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4344236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Mary%27s%20University%20%28Halifax%29 | Saint Mary's University (Halifax) | Saint Mary's University (SMU) is a formerly Catholic, public university located in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. The school is best known for having nationally leading programs in business and chemistry. The campus is situated in Halifax's South End and covers approximately .
History
Founding
Saint Mary's is the second-oldest English-speaking and first Roman Catholic-initiated university in Canada. The Roman Catholic church founded Saint Mary's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1802. It was established in Glebe House, on the corner of Spring Garden Road and Barrington Street, with the aim of extending educational opportunities for Catholic youth and training candidates for the clergy.
In 1840 the Nova Scotia Legislature bestowed the degree granting charter to Saint Mary's and eleven years later granted the university formal legal status. Saint Mary's collapsed in 1883, but was revived in 1903 by Cornelius O'Brien, then Archbishop of Halifax. It reopened as a high school in a new campus on Windsor Street, near the junction with Quinpool Road.
In 1913 the Christian Brothers of Ireland were asked by the Archdiocese of Halifax to direct the college and academic programs. Degree-granting resumed in 1918. With this change of leadership the university's reputation thrived as a liberal arts institution and expanded its undergraduate programs, with the most notable being the Faculty of Commerce in 1934 (now known as the Sobey School of Business), which was the first of its kind in Canada. In 1940 the Upper Province of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) was invited to succeed the Christian Brothers as both administrators and faculty. A Roll of Honour at Saint Mary's University is dedicated to students of Saint Mary's College who volunteered for the Second World War.
Expansion
Due to rapid growth the college was fast outgrowing the Windsor Street campus, and so the Gorsebrook Golf Club was purchased in 1943. Construction of the new campus was delayed by wartime steel shortages. The relocation was completed in 1952. The former college building was rented by the Halifax school board and the overcrowded Saint Patrick's Boys' School was relocated there. The modern Saint Patrick's High School opened on the site in 1954 and operated until 2007. The old Saint Mary's College building was rented for a time by the Maritime Conservatory of Music before it was sold to the city in 1968 and demolished to make way for the expansion of Saint Patrick's.
The next 30 years would see the university flourish under Jesuit supervision, with such advancements as the formal recognition of the "college" as a university in 1952 and purchasing the first computer in Atlantic Canada (a Royal McBee LGP-30) in 1959. In 1970 the Jesuits formally incorporated the university under the "Acts of Incorporation" which gave all administrative and academic duties to the Board of Governors and Academic Senate, making Saint Mary's a secular institution. Saint Mary's University was established by the Saint Mary's University Act, 1970.
High school
In 1951, the High School moved with Saint Mary's College to the Robie Street campus where they occupied three classrooms on the second floor of the new McNally building. The High School offered an embellished junior matriculation for grades 9,10,11 and many of the boys entered Saint Mary's directly upon graduation although some went to Saint Patrick's or Queen Elizabeth to attend grade 12.
The Jesuit influence, which incorporated the principles of a sound mind and a sound body, meant that everyone who attended the high school became an active participant in intramural hockey, football, and basketball.
With fewer than 100 students enrolled in any one year, developing teams to represent Saint Mary's University High School on the extracurricular level seemed daunting but with the astute coaching of the future Hall of Fame coach, Frank "Mr Basketball" Baldwin, success was achieved. Saint Mary's High School "A" and "B" basketball teams won three straight Halifax City Championships. Back to back Provincial Headmasters Championships by the "A" team in 1960–61 and 1961–62 epitomized the rich athletic tradition cultivated by the Jesuits. This accomplishment was even more significant when you consider that the school drew its athletes from fewer than 100 students.
The Saint Mary's University High School closed in 1963. A plaque detailing the history of the high school was placed at the entrance to the McNally building in 1988 as part of a Twenty Five year reunion.
Modern history
Since then the university has continued expansion of its academic programs with the most notable being the offerings of doctoral level studies in astronomy and business and the accreditation of the business school with the AACSB (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business). At the same time the university has expanded its campus facilities with noted additions of the Burke–Gaffney Observatory in the 1970s and the Sobey Building in 1998. In 1992, the Faculty of Commerce was renamed the Sobey School of Business, after Frank H. Sobey, founder of Sobeys. In 2001, SMU's Huskies were the first Atlantic Canadian university team to advance to the world finals in the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest World Finals.
In early 1994 workers renovating the Rice Residence found that an exterior wall on the 16th storey was dangerously unstable and posed a hazard to those walking below. Over 250 students were moved to the Halifax Hilton, which had recently gone out of business, which was used as a temporary residence while repairs were carried out.
In the 1990s the provincial government sought to cut funding to Nova Scotia's universities. Teacher education programs were consolidated at Mount Saint Vincent University, Acadia University, and Université Sainte-Anne, while the education faculties at Saint Mary's and Dalhousie were wound up and the 140-year-old Nova Scotia Teachers College was closed altogether. The Saint Mary's education program ended in the spring of 1996. It was not forcibly closed by the province, but the minister of education stated that he would only licence teachers who had graduated from the three approved universities.
In 2013 the Saint Mary's High School basketball achievement was recognized at the Hall of Fame events and a plaque containing the names of all of the players who represented the school on the 1959–1962. The plaque can be seen in the Tower at Saint Mary's University.
Faculties
Saint Mary's comprises four faculties:
Arts
Dean: Dr. Mary I. Ingraham
Sobey School of Business
Dean: Dr. Harjeet Bhabra
Science
Dean: Dr. Lori Francis (Acting)
Graduate Studies and Research
Dean: Dr. Adam Sarty
Campus
The Saint Mary's 80-acre (32 hectare) campus is located in the south end, not far from Downtown Halifax and just down the road from Dalhousie University. Major buildings include:
Over the past decade many of the older buildings on campus have been substantially renovated. In March 2005, Saint Mary's started the “Science Building Renewal Project” which was estimated to cost $100 million. This project is part of the larger project the “University’s Strategic Directions and Academic Plan” which was developed in consultation with students, faculty and local citizens in order to meet both the needs of the university and local community over the next decade. The project focused on modernising and expanding the science faculty's resources, generally renewing the architectural, mechanical and electrical infrastructures of the Science Building, providing additional office and research space to faculty members, improving lab layout, and integrating with future campus developments.
The university completed construction of the Atrium and Global Commons project in late 2009. The three-storey $17.5 million complex links the Science Centre, the Burke Building and the Patrick Power Library. The space features a common area, theatre style classrooms, offices and study spaces. The project also features advanced green environmental technologies, has fully integrated hard and Wi-Fi systems, a food outlet and a three-storey green wall.
The 62-year-old McNally Building recently underwent a $27 million renewal thanks in large part to the Canadian governments Infrastructure Renewal Programme. Most of the interior of the four floor, four wing complex was rebuilt.
Construction of the new Homburg Centre for Health and Wellness began in October 2010. This complex, an extension of the Tower Fitness Centre, houses new space for community health and wellness activities and is the new home for the Centre for the Study of Sport and Health. The $8 million project was funded by a donation from real estate developer and manager Richard Homburg and the university's capital campaign. It opened in 2012.
960 Tower Road, a three-storey, 28,000 square foot building, opened in 2013. It is home to the English as a second language program as well as the Sobey School Business Development Centre, which moved back to campus from a downtown location. The university stirred controversy when it demolished the former Halifax Infants’ Home in 2014.
SMU's new Dauphinee Centre ice arena sits on the site of the 54 year old Alumni Arena. Made possible through generous donations from the estate of the late alumni Bob Dauphinee and SMU parents Glen and Nancy Holmes. The Dauphinee Centre is connected to the Homburg Centre for Health and Wellness, by a pedway and features an NHL regulation ice surface, heated viewing gallery, community meeting rooms, canteen facilities and capacity of 1200 fans.
Construction is presently underway on the new $30-million, Entrepreneurship and Innovation HUB at the southern edge of the campus. 42,700-square-foot building will be integrated with the Loyola Academic Complex and the Sobey Building. University administration anticipate completion of the building by 2023.
Legacy
The Saint Mary's University mace shows the religious background of this now secular institution. There are crests for the Archdiocese of Halifax. the LaSalle Christian Brothers, the Irish Christian Brothers and the Jesuits.
On 27 May 2002, Canada Post issued "Saint Mary's University, 1802–2002" as part of the Canadian Universities series, based upon a design by Steven Slipp, based on photographs by James Steeves and on an illustration by Bonnie Ross. The 48¢ stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by Ashton-Potter Canada Limited.
In June 2021, Saint Mary's University announced a rebranding of its logo, backgrounds and tag lines.
Reputation
The annual Maclean's rankings evaluate universities on 13 performance measures. Maclean's evaluates universities in three categories, with Saint Mary's being ranked amongst other universities the publication categorized as "primarily undergraduate" institutions. In Maclean's 2023 rankings, Saint Mary's was ranked third amongst 19 "primarily undergraduate" universities in Canada.
The Canadian University Report is conducted annually by The Globe and Mail, and reflects the opinions of more than 33,000 undergraduate students across the country as gathered in a student satisfaction survey. Saint Mary's University is in the "small" category of along with 15 other universities with enrolment between 4,000 and 12,000 students.
The Canadian University Report stated that overall student satisfaction had a grade of B+ in 2013, the same as in 2012, A− in quality of teaching, A− in class size, A− in buildings and facilities and improvement shown in six key categories.
Student life
Huskies football
The Huskies won back-to-back Canadian University Football Championships (2001 & 2002), the third university to do so (after Manitoba and Western).
Huskies hockey
In 2010, the men Huskies won their first CIS University Hockey Cup by defeating the Alberta Golden Bears 3–2 in overtime.
Saint Mary's University Students' Association
The Saint Mary's University Students' Association (SMUSA) is the official representation of the students of Saint Mary's University. The association was incorporated in 1966, however, unofficially has represented students for many years previous. The Association main offices are located on the top floor of the student centre at the heart of campus.
SMUSA provides such services as a safe drive program, tutor database, online book exchange, health and dental plans and the Gorsebrook Lounge. SMUSA also operates many departments that help in the mission of serving students and making their lives at Saint Mary's the best possible. These departments include the volunteer department, events and programming, marketing and communications, the yearbook, the information desk and husky patrol.
The Saint Mary's University Students Association is represented federally by the Canadian Alliance of Student Associations and provincially by StudentsNS (formerly ANSSA.
SMUSA came under scrutiny after their first-year student orientation in 2013. A traditional chant promoting non-consensual sex with underage girls was posted on Instagram, and then picked up by traditional media. Student union president Jared Perry resigned as president of Students Nova Scotia but stayed on as head of the university's student association. Saint Mary's University Communications manager Steve Proctor opined that "nobody actually doing the cheer believed in what it was" but the Avalon Sexual Assault Centre reported that it received calls from survivors specifically regarding the cheer. Peter MacKay, a federal cabinet minister from Nova Scotia, also criticized the chant as "offensive and dangerous". A review conducted in the following months detailed a plan to require sensitivity training for the frosh leaders and to discuss informed consent with the incoming students. The university also changed the name "Orientation Week" to "Welcome Week" for 2014.
Saint Mary's University student athletic clubs
Saint Mary's University is home to numerous student based sports clubs that provide club members with the opportunity to get involved in a variety of athletic activities.
Clubs include, but are not limited to:
Cheerleading
Dance (Saint Mary's University Dance Club)
Equestrian (Saint Mary's Equestrian Team)
Karate (Saint Mary's University Shotokan Karate Club)
Men's Baseball (League)
Men's Rugby Club (League)
Men's Field Lacrosse (League)
Men's & Women's Curling (League)
Ringette
Taiko Drumming (SMU Taiko)
Tennis
Women's Field Hockey (League)
Notable alumni
Alan Abraham, former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia
Brian Ahern, producer for Anne Murray, Emmylou Harris, Johnny Cash
Steve Armitage, CBC Sportscaster
John William Ashe, President of the United Nations General Assembly, 68th session and former ambassador to the United Nations for Antigua and Barbuda.
Jackie Barrett, Special Olympics Powerlifter, amassed 15 Powerlifting medals at four Special Olympics World Games appearances
Micah Brown, United States national American football team and international football player
Signa Butler, CBC Sports host and play-by-play commentator
Noah Cantor, Canadian Football League player
Karen Casey, Nova Scotia MLA for Colchester North
Kori Cheverie, the first female full-time assistant coach in Canadian Interuniversity Sport men's hockey history.
Zach Churchill, Nova Scotia MLA for Yarmouth
Louis Comeau, member of Parliament, entrepreneur and former CEO of Nova Scotia Power
Patrick H. Curran, former Chief Judge of the Provincial Court of Nova Scotia
Chris d'Entremont Nova Scotia MLA for Argyle
Mal Davis, former National Hockey League player
Terry Donahoe, former leader of the Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative Party
Miguel Figueroa, political activist, former leader of the Communist Party of Canada and of the Figueroa v Canada case.
Chris Flynn, Canadian Football Hall of Famer, 3 time Hec Crighton Trophy winner
Mayann Francis, former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia – first African Nova Scotian to hold title; author
Wayne Gaudet, Nova Scotia MLA for Clare
Glenn Graham, Celtic musician
Paul Hollingsworth, CTV Atlantic newscaster and TSN reporter
Don Johnson, president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association and former hockey player and coach with Saint Mary's
Andy Jones, comedian
Peter J. Kelly, former Mayor of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Robert P. Kelly, former CEO of the Bank of New York Mellon
Terry Kelly, CM, blind musician
Joseph Phillip Kennedy, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia
Becky Kent, Nova Scotia MLA for Cole Harbour – Eastern Passage
Steven Laffoley, educator and author of creative nonfiction and fiction
John MacDonell, Nova Scotia MLA for Hants East
Jasmine R. Marcelin, physician
Terry Mercer, Canadian Senator for Northend Halifax
Wilfred Moore, Canadian Senator for Stanhope St./Bluenose
Steve Morley, former professional football player (CFL, NFL)
William Njoku, basketball player who played professionally for 10 years for various clubs in Europe
Justin Palardy, CFL player
Gerald Regan, former Premier of Nova Scotia
Dave Stala, CFL player
Brody Steele, professional wrestler, former Strongman competitor
Mat Whynott, Nova Scotia MLA for Hammonds Plains – Upper Sackville
Cherno Omar Barry, Vice-Chancellor of the International Open University
Richard William Smith, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Edmonton
Saint Mary's University Academic Senate
The Saint Mary's University Academic Senate is the part of a bicameral university governance structure responsible for academic decisions at the university. It is paired with a board of governors responsible for administrative and financial decisions. The Senate has ten ex-officio members: the president, vice-presidents, deans, registrar, director of student services, director of continuing education, and university librarian. Fifteen faculty members are elected to three year terms and five students are elected by the general university population to one year terms.
Function
The academic senate is governed by the Saint Mary's University Act and subject to the powers of the university's Board and is responsible for the educational policy of the university in addition to:
May create, maintain and discontinue such faculties, departments, schools or institutes and establish such chairs as it may determine and may fix the duties of those employed therein
May recommend to the Board the affiliation or discontinuance of the affiliation of or with other universities
May determine courses of study, admission standards, qualifications for diplomas, certificates and degrees, examinations, scholarships and bursaries and may issue university calendars and other official publications
Shall be responsible for the library
Shall be responsible for student discipline
May create such committees as it deems necessary or useful
May make regulations governing the matters that are assigned to it by this Section
See also
Canadian government scientific research organizations
Canadian Interuniversity Sport
Canadian industrial research and development organizations
Canadian university scientific research organizations
Higher education in Nova Scotia
List of Jesuit sites
List of universities in Nova Scotia
Master of Management: Co-operatives and Credit Unions
Saint Mary's Huskies
References
External links
Saint Mary's University Students' Association
Saint Mary's University Sports Clubs
Saint Mary's University Shotokan Karate Club
Universities in Nova Scotia
Educational institutions established in 1802
2011 Canada Winter Games
Catholic universities and colleges in Canada
1802 establishments in Nova Scotia |
4344388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverley%20Knight | Beverley Knight | Beverley Knight (born Beverley Anne Smith, 22 March 1973) is an English singer, songwriter, actress and radio personality. She released her first album, The B-Funk, in 1995. Heavily influenced by American soul music icons such as Sam Cooke and Aretha Franklin, Knight has released eight studio albums. Widely labelled as one of Britain's greatest soul singers, Knight is best known for her hit singles "Greatest Day", "Get Up!", "Shoulda Woulda Coulda", "Come as You Are" and "Keep This Fire Burning".
In 2006, Knight solidified her transition into the mainstream by starring in the BBC music TV series Just the Two of Us, a role she reprised in 2007. After releasing a platinum-selling compilation album in 2006, Knight went on to tour the UK with a reformed Take That. She has also hosted the BBC Radio 2 show, Beverley's Gospel Nights, which explored the origins and impact of gospel music. The show ran for six seasons until 2009 and included interviews with stars such as Michelle Williams and Shirley Caesar.
Knight is an ambassador for many charities such as Christian Aid and has travelled to areas affected by disease and poverty to help raise awareness. She is an active campaigner for anti-Aids organisations such as the Stop AIDS Campaign and The Terrence Higgins Trust and is also a vocal campaigner against homophobic lyrics in urban music. On Saturday, 15 August 2009, she performed live at the fourth annual UK Black Pride event in Regent's Park. On 4 December 2009, at the invitation of Sarah Jane Brown, wife of the then prime minister Gordon Brown, Knight performed the two songs "Shoulda Woulda Coulda" and "Gold" to an invited audience at 10 Downing Street in support of the White Ribbon Alliance for Safe Motherhood Million Mums charity.
After more than a decade in the music industry, Knight was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in 2006 in recognition of her contribution to British music. In September 2005, Knight was made an honorary Doctor of Music by the University of Wolverhampton. After receiving a host of awards, including three MOBO Awards, Knight was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 2004 at the Urban Music Awards in London. Knight supported Prince during The Earth Tour: 21 Nights in London and also performed at the concert after parties.
In February 2008, Knight was flown to Los Angeles by Prince to perform at his prestigious post-Oscars party, at the singer's purple home, in front of and with A-list stars including Stevie Wonder, she received a standing ovation from stars that included Quincy Jones, particularly for her rendition of "Rock Steady".
Knight sang at the London 2012 Paralympic Opening Ceremony. The performance was praised, and a recorded version by Knight reached No. 101 on iTunes, her first charting single since "Soul Survivor" and highest since "Beautiful Night" in 2010 and 2009, respectively. In 2016, Knight released her eighth studio album, Soulsville. In 2019, Knight celebrated 25 years in music with the release of the live album BK25 which was recorded with the Leo Green Orchestra. Knight's ninth studio album, The Fifth Chapter, was released in October 2023.
Knight has been nominated for two Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Actress in a Musical in 2015 and 2022 for her performances in Memphis and The Drifters Girl; she won in 2023, on her third nomination, the Best Supporting Actress in a Musical for Sylvia. Knight made her first foray into musical theatre in September 2013, replacing Heather Headley as Rachel Marron in The Bodyguard. In 2017, she made her pantomime debut at the Birmingham Hippodrome as the Fairy Godmother in Cinderella.
Biography
1973–1993: Childhood
Knight attended Woodfield Infant and Junior Schools, and Highfields School in Wolverhampton. Knight was born to Jamaican parents and grew up in a strict Pentecostal household where church attendance was an important element in the life of the family. It was here that she began her singing career. "The first time I heard music would have been in church. My mum was often called upon: 'Come on sister Dolores. Lead us in song!' Singing was the most natural thing in the world. I thought, doesn't everybody's mum lead the congregation at church in song?" Knight sang in her local church throughout her childhood, and her musical education was continued at home where she was often exposed to gospel music. Because of her parents' religious beliefs, secular music was largely frowned upon, but artists such as Sam Cooke and Aretha Franklin played a big part in her childhood.
Knight began writing her own songs at the age of 13; however, it was not until she turned 17 that she began to take it seriously. She began performing the songs she had written on stage in local clubs in her home town. At the age of 19, she performed on the demo songs of Wolverhampton songwriter Westley Jones, who was signed to Dome publishing in London. Peter Robinson, the managing director of the company, impressed with her vocals, asked Westley Jones to introduce her. Robinson and Jones – who had discovered Knight through demo recordings – also came up with the stage name of Beverley Knight (from Smith) as Peter had also signed another demo vocalist of Jones' from Birmingham, calling her Fiona Day. She was adamant that her education should come first and that she should have something to fall back on, and so went to Cheltenham and Gloucester College of Higher Education (now the University of Gloucestershire) to study theology and philosophy.
1994–2000: Early success
In late 1994, Knight signed a record deal with Dome Records, a small, independent label. Shortly after, she went into a studio to write and record her first album. The backbone of the project was produced by the London production trio 2B3, with additional beats provided by Don E (Knight's cousin), Ethnic Boyz and the hip-hop act Blak Twang. Klarmann/Weber, the German songwriter/producer team (Chaka Khan, Randy Crawford), also contributed two songs. The result was the album The B-Funk, – hailed by her record label as "the best British soul album ever" when it was released in November 1995. Knight went on to win two Black Music Awards in 1996 ("Best R&B Artist" and "Best Producer" for 2B3) and was named Best R&B Act by Blues and Soul magazine, beating a number of American stars. However, the album only peaked at number 145 on the UK album chart. Several singles were released from the project, the biggest being "Flavour of the Old School", which peaked at number 33 in March 1996 when it was re-released.
