
On 18 September 2020, Netherlands demanded that the Syrian President Bashar al-Assad be held accountable for the war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the civilian war. The Dutch officials sent a notice to the Syrian regime on the legal actions to be taken and submitted a case at the International Court of Justice on the Syrian government's failure to negotiate under the UN framework.
Prisoners of conscience
Among the scores of prisoners of conscience arrested in 2009, and hundreds of political prisoners already in prison, some of the more prominent prisoners were:
Kamal al-Labwani, a prisoner of conscience who had three years added to his 12-year sentence for allegedly "broadcasting false or exaggerated news which could affect the morale of the country", on account of remarks he was alleged to have made in his prison cell.
Nabil Khlioui, an alleged Islamist from Deir al-Zour, who with at least 10 other Islamists, most are presumed to be from Deir al-Zour, remained in incommunicado detention without charge or trial at the end of 2009.
Mashaal Tammo, the killed spokesperson for the unauthorized Kurdish Future Current group, who was 'held incommunicado for 12 days and charged with "aiming to provoke civil war or sectarian fighting", "conspiracy" and three other charges commonly brought against Kurdish activists, charges that could lead to the death penalty.
Twelve leaders of a prominent gathering of opposition groups, the Damascus Declaration, continue to serve 30-month prison terms. Among those detained is Riad Seif, 62, a former member of parliament who is in poor health.
Habib Saleh was sentenced to three years in jail for "spreading false information" and "weakening national sentiment" in the form of writing articles criticizing the government and defending opposition figure Riad al-Turk.
One released prisoner was Aref Dalila. He had served seven of the ten years in his prison sentence, much of it in solitary confinement and in increasingly poor health, for his involvement in the so-called "Damascus Spring" before being released by a presidential pardon.
In June 2010, Mohannad al-Hassani, head of the Syrian Organisation for Human Rights (Swasiya) and winner of the 2010 Martin Ennals Award for Human Rights Defenders, was convicted of "weakening national morale" and "conveying within Syria false news that could debilitate the morale of the nation." He was sentenced to three years in prison.
Sednaya prison alone houses more than 600 political prisoners. The authorities have kept many for years behind bars, often well past their legal sentence. The estimated 17,000 prisoners who have disappeared over the years suggests that Syria may have hidden mass graves.
In a 2006 report, Human Rights Watch reported on the continued detention of "thousands" of political prisoners in Syria, "many of them members of the banned Muslim Brotherhood and the Communist Party." According to the Syrian Human Rights Committee that there were 4,000 political prisoners held in Syrian jails in 2006.
Torture
August 2016, Amnesty International released a report tackling the issue of torture and ill-treatment in Syrian government prisons which amount to crimes against humanity. Since the crisis began in March 2011, the international organization estimated that 17,723 people have died in custody in Syria – an average rate of more than 300 deaths each month. According to the report, governmental forces have used torture to scare the opponents. But today, they use it as a part of systematic attack against opposition members. According to testimonies of some survivors, detainees were subjected to numerous kind of torture aiming at dehumanizing them, and in many cases killing them. Amnesty international said that those, who are responsible for these atrocities, must be brought to justice.
In Sednaya Prison alone, up to 13,000 detainees were executed extrajudicially in secret between 2011 and 2015, mostly through mass-hangings. This was part of Assad's push to eliminate all dissent to his rule. On 6 July 2020, families of detainees in Syrian government prisons found the pictures of their dead relatives in the media graphics of a forensic police photographer-turned-whistleblower, codenamed, Caesar. The photos are among tens of thousands of images of torture victims, smuggled out of Syria in 2013. Numerous European citizens were also revealed to be among the torture victims.
Chilling revelations of torture, rapes, massacres, extermination were revealed through the 2014 Caesar Report, which documented photographic evidences of industrial-scale atrocities occurring in Syrian military prisons. The report documented a total of 55,000 digital images of tortured or dismembered human bodies of around 11,000 detainees. Describing some of the torture techniques unleashed on Syrians held captive in military prisons, the military defector Caesar states: "It was very clear that they were tortured, not tortured for a day or two, tortured for many, many long months. They were emaciated bodies, purely skeletons. There were people, most of them had their eyes gouged out. There was electrocution, you could tell by the dark spots on their body that was used there. There was utilization of knives and also big cables and belts that was used to beat them. And so, we could see every type of torture on the bodies of these individuals. 'Every type of torture,' but the depravity of the gouged eyes leaves to the imagination how maiming was calculated to coerce information. By 2013, the bodies overflowed the morgues and spilled across a parking garage at a military hospital."In 2023, Canada and Netherlands jointly filed a lawsuit against the Assad regime at the International Court of Justice (ICJ); charging Assad with ordering torture, rapes and other de-humanising tactics on hundreds of thousands of detainees in Syrian prison networks, including women and children. The joint petition denounced the Ba'athist regime for inflicting "unimaginable physical and mental pain and suffering" as a deliberate strategy to collectively punish the Syrian population. In a separate statement, Dutch Foreign Ministry accused Bashar al-Assad of committing severe human rights violations, war crimes and inhumane tactics against the Syrian people "on a grand scale". The joint proceedings were after repeated Russian vetoes in the UN Security Council that blocked efforts to prosecute Bashar al-Assad over war crimes in International Criminal Court.
Freedom of religion
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion. However, the Government restricts this right. While there is no official state religion, the Constitution requires that the president be Muslim and stipulates that Islamic jurisprudence, an expansion of
Sharia Islamic law, is a principal source of legislation. According to the U.S. Department of State's "International Religious Freedom Report 2007", the Constitution provides for freedom of faith and religious practice, provided that the religious rites do not disturb the public order. According to the report, the Syrian Government monitored the activities of all groups, including religious groups, discouraged proselytism, which it deemed a threat to relations among religious groups. The report said that the Government discriminated against the Jehovah's Witnesses and that there were occasional reports of minor tensions between religious groups, some attributable to economic rivalries rather than religious affiliation. There is some concern among religious minorities that democratic reforms will result in oppression of religious minorities by Islamist movements that are now repressed.
Syrian Sunnis are subject to heavy discrimination from the Alawite-dominated Baathist apparatus; since the regime elites associate them with the Syrian opposition. As a result, Syria's Sunni community has suffered the vast majority of the brutalities and war crimes perpetrated by the Ba'athist regime during the Syrian Civil War.
Women's rights and LGBT rights
The Syrian regime discriminates against women through administrative measures that silence their voice and deploying political violence disproportianety against women. Sexual violence has long been a strategy of the regime to enforce the compliance of the populace. During the Syrian civil war, mass-rapes have been weaponised as a large-scale war-tactic by the Assad regime and the Ba'athist militant forces across Syria. Sexual violence against women on a political and sectarian basis has been described as a fundamental pillar of the regime's military strategy. Anti-Sunni Shabiha and other pro-Assad deathsquads carry out this policy on a sectarian basis, against Sunni women and girls. Many women suspected of pro-opposition sympathies are rounded up by Ba'athist paramilitaries and sexually assaulted in government detention centres and military prisons. Rural and poor women get disproportionately raped, assaulted, beaten and tortured in military prisons. Several women get abducted by dreaded Mukhabarat and raped in the offices of the secret police. According to many survivors, they can't return back to their society without justice against the perpetrators.
Article 520 of the penal code of 1949, prohibits having homosexual relations, i.e. "carnal relations against the order of nature", and provides for up to three-years imprisonment.
In 2010 the Syrian police began a crackdown that led to the arrest of over 25 men. The men were charged with various crimes ranging from homosexual acts and illegal drug use, to encouraging homosexual behavior and organizing obscene parties. In the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), there exist Mala Jins (Women's houses) in more than 60 localities where women can seek refuge and demand justice. There the women get support in matters like divorce, rape, beatings and other forms of domestic violence. The women of the Mala Jin, have the authority to speak out banishments or in more serious cases encourage to file a criminal case. Underage marriage is banned within the territory of the AANES and in 2019 it passed a set of laws further strengthening women's rights.
Freedom of movement
Syrians can not leave the country without an "exit visa" granted by the authorities. Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides for the human right of Freedom of Movement as such "(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and return to his country." Bans have been said to have increased significantly since 2006, though exact statistics are hard to come by as secret security agencies are commonly the ones issuing the bans. The Syrian Constitution, in Article 38(3), allows freedom of movement "within the territories of the state unless restricted by a judicial decision or by the implementation of laws of public health and safety."
From 2011 to 2015, the last four years of the Syrian war, the freedom of movement has been most widely restricted in certain areas and on certain individuals. Restrictions vary between regions, partly because of continuous fighting in certain areas. In rebel held areas there are severe restrictions on the movement of government supporters (or people thought to be government supporters). Foreign diplomats are unable to visit a majority of Syria, and are often not allowed outside of Damascus (Syrian capital).
In the areas of Jindires in Afrin, and Ras al Ayn, curfews were executed in 2012 and 2013 as rebel groups put in place a curfew of 5 pm, after which nobody could be seen in public. Then in December 2014, a travel ban was announced on Syrian men aged 18 to 42 (military age). The memorandum supposedly states that all Syrian males must have special permission to leave the country, obtained from army officials.
An example of an individual travel ban is Louay Hussein, president of an opposition group in Syria (Building the Syrian State, or the BSS party), was unable to attend peace talks in Moscow in April 2015 because the government refused to rid of his lifelong travel ban, however on 26 April 2015 Hussein managed to evade his ban and flee to Spain. Also Syrian human rights defenders are having their movement restrained by being held in arbitrary arrest. The human rights defenders Mazen Darwish, Hani Al-Zitani, and Hussein Gharir were arrested in February 2012 for 'publicizing terrorist acts'. The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly called for their release.
Al-Furat University in the city of Deir ez-Zor has been facing movement restrictions by ISIS recently. In January 2015 circulars were issued to ISIS checkpoints in the area to scrutinize all university students passing. To encourage students to abandon their studies and join the ranks of ISIS, the rebels have been restricting the students from traveling between government areas and ISIS-held areas, preventing many students from entering or exiting the university grounds.
Further from this, there are certain restrictions on movement placed on Women, for example, Syrian law now allows males to place restrictions on certain female relatives. Women over the age of 18 are entitled to travel outside of Syria, however, a woman's husband may file a request for his wife to be banned from leaving the country. From July 2013, in certain villages in Syria (namely Mosul, Raqqu and Deir el-Zour), ISIS no longer allow women to appear in public alone, they must be accompanied by a male relative/guardian known as a mahram. Security checkpoints in civilian areas set up by the government and by ISIS have allowed them to monitor these restrictions. With the males of Syria often being involved in the fighting, no matter which side, this is leaving many Syrian women at home alone with the children, stranded and unable to leave to purchase food and supplies. Further, women in Tel Abyad and Idlib city have been banned from driving by ISIS and Jabhat al-Nursa.
Other countries have begun closing their borders to Syrian refugees. On 7 October 2013, Turkey built a two-meter wall on the Syrian border in the Nusaybin district where there was frequent fighting with the rebels. Then on 9 March Turkey closed a further two of its border crossings from Syria, Oncupinar and Cilvegozu, in response to the escalating violence and worries of a terrorist plot. Up until this date Turkey had accepted nearly 2 million Syrian refugees. Aid trucks are still welcome to cross the border, but it is strictly closed to individuals.
The Syrian government continues its practice of issuing exit visas with strict requirements. They have also closed the Damascus airport frequently because of growing violence. Bans on travel are frequently used against human rights activists and their associates, often these people would not learn about their travel ban until they were prevented leaving the country. Usually no explanations are given for these travel restrictions. The government often bans members of the opposition and their families from traveling abroad, and they are targeted if they attempt to, causing opposition families to fear to attempt to leave Syria for fear of being attacked at the airport or border crossing. Though this action is illegal under international law, Syrian courts have been known to decline to interfere in matters of national security.
Article 38(1) provides that "no citizen may be deported from the country, or prevented from returning to it". This, along with Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights creates a general legal right to travel internationally. As well as preventing citizens from leaving Syria, there have also been many instances of citizens being prevented from returning to Syria, whether they left illegally or not. A positive step in regards to this was taken on 28 April 2015, when it was announced by Syrian authorities that citizens who had previously fled the war would be able to re-attain passports without a review by the intelligence service, or going through the Department of emigration and passports. These citizens had fled the country illegally and either not taken their passports, or lost them.
Human Rights Watch report in October 2021that refugees who went back to Syria by their own choice suffered severe "human rights abuses and persecution at the hands of Syrian government and affiliated militias, including torture, extra-judicial killings, and kidnappings."
Freedom of speech and the media
The number of news media has increased in the past decade, but the Ba'ath Party continues to maintain control of the press. Journalists and bloggers have been arrested and tried. In 2009, the Committee to Protect Journalists named Syria number three in a list of the ten worst countries in which to be a blogger, given the arrests, harassment, and restrictions which online writers in Syria faced.
Internet censorship in Syria is extensive. Syria bans websites for political reasons and arrests people accessing them. Internet cafes are required to record all the comments users post on chat forums.
Websites such as Wikipedia Arabic, YouTube and Facebook were blocked from 2008 to 2011. Filtering and blocking was found to be pervasive in the political and Internet tools areas, and selective in the social and conflict/security areas by the OpenNet Initiative in August 2009. Syria has been on Reporters Without Borders' Enemy of the Internet list since 2006 when the list was established.
In addition to filtering a wide range of Web content, the Syrian government monitors Internet use very closely and has detained citizens "for expressing their opinions or reporting information online." Vague and broadly worded laws invite government abuse and have prompted Internet users to engage in self-censorship to avoid the state's ambiguous grounds for arrest.
The Syrian Centre for Media and Free Expression was closed by the government in September 2009. It was the country's only NGO specializing in media issues, Internet access, and media monitoring during election campaigns. It had operated without government approval, and had monitored violations of journalists' rights and had taken up the cause of the ban on the dissemination of many newspapers and magazines.
Syrian security forces arrested and beat up protestors on 15 June 2020. The protest started on 7 June 2020, in front of the governorate center against government's failure of handling economic downfall, deteriorating living conditions and corruption. HRW appealed the Syrian authority to release the peacefully protesting detainees. Even pro-regime loyalist journalists who are allowed to report within the country are arrested by security forces over social media posts or ambiguos charges like being "out of line".
Syrian civil war
During the Syrian civil war, a UN report described actions by the security forces as being "gross violations of human rights". The UN report documented shooting recruits that refused to fire into peaceful crowds without warning, brutal interrogations including elements of sexual abuse of men and gang rape of young boys, staking out hospitals when wounded sought assistance, and shooting of children as young as two. In 2011, Human Rights Watch stated that Syria's bleak human rights record stood out in the region. While Human Rights Watch doesn't rank offenders, many have characterized Syria's human rights report as among the worst in the world in 2010.
As early as his public speech delivered on 30th March 2011, Assad had declared his intention to wipe out the protests with as much brute force as possible. He labelled the protests as an anti-Syrian conspiracy to foment "Fitna" and doubled down on his anti-Arab Spring stance stating: "Burying sedition is a national, moral, and religious duty, and all those who can contribute to burying it and do not are part of it. There is no compromise or middle way in this." In April 2011, Assad formed the Central Crisis Management Cell, a secret committee composed of high-ranking Baath party and Assad family elites, which centrally planned the national crackdown to suppress protests of the Syrian revolution.
As the revolution spread across all the provinces in Syria, the Crisis Management Cell decided to intensify the repression by unleashing more violence and co-ordinate the security response, in a Ba'ath Party meeting. The key aspects of the new crackdown strategy included:
Secret police and armed forces were ordered to initiate large-scale incursions into the houses of protest planners and independent journalists
"once each sector has been cleansed of wanted people", Ba'athist paramilitaries were to occupy these areas under protection of Syrian military and prevent survivors from returning to their homes
Formation of "joint investigation committees" headed by leaders of the Baathist security departments across all provinces to incarcerate suspected activists and cross-examining them in prisons
Transfer of the findings across all security branches for pinpointing of additional suspects
The commands were passed down to the provincial leaders of the party who were instructed to swiftly execute the orders in their respective regions
While Navi Pillay, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, said that both sides in the conflict appeared to have committed war crimes in 2012, United Nations' Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Syria also blamed the vast majority of atrocities on the Assad government forces. Baathist forces were responsible for vast majority of the killings during the war, far outstripping casualties inflicted by groups like IS. Over 21,000 deaths occurred in 2015 alone, with more than 75% of them (over 15,700) being perpetrated by Syrian regime forces. Regime attacks also resulted in more than 12,000 civilian deaths, with around 38% of the victims being women and children.
On 2 March 2018, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein said, "Syria must be referred to the International Criminal Court. Attempts to thwart justice, and shield these criminals, are disgraceful." Commission for International Justice and Accountability (CIJA), an independent war-crimes documentation agency has been conducting investigations on the crimes and atrocities committed during the Syrian war, with the organization employing around a hundred Syrians and Iraqis in the country, some of them insiders within the state bureaucratic apparatus. In December 2018, CIJA chief Stephen Rapp who formerly served as the US Ambassador for Global Criminal Justice, stated that war-crimes committed by the Syrian regime constituted a "solid kind of evidence that we haven't really had since Nuremberg, when the Nazis were prosecuted." The proofs of documented crimes included a vast array of sources, ranging from 2 million video footages to the documents seized from the Baathist regional committees and command Crisis Centres. Rapp asserted that despite Russian objections in the UN Security Council, the evidences are sufficient for an international arrest warrant.
Detention Centers
Detention Centers run by the Assad government have been one of the most glaring human rights abuses in Syria. In 2014, the Caesar Report showed gruesome photographs smuggled out of a Syria detention center showed "the systematic killing of more than 11,000 detainees by the Syrian government in one region" during a two and a half year period of the Syria Civil War. A 2016 United Nations investigative report described the detainees in Syrian prisons as suffering under "inhuman living conditions" characterized by unclean environment, lack of sanitation and food as well as systematic torture. Following the death of prisoners in custody, fake certificates were often distributed by the government to claim that the prisoners "died of natural causes". The report further denounced Assad regime's policies of torture and summary executions in detention centres as "extermination as a crime against humanity". Syrian dungeons have been compared to the Nazi extermination camps of World War II, due to the scale of torture and mass killings going on in its prison networks. Journalist Russ Wellen reports that the "state killing machine exceeds the capacity of the system to process".