In February 1997, Knight left Dome Records after disagreements, and signed a new four-album deal with EMI-controlled Parlophone. After returning to the studio with 2B3 and Don E and teaming up with new producers Dj Dodge and Carl McIntosh, Knight released her second album, Prodigal Sista, in August 1998. Peaking at number 42 in Britain, the commercial success of the album proved to be much greater than her first. The album sold 150,000 copies in Britain and was certified Gold in 1999. It contained five top-40 hits, the biggest of which were "Greatest Day", peaking at number 14, and the Dj Dodge-produced "Made It Back" featuring the US rap star Redman, which peaked at number 21.
Prodigal Sista was a big step forward in Knight's career. Q magazine called the album "a triumph not only of Knight's musical vision but also of the strength in her character", while The Times remarked, "Prodigal Sista is a joy to hear – her vocal and intricate self-devised and performed harmonies can make you catch your breath in wonderment." The album won three MOBO (Music of Black Origin) Awards, with "Made It Back" and "Greatest Day" winning Best R&B Act in 1998 and 1999 respectively, and Prodigal Sista winning the Best Album Award.
2001–2005: Mainstream breakthrough
Throughout 2001 Knight returned to the recording studio to write and record her third studio album. She was accompanied by an array of writers and producers handpicked largely by Kevin and Bev from Britain and the United States, which included James Poyser, Che Guevara, Derrick Joshua & Derrick Martin, D'Influence, Mike Spencer and Colin Emmanuel. The result was Who I Am, released in March 2002. It was preceded by two singles, "Get Up!" and "Shoulda Woulda Coulda" – a first in that it introduced Knight to the world of Nashville and one of its most famous sons, Craig Wiseman, a giant in the country music business. This partnership became Knight's most successful single up to that point, peaking at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart. The success of the singles propelled the album to number seven on the album chart, making Who I Am her most commercially successful album to date. It was re-released with new versions of the singles "Gold" and "Shape of You (Reshaped)" and has sold 215,000 copies in Britain, earning a Gold sales certificate.
The critical response to Who I Am was largely positive, with The Guardian stating that "every song bubbles with the kind of expensive, polished confidence that often eludes British contenders, and she sings with the poise of an artist at the height of her powers", while the BBC remarked: "Who I Am marks a significant change in direction for this tenacious 28-year-old singer, signifying her own personal growth as a true artist and developing songwriter....on this her most personal work to date, she takes us on an intimate journey where she bares her soul with such raw honesty that you get the distinct impression a healing process is taking place". The album earned her two Brit Award nominations ("Best Female", "Best Urban Act") and was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in 2002.
After touring Britain in 2002, Knight set about creating her fourth album and entered the studio in the summer of 2003. Without the architect of her most successful song in her camp her new A&R team attempted to appeal to a larger mainstream audience, enlisting the help of pop producers such as Guy Chambers and Peter-John Vettese as well as collaborating with R&B producers such as DJ Munro. The result was Affirmation, which was released on Parlophone in June 2004. The album entered the charts at number 11 and was preceded by the single "Come as You Are" – a rock/pop orientated song written with and produced by Chambers. The song marked a more mainstream pop sound that alienated Knight's largely urban fan base and the song was not well received by urban radio stations. Nevertheless, it became her biggest hit to date, peaking at number nine on the singles chart. The song was followed by two more singles, "Not Too Late for Love" and "Keep This Fire Burning", which helped boost album sales and resulted in the album being awarded a Gold sales certificate in December 2004.
The themes running throughout the album, which were influenced by the events she had witnessed over the previous two years, marked a milestone in Knight's career as a lyricist. The main essence of the project was centred on Knight's relationship with Tyrone Jamison – a gay man whom she described as her "soulmate" and who died of an AIDS-related disease in 2003. Throughout the album, lyrics on tracks such as "Remember Me" ("One day we will be reunited, least I hope that is our destiny, so while you chill in the arms of angels, remember me, remember me") and "No One Ever Loves in Vain" clearly point to her close relationship with Tyrone and rank as her most personal work to date.
Compared to the praise of her previous albums, the critical response to Affirmation was mixed. The mainstream press such as The Guardian praised her for branching out, while the black music press such as The Voice and Blues and Soul accused Knight of selling out and being manipulated away from urban music by her record label, a claim she flatly denies: "Everything I've done musically has been completely me. I write my own songs so I'm not just a vocalist who can easily be dictated to."
2006–2008: Consolidating success
In February 2006 Knight consolidated her move into the mainstream audience by appearing on BBC1 music show, Just the Two of Us. The show, featuring celebrities who duet with established singers, ran for two weeks and proved to be a relative disappointment in terms of audience figures – averaging between 15 and 25 percent audience shares. Nevertheless, it provided a platform for Knight to reach out to a bigger audience and demonstrate her talent by performing a different array of songs than she would otherwise be known for. Reaching out to new audiences was also a driving force behind Knight's decision to join Take That on their reunion arena tour. "Take That – The Ultimate Tour 06", which ran from April to July 2006, sold 270,000 tickets in less than four hours on sale at the box office and featured Knight as a support act.
In March 2006 Knight released her fifth album, a compilation set featuring the majority of her top forty UK singles entitled Voice – The Best of Beverley Knight. The album, which was certified Gold less than a month after its release, became her second highest charting of her career when it entered the UK albums chart at number ten and rose to number nine a month later. It was preceded by the single "Piece of My Heart" – a cover of the Erma Franklin classic made famous by Janis Joplin and entered the singles chart at number 16, spending 11 weeks inside the UK top 75 singles chart and becoming her longest-running chart single to date.
In October 2006, Knight recorded her fifth studio album, Music City Soul, in Nashville. Completed in less than five days, the album was released on 7 May 2007 and features collaborations with musicians such as Ronnie Wood and Scotty Moore. It spawned three singles, "No Man's Land", released on 16 April 2007, "After You", released on 2 July 2007, and "The Queen of Starting Over", released on 15 October 2007. This turned out to be her final album for Parlophone.
Between August and September 2007, Knight supported Prince during his residency at the O2 Arena and also performed at the concert after parties. As a result of this, she was also flown to perform at his Oscars party in front of A-list stars and got a standing ovation from stars such as Quincy Jones.
2009–2010: Going independent and 100%
On 23 March 2009, Knight announced via her official web site that she had left Parlophone records after 11 years and would be releasing new material through her own label, Hurricane Records. Knight also announced that her sixth studio album would be released in summer 2009, having a more contemporary feel in comparison to previous retro soul album Music City Soul. New songwriters and producers associated with the project include Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis (whose previous credits include Janet Jackson, Usher and Mariah Carey) and The Rural, along with previous collaborators Guy Chambers and DJ Munro.
On 31 March 2009, Knight confirmed that she would be releasing her sixth studio album in September through her own record label, Hurricane Records. In a video blog on her website she said that "for the past year, I've been writing for the record. I've been working with some new names and some old names for the album." She also confirmed that she is expecting to go on tour in support of the album later this year.
The album is called 100%. The first finished track revealed from the album was Knight's collaboration with US producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, titled "Every Step". The lead single from the album was "Beautiful Night", co-written with Amanda Ghost and produced by The Rural. The album was released the same week on 7 September 2009 and entered the UK Albums Chart at number 17. The second single, "In Your Shoes", premiered on BBC 1Xtra on 5 October. The radio remix features UK rapper Chipmunk.
In 2010, Knight made six guest appearances as a panellist on ITVs flagship show Loose Women.
2011–2016: Theatre, Soul UK, and Soulsville
In March 2011, Knight announced in that she would be releasing her seventh studio album later that year and that it would be a collection of British soul covers. She also announced a one-off gig to be held at Porchester Hall, London, which would be filmed for her first live DVD, to be included with the album release. Knight confirmed the album would be entitled Soul UK at the Porchester Hall show.
The first single to be released from the album was "Mama Used to Say", a hit single originally recorded by Junior Giscombe. The single was released on 27 June 2011, with the album following on 4 July. The album was the highest new entry on the UK albums chart in its week of release, peaking at #13. Three further singles were released from Soul UK, "Cuddly Toy" (originally by Roachford), "One More Try" (originally by George Michael) and "Round and Around" (originally by Jaki Graham). Other artists whose songs were covered on Soul UK include: Soul II Soul; Loose Ends; Omar; Jamiroquai, with whom she had previously recorded the song "Main Vain" with; Princess; Lewis Taylor; Heatwave; Freeez; and Young Disciples.
In 2013, Knight appeared on the 2013 album from The Overtones, entitled Saturday Night at the Movies, which reached the UK albums chart top 5. Knight featured on the song "Hit the Road, Jack".
On 9 September 2013, Knight took over the role of Rachel Marron (played by Whitney Houston in the original 1992 film) from performer Heather Headley in the musical adaptation of The Bodyguard. Knight was nominated for Best Takeover in a Role at the Whatsonstage.com Awards as a result. Her run performing the role finished on 31 May 2014.
On 21 February 2014, it was confirmed that Knight would star in the new West End production of Memphis at the Shaftesbury Theatre, opening on 23 October 2014, following previews from 9 October 2014. In January 2015 producers announced that Knight would extend her performing in Memphis until July 2015.
In 2015, it was announced that she would play Grizabella in the 2015 revival of Cats at the London Palladium. She performed a song from Cats as part of the 2015 Royal Variety Performance.
On 27 October 2015, it was announced that East West Records had signed Knight to release her eighth studio album, Soulsville, which was released on 10 June 2016. The album includes a duet with Jamie Cullum and features covers of classic soul songs by William Bell and Judy Clay, Big Mama Thornton, Sam & Dave, Ann Peebles and Ben E. King, as well as some original tracks co-written by Knight. Upon release, Soulsville reached the Top 10 in the UK Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart.
Knight returned to the West End in The Bodyguard musical on 15 July 2016 for a limited six-month run.
2017–present: BK25, Sylvia and The Fifth Chapter
Knight was one of the guest artists at a BBC Prom in 2017, celebrating the soul music of Stax Records. Alongside host Jools Holland, his Orchestra, James Morrison, Ruby Turner and Sir Tom Jones, the show also featured some of Stax's greatest living artists (William Bell, Booker T. Jones, Steve Cropper, Sam Moore and Eddie Floyd). Knight performed five times during the concert: "Sweet Soul Music" (with Jones and Morrison and again with the whole ensemble), "B-A-B-Y", duetted with Bell on "Private Number" and Moore on "Hold On, I'm Comin'".
In 2017, Knight teamed up with British singer Cassidy Janson and American actress Amber Riley to form a musical theatre supergroup, known collectively as the "Leading Ladies". Their debut album, Songs from the Stage, was released on 17 November 2017 and features covers songs from Cats, Beautiful and Rent among others.
In 2019, Knight was announced to star as Faye Treadwell, the manager of The Drifters, in the new West End-bound musical The Drifters Girl. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the production received a delayed opening at the Garrick Theatre in November 2021, following a limited run at the Theatre Royal, Newcastle. She received her second Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical in 2022.
On 8 November 2019, Knight released a live album, BK25 which was recorded in May 2019 at the Royal Festival Hall in London with the Leo Green Orchestra. The albums celebrates Knight's 25 years of music. On 13 November 2020, Knight performed as part of BBC Children in Need 2020 singing Pink Floyd's "Wish You Were Here". Knight performed a concert with a small audience at the London Palladium in Summer 2021, which aimed test new measures limiting the spread of COVID-19 in theatres. From February 2022, Knight was part of the judging panel on ITV's Starstruck, a revived and reformatted version of Stars in Their Eyes.
In October 2022, it was announced that Knight would be returning to the West End to star as Emmeline Pankhurst in a hip-hop inspired musical, Sylvia, based on the Suffragette movement and Sylvia Pankhurst's life. Knight appeared on a 13 January 2023 episode of The Graham Norton Show to promote the production. Sylvia is due to run from January to April 2023 at The Old Vic.
In June 2023, Knight announced the release of a new studio album, titled The Fifth Chapter, scheduled for release in September 2023. The album's lead single, "Last One On My Mind", was released 9 June 2023. The album's second single, "Systematic Overload", was released on 17 August 2023. On 16 September 2023, Knight performed the single, among her previous hits, on stage at the Radio 2 in the Park, which was held at Victoria Park, Leicester. The Fifth Chapter was released to positive reviews on 29 September 2023, and charted at number 39 on the UK Albums Chart.
Creativity and influences
As Knight grew up in a Pentecostal environment of Jamaican descent, music – especially gospel music – became a staple part of her childhood. She entered the gospel choir of her local church at just four years of age and eventually became the musical director before she left in her late teens. Her musical education continued at home, where her family would often sing together around the piano and listen to music from their favourite gospel and soul artists such as Sam Cooke.
In 2005, Knight revisited her childhood when she hosted Beverley's Gospel Nights, a BBC Radio 2 series exploring gospel music. Featuring interviews with artists such as Shirley Caesar, Percy Sledge and Destiny's Child stars Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams, the six-part series explored the roots of gospel music and the impact it had upon the black community. Such was the success of the show that a second six-part series was commissioned and began in March 2006 and featured new interviews with artists such as Candi Staton, David McAlmont and Marvin Winans. Knight's interview technique and her ability to get her guests to open up and discuss issues in their personal lives such as domestic violence and depression received favourable reviews and led the Radio Times to comment "Knight's passion for the music is obvious – but so is her warmth, which makes her a rarity among interviewers."
The first artist to make an impact upon Knight was one of the true founders of contemporary gospel and soul music, Sam Cooke. Despite his untimely death in 1964, his music endured and became a staple part of Knight's childhood:
The impact of Cooke can be seen throughout Knight's career as she has often performed and recorded Cooke classics, the most notable of which is "A Change Is Gonna Come". The track, which came to exemplify the civil rights movement in the 1960s, has featured in many of Knight's live performances (usually with the aid of the London Community Gospel Choir) and she even recorded a studio version with musician Jools Holland, which featured on his Small World, Big Band Volume 2 album.
Another major influence in Knight's childhood was Aretha Franklin. Besides leading a tribute to Franklin at the BBC's Music of the Millennium concert in 1999, Knight has recorded several of Franklin's tracks, most notably "Do Right Woman, Do Right Man" and "Think", both of which were released as B-sides on Knight's singles "Rewind (Find a Way)" and "Made It Back 99" respectively. It was Franklin's vocal delivery that has most had an impact upon Knight:
Knight has also recorded songs of other artists such as Stevie Wonder (whose "Love's in Need of Love Today" featured on the Warchild album Hope) and Curtis Mayfield (whose "Hard Times" appeared on Courtney Pine's Back in the Day album). But this influence has also manifested itself on stage where Knight often incorporates songs by her heroines such as Nina Simone ("Feelin' Good"), Chaka Khan ("I Feel For You" and "Sweet Thing") and Billie Holiday ("God Bless the Child") into her live performances.
In addition to the pioneering soul and gospel artists of the mid-20th century, modern artists such as Mary J. Blige and D'Angelo have also played a role in shaping Knight's musical outlook. The most significant of her contemporary peers comes in the form of Prince, a man she describes as one of her heroes: "Prince goes back to me listening to preachers when I was a child, who tell a story to illustrate a point...the first song I heard by him was 'Little Red Corvette', when I was nine. Of course, I didn't have a clue about what he was singing about; the sexuality is implicit and I love that." The influence of Prince, whom Knight even mentions on her Prodigal Sista and Who I Am album sleeves, can be seen throughout her back catalogue with songs such as "Get Up!", "Hurricane Jane" and "Supersonic" being compared to Prince due to their mix of funk and soul.
Throughout her childhood, Knight's musical exposure developed as she got older. Gospel led to soul, which led to funk which led to R&B – but growing up in the Midlands meant that she was exposed to many other influences: "It wasn't a case that there was a huge black community who all stuck together and only listened to reggae or R&B or strictly black music. I find that London is a bit more segregated. In Wolverhampton, black people weren't so segregated and I think that had a massive impact on my musical influences." This diversity is illustrated best by Knight's fourth studio album, Affirmation. After working with Guy Chambers, the album had a more mainstream flavour compared to her previous albums and was led by the rock guitar driven single "Come as You Are". Although the song became her highest charting single to date, Knight was largely criticised by urban radio and media for moving too far away from her urban sound. Nevertheless, the song illustrated Knight's determined effort not to become boxed in and "ghettoised".
Discography
Solo albums
The B-Funk (1995)
Prodigal Sista (1998)
Who I Am (2002)
Affirmation (2004)
Music City Soul (2007)
100% (2009)
Soul UK (2011)
Soulsville (2016)
The Fifth Chapter (2023)
Tours
2002 – Who I Am Tour
2002 – Beverley Knight Tour
2005 – Affirmation Tour
2006 – Voice – The Best of Tour
2007 – Music City Soul Tour
2009–10 – 100% Tour
2011 – Soul UK Tour
2016 – Soulsville Tour
2019 – Friday Night is Music Night presents: The Songs of Stevie Wonder starring Beverley Knight
2023 – 50 Tour
Stage
Achievements
Accolades
Knight appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 2006 Birthday Honours for services to music. The award was bestowed by Queen Elizabeth II at a ceremony at Buckingham Palace in February 2007. After the ceremony Knight remarked that the recognition "reflects not only on my whole career but the work I do for charities, which is immensely important to me. I do not do that to be awarded for it, I just do it because it's in my heart, but to be recognised for it, hopefully will put the magnifying glass on to them as well".
In September 2005 Knight was presented with an honorary degree from the University of Wolverhampton "in recognition of her outstanding contribution to music and the local community, and in recognition of her extensive charity work." Upon being made a Doctor of Music, she stated she was proud to be black, female, and British, adding: "it is still all me, I have not forgotten my roots."
On 7 January 2010 Knight won an edition of the BBC's television quiz series Celebrity Mastermind, answering questions on "The Life and Times of Prince". Knight's chosen charity for the show was the Terrence Higgins Trust.
She performed "I Am What I Am" on Wednesday 29 August 2012 at the Paralympics Opening Ceremony.
On 16 May 2018, Knight was presented with the Freedom of the City of Wolverhampton. Knight said "this personal award which I'm able to share with the whole city is beautiful. I was born and raised in Wolverhampton and to have such an accolade given to me is seismic". On Twitter the following day, Knight continued "I am now an honorary Freeman of the City of Wolverhampton. There are only around 30 in the city's history. Disclaimer: My eye are red from tears of joy".
Awards and nominations
Personal life
Beverley Knight is a keen supporter of home city football club Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. Knight married her boyfriend, James O'Keefe, on 8 September 2012.
She is a supporter of the Labour Party.
Further reading
"Queen B" An in-depth interview with Knight by Pete Lewis, featured in July 2009 in Blues & Soul. Knight discusses her forthcoming album 100%, the launch of her new cosmetics range "K By Beverley Knight", and the UK female soul movement
"Knight on the town" An interview with Knight by Andrew Losowsky, published in December 2002 and featured in The Big Issue. The interview touches on Knight's career, religion, morality and global poverty
"Beverley Knight: The soul survivor" In depth article written by Knight detailing her close relationship with friend Tyrone Jamison, who died of an AIDS-related illness in 2003. The article, featured in The Independent newspaper, was published on 20 June 2004.
"Beverley Knight's Band Aid view" An interview with conducted by the BBC in November 2004, where Knight discusses Live Aid and her participation in the re-recording of Band Aid's Do They Know It's Christmas?
"We're Jammin': Beverley Knight" An interview with Knight conducted by Pascal Wyse for The Guardian newspaper and published on 17 March 2006. The interview features in depth discussions about Knight's musical education and the artists that have shaped her outlook.
References
^ Please note: subscription needed to validate source but full copy of article can be found here
External links
Official Site
Beverley Knight 2016 Audio Interview at Soulinterviews.com
1973 births
Living people
English mezzo-sopranos
English radio DJs
British contemporary R&B singers
English women singer-songwriters
English singer-songwriters
English soul singers
English people of Jamaican descent
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Parlophone artists
Musicians from Wolverhampton
20th-century Black British women singers
Sony Music Publishing artists
Neo soul singers
English LGBT rights activists
Laurence Olivier Award winners
Musicians from the West Midlands (county)
Labour Party (UK) people
21st-century Black British women singers
British women radio presenters
East West Records artists
Leading Ladies (group) members
English musical theatre actresses |
4344726 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukhtar%20al-Thaqafi | Mukhtar al-Thaqafi | Al-Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd al-Thaqafi (; – 3 April 687) was a pro-Alid revolutionary based in Kufa, who led a rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in 685 and ruled over most of Iraq for eighteen months during the Second Fitna.
Born in Ta'if, Mukhtar moved to Iraq at a young age and grew up in Kufa. Following the death of Husayn ibn Ali, a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, at the hands of the Umayyad army in the Battle of Karbala in 680, he allied with the rival caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca, but the alliance was short-lived. Mukhtar returned to Kufa where he declared Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, a son of caliph Ali (r. 656–661) and brother of Husayn, the mahdi and the imam, and called for the establishment of an Alid caliphate and retaliation for Husayn's killing. He took over Kufa in October 685, after expelling its Zubayrid governor, and later ordered the execution of those involved in the killing of Husayn. Hostile relations with Ibn al-Zubayr ultimately led to Mukhtar's death by the forces of the Zubayrid governor of Basra, Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, following a four-month siege.
Although Mukhtar was defeated, his movement would have far-reaching consequences. After his death, his followers formed a radical Shi'a sect, later known as the Kaysanites, who developed several novel doctrines and influenced later Shi'a ideology. Mukhtar raised the social status of mawali (non-Arab local converts to Islam) and they became an important political entity. The mawali and Kaysanites went on to play a significant role in the Abbasid Revolution sixty years later. Mukhtar was important as an early proponent of treating Arab and non-Arab Muslims on an equal footing. He is a controversial figure among Muslims; condemned by many as a false prophet, but revered by Shi'a because of his support for the Alids. Modern historians' views range from regarding him as a sincere revolutionary to an ambitious opportunist.