In 2017 details emerged about Sednaya Prison, a military prison near Damascus operated by the Assad government. The prison has been used to hold thousands of prisoners, both civilian and government opposition. Amnesty International estimated that between 5,000 and 13,000 people were extrajudicially executed at the one prison between September 2011 and December 2015. Survivor accounts from state-run prisons describe inhumane conditions, starvation, psychological trauma, and torture.
Women have also faced human rights abuses and war crimes inside Assad prisons. A 2017 report by Lawyers and Doctors for Human Rights (LDHR) collected first-hand accounts from women who survived rape and torture in Assad prisons. The 2017 Amnesty report on Syria's Sednaya Prison described the torture methods and living conditions of military detention centres and prisons as "subhuman", stating: "Detainees are tortured beginning from the moment of their arrest, during their "welcome parties" – a term commonly used by Syrian detainees and guards to refer to the severe beatings received upon arrival at a detention facility – and throughout their interrogations.. Common methods of torture include severe beating, the use of electric shocks, sexual violence including rape and stress positions. These methods are often used in combination during multiple sessions over the course of days, weeks or months... detainees are held in subhuman conditions and systematically denied their basic needs, including food, water, medicine, medical care and sanitation. They are packed into filthy, overcrowded cells without access to fresh air, sunlight or ventilation. In these conditions, scabies, lice, infections and diseases run rampant, and many detainees develop serious mental illnesses such as psychosis. As a result of the torture and conditions they are forced to endure, detainees in government custody are dying on a massive scale."
On 23 April 2020, two ex-Syrian secret police officers, Anwar R. and Eyad A., accused of committing war crimes in Syria's government-run detention center, appeared in a German court for a first of its kind trial. According to a 2018 report released by the expert panel of United Nations, the Assad government-run detention centers tortured more than 4,000 of the detained protestors and murdered at least 58 others.
Forced Disappearances
Since the start of the civil war in 2011, more than 100,000 people have been detained, forcibly disappeared or went missing in Syria as of 2019. At least 90,000 of them are thought to have been detained or forcibly disappeared in Syria's state prisons. Other reports estimate that more than 128,000 civilians have been kidnapped or forcibly disappeared by the regime forces by 2019. Amnesty International stated in a 2019 press release: "Until today, the Syrian government has failed to disclose the fate, names and location of people arbitrarily detained and disappeared by Syrian security forces. Some families were notified about the death of their relatives in detention, or were eventually able to find out that their loved one died in custody. Those who receive a death certificate – the only piece of "evidence" provided – are legally bound to then register the person's death in civil records, in order to obtain an official death certificate."Between 2011 and 2015, more than 17,700 civilians captured under regime prisons were summarily executed. Between March 2011 and March 2023, an estimated 154,000 civilians have been forcibly disappeared, abducted or subject to arbitrary detentions in Syria; with over 135,000 individuals being tortured, imprisoned or dead in government detention centres as of 2023.
In June 2023, UN General Assembly voted in favour of establishing an independent body to investigate the whereabouts hundreds of thousands of missing civilians who have been forcibly disappeared, killed or languishing in Syrian government prisons. This was after increasing demands to establish a UN approved body by more than a hundred Syrian civil society groups and human rights organizations like the Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and International Committee of the Red Cross. The objective of the new body is to ensure better co-ordination to collect information of disappeared individuals. Assad regime denounced the vote as "flagrant interference" in Syria's domestic issues.
Human rights in ISIL-controlled territory
The state of human rights in territories controlled by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant has been criticized by many political, religious and other organizations and individuals. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights has stated that ISIL "seeks to subjugate civilians under its control and dominate every aspect of their lives through terror, indoctrination, and the provision of services to those who obey".
Human rights in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria
Human rights violations against Kurds included depriving ethnic Kurdish citizens of their citizenship; suppressing Kurdish language and culture; discrimination against citizens based on Kurdish ethnicity; confiscation of Kurdish land and settlement by Arabs. In the course of the Syrian Civil War, parts of Northern Syria gained de facto autonomy within the Kurdish-led Democratic Federation of Northern Syria.
In a report "'We Had Nowhere Else to Go': Forced Displacement and Demolition in Northern Syria", Amnesty International documented allegations of forced evictions of Arabs, Turkmens and Kurds and the destruction of their homes. According to Amnesty International, YPG accused them of having links with ISIL and other Islamist groupa. The report said that "in some cases, entire villages have been demolished", and that villagers were "ordered to leave at gunpoint, their livestock shot at". Some persons claimed to Amnesty that "they told us we had to leave or they would tell the US coalition that we were terrorists and their planes would hit us and our families. Threats by the YPG of calling in US airstrikes against villagers were reported. Amnesty International claimed that "these instances of forced displacement constitute war crimes". Some Arab and Turkmen claimed that YPG militias have stolen their homes and livestock, burned their personal documents and claimed the land as theirs, and that Turkmen "are losing lands where they have been living for centuries". During the Syrian civil war, several attacks by Arab or Kurdish Muslims have targeted Syrian Christians, including the 2015 al-Qamishli bombings. In January 2016, YPG militias conducted a surprise attack on Assyrian checkpoints in Qamishli, in a predominantly Assyrian area, killing one Assyrian and wounding three others.
In October 2015, Amnesty International reported that the YPG had driven civilians from northern Syria and destroyed their homes in retaliation for perceived links to ISIL. The majority of the destroyed homes belonged to Arabs, but some belonged to Turkmens and Kurds. Turkish "Daily Sabah" claimed that Amnesty International has said that Kurdish PYD conducted ethnic cleansing against Turkmens and Arabs after seizing Tal Abyad. However, Amnesty International has published only one report about the Syrian Kurdish forces and it is related to destroying villages and homes, not ethnic cleansing at all. The Amnesty International report concluded that there are documented cases of forced displacement that constitute war crimes. In 2015, Assyrian and Armenian organizations protested the enforcement of Kurdish self-administration in the Hasaka province, including expropriation of private property by the PYD and interference in church school curricula and also criticized illegal seizure of property, and targeted killings Assyrians have also criticized the enforcement of revisionist curricula in private and public schools with a Kurdish-nationalist bias. They have claimed that in textbooks the Kurds "alter historical and geographical facts", including Assyrian place names which are changed to Kurdish names, and students are taught that King Nebuchadnezzar from the Old Testament married a Kurdish woman. Of particular concern are the "harassment and arbitrary arrests of the PYD's Kurdish political rivals" and of civil society leaders noted by human rights organizations. The Y.P.G. is accused of having arrested hundreds of political prisoners. It is claimed that about 150 people were abducted by the Y.P.G. in 2013 alone. Human Rights Watch reported in 2014 that "there have been numerous cases of maltreatment in prisons in Rojava". Some dissidents were tortured and killed Amnesty International reported in 2015 that the PYD "is using a crackdown against terrorism...as a pretext to unlawfully detain and unfairly try peaceful critics and civilians." The PYD has also shot demonstrators, arrested political opponents, and shut down media outlets. Ethnic tensions between Kurds and Arabs have been at the forefront of the conflicts in Syria and Iraq. In Syria, there are widespread reports of Kurdish abuses against Arab civilians, including arbitrary arrests, forced displacement, and reports of YPG forces razing villages. Similar reports of Kurdish forces destroying Arab homes have emerged in the fight for Mosul.
See also
Al-Marsad
Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act
Human rights in Islamic countries
Human rights in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria
Human rights in the Middle East
Human trafficking in Syria
Syrian Civil War
Syrian Observatory for Human Rights
Wissam Tarif
References and footnotes
– Syria profile
Notes
External links
Syria at Human Rights Watch
Syria Charter of Rights and Freedoms Is a proposed modern system of human rights for adoption prior to a new Syrian constitution.
2010 Human Rights Report: Syria, U.S. Department of State, 8 April 2011
Uprising against the Assad Regime in Syria: Is This a Second Libya? June 2011, Qantara.de
Political repression in Syria |
4321056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Rutte | Mark Rutte | Mark Rutte (; born 14 February 1967) is a Dutch politician who has served as prime minister of the Netherlands since 2010. He was also the leader of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) from 2006 through 2023. He is currently acting in a demissionary capacity, and will not return to politics following the installation of a new cabinet.
After a business career working for Unilever, Rutte entered politics in 2002 as a member of Jan Peter Balkenende's cabinets. Rutte won the 2006 VVD leadership election and led the party to victory in the 2010 general election. After lengthy coalition negotiations, he became prime minister of the Netherlands. He was the first liberal to be appointed prime minister in 92 years.
An impasse on budget negotiations led to his government's early collapse in April 2012, but the VVD's victory in the subsequent election allowed Rutte to return as prime minister to lead a coalition between the VVD and the Labour Party (PvdA), which became the first cabinet to see out a full four-year term since 1998. Though the VVD lost seats in the 2017 general election, it remained the largest party. After a record-length formation period, Rutte was appointed to lead a new coalition between the VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), Democrats 66 (D66) and Christian Union (CU).
Though Rutte and his cabinet resigned in response to the Dutch childcare benefits scandal, the VVD won the 2021 general election. Rutte began his fourth term in 2022 after another record-length formation period. On 7 July 2023, he announced his government's resignation after his coalition failed to agree on how to handle increasing migration. His government will take on a caretaker role until the installation of the next cabinet after the elections in autumn 2023. Due to his ability to come out of political scandals with his reputation undamaged, Rutte has been referred to as "Teflon Mark".
Early life
Rutte was born in The Hague, in the province of South Holland, in a Dutch Reformed family. He is the youngest child of Izaäk Rutte (5 October 1909 – 22 April 1988), a merchant, and his second wife, Hermina Cornelia Dilling (13 November 1923 – 13 May 2020), a secretary. Izaäk Rutte worked for a trading company; first as an importer in the Dutch East Indies, later as a director in the Netherlands. His second wife was a sister of his first wife, Petronella Hermanna Dilling (17 March 1910 – 20 July 1945), who died while she and he were interned together in Tjideng, a prisoner of war camp in Batavia, now Jakarta, during World War II. Rutte has seven siblings as a result of his father's two marriages. One of his elder brothers died from AIDS in the 1980s. Rutte later described the deaths of his brother and later his father as events that changed the course of his life.
Rutte attended the Maerlant Lyceum from 1979 until 1985, specialising in the arts. Although Rutte's original ambition was to attend a conservatory and become a concert pianist, he went to study history at Leiden University instead, where he obtained an MA degree in 1992. Rutte combined his studies with a position on the board of the Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy, the youth organisation of the VVD, of which he was the chair from 1988 to 1991.
After his studies, Rutte entered the business world, working as a manager for Unilever (and its food subsidiary Calvé). Until 1997, Rutte was part of the human resource department of Unilever, and played a leading role in several reorganisations. Between 1997 and 2000, Rutte was staff manager of Van den Bergh Nederland, a subsidiary of Unilever. In 2000, Rutte became a member of the Corporate Human Resources Group, and in 2002, he became human resource manager for IgloMora Groep, another subsidiary of Unilever.
Between 1993 and 1997, Rutte was a member of the national board of the VVD. Rutte also served as a member of the VVD candidate committee for the general election of 2002. Rutte was elected as Member of Parliament in 2003.
Political career
Rutte served as State Secretary (i.e. Deputy Minister) at the Social Affairs and Employment Ministry from 22 July 2002 to 17 June 2004 in the First and Second Balkenende cabinets. Rutte was responsible for fields including bijstand (municipal welfare) and arbeidsomstandigheden (Occupational safety and health). After the 2003 elections Rutte was briefly also a member of the House of Representatives, from 30 January to 27 May 2003.
In 2003, as State Secretary, Rutte advised municipalities to check, exceptionally, Somali residents for social assistance fraud, after some Somalis working in England were also found to receive social assistance benefits in the Netherlands. A Somali man entitled to benefits was stopped by social investigators and checked for fraud on the basis of his external characteristics, after which he refused the investigators access to his home. The Municipal Executive (College van burgemeester en wethouders) of Haarlem decided to withdraw the right of the man to social benefits. He disagreed with this and his appeal was upheld by the administrative judge. The court ruled that "an investigation aimed exclusively at persons of Somali descent is discriminatory" and contrary to the Constitution because this distinction is "discrimination based on race". Rutte rejected the criticism and stated that a change in the law would then be necessary to be able to combat targeted fraud.
Rutte later served as State Secretary for Higher Education and Science, within the Education, Culture and Science Ministry, replacing Annette Nijs, from 17 June 2004 to 27 June 2006, in the Second Balkenende cabinet. In office, Rutte showed particular interest in making the Dutch higher education system more competitive internationally, by trying to make it more market oriented (improving the position of students as consumers in the market for education). Rutte would have been succeeded by former The Hague alderman Bruno Bruins. Before Bruins could be sworn into office, the second Balkenende cabinet fell. In the subsequently formed Third Balkenende cabinet Bruins succeeded Rutte as State secretary.
Rutte resigned from his position in government in June 2006 to return to the House of Representatives, and he soon became the parliamentary leader of the VVD. Rutte became an important figure within the VVD leadership. Rutte was campaign manager for the 2006 municipal elections.
Party leadership election
After the resignation of Jozias van Aartsen, the VVD having lost in the 2006 Dutch municipal election, the party held an internal election for a new Lead Candidate, in which Rutte competed against Rita Verdonk and Jelleke Veenendaal. On 31 May 2006, it was announced that Mark Rutte would be the next lijsttrekker of the VVD. He was elected by 51.5% of party members. Rutte's candidacy was backed by the VVD leadership, including the party board, and many prominent politicians such as Frank de Grave, former minister of Defence, Ivo Opstelten, the mayor of Rotterdam and Ed Nijpels, the Queen's Commissioner of Friesland. The Youth Organisation Freedom and Democracy, the VVD's youth wing, of which he had been chair, also backed him. During the elections he promised "to make the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy a party for everyone and not just of the elite". His youthful appearance has been likened to the successful former leader of the Labour Party, Wouter Bos.
Rutte said that the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) party was a group that "the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy could do business with". He had also stated that with the social security ideas of the Labour Party, which he called too socialist, it was unlikely that the VVD would cooperate or form a coalition after the elections.
2006 general election
For the 2006 general election, the VVD campaign with Rutte as leader did not get off to a good start; he received criticism from within his own party. Rutte was said to be overshadowed by his own party members Rita Verdonk and Gerrit Zalm, as well as being unable to penetrate between Wouter Bos and Jan Peter Balkenende, who were generally seen as the prime candidates to become the next Prime Minister. On 27 November, it became known that Rita Verdonk, who generally held a more populist view on politics, managed to obtain more votes than Mark Rutte; he obtained 553,200 votes against Verdonk's 620,555. After repeated criticisms by Verdonk on VVD policy, Rutte expelled her from the party's parliamentary faction on 13 September 2007.
2010 general election
In the 2010 general election, Rutte was once again the lijsttrekker for the VVD. It won 31 seats to become the largest party in the House of Representatives for the first time ever. A long period of negotiations followed, with several personalities succeeding each other, being appointed by Queen Beatrix in order to find out what coalition could be formed. Efforts to form a broad spectrum coalition between the VVD, CDA and PvdA failed. Instead, the only possibility appeared to be a centre-right coalition of liberals and Christian Democrats (CDA), with the outside support of the Party for Freedom (PVV), led by Geert Wilders.
Prime Minister of The Netherlands
First term
After securing support for a coalition between the VVD and CDA, Rutte was appointed as formateur on 8 October 2010; Rutte announced his prospective cabinet, including Maxime Verhagen from the CDA as Deputy Prime Minister. On 14 October, Queen Beatrix formally invited Rutte to form a government, and later that day, Rutte presented his first cabinet to Parliament. The government was confirmed in office by a majority of one, and Rutte was sworn in as Prime Minister of the Netherlands, becoming the first Liberal to serve in the role since Pieter Cort van der Linden in 1918. He also became the second-youngest Prime Minister in Dutch history, after Ruud Lubbers.
After the victory at the 2011 provincial elections, the VVD secured its status as the lead party within the government. In March 2012, seeking to comply with European Union requirements to reduce the nation's deficit, Rutte began talks with his coalition partners on a budget which would cut 16 billion euros of spending. However, PVV leader Geert Wilders withdrew his party's informal support from the government on 21 April, stating that the proposed budget would hurt economic growth. This led to the early collapse of the government, and Rutte submitted his resignation to Queen Beatrix on the afternoon of 23 April. His government had lasted for 558 days, making it one of the shortest Dutch cabinets since World War II.
Second term
Ahead of the 2012 general election, Rutte was named the VVD's lijsttrekker for the third time. At the election in September, the VVD won an additional 10 seats, remaining the largest party in the House of Representatives; the CDA and PVV saw their number of seats fall significantly. The VVD quickly negotiated a coalition agreement with the Labour Party, and on 5 November 2012, the Second Rutte cabinet was confirmed by a vote in Parliament, seeing Rutte returned as Prime Minister of a VVD-PvdA coalition government.
In 2014, The Hague held a Group of Seven special meeting after the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 was shot down in Ukraine with 193 Dutch nationals aboard. During the municipal elections of 2014, the VVD finished third behind local parties and the CDA; at the European Parliament election the same year, it finished fourth. At the 2015 Dutch provincial elections, however, the VVD remained the largest party in the province's legislatures with about 15% of the vote, but lost 23 seats in the States-Provincial.
In April 2016, Rutte was appointed by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and President of the World Bank Group Jim Yong Kim to the High-Level Panel on Water. Co-chaired by Mauritius President Ameenah Gurib and Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, the joint United Nations-World Bank Group panel was set up to accelerate the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). That month also saw the 2016 Dutch Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement referendum, which resulted in a rejection. In November 2016 the House of Representatives approved by 132 votes against 18 a ban on the Islamic burqa in some public spaces including schools and hospitals, a bill supported by the VVD.
Rutte's second cabinet completed its full four-year term without collapsing or losing a vote of no confidence, becoming the first cabinet to do so since the First Kok cabinet from 1994 to 1998.
Third term
The VVD went into the 2017 general election with a small lead over the PVV in most opinion polls. Rutte was judged to have managed the 2017 Dutch–Turkish diplomatic incident well according to similar polling. While the VVD lost 8 seats in the general election, the PvdA lost 29, and these seats were split between a number of other parties, leaving the VVD the largest party in parliament for the third successive election. After holding coalition discussions, Rutte negotiated a grand coalition with the CDA, D66 and CU; he presented his third cabinet on 26 October 2017, and was sworn in as Prime Minister for a third term. The 225 days between the general election and the installation of the government was the longest such period in Dutch history.
The coalition agreement's plan to abolish the 15% dividend tax (providing the state €1.4 billion per year) proved highly unpopular, as it had not been mentioned in any party's program, and it later appeared that major Dutch companies like Shell and Unilever had secretly been lobbying for that measure.
In July 2018, Rutte became a topic in international news because of what was considered "typical Dutch bluntness", by interrupting and explicitly contradicting the American president Donald Trump during a meeting with the press at the Oval Office in the White House.
Rutte's third government provided materials to the Levant Front rebel group in Syria. In September 2018, the Dutch public prosecution department declared the Levant Front to be a "criminal organisation of terrorist intent", describing it as a "salafist and jihadistic" group that "strives for the setting up of the caliphate".
On 21 March 2018, the Dutch Intelligence and Security Services Act referendum was held. It resulted in a rejection. At the 2019 provincial elections, Rutte's VVD suffered a blow following the victory of right-wing populist newcomer Forum for Democracy (FvD).
During the negotiations for the COVID-19 recovery fund in the European Union, Rutte is considered the unofficial leader of the Frugal Four, demanding loans instead of grants and more conditions on them.
During a parliamentary debate on 9 September 2020, Rutte suggested that the EU could be dissolved and re-formed without Poland and Hungary, as he perceives these countries' governments to be dismantling the rule of law.
On 15 January 2021, the third Rutte cabinet collectively resigned after publications of research around the childcare subsidies scandal in the Netherlands. Rutte offered his resignation to the King, accepting responsibility for the scandal.
Fourth term
Following the 2021 Dutch general election, Rutte's VVD party held 34 of 150 seats and was expected to form a new coalition government. After remaining caretaker Prime Minister for the duration of the longest formation process in Dutch history, on 15 December 2021 he presented a coalition agreement with D66, CDA and CU, the same combination as his previous government.
A scandal during his fourth term was that it was found out that he had been wiping the majority of SMS text messages of his phone for years, in violation of the archival law, personally judging which messages were to be archived and which weren't. His excuse was that his phone memory filled up too quickly. This was not considered a plausible excuse by other ministers. This was also in violation of his campaign promise and coalition accords that stated they wished to restore peoples faith in politics, create a new governance culture and "improve the information provided to the [second] house", that the archival law would be modernized and that information would be made available faster.
On 2 August 2022, he became the longest-serving Prime Minister in Dutch history, overtaking Lubbers, who served from 1982 to 1994.
On 10 July 2023, Rutte announced his departure as political leader of the VVD.
In October 2023, he condemned the Hamas attack on Israel and expressed his support to Israel and its right to self-defense. On 23 October 2023, Rutte visited Israel to express solidarity with the country. He met Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Jerusalem.
Honours
: Honorary Companion of the Order of Australia (9 October 2019)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown (28 November 2016)
: Grand Officer of the Order of Legion of Honour (11 April 2023)
: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (20 December 2022)
Personal life
Rutte is single. He is a member of the Dutch Protestant Church. As of 2021, Rutte still taught social studies for two hours a week at the Johan de Witt College, a secondary school in The Hague. Rutte is known to be a big fan of the writing of Robert Caro, especially his 1974 book about Robert Moses, The Power Broker. He drives a Saab 9-3 estate. As of 2023, he has lived for several decades in an apartment in Benoordenhout, a neighbourhood of The Hague.
See also
List of international prime ministerial trips made by Mark Rutte
References
External links
Mark Rutte, official government profile
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1967 births
20th-century Dutch businesspeople
20th-century Dutch politicians
21st-century Dutch businesspeople
21st-century Dutch educators
21st-century Dutch historians
21st-century Dutch politicians
Dutch business executives
Dutch conservative liberals
Dutch human resource management people
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)
Honorary Companions of the Order of Australia
Leaders of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy
Leiden University alumni
Living people
Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)
People's Party for Freedom and Democracy politicians
Politicians from The Hague
Prime Ministers of the Netherlands
Protestant Church Christians from the Netherlands
State Secretaries for Education of the Netherlands
State Secretaries for Social Affairs of the Netherlands
Unilever people |
4321536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20Basic%20assembly%20language%20and%20successors | IBM Basic assembly language and successors | The IBM Basic assembly language and successors is a series of assembly languages and assemblers made for the IBM System/360 mainframe system and its successors through the IBM Z.
The first of these, the Basic Assembly Language (BAL), is an extremely restricted assembly language, introduced in 1964 and used on 360 systems with only 8 KB of main memory, and only a card reader, a card punch, and a printer for input/output, as part of IBM Basic Programming Support (BPS/360). The Basic Assembler for BAL was also available as part of Basic Operating System/360 (BOS/360).
Subsequently, an assembly language appeared for the System/360 that had more powerful features and usability, such as support for macros. This language, and the line of assemblers that implemented it, continued to evolve for the System/370 and the architectures that followed, inheriting and extending its syntax. Some in the computer industry referred to these under the generic term "Basic Assembly Language" or "BAL". Many did not, however, and IBM itself usually referred to them as simply the "System/360 Assembler Language", as the "Assembler" for a given operating system or platform, or similar names. Specific assemblers were known by such names as Assembler E, Assembler F, Assembler H, and so forth. Programmers utilizing this language, and this family of assemblers, also refer to them as ALC (for Assembly Language Coding), or simply "the assembler".
The latest derived language is known as the IBM High-Level Assembler (HLASM).
General characteristics
As it is an assembly language, BAL uses the native instruction set of the IBM mainframe architecture on which it runs, System/360.
The successors to BAL use the native instruction sets of the IBM mainframe architectures on which they run, including System/360, System/370, System/370-XA, ESA/370, ESA/390, and z/Architecture.
The simplicity of machine instructions means that the source code of a program written in assembler will usually be much longer than an equivalent program in, say, COBOL or Fortran. In the past, the speed of hand-coded assembler programs was often felt to make up for this drawback, but with the advent of optimizing compilers, C for the mainframe, and other advances, assembler has lost much of its appeal. IBM continues to upgrade the assembler, however, and it is still used when the need for speed or very fine control is paramount. However, all of the IBM successors to BAL have included a sophisticated macro facility that allows writing much more compact source code.
Another reason to use assembler is that not all operating system functions can be accessed in high level languages. The application program interfaces of IBM's mainframe operating systems is defined as a set of assembly language "macro" instructions, that typically invoke Supervisor Call (SVC) [e.g., on z/OS] or Diagnose (DIAG) [on, e.g., z/VM] instructions to invoke operating system routines. It is possible to use operating system services from programs written in high-level languages by use of assembler subroutines.
Assembler statement format
The format of assembler language statements reflects the layout of an 80-column punched card, though successive versions have relaxed most of the restrictions.
The optional statement label or name is a string alphanumeric characters beginning in column 1. The first character has to be alphabetic. Later versions added @, #, $, and _ to the legal characters used in labels, and increased the size from the initial six, to eight characters, then to almost unlimited lengths.
The operation code or "mnemonic" can begin in any column to the right of column 1, separated from the statement label by a blank. The operation code would be only a machine instruction (macros were not available), making it usually 1, 2, 3, or rarely 4 letters. The operation code was enhanced to allow up to eight characters, then later to effectively unlimited lengths.
The operand field can begin in any column to the right of the operation code, separated from the operation code by at least one blank. Blanks are invalid in operands except in character constants. The operand field, consisting of one or more operands, is optional depending on the operation code.
Optional comments can appear to the right of the operand field, separated by at least one blank.
Basic Assembly Language does not allow statement continuation. Later versions of the assembler indicate continuation by the appearance of any non-blank character in column 72 of the statement being continued. Basic Assembly Language requires that column 72 be blank.
A "full-card comment" is indicated by an asterisk (*) in column 1.
Card columns 73–80, called the identification-sequence field can be used by the programmer for any purpose, but usually contain sequence numbers for resorting a jumbled card deck.
Basic Assembly language also permits an alternate statement format with the statement starting in column 25, allowing the assembled instruction to be punched into the same card beginning in column 1. This option was not continued in later versions of the assembler.
Types of instructions
Three main types of instructions are found in the source code of a program written in assembler.
Assembler instructions
Assembler instructions, sometimes termed directives, pseudo operations or pseudoops on other systems, are requests to the assembler to perform various operations during the code generation process. For instance, CSECT means "start a section of code here"; DSECT provides data definitions for a structure, but generates no code; DC defines a constant to be placed in the object code.
One of the more important assembler instructions is USING, which supports the base-displacement addressing of the S/360 architecture. It guides the assembler in determining what base register and offset it should use for a relative address. In BAL, it was limited to the form
USING base,reg-1,...,reg-n
Machine instruction addresses on S/360 specify a displacement (0–4095 bytes) from the value in a base register; while later versions of the architecture added relative-address formats, the older formats are still used by many instructions. USING allows the programmer to tell the assembler that the specified base registers are assumed to contain the address of "base", base+4096 (if multiple registers are specified), etc. This only provides a shortcut for the programmer, who otherwise would have to specify the base register in each instruction. Programmers are still responsible for actually loading the address of "base" into the register before writing code that depends on this value.
The related DROP assembler instruction nullifies a previous USING.
Machine instructions (mnemonic)
There is a one-to-one relationship with machine instructions. The full mnemonic instruction set is described in the Principles of Operation manual for each instruction set.
Examples:
* This is a comment line
* Load the fullword integer stored at the
* location labeled 'ZIGGY' into general register 3:
L 3,ZIGGY
SLA 4,5 shift the value in general register 4 left by 5 bits
MVC TARGET,SOURCE move characters from location 'SOURCE' to 'TARGET'
AP COUNT,=P'1' add 1 to value in memory location 'COUNT' (packed decimal format)
B NEXT unconditional branch to label 'NEXT'
HERE EQU * This is a label
CLC TARGET,=C'ADDRESS' Compare memory location 'TARGET' to string 'ADDRESS'
BE THERE branch if equal to program label 'THERE'
Generally accepted standards, although by no means mandatory, include the identification of general purpose registers with mnemonics. Unlike assemblers for some other systems, such as X86 assembly language, register mnemonics are not reserved symbols but are defined through EQU statements elsewhere in the program. This improves readability of assembler language programs and provides a cross-reference of register usage. Thus typically you may see the following in an assembler program:
R3 EQU 3
...
L R3,ZIGGY
Some notable instruction mnemonics are BALR for a call storing the return address and condition code in a register, SVC, DIAG, and ZAP.
System/360 machine instructions are one, two, or three halfwords in length (two to 6 bytes). Originally there were four instruction formats, designated by the first two bits of the operation code field; z/Architecture added additional formats.
Macros and conditional assembly
The Basic Programming Support assembler did not support macros. Later assembler versions beginning with Assembler D allow the programmer to group instructions together into macros and add them to a library, which can then be invoked in other programs, usually with parameters, like the preprocessor facilities in C and related languages. Macros can include conditional assembler instructions, such as AIF (an ‘if’ construct), used to generate different code according to the chosen parameters. That makes the macro facility of this assembler very powerful. While multiline macros in C are an exception, macro definitions in assembler can easily be hundreds of lines.
Operating system macros
Most programs will require services from the operating system, and the OS provides standard macros for requesting those services. These are analogous to Unix system calls. For instance, in MVS (later z/OS), STORAGE (with the OBTAIN parameter) dynamically allocates a block of memory, and GET retrieves the next logical record from a file.
These macros are operating-system-dependent; unlike several higher-level languages, IBM mainframe assembly languages don't provide operating-system-independent statements or libraries to allocate memory, perform I/O operations, and so forth, and different IBM mainframe operating systems are not compatible at the system service level. For example, writing a sequential file would be coded differently in z/OS and in z/VSE.
Examples
The following fragment shows how the logic "If SEX = 'M', add 1 to MALES; else, add 1 to FEMALES" would be performed in assembler.
CLI SEX,C'M' Male?
BNE IS_FEM If not, branch around
L 7,MALES Load current value of MALES into register 7
LA 7,1(7) add 1
ST 7,MALES store back the result
B GO_ON Finished with this portion
IS_FEM EQU * A label
L 7,FEMALES Load current value in FEMALES into register 7
LA 7,1(7) add 1
ST 7,FEMALES store back the result
GO_ON EQU * - rest of program -
*
MALES DC F'0' Counter for MALES (initially=0)
FEMALES DC F'0' Counter for FEMALES (initially=0)
The following is the ubiquitous Hello world program, and would, executing under an IBM operating system such as OS/VS1 or MVS, display the words 'Hello World' on the operator's console:
HELLO CSECT The name of this program is 'HELLO'
* Register 15 points here on entry from OPSYS or caller.
STM 14,12,12(13) Save registers 14,15, and 0 thru 12 in caller's Save area
LR 12,15 Set up base register with program's entry point address
USING HELLO,12 Tell assembler which register we are using for pgm. base
LA 15,SAVE Now Point at our own save area
ST 15,8(13) Set forward chain
ST 13,4(15) Set back chain
LR 13,15 Set R13 to address of new save area
* -end of housekeeping (similar for most programs) -
WTO 'Hello World' Write To Operator (Operating System macro)
*
L 13,4(13) restore address to caller-provided save area
XC 8(4,13),8(13) Clear forward chain
LM 14,12,12(13) Restore registers as on entry
DROP 12 The opposite of 'USING'
SR 15,15 Set register 15 to 0 so that the return code (R15) is Zero
BR 14 Return to caller
*
SAVE DS 18F Define 18 fullwords to save calling program registers
END HELLO This is the end of the program
WTO is an assembler macro that generates an operating system call. Because of saving registers and later restoring and returning, this small program is usable as a batch program invoked directly by the operating system Job control language (JCL) like this:
// EXEC PGM=HELLO
or, alternatively, it can be CALLed as a subroutine from such a program:
CALL 'HELLO'
Versions
With the exception of the assemblers for the IBM System/360 Model 20, the IBM assemblers were largely upward-compatible. The differences were mainly in the complexity of expressions allowed and in macro processing. OS/360 assemblers were originally designated according to their memory requirements.
Basic Programming Support assembler
The assembler for BPS is the true "basic assembler." It was intended to be loaded from cards and would run on an 8 KB System/360 (except Model 20). It has no support for macro instructions or extended mnemonics (such as BH in place of BC 2 to branch if condition code 2 indicates a high compare). It can assemble only a single control section and does not allow dummy sections (structure definitions). Parenthesized expressions are not allowed and expressions are limited to three terms with the only operators being '+', '-', and '*'.
Basic Operating System assembler
The Basic Operating System has two assembler versions. Both require 16 KB memory, one is tape resident and the other disk.
Assembler D
Assembler D was the DOS/360 assembler for machines with a memory size of 16 KB. It came in two versions: A 10 KB variant for machines with the minimum 16 KB memory, and a 14 KB variant for machines with 24 KB. An F-level assembler was also available for DOS machines with 64 KB or more. D assemblers offered nearly all the features of higher versions.
Assembler E and F
Assembler E was designed to run on an OS/360 system with a minimum of 32 KB of main storage, with the assembler itself requiring 15 KB. Assembler F can run under either DOS/360 or OS/360 on a system with a 64 KB memory, with the assembler requiring 44 KB. These assemblers are a standard part of OS/360; the version that was generated was specified at system generation (SYSGEN).
Assembler H
Assembler H runs on OS/360 and successors; it was faster and more powerful than Assembler F, but the macro language was not fully compatible.
Assembler H Version 2 was announced in 1981 and includes support for Extended Architecture (XA), including the AMODE and RMODE directives. It was withdrawn from marketing in 1994 and support ended in 1995. It was replaced by High Level Assembler.
Assembler XF
Assembler XF is a mostly compatible upgrade of Assembler F that includes the new System/370 architecture instructions. This version provides a common assembler for OS/VS, DOS/VS and VM systems. Other changes include relaxing restrictions on expressions and macro processing. Assembler XF requires a minimum partition/region size of 64 KB (virtual). Recommended size is 128 KB.
High Level Assembler
High Level Assembler or HLASM was released in June 1992 replacing IBM's Assembler H Version 2. It was the default translator for System/370 and System/390, and supported the MVS, VSE, and VM operating systems. As of 2023 it is IBM's current assembler programming language for its z/OS, z/VSE, z/VM and z/TPF operating systems on z/Architecture mainframe computers. Release 6 and later also run on Linux, and generate ELF or GOFF object files (this environment is sometimes referred to as Linux on IBM Z). While working at IBM, John Robert Ehrman created and was the lead developer for HLASM and is considered the "father of high level assembler".
Despite the name, HLASM on its own does not have many of the features normally associated with a high-level assembler. The name may come from the additional macro language capabilities, such as the ability to write user-defined functions. The assembler is mostly similar to Assembler H and Assembler(XF), incorporating the SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator) modifications. Among features added were an indication of CSECT/DSECT for location counter, dependent and labelled USING statements, a list of USING statements currently active, an indication of whether a variable is read or written in the cross-reference, and allowing mixed-case symbol names. The RSECT directive (Read-only Control Section) allows the assembler to check reentrancy on a per-section basis. RSECT was previously "undocumented and inconsistently implemented in Assembler H."
High Level Assembler Toolkit
The High Level Assembler Toolkit is a separately priced accompaniment to the High Level Assembler. The toolkit contains:
A set of structured programming macros —
IF/ELSE/ENDIF
DO/ENDDO
STRTSRCH/ORELSE/ENDLOOP/ENDSRCH
CASENTRY/CASE/ENDCASE
SELECT/WHEN/OTHRWISE/ENDSEL.
A disassembler.
A "Program Understanding Tool" (re-engineering aid).
A Source XREF utility (cross-reference facility).
Interactive Debug Facility.
Enhanced SuperC (source comparison tool).
Specialized versions
7090/7094 Support Package assembler
The IBM 7090/7094 Support Package, known as SUPPAK, "consists of three programs designed to permit programs written for a System 360 to be assembled, tested, and executed on an IBM 709, 7090, 7094, or 7094 II."
This cross-assembler runs on a 7090 or 7094 system and was used while System/360 was in development. This assembler supports six-bit BCD character set as well as eight-bit EBCDIC.
IBM System/360 Model 20 assemblers
IBM supplied two assemblers for the Model 20: the Model 20 Basic Assembler, and the Model 20 DPS/TPS Assembler. Both supported only instructions available on the Model 20, including unique instructions CIO, TIO, XIOB, SPSW, BAS, BASR, and HPR. The Basic Assembler is a slightly more restricted version of System/360 Basic Assembler; notably, symbols are restricted to four characters in length. This version is capable of running on a system with 4 KB memory, and macro support is limited to IOCS macros. The card versions are two-pass assemblers that only support card input/output. The tape-resident versions are one-pass, using magnetic tape for intermediate storage. Programs assembled with the CPS Assembler can address a maximum of 16 KB.