Background
Mukhtar was born in Ta'if in 622 CE (the year that the Islamic prophet Muhammad migrated to Medina) to Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi, a Muslim army commander from the Banu Thaqif tribe, and Dawma bint Amr ibn Wahb ibn Muattib. Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became caliph. He died two years later and was succeeded by Umar, who expanded the Muslim conquests initiated by Abu Bakr, and sent Mukhtar's father Abu Ubayd to the Iraqi front. Abu Ubayd was killed at the Battle of the Bridge in November 634. Mukhtar, then thirteen years old, remained in Iraq after the Muslim conquest of this region, and was raised by his uncle Sa'd ibn Masud al-Thaqafi. Umar was assassinated by the Persian slave Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz in 644, after which his successor, Uthman, ruled for twelve years before being assassinated by rebels in 656.
After Uthman's death, Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, became caliph and moved the capital from Medina to Kufa, where Mukhtar held some minor office under him, and Mukhtar's uncle became governor of nearby al-Mada'in. A few companions of Muhammad, including Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria, refused to recognise Ali's authority, and war broke out. The Battle of Siffin ended in stalemate (July 657), when Ali's forces refused to fight in response to Mu'awiya's calls for arbitration. Ali reluctantly agreed to talks but a faction of his forces, later called Kharijites, broke away in protest, condemning Ali's acceptance of arbitration as blasphemous. Arbitration could not settle the dispute between Mu'awiya and Ali and the latter was subsequently murdered by a Kharijite in January 661.
Ali's eldest son Hasan became caliph, but Mu'awiya challenged his authority and invaded Iraq. While Hasan was mobilizing his troops, he was injured by a Kharijite near al-Mada'in and was brought to the home of Mukhtar's uncle. There, Mukhtar reportedly recommended that Hasan be handed over to Mu'awiya in return for political favour, but was rebuffed by his uncle. In August 661, Hasan abdicated the caliphate to Mu'awiya in a peace treaty and the capital was transferred to Damascus. A few years before his death, Mu'awiya nominated his son Yazid as his successor, thus founding the Umayyad Caliphate. Yazid's nomination angered Alid partisans, because it was seen as the violation of the peace treaty, which stipulated that Mu'awiya would not nominate a successor. Scant information exists about Mukhtar's early life and he only rose to prominence when he was aged around sixty.
Revolt
Upon Yazid's accession in April 680, pro-Alid Kufans urged Husayn ibn Ali, the younger brother of now deceased Hasan, to lead a revolt against Yazid. Husayn subsequently sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess the political environment in Kufa. Mukhtar hosted Ibn Aqil at his house before the arrival of Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad. The latter was appointed to replace Mukhtar's father-in-law, Nu'man ibn Bashir, as governor due to Ibn Bashir's benign attitude toward Ibn Aqil and his followers. As a result of Ibn Ziyad's suppression and political maneuvering, Ibn Aqil's following started melting away and he was forced to declare the revolt prematurely. Mukhtar was not in the city at the time. After hearing the news, he attempted to gather supporters from Kufa's environs, but Ibn Aqil's revolt was defeated and he was executed before Mukhtar returned to the city. Mukhtar was arrested and brought to the governor but he denied involvement in the revolt. While Mukhtar was imprisoned, Husayn was slain by Ibn Ziyad's forces at the Battle of Karbala on 10 October 680. Mukhtar was afterward released upon the intervention of Abd Allah ibn Umar, an influential son of the second caliph and Mukhtar's brother-in-law, and ordered to leave Kufa.
Exile in Mecca
By this time, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, a son of Muhammad's companion al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, secretly started taking allegiance in Mecca and came to control the entire Hejaz (western Arabia). Having left Kufa, Mukhtar headed for Mecca and offered allegiance to Ibn al-Zubayr on the condition that he be consulted about important matters and awarded a high post, which Ibn al-Zubayr refused. Mukhtar then left for Ta'if and, after one year, Ibn al-Zubayr, persuaded by his advisers, accepted Mukhtar's homage under the same terms. When Yazid dispatched an army to retake Mecca in 683, Mukhtar participated in the city's defence. After Yazid died in November, the Umayyad army retreated and Ibn al-Zubayr openly proclaimed his caliphate. Mukhtar was informed by people coming from Kufa that the city had come under Ibn al-Zubayr's control but many Kufans were looking for an independent leader of their own. He claimed that he was the man they were looking for. While in Mecca, he sought permission from Ali's son, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, to avenge Husayn's death and secure power for Ibn al-Hanafiyya. The latter responded that he neither approved nor disapproved of such an action, but bloodshed should be avoided. Earlier, he had made the same offer to Husayn's son Ali Zayn al-Abidin but was refused. Five months after Yazid's death, he returned to Kufa without informing Ibn al-Zubayr, who he thought had not kept his promise. Some accounts state that Ibn al-Zubayr himself sent him to Kufa as governor with instructions to gather force capable of resisting Umayyad attempts to reconquer Iraq. This is considered unlikely by the modern historians.
Return to Kufa
In Kufa, Mukhtar began recruiting people to take revenge against the killers of Husayn, promising them victory and fortune. At the same time, Sulayman ibn Surad, a companion of Muhammad and an Alid supporter, was rallying a group of Kufans, who called themselves Tawwabin, to fight the Umayyads to atone for their failure to support Husayn during the Battle of Karbala. The Tawwabin movement created difficulties for Mukhtar. Most pro-Alid Kufans supported Ibn Surad because he was Muhammad's companion, and as a result, Mukhtar was unable to attract many recruits. He criticised the Tawwabin's actions as premature and destined for failure, arguing that Ibn Surad was old, weak, and militarily inexperienced. He then claimed that he was a lieutenant of Ibn al-Hanafiyya, whom he called the Mahdi (Messiah). He convinced many Alid partisans, including some five hundred mawali (sing. mawlā; local converts to Islam), that he was working under the orders of the Mahdi.
Doubting the authenticity of Mukhtar's claims, a group of Alid partisans from Kufa went to Mecca seeking verification from Ibn al-Hanafiyya. He replied in an ambiguous manner that he was satisfied with anyone whom God uses to take revenge on enemies of the family of the prophet. They interpreted this as confirmation of Mukhtar's claims and returned to join him. To win over the hitherto unpersuaded Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar, an influential Alid partisan and head of the Nakhai tribe, Mukhtar presented him with a letter, which he claimed was authored by Ibn al-Hanafiyya. In it, Ibn al-Hanafiyya ostensibly called himself the Mahdi and urged Ibn al-Ashtar to support Mukhtar. After expressing some doubts, Ibn al-Ashtar eventually joined him. The letter was likely fabricated, and Ibn al-Hanafiyya seems to have had no involvement in the revolt. He tolerated the use of his name, however, and did not disapprove of Mukhtar's activities. Nonetheless, when he wanted to visit his followers in Kufa, he was deterred by a rumour, floated by Mukhtar upon hearing this news, that the true Mahdi would not die if struck by a sword.
Ibn al-Zubayr appointed Abd Allah ibn Yazid as governor of Kufa in 684. Fearful of Mukhtar, Ibn Yazid imprisoned him. Some time later, Abdullah ibn Umar interceded for Mukhtar, who promised to refrain from anti-government activity and was released.
Overthrow of the Zubayrid governor
After his release Mukhtar resumed his revolutionary activities. The Tawwabin were defeated by the Umayyads at the Battle of Ayn al-Warda in January 685, and most of the pro-Alid Kufans shifted allegiance to Mukhtar. Ibn al-Zubayr replaced Ibn Yazid with Abd Allah ibn Muti as governor to contain the expected agitation but to no avail. Mukhtar and his followers planned to overthrow the governor and seize control of Kufa on Thursday, 19 October 685. On the evening of 17 October Mukhtar's men clashed with government forces. Mukhtar signaled an early declaration of revolt to his troops by lighting fires. By the evening of Wednesday, 18 October, the government's forces were defeated. Ibn Muti went into hiding and later, with help from Mukhtar, escaped to Basra. The next morning, Mukhtar received allegiance from Kufans in the mosque on the basis of, "Book of God, Sunnah of the Prophet, revenge for the Prophet's family, defence of the weak and war on sinners".
Rule over Iraq
Support for Mukhtar's revolt came from two divergent groups: the Arab tribal nobility and the mawali. At first, he attempted to reconcile their differences and appease both. Most government positions, including the governorships of Mosul and al-Mada'in, were awarded to Arabs. Mawali, hitherto treated as lower-grade citizens, were entitled to war booty and army salaries and allowed to ride horses. He announced that any mawali slaves who joined him would be freed, resulting in increased support from this group. His personal guard was also staffed by mawali led by Abu Amra Kaysan. Nobles, however, were disturbed by his policies toward the mawali. At this stage he controlled most of Iraq and its dependencies including Arminiya, Adharbayjan, Jibal and parts of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia). Efforts by his supporters to take Basra, which was under Zubayrid control, did not succeed. By then Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan had taken reigns of the Umayyad power in Syria and was struggling to regain control of the lost provinces.
Counter-coup
One year after the Battle of Ayn al-Warda, the Umayyad army occupied Mosul and headed for Kufa. Mukhtar sent three thousand cavalrymen under the command of Yazid ibn Anas. On 17 July 686, they defeated the Umayyad army, twice their size, near Mosul. That evening, after ordering the execution of all the Syrian captives, Ibn Anas died of an illness. Having lost their commander, the Kufans retreated in the face of another Umayyad army. In Kufa, rumour spread that Mukhtar's forces had been defeated and Ibn Anas slain. In response, Mukhtar deployed seven thousand reinforcements headed by Ibn al-Ashtar. Taking advantage of the troops' absence, the Kufan nobility, whose relations with Mukhtar had grown estranged due to his favouritism toward the mawali, attempted to topple Mukhtar by besieging his palace. They accused him of robbing their prestige: Despite the siege, Mukhtar was able to recall Ibn al-Ashtar. Three days after its departure from Kufa, Ibn al-Ashtar's army returned and defeated the revolt.
After eliminating his opposition, Mukhtar enacted punitive measures against those involved in the battle of Karbala. He executed most of them, including Umar ibn Sa'd and Shimr ibn Ziljawshan. Many others were killed under the pretext of their direct or indirect involvement in the battle, while about ten thousand Kufans fled to Basra. The houses of many absconders were destroyed. This further reduced Arab support for Mukhtar and he became increasingly reliant on mawali.
Battle of Khazir
Two days after reasserting control over Kufa, Mukhtar dispatched Ibn al-Ashtar with a thirteen thousand-strong force to confront the approaching Umayyad army led by Ibn Ziyad. Some of Mukhtar's soldiers carried a chair, circling around it, which they claimed belonged to Ali and would give them victory in the battle. The idea is said to have been Mukhtar's. He had invented it to increase his support among more religious people and compared it to the Ark of the Covenant, but orientalist Julius Wellhausen holds he was not the originator of the concept. He allowed them to carry the chair, as he needed their zeal. The armies met at the banks of Khazir River in early August 686. The Umayyad army was defeated, and many of the senior Umayyad military leaders including Ibn Ziyad and Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni were killed. The exact date of the battle is unknown, although some sources put it on 6 August, coinciding with 10 Muharram, the date of Husayn's death. The death of Ibn Ziyad was seen as the fulfillment of Mukhtar's promise of revenge against Husayn's killers.
Relations with Ibn al-Zubayr
Sometime after expelling Ibn Muti, Mukhtar complained to Ibn al-Zubayr about the failure to keep his promise, despite Mukhtar having served him well. Mukhtar, nonetheless, offered his support if needed. Though Ibn al-Zubayr had considered Mukhtar loyal, the latter refused to surrender his control of Kufa to the caliph's appointed governor, Umar ibn Abd al-Rahman. The governor left the city after being bribed and threatened by Mukhtar.
In 686, Mukhtar feigned an offer of military support to Ibn al-Zubayr against an impending Umayyad attack on Medina with the ultimate intention of ousting him. Ibn al-Zubayr accepted and requested troops to Wadi al-Qura, a valley north of Medina, but instead, Mukhtar dispatched three thousand fighters under Shurahbil ibn Wars with orders to enter Medina until further notice. Meanwhile, Ibn al-Zubayr sent his confidant Abbas ibn Sahl at the head of a two thousand-strong force with instructions to escort Ibn Wars and his men to Wadi al-Qura in anticipation of the Syrian army and to kill Mukhtar's loyalists if they refused. Ibn Wars indeed refused and was killed along with most of his men. Mukhtar subsequently informed Ibn al-Hanafiyya of his foiled plan to seize the region for the Alid and offered to send another army to Medina if Ibn al-Hanafiyya notified the city's inhabitants that Mukhtar was working on his behalf. Ibn al-Hanafiyya refused, citing his opposition to bloodshed. Nonetheless, Ibn al-Zubayr, after becoming aware of Mukhtar's intentions and fearing a pro-Alid revolt in the Hejaz, detained Ibn al-Hanafiyya to forcibly gain his allegiance, hoping Mukhtar would follow suit. Ibn al-Hanafiyya requested help from Mukhtar, who subsequently dispatched a four thousand-strong force to free him. This caused a further deterioration in relations between Mecca and Kufa.
Death
In 687, Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, the governor of Basra and younger brother of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, launched an assault against Kufa. A sizable portion of his army consisted of Kufan nobles, who had previously fled Mukhtar's punitive measures. The size of Mukhtar's Kufan army is not certain with ranges between three thousand to sixty thousand, depending on the source. The Kufans retreated following their defeat at the battles of Madhar, located along the Tigris between Basra and Kufa, and Harura, a village near Kufa. Mus'ab then besieged Mukhtar's palace for four months. Ibn al-Ashtar, who was then governor of Mosul, did not attempt to relieve Mukhtar, either because he was not called to action, or because he refused Mukhtar's summons. In either case, he later joined Mus'ab. On 3 April 687, Mukhtar came out of the palace accompanied by nineteen supporters, (the remainder had refused to fight), and was killed fighting. Soon afterward, Mukhtar's remaining partisans, totaling about six thousand, surrendered and were executed by Mus'ab. One of Mukhtar's wives, Umrah bint Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari, refused to denounce her husband's views and was consequently executed, while his other wife condemned him and was spared. Mukhtar's hand was cut off and hung on the wall of the mosque. His grave is, reportedly, located inside the shrine of Muslim ibn Aqil, at the back of the Great Mosque of Kufa. Some sources, however, state that Mus'ab had burned his body.
Legacy
Though Mukhtar ruled for less than two years, his ideology survived his death. It was during his rule that the mawali rose to significance, much to the dissatisfaction of the Kufan Arab nobility. He had proclaimed Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya as the Mahdi and the Imam. This was likely the first reference to the Mahdi in the history of Islam. This idea became influential afterward, particularly in Shi'a Islam, where it became one of its central tenets. He was the first person to introduce the concept of Bada' (change in the divine will), when after defeat at the battle of Madhar, for which he had claimed he was promised victory, he said that God had changed his plan.
His followers later developed into a distinct Shi'a sect known as the Kaysanites. They introduced the doctrines of Occultation (Ghayba) and Return (Raj'a) of the Mahdi. After the death of Ibn al-Hanafiyya, some Kaysanites believed that he had not died but was hidden in Mount Radwa and would return some day to rid the world of injustice. Most Kaysanites, however, declared his son Abu Hashim to be their Imam. He then transferred the Imamate to Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abd Allah ibn Abbas before dying. The Abbasids used this as a propaganda tool during their revolution to boost their legitimacy and appeal to pro-Alid masses. Two of Muhammad ibn Ali's sons, al-Saffah and al-Mansur, would eventually establish the Abbasid Caliphate. Describing similarities between Mukhtar and Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim, who recruited both Arabs and mawali in his army and treated them as equals, Wellhausen writes: "If the doctrine of Raj'a is correct, then the Arab of Khutarnia [Mukhtar] came to life again in the Maula [mawlā] of Khutarnia [Abu Muslim]."
Many Muslims hold Mukhtar a liar who claimed prophethood and consider him an enemy of the Alids, who used their name to gain power, and executed Husayn's killers to consolidate his support among pro-Alids. According to Wellhausen, although he did not explicitly call himself a prophet, the allegations took root because of his boasting and excessive claims, which he made in the rhymed prose style of ancient Arabian soothsayers. Muhammad is reported to have said: "In Thaqif there will be a great liar and destroyer." To them, the liar is Mukhtar and the destroyer is Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Shi'a, on the other hand, regard him a sincere partisan of Ali and his family, who avenged the murder of Husayn and his company. They maintain that the allegations levelled against him regarding prophethood, his role in the Kaysanites sect, and his lust for power are Umayyad and Zubayrid propaganda. Early Shi'a, however, had a hostile opinion of him, that arose from his attitude toward Hasan and his alleged incompetence during Ibn Aqil's revolt. His proclamation of Ibn al-Hanafiyya, a non-Fatimid, may also have contributed to this as most Shi'a in later times adhered to the Fatimid line of Alids.
Views of the Alid family
There are differing accounts of how prominent members of the Alid family viewed Mukhtar. One account holds that Husayn's son and the fourth Shi'a Imam, Ali Zayn al-Abidin, prayed for him after seeing the heads of Ibn Ziyad and Umar ibn Sa'd, while another account holds that he rejected Mukhtar's gifts and called him a liar. Husayn's grandson, Muhammad al-Baqir, praised him: "Do not curse al-Mukhtār, for he killed those who killed us, sought our revenge, married our widows, and distributed wealth among us in times of hardship." Al-Baqir further praised him when Mukhtar's son asked al-Baqir about his opinion of Mukhtar. Husayn's great-grandson, Ja'far al-Sadiq, is reported to have said: "The Hāshimites neither combed nor dyed their hair until al-Mukhtār sent us the heads of those who killed al-Ḥusayn." Ja'far al-Sadiq is also reported to have said that Mukhtar used to lie about Ali Zayn al-Abidin.
Modern scholarly views
While early historical accounts are unanimous in portraying Mukhtar in a negative light, modern historians hold a variety of views. Wellhausen writes that although Mukhtar did not claim to be a prophet, he made every effort to create the impression that he was one, and spoke in a way as if he sat in the counsel of God. He concludes that Mukhtar was nevertheless a sincere man who tried to eradicate the social differences of his time. He further argues that Mukhtar made extravagant claims and exploited Ibn al-Hanafiyya's name out of necessity, as he could not have achieved his goal in his own name. He calls him "... one of the greatest men of Islamic history; [who] anticipated the future". Historian Hugh Kennedy writes that Mukhtar was a revolutionary who tried to put together a united Kufan coalition but was beset by internal divisions and let down by the Alid family. Before his death, Mukhtar is reported to have said: Israeli scholar and critic Moshe Sharon describes this as an accurate description of his activities. Professor Abdulaziz Sachedina, on the other hand, calls him an ambitious politician who manipulated the religious sentiments of common people for his own good.
Popular references
As with Maqtal-namas narrating the synthesized version of the story of Karbala, various Mukhtar-namas romanticizing the events of the life and movement of Mukhtar were written during the Safavid era. An Iranian television series, Mokhtar Nameh, based on the Shi'a perspective of his life and revolt, was produced in 2009 garnering significant popularity.
Notes
References
Sources
622 births
687 deaths
Banu Thaqif
Iraqi Muslims
Iraq under the Umayyad Caliphate
People of the Second Fitna
7th-century Arab people
7th-century people from the Umayyad Caliphate
Tabi‘un |
4344750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-right%20politics%20in%20Croatia | Far-right politics in Croatia | Far-right politics in Croatia () refers to any manifestation of far-right politics in the Republic of Croatia. Individuals and groups in Croatia that employ far-right politics are most often associated with the historical Ustaše movement, hence they have connections to Neo-Nazism and neo-fascism. That World War II political movement was an extremist organization at the time supported by the German Nazis and the Italian Fascists. The association with the Ustaše has been called "Neo-Ustashism" by Slavko Goldstein.
The common perception is that the far right includes people who were either involved with the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during World War II; sympathizers; and people who utilise their symbolism. The far right mainly arose from a combination of the residual hatred from the Yugoslav wars and Croatian nationalism.
Pro-Ustaša symbols and actions have been restricted by law in Croatia since 2003. The most common venue for expressing these beliefs is graffiti.
Background
The Ustaše was a Croatian right-wing ultranationalist movement founded in 1929 by Ante Pavelić. After the establishment of the 6 January Dictatorship by Alexander I of Yugoslavia, Pavelić fled to Italy where he set up his organization's headquarters. Prior to World War II the Ustaše functioned as a paramilitary and terrorist organization, as it sought the separation of Croatia from Yugoslavia into an independent state through violent means. Notably, it was involved in the assassination of King Alexander in 1934 with the assistance of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO). The Ustaše however lacked broad support due to its radical and violent nature. When Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, its territories were occupied by German, Italian and Hungarian forces. A German puppet-state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established and ruled by Pavelić and the Ustaše. During the Second World War, the Ustaše conducted genocide against Serbs, Roma and Jews within their borders. The Jasenovac concentration camp was a notorious death camp where extermination of these groups took place. After the war ended, many of the Ustaše fled to safety abroad in countries like Argentina and Spain. In 1957 Pavelić was wounded after an assassination attempt on him and died two years later from his injuries.
Several far-right political parties in Croatia trace their roots to Ante Starčević and view the Independent State of Croatia as a legitimate foundational state. Most openly declare their affiliation with the Ustaše. Across the right-wing spectrum, various common themes emerge with varying degrees of which include the desire for a Greater Croatia, a negative stance towards the ICTY, anti-Serbianism, positive view of the NDH and negative attitudes towards NATO and the European Union.