The DPS/TPS assembler is a somewhat restricted version of System/360 BPS/BOS Assembler.
IBM System/360 Model 44 PS assembler
The IBM System/360 Model 44 Programming System Assembler processes a language that is a "selected subset" of OS/360 and DOS/360 assembler language.
Most significantly the Model 44 assembler lacks support for macros and continuation statements. On the other hand it has a number of features not found in other System/360 assemblers—notably instructions to update a card image source dataset, named common, and implicit definition of SETA assembler variables.
It has no support for storage-to-storage (SS) instructions or the convert to binary (CVB), convert to decimal (CVD), read direct (RDD) and write direct (WRD) instructions. It does include four instructions unique to the Model 44: Change Priority Mask (CHPM), Load PSW Special (LPSX), Read Direct Word (RDDW), and Write Direct Word (WRDW).
It also includes directives to update the source program, a function performed by utility programs in other systems (SKPTO, REWND, NUM, OMIT and ENDUP).
IBM System/360 TSS assembler
The assembler for the System/360 Model 67 Time Sharing System has a number of differences in directives to support unique TSS features. The PSECT directive generates a Prototype Control Section containing relocatable address constants and modifiable data used by the program.
Assembler G
"Assembler G" is a set of modifications made to Assembler F in the 1970s by the University of Waterloo (Assembler F was/is open source). Enhancements are mostly in better handling of input/output and improved buffering which speed up assemblies considerably. "Assembler G" was never an IBM product.
Non-IBM assemblers
There have been several IBM-compatible assemblers for special environments.
The Univac 90/60, 90/70 and 90/80 series from Unisys was designed to accept IBM-format assembler, as the machine series was a workalike to the S/360 and S/370.
The Fujitsu BS2000 series was also built as a 370 workalike from the same resource as Univac, and is still in use in some parts of Europe.
Dignus LLC Systems/ASM is an HLASM-compatible assembler that can run natively on IBM systems or as a cross-assembler.
Freeware PC/370, written by Don Higgins, was later purchased by Micro Focus.
z390 is an assembler and System 390 emulator also written by Don Higgins and is programmed in Java. It is open source and available from http://www.z390.org/
Penn State University authored a package called ASSIST, which includes a System 370 assembler and interpreter.
Tachyon Software LLC markets the Tachyon Assembler Workbench which runs on Windows, Linux/x86, Linux for S/390 and zSeries, AIX and Solaris.
GNU Assembler (gas) is part of the GNU Compiler Collection (gcc) for Linux on OS/390 and IBM Z. This assembler has a unique syntax that is incompatible with other assemblers for IBM architectures.
Importance
Originally all System/360 operating systems were written in assembler language, and all system interfaces were defined by macro definitions. Access from high-level languages (HLLs) was restricted to what that language supplied, and other system calls had to be coded as assembler subroutines called from HLL programs. Also, IBM allowed customization of OS features by an installation thru what were known as Exits—user-supplied routines that could extend or alter normal OS functions. These exits were required to be coded in assembler language. Later, IBM recoded OS/360 in a systems programming language, PL/S, but, except for a short trial, decided not to release the PL/S compiler to users. As a result of these factors, assembler language saw significant use on IBM systems for many years.
See also
IBM System/360
ASSIST assembler
PC-based IBM-compatible mainframes – list of compatible machines or virtual machines
Disassembler – reverse process of Assembly, reconstructing assembly-like source from machine code
Notes
References
External links
IBM High Level Assembler manual
A Programmer's Introduction to IBM System/360 Assembler Language (Student Text)
High Level Assembler for z/OS & z/VM & z/VSE Language Reference
The Punctilious Programmer: IBM Mainframe Assembler
Basic IBM Mainframe Assembly Language Programming
OS/390 Assembler Programming Introduction (archived)
Web enabled IBM Assembler F compiler for small experiments
ASSIST – Assembler System for Student Instruction & Systems Teaching
Basic assembly language
Assembly languages
Assembly language software
Assembly language Basic |
4321886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battles%20of%20Lexington%20and%20Concord | Battles of Lexington and Concord | The Battles of Lexington and Concord were some of the leading military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present-day Arlington), and Cambridge. They marked the outbreak of armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Patriot militias from America's thirteen colonies.
In late 1774, Colonial leaders adopted the Suffolk Resolves in resistance to the alterations made to the Massachusetts colonial government by the British parliament following the Boston Tea Party. The colonial assembly responded by forming a Patriot provisional government known as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress and calling for local militias to train for possible hostilities. The Colonial government effectively controlled the colony outside of British-controlled Boston. In response, the British government in February 1775 declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion.
About 700 British Army regulars in Boston, under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, were given secret orders to capture and destroy Colonial military supplies reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord. Through effective intelligence gathering, Patriot leaders had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations. On the night before the battle, warning of the British expedition had been rapidly sent from Boston to militias in the area by several riders, including Paul Revere and Samuel Prescott, with information about British plans. The initial mode of the Army's arrival by water was signaled from the Old North Church in Boston to Charlestown using lanterns to communicate "one if by land, two if by sea".
The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington. Eight militiamen were killed, including Ensign Robert Munroe, their third in command. The British suffered only one casualty. The militia was outnumbered and fell back, and the regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they broke apart into companies to search for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord, approximately 400 militiamen engaged 100 regulars from three companies of the King's troops at about 11:00am, resulting in casualties on both sides. The outnumbered regulars fell back from the bridge and rejoined the main body of British forces in Concord.
The British forces began their return march to Boston after completing their search for military supplies, and more militiamen continued to arrive from the neighboring towns. Gunfire erupted again between the two sides and continued throughout the day as the regulars marched back towards Boston. Upon returning to Lexington, Lt. Col. Smith's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy, a future Duke of Northumberland styled at this time by the courtesy title Earl Percy. The combined force of about 1,700 men marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown. The accumulated militias then blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the siege of Boston.
Ralph Waldo Emerson describes the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge in his "Concord Hymn" as the "shot heard round the world".
Background
The British Army's infantry was nicknamed "redcoats" and sometimes "devils" by the colonists. They had occupied Boston since 1768 and had been augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce what the colonists called The Intolerable Acts of 1774, which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish the Province of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of protest.
General Thomas Gage was the military governor of Massachusetts and commander-in-chief of the roughly 3,000 British military forces garrisoned in Boston. He had no control over Massachusetts outside of Boston, however, where the implementation of the Acts had increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the pro-British Tory minority. Gage's plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from Whig militias using small, secret, and rapid strikes. This struggle for supplies led to one British success and several Patriot successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as governor of the colony and as general of an occupying force. Edmund Burke described Gage's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery."
The colonists had been forming militias since the very beginnings of Colonial settlement for the purpose of defense against Indian attacks. These forces also saw action in the French and Indian War between 1754 and 1763 when they fought alongside British regulars. Under the laws of each New England colony, all towns were obligated to form militia companies composed of all males 16 years of age and older (there were exemptions for some categories) and to ensure that the members were properly armed. The Massachusetts militias were formally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government, but militia companies throughout New England elected their own officers. Gage effectively dissolved the provincial government under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act, and these existing connections were employed by the colonists under the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the military threat from Britain.
British government preparations
A February 1775 address to King George III, by both houses of Parliament, declared that a state of rebellion existed:
On April 14, 1775, Gage received instructions from Secretary of State William Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, to disarm the rebels and to imprison the rebellion's leaders, but Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in his commands. Gage's decision to act promptly may have been influenced by the information he received on April 15, from a spy within the Provincial Congress, telling him that although the Congress was still divided on the need for armed resistance, delegates were being sent to the other New England colonies to see if they would cooperate in raising a New England army of 18,000 colonial soldiers.
On the morning of April 18, Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about 20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment of Foot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who might be out on horseback. This patrol behaved differently from patrols sent out from Boston in the past, staying out after dark and asking travelers about the location of Samuel Adams and John Hancock. This had the unintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing their preparedness. The Lexington militia, in particular, began to muster early that evening, hours before receiving any word from Boston. A well-known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer, Josiah Nelson, mistook the British patrol for the colonists and asked them, "Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out?" upon which he was slashed on his scalp with a sword. However, the story of this incident was not published until over a century later, which suggests that it may be a family myth.
Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that he was not to read them until his troops were underway. He was to proceed from Boston "with utmost expedition and secrecy to Concord, where you will seize and destroy ... all Military stores ... But you will take care that the soldiers do not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property." Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders for the arrest of rebel leaders, as he feared doing so might spark an uprising.
American preparations
On March 30, 1775, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress issued the following resolution:
The rebellion's leaders—with the exception of Paul Revere and Joseph Warren—had all left Boston by April 8. They had received word of Dartmouth's secret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before they reached Gage himself. Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home of one of Hancock's relatives, Jonas Clarke, where they thought they would be safe from the immediate threat of arrest.
The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons, powder, and supplies at Concord and much further west in Worcester. An expedition from Boston to Concord was widely anticipated. After a large contingent of regulars alarmed the countryside by an expedition from Boston to Watertown on March 30, The Pennsylvania Journal, a newspaper in Philadelphia, reported, "It was supposed they were going to Concord, where the Provincial Congress is now sitting. A quantity of provisions and warlike stores are lodged there. ... It is ... said they are intending to go out again soon."
On April 18, Paul Revere began the "midnight ride" to Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning an expedition. The ride was finished by Samuel Prescott. Upon hearing Prescott's news, the townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute them among other towns nearby.
The colonists were also aware that April 19 would be the date of the expedition, despite Gage's efforts to keep the details hidden from all the British rank and file and even from the officers who would command the mission. There is reasonable speculation that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage, General Gage's New Jersey-born wife, who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship with Warren.
Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18, 1775, Joseph Warren told Revere and William Dawes that the British troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington and Concord. Warren's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars' movements later that night would be the capture of Adams and Hancock. They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching to Concord, since the supplies at Concord were safe, but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of the potential danger that night. Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearby towns.
Militia forces assemble
Dawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington. Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown using lanterns hung in the steeple of Boston's Old North Church. He then traveled the northern water route, crossing the mouth of the Charles River by rowboat, slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor. Crossings were banned at that hour, but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode west to Lexington, warning almost every house along the route. Additional riders were sent north from Charlestown.
After they arrived in Lexington, Revere, Dawes, Hancock, and Adams discussed the situation with the militia assembling there. They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two men and that Concord was the main target. The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns, and Revere and Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott. In Lincoln, they ran into the British patrol led by Major Mitchell. Revere was captured, Dawes was thrown from his horse, and only Prescott escaped to reach Concord. Additional riders were sent out from Concord.
The ride of Revere, Dawes, and Prescott triggered a flexible system of "alarm and muster" that had been carefully developed months before, in reaction to the colonists' impotent response to the Powder Alarm. This system was an improved version of an old notification network for use in times of emergency. The colonists had periodically used it during the early years of Indian wars in the colony before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War. In addition to other express riders delivering messages, bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town, notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because over 500 regulars were leaving Boston. This system was so effective that people in towns from Boston were aware of the army's movements while they were still unloading boats in Cambridge. These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient number of colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day. Adams and Hancock were eventually moved to safety, first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica.
British forces advance
Around dusk, General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House. He informed them that instructions from Lord Dartmouth had arrived, ordering him to take action against the colonials. He also told them that the senior colonel of his regiments, Lieutenant Colonel Smith, would command, with Major John Pitcairn as his executive officer. The meeting adjourned around 8:30 pm, after which Earl Percy mingled with town folk on Boston Common. According to one account, the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of the British soldiers in the town. When Percy questioned one man further, the man replied, "Well, the regulars will miss their aim."
"What aim?" asked Percy. "Why, the cannon at Concord" was the reply. Upon hearing this, Percy quickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage. Stunned, Gage issued orders to prevent messengers from getting out of Boston, but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere from leaving.
The British regulars, around 700 infantry, were drawn from 11 of Gage's 13 occupying infantry regiments. Major Pitcairn commanded ten elite light infantry companies, and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11 grenadier companies, under the overall command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith.
Of the troops assigned to the expedition, 350 were from grenadier companies drawn from the 4th (King's Own), 5th, 10th, 18th (Royal Irish), 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments of Foot, and the 1st Battalion of His Majesty's Marine Forces. Protecting the grenadier companies were about 320 light infantry from the 4th, 5th, 10th, 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd, and 59th Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of the Marines. Each company had its own lieutenant, but the majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute, drawn from all the regiments stationed in Boston. This lack of familiarity between commander and company would cause problems during the battle.
The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water's edge on the western end of Boston Common by 10 pm. Colonel Smith was late in arriving, and there was no organized boat-loading operation, resulting in confusion at the staging area. The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightly that there was no room to sit down. When they disembarked near Phipps Farm in Cambridge, it was into waist-deep water at midnight. After a lengthy halt to unload their gear, the regulars began their march to Concord at about 2 am. During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition, cold salt pork, and hard sea biscuits. They did not carry knapsacks, since they would not be encamped. They carried their haversacks (food bags), canteens, muskets, and accoutrements, and marched off in wet, muddy shoes and soggy uniforms. As they marched through Menotomy, sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers who were aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise.
At about 3 am, Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord. At about 4 am Smith made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements.
Order of Battle
Continentals
The continental force included some 4,000 militia and local minuteman companies. Although the Provincial Congress had organized local companies into regiments and brigades with designated commanders, units turned out piecemeal over the course of the day. Thirty towns from the surrounding area sent men into combat with many more on the way. By afternoon, many regimental commands were fundamentally present and acting in a coordinated manner. Several provincial generals were en route to the fighting during the day but not in a position to assert overall command. General William Heath of Roxbury, Massachusetts exerted command of a phase of the fighting toward the day's end.
British Forces
The British force was organized into:
Column
Commander, Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith
Supernumeraries (6 Officers)
Mitchell's Party (8+ Officers)
Flank Companies (Grenadiers and Light Infantry) from:
4th (The King's Own) Regiment of Foot
5th Regiment of Foot
10th Regiment of Foot
18th (The Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot (Grenadiers only)
23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers)
38th Regiment of Foot
43rd Regiment of Foot
47th Regiment of Foot
52nd Regiment of Foot
59th Regiment of Foot
1st Battalion, Royal Marines
Relief Force
Commander, Brigadier General His Grace Hugh Percy, 2nd Duke of Northumberland
2 6-pounder guns from 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
Battalion Companies from (7 regular companies, these did not include the flank companies):
4th (The King's Own) Regiment of Foot
23rd Regiment of Foot (Royal Welch Fusiliers)
47th Regiment of Foot
1st Battalion, Royal Marines
Battles
Lexington
Although often styled a battle, in reality, the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish. As the regulars' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19, 1775, about 80 Lexington militiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on Lexington common watching them, and between 40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road. Their leader was Captain John Parker, a veteran of the French and Indian War, who had developed tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear. Of the militiamen who lined up, nine had the surname Harrington, seven Munroe (including the company's orderly sergeant, William Munroe), four Parker, three Tidd, three Locke, and three Reed; fully one-quarter of them were related to Captain Parker in some way. This group of militiamen was part of Lexington's "training band", a way of organizing local militias dating back to the Puritans, and not what was styled a minuteman company.
After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops (and wondering if Paul Revere's warning was true), at about 4:15 a.m., Parker got his confirmation. Thaddeus Bowman, the last scout that Parker had sent out, rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming but coming in force and they were close. Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice his men for no purpose. He knew that most of the colonists' powder and military supplies at Concord had already been hidden. No war had been declared. (The Declaration of Independence was more than fourteen months in the future.) He also knew the British had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts, found nothing, and marched back to Boston.
Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again. The Regulars would march to Concord, find nothing, and return to Boston, tired but empty-handed. He positioned his company carefully. He placed them in parade-ground formation, on Lexington Common. They were in plain sight (not hiding behind walls), but not blocking the road to Concord. They made a show of political and military determination, but no effort to prevent the march of the Regulars. Many years later, one of the participants recalled Parker's words as being what is now engraved in stone at the site of the battle: "Stand your ground; don't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here." According to Parker's sworn deposition taken after the battle:
Rather than turn left towards Concord, Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair, at the head of the advance guard, decided on his own to protect the flank of the British column by first turning right and then leading the companies onto the Common itself, in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia. Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them. The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston.
First shot
A British officer (probably Pitcairn, but accounts are uncertain, as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland) then rode forward, waving his sword, and called out for the assembled militia to disperse, and may also have ordered them to "lay down your arms, you damned rebels!" Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home, but, because of the confusion, the yelling all around, and due to the raspiness of Parker's tubercular voice, some did not hear him, some left very slowly, and none laid down their arms. Both Parker and Pitcairn ordered their men to hold fire, but a shot was fired from an unknown source.
According to one member of Parker's militia, none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced the oncoming British troops. The British did suffer one casualty, a slight wound, the particulars of which were corroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe. Munroe stated that:
Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge or around the corner of a tavern. Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first. Both sides generally agreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other. Speculation arose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behind a wall, but this has been discredited. Some witnesses (on each side) claimed that someone on the other side fired first; however, many more witnesses claimed to not know. Yet another theory is that the first shot was fired by the British, one which killed Asahel Porter, their prisoner who was running away (he had been told to walk away and he would be let go, though he panicked and began to run). Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there may actually have been multiple near-simultaneous shots.
Historian Mark Urban said that after telling them to disperse,
Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began to fire volleys without receiving orders to do so. A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were only firing powder with no ball, but when they realized the truth, few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire. The rest ran for their lives.
The regulars then charged forward with bayonets. Captain Parker's cousin, Jonas, was run through. Eight Lexington men were killed, and ten were wounded. The only British casualty was a soldier who was wounded in the thigh. The eight colonists killed were John Brown, Samuel Hadley, Caleb Harrington, Jonathon Harrington, Robert Munroe, Isaac Muzzey, Asahel Porter, and Jonas Parker. Jonathon Harrington, fatally wounded by a British musket ball, managed to crawl back to his home, and died on his own doorstep. One wounded man, Prince Estabrook, was a black slave who was serving in the militia.
The companies under Pitcairn's command got beyond their officers' control in part because they were unaware of the actual purpose of the day's mission. They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes. Colonel Smith, who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars, heard the musket fire and rode forward from the grenadier column to see the action. He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly. The grenadiers arrived shortly thereafter, and once order was restored among the soldiers, the light infantry was permitted to fire a victory volley, after which the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord.
Concord
In response to the raised alarm, the militiamen of Concord and Lincoln had mustered in Concord. They received reports of firing at Lexington and were not sure whether to wait until they could be reinforced by troops from towns nearby, or to stay and defend the town, or to move east and greet the British Army from superior terrain. A column of militia marched down the road toward Lexington to meet the British, traveling about until they met the approaching column of regulars. As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at this time only numbered about 250, the militia column turned around and marched back into Concord, preceding the regulars by a distance of about . The militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town, and their officers discussed what to do next. Caution prevailed, and Colonel James Barrett withdrew from the center of town and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about a mile north, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the town center. This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companies arriving from the western towns joined them there.
Search for militia supplies
When the British troops arrived in the village of Concord, Lt. Col. Smith divided them to carry out Gage's orders. The 10th Regiment's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole, while seven companies of light infantry under Captain Parsons, numbering about 100, secured the North Bridge, where they were visible across the cleared fields to the assembling militia companies. Captain Parsons took four companies from the 5th, 23rd, 38th, and 52nd Regiments up the road beyond the North Bridge to search Barrett's Farm, where intelligence indicated supplies would be found. Two companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments were stationed to guard their return route, and one company from the 43rd remained to guard the bridge itself. These companies, which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie, were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400-plus militiamen. The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Lt. Col. Smith requesting reinforcements.
Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies, the grenadier companies searched the small town for military supplies. When they arrived at Ephraim Jones's tavern, by the jail on the South Bridge road, they found the door barred shut, and Jones refused them entry. According to reports provided by local Loyalists, Pitcairn knew cannon had been buried on the property. Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried. These turned out to be three massive pieces, firing 24-pound shot, that were much too heavy to use defensively, but very effective against fortifications, with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland. The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted. They also burned some gun carriages found in the village meetinghouse, and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself, local resident Martha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building. Nearly a hundred barrels of flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond, as were 550 pounds of musket balls. Of the damage done, only that done to the cannon was significant. All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the British left. During the search, the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals, including paying for food and drink consumed. This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals, who were able to misdirect searches from several smaller caches of militia supplies.
Barrett's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before, but few weapons remained now, and according to family legend, these were quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted. The troops sent there did not find any supplies of consequence.
North Bridge
Colonel Barrett's troops, upon seeing smoke rising from the village square as the British burned cannon carriages, and seeing only a few light infantry companies directly below them, decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about from the North Bridge. As the militia advanced, the two British companies from the 4th and 10th Regiments that held the position near the road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett's men.
Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from Acton, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more groups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90–95 men. Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two abreast on the highway leading down to the bridge, and then he called for another consultation. While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill, Barrett, Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford and the other captains discussed a possible advance on the bridge. Barrett asked Captain Isaac Davis, who commanded a company of Minutemen from Acton, if his company would be willing to lead the advance. Davis responded, "I'm not afraid to go, and I haven't a man that's afraid to go."
Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance. Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge. The Minutemen and militia from Concord, Acton, Lincoln and a handful of Westford Minutemen, advanced in column formation, two by two, led by Major Buttrick, Lt. Col. Robinson, then Capt. Davis, on the light infantry, keeping to the road, since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.
Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision. Since his summons for help had not produced any results, he ordered his men to form positions for "street firing" behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river. This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city, but not for an open path behind a bridge. Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up in the street-firing position of the other troops. Lieutenant Sutherland, who was in the rear of the formation, saw Laurie's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out. But as he was from a company different from the men under his command, only three soldiers obeyed him. The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow the orders of the superior officer.
A shot rang out. It was likely a warning shot fired by a panicked, exhausted British soldier from the 43rd, according to Captain Laurie's report to his commander after the fight. Two other regulars then fired immediately after that, shots splashing in the river, and then the narrow group up front, possibly thinking the order to fire had been given, fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stop them.
Two of the Acton Minutemen, Private Abner Hosmer and Captain Isaac Davis, who were at the head of the line marching to the bridge, were hit and killed instantly. Rev. Dr. Ripley recalled:
Four more men were wounded. Major Buttrick then yelled to the militia, "Fire, for God's sake, fellow soldiers, fire!" At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge, and were only apart. The few front rows of colonists, bound by the road and blocked from forming a line of fire, managed to fire over each other's heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge. Four of the eight British officers and sergeants, who were leading from the front of their troops, were wounded by the volley of musket fire. At least three privates (Thomas Smith, Patrick Gray, and James Hall, all from the 4th) were killed or mortally wounded, and nine were wounded. In 1824, Reverend and Minuteman Joseph Thaxter wrote:
The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered. Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy, with their spirit broken, and likely not having experienced combat before, they abandoned their wounded, and fled to the safety of the approaching grenadier companies coming from the town center, isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for arms at Barrett's Farm.
After the fight
The colonists were stunned by their success. No one had actually believed either side would shoot to kill the other. Some advanced; many more retreated; and some went home to see to the safety of their homes and families. Colonel Barrett eventually began to recover control. He moved some of the militia back to the hilltop away and sent Major Buttrick with others across the bridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall.
Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in the town moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie. He quickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridge himself. As these troops marched, they met the shattered remnants of the three light infantry companies running towards them. Smith was concerned about the four companies that had been at Barrett's since their route to town was now unprotected. When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall, he halted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take a closer look. One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed, "If we had fired, I believe we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front, but we had no orders to fire and there wasn't a gun fired." During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes, a mentally ill local man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider.
At this point, the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area. They passed through the now mostly-deserted battlefield and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge. There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped, which angered and shocked the British soldiers. They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11:30 a.m., under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued to maintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town, ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston.
Return march
Concord to Lexington
Lieutenant Colonel Smith, concerned about the safety of his men, sent flankers to follow a ridge and protect his forces from the roughly 1,000 colonials now in the field as the British marched east out of Concord. This ridge ended near Meriam's Corner, a crossroads about a mile (2 km) outside the village of Concord, where the main road came to a bridge across Elm Brook, a tributary of Mill Brook. To cross the narrow bridge, the British had to pull the flankers back into the main column and close ranks to a mere three soldiers abreast. Colonial militia companies arriving from the north and east had converged at this point and held a clear numerical advantage over the regulars. The British were now witnessing once again what General Gage had hoped to avoid by dispatching the expedition in secrecy and in the dark of night: the ability of the colonial militiamen to rise and converge by the thousands when British forces ventured out of Boston. As the last of the British column marched over the narrow bridge, the British rear guard wheeled and fired a volley at the colonial militiamen, who had been firing irregularly and ineffectively from a distance but now had closed to within musket range. The colonists returned fire, this time with deadly effect. Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded, with no colonial casualties. Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge.
On Brooks Hill (also known as Hardy's Hill) about past Meriam's Corner, nearly 500 militiamen had assembled to the south of the road, awaiting an opportunity to fire down upon the British column on the road below. Smith's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off, but the colonists did not withdraw, inflicting significant casualties on the attackers. Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill, and the column continued on to another small bridge into Lincoln, at Brooks Tavern, where more militia companies intensified the attack from the north side of the road.
The regulars soon reached a point in the road, now referred to as the "Bloody Angle", where the road rises and curves sharply to the left through a lightly wooded area. At this place, the militia company from Woburn had positioned themselves on the southeast side of the bend in the road in a rocky, lightly wooded field. Additional militia flowing parallel to the road from the engagement at Meriam's Corner positioned themselves on the northwest side of the road, catching the British in a crossfire, while other militia companies on the road closed from behind to attack. Some further along, the road took another sharp curve, this time to the right, and again the British column was caught by another large force of militiamen firing from both sides. In passing through these two sharp curves, the British force lost thirty soldiers killed or wounded, and four colonial militia were also killed, including Captain Jonathan Wilson of Bedford, Captain Nathan Wyman of Billerica, Lt. John Bacon of Natick, and Daniel Thompson of Woburn. The British soldiers escaped by breaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the woods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount more than a harassing attack from the rear.
As militia forces from other towns continued to arrive, the colonial forces had risen to about 2,000 men. The road now straightened to the east, with cleared fields and orchards along the sides. Lt. Col. Smith sent out flankers again, who succeeded in trapping some militia from behind and inflicting casualties. British casualties were also mounting from these engagements and from persistent long-range fire from the militiamen, and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition.
When the British column neared the boundary between Lincoln and Lexington, it encountered another ambush from a hill overlooking the road, set by Captain John Parker's Lexington militiamen, including some of them bandaged up from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day. At this point, Lt. Col. Smith was wounded in the thigh and knocked from his horse. Major John Pitcairn assumed effective command of the column and sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear the militia forces.
The light infantry cleared two additional hills as the column continued east—"The Bluff" and "Fiske Hill"— and took still more casualties from ambushes set by fresh militia companies joining the battle. In one of the musket volleys from the colonial soldiers, Major Pitcairn's horse bolted in fright, throwing Pitcairn to the ground and injuring his arm. Now both principal leaders of the expedition were injured or unhorsed, and their men were tired, thirsty, and exhausting their ammunition. A few surrendered or were captured; some now broke formation and ran forward toward Lexington. In the words of one British officer, "we began to run rather than retreat in order. ... We attempted to stop the men and form them two deep, but to no purpose, the confusion increased rather than lessened. ... the officers got to the front and presented their bayonets, and told the men if they advanced they should die. Upon this, they began to form up under heavy fire."
Only one British officer remained uninjured among the three companies at the head of the British column as it approached Lexington Center. He understood the column's perilous situation: "There were very few men had any ammunition left, and so fatigued that we could not keep flanking parties out, so that we must soon have laid down our arms, or been picked off by the Rebels at their pleasure—nearer to—and we were not able to keep them off." He then heard cheering further ahead. A full brigade, about 1,000 men with artillery under the command of Earl Percy, had arrived to rescue them. It was about 2:30 p.m., and the British column had now been on the march since 2 o'clock in the morning. Westford Minuteman, Rev. Joseph Thaxter, wrote of his account:
In their accounts afterward, British officers and soldiers alike noted their frustration that the colonial militiamen fired at them from behind trees and stone walls, rather than confronting them in large, linear formations in the style of European warfare. This image of the individual colonial farmer, musket in hand and fighting under his own command, has also been fostered in American myth: "Chasing the red-coats down the lane / Then crossing the fields to emerge again / Under the trees at the turn of the road, / And only pausing to fire and load." To the contrary, beginning at the North Bridge and throughout the British retreat, the colonial militias repeatedly operated as coordinated companies, even when dispersed to take advantage of cover. Reflecting on the British experience that day, Earl Percy understood the significance of the American tactics:
Percy's rescue
General Gage had anticipated that Lt. Col. Smith's expedition might require reinforcement, so Gage drafted orders for reinforcing units to assemble in Boston at 4 a.m. But in his obsession for secrecy, Gage had sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade, whose servant then left the envelope on a table. Also at about 4 a.m., the British column was within three miles of Lexington, and Lt. Col. Smith now had a clear indication that all element of surprise had been lost and that alarm was spreading throughout the countryside. So he sent a rider back to Boston with a request for reinforcements. At about 5 a.m., the rider reached Boston, and the 1st Brigade was ordered to assemble: the line infantry companies of the 4th, 23rd, and 47th Regiments, and a battalion of Royal Marines, under the command of Earl Percy. Unfortunately for the British, once again only one copy of the orders was sent to each commander, and the order for the Royal Marines was delivered to the desk of Major John Pitcairn, who was already on the Lexington Common with Smith's column at that hour. After these delays, Percy's brigade, about 1,000 strong, left Boston at about 8:45 a.m., headed toward Lexington. Along the way, the story is told, they marched to the tune of "Yankee Doodle" to taunt the inhabitants of the area. By the Battle of Bunker Hill less than two months later, the song would become a popular anthem for the colonial forces.
Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge, which some quick-thinking colonists had stripped of its planking to delay the British. His men then came upon an absent-minded tutor at Harvard College and asked him which road would take them to Lexington. The Harvard man, apparently oblivious to the reality of what was happening around him, showed him the proper road without thinking. (He was later compelled to leave the country for inadvertently supporting the enemy.) Percy's troops arrived in Lexington at about 2:00 p.m. They could hear gunfire in the distance as they set up their cannon and deployed lines of regulars on high ground with commanding views of the town. Colonel Smith's men approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them. Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range, dispersing the colonial militiamen. Smith's men collapsed with exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy's lines.
Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance, Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for the two artillery pieces they brought with them, thinking the extra wagons would slow him down. Each man in Percy's brigade had only 36 rounds, and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side-boxes. After Percy had left the city, Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men to follow. This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older, veteran militiamen still on the "alarm list", who could not join their militia companies because they were well over 60 years of age. These men rose up in ambush and demanded the surrender of the wagons, but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on. The old men opened fire, shot the lead horses, killed two sergeants, and wounded the officer. The British survivors ran, and six of them threw their weapons into a pond before they surrendered.
Lexington to Menotomy
Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1,700 men and let them rest, eat, drink, and have their wounds tended at field headquarters (Munroe Tavern) before resuming the march. They set out from Lexington at about 3:30 p.m., in a formation that emphasized defense along the sides and rear of the column. Wounded regulars rode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired at by gatherings of militia. Percy's men were often surrounded, but they had the tactical advantage of interior lines. Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed, while the colonial militia was required to move around the outside of his formation. Percy placed Smith's men in the middle of the column, while the 23rd Regiment's line companies made up the column's rearguard. Because of information provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking, Percy ordered the rear guard to be rotated every mile or so, to allow some of his troops to rest briefly. Flanking companies were sent to both sides of the road, and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead.
During the respite at Lexington, Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia. Earlier in the day, he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren, who had left Boston that morning, and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Heath and Warren reacted to Percy's artillery and flankers by ordering the militiamen to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire. Instead, they surrounded Percy's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties at minimum risk.
A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount, fire muskets at the approaching regulars, then remount and gallop ahead to repeat the tactic. The unmounted militia would often fire from long range, in the hope of hitting somebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving, since both British and colonials used muskets with an effective combat range of about . Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of the British column. When it moved out of range, those units would move around and forward to re-engage the column further down the road. Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units, directing them to appropriate places along the road to engage the regulars. Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming the militia. Heath and Warren led skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves, but it was the presence of effective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics.
The fighting grew more intense as Percy's forces crossed from Lexington into Menotomy. Fresh militia poured gunfire into the British ranks from a distance, and individual homeowners began to fight from their own property. Marksmen were also concealed in some homes, forcing the British to clear their path of retreat house by house, a soldier's nightmare. Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him to defend his house by saying, "An Englishman's home is his castle." He stayed and was killed in his doorway. His friends, depending on which account is to be believed, either hid in the cellar or died in the house from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers who followed them in. The Jason Russell House still stands and contains bullet holes from this fight. A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell's orchard was caught by flankers, and eleven men were killed, some allegedly after they had surrendered.
Percy lost control of his men, and many regulars began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping at the North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant, often unseen enemy. Based on the word of Pitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith's command, Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stone walls, trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at the column. He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places.
Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted, enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings. For example, two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day's events. Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda value (and to get financial compensation from the colonial government), it is certainly true that taverns along the road were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops, who in some cases became drunk themselves. One church's communion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston. Aged Menotomy resident Samuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead. (He recovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98.) All told, far more blood was shed in Menotomy and Cambridge than elsewhere that day. The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there, and the British lost 40 killed and 80 wounded, with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties. Each was about half the day's fatalities.
Menotomy to Charlestown
The British troops crossed the Menotomy River (today known as Alewife Brook) into Cambridge, and the fight grew more intense. Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation, and Percy used his two artillery pieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them.
Earlier in the day, Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled. Percy's brigade was about to approach the broken-down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track (now Beech Street, near present-day Porter Square) and onto the road to Charlestown. The militia (now numbering about 4,000) were unprepared for this movement, and the circle of fire was broken. An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill (in modern-day Somerville), which dominated the road, but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed them with his last rounds of ammunition.
A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead. They might have cut off Percy's route to Charlestown, but these men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape. Some accused the commander of this force, Colonel Timothy Pickering, of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventing a total defeat of the regulars. Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath's orders, but Heath denied this. It was nearly dark when Pitcairn's Marines defended a final attack on Percy's rear as they entered Charlestown. The regulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown. Some of them had been without sleep for two days and had marched in 21 hours, eight hours of which had been spent under fire. But now they held high ground protected by heavy guns from HMS Somerset. Gage quickly sent over line companies of two fresh regiments—the 10th and 64th—to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications. Although they were begun, the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works built two months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill. General Heath studied the position of the British Army and decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge.
Aftermath
In the morning, Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army, numbering over 15,000, which had marched from throughout New England. Unlike the Powder Alarm, the rumors of spilled blood were true, and the Revolutionary War had begun. Now under the leadership of General Artemas Ward, who arrived on the 20th and replaced Brigadier General William Heath, they formed a siege line extending from Chelsea, around the peninsulas of Boston and Charlestown, to Roxbury, effectively surrounding Boston on three sides. In the days immediately following, the size of the colonial forces grew, as militias from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut arrived on the scene. The Second Continental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army. Even now, after open warfare had started, Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston. He persuaded the town's selectmen to surrender all private weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town.
The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties. However, in terms of supporting the British political strategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms, the battle was a significant failure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent, and because few weapons were actually seized.
The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion. Within four days of the battle, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners. When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London, the Provincial Congress sent a packet of these detailed depositions, signed by over 100 participants in the events, on a faster ship. The documents were presented to a sympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage's report arrived. Gage's official report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone's opinion. George Germain, no friend of the colonists, wrote, "the Bostonians are in the right to make the King's troops the aggressors and claim a victory". Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions. The British troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington and Concord.
The day after the battle, John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields. He became convinced that "the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed". Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of the argument between the colonies and the Home Country as "a kind of law-suit", but after news of the battle reached him, he "rejected the hardened, sullen-tempered Pharaoh of England forever". George Washington received the news at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend, "the once-happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?" A group of hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June. It eventually became the city of Lexington, Kentucky.
Legacy
It was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence be maintained for this first battle of the war. The history of Patriot preparations, intelligence, warning signals, and uncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades. The story of the wounded British soldier at the North Bridge, hors de combat, struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet, the purported "scalping", was strongly suppressed. Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not published and were returned to the participants (this notably happened to Paul Revere). Paintings portrayed the Lexington fight as an unjustified slaughter.