Za dom spremni ("Ready for the Homeland") was the WWII fascist salute used by the Ustaše and is considered to be the equivalent of the Nazi German Sieg heil. In some elements of Croatian society there is a narrative that claims the usage of the greeting predates the Ustaše, a claim that is rejected by the scholarly consensus. Since Croatia's independence, the salute has become "re-popularized" through public discourse by the right-wing.
Croatian far right during Yugoslavia
At the end of World War II, the Communist authorities pursued a strict set of policies which could be deemed as a form of denazification, only more similar to the Soviet style than to the American style. People who collaborated with the Ustaše were often court-martialled at the end of the war, and there were extrajudicial killings of collaborationist troops in the Bleiburg repatriations. Trials against suspected collaborators continued long after the end of the war. In the 1980s, Andrija Artuković was extradited to Yugoslavia from the United States, and prosecuted in SR Croatia where he died in a prison hospital. The secret service exercised harsh control over both citizens with links to the Ustaše and mere Croatian nationalists. UDBA continuously monitored the Croatian diaspora, and was implicated in numerous assassinations, notably that of Bruno Bušić in 1978.
In the aftermath of WWII, a guerrilla/terrorist anti-communist and Croatian nationalist insurgency group, the Crusaders, formed, and carried out terrorist acts against the new multi-ethnic communist state. Between 1962 and 1982, Croatian nationalist groups carried out 128 terror attacks against Yugoslav civilian and military targets; notably it bombed a JAT plane killing 27 people in 1972. All of these groups operated outside of Yugoslavia, given the Yugoslav regime's consolidation of power which made it difficult for them to operate inside the country.
Early independent political scene
In the process of the breakup of Yugoslavia, Croatia gained independence from the SFR Yugoslavia in the 1990s. The modern Croatia was formed long after World War II was over, and aside from occasional exceptions, there was no desire by the Croatian political elite to associate the new country with the former Independent State of Croatia, or to revisit the status of Croatia as a member of the winning side of that war.
Nevertheless, the introduction of the freedom of speech enabled public expression of far-right politics. The new mainstream politics showed significantly more courtesy to the Ustaše for their desire to make Croatia independent, but they were neither rehabilitated nor explicitly banned. Subsequently, no new laws were passed in the 1990s that specifically targeted the issues of Nazism or fascism. The primary reason for the disregard of past fascism in Croatia has been a lack of priority and care taken by the Croatian public and the mainstream politics towards the issue, because numerous other issues plagued the country at the time. The late president of Croatia, Franjo Tuđman, who had been a Partisan general who had fought the Ustaše, became a champion of reconciliation (Croatian pomirenje or pomirba), whereby Croats of all political views should unite against the shared threat from Serbia. This had the effect of also bringing pro-Ustaše Croats into the fray, their philosophy and ideas no longer taboo. Tuđman publicly stated that the Ustaša state was not only criminal in nature but also an expression of the desire of Croats to regain their independence after centuries. Such a notion could be considered true in view of Croatia's long historical struggle for independence, but does not give enough consideration to the puppet-state status of the NDH. After the war more anti-fascist-inclined people were no longer willing to set aside political differences with the more fascist-inclined.
At the time, Croatia was often accused of ignoring the crimes committed by the World War II-era fascist Ustaša regime, and of tolerating the symbols and the activities of individuals sympathetic to that regime. This has led to criticism of Croatia, particularly among Serbs. This was exacerbated with war-time propaganda for the Yugoslav wars. The antagonism between the Croats and the Serbs grew, and had become widespread by the time the Croatian War of Independence had started. The Croatian-Serbian animosity during the Yugoslav wars was viewed by some as a rivalry between the "Ustaša" and the "Chetnik", even if both of these World War II-era organizations did not actually exist at the time. To some extent, it is a consequence of wartime propaganda, in the course of which such moralistic debasement is common.
In the absence of a specific policy or laws against it, instances of pro-Ustaše sentiment and hate speech were rarely sanctioned, to the dismay of the left-leaning public, as well the Serbs of Croatia who were the most common targets.
Among the organizations formed during wartime which were most commonly associated with neo-Ustashism was the Croatian Defence Forces (Hrvatske obrambene snage, HOS), which emerged as the de facto paramilitary wing of the Croatian Party of Rights. Their symbols included dressing in black, at the time widely perceived to be reminiscent of blackshirts, and using the phrase Za dom spremni. These units, however, quickly fell out of favor with the Croatian authorities and were eliminated through more or less violent means before the end of the first phase of the war in Croatia. In recent years the HOS has gained popularity, their members making appearances during state war commemorations.
The far-right part of the Croatian political scene in the 1990s was fragmented between various right-wing political parties: primarily Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and Croatian Party of Rights (HSP), as well as other smaller parties such as the Croatian Christian Democratic Union (HKDU), the Croatian Party of Rights 1861 (HSP 1861) and Croatian Pure Party of Rights (HČSP).
Defacement of monuments
From 1991 until 2010, 3000 monuments erected in honour of the Partisans have been damaged or destroyed throughout the country, and these incidents were generally not censured by the authorities at all. Furthermore, the devastation of World War II partisan monuments also often extended to those erected in honor of civilian victims of war, also with little or no intervention from the police. The defacements occurred during a period when communist parties lost power in much of Eastern Europe.
Political parties
Active
The Croatian Party of Rights (HSP), far-right with a blend of ultra-nationalism and free market economics. Gained 7% of votes in the 1992 Croatian parliamentary election and five seats in the Croatian parliament. Since then it has attracted less support. The HSP's military wing, the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS), participated in the Croatian War of Independence and openly displayed Ustaše symbols.
The Croatian Pure Party of Rights (HČSP), far-right or neo-fascist and ultranationalist, founded by Ivan Gabelica and Nedeljko Gabelica. A marginal party with some representation in local municipalities. It holds an annual event on 10 April to celebrate the establishment of the NDH. It also protests the Pride parade and commemorations for Ustaše victims.
The Miroslav Škoro Homeland Movement (DPMŠ), right-wing nationalist or far-right party founded by folk singer Miroslav Škoro.
The coalition led by the Miroslav Škoro's far-right Miroslav Škoro Homeland Movement|Homeland Movement came third at the 2020 parliamentary election, winning 10.89% of the vote and 16 seats. The abortion debate was one of the leading topics during political debates, while the Homeland Movement advocated a ban on abortion.
Defunct
The Croatian Democratic Party of Rights (HDSP), extreme-right or neo-fascist, founded by Krešimir Pavelić that was active during the 1990s.
The National Democratic League (NDL), extreme-right or neo-fascist, led by Ivan Vekić.
Croatian Block (HB), extreme-right and militant, founded in 2004 and disbanded in 2009.
Post-war political scene
WWII Genocide Denial
In recent times, mainstream Croatian politicians, such as Stjepan Mesić, brought more focus to anti-fascist stances and veterans groups. Remembrance ceremonies at the site of Jasenovac concentration camp resumed, with support from the highest levels of government, including the right-wing HDZ under Ivo Sanader.
The World War II war crimes committed by the Ustaše had been processed in Yugoslavia, but some cases had protracted long enough to become the responsibility of the modern-day Croatian authorities. In 1999, Croatia extradited Dinko Šakić from Argentina, one of the commanders of the Jasenovac concentration camp, and he was subsequently tried and sentenced to 20 years in prison, at the time the highest penalty under Croatian law.
The conservative parties such as the Croatian Party of Rights (HSP) and the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) permeated in their support for extreme forms of nationalism and far-right ideas. This has been particularly apparent in the latter, which has a large membership and voter base and appeals to a broad spectrum of right-wing voters.
The two-time prime minister Ivo Sanader of HDZ came to power after promoting himself as an avid advocate of Croatian general Mirko Norac in 2001. The far-right position with regard to war crimes committed in the Croatian war of independence has been one of a general denial - the Croatian side is seen as inherently not responsible for any crimes because its role in the war is one of a victim. This view is the extreme form of the position taken by the Supreme Court of Croatia, which allows "pursuit of a legitimate goal of defending one's country against an armed aggression" to be considered a mitigating circumstance in war crimes trials. In general, with respect to processing war crimes, the Croatian Government (mostly under HDZ) has had a rather spotty record for processing those committed by Croats. Pressure from the European Union helped rectify this. After Sanader and HDZ were elected in 2003, Norac was prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law. Croatia has also been cooperating with the ICTY in the legal prosecution of all persons accused of war crimes, which has included Croatian officers, notably Ante Gotovina, who was acquitted of all charges by the ICTY on 16 November 2012.
Parties like the Croatian Party of Rights which are most commonly associated with Ustašism generally aren't able to attract support from more than a few percent of the population (HSP coalition won 6.4% of the national popular vote in the 2003 election and 3.5% in the 2007 election). In recent times, the HSP's image of "pro-Ustaša" was repetitively shunned by its leaders in an attempt to sway more votes. The Croatian Pure Party of Rights openly praises the Ustaše regime, though the party does not meet the minimum number of votes needed to enter Parliament.
On 11 July 2003 the Ivica Račan coalition government passed amendments to the penal code which outlawed hate speech, in a new section titled Praising fascist, Nazi and other totalitarian states and ideologies or promotion of racism and xenophobia.
The law is not perfectly applied, evidenced by the examples of regular public display of Ustasha memorabilia by the group "Hrvatski domobran" from Zadar that only recently started to get sanctioned by the police.
On 20 June 2006 Croatian prime minister Ivo Sanader issued a message ahead of the Anti-Fascist Struggle Day (an official holiday in Croatia), in which he rejected extremism and radicalism, and said that "antifascism was a commitment weaved into the foundations of independent, democratic Croatia".
Croatia has no laws against historical revisionism or Holocaust denial. This can be attributed to the change of political system, and the change in the entire system of values as the country became independent. Revisionism was not frowned upon because priority was placed on the re-evaluation of history as recorded during the Communist era, which was therefore deemed almost implicitly tainted, because it systematically omitted or misrepresented issues related to what was perceived to be Croatian nationalism. On the other hand, the revision of history books often went too far in making them increasingly focused on Croatian national issues, even with far-right interpretations of various World War II events. The re-examination of the number of victims of the Independent State of Croatia, particularly the Jasenovac concentration camp and Genocide of Serbs, was fairly common, as well as fairly controversial. Statistical research such as that by Vladimir Žerjavić indicated serious flaws with Yugoslav data, whose sources had been kept secret until 1989.
Croatia's far-right often advocates the false theory that Jasenovac was a "labour camp" where mass murder did not take place. Among them is the far-right NGO "The Society for Research of the Threefold Jasenovac Camp" which also claims that the camp was used by the Yugoslav authorities following the war to imprison Ustasha members and regular Home Guard army troops until 1948, then alleged Stalinists until 1951. Members of the organization includes public figures such as journalist Igor Vukić, Catholic priest Stjepan Razum and academic Josip Pečarić. The ideas promoted by its members have been amplified by mainstream media interviews and book tours. Vukić's book "The Jasenovac Lie Revealed" prompted the Simon Wiesenthal Center to urge Croatian authorities to ban such works, noting that they "would immediately be banned in Germany and Austria and rightfully so". Croatian filmmaker Jakov Sedlar also peddled this theory in his documentary Jasenovac – The Truth, bringing accusations of holocaust and genocide denial from organisations representing the ethnic groups that were the primary victims of the camp.
In November 2016 in Jasenovac, a plaque with the slogan "Za dom spremni" was unveiled.
Graffiti
Far-right extremist graffiti in Croatia often targets ethnic Serbs, Roma and homosexuals.
The conflation of modern and obsolete nationalist themes sometimes produces bizarre inconsistencies, as shown at picture on the right: at the time when the ICTY wanted Croatian general Janko Bobetko, the right-wing part of the public was adamant in its demands to prevent that, and some extremist painted graffiti saying so, together with neo-fascist symbols. At the same time, Bobetko was quite clearly not a neo-fascist himself, because his family was killed by the Ustaše, and he fought against them.
Names of squares and streets
A square in the central part of Zagreb had been named the "Square of the victims of fascism" (Trg žrtava fašizma) because during World War II, over sixteen thousand people had been deported via the square to concentration camps. In the early 1990s, this square was renamed to "Square of great Croats" (Trg hrvatskih velikana). This decision was later reverted in December 2000 during Milan Bandić's mayoralty of Zagreb.
In several Croatian cities, streets were renamed after Mile Budak, a prominent Ustaša ideologist, on the basis that he was otherwise a writer. The moves to hail Budak this way, were supported by 120 university professors, scholars, and other public figures. Conversely, the leftist newspaper Feral Tribune regularly satirized the Mile Budak streets, and its journalists explicitly criticized this trend.
The renaming of streets and squares after Budak (and other Ustaša-related people) has mostly been reversed by recent governments. In 2003, Ivo Sanader's government decided to finally deal with the issue which resulted in a decision to rename all the streets bearing Budak's name. In 2004, a plaque commemorating Budak's birth in the village of Sveti Rok was removed by the same authorities. Numerous local authorities however refused to follow up with the renames or delayed them.
On 6 October 2009, the Croatian extreme right-wing NGO, the Croatian Cultural Movement (HUP), publicly declared its intention to erect a monument in honour of former Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić in Zagreb adjacent to the capital's centre square. The Israeli director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center slammed the proposed monument as a falsification of history and an insult to the memory of the victims of the NDH. No such monument was actually erected.
Popular culture
In the world of popular culture, the pop/folk/rock singer Marko Perković (Thompson) caused a scandal when the media obtained a copy song Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara allegedly sung by him. Perković was reportedly not prosecuted for this due to uncertainty as to whether it was really he who sang the song. He has appeared on public television, and can still sometimes be seen on it, even though mainstream TV stations do tend to avoid him in order to avoid controversy. His concerts regularly attract the far-right crowd.
It has been widely alleged that he achieved such large attendances with the support of right-wing political organizations who helped rally people to the concerts. He has been banned from performing in Netherlands and other states that do not allow display of Nazi symbols and celebration of the Holocaust, although his group (Thompson) performed at SS Cyril and Methodius Roman Catholic church in Manhattan in November 2007, despite well-reported controversy and criticism from the Simon Wiesenthal Center.
Thompson himself has denied he has anything to do with Nazism numerous times, and called the campaign against him cheap propaganda, saying he was merely a proud Croatian.
Catholic clergy
A part of the Catholic clergy in Croatia openly praises the Ustaše regime and denies any wrongdoing from the side of Croats and Catholic Church. Praise for the regime is primarily expressed through commemorations for Ante Pavelić on 28 December, the date of his death. Catholic representatives do not attend Holocaust commemorations but they regularly attend Bleiburg commemorations.
Controversy was caused in June 2008 when Croatian military bishop Juraj Jezerinac sang a song named Bijeli golubovi by Marko Perković Thompson, the controversial singer mentioned above, during a sermon in a church in Vukovar. The song contained also the NDH motto "Za dom spremni".
Simon Wiesenthal Center director Efraim Zuroff complained to the Croatian president Stjepan Mesić about the funeral of Dinko Šakić, one of the leaders of the army of the Independent State of Croatia, who died in July 2008. At that funeral, Croatian Dominican priest pater Vjekoslav Lasić held a speech in which he said that "the court that indicted Dinko Šakić indicted Croatia and Croatians", and that "every Croat should be proud of Šakić's name".
Sports
Ultranationalist Croats have shouted the slogan "Kill the Serb" during some sporting events. According to some Croatian media, a group of youths chanted this during a concert by Marko Perković Thompson.
In January 2006, the Ustasha song "Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara" was played publicly during the interval of an international club volleyball match. Officials later attributed the incident to a single individual, and the police did not intervene.
During a friendly 2006 match between Croatia and Italy in Livorno, a group of some 200 Croatian fans arranged themselves into a "human swastika" formation, with many also performing Nazi salutes, allegedly in response to leftist Italian fans jeering at the Croatian national anthem and waving Yugoslav communist flags. UEFA penalized the Croatian Football Federation for the incident.
In 2007, Croatian football fans formed the letter U in a stadium during a match in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In October 2007, the Croatian newspaper Slobodna Dalmacija reported that NK Imotski's official clothing items featured Ustaša-related symbols (The letter U and the Independent State of Croatia-resembling coat of arms inside the letter. That was, in fact, the logo of the club's leading sponsor, the edile company gUj (meaning "Gojko Und Jure"). Some historians and critics claim the symbols display is an open praising of the Ustaše. The club's president, Nediljko Tolo, said: "As long as the sponsor finances our club, we will carry those symbols on our dresses". In early November 2007, the Croatian Second League Association announced that NK Imotski violated FIFA, Croatian Football Federation rules and laws of the Republic of Croatia. NK Imotski had to end a sponsorship deal with gUj until the company changes its logo. NK Imotski had to find new uniforms for the players and remove all gUj advertisements around the stadium.
In November 2007, it was reported that members of the Hajduk Split supporters' group, Torcida Split, were wearing black T-shirts featuring the words "Hajduk jugend" (alluding to Hitlerjugend) in Fraktur and an eagle atop Hajduk's logo (resembling a Nazi Party symbol). The T-shirts were also being sold on Torcida's website. Stipe Lekić, the secretary of Torcida said to reporters that "Torcida has always been leaning to the right", but rejecting accusations that the T-shirts have connections with Nazism. He said that he was wearing the T-shirt because he liked the symbols.
Also in November 2007, a swastika appeared on Osijek's Gradski vrt football field, together with the slogan "Play, fags!" That was, reportedly done before the match with Međimurje. NK Osijek's and their Kohorta fan association condemned the acts.
In June 2012, the Croatian and German football federations were fined for singing songs associated with Nazism and wearing Nazi symbols.
In November 2013, after the FIFA World Cup 2014 Qualification match between Croatia and Iceland, the Croatian defender of Australian descent, Josip Šimunić, reportedly celebrated and motivated the crowd with the Ustashe chant "Za dom, Spremni" upon Croatian qualification to the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Simunic was disciplined by FIFA in December with a ten-match suspension and a fine of CHF 30,000.
Croatian Wikipedia
In September 2013 complaints about right-wing bias of administrators and editors on the Croatian Wikipedia arose. Those complaints were already present, but they started receiving media attention after the launch of a Facebook page titled Razotkrivanje sramotne hr.wikipedije (Exposing the shameful Croatian Wikipedia) whose creators warned the media about the bias. Croatia's Minister of Science, Education and Sports, Željko Jovanović, called for pupils and students in Croatia to avoid using the Croatian Wikipedia. Snježana Koren, a historian at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, has judged the disputed articles as "biased and malicious, partly even illiterate". She further added that "These are the types of articles you can find on the pages of fringe organizations and movements, but there should be no place for that on Wikipedia", expressing doubts on the ability of its authors to distinguish good from evil. Koren concludes that the ulterior motive of such writings is to rehabilitate the Independent State of Croatia, a Nazi Germany puppet state, and that "there is no other way to characterize such efforts than as Ustashe movement".
See also
List of neo-Nazi organizations
Anti-Serb sentiment
Radical right (Europe)
Far-right politics in Serbia
References
External links
Ustaški pokret
Political movements in Croatia
Politics of Croatia
Croatia
Political history of Croatia
Far-right politics in Europe
Croatian nationalism
Croatian irredentism
Anti-immigration politics in Europe
Fascist movements
Anti-Islam sentiment in Croatia |
4344968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roark%20family | Roark family | The Roark family is a fictional dynasty from Frank Miller's graphic novel series Sin City.
The family is made up of corrupt officials and landowners of Irish descent, who hold absolute power in Basin City. They are the main antagonists in the series, and are frequent catalysts to various plots and storylines. Several of their associates also serve as villains within the stories.
History
The family founded what would become Basin City during the Gold Rush, when a Roark ancestor brought with him a large number of foreign prostitutes to the gold mining camp. The prostitutes were immediately popular, turning a small camp into a thriving city. Over the years, the prostitutes themselves eventually split from the family and formed their own district reserved specifically for prostitution. This red light district would later be known as Old Town.
In the time period of the comics, the Roark dynasty is currently thriving, with family members in the United States Senate, an Attorney General and a Cardinal.
Family members
Cardinal Roark
Patrick Henry Roark, otherwise known as Cardinal Roark, appears in The Hard Goodbye as the brother of Senator Roark and Attorney General Roark and the uncle of Roark Junior. According to Marv, he was once a doctor and priest serving in the medical corps during either World War II or the Korean War. He earned significant praise as a result and later became a Cardinal, gaining much political influence and extending the corruption within Basin City. Marv also mentioned that the Cardinal's influence is what allowed his brother to become a Senator.
While serving the clergy, Cardinal Roark met Kevin, a cannibalistic young serial killer who mutilated and ate Old Town's prostitutes, believing he was devouring their souls. Convinced that Kevin has been spoken to by God, Cardinal Roark shelters him at the Roark family farm outside the city. He also joins in on Kevin's crimes, consuming parts of his victims' corpses.
The Old Town prostitute Goldie learns of these shocking crimes and prepares to inform the other prostitutes; she spends a night with Marv to gain his protection, but Cardinal Roark sends in Kevin to murder Goldie, and then frames Marv for the crime. Marv then hunts down several members of the city's underworld to find Goldie's killer, eventually killing Kevin at the farm. In the end, he finally breaks into the Cardinal's bedroom. Cardinal Roark calmly and resignedly explains the story to Marv, who then proceeds to murder him. It is never actually shown how Marv kills him, but it's implied he breaks Roark's jugular with his thumbs.
In the 2005 film adaptation, Cardinal Roark was portrayed by Rutger Hauer. Hauer was one of the last actors to be cast, completing his role several months after Mickey Rourke, who portrayed Marv, had finished shooting. The only time they appear on-screen in the same shot is during their final confrontation, which was later edited in post-production utilizing both of their performances.