The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century. For example, older participants' testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775. All now said the British fired first at Lexington, whereas fifty or so years before, they weren't sure. All now said they fired back, but in 1775, they said few were able to. The "Battle" took on an almost mythical quality in the American consciousness. Legend became more important than truth. A complete shift occurred, and the Patriots were portrayed as actively fighting for their cause, rather than as suffering innocents. Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began to portray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance.
Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 "Concord Hymn". The "Concord Hymn" became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution, and that for much of the 19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution, helping to forge the identity of the nation.
After 1860, several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "Paul Revere's Ride". Historically it is inaccurate (for example, Paul Revere never made it to Concord), but it captures the idea that an individual can change the course of history.
In the 20th century, popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day, often reflecting the political mood of the time. Isolationist anti-war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature of Paul Revere's contribution (if any) to the efforts to rouse the militia. Anglophilia in the United States after the turn of the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle. During World War I, a film about Paul Revere's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the United States and Britain.
During the Cold War, Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol, but also as a capitalist one. In 1961, novelist Howard Fast published April Morning, an account of the battle from a fictional 15-year-old's perspective, and reading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools. A film version was produced for television in 1987, starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones. In the 1990s, parallels were drawn between American tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord.
The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark. Several memorials commemorating the battle have been established there.
The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord, as well as approximately of the road along with surrounding lands and period buildings between Meriam's Corner and western Lexington are part of Minute Man National Historical Park. There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that the colonists might have used that skirted the road, and the Park Service often has personnel (usually dressed in period dress) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day. A bronze bas relief of Major Buttrick, designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915, is in the park, along with French's Minute Man statue. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have saved one acre of the battlefield at the site of Parker's Revenge.
Four current units of the Massachusetts National Guard units (181st Infantry, 182nd Infantry, 101st Engineer Battalion, and 125th Quartermaster Company) are derived from American units that participated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord. There are only thirty current units of the U.S. Army with colonial roots.
Several ships of the United States Navy, including two World War II aircraft carriers, were named in honor of the Battle of Lexington.
Commemorations
Patriots' Day, an observed legal holiday is celebrated annually in honor of the battle in Massachusetts. It is recognized by that state, as well as by Connecticut, Maine, and by the Wisconsin public schools, on the third Monday in April. Re-enactments of Paul Revere's ride are staged, as are the battle on the Lexington Green, and ceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge.
Centennial commemoration
On April 19, 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant and members of his cabinet joined 50,000 people to mark the 100th anniversary of the battles. The sculpture by Daniel Chester French, The Minute Man, located at the North Bridge, was unveiled on that day. A formal ball took place in the evening at the Agricultural Hall in Concord.
Sesquicentennial commemoration
In April 1925, the United States Post Office issued three stamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Battles at Lexington and Concord. The Lexington—Concord commemorative stamps were the first of many commemoratives issued to honor the 150th anniversaries of events that surrounded America's War of Independence. The three stamps were first placed on sale in Washington, D.C., and in five Massachusetts cities and towns that played major roles in the Lexington and Concord story: Lexington, Concord, Boston, Cambridge, and Concord Junction (as West Concord was then known). This is not to say that other locations were not involved in the battles.
The events were also commemorated on the 1925 Lexington-Concord Sesquicentennial half dollar.
Bicentennial commemoration
The Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government, the military, the diplomatic corps, the arts, sciences, and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles. On April 19, 1975, as a crowd estimated at 110,000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial in Concord, President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge, which was televised to the nation.
President Ford laid a wreath at the base of The Minute Man statue and then respectfully observed as Sir Peter Ramsbotham, the British Ambassador to the United States, laid a wreath at the grave of British soldiers killed in the battle.
See also
List of American Revolutionary War battles
American Revolutionary War#Early engagements
Westminster Massacre
Notes
References
This book is extensively footnoted, and contains a voluminous list of primary resources concerning all aspects of these events.
Galvin, Gen. John R. The Minute Men: The First Fight: Myths & Realities of the American Revolution, Pergamon-Brassey's, Washington, D.C., 1989. . This book provides a military perspective on the battle and its leaders.
Raphael, Ray and Marie Raphael (2015). The Spirit of '74: How the American Revolution Began. New York: New Press.
Further reading
Greenwalt, Phillip S., and Robert Orrison. A Single Blow: The Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Beginning of the American Revolution, April 19, 1775. Emerging Revolutionary War Series. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2018. .
Newspaper articles published near the time of the battles
— Massachusetts Provincial Congress resolution to put the colony into "a complete state of defense"
— John Hancock calling Massachusetts Provincial Congress to assemble, in view of "intelligence received from the last vessels from Great Britain", and related occurrences.
— An early description of the battles and recited troop strengths and initial casualty reports.
External links
National Park Service site for Minute Man National Historical Park
Buckman Tavern – Lexington Historical Society
Why We Remember Lexington and Concord and the 19th of April
Rescued cannon returns to Concord
Battles of Lexington and Concord
Articles about the Concord Fight in Concord Magazine
Animated History of the Battles of Lexington and Concord
Concord Massachusetts
Merriam's Corner
Lexington Alarm Letter at Van Gorden-Williams Library & Archives
Facts and figures on Acton, Bedford, Concord and Lexington of the period, including the rosters of the towns' Minute Men and Militia
Statements of American combatants at Lexington and Concord contained in supplement "Official Papers Concerning the Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord" to The Military Journals of Private Soldiers, 1758–1775, by Abraham Tomlinson for the Poughkeepsie, NY, museum, 1855.
1775 in the Thirteen Colonies
Conflicts in 1775
Lexington and Concord
Lexington and Concord
Lexington
Concord, Massachusetts
Lexington, Massachusetts
Arlington, Massachusetts
Lincoln, Massachusetts
History of Cambridge, Massachusetts
History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts
1775 in the Province of Massachusetts Bay
Military history of New England
Lexington |
4322063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon%20Maemi | Typhoon Maemi | Typhoon Maemi () or (), known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pogi, was the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea since record-keeping began in the country in 1904. Maemi formed on September 4, 2003 from a disturbance in a monsoon trough in the western Pacific Ocean. It slowly intensified into Tropical Storm Maemi while moving northwestward, becoming a typhoon on September 8. That day, favorable conditions facilitated more rapid strengthening; the storm developed a well-defined eye and reached peak maximum sustained winds of . While near peak intensity, Maemi decelerated and began turning to the north-northeast. Soon after, the eyewall passed over the Japanese island of Miyako-jima on September 10 and produced an air pressure reading of , the fourth-lowest recorded in the nation. Due to warm waters, Maemi was able to maintain much of its intensity before it made landfall just west of Busan, South Korea, on September 12. The typhoon became extratropical in the Sea of Japan the next day, although its remnants persisted for several days, lashing northern Japan with strong winds.
The typhoon first affected the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. On Miyako-jima, strong winds damaged 104 buildings and left 95% of residents without power. Maemi caused heavy rainfall there, with rates of in an hour and in 24 hours, the latter setting a record. One person died on Miyako-jima after being struck by airborne debris. Elsewhere in Japan, the storm caused flights to be canceled, and rainfall-induced landslides blocked roads. There were two other deaths in Japan, and damage totaled ¥11.3 billion yen (JPY, $96 million USD). Damage was heaviest in South Korea, particularly where it moved ashore. On Jeju Island, Maemi produced a peak wind gust of and a minimum pressure of , both setting records for the country; the pressure reading broke the longstanding lowest pressure set by Typhoon Sarah in 1959. Winds in Busan near the landfall location reached , the second-highest on record. The port there sustained heavy damage, restricting exports in the months following the storm. Nationwide, the high winds destroyed about 5,000 houses and damaged 13,000 homes and businesses, leaving 25,000 people homeless. About 1.47 million households lost power, and widespread crop damage occurred, resulting in the poorest rice harvest in 23 years. Across South Korea, Maemi killed 117 people, and overall damage totaled ₩5.52 trillion won (KRW, US$4.8 billion).
Meteorological history
In early September 2003, a monsoon trough created a tropical disturbance near Guam. The system consisted of a disorganized area of convection, or thunderstorms, in an area of moderate wind shear. By September 4, the convection was becoming better organized around a weak low-level circulation. Despite the wind shear, the system continued to develop, becoming a tropical depression north of Chuuk State. At 0200 UTC on September 5, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert, and later that day initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 15W just west of Guam. By that time, the convection had increased over the center. For the first week of its existence, the cyclone tracked generally northwestward, steered by a subtropical ridge to the north.
Early on September 6, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and named it Maemi. With more favorable conditions, including lesser wind shear and enhanced outflow, the storm continued to intensify. The JMA upgraded Maemi to a severe tropical storm on September 7 and to typhoon status – winds of over – the next day. The JTWC had upgraded Maemi to typhoon status on September 7 after an eye feature appeared on satellite imagery. Also around that time, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) began issuing advisories on the storm, giving it the local name "Pogi", although the typhoon would remain away from the country. On September 8, Maemi began undergoing rapid deepening due to enhanced outflow, aided by the flow of an approaching shortwave trough. At 1200 UTC on September 9, the JTWC estimated 1-minute sustained winds of and designated Maemi as a super typhoon. The next day, the same agency estimated peak winds of and gusts to , the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. At 1200 UTC on September 10, the JMA estimated peak 10-minute winds of and a minimum barometric pressure of while the storm was southeast of the Japanese island of Miyako-jima. At peak intensity, Maemi was a small typhoon, with gale-force winds extending only from the well-defined eye.
Around the time of peak intensity, Maemi was slowing its forward motion and began turning to the north, after the eastward-moving trough weakened the ridge. At 1900 UTC on September 10, the typhoon passed within of Miyako-jima. While the eye was passing over the island, the pressure fell to and winds reached . Maemi weakened slightly as it continued north, passing about west of Okinawa on September 11 while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle. Increasingly hostile conditions from the approaching trough caused further weakening, and the JTWC estimated the typhoon passed just east of Jeju Island with 1-minute winds of at 0600 UTC on September 12. Shortly after, Maemi made landfall just west of Busan, South Korea, with the JMA estimating 10-minute winds of , and JTWC estimating 1-minute winds of . Risk Management Solutions estimated landfall winds of , which surpassed Typhoon Sarah in 1959. This made Maemi the strongest typhoon to strike the country since the Korea Meteorological Administration began keeping records in 1904. The storm was able to maintain much of its intensity due to warm sea surface temperatures and its fast forward motion. Maemi rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while moving over land, and was undergoing extratropical transition by the time it entered the Sea of Japan. Increasing wind shear removed the convection from the increasingly ill-defined circulation center. The JTWC issued its final warning on Maemi early on September 13, declaring the storm extratropical. The JMA followed suit later that day, tracking Maemi over northern Japan and declaring it extratropical over the Sea of Okhotsk. The remnants of Maemi persisted for several more days, until the JMA stopped tracking it on September 16 southwest of the Kamchatka Peninsula. According to the Mariners Weather Log, the remnants of Maemi continued to the east, eventually striking the coast of Alaska on September 21.
Preparations
In Japan, the threat of the typhoon caused airlines to cancel 145 flights, mostly in and around Okinawa. About 50 American army bases in Okinawa were closed, and non-essential workers were told to remain home.
Before Maemi made landfall in South Korea, officials issued flood warnings along the Nakdong River due to dams opening floodgates. About 25,000 people were forced to evacuate, either to schools or relatives' houses. The Korea Meteorological Administration advised travelers to take precaution in advance of the storm. Ferry and airplane services were canceled to Jeju island, stranding residents ahead of the Chuseok holiday.
Officials in Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East issued a storm warning, noting the potential for strong winds and heavy rainfall.
Impact
Japan
Typhoon Maemi first affected the Japanese island of Miyako-jima, where gusts reached , and sustained winds reached . For 16 hours, excluding the 2-hour passage of the eye, the pressure fell to , the second-lowest on record on the island after Typhoon Sarah in 1959, and at the time the fourth lowest in all of Japan. The typhoon produced heavy rainfall on Miyako-jima totaling , of which fell in 24 hours, breaking the daily record. Also on the island, fell in one hour, and fell in just 10 minutes. On the island, Maemi damaged 104 buildings, including two severely damaged houses. The storm damaged roads in 36 locations and caused a power outage, affecting about 20,900 people, or 95% of the island. One person on Miyako-jima died after being struck by flying glass.
News agencies considered Maemi the strongest typhoon to affect Okinawa since 1968. Elsewhere in Okinawa Prefecture, wind gusts reached in Nago. On Ishigaki Island, strong winds damaged houses and crops, while high tides flooded low-lying buildings. Across the region, 94 people were injured, mostly from broken glass.
Shortly before Maemi made its final landfall, it produced wind gusts of at Izuhara, a Japanese island halfway between South Korea and Japan. Along the southwest coast of Japan, a weather station in Hirado reported gusts of . The typhoon resulted in heavy rainfall on the Japanese main island of Kyushu, reaching at a station in Miyazaki Prefecture. Rainfall-induced landslides in Nagasaki forced 191 people to evacuate their homes. Heavy rainfall also caused landslides in Ōita Prefecture, and Kōchi Prefecture, where several roads were closed. The threat of the storm caused schools to close in Yamaguchi Prefecture. The storm spawned an F1 tornado in Kōchi that damaged several houses and flipped over a car, injuring a woman inside. As an extratropical storm, Maemi left 2,500 people in Hokkaido without power after producing gusts of in Hakodate. Wind gusts reached in Akita, the third-highest September wind gust at the station. A falling tree in Sapporo killed one person and injured two others. High waves damaged fisheries and 54 ships in Matsumae alone, and nationwide 262 ships were damaged. Rough seas also killed one person in Akita Prefecture. The typhoon destroyed 1,498 homes across the country and flooded 363 others. The storm also damaged of fields. In total, Maemi killed three people and injured 107 in Japan, two severely. Overall damage totaled ¥11.3 billion (JPY, $96 million USD).
South Korea
Since Typhoon Maemi took a path closer to the form of a parabolic, a typical pattern of typhoons from outbreak to extinction, it was relatively possible to predict its course and the possibility of landing on the Korean Peninsula was expected fairly early. The Korea Meteorological Administration officially announced the typhoon's possible landing off the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula at 5 p.m. on Sept. 10, making the news widely known through major media organizations. When Typhoon Maemi struck South Korea, it caused heavy rainfall that peaked at . Rainfall reached in Namhae County, and on Jeju Island. The rain was less widespread and caused less flooding than Typhoon Rusa, which struck the country a year prior, but damage from Maemi was heavier due to strong winds. On Jeju Island, Maemi produced a wind gust of and a minimum pressure of , both setting records for the country. The winds broke the record of set by Typhoon Prapiroon in 2000, and the pressure was 1.5 mbar lower than that during Typhoon Sarah in 1959, which was one of the strongest storms to strike South Korea after Maemi. On the South Korean mainland, the Pusan International Airport reported wind gusts of . Winds in Busan reached , the second-highest wind speed for the city after Typhoon Thelma in 1987. Due to high winds, five nuclear power plants were shut down automatically, but were ultimately unaffected.
In South Korea, damage was heaviest in South Gyeongsang Province, where 71 people were killed. Damage was particularly heavy in Busan, as well in as Yecheon, Ulsan, and Daegu. In Busan, strong winds wrecked 11 lifting cranes, each weighing about 900 tons, which injured five people and killed two in one incident. Many shipyards in the region were closed, and initial reports estimated it would take a year to fully reopen the Busan port. The estimated damage to the Busan port was about $50 million (USD), causing cargo capacity to be cut by 20%. High waves turned a large ship on its side in Busan, and in Ulsan the waves knocked an offshore shipbuilding plant into a petroleum facility, damaging them both. Sixteen people were killed in Busan.
High tides flooded hundreds of houses along the coast, particularly in areas without seawalls. In Masan, the storm caused 12 fatalities when it flooded an underground shopping center. On Jeju Island to the south of the country, Maemi destroyed sets of the Korean drama TV series All In, and wrecked 32 houses. Two people were killed on the island, one of whom while attempting to secure his boat. Throughout the country, 465 boats were damaged or beached. The heavy rainfall caused mudslides, one of which in Chungcheong derailed a train, injuring 28 aboard. Mudslides closed several roads, and damaged five rail lines in ten locations. Nationwide, the storm damaged 2,278 roads and bridges, as well as nearly 40,000 cars. Intense rainfall also caused flooding along the Nakdong River, reaching a flood stage of near Busan. There, the river produced a discharge of about 13,000 m3/s (460,000 ft3/s), strong enough to destroy a section of the Gupo bridge. Along a tributary of the Nakdong River, floods destroyed a dyke near Daegu. Maemi also flooded of fields before the fall harvest, causing widespread damage to the rice crop. On Ulleungdo island off the eastern coast, Maemi washed away the primary road and many houses, killing three. Residents there complained about the lack of advance warning.
Typhoon Maemi left about 1.47 million electric customers without power around the country, causing ₩12.9 billion (KRW, US$11.61 million) in damage to power companies. Widespread damage interrupted mobile and cell phone service. United States military bases in the country sustained about $4.5 million in damage. Nationwide, Maemi destroyed about 5,000 houses and damaged 13,000 homes and businesses, leaving 25,000 people homeless. About 150 businesses in Gangwon Province were destroyed by Typhoon Rusa in 2002, only to be destroyed again by Maemi when they were rebuilt. Insured damages from Maemi were estimated at ₩650 billion (KRW, $565 million), mostly property damage. The insured damage was over four times the amount of insured damage from Typhoon Rusa the year prior. Overall damage was estimated at ₩5.52 trillion (KRW, US$4.8 billion). By comparison, this total was ₩2.52 trillion (KRW, US$1.9 billion) less than Rusa; the discrepancy between the insured and overall damage was due to Maemi causing heavier industrial damage, while Rusa caused more damage overall. The storm killed 117 people throughout South Korea.
Elsewhere
Although the typhoon prompted the PAGASA to hoist warningsand in spite of initial concerns that the cyclone would enhance monsoonal rainfallMaemi did not cause any damage in the Philippines.
While recurving east of Taiwan, Maemi dropped significant rainfall, peaking at in Ilan County. The rains helped ease drought conditions and replenished parched reservoirs.
In North Korea, Maemi produced about of rainfall, although further details of the storm's effects there were unknown due to press censorship.