Senator Roark
Senator Ethan Roark is the main antagonist of Sin City. He is a rich and corrupt politician, who largely holds Basin City in his grip. These privileges are inherited by his son, Roark Junior. Senator Roark once beat his wife to death with a baseball bat, for which he was never arrested, even though (by his own admission) he left his fingerprints all over the crime scene. He is the younger brother of Cardinal Patrick Henry Roark; the third brother serves as the US Attorney General (not featured in the story).
Senator Roark hopes for his son to one day become President of the United States, but Junior has a serious problem: he enjoys raping and murdering pre-teen girls. Senator Roark frequently uses his police connections to cover up his son's crimes, but when Junior kidnaps 11-year-old Nancy Callahan, Detective John Hartigan intervenes and shoots off Junior's ear, hand, and genitals.
Senator Roark then visits Hartigan in the hospital, smugly explaining that he actually has no intention of killing him whatsoever. Instead, he plans to finance Hartigan's medical treatment to keep him alive; his ultimate plan is to frame Hartigan for Junior's crimes while Junior slowly recovers from surgery. He also says that he can and will kill anyone to whom Hartigan tells the truth. Hartigan serves eight years in prison until he finally confesses to Junior's crimes, with the Senator personally appearing at his parole hearing. During these years, the Senator had recourse to alternative medicines in order to heal his son and restore his reproductive organs, to eventually obtain an heir for his dynasty.
By the end of the story, Hartigan exacts his revenge on Junior; he then commits suicide, rendering Senator Roark unable to have his own revenge. In the final narration, Hartigan mentions that the Roark family line is ended, and the Senator's plans for a legacy destroyed (though there remains the third Roark brother, the Attorney General, he is not featured and has no visible connections with the city or his brothers, meaning Roark's nephews by him presumably would and could not fulfill Junior's role): Hartigan reflects as he dies that, with the Roarks eliminated, it is more likely that Sin City may one day change for the better.
Senator Roark was portrayed by Powers Boothe in the movie. The role was also offered to Christopher Walken and Willem Dafoe, who both turned it down. Boothe reprises his role in the 2014 sequel, where he is the central villain in the two original stories. In "The Long Bad Night," he is beaten at a high-stakes poker game by Johnny, a cocky young gambler who Roark realizes is his illegitimate son by an unknown prostitute though Roark contemptuously admits that he will only ever recognize his legitimate son, Roark Jr. After Roark arranges for Johnny's hand to be broken, shoots him in the leg, and kills Johnny's companion Marcie, Roark is challenged again the following night. Johnny defeats Roark again at poker and tells Roark that he will be haunted by the fact that he was beaten twice by the same man; Roark shoots Johnny dead and orders his men to dispose of the gambler's body. In "Nancy's Last Dance," Roark is aware that Nancy Callahan seeks to avenge Hartigan's sacrifice by killing him, but dismisses her as an actual threat despite wishing to kill her for her role in Roark Jr's death. Nancy, with the aid of Marv, is able to break into Roark's estate, where he gains the advantage after shooting her several times. However, Roark is distracted by a shade of Hartigan, allowing Nancy to recover and kill Roark.
Roark Junior
Ethan Roark Jr. / the Yellow Bastard, is the son of Senator Roark and nephew of Cardinal Roark. His public profile is that of a handsome young rich playboy; he is in fact a sadistic pedophilic serial killer who rapes and murders pre-pubescent girls. (It's implied that he "came by his proclivities honestly" at the Roark family farm.) These atrocities are frequently covered up by his father and the Basin City police department, but Detective John Hartigan is nevertheless determined to bring him to justice. When Junior kidnaps the 11-year-old Nancy Callahan, intent on making her his fourth victim, Hartigan pursues him and kills his thugs before shooting Junior himself, blowing off his hand, his ear, and his genitals. Junior lapses into a coma as a result of these traumatic injuries.
As Junior undergoes years of surgeries to repair his limbs and genitals, Hartigan is framed for Junior's crimes and serves eight years in prison. The surgeries leave Junior horribly malformed; he now has bright yellow skin, an oversized vertex, and emits a disgusting stench. His misshapenness do not prevent him from killing, however; during the eight years Hartigan is imprisoned, Junior rapes dozens of little girls.
When Hartigan is freed from prison, Junior follows him to Kadie's Bar, where a 19-year-old Nancy is working as a exotic dancer. Hartigan wounds him in the neck as he follows them to a local motel, but he nevertheless bursts in, kidnaps Nancy and leaves Hartigan to die with his neck in a noose.
Junior takes Nancy to the Roark farm and begins lashing her with a whip, trying to make her scream before he rapes and kills her. However, Nancy refuses to scream during the torture, as she realizes that Junior is impotent unless he hears the victim's cries of pain. At this moment, Hartigan arrives and stabs Junior in the chest before tearing off his genitals a second time — this time with his bare hands — and smashing his head into a bloody yellow pulp.
In the film, Junior was played by Nick Stahl, who also appears in flashbacks in the sequel, Sin City: A Dame to Kill For. In the latter film, his first name is revealed to be Ethan. In the comics, however, he has no first name and is referred to only as Roark Junior, Junior, or That Yellow Bastard.
Attorney General Roark
Attorney General Roark is the third unseen Roark brother that so far has not appeared in any Sin City stories.
Kevin
While not an actual member of the Roark family, Kevin nevertheless plays an important role in The Hard Goodbye as the hitman of Cardinal Roark. An intentionally mute serial killer, Kevin hunts down and cannibalizes prostitutes in an attempt to "inherit" their souls and (he believes) save them from Hell. He confesses these crimes to Cardinal Roark, after which the Cardinal begins to join in with him, believing that they are doing God's work. Goldie soon learns of their rituals and seeks safety with Marv, but Kevin is nevertheless able to find Goldie and kill her. When Marv goes on a violent search for her killer, Kevin is one of his many casualties. Marv knocks out Kevin, feeds most of his body to his hungry pet wolf, and finally beheads him with a hacksaw. Kevin does not utter a sound throughout the torture, dying with a serene smile on his face.
Kevin also makes a cameo appearance during the climax of That Yellow Bastard, taking place four years before the events of The Hard Goodbye. As John Hartigan murders Junior's guards, Kevin is seen quietly reading a Bible on the side porch.
Kevin was portrayed by Elijah Wood in the film adaptation, who never met Mickey Rourke on-set during filming. As with Hauer, his shots were edited together with Rourke's.
Johnny
Appearing in the original story "The Long Bad Night" is Johnny, Sen. Roark's illegitimate son. Described as a cocky young gambler, he arrives in Basin City and heads to Kadie's place, where he immediately hits the jackpot on multiple slot machines. Taking a young waitress, Marcie with him as a good luck charm, he buys into the backroom poker game led by the all-powerful Senator Roark. Johnny repeatedly wins in the high-stakes game, and cleans the senator out. One of the other players, the corrupt police lieutenant Liebowitz warns him to get out of town, but instead Johnny takes Marcie out for a night on the town. He is walking her home when he is attacked by Roark's goons. He fights them off and tells Marcie to meet him at a hotel before he is escorted into a waiting car. The Senator is waiting for him. In payment for the humiliations he suffered at the card game, Roarke takes back his money, then reveals a pair of pliers, which he uses to break three of Johnny's fingers. They toss him from the car and the Senator shoots him in the leg, at which point he reveals that he has recognized Johnny as his illegitimate son, but remarks that he only considered his dead son Roark Junior (who was killed during the events of That Yellow Bastard) his flesh and blood. He leaves Johnny alive, preferring to let him suffer, and Johnny swears revenge.
Johnny visits an unlicensed doctor, Kroenig who shoots up heroin before trading his services for Johnny's last forty dollars and his shoes. Realizing that he has left Marcie unprotected, Johnny flees to her hotel, but finds the Senator waiting for him along with Marcie's dismembered head and hands. Again, the senator lets him go. Intent on taking down Roarke, Johnny is able to scrounge a dollar from a sympathetic waitress Bertha which he uses to regain enough money playing slots to buy his way into Roarke's game the following night. Playing with significantly less confidence, Johnny folds his first few hands, allowing Roarke, who taunts him about his dead mother. He is able to once again con Roark into going all in, and then reveals his winning hand. Johnny taunts his father, reminding him that the story of how he was beaten twice by the same man will follow him for the rest of his life. His vengeance completed, Johnny smiles resignedly as Roarke shoots him in the head, commanding his men to get rid of the body.
He was played by Joseph Gordon-Levitt in Frank Miller's Sin City: A Dame To Kill For.
The Farm
The Roark family's farm is located on the corner of North Cross and Lennox, in an area of open farmland bordered by woods; it appears in several stories, including The Hard Goodbye, That Yellow Bastard, The Babe Wore Red and Hell and Back. As well as many previous generations of the family, it was also home to Kevin since at least four years before the events of The Hard Goodbye; he is seen living there during the climax of That Yellow Bastard. It is suggested by Hartigan that the deviant behavior of Junior and Kevin has been going on at the Farm for generations, as every cop in Basin City knows better than to stray too close to it.
The Farm consists of the following buildings and areas:-
Farmhouse - the main building, containing the living quarters. The basement contains a tiled room where Kevin kept the heads of his female victims mounted on the wall. This part of the farm was partially destroyed when Marv threw a petrol bomb through the window to smoke out Kevin.
Barn - An old wooden barn with a hayloft and sliding doors. This is where Hartigan and Junior have their final confrontation in That Yellow Bastard, and where Wallace finds a nude and partially brainwashed Esther at the conclusion of Hell and Back.
A grain silo.
A workshed.
A deserted farmyard. There is no obvious evidence of any traditional agriculture occurring here in what has to have been years, despite the presence of a tractor. There is also a wood pile and chopping block with a hatchet embedded there, which Marv later takes as a weapon (see below).
The Woods - Heavy woodland that borders the Farm and the roads leading up to it. The trees here are gnarled and twisted and the atmosphere is unsettling. Both Marv (in The Hard Goodbye) and Hartigan (in That Yellow Bastard) sneak up to the Farm through the Woods, having driven up to a short distance from the road entrance, and Dwight defeats Fat Man and Little Boy here during The Babe Wore Red. When Marv first passed through the Woods, he found them very disturbing, and his instincts told him at once that bad things had gone on at the Farm; by his second and final time at the Farm, however, he was no longer afraid and proceeded to use the Woods to his physical and tactical advantage during his duel with Kevin. When Hartigan passes through, during heavy snow, he suffers what he thinks is another bout of angina, even though he was supposed to be cured of it.
Battles
The following battles have also occurred at the Farm:
Hartigan vs. Armed Cops / Guards - That Yellow Bastard (Hartigan is armed with a switchblade, and several guns. He stealthily kills two of them with the switchblade and the other two with the Beretta and the P22.)
Hartigan vs. Yellow Bastard / Roark Junior - That Yellow Bastard (Hartigan, whilst suffering a fake heart-attack, staggers into the barn where he is confronted and mocked by Junior. He then collapses and as Junior moves in on him, pulls out a switchblade and stabs him. He then castrates him with his bare hands before pounding his head into the floorboards, finally killing him.)
Wallace and Jerry vs. Enemy Helicopter - Hell and Back (Wallace is prepared for this by wearing a Kevlar vest which shields him and Esther, whom he arrived to rescue. The helicopter is shot out of the sky by Jerry, armed with a TOW missile).
Marv vs. Kevin - The Hard Goodbye (Despite Marv's brute strength and durability, Kevin gets the drop on him and disarms/blinds him with his sharp fingernails before knocking him out with a sledgehammer).
Marv vs. Armed Cops - The Hard Goodbye (Marv manages to wipe out a whole squad of heavily armed cops whilst armed only with a hatchet).
Marv vs. Kevin II - The Hard Goodbye (Marv manages to trap Kevin, handcuff himself to him and knock him out with one punch, before proceeding to methodically dismember Kevin with a hacksaw).
Dwight vs. Fat Man and Little Boy - The Babe Wore Red (Dwight and the 'babe' are chased to the farm, where, upon being cornered, Dwight subdues them by hand and feet, before shooting them in the legs).
Comics characters introduced in 1991
Crime film characters
Fictional families
Sin City characters
Characters created by Frank Miller (comics) |
4345275 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve | Eve | Eve (; ; ; ; ; Syriac: romanized: ) is a figure in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible. According to the origin story of the Abrahamic religions, she was the first woman, yet some debate within Judaism has also given that position to Lilith. Eve is known also as Adam's wife.
According to the second chapter of Genesis, Eve was created by God (Yahweh) by taking her from the rib of Adam, to be Adam's companion. Adam is charged with guarding and keeping the garden before her creation; she is not present when God commands Adam not to eat the forbidden fruit – although it is clear that she was aware of the command. She decides to eat the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil after she hears the serpent's argument that it would not kill her but bring her benefits. She shares the fruit with Adam, and before they could eat of the tree of life, they are expelled from the Garden of Eden. Christian churches differ on how they view both Adam and Eve's disobedience to God (often called the fall of man), and to the consequences that those actions had on the rest of humanity. Christian and Jewish teachings sometimes hold Adam (the first man) and Eve to a different level of responsibility for the "fall."
The Catholic Church by ancient tradition recognizes Eve as a saint, alongside Adam, and the traditional liturgical feast of Saints Adam and Eve has been celebrated on 24 December since the Middle Ages in many European nations, including Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, and the Scandinavian nations.
Etymology
"Eve" in Hebrew is "Ḥawwāh" and is most commonly believed to mean "living one" or "source of life" as it is phonetically similar to "ḥāyâ", "to live", from the Semitic root ḥyw.
Hawwāh has been compared to the Hurrian goddess Ḫepat, who was shown in the Amarna letters to be worshipped in Jerusalem during the Late Bronze Age. It has been suggested that the name Ḫepat may derive from Kubau, a woman who was the first ruler of the Third Dynasty of Kish.
It has been suggested that the Hebrew name Eve () also bears resemblance to an Aramaic word for "snake" (Old Aramaic language ; Aramaic ). The origin for this etymological hypothesis is the rabbinic pun present in Genesis Rabbah 20:11, utilizing the similarity between Heb. Ḥawwāh and Aram. ḥiwyāʾ. Notwithstanding its rabbinic ideological usage, scholars like Julius Wellhausen and Theodor Nöldeke argued for its etymological relevance.
Gerda Lerner postulates that the story of Eve's birth from Adam's rib may have originated in the Mesopotamian myth of Enki and Ninhursag. In this myth, Enki eats poisonous plants that give him diseases. His wife, Ninhursag, then creates several deities to cure each of these ailments. One of them, Ninti, is destined to heal Enki's rib. Ninti's name means both "the lady of the rib" and "the lady of life". This association of rib and life is similar to that found in Eve, whose name is linked to life and who was born of a rib.
In Genesis
Creation
In Genesis 2:18–22, the woman is created to be ezer ki-negdo, a term that is notably difficult to translate, to the man. Ki-negdo means "alongside, opposite, a counterpart to him", and ezer means active intervention on behalf of the other person. The woman is called ishah, woman, with an explanation that this is because she was taken from ish, meaning "man"; the two words are not in fact connected. Later, after the story of the Garden is complete, she will be given a name, Ḥawwāh (Eve). This means "living" in Hebrew, from a root that can also mean "snake". A long-standing exegetical tradition holds that the use of a rib from man's side emphasizes that both man and woman have equal dignity, for woman was created from the same material as man, shaped and given life by the same processes. In fact, the word traditionally translated "rib" in English can also mean side, chamber, or beam. Rib is a pun in Sumerian, as the word "" means both "rib" and "life".
God created Eve from ’aḥat miṣṣal‘otaiv (), traditionally translated as "one of his ribs". The term can mean curve, limp, adversity and side. The traditional reading has been questioned recently by feminist theologians who suggest it should instead be rendered as "side", supporting the idea that woman is man's equal and not his subordinate. Such a reading shares elements in common with Aristophanes' story of the origin of love and the separation of the sexes in Plato's Symposium. A recent suggestion, based upon observations that men and women have the same number of ribs, speculates that the bone was the baculum, a small structure found in the penis of many mammals, but not in humans.
Expulsion from Eden
Eve is found in the Genesis 3 expulsion from Eden narrative which is characterized as a parable or "wisdom tale" in the wisdom tradition. This narrative portion is attributed to Yahwist (J) by the documentary hypothesis due to the use of YHWH.
In the expulsion from Eden narrative a dialogue is exchanged between a legged serpent and the woman (3:1–5). The serpent is identified in 2:19 as an animal that was made by Yahweh among the beasts of the field. The woman is willing to talk to the serpent and respond to the creature's cynicism by repeating Yahweh's prohibition from 2:17. The serpent directly disputes Yahweh's command. Adam and the woman sin (3:6–8). Yahweh questions Adam, who blames the woman (3:9–13). Yahweh then challenges the woman to explain herself, who blames the serpent, who is cursed to crawl on its belly, so losing its limbs.
Divine pronouncement of three judgments are then laid against all culprits (3:14–19). A judgement oracle and the nature of the crime is first laid upon the serpent, then the woman, and finally Adam. After the serpent is cursed by Yahweh, the woman receives a penalty that impacts two primary roles: childbearing and her subservient relationship to her husband. Adam's penalty then follows. The reaction of Adam, the naming of Eve, and Yahweh making skin garments are described in a concise narrative (3:20–21). The garden account ends with an Elohim conversation, determining the couple's expulsion, and the execution of that deliberation (3:22–24).
Mother of humanity
Eve (and womankind after her) is sentenced to a life of sorrow and travail in childbirth, and to be under the power of her husband. Adam and Eve had two sons, Cain and Abel (Qayin and Heḇel), the first a tiller of the ground, the second a keeper of sheep. After the death of Abel, Eve gave birth to a third son, Seth (Šet), from whom Noah (and thus the whole of modern humanity) is descended. According to Genesis, Seth was born when Adam was 130 years old "a son in his likeness and like his image". Genesis 5:4 says that Eve had sons and daughters beyond just Cain, Abel, and Seth.
In other works
Certain concepts such as the serpent being identified as Satan, Eve's sin being sexual temptation, or Adam's first wife being Lilith, come from literary works found in various Jewish apocrypha, but not found anywhere in the Book of Genesis or the Torah itself. She is remembered in De Mulieribus Claris, a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.
Writings dealing with these subjects are extant literature in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic, going back to ancient Jewish thought. Their influential concepts were then adopted into Christian theology, but not into modern Judaism. This marked a radical split between the two religions. Some of the oldest Jewish portions of apocrypha are called Primary Adam Literature where some works became Christianized. Examples of Christianized works is The Book of Adam and Eve, known as the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, translated from the Ethiopian Ge'ez by Solomon Caesar Malan (1882) and an original Syriac work entitled Cave of Treasures which has close affinities to the Conflict as noted by August Dillmann.
In the Jewish book The Alphabet of Ben-Sira, Eve is Adam's "second wife", where Lilith is his first. In this alternate version, which entered Europe from the East in the 6th century, it suggests that Lilith was created at the same time, from the same earth (Sumerian Ki), as Adam's equal, similar to the Babylonian Lilitu, Sumerian Ninlil wife of Enlil. Lilith refuses to sleep or serve under Adam. When Adam tried to force her into the "inferior" position, she flew away from Eden into the air where she copulated with demons, conceiving hundreds more each day (a derivation of the Arabic djinn). God sent three angels after her, who threatened to kill her brood if she refused to return to Adam. She refuses, leaving God to make a second wife for Adam, except this time from his rib.
The Life of Adam and Eve, and its Greek version Apocalypse of Moses, is a group of Jewish pseudepigraphical writings that recount the lives of Adam and Eve after their expulsion from the Garden of Eden to their deaths.
The deuterocanonical Book of Tobit affirms that Eve was given to Adam as a helper (viii, 8; Sept., viii, 6).
Religious views
Judaism
In the first creation narrative (Elohim) account, it says "male and female [Elohim] created them" (Genesis 1:27), which has been interpreted to imply simultaneous creation of the man and the woman. Whereas the second creation account states that YHWH created Eve from Adam's rib, because he was lonely (Genesis 2:18 ff.). Thus to resolve this apparent discrepancy, some medieval rabbis suggested that Eve from the second account, and the woman of the Elohim account, were two separate individuals: Eve and Lilith.
The creation of Eve, according to Rabbi Joshua, is that: "God deliberated from what member He would create woman, and He reasoned with Himself thus: I must not create her from Adam's head, for she would be a proud person, and hold her head high. If I create her from the eye, then she will wish to pry into all things; if from the ear, she will wish to hear all things; if from the mouth, she will talk much; if from the heart, she will envy people; if from the hand, she will desire to take all things; if from the feet, she will be a gadabout. Therefore, I will create her from the member which is hid, that is the rib, which is not even seen when man is naked."
According to the Midrash of Genesis Rabba and other later sources, either Cain had a twin sister, and Abel had two twin sisters, or Cain had a twin sister named Lebuda, and Abel a twin sister named Qelimath. The traditional Jewish belief is that Eve is buried in the Cave of Machpelah.
Midrash Rabbah Genesis VIII:1 interprets "male and female He created them" to mean that God originally created Adam as a hermaphrodite. In this way, adam was bodily and spiritually male and female. God later decides that "it is not good for adam to be alone", and creates the separate beings, Adam and Eve. This promotes the idea of two people joining to achieve a union of the two separate spirits.
The early rabbinic literature contains also the traditions which portray Eve in a less positive manner. According to Genesis Rabbah 18:4 Adam quickly realizes that Eve is destined to engage in constant quarrels with him. The first woman also becomes the object of accusations ascribed to Rabbi Joshua of Siknin, according to whom Eve, despite the divine efforts, turned out to be “swelled-headed, coquette, eavesdropper, gossip, prone to jealousy, light-fingered and gadabout” (ibid. 18:2). A similar set of charges appears in Genesis Rabbah 17:8, according to which Eve's creation from Adam's rib rather than from the earth makes her inferior to Adam and never satisfied with anything. Finally, the gravest evils attributed to Eve appear in Genesis Rabbah 17:8:Why does a man go out bareheaded while a woman goes out with her head covered? She is like one who has done wrong and is ashamed of people; therefore she goes out with her head covered. Why do they [the women] walk in front of the corpse [at a funeral]? Because they brought death into the world, they therefore walk in front of the corpse, [as it is written], “For he is borne to the grave ... and all men draw after him, as there were innumerable before him” (Job 21:32f). And why was the precept of menstruation (nidah) given to her? Because she shed the blood of Adam [by causing death], therefore was the precept of menstruation given to her. And why was the precept of “dough” (ḥalah) given to her? Because she corrupted Adam, who was the dough of the world, therefore was the precept of dough given to her. And why was the precept of the Sabbath lights (nerot shabat) given to her? Because she extinguished the soul of Adam, therefore was the precept of the Sabbath lights given to her.In addition to this, the early rabbinic literature contains numerous instances in which Eve is accused of various sexual transgressions. Told in Genesis 3:16 that “your desire shall be for your husband,” she is accused by the Rabbis of having an overdeveloped sexual drive (Genesis Rabbah 20:7) and constantly enticing Adam (ibid. 23:5). However, in terms of textual popularity and dissemination, the motif of Eve copulating with the primeval serpent takes priority over her other sexual transgressions. Despite rather unsettling picturesqueness of this account, it is conveyed in numerous places: Genesis Rabbah 18:6, Sotah 9b, Shabat 145b–146a and 196a, Yevamot 103b and ‘Avodah zarah 22b.
Christianity
Some Early Church Fathers interpreted 2Cor.11:3 and 1Tim.2:13–14 that the Apostle Paul promoted the silence and submission of women due to Eve's deception by the serpent, her tempting Adam to eat the fatal fruit, and transgressing by eating of the fruit herself.
Tertullian told his female listeners, in the early 2nd century, that they "are the devil's gateway", and went on to explain that all women are responsible for the death of Christ: "On account of your desert – that is, death – even the Son of God had to die." Saint Augustine, in his excursuses on the fall narrative in Genesis, which led to the Catholic doctrine of original sin, blamed Adam for sin rather than Eve. His reasoning was that, because sin lies in the soul and not the body and because he understood reproductive intercourse to comprise a material (bodily) contribution from the female and a spiritual (soul) contribution from the male, then original sin could not be based upon the transgressions of Eve. Rather, her sin was both forgivable, because she was deceived by the serpent, and lacked consequences for human history, because she could not transmit sin to her descendants. Adam, on the other hand, had full knowledge of his sin and out of lust chose a life of sin with the woman over a life with God. This Augustinian teaching is also rooted in Paul: "sin entered the world through one man." (Rom 5:12). Gregory of Tours reported that in the Third Council of Mâcon (585 CE), attended by 43 bishops, one bishop maintained that woman could not be included under the term "man" as she was responsible for Adam's sin, and had a deficient soul. However, his case was declined and did not press the issue further.
Eve, in Christian art, is most usually portrayed as the temptress of Adam, and often during the Renaissance the serpent in the Garden is portrayed as having a woman's face identical to that of Eve. She was also compared with the Greco-Roman myth of Pandora who was responsible for bringing evil into the world.
Some Christians claim monogamy is implied in the story of Adam and Eve as one woman is created for one man. Eve's being taken from his side implies not only her secondary role in the conjugal state (1 Corinthians 11:9), but also emphasizes the intimate union between husband and wife, and the dependence of her to him.
In conventional Christianity, Eve is a prefigurement of Mary, mother of Jesus who is also sometimes called "the Second Eve".
Gnosticism
In Gnosticism, Eve is often seen as the embodiment of the supreme feminine principle, called Barbelo. She is equated with the light-maiden of Sophia, creator of the word (Logos) of God, the thygater tou photos or simply the Virgin Maiden, Parthenos. In other texts she is equated with Zoe (Life). In other Gnostic texts, such as the Hypostasis of the Archons, the Pistis Sophia is equated with Eve's daughter, Norea, the wife of Seth.
Islam
Adam's spouse is mentioned in the Quran in 2:30–39, 7:11–25, 15:26–42, 17:61–65, 18:50-51, 20:110–124, and 38:71–85, but the name "Eve" (Arabic: , Ḥawwā’) is never revealed or used in the Quran. Eve is mentioned by name only in hadith.
Accounts of Adam and Eve in Islamic texts, which include the Quran and the books of Sunnah, are similar but different from those of the Torah and Bible. The Quran relates an account in which God created "one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women" (Q4:1), but there are hadiths that support the creation of woman "from a rib" (Sahih Bukhari 4:55:548, Sahih Bukhari 7:62:114, Sahih Muslim 8:3467, Sahih Muslim 8:3468). Eve is not blamed for enticing Adam to eat the forbidden fruit (nor is there the concept of original sin). On the contrary, the Quran indicates that "they ate of it" and were both to blame for that transgression (Quran 20:121–122).
There are subsequent hadiths (narrated by Abu Hurairah), the authenticity of which is contested, that hold that Muhammad designates Eve as the epitome of female betrayal. "Narrated Abu Hurrairah: The Prophet said, 'Were it not for Bani Israel, meat would not decay; and were it not for Eve, no woman would ever betray her husband.'" (Sahih Bukhari, Hadith 611, Volume 55). An identical but more explicit version is found in the second most respected book of prophetic narrations, Sahih Muslim. "Abu Hurrairah reported Allah's Messenger as saying: Had it not been for Eve, woman would have never acted unfaithfully towards her husband." (Hadith 3471, Volume 8).
Baháʼí Faith
In the Baháʼí Faith, the account of Eve is described in Some Answered Questions. `Abdu'l-Bahá describes Eve as a symbol of the soul and as containing divine mysteries. The Baháʼí Faith claims the account of Eve in previous Abrahamic traditions is metaphorical.
Historicity
While a traditional view was that the Book of Genesis was authored by Moses and has been considered historical and metaphorical, modern scholars consider the Genesis creation narrative as one of various ancient origin myths.
Analysis like the documentary hypothesis also suggests that the text is a result of the compilation of multiple previous traditions, explaining apparent contradictions. Other stories of the same canonical book, like the Genesis flood narrative, are also understood as having been influenced by older literature, with parallels in the older Epic of Gilgamesh.
With scientific developments in paleontology, biology, genetics and other disciplines, it was discovered that humans, and all other living things, share a common ancestor and evolved through natural processes, over billions of years to diversify into the life forms we know today.
In biology, the most recent common ancestors of humans, when traced back using the Y-chromosome for the male lineage and mitochondrial DNA for the female lineage, are commonly called the Y-chromosomal Adam and Mitochondrial Eve, respectively. These do not fork from a single couple at the same epoch even if the names were borrowed from the Tanakh.
Family tree of Adam and Eve
See also
Adam and Eve in Mormonism
Hebat
Mitochondrial Eve
Old Testament Pseudepigrapha:
Apocalypse of Adam
Books of Adam
Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan
Life of Adam and Eve
Testament of Adam
Ophidiophilia
Paradise Lost
Pre-Adamite
Shatarupa
Tomb of Eve
References
Bibliography
A translation with commentary.
Flood, John (2010). Representations of Eve in Antiquity and the English Middle Ages. Routledge.
Norris, Pamela (1998). The Story of Eve. MacMillan Books.
Pagels, Elaine (1989). Adam, Eve and the Serpent. Vintage Books.
Paulinus Minorita. Compendium.
Eve
Bereshit (parashah)
Book of Genesis people
Christian female saints from the Old Testament
Women in the Hebrew Bible
Mythological first humans |
4345306 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tale%20of%20the%20Flopsy%20Bunnies | The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies | The Tale of The Flopsy Bunnies is a children's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter, and first published by Frederick Warne & Co. in July 1909. After two full-length tales about rabbits, Potter had grown weary of the subject and was reluctant to write another. She realized however that children most enjoyed her rabbit stories and pictures, and so reached back to characters and plot elements from The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902) and The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904) to create The Flopsy Bunnies. A semi-formal garden of archways and flowerbeds in Wales at the home of her uncle and aunt became the background for the illustrations.
In The Flopsy Bunnies, Benjamin Bunny and his cousin Flopsy are the parents of six young rabbits called simply The Flopsy Bunnies. The story concerns how the Flopsy Bunnies, while raiding a rubbish heap of rotting vegetables, fall asleep and are captured by Mr. McGregor who places them in a sack. While McGregor is distracted, the six are freed by Thomasina Tittlemouse, a woodmouse, and the sack is filled with rotten vegetables by Benjamin and Flopsy. At home, Mr. McGregor proudly presents the sack to his wife, but receives a sharp scolding when she discovers its actual content.
Modern critical commentary varies. One critic points out that the faces of the rabbits are expressionless while another argues that the cock of an ear or the position of a tail conveys what the faces lack. One critic believes the tale lacks the vitality of The Tale of Peter Rabbit which sprang from a picture and story letter to a child. Most agree though that the depictions of the garden are exquisite and some of the finest illustrations Potter created.
Background
The Tale of Peter Rabbit and its three sequels are the best known and most successful of Potter's books. The author had an affinity for rabbits; she lived with them as pets and observed them closely for years. Though she once wrote that rabbits were creatures of "warm volatile temperaments" and were "shallow and extremely transparent", she invested her rabbits with a variety of characterizations consistent with the nature of the animal. All the rabbit tales were inspired in part by Joel Chandler Harris's Uncle Remus stories, which Potter began illustrating as early as 1893 in an attempt to find career direction and probably because they featured a rabbit as principal player. Although she incorporated Harris's "rabbit-tobacco" and his "lippity-clippity, clippity-lippity" (as "lippity-lippity") into her literary vocabulary, she was unable to bring his characters to the English country garden as Victorian gentlemen – they remained inexorably fixed in the Antebellum American South as slaves and slave owners. Harris's wily Br'er Rabbit is motivated by vengeance and wins by cunning, but Potter's rabbits have no such motivation and succeed due to their adventurous spirit and pure luck.
Helen Beatrix Potter was born in Kensington, London on 28 July 1866 to wealthy parents, and educated at home by a series of governesses and tutors. She displayed artistic talent early, drawing and sketching mammals, insects, reptiles and amphibians, flowers and plants. In the early 1890s, she enjoyed her first professional artistic success when she sold six designs to a greeting card publisher. On 16 December 1901, she privately issued The Tale of Peter Rabbit, and, on 2 October 1902, a trade edition of the tale was released by Frederick Warne & Co. to great success. She published tales similar in content, style, and format for Warnes in the years to follow, and, in 1904, The Tale of Benjamin Bunny, a sequel to Peter Rabbit. In July 1905, Potter bought Hill Top, a working farm in the Lake District with the profits from her books and a small legacy left her by an aunt; the farm became her home away from London and her artistic retreat. In a few years, Potter had established her own career, income, and home.
Early in the autumn of 1908, Potter wrote her publisher Harold Warne that she had several ideas for new books. She sent him the text of The Faithful Dove, a tale set in Rye she had composed years earlier and for which she had produced a group of sketches. With it, she included a sequel to The Tale of Benjamin Bunny starring Benjamin's offspring, The Flopsy Bunnies. Though she had complained at times that the rabbit characters had become "wearisome", she had written a young fan, William Warner, that children liked her rabbits best and that she ought to write another rabbit book. The third tale she sent Warne was about the village shop in Sawrey. "I should like to get rid of one of them," she wrote Warne about her story ideas, "When a thing is once printed I dismiss it from my dreams! & don't care what becomes of the reviewers. But an accumulation of half finished ideas is bothersome." The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies and the story about the shop (eventually The Tale of Ginger and Pickles) were chosen for publication in 1909. The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies was finished in March 1909 and published in July of the same year.
In conjunction with the tale, Potter created a series of letters from The Flopsy Bunnies decreasing in size and competence of execution according to each bunny's position in the family. The letters from the youngest fifth and sixth bunnies are miniature epistles of nothing but scribbles and kisses. Thomasina Tittlemouse, the tale's "resourceful" heroine, became the main character of her own book in 1910 titled The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse.
Plot
In The Flopsy Bunnies, Benjamin Bunny (son of Old Mr. Bunny) and Peter Rabbit are adults, and Benjamin has married his cousin Flopsy (one of Peter's sisters). As for Peter, Mopsy, and Cotton-Tail, they haven't been married yet and still live with their mother (Mrs. Josephine Rabbit). (However, Peter becomes an uncle and his sisters --Mopsy and Cotton-Tail-- are aunts.) The couple (as Benjamin had become a father) are the parents of six young rabbits generally called The Flopsy Bunnies. Benjamin and Flopsy are "very improvident and cheerful" and have some difficulty feeding their brood. At times, they turn to Peter Rabbit (who has gone into business as a florist and keeps a nursery garden), but there are days when Peter cannot spare cabbages. It is then that the Flopsy Bunnies cross the field to Mr. McGregor's rubbish heap of rotten vegetables.
One day they find and feast on lettuces that have shot into flower, and, under their "soporific" influence, fall asleep in the rubbish heap, though Benjamin puts a sack over his head. Mr. McGregor discovers them by accident when tipping grass-clippings down and places them in a sack and ties it shut then sets the sack aside while attending to another matter. Benjamin and Flopsy are unable to help their children, but a "resourceful" wood mouse called Thomasina Tittlemouse, gnaws a hole in the sack and the bunnies escape. The rabbit family (Benjamin, Flopsy, and the Flopsy bunnies) fill the sack with rotten vegetables (two decayed turnips and three rotten vegetable marrows) to trick Mr. McGregor into thinking the Flopsy Bunnies are still in the sack. Then the animals mend the hole which Thomasina Tittlemouse made. Afterwards, they hide under a bush to observe Mr. McGregor's reaction.
Mr. McGregor does not notice the replacement (as the bunnies have replaced the six baby rabbits with the rotten vegetables), and carries the sack home (still thinking he has the six baby rabbits), continually counting the six rabbits (he says, "One, two, three, four, five, six leetle fat rabbits!"). The McGregors do not know that the youngest Flopsy Bunny is out there and eavesdropping. His wife Mrs. McGregor (thinking the rotten vegetables are the six rabbits) claims the skins for herself, intending to line her old cloak with them. However, she reaches into the sack and feels the vegetables (which she had thrown out the day before) and discovers them. When she feels the rotten vegetables, she becomes very, very, angry and accuses her husband of playing a trick on her (saying to him, "You silly man! You've made a fool out of me! And you have done it on purpose!"). Mr. McGregor also becomes very angry, and he throws a rotten vegetable marrow through the window. He throws the marrow at one of the Flopsy bunnies after the Flopsy bunnies had "gotten the better of him"... "THEY'VE GOTTEN THE BETTER OF ME...! ...AGAIN!". The marrow hits the youngest of the eavesdropping bunnies who has been sitting on the window-sill. When it hits the youngest Flopsy bunny, it breaks his arm. Their parents decide it is time to go home. With the McGregors defeated once again, they are left to argue. At Christmas, they send the heroic little wood mouse a quantity of rabbit-wool. She makes herself a cloak and a hood, and a muff and mittens.
Scholar M. Daphne Kutzer points out that Mr. McGregor's role is larger in The Flopsy Bunnies than in the two previous rabbit books, but he inspires less fear in The Flopsy Bunnies than in Peter Rabbit because his role as fearsome antagonist is diminished when he becomes a comic foil in the book's final scenes. Nonetheless, for young readers, he is still a frightening figure because he has captured not only vulnerable sleeping bunnies but bunnies whose parents have failed to adequately protect them.
Illustrations
In February 1909, Potter went to Hill Top, where, kept indoors by the inclement weather, she worked diligently on the illustrations for The Flopsy Bunnies. Various gardens became the backgrounds for Peter Rabbit (Camfield Place, Lakefield, Lingholm, Tenby in South Wales, Bedwell Lodge, and Gwaeynynog), and Fawe Park in Keswick became the background for Benjamin Bunny, but the background for The Flopsy Bunnies was a semi-formal garden of archways, walks, and flowerbeds in Wales at Denbigh at the estate called Gwaenynog. Gwaeynynog was the home of the Burtons, Potter's uncle and aunt, and, while on holiday in 1909, Potter sketched their walled garden, and, once at home, decided to move Peter and Benjamin and their families to Wales for another Peter Rabbit sequel. A number of her preliminary sketches still survive.
Since her first visit to Gwaeynynog fourteen years before the composition of The Flopsy Bunnies, Potter had sketched the garden many times. She described it following a visit in 1895: "The garden is very large, two-thirds surrounded by a red brick wall with many apricots, and an inner circle of old grey apple trees on espaliers. It is very productive but not tidy, the prettiest kind of garden, where bright old-fashioned flowers grow amongst the currant bushes." Early in 1909 she wrote to her publisher, "I have done lots of sketches – not all to the purpose – and will now endeavour to finish up the F. Bunnies without further delay."
Judy Taylor, author of several books about Potter and her works, observes that Potter had difficulty drawing the human form, and, as a result of her limitations, restricted depictions of Mr. McGregor in The Flopsy Bunnies to his hands and feet. Any awkwardness in their depictions was minimized by presenting his hands and feet in isolation and from the bunnies' point of view. In the few full-length illustrations of Mr. McGregor, the need to depict his face was eliminated by presenting him in the middle or far distance and from the rear.
In contrast to her limitations with the human form, MacDonald points out that Potter's mastery in the depiction of rabbits attains full flower in The Flopsy Bunnies. Potter conveys the rabbits' thoughts and emotions with the position of the tail or the ear. Benjamin, Peter, his mother, and Flopsy all wear clothes, but Flopsy wears only an apron that exposes her tail and is thus incompletely clothed in comparison to her family and by human standards. But this incompleteness in dress permits her tail to be exposed and to precisely convey her apprehension as she approaches the house across the vast expanse of the lawn in search of her babies.
Potter's weariness with depicting rabbits is reflected in the book's pictures. Of the twenty-six illustrations, eight depict Mr. McGregor and seventeen the garden and its structures. There are almost no close-ups of the rabbits and none with the detail found in Benjamin Bunny. When the rabbits are depicted, they are viewed in the middle distance in order to include all six as well as the garden background. They are depicted with little or no facial expression. It is likely Potter (a farm owner at the date of the book's composition) had come to view rabbits as undifferentiated pests rather than individual personalities. Several drawings for the illustrations for The Flopsy Bunnies were given to the British Museum in 1946.
Themes
Like Peter Rabbit and Benjamin Bunny, the story of The Flopsy Bunnies is about rabbits intruding upon the human domain and bringing the threat of death and destruction upon themselves by their own imprudence. M. Daphne Kutzer, Professor of English at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh indicates in Beatrix Potter: Writing in Code that the tale's principal theme is the trickster animal, though she is careful to point out that, even then, the animals are subordinate to the exquisite garden backgrounds. The reader's interest in the tale, she believes, lies in following the joke played upon McGregor rather than in the dull personalities of the rabbits. Although the trickster qualities of the rabbits are evident but muted in the earlier Peter Rabbit and Benjamin Bunny, in Flopsy Bunnies these qualities are brought to center stage. Kutzer notes that The Flopsy Bunnies belongs not to the title characters but to their parents – it is they who save the baby bunnies – and thus the story is often of less interest to children.
Ruth K. MacDonald of New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter points out that, as in Benjamin Bunny, domesticity is implicitly approved in the tale but reflects a sea-change in Potter's life and work. Peter no longer raids McGregor's garden for vegetables but grows his own and has his plot surrounded with a fence and chicken wire to keep predatory bunnies out. In effect, he has become McGregor. He is Potter's alter ego and, though he is a mature rabbit in The Flopsy Bunnies, he is still living at home with his mother and tending a garden with her – like Potter, who had achieved a degree of independence by 1909 but was not entirely free of her parents.
Style
MacDonald indicates Potter was particularly sensitive to the openings and closings of her books (she insisted Benjamin Bunny end with the term "rabbit-tobacco", for example), and, in the Flopsy Bunnies, the opening reflects her flair for the elevated diction sometimes encountered in her other books: "It is said the effect of eating too much lettuce is 'soporific'." Though the word 'soporific' is not generally encountered in literature for young children, Potter is aware of her audience's limitations and not only defines the word immediately but places it in context: "I have never felt sleepy after eating lettuces; but then I am not a rabbit." She not only defines the word, but introduces rabbits as her subject. The line does not draw attention to itself (though Potter is intruding herself into the narrative), but rather gives the tale a conversational tone or a sense of the story being told aloud by a narrator. Because she immediately brings the audience's attention back to the rabbits, there is no danger she will become a character in the tale, and she is invisible through the remainder of the tale.
Potter uses elevated language again when the rabbit family is described as "improvident and cheerful". Though "improvident" is not immediately defined, the cheerfulness of the family is made evident in the accompanying illustration of the bunnies romping in their burrow while their parents look upon their offspring with placid contentment. Their improvidence is suggested however in the next two pages of text which describe Benjamin's borrowing of cabbages from his cousin Peter, and the family's occasional resort to Mr. McGregor's rubbish heap in times when Peter cannot spare any cabbages. Mr. McGregor and the rubbish heap are enduring constants in the rabbit universe of the tale, and because they are, the threat of starvation in the line "... there was not always enough to eat" is mitigated. Benjamin and Flopsy may not always be able to provide for their family, but food is available, even if it is not theirs by right. "Improvident" then is defined by course of action, and the lack of an immediate definition nonetheless carries the narrative forward and the reader's curiosity about its meaning is satisfied.