Aftermath
Following the storm, South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun declared the entire of the country excluding Seoul and Incheon as special disaster areas, after touring the storm damage in Busan. The government provided tax breaks and allocated ₩1.4 trillion (KRW, $1.2 billion) in assistance to the affected residents, after an additional budget was passed in late September 2003. This included ₩100 billion (KRW, US$90 million) in immediate funds for search and rescue missions. After the storm, residents complained they did not receive adequate warning and not enough coastal areas were evacuated, which led to the high death toll. Widespread damage and continued flooding caused traffic jams in the days following the storm. A damaged rail line prompted operators to provide alternate bus service. Landslides throughout the country forced travelers to use alternate routes. By three days after the storm, most damaged roads and highways were reopened. About 33,000 members of the South Korean Army were deployed to assist in relief efforts, such as clearing roads and delivering aid to storm victims. Workers quickly restored power to 95% of customers within 24 hours. The government installed four new cranes for the Busan port, and assisted operators to ensure exports would not be delayed. Heavy crop damage caused fruit and vegetable prices to rise, and fish and crop exports rose 9.2% on average. The rice harvest was the lowest in 23 years, due to the storm and a government effort to limit production. To assist farmers, the government increased purchases in federal contracts. Three government-run banks provided low-rate loans for businesses damaged by the storm. Residual flooding from Maemi contributed to an outbreak of conjunctivitis in the southern portion of the country. To prevent additional outbreaks, the Korean National Institute of Health sent 1,000 workers to storm-damaged areas. The Korea Exchange fell 1.8% due to fears that storm damage would disrupt exports.
For the month of September 2003, the Korea Electric Power Corporation waived electric bills for residents who lost their homes, and cut bills in half for residents and businesses who lost power. The South Korean government allowed companies to increase premiums for car insurance by 3.5% due to the widespread car damage. Due to storm damage, 34 companies were forced to temporarily close. Loss of production and disruptions were expected to subtract 0.5% from the forecast economic growth in 2003. The Consumer Confidence Index dropped to its lowest level in five years, largely due to the typhoon damage and weakened economic conditions. Following the strikes of Rusa and Maemi in consecutive years, the South Korean government worked on disaster management and mitigation programs. In March 2004, the government passed the "Emergency and Safety Management Basic Act", largely due to the storm as well as the Daegu metro fire, which effectively set up a nationwide emergency management system. The Gupo bridge damaged during the storm was repaired in 2007.
Although the South Korean government did not request international aid, several countries sent aid to the country. A few days after Maemi struck, the United States Agency for International Development sent $50,000 (USD) to the Korean Red Cross. Later, the government of Japan sent ¥9.5 million (US$85,000) worth of supplies to South Korea, including sleeping mats, generators, and water units. Taiwan also provided $100,000 in aid. The Republic of Korea National Red Cross utilized 700 volunteers and 200 staff members to distribute food and blankets to 8,190 houses, while local offices provided over 5,500 meals. Members of Food for the Hungry delivered food and clothing to storm-damaged residents in Masan.
As a result of the damage and deaths caused by the storm, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Maemi in 2006 and replaced it with Mujigae.
See also
Typhoons in the Korean Peninsula
List of retired Pacific typhoon names
Typhoon Sanba (2012), another strong typhoon that struck South Korea
Typhoon Neoguri (2014)
Typhoon Chaba (2016)
Typhoon Kong-rey (2018), took a similar track
Typhoon Hinnamnor (2022), also struck South Korea as a strong typhoon
Notes
References
External links
RSMC Tokyo – Typhoon Center
Best Track Data of Typhoon Maemi (0314)
Best Track Data (Graphics) of Typhoon Maemi (0314)
Best Track Data (Text)
JMA General Information of Typhoon Maemi (0314) from Digital Typhoon
JTWC Best Track Data of Super Typhoon 15W (Maemi)
15W.MAEMI from the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
Retired Pacific typhoons
2003 Pacific typhoon season
Typhoons in Japan
Typhoons in South Korea
Typhoons
2003 disasters in the Philippines
Typhoons in the Philippines
Maemi |
4322093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinship%20care | Kinship care | Kinship care is a term used in the United States and Great Britain for the raising of children by grandparents, other extended family members, and unrelated adults with whom they have a close family-like relationship such as godparents and close family friends because biological parents are unable to do so for whatever reason. Legal custody of a child may or may not be involved, and the child may be related by blood, marriage, or adoption. This arrangement is also known as "kincare" or "relative care." Kinship placement may reduce the number of home placements children experience; allow children to maintain connections to communities, schools, and family members; and increase the likelihood of eventual reunification with birth parents. It is less costly to taxpayers than formal foster care and keeps many children out of the foster care system. "Grandfamily" is a recently coined term in the United States that refers to families engaged in kinship care.
In 2010, there were 7.8 million children who live in households where the heads were grandparents or other relatives and parents were not present. In 2012, according to the Annie E. Casey Foundation Kids Count Data Center, there were 2.7 million children or 4% of all children who are being raised by grandparents or other kinship care. According to a 2003 U.S. Census Bureau report, 2.4 million grandparents had primary responsibility for their coresident grandchildren younger than 18. Among grandparent caregivers, 39 percent had cared for their grandchildren for 5 or more years. 594,000 grandparents nationally are raising children below the federal poverty level. Relatives care for a quarter of all children in foster care in the United States.
Kinship
Kinship children
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, almost 7.8 million U.S. children live in homes under kinship care. There are many reasons that a parent may be unwilling or unable to care for their child, including death, incarceration, illness, substance abuse and financial instability. Many kinship children are placed by child protective services (CPS) agencies after removing the child from the biological home. This can also happen in family court without CPS being involved. When CPS removes children, local children services will seek out relative placements before placing a child in non-relative foster care. Most kinship children have experienced some form of trauma that resulted in estrangement from their natural families. Kinship children may have been victims of abuse and neglect in the biological home, exhibit signs of post-traumatic stress disorder, have special needs or disabilities resulting from in utero substance abuse, be in need of counseling or other support services, or require specialized social and educational services.
Kinship caregivers
Kinship caregivers may be grandparents, great-grandparents, siblings, aunts, uncles, or family friends of the children in their care. Caregivers often feel responsible for extended family members and prefer to care personally for relative children who may otherwise end up in non-relative foster care. In many cases, grandparents and other relatives have not planned for the addition of children to the home, and may have problems accessing social and educational services that have changed drastically since they raised their own children. Some caregivers experience feelings of guilt and social isolation resulting from fear of the perception that one failed in raising one's own child. Caregivers may be hesitant to pursue legal custody of children in their care if they want to maintain relationships with the child's biological parent, or if they view the arrangement as temporary.
Grandfamilies face obstacles not encountered by biological parents such as obtaining medical and educational services for the children in their care and securing affordable housing in which they can live with the children. Many of the public assistance benefits available to birth parents and foster families are not available to kinship caregivers even if the child was receiving assistance in the parent's home. Some states offer "subsidized guardianship" payments for kinship families with children placed through children services agencies or foster care agencies, although these payments are substantially less than payments that non-relative foster families receive. Financial issues are common for many older grandparents and great-grandparents who are living on fixed incomes, Social Security or disability payments, who did not plan to raise children late in life, or who are raising children with demanding educational or medical needs. The prevalence of these financial issues has led to a high rate of food insecurity, job loss and home foreclosure in families who support additional children without adequate financial and service assistance. The obstacles can be even greater in "informal" care arrangements, where the relative caregiver lacks a legal relationship (such as legal custody or guardianship) with the child.
According to the 2000 U.S. Census, less than 20% of children raised by grandparents have legal custody arrangements. Some states have established avenues towards legal guardianship for grandparent caregivers who are informally caring for children. Ohio's HB 130, the Grandparent Affidavit and Power of Attorney Bill, establishes two legal mechanisms to assist caregivers to access educational and medical services for children in their residential care as an alternative to intrusive children services intervention or expensive legal processes. This type of temporary guardianship is preferred by families who hope for eventual reunification of birth parents and biological children.
Recent legislation, the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 includes several provisions affecting kinship families. The legislation authorizes federal funding of subsidized guardianship payments, establishes kinship navigator programs to assist caregivers in accessing community assistance and support services for the children in their care, requires notice be given to adult relatives when a child enters care, and allows states more flexibility with licensing standards when placing a child with a relative.
The AARP and Generations United both maintain searchable online databases of kinship programs in the United States.
Types of Kinship Care
There are four different types of Kinship Care.
Informal Kinship Care means that living arrangement of the child was created by the parents and other family members without the help of the court or child welfare agencies. An example of this care could be if the parents are ill and can no longer care for their children, so a relative like a grandparent, aunt or uncle may care for the children until the parents recover.
Temporary Guardianship occurs when the parent of a child plans to temporary leave their children with a relative. This type also requires the parents to consult an attorney and the attorney will write up papers to be sent to the court for a judge to approve. During this time of temporary guardianship, the relatives who were granted this type of kinship can make decisions for the children in the sectors of medical and education.
Voluntary Kinship Care occurs when the child was placed in the home or a relative and the child welfare agency is involved. Examples of circumstances that result in this type of kinship care include; if there are signs of abuse or neglect by the parents, and while parents are in treatment for substance abuse or mental health issues, parents can place their children with relatives with the help of child welfare workers.
Formal Kinship Care. In this type of kinship care, "the child is placed in the legal custody of the State by a judge and the child welfare places the child with family members." The state will remain having legal custody of the child and the relatives will have physical custody, which means they must support the child financially and give them a home. If the parents and relatives agree on the child visiting their parents or siblings, the child welfare agency is responsible for creating the visits and making sure that the visits happen. With this type of kinship care, the relatives become the foster parents of the child.
Mental development of children in kinship care
The first few years are crucial for early childhood, during which children develop rapidly. The relationships established with their caregivers predict children's later performance in social lives, marriage relationships and relationships with their own children. Therefore, it is important to understand the quality of kinship care in terms of mental development of children to see how these early relationships influence children socially, emotionally and cognitively and further impact school readiness.
Studies that have examined custodial kinship families have reported high prevalence of poverty and low educational levels compared with other family arrangement. As such, kinship caregivers are often associated with high level of strain when playing caring and rearing role to children. These obstacles are less energy, limited financial resource, and more health problems and concerns. Besides, psychological challenges include difficulties of re-entering parent roles, implementing effective disciplinary strategies, dealing with relationship among children, caregivers and biological parents, and overcoming a generation gap. These multi-aspect factors potentially influence children in kinship care and expose them to more mental health risks. A study of 733 custodial grandmothers and 9,878 caregivers from the 2001 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) who completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) reported that children raised by grandparents have more behavioral and emotional disturbances than children in the overall U.S. population. Among the subjects, major Caucasian custodial grandparents reported more difficulties with the children than African American grandparents. The white grandparents often report their grandchildren with behavior problems of argumentative, impulsive and depressed characteristic, school withdraw, less independent, and low self-esteem, while black grandparents report their custodial children had lied or cheated, were disobedient at school, destroyed things, and got into fights）. Another study of 59 New York custodial grandparent families reported that more than half of the children have developed some level of health conditions, among the most common conditions were attention deficit disorders. Other studies found high incidence of behavioral problems of kinship care than other family arrangements. In school settings, children being raised by grandparents have higher rates of suspension and expulsion and lower engagement than children living with parents. A 2016 systematic review of 102 quasi-experimental studies involving 666,161 children found kinship care to be a viable option for the well being of children removed from home for maltreatment.
Strength of kinship care
Kinship care also has many sources of strength. Kinship families that often have a history of support create a more sustainable and stable emotional tie with children, and thus improve well-being of the whole family. Older caregivers tend to provide wisdom and knowledge gained through experience, gratitude for having a second chance at raising children, and having more time to spend with children.
In terms of well-being of children, it is important to help them building up personal and cultural identity. Children in kinship care are placed within a social class and culture familiar to them and have more contact with relatives who reinforce their self-identities, self-esteem and the sense of belonging with shared family history, routine and rituals. Also children in kinship care experience fewer placements than non-kinship care children, remain in the community they familiar with, and are exposed to less risk factors associate with unstable physical and mental environment. Besides, they have relatively more contact with their biological parents, from whom they receive compensative social and financial support than non-kinship care children. Kinship care children enjoy a functional social network from local community other than “cold-blooded” professional assistance by governmental department that associated with severe neglect before placement. A healthy and natural local community compensate for the poor utilization of medical and educational services due to low level of educational status of kinship parents, especially grandparents. It also lower the risks of receiving peer pressure, isolation, social stigma and enable children maintaining sustainable network in school and leisure settings.
For kinship care children who keep contact with their biological parents, biological parents continue playing their role in the relationships among kinship parents, biological parents and children. One study shows that 88% of teens being raised by a grandparent have some contact with at least one of their parents, whereas 64% of the children interviewed in another study saw their mother at least each year; many of these children's mothers lived nearby and had regular contact with their children. These studies indicate that biological parents’ role can be disturbing, often seen as inconsistent involvement breaking up trust and confidence of children, legal wrangling and undermining grandparents’ rules, leading to less effective parenting on the part of the grandparent.
Child Welfare System involvement with kinship care
The Child Welfare System and Kinship Care tend to go hand in hand in most cases. From state to state, the child welfare system are different from one another, but they always include departments that focus on social services or children's services. Each agency contains Caseworkers who are normally Social Workers who are required by law to help create a safe environment, better the well being and create permanent living arrangements for children. The involvement of the child welfare system in kinship care varies from State to State due to each state having their own laws and practices that govern these situations. A caseworker within the department of Social Services or Children's services will be the first to approach grandparents or other relatives when the individuals want to become a kinship caregiver. Families are also able to contact their local welfare agencies when seeking help. "
Assistance for grandparents and relatives raising children
In many U.S. states, financial and service assistance programs that are available to birth parents and foster families are not available to kinship caregivers based on the family relationship to the child. Some states have more kinship support services in place than others, but the following financial assistance is available to qualified caregivers nationwide.
In the United Kingdom kinship carers get less help than people fostering or adopting children. Kinship carers can be pushed into debt, poverty, poor health or even homelessness. Judith Blake of the Local Government Association’s children and young people's Board, said councils were “doing what they can” supporting kinship carers in the face of severe pressure on children’s services’ budgets. “Government needs to ensure that councils receive the long-term, consistent funding they need to make sure all children and families are able to thrive.”
Supportive services
The National Family Caregiver Support Program (NFCSP) became law in 2000 under the reauthorization of the Older Americans Act and provides funding for supportive services to grandfamilies. Reauthorized and amended in 2006, NFCSP provides federal funding for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Aging (AoA) to administer the program. The AoA funds local Area Agencies on Aging (AAAs) to provide supportive services to grandparents and other relatives aged 55 and older who are relative caregivers of children. Supportive services fall into 5 categories designated by NFCSP:
information to caregivers about available services;
assistance to caregivers in gaining access to the services;
individual counseling, organization of support groups, training to assist the caregivers in the areas of health, nutrition, financial literacy, and in making decisions and solving problems relating to their caregiving roles;
respite care to enable caregivers to be temporarily relieved from their
caregiving responsibilities; and
supplemental services, on a limited basis, to complement the care
provided by caregivers.
Services available for kinship families
When fostering children or raising your relatives children it can become expensive. "According to the 2002 Urban League and the National Survey of American Families, over 50% of children in kinship care live in low-income housing."Depending on the families circumstances they may be eligible for the following services:
The Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)- This program provides financial assistance for low-income families. The goal for this program is to help the families that use it, become self-sufficient.
Food Stamps- This program helps families who are low-income afford groceries each month. The amount the families are eligible for are determined by the size of the family and their income.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)- This program helps children who are disabled in kinship care. The eligibility is based solely on whether the child is disabled, and helps with the living expenses of the child.
Foster Care Payments- This program may be available to kinship families under certain circumstances and "the requirements for receiving these payments vary from state to state." Due recent changes and the passage of the Fostering Connections Act, states have more options when using title IV-E funds for kinship guardian payments.
Funding
Child-only TANF funds
The federal government has set aside Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) funding in all U.S. states to support working families with children under a certain income level. While eligibility to receive regular TANF funds is dependent on a family's annual household income and employment status, a "Child-Only" version is available nationally. This Child-Only grant only takes into consideration the income level of the dependent child, not the work or income eligibility of the caregiver. Some sort of temporary or permanent custody is required through juvenile court, Children Services, or another foster care agency to apply for the TANF Child-Only grant. TANF funding can be obtained through county Job and Family Services facilities.
Tax credits
Families must meet income requirements that depend on the number of children they are raising. Caregivers do not have to be the child's legal guardian or custodian, and the child doesn't have to be defined as the caregiver's dependent by the IRS. The child must be your biological child, grandchild, stepchild, foster or adoptive child, sibling, or a descendant of one of these. The child must have lived with you for more than half of the filing year and be under the age of 19, a full-time student under the age of 24, or totally disabled.
Child and dependent care credit
Child and Dependent Care Credit helps families who pay for child care so that they can work or look for work. The dollar amount of the credit depends on the number of children in the family, the annual household income, and the amount of money paid annually for child care. Caregivers do not have to be the child's legal guardian or custodian, but the child must be defined as the caregiver's dependent by the IRS.
Child tax credit
Child Tax Credit offers a tax credit of up to $1000 per child. The maximum income allowable to receive this credit is fairly high, so many families who are over-income for other programs may be eligible. The qualifying child must be younger than 17. Caregivers do not have to be the child's legal guardian or custodian, but the child must be defined as a dependent by the IRS.
Qualifications for Child Tax Credit
According to Turbo Tax, there are seven factors that determine who qualifies for the Child Tax Credit. First, the child must be under the age of 17 years old at the end of the tax year you are filing for. Second, the child must be related to the individual filing for Child Tax Credit. Examples of relationships are, “the child is their own child, stepchild or a foster child. When looking at other children within the individual’s family, they can also claim brothers, sisters, stepbrothers and sisters and also nieces, nephews and grandchildren.” When looking at the financial support the child has, “the child cannot be making more than half of their own income.” This means, the child cannot be financially stable on their own, otherwise the individual filing for the Child Tax Credit may not qualify. The child must be your dependent, which means the individual filing for the tax credit must be supporting them financially throughout the tax year. The child must also be a United States Citizen. Another qualification is that the child must be living with the individual filing for more than 6 months out of the year the tax credit is being filed for. Lastly, the family income determines if the individual qualifies for the tax credit. The tax credit can be reduced if the income is above the recommended amounts. "For married couple filing separately the max is $55,000, $75,000 for single head of household or widow and for married couples filing together it is $110,000. For each $1,000 above the max income levels the tax credit falls by $50."