Though Mr. McGregor is a distant, awkward, menacing presence in the pictures, for the first time he is given language that serves to define him. He counts the bunnies in what is presumably a Scottish accent: "six leetle fat rabbits", and argues with his wife about buying "baccy". These and Mrs. McGregor's claim that he has tricked her and "done it a purpose" demonstrate Potter's attention to using dialect and dialogue as a means of defining character – in this instance, of contrasting their manner of speaking with her own in narrating the story.
Tone
Scholars and critics detect in the narrative voice a certain lack of interest and lack of emotional involvement in The Flopsy Bunnies that they ascribe to various factors. MacDonald points out that the plot is simple and designed to capture the attention of young children, but suspects that Potter was more involved in the locale rather than the characters. Potter had at one time declared the rabbit characters "wearisome", and the brevity with which she treats them in The Flopsy Bunnies suggests that this was her attitude to the book as a whole.
Potter biographer Linda Lear, author of Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature observes that Potter had great affection for Peter Rabbit, but the sequels never held quite the same appeal for her because neither sprang to life from story and picture letters to children in the manner of Peter Rabbit. She believes the sequels lack the sort of vitality that distinguishes Peter.
Kutzer thinks the two sequels not up to Potter's usual narrative standards because both sprang from a public demand for more "bunny books" rather than from any desire on Potter's part to continue the rabbit stories. Neither of the tales spoke to Potter emotionally in the manner of Peter Rabbit, she points out, and speculates that Potter associated rabbits with the less than happy life she passed in her parents' London home. Kutzer believes that once Potter gained a life of her own and freed herself from domineering parents, she was reluctant to return to material that evoked unpleasant memories.
Merchandise
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics, and part of the process in making them so was marketing strategy. She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales with spinoffs such as a Peter Rabbit doll, an unpublished Peter Rabbit board game, and Peter Rabbit nursery wallpaper between 1903 and 1905. Similar "side-shows" (as she termed the ancillary merchandise) were produced with her approval over the following two decades.
After Potter's death in December 1943, Frederick Warne & Co. granted licences to various firms for the production of merchandise based on the Potter characters. Beswick Pottery of Longton, Staffordshire released six porcelain figurines beginning in 1965 depicting characters or scenes from the tale: Flopsy, Mrs. Tittlemouse, Benjamin Bunny, Peter Rabbit Digging, a Flopsy and Benjamin Bunny tableau, and a tableau depicting the sleeping bunnies under the lettuce. and, in 1984, Schmid & Co. of Toronto and Randolph, Massachusetts released a Flopsy Bunnies music box, a flat ceramic Flopsy Christmas ornament, and in 1985 a Flopsy music box. Stuffed toy manufacturers had sought licensing rights as early as 1906 for Potter's characters, but it was not until the 1970s that an English firm was granted worldwide rights. Their labour-intensive products were unprofitable however, and in 1972, The Eden Toy Company of New York became the exclusive manufacturer of Potter characters. Although Peter Rabbit and Mr. McGregor were released as plush toys, they were associated with the Peter Rabbit tale and not with that of The Flopsy Bunnies. None of The Flopsy Bunnies characters were released as Eden plush toys.
Reprints and translations
In 2010, all of Potter's 23 small format books were still in print, and some, including The Flopsy Bunnies, were available in formats such as audiobook and Kindle. All 23 tales were available in a 400-page single volume, as individual volumes, and in complete collections of individual volumes offered in presentation boxes. First editions were available through antiquarian booksellers. The English language editions of the little books still bear the Frederick Warne imprint though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983. The printing plates for the Potter books were remade from new photographs of the original drawings in 1985, and all 23 volumes released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition.
Potter's small format books have been translated into nearly thirty languages including Greek and Russian. The Tale of Peter Rabbit was the first of the small format books to be translated into a non-English language when Het Verhaal van Pieter Langoor was published in 1912 by Nijgh & Ditmar's Uitgevers Maatschappij, Rotterdam. Peter Rabbit has since been published in braille (1921), in the International Phonetic Alphabet (1968), and in the hieroglyphic script of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2005).
The Tale of The Flopsy Bunnies was published in French as La Famille Flopsaut in 1931, in Afrikaans as Die Varhall van Die Flopsie-Familie in 1935, in Dutch as Die Kleine Langoortjes in 1946 and again in Dutch as Het Verhaal van De Woolepluis-Konijntjes in 1969, in German as Die Geschichte Der Hasenfamilie Plumps in 1947, and in Japanese in 1971 under licence to Fukuinkan-Shoten, Tokyo. The tale was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1965. In 1986, MacDonald observed that the Potter books had become a traditional part of childhood in both English-speaking lands and those in which the books had been translated.
Adaptations
In 1995, the story was adapted, together with The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse, as part of the anthology series The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends.
See also
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
General references and works cited
External links
1909 children's books
1909 books
British children's books
Children's books about rabbits and hares
Frederick Warne & Co books
Peter Rabbit
Flopsy Bunnies, The Tale of the |
4345474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Red%20Cross | American Red Cross | The American Red Cross (ARC), also known as the American National Red Cross, is a nonprofit humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief, and disaster preparedness education in the United States. It is the designated US affiliate of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the United States movement to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
The organization offers services and development programs.
History and organization
Founders
Clara Barton established the American Red Cross in Dansville, New York, on May 21, 1881, and was also the organization's first president. She organized a meeting on May 12 of that year at the house of Senator Omar D. Conger (R, MI). Fifteen people were present at the meeting, Conger and Representative William Lawrence (R, OH) (who became the first vice president) to discuss the start of the American Red Cross. The first local chapter was established in 1881 at the English Evangelical Lutheran Church of Dansville.
Jane Delano (1862–1919) founded the American Red Cross Nursing Service on January 20, 1910.
Clara Barton
Barton founded the American chapter after learning of the Red Cross in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1869, she went to Europe and became involved in the work of the International Red Cross during the Franco-Prussian War. She was determined to bring the organization to America.
Barton became President of the American branch of the society, known as the American National Red Cross in May 1881 in Washington. The first chapters opened in upstate New York, where she had connections. John D. Rockefeller and four others donated money to help create a national headquarters near the White House. The abolitionist Frederick Douglass, a friend of Barton's, offered advice and support as she sought to establish the American chapter of Red Cross. As Register of Deeds for the District of Columbia, Douglass also signed the American Red Cross's original Articles of Incorporation.
Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the 1881 Thumb Fire in Michigan's Thumb region. Over 5,000 people were left homeless. The next major disaster was the Johnstown Flood on May 31, 1889. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in one of the worst disasters in U.S. history.
Progressive reform
Barton was unable to build up a staff she trusted, and her fundraising was lackluster. She was forced out in 1904. Professional social work experts took control and made the group a model of Progressive Era scientific reform. New leader Mabel Thorp Boardman consulted with senior government officials, military officers, social workers, and financiers. William Howard Taft was especially influential. They imposed an ethos of "managerialism", transforming the agency from Barton's cult of personality to an "organizational humanitarianism" ready for expansion.
Among the notable disasters of the Progressive Era that featured American Red Cross involvement was the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. The New York City chapter joined with the Charity Organization Society to provide funds to survivors and the dependents of those who perished.
Leadership
Recent presidents and CEO s include Gail McGovern, Elizabeth Dole, Bernadine Healy, Mary S. Elcano, Mark W. Everson and John F. McGuire. In 2007, U.S. legislation clarified the role for the Board of Governors and that of the senior management in the wake of difficulties following Hurricane Katrina. Members of the board of governors other than the chairman are elected at the annual meeting of chapter delegates. The board appoints the chief executive officer.
Ranking
As of April 2023, the American Red Cross scores four out of four stars at Charity Navigator and A− at CharityWatch.
In 1996, the Chronicle of Philanthropy, an industry magazine, released the results of the largest study of charitable and nonprofit organization popularity and credibility. The study showed that ARC was ranked as the third "most popular charity/non-profit in America" of over 100 charities researched, with 48% of Americans over age 12 choosing "Love" or "Like A lot" to describe it.
Notable members
Blood services
Blood donation
ARC supplies roughly 45% of the donated blood in the United States, which it sells to hospitals and regional suppliers. Community-based blood centers supply nearly 50% and approximately 5% is collected directly by hospitals. In December 2004, ARC completed its largest blood processing facility in the United States in Pomona, California, on the campus grounds of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona.
Tissue services
For more than 50 years, ARC provided allograft tissue for transplant through sales in its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who donated tissue and sold the tissue to more than 1 million transplant recipients. At the end of January 2005, ARC ended its Tissue Services program to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.
Plasma services
A leader in the plasma industry, ARC provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services provides plasma products that are reliable, cost-effective and as safe as possible.
In February 1999, ARC completed its "Transformation", a $287 million program that re engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing, and distribution system and established a new management structure.
As of 2011, ARC was no longer in the Plasma Services industry. It supplies Baxter BioSciences with items for manufacturing plasma products.
Nucleic acid testing
On March 1, 1999, ARC became the first U.S. blood bank to implement a nucleic acid testing (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the genetic material of HIV and hepatitis C (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.
The NAT tests for HIV and HCV has been licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These tests detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques.
Leukoreduction
Leukocytes (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and abnormal cells. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused red blood cells and platelets are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications. Leukocytes in stored blood products can have a variety of biological effects, including depression of immune function, which can result in organ failure and death. Because whole blood is rarely used for transfusion and not kept in routine inventory, leukoreduced red blood supplies are critical. After collection, the whole blood is separated into red cells and plasma by centrifugal. A preservative solution is mixed with the red cells and the component is filtered with a leukoreduction filter. The shelf life of this product is 42 days.
ARC is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care. From 1976 to 1985, the FDA received reports of 355 fatalities associated with transfusion, 99 of which were excluded from further review because they were unrelated to transfusion or involved hepatitis or HIV/AIDS. While the FDA has not yet made leukoreduction a requirement, ARC took a leading role in implementing this procedure with a goal of leukoreducing all blood products. More than 70% of ARC red blood cell components undergo prestorage leukoreduction, a filtering process performed soon after blood is donated.
Research
ARC operates the Jerome H. Holland blood laboratory in Rockville, Maryland. Each year, it invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field.
Cellular therapies
ARC offers cellular therapies; this treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function, replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging, or to prevent illnesses from appearing.
Training services
Training Services is one of the five divisions of the American Red Cross, responsible for providing health and safety training to the general public as well as the workforce. In fiscal year 2017 the American Red Cross trained 2.28 million people how to save lives through their First Aid, CPR or AED courses, water safety and care giving programs. There are a wide variety of course offerings available:
Administering Emergency Oxygen
Advanced Life Support
Anaphylaxis and Epinephrine Auto-Injector
Asthma Inhaler Training
Babysitter's Training
Basic Life Support
Bloodborne Pathogens Training
California Child Care
CPR/AED for Professional Rescuers
Emergency Medical Response
First Aid/CPR/AED (English and Spanish)
Hands-Only CPR
Learn to Swim
Lifeguard Management
Life guarding
Longfellow's WHALE Tales
Nurse Assistant Training
Pediatric Advanced Life Support
Responding to Emergencies
Safety Training for Swim Coaches
Title 22 (California First Aid for Public Safety Personnel)
Water Safety
Wilderness and Remote First Aid
In addition to basic level certifications in the above courses the American Red Cross also offers Instructor level courses and Instructor Trainer (IT) level courses. Instructor level courses are designed to teach participants how to become instructors for American Red Cross courses, whereas Instructor Trainer courses (also known as Instructor Trainer Academies) are designed to certify current instructors to become Instructor Trainers, or people who can teach Instructor level courses.
Training Services has an online store where you can purchase supplies including First Aid Kits, CPR key chains, flashlights, and emergency radios.
2018 mannequin change
In early 2018 all courses offered by the American Red Cross switched to BigRed mannequin. The investment cost $1.8 million and increased participants' understanding of the purpose of compressions during CPR.
Course offerings
There are three entities that can run American Red Cross courses; The American Red Cross, Authorized Providers, and Licensed Training Providers. The American Red Cross runs many of its own courses that can be conducted on land such as First Aid/CPR/AED and Basic Life Support for Healthcare Providers. There are a number of courses that require aquatic facilities to run, such as Lifeguarding and Water Safety Instructor. These courses are generally left to Authorized Providers (colleges, government agencies, fire departments, community centers) and to Licensed Training Providers (LLC. or Inc.).
Scientific Advisory Council
The Scientific Advisory Council is a panel including over 50 nationally recognized medical, scientific, aquatics, and academic experts from across the United States.
Disasters service
Each year, ARC responds to more than 60,000 disasters, including house or apartment fires (making up the majority), hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hazardous materials spills, transportation accidents, explosions and other natural and man-made disasters.
Although ARC is not a government agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in 1905, it was granted a congressional charter to "carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same." The charter is not only a grant of power but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims and to the people who support its work with their donations.
Disaster relief focuses on emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, ARC provides shelter, food and health and mental health services (Psychological First Aid) to address basic human needs. The core of American Red Cross disaster relief is assistance to individuals and families to enable them to resume their normal daily activities. The organization provides translation and interpretation when necessary, and maintains a database of multilingual volunteers.
At the local level, ARC chapters operate volunteer-staffed Disaster Action Teams.
ARC feeds emergency workers of other agencies, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims and helps those affected by a disaster to access other resources. It is a member of National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (VOAD) and works closely with other agencies such as Salvation Army and Amateur Radio Emergency Service with whom it has memorandums of understanding.
ARC works to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public.
A major misconception among the general public is that ARC provides medical facilities, engages in search and rescue operations or deploys ambulances. Instead, first responder roles are left to government agencies as dictated by the National Response Framework. Red Cross societies outside the U.S. may provide such functions; for example, the Cruz Roja Mexicana (Mexican Red Cross) runs a national ambulance service. Furthermore, American Red Cross Emergency Response Vehicles (ERVs) look similar to ambulances. These ERVs instead are designed for bulk distribution of relief supplies, such as meals, drinks and other relief supplies. Although ARC shelters usually assign a nurse to the facility, they are not equipped to provide medical care beyond first aid.
Disaster Services Workforce
The Disaster Services Workforce (DSW) system enrolls volunteers from ARC chapters into a national database of responders, classified by their ability to serve in one or more activities within groups. Services include feeding and sheltering ("mass care") to warehousing, damage assessment, accounting, communications, public affairs and counseling. Responders complete training requirements specific to the services they want to offer, backgrounds, and first aid training.
National Response Framework
As a National Response Framework support agency, ARC shelters, feeds and provides other types of emergency relief to victims of disasters. ARC is a co-lead with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for the mass care portion of Emergency Support Function 6. ARC and FEMA share responsibility for planning and coordinating mass care services with FEMA. ARC has responsibilities for other Emergency Support Functions, such as providing health and mental health services.
Disaster responses
1908 Messina earthquake
In 1908 an earthquake and tsunami devastated the area surround the Strait of Messina. The American public donated nearly $1 million to the American Red Cross which was sent to Italy via the State Department, alongside $800,000 in public funds. The decision to use the State Department to distribute funds, rather than sending them directly to the Italian Red Cross, was indicative of the organization's shift away from the International Red Cross movement and towards US interests. This was the ARC's first major response to an international civilian disaster.
In December of that year two Americans, Harry Bowdoin and Charles King Wood, were in Taormina when the earthquake occurred. Mr. Bowdoin was spending the winter in Taormina with his invalid mother and Mr. Wood was an artist who had lived in Taormina for several years. These two men entered upon the work of relief answering the call of the Red Cross.[110] Afterwards, the Italian government conferred upon the two men the honorific of "Cavaliere". Bowdoin and Wood were two of the twenty-one recipients of the American Red Cross silver medal for "specially meritorious service" for that year.
Before 1908, the U.S. Congress had only rarely allocated funds for natural disasters; likewise, the level of funding given to Italy was also unprecedented. The ARC's aid to Italy carried important diplomatic meaning for the U.S. due to the large number of Italian emigrants who left for the U.S. every year, and Italy's growing importance within Europe. ARC leaders viewed relief efforts in Italy as a way to demonstrate U.S. care for the nation. Alongside this, disaster relief was seen as a tool for social reform. A fundamental goal of the ARC's assistance was to address the perceived threat of pulverization within an area that a large proportion of U.S. immigrants came from.
Role in the United States occupation of Nicaragua
As a response to the Nicaraguan resentment of the United States occupation of Nicaragua, U.S. officials employed the use of humanitarian relief in attempt to improve relations. $10,000 dollars was given to the ARC by Philander Knox to provide relief in the form of blankets, clothing, and food to captured soldiers from José Santos Zelaya's army. ARC leaders believed that humanitarian relief would be more effective in fostering goodwill and creating stability than any other action. In 1912 the State and War Department became concerned with increasing reports of hunger within the country. As a result, Knox asked the ARC to supply food for non-combatants as well. American forces worked with the ARC to open railroads to distribute humanitarian supplies to Managua, Granada, Léon, and other key cities.
Although the ARC was a non-governmental agency, its humanitarian efforts lined up with American foreign policy, becoming a useful diplomatic mechanism for softening the effects of American military intervention and securing its political interests.
Role in World War One
Prior to the United States entry into World War One, the American Red Cross was a neutral organization aiding both the allied and central powers. However, when the United States joined the allied powers, the American Red Cross aid to the central powers ended immediately. On May 10, 1917, President Wilson created the American Red Cross War Council to aid funding initiatives and direct the activities of the organization. Throughout the war, the Council raised $400 million.
The American Red Cross in the war was a quasi-state organization and a non-governmental organization, as it was not officially part of the United States Government. The American Red Cross in the war focused principally on overseas civilian aid and not domestic disaster relief. The American Red Cross spent "less than one million dollars on domestic disaster relief, in comparison to the $120 million devoted to relief overseas." The American Red Cross during the war provided food, employment, housing, and medical assistance to millions of civilians displaced by the war. During the course of the war, over one-third of the population of the United States joined the organization and in 1917 and 1918 alone around $400 million was raised. Amongst its initiatives was the Pisa Village in Italy, a humanitarian housing project begun in 1918.
The power of the American Red Cross was soon recognized by the Government which began to see "the value of overseas aid as a tool of statecraft". The American Red Cross was increasingly being used as an arm of the state to facilitate the realization of American foreign policy objects. Principally, the American Red Cross enhanced America's image abroad while also disseminating American practices and values throughout Europe. It intervened in European health and welfare practices by introducing American methods. Moreover, after the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia, President Wilson used the American Red Cross as a diplomacy tool to aid the White forces. Wilson believed that food was the "real thing" to combat Bolshevism and ordered the American Red Cross to distribute food and material relief to Bolshevik opponents in the Russian civil war. The American Red Cross, therefore, served the dual functions of assisting the realization of United States foreign policy objectives and promoting international humanitarianism.
At the end of the war the League of Red Cross Societies was created. This international society of national Red Cross organizations was spearheaded by the United States and sought the "improvement of health, the prevention of disease, and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world."
Role in Spanish Flu Outbreak of 1918
During the flu pandemic of 1918, American Red Cross chapters were instrumental in establishing both preventive measures and treatment plans within their local communities throughout the United States. The degree to which the Red Cross was involved with pandemic planning was largely dependent on the needs of the community and the actions of local public health authorities, but large cities and their surrounding communities were often dependent on the organization in mitigating the spread of the disease.
Active initiatives undertaken by local chapters included the sewing of masks for local distribution, the production and promotion of educational pamphlets, the establishment of localized motor corps, and providing door-to-door nursing and social services. In some cities, the motor corps functioned both in providing auxiliary ambulatory services and expanding the logistical dispersion of manpower and supplies. The contribution of nurses, goods, services, and local administrative guidance offered by the American Red Cross provided local community leaders with essential support in combating the pandemic.
Interwar European reconstruction
Unlike European relief organization, which had to invest much of their time in fund-raising efforts, the American Red Cross's collaboration with Herbert Hoover's American Relief Administration had funding on a different scale and well as popular and governmental support at its disposal. With its membership of over 33 million Americans in 1918 (20% of the U.S. population) and its designation as the official U.S. organization for foreign relief by the Geneva Treaty and Congressional mandate, the ARC was neither wholly private nor an official governmental organization. This quasi-governmental support allowed the ARC to secure credibility and support that was unattainable for other relief organizations such as the YMCA or Knights of Columbus.
The ARC's private funding allowed for more flexibility than government organizations, its leaders chose to support U.S. foreign policy in many ways but also often pursued aims that differed from that of the military or political policymakers. Hundreds of ARC workers pursued permanent reform of Italian social politics, rather than emergency relief they founded nursing schools, developed child welfare projects and waged anti-tuberculosis crusades. In introducing these American ideas about public health and social welfare, the ARC acted as what historian Daniel T. Rodgers had referred to as 'brokers of ideas', who facilitated transatlantic exchange on the methods and philosophies of social reform. Work in the ARC allowed American citizens to contribute to transatlantic social reform discourse. ARC workers built upon and expanded the already existing Italian efforts for social reform. ARC reformers embraced a strategic cultural sensitivity as they attempted to work with Italians and help them to take control of their own social institutions. By presenting their reforms as mutual exchange rather than imposed change, ARC workers hoped Italians would willingly accept them. U.S. reformers in the ARC continued to believe in the necessity of American intervention in 'reforming' Italy.
Russian revolution
In July 1918 the ARC established a hospital at the entrance of Vladivostok harbor, followed by eight more hospitals during that year. Vladivostok Refugee hospital was opened in early 1919 in former naval barracks and had up to 250 beds. The ARC provided drugs and medical supplies to Russian hospitals during the civil war.
Role in World War Two
In the 1940s during World War II, the Red Cross enrolled 7.5 million volunteers along with 39,000 paid staff and more than 104,000 nurses for military service, prepared 27 million packages for prisoners of war, shipped more than 300,000 tons of supplies, and collected 13.3 million pints of blood plasma for the armed forces. By the time World War II ended in September 1945, American society contributed over $784 million in support of the American Red Cross.
2005 hurricanes
Forecasting a major disaster before the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, ARC enlisted 2,000 volunteers to be on a "stand by" deployment list.
According to ARC, during and after hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, they opened 1,470 shelters and registered 3.8 million overnight stays. 300,000 American Red Cross workers (82% unpaid) provided sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout these events. In addition, 346,980 comfort kits (which contain hygiene essentials such as toothpaste, soap, washcloths and toys for children) and 205,360 cleanup kits (containing brooms, mops and bleach) were distributed. The organization served 68 million snacks and meals. Disaster Health services provided 596,810 contacts, and Disaster Mental Health services 826,590 contacts. Emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, including 4 million people. Katrina was the first natural disaster in the United States that ARC utilized their "Safe and Well" family location website.
Comair Flight 5191
Following the crash of commuter aircraft Comair Flight 5191, the Bluegrass Area Chapter and ARC Critical Response Team (CRT) members were dispatched. This was the worst air disaster in the United States since American Airlines Flight 587. Family and Friends reception centers were established near the arrival and departure airports and in Cincinnati, site of the Comair headquarters. Local chapters in Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky and California provided health and mental health services to family and friends not present in Lexington. Volunteers also staffed the local Emergency Operations Center (EOC) in Lexington, Kentucky.
2007 tornadoes
Florida
In response to the Central Florida Tornado of February 2007, ARC began a large scale disaster relief operation. At least seven shelters were opened. 40,000 pre-packaged meals were sent by ARC, and across the nation, almost 400 American Red Cross volunteers were deployed to assist with local relief efforts. The organization deployed more than 30 Emergency Response Vehicles for community food and supply distribution.
Kansas
ARC immediately responded to the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak in central Kansas by setting up emergency shelters for displaced residents and started the distribution of food, water and relief supplies.
Minneapolis bridge collapse
Following the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, the Twin Cities Area Chapter responded with their Disaster Action Team to provide food, information and comfort. A family service center was set up, and mental health counselors deployed to numerous locations. Donations contributed for this cause totaled US$138,368 and covered the cost of services but not $65,000 in unexpected expenses. Weather and the collapse placed 70% of Minnesota counties in federal primary or contiguous disaster areas during that August.
International services
ARC, as part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and its nearly 100 million volunteers, educates and mobilizes communities to overcome life-threatening vulnerabilities. ARC International Services Department focuses on global health, disaster preparedness and response, Restoring Family Links and international humanitarian law dissemination. ARC is involved with international projects such as the measles Initiative, malaria programs in Africa, disaster response and relief efforts in response to the 2004 South Asia tsunami.
Disaster preparedness and response
ARC international disaster response and preparedness programs provide relief and development assistance to millions of people annually who suffer as a result of natural and human-made disasters. To respond quickly and effectively, ARC has pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in three warehouses managed by the International Federation in Dubai, Malaysia, and Panama that are used to respond to disasters. An Emergency Response Unit (ERU) is another method with which ARC responds to international emergencies. An ERU is made up of trained personnel and pre-packaged equipment that is crucial in responding to sudden, large-scale disasters and emergencies in remote locations. American Red Cross ERUs specialize in providing emergency relief supplies and IT and Telecommunications for American Red Cross response operations.
Flood prevention in the Huai River valley
In 1911, the ARC initiated its first international disaster-prevention project in the Huai River Valley. The ARC hired engineers to redirect the Huai River to prevent the yearly flooding that ruined crops and caused famine. Key engineer within the project, C.D. Jameson, recommended a financial commitment to drainage, flood prevention, and land reclamation which he promised would result in 'the elimination of the suffering, starvation, and degeneration of several millions of people', which would substantially reduce 'unrest and lawlessness'. The plan's ambition to re-engineer the Chinese landscape was representative of the increasingly global ambitions of the ARC and the new direction the organization was taking prior to World War I.
Haiti
On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake struck the Haitian coast 10 miles from the capital of Port-au-Prince, causing massive damage, more than 200,000 deaths and displacing nearly 2 million people.
As of March 2011, ARC announced it had allocated $314 million for Haiti earthquake relief and recovery. ARC funded recovery projects to provide transitional homes, health services, disaster preparedness, water and sanitation improvements and livelihoods development. It provided funds for school fees for affected families. As of June 2011, ARC had raised approximately $484 million for Haiti relief and recovery efforts.
A series of reports by NPR and ProPublica found that much of the money Americans donated never made it to help people in Haiti and promises to rebuild neighborhoods were never met.
Global health
ARC International Services global health initiatives focus on preventing and combating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and measles on a large scale. Through cost-effective, community-based health interventions, ARC targets people in need and focuses on accessibility and equity of care, community participation, and integration with other community development initiatives, such as water and sanitation projects and food and nutrition programs.
An example of ARC International Services health programming is the Measles Initiative, launched in 2001, as a partnership committed to reducing measles deaths globally. The initiative provides technical and financial support to governments and communities on vaccination campaigns and disease surveillance worldwide. Leading these efforts are ARC, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the United Nations Foundation, UNICEF and the World Health Organization. The Measles Initiative has supported vaccination campaigns in more than 60 countries, mostly in Africa and Asia. Since 2001, the initiative has helped vaccinate one billion children in more than 60 developing countries. The initiative supported the distribution of more than 37 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets for malaria prevention, 81 million doses of de-worming medicine, 95 million doses of polio vaccine, and 186 million doses of vitamin A.
In December 2006, ARC became a founding partner of the Malaria No More campaign. The campaign was formed by leading non-governmental organizations to inspire individuals, institutions, and organizations in the private sector to support a comprehensive approach to end malaria, a devastating but preventable disease. ARC supported local Red Cross and Red Crescent volunteers in Africa who educated families and communities about malaria prevention and treatment, such as the proper and consistent use of insecticide-treated bed nets. ARC provided technical assistance and capacity-building support to its partners in difficult-to-reach communities.
International tracing requests
ARC handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated. This service attempts to re-establish contact between separated family members. Restoring Family Links services provide the exchange of hand-written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time, ARC Restoring Family Links program is handling the aftermath of 20–30 wars and conflicts. The worldwide structure of Red Cross and Red Crescent National Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible. When new information from former Soviet Union archives became available in the 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II and Holocaust tracing services.
International humanitarian law
ARC International Services educates the American public about the guiding principles of international humanitarian law (IHL) for conduct in warfare as set forth by the Geneva Conventions of 1949. In doing so, ARC International Services provides support to ARC chapters in their IHL dissemination efforts, offering courses and providing instructor training.
Service to the Armed Forces
ARC provides emergency and non-emergency services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (such as a death in the family, or new birth). ARC can also act as a verifying agency. The agency operates call centers to provide these services. ARC works closely with other military societies, such as the Department of Veterans Affairs, to provide other services to service members and their families. ARC is not involved with prisoners of war; these are monitored by the International Committee of the Red Cross, the international body.
One criticism of American Red Cross services to the military stems from stories about ARC charging troops during the Second World War and Korean War token fees for "comfort items" such as toothpaste, coffee, donuts, and cigarettes and for off-base food and lodging. The fee suggestion had been made in a letter dated March 1942 from the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to Norman H. Davis, the chairman of ARC. The suggestion was that Allied soldiers were being charged money so Americans should be charged too so as to "ensure an equitable distribution among all service personnel of American Red Cross resources". The American Red Cross adopted the Secretary's suggestion as policy.
During World War II, ARC operated the American Red Cross Clubmobile Service to provide servicemen with food, entertainment and "a connection home." In a June 18, 1945, address to Congress, General Dwight D. Eisenhower said of the American Red Cross service in World War II, "The Red Cross, with its clubs for recreation, its coffee and doughnuts in the forward areas, its readiness to meet the needs of the well and to help minister to the wounded has often seemed the friendly hand of this nation, reaching across the sea to sustain its fighting men." An account of one World War II American Red Cross Girl is recorded in Destination Unknown by Kathleen Cox; her mother, LeOna Cox, was recruited to American Red Cross Service by a fellow teacher at Allegheny College. Another account of an American Red Cross World War II worker is related in letters by Evelyn Merritt Welden, compiled in the book How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters, by her son, Lynne Whelden.
During the Vietnam War 627 American women served in the ARC Supplemental Recreation Overseas Program. At the invitation of the United States Army the "Donut Dollies" provided morale-boosting games to soldiers. Due to the mobility of the UH-1 Iroquois, Vietnam Donut Dollies were able to visit troops in forwarding operating positions. The 2008 documentary film A Touch of Home: The Vietnam War's Red Cross Girls tells the story of these women. ARC also provided services to entertain wounded soldiers at the Great Lakes Naval Hospital during the Vietnam War.
In 2011, the Service to the Armed Forces (SAF) unit was reorganized and began receiving $24 million per year from Congress for operating expenses. Along with being downsized there was a consolidation into four regional locations (San Diego, California, Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, Louisville, Kentucky, and Springfield, Massachusetts). In 2012 the first stories began breaking about long call times and the poor quality of response from call takers, along with questions about whether money was being used appropriately. In 2015, the San Diego and Springfield locations were closed because an online option for families was implemented.
Controversies
Johnson & Johnson suit over Red Cross image
On August 7, 2007, Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against ARC over its sub licensing of the International Red Cross image for the production of first aid kits and similar products, which it alleged competed with the company's products. The suit also asked for the destruction of all non-Johnson & Johnson Red Cross Emblem bearing products and demanded that ARC pay punitive damages and J&J's legal fees.
The American Red Cross' position was that it had licensed its name to first aid kit makers in an effort to encourage readiness for disasters and that license revenues supported humanitarian work. J&J claimed that the American Red Cross's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well-agreed usage and were in direct violation of federal statutes.
On May 14, 2008, a federal judge ruled against J&J. In June 2008, the two organizations announced a settlement had been reached allowing both parties to use the symbol.
Court ordered consent decree
The FDA took court action against ARC in response to deficiencies in their procedures for ensuring blood supply safety. The resulting consent decree outlines violations of federal law that ARC engaged in before 1993. ARC paid millions of dollars in fines.
ARC Biomedical Services instituted a standardized computer system to maintain the blood donor database; five National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test some six million units of blood annually; the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which provides training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure regulatory compliance; and, a centrally managed blood inventory system.
The consent decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations.
The FDA could impose penalties after April, 2003 up to the following maximum amounts:
$10,000 per event (and $10,000 per day) for any violation of an ARC standard operating procedure (SOP), the law, or consent decree requirement and timeline
$50,000 for the preventable release of each unit of blood for which the FDA finds a reasonable probability of serious adverse health consequences
$5,000 for the release of each unit that may cause temporary problems, up to a maximum of $500,000 per event
$50,000 for the improper re-release of each unsuitable blood unit that was returned to ARC inventory
$10,000 for each donor inappropriately omitted from the National Donor Deferral Registry, a list of all unsuitable donors
The FDA continued to apply pressure and fines to ARC in order to enforce compliance with regulations, including a $1.7 million fine in June 2008.
ARC worked closely with the FDA to develop a more robust system. The systems resulted in a five-year period of sustained compliance that led to the release from the Consent Decree as of December 4, 2015.
Blood donation controversy
ARC faced criticism from lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) advocacy organizations for prohibiting men who have sex with men (MSM) from donating blood. This policy was an FDA requirement for all blood collection companies and organizations in the United States. Specifically, the FDA instructs blood collection organizations to "defer for 12 months from the most recent sexual contact, a man who has had sex with another man during the past 12 months". Consequently, ARC was legally unable to collect blood from such men. In 2006, along with the AABB and America's Blood Centers, ARC petitioned the FDA to remove the requirement from blood donations, citing better screening technologies. In August 2020, the American Red Cross reported on its website that its deferral of MSM from donating blood for 3 months after any sexual contact with another man is aligned with the newly updated guidance issued by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Then in May 2023, the FDA approved a policy to allow "monogamous gay and bi men (MSM) to finally donate blood immediately" - however would take some time to fully implement across the whole United States of America. An automatic 3-month deferred period still continually applies to non-monogamous individuals, regardless of sexual orientation, who have anal sex.
Hurricane Katrina controversy
In March, 2006, investigations of allegations of fraud and theft by volunteers and contractors within ARC Katrina operations were launched by the Louisiana Attorney-General and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In response, ARC increased its internal and external education of the organization's fraud and a waste hotline for confidential reporting to a third party agency. The organization also elected to implement a background check policy for all volunteers and staff, starting in 2006.
In April 2006, an unnamed former ARC official leaked reports made by the International Committee of the Red Cross and the British Red Cross. Such reports are typical of a large-scale disaster relief operation involving other national Red Cross societies to solicit their input, but are usually confidential and not released to the general public. These particular reports were particularly critical of ARC operations in Katrina-affected regions, although the British Red Cross report strongly praised ARC volunteers for their efforts.
Question of spending in Haitian earthquake relief
After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the Red Cross raised $490 million in relief donations. The charts put to the press claim that a substantial amount was spent in the years following, but first-person accounts share another story. As of 2015, a total of six homes were built.
Storms controversy (Hurricane Sandy, Isaac, other major storms)
In October 2014, independent public interest news broadcasters NPR and ProPublica published investigative reports on the Red Cross's handling of US East Coast Hurricanes Sandy and Isaac, citing internal Red Cross documents and interviews with former Red Cross and government officials. It criticized the organization's response in failing to meet the immediate needs of victims. It also described "an organization so consumed with public relations that it hindered the charity's ability to provide disaster services."
See also
American Red Cross Motor Corps
American Red Cross Volunteer Life Saving Corps
References
Further reading
Bane, Suda Lorena, and Ralph Haswell Lutz, eds. Organization of American Relief in Europe, 1918–1919 (Stanford University Press, 1943).
Davison, Henry P. The American Red Cross in the Great War (The Macmillan Company, 1919).
Dulles, Foster Rhea. The American Red Cross: A History. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950).
Egan, Timothy B. and Thanousone Pravongviengkham. "American Red Cross: A History and Analysis" (Defense Technical Information Center, 2016) online
Fike, Claude E. "The Influence of the Creel Committee and the American Red Cross on Russian-American Relations, 1917–1919." Journal of Modern History 31#2 (1959): 93–109. online.
Irwin, Julia. Making the World Safe: The American Red Cross and a Nation's Humanitarian Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Irwin, Julia. "The American Red Cross in Great War-Era Europe, 1914–1922." The Tocqueville Review 38.2 (2017): 117–131.
Irwin, Julia F. "Teaching 'Americanism with a World Perspective': The Junior Red Cross in the U.S. Schools from 1917 to the 1920s." History of Education Quarterly;; 53#3 (2013), pp. 255–279. online
Irwin, Julia F. "Nation Building and Rebuilding: The American Red Cross in Italy during the Great War." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 8#3 2009, pp. 407–439 online
Jones, Marian Moser. The American Red Cross From Clara Barton to the New Deal. (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013).
Jones, Marian Moser. "The American Red Cross and Local Response to the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: A Four-City Case Study." Public Health Reports vol. 125, 2010, pp. 92–104. online
Kind-Kovács, Friederike. "The Great War, the child's body and the American Red Cross." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 23.1–2 (2016): 33–62, child-relief activities in Hungary 1919. https://doi.org/10.1080/13507486.2015.1121971
Rodogno, Davide. "The American Red Cross and the International Committee of the Red Cross: Humanitarian Politics and Policies in Asia Minor and Greece (1922–1923)." First World War Studies 5#1 (2014): 83–99
Rozario, Kevin. "'Delicious horrors': Mass culture, the Red Cross, and the appeal of modern american humanitarianism." American Quarterly (2003) 55#3. 417–455. online
Schmidt, Cheryl K. "In Our Community: American Red Cross Nursing: Essential to Disaster Relief." American Journal of Nursing 104#8 (2004): 35–38. online.
Whelden, Lynne Merritt. How to Play During a War: A Free Spirit's Life in Letters'' (Canton, PA: Lynne Whelden Productions; 2007).
External links
American Red Cross Disaster Relief Photos
Clara Barton's House: Home of the American Red Cross, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
American Red Cross Motor Service uniform, the 1940s, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database
American Red Cross Nurse's Aide uniform, the 1940s, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collections Database
Red Cross posters from World War I from the Elisabeth Ball Collection
Records of the American National Red Cross, 1881–2008 at the National Archives and Records Administration
1881 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Organizations established in 1881
Red Cross
Volunteer organizations in the United States |
4345497 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexually%20dimorphic%20nucleus | Sexually dimorphic nucleus | The sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) is an ovoid, densely packed cluster of large cells located in the medial preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus which is believed to be related to sexual behavior in animals. Thus far, for all species of mammals investigated, the SDN has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. In humans, the volume of the SDN has been found to be 2.2 times as large in males as in females and to contain 2.1 times as many cells. The human SDN is elongated in females and more spherical in males. No sex differences have been observed in the human SDN in either cell density or mean diameter of the cell nuclei. The volume and cell number of the human SDN considerably decreases with age, although the decrease in cell number is both sex and age-specific. In males, a substantial decrease in the cell number of the human SDN was observed between the age of 50–60 years. Cell death was more common in females than males, especially among those older than 70 years of age. The SDN cell number in females can drop to 10-15% of that found in early childhood.
SDN and its homologues exist widely in human, mammal, and some other animal brains, including:
the third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH3) in humans;
ovine sexually dimorphic nucleus (oSDN) in the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus (MPOA/AH) in sheep;
sexually dimorphic nucleus in the preoptic area (SDN-POA) in rats;
anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AHdc) in macaques;
specific area in medial preoptic nucleus (POM) in quails; etc.
Sexually dimorphic nucleus in medial preoptic area
Formation and organization of SDN in medial preoptic area
Sex differences in SDN caused by exposure to testosterone (prenatal)
The volume of SDN in medial preoptic area is modified by hormones, among which testosterone is proved to be of much importance. The larger volume of male SDN is correlated to the higher concentration of fetal testosterone level in males than in females. Also, there is evidence that testosterone acts during specific prenatal period to organize the development of aromatase-expressing neurons into the male-typical SDN (testosterone is transformed to estrogen by aromatase). The effect of testosterone is also shown by the influence of fetal intrauterine position on the morphology of SDN-POA. Studies demonstrated that male rats which were gestated between two male fetuses (2M) have 2-fold larger SDN-POA volumes than those gestated between two female fetuses (2F). At the same time, the testosterone levels, as well as the 17β-estradiol (product of testosterone) levels, were found to be significantly larger in 2M males than in 2F males on gestation day 21 (testosterone can be transferred from adjacent male fetuses to the target rats). However, evidence fails to show any relationship between SDN volume and female fetal position.
Sex differences in the volume of SDN caused by apoptosis (postnatal)
According to some studies, the volume difference of SDN between males and females is related to apoptosis during early development after birth. In rats, central division of the medial preoptic nucleus (MPNc) is an important component of SDN-POA and evidence showed that the number of apoptotic cells within MPNc is greater in females than in males between postnatal day (PD) 7 and PD10. In MPNc, the levels of some proteins, which are related to apoptosis, were shown to be of significant difference between males and females. Such proteins include Bcl-2 and Bax. Bcl-2 is an antiapoptotic protein. The level of Bcl-2 in PD8 male rats is much higher than that in female rats of the same age, hence the number of apoptotic cells of MPNc in PD8 male rats is much lower than PD8 female rats. On the other hand, Bax, a proapoptotic protein, shows lower level in PD8 males than in PD8 females. Also, the number of active caspase-3-ir cells was observed to be greater in females than in males, indicating higher level of apoptosis in female MPNc.
Apoptosis also occurs in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV), which is also a sexually dimorphic area and is located in the periventricular gray area at the rostral extreme of the third ventricle. In contrast with SDN-POA, AVPV has larger size in females than in males. It is proved that Bcl-2 level in AVPV is higher whereas Bax level is lower in females than in males, just as being opposite of those in MPNc. As indicated in these two cases, apoptotic cell death plays a critical role in the formation of sexually dimorphic nucleus, and the apoptotic cell number within SDN negatively correlates with the volume of SDN between different sexes.
Role of SDN in controlling of male sexual behaviors
Male sexual behaviors can be divided into two phases: the appetitive phase, which contains highly variable sequence of behaviors such as attracting and courting, and the consummatory phase, during which highly stereotyped copulatory behaviors occur. The medial preoptic area of the brain is considered to control the expression of both male copulation and male appetitive sexual behavior. It is found that large lesions of SDN-POA severely disrupt copulatory behavior in rats. Also, cell-body lesions of SDA pars compacta (a homologue of SDN-POA) in gerbils produce severe disruptions of male copulatory behavior. Moreover, a study on medial preoptic nucleus (POM) (homologue of medial preoptic nucleus in rats) in quails showed that the activation of male copulatory behavior requires the aromatization of androgen (testosterone) into an estrogen (17β-estradiol). Like in SDN-POA, aromatase-expression neurons are a specific marker of the nuclear boundary of POM in quails. The intensity of male copulatory behavior is found to positively correlate with the number of the aromatase-expression neurons in the caudal part of POM.
Appetitive behaviors are also partly controlled by medial preoptic area as aromatase-knockout mice show deficits in sexual motivation. However, appetitive behaviors are disrupted by the lesions in rostral part rather than caudal part of medial preoptic area. Lesions of the rostral part of medial preoptic area also diminish preference for female by male rats. Furthermore, in vivo dialysis experiments showed that the level of extracellular dopamine in the mPOA increases as the sexual appetitive sequences progress. mPOA's involvement in the control of appetitive sexual behaviors is also confirmed