See also
Orphanage
Residential Child Care Community
Group homes
Congregate Care
Cottage Homes
Family support
Foster Care
Foster Care in the United States
Residential treatment center
Residential Care
Community-based care
Child and family services
Child and youth care
Left-behind children in China
Child abuse
Child abandonment
Wraparound (childcare)
References
External links
http://www.grandfamilies.org/
http://www.grandfactsheets.org/
https://web.archive.org/web/20090617082448/http://www.gu.org/Foste10161796.asp
http://www.aarp.org/quicklink
http://www.abanet.org/child/kinshipcare.shtml
http://life.familyeducation.com/grandparents/family/29678.html
Family
Child care |
4322402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally%20Harmonized%20System%20of%20Classification%20and%20Labelling%20of%20Chemicals | Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals | The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world. Core elements of the GHS include standardized hazard testing criteria, universal warning pictograms, and harmonized safety data sheets which provide users of dangerous goods with a host of information. The system acts as a complement to the UN Numbered system of regulated hazardous material transport. Implementation is managed through the UN Secretariat. Although adoption has taken time, as of 2017, the system has been enacted to significant extents in most major countries of the world. This includes the European Union, which has implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the CLP Regulation, and United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards.
History
Before the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) was created and implemented, there were many different regulations on hazard classification in use in different countries, resulting in multiple standards, classifications and labels for the same hazard. Given the $1.7 trillion per year international trade in chemicals requiring hazard classification, the cost of compliance with multiple systems of classification and labeling is significant. Developing a worldwide standard accepted as an alternative to local and regional systems presented an opportunity to reduce cost and improve compliance.
The GHS development began at the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development by the United Nations also called Earth Summit (1992) when the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), various governments and other stakeholders agreed that "A globally harmonized hazard classification and compatible labelling system, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable symbols, should be available if feasible, by the year 2000".
The universal standard for all countries was to replace all the diverse classification systems; however, it is not a compulsory provision of any treaty. The GHS provides a common infrastructure for participating countries to use when implementing a hazard classification and Hazard Communication Standard.
Hazard classification
The GHS classification system is a complex system with data obtained from tests, literature, and practical experience. The hazards of a substance are defined in classes of hazards and categories of severity.
The main elements of the hazard classification criteria are summarized below:
Physical hazards
Substances or articles are assigned to 8 different hazard classes largely based on the United Nations Dangerous Goods System. Additions and changes have been necessary since the scope of the GHS includes all target audiences.
Explosives, which are assigned to one of six subcategories depending on the type of hazard they present, as used in the UN Dangerous Goods System.
Gases are category 1 flammable if they start to flame in a range in air at 20 °C (68 °F) and a standard pressure of 101.3 kPa. Category 2 is Non flammable and non toxic gases, and category 3 is toxic gases. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories on the basis of the outcome of the test or calculation method.
A flammable liquid is a liquid with a flash point of not more than 93 °C (199.4 °F). Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of four hazard categories on the basis of the flash point and boiling point. A pyrophoric liquid is a liquid that, even in small quantities, is liable to ignite within five minutes after coming into contact with air. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to a single hazard category on the basis of the outcome of the UN Test N.3.
A flammable solid is one that is readily combustible or may cause or contribute to fire through friction. Readily combustible solids are powdered, granular, or pasty substances which are dangerous if they can be easily ignited by brief contact with an ignition source, such as a burning match, and if the flame spreads rapidly. it is further divided into • flammable solids, • polymerizing substances
self-reactive substances, are thermally unstable solids liable to undergo a strongly exothermic thermal decomposition even without participation of oxygen (air), other than materials classified as explosive, organic peroxides or as oxidizing.
pyrophoric substance more colloquially described as spontaneously combusting substances are those solids or liquids that even in small quantities are liable to ignite within five minutes after coming into contact with air. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to a single hazard category on the basis of the outcome of the UN Test N.2.
Self-heating substances A self-heating solids or liquids, other than a pyrophoric substance, is one which, by reaction with air and without energy supply, are liable to self-heat. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories on the basis of the outcome of the UN Test N.4. Substances which on contact with water emit flammable gases are liable to become spontaneously flammable or to give off flammable gases in dangerous quantities. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of three hazard categories on the basis of the outcome of UN Test N.5, which measures gas evolution and speed of evolution. Flammable aerosols can be classified as Class 1 or Class 2 if they contain any component, which is classified as flammable.
Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides contain • category 1: oxidizing substances and• category 2: organic peroxides, organic liquids or solids that contain the bivalent -O-O- structure and may be considered a derivative of hydrogen peroxide, where one or both of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by organic radicals. The term also includes organic peroxide formulations (mixtures). Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of seven 'Types', A to G, on the basis of the outcome of the UN Test Series A to H.
Radioactive substances
Substances corrosive to metal are substances or mixtures that by chemical action will materially damage or even destroy metals. These substances or mixtures are classified in a single hazard category on the basis of tests (Steel: ISO 9328 (II): 1991 - Steel type P235; Aluminum: ASTM G31-72 (1990) - non-clad types 7075-T6 or AZ5GU-T66). The GHS criteria are a corrosion rate on steel or aluminum surfaces exceeding 6.25 mm (0.246063 in) per year at a test temperature of 55 °C (131 °F).
Miscellaneous dangerous substances
Health hazards
Acute toxicity includes five GHS categories from which the appropriate elements relevant to transport, consumer, worker and environment protection can be selected. Substances are assigned to one of the five toxicity categories on the basis of LD50 (oral, dermal) or LC50 (inhalation).
Skin corrosion means the production of irreversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized corrosion category.
Skin irritation means the production of reversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single irritant category. For those authorities, such as pesticide regulators, wanting more than one designation for skin irritation, an additional mild irritant category is provided.
Serious eye damage means the production of tissue damage in the eye, or serious physical decay of vision, following application of a test substance to the front surface of the eye, which is not fully reversible within 21 days of application. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized category.
Eye irritation means changes in the eye following the application of a test substance to the front surface of the eye, which are fully reversible within 21 days of application. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized hazard category. For authorities, such as pesticide regulators, wanting more than one designation for eye irritation, one of two subcategories can be selected, depending on whether the effects are reversible in 21 or 7 days.
Respiratory sensitizer means a substance that induces hypersensitivity of the airways following inhalation of the substance. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to one hazard category.
Skin sensitizer means a substance that will induce an allergic response following skin contact. The definition for "skin sensitizer" is equivalent to "contact sensitizer". Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to one hazard category.
Germ cell mutagenicity means an agent giving rise to an increased occurrence of mutations in populations of cells and/or organisms. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories. Category 1 has two subcategories.
Carcinogenicity means a chemical substance or a mixture of chemical substances that induce cancer or increase its incidence. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories. Category 1 has two subcategories.
Reproductive toxicity includes adverse effects on sexual function and fertility in adult males and females, as well as developmental toxicity in offspring. Substances and mixtures with reproductive and/or developmental effects are assigned to one of two hazard categories, 'known or presumed' and 'suspected'. Category 1 has two subcategories for reproductive and developmental effects. Materials which cause concern for the health of breastfed children have a separate category: effects on or via Lactation.
Specific target organ toxicity (STOT) category distinguishes between single and repeated exposure for Target Organ Effects. All significant health effects, not otherwise specifically included in the GHS, that can impair function, both reversible and irreversible, immediate and/or delayed are included in the non-lethal target organ/systemic toxicity class (TOST). Narcotic effects and respiratory tract irritation are considered to be target organ systemic effects following a single exposure. Substances and mixtures of the single exposure target organ toxicity hazard class are assigned to one of three hazard categories. Substances and mixtures of the repeated exposure target organ toxicity hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories.
Aspiration hazard includes severe acute effects such as chemical pneumonia, varying degrees of pulmonary injury or death following aspiration. Aspiration is the entry of a liquid or solid directly through the oral or nasal cavity, or indirectly from vomiting, into the trachea and lower respiratory system. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of two hazard categories this hazard class on the basis of viscosity.
Substitute substances
Sometimes companies are able to replace hazardous substances with substances featuring a reduced health risk. As an assistance to assess possible substitute substances, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA) has developed the Column Model. On the basis of just a small amount of information on a product, substitute substances can be evaluated with the support of this table. The current version from 2020 already includes the amendments of the 12th CLP Adaptation Regulation 2019/521.
Environmental hazards
Acute aquatic toxicity means the intrinsic property of a material of causing injury to an aquatic organism in a short-term exposure. Substances and mixtures of this hazard class are assigned to one of three toxicity categories on the basis of acute toxicity data: LC50 (fish) or EC50 (crustacean) or ErC50 (for algae or other aquatic plants). In some regulatory systems these acute toxicity categories may be subdivided or extended for certain sectors.
Chronic aquatic toxicity means the potential or actual properties of a material to cause adverse effects to aquatic organisms during exposures that are determined in relation to the lifecycle of the organism. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to one of four toxicity categories on the basis of acute data and environmental fate data: LC50 (fish) or EC50 (crustacea) or ErC50 (for algae or other aquatic plants) and degradation or bioaccumulation.
Classification of mixtures
The GHS approach to the classification of mixtures for health and environmental hazards is also complex. It uses a tiered approach and is dependent upon the amount of information available for the mixture itself and for its components. Principles that have been developed for the classification of mixtures, drawing on existing systems such as the European Union (EU) system for classification of preparations laid down in Directive 1999/45/EC. The process for the classification of mixtures is based on the following steps:
Where toxicological or ecotoxicological test data are available for the mixture itself, the classification of the mixture will be based on that data;
Where test data are not available for the mixture itself, then the appropriate bridging principles should be applied, which uses test data for components and/or similar mixtures;
If (1) test data are not available for the mixture itself, and (2) the bridging principles cannot be applied, then use the calculation or cutoff values described in the specific endpoint to classify the mixture.
Testing requirements
The GHS document does not include testing requirements for substances or mixtures. In fact, one of the main goals of the GHS is to reduce the need for animal testing. The GHS criteria for determining health and environmental hazards are test method neutral, allowing different approaches as long as they are scientifically sound and validated according to international procedures and criteria already referred to in existing systems. Test data already generated for the classification of chemicals under existing systems should be accepted when classifying these chemicals under the GHS, thereby avoiding duplicative testing and the unnecessary use of test animals. The GHS physical hazard criteria are linked to specific UN test methods. It is assumed that mixtures will be tested for physical hazards.
Hazard communication
Per GHS, hazards need to be communicated:
in more than one form (for example, placards, labels or SDS's).
with hazard statements and precautionary statements.
in an easily comprehensible and standardized manner.
consistent with other statements to reduce confusion.
taking into account all existing research and any new evidence.
Comprehensibility is challenging for a single culture and language, so global harmonization is complex. The GHS Purple Book includes a comprehensibility-testing instrument in Annex 6. Factors that were considered in developing the GHS communication tools include:
Different philosophies in existing systems on how and what should be communicated;
Language differences around the world;
Ability to translate phrases meaningfully;
Ability to understand and appropriately respond to pictograms.
GHS label elements
The standardized label elements included in the GHS are:
Symbols (GHS hazard pictograms): Convey health, physical and environmental hazard information, assigned to a GHS hazard class and category. Pictograms include the harmonized hazard symbols plus other graphic elements, such as borders, background patterns or cozers and substances which have target organ toxicity. Also, harmful chemicals and irritants are marked with an exclamation mark, replacing the European saltire. Pictograms will have a black symbol on a white background with a red diamond frame. For transport, pictograms will have the background, symbol and colors currently used in the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. Where a transport pictogram appears, the GHS pictogram for the same hazard should not appear.
Signal word: "Danger" or "Warning" will be used to emphasize hazards and indicate the relative level of severity of the hazard, assigned to a GHS hazard class and category. Some lower level hazard categories do not use signal words. Only one signal word corresponding to the class of the most severe hazard should be used on a label.
GHS hazard statements: Standard phrases assigned to a hazard class and category that describe the nature of the hazard. An appropriate statement for each GHS hazard should be included on the label for products possessing more than one hazard.
The additional label elements included in the GHS are:
GHS precautionary statements: Measures to minimize or prevent adverse effects. There are four types of precautionary statements covering: prevention, response in cases of accidental spillage or exposure, storage, and disposal. The precautionary statements have been linked to each GHS hazard statement and type of hazard.
Product identifier (ingredient disclosure): Name or number used for a hazardous product on a label or in the SDS. The GHS label for a substance should include the chemical identity of the substance. For mixtures, the label should include the chemical identities of all ingredients that contribute to acute toxicity, skin corrosion or serious eye damage, germ cell mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, skin or respiratory sensitization, or Specific Target Organ Toxicity (STOT), when these hazards appear on the label.
Supplier identification: The name, address and telephone number should be provided on the label.
Supplemental information: Non-harmonized information on the container of a hazardous product that is not required or specified under the GHS. Supplemental information may be used to provide further detail that does not contradict or cast doubt on the validity of the standardized hazard information.
GHS label format
The GHS includes directions for application of the hazard communication elements on the label. In particular, it specifies for each hazard, and for each class within the hazard, what signal word, pictogram, and hazard statement should be used. The GHS hazard pictograms, signal words and hazard statements should be located together on the label. The actual label format or layout is not specified in the GHS. National authorities may choose to specify where information should appear on the label or allow supplier discretion. There has been discussion about the size of GHS pictograms and that a GHS pictogram might be confused with a transport pictogram or "diamond". Transport pictograms are different in appearance than the GHS pictograms. Annex 7 of the Purple Book explains how the GHS pictograms are expected to be proportional to the size of the label text so that generally the GHS pictograms would be smaller than the transport pictograms.
Safety data sheet
The safety data sheet or SDS (the GHS dropped the word "material" from "material safety data sheet" in its final revisions) is specifically aimed at use in the workplace. It should provide comprehensive information about the chemical product that allows employers and workers to obtain concise, relevant and accurate information in perspective to the hazards, uses and risk management of the chemical product in the workplace. While there were some differences in existing industry recommendations and country specific requirements, there was agreement on a 16-section SDS to include the following headings in the order specified:
Identification
Hazard(s) identification
Composition/ information on ingredients
First-aid measures
Fire-fighting measures
Accidental release measures
Handling and storage
Exposure control/ personal protection
Physical and chemical properties
Chemical stability and reactivity
Toxicological information
Ecological information
Disposal considerations
Transport information
Regulatory information
Other information
The primary difference between the GHS and the international industry recommendations is that sections 2 and 3 have been reversed in order. The GHS SDS headings, sequence and content are similar to the ISO, European Union and ANSI MSDS/SDS requirements. The SDS should provide a clear description of the data used to identify the hazards. A table comparing the content and format of a MSDS/SDS versus the GHS SDS is provided in Appendix A of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) GHS guidance.
Training
Current training procedures for Hazard Communication in the United States are more detailed than the GHS training recommendations. Educating employees on the updated chemical and product classifications and related pictograms, signal words, hazard statements and precautionary measures at the level of detail by the national authority represents the greatest training challenge. Training will be a key component of the overall GHS approach and should incorporate information as it is introduced into the workplace. Employees and emergency responders will need to be trained on all new program elements, from hazard statements to pictograms. Bear in mind, if the importation of products using only GHS labeling is permitted prior to its adoption in the United States and Canada, employers may need to begin employee training earlier than expected.
Implementation
The United Nations goal was broad international adoption, and as of 2017, GHS has been adopted to varying degrees in nearly all major countries.
GHS adoption by country:
Australia: In 2012, adopted regulation for GHS implementation, setting January 1, 2017 as the GHS implementation deadline.
Brazil: Established an implementation deadline of February 2011 for substances and June 2015 for mixtures.
Canada: GHS has been incorporated into WHMIS 2015 as of February 2015.
China: Established implementation deadline of December 1, 2011.
Colombia: By June, 2014 No deadline had been set up yet. the subcommittee for the implementation within the Mesa de Seguridad Química (Bureau of Chemical Safety), began communication between the government, the private sector and civil society.
European Union: The deadline for substance classification was December 1, 2010 and for mixtures it was June 1, 2015 per regulation for GHS implementation on December 31, 2008.
United Kingdom: Implemented under EU directive by REACH regulations, this may be subject to change due to Brexit.
Japan: Established deadline of December 31, 2010 for products containing one of 640 designated substances.
South Korea: Established the GHS implementation deadline of July 1, 2013.
Malaysia: Deadline for substance and mixture was April 17, 2015 per its Industry Code of Practice on Chemicals Classification and Hazard Communication(ICOP) on 16 April 2014.
Mexico: GHS has been incorporated into the Official Mexican Standard as of 2015.
Pakistan: Country does not a single streamlined system for chemical labeling, although there are many rules in place. The Pakistani government has requested assistance in developing future regulations to implement GHS.
Philippines: The deadline for substance and mixture was March 14, 2015 per Guidelines for the Implementation of GHS in Chemical Safety Program in the Workplace in 2014.
Russian Federation. GHS was approved for optional use as of August 2014. Manufacturers may continue using non-GHS Russian labels through 2021, after which compliance with the system is compulsory.
Taiwan: Full GHS implementation was scheduled for 2016 for all hazardous chemicals with physical and health hazards.
Thailand: The deadline for substances was March 13, 2013. The deadline for mixture was March 13, 2017.
Turkey: Published Turkish CLP regulation and SDS regulation in 2013 and 2014 respectively. The deadline for substance classification was June 1, 2015, for mixtures, it was June 1, 2016.
United States: GHS compliant labels and SDSs are required for many applications including laboratory chemicals, commercial cleaning agents, and other workplace cases regulated by previous US Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) standards. First widespread implementation set by OSHA was on March 26, 2012, requiring manufacturers to adopt the standard by June 1, 2015, and product distributors to adopt the standard by December 1, 2015. Workers had to be trained by December 1, 2013. In the US, GHS labels are not required on most hazardous consumer grade products (ex. laundry detergent) however some manufacturers which also sell the same product in Canada or Europe include GHS compliant warnings on these products too. The US Consumer Product Safety Commission is not opposed to this and has been evaluating the possibility of incorporating elements of GHS into future consumer regulations.
Uruguay: regulation approved in 2011, setting December 31, 2012 as deadline for pure substances and December 31, 2017, for compounds.
Vietnam: The deadline for substances was March 30, 2014. The deadline for mixtures was March 30, 2016.
See also
ISO 7010
NFPA
Toxicity category rating
UN number
References
Bibliography
External links
About the GHS
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) - Ninth revised edition
Chemical safety
Chemical classification
Hazard analysis
International standards |
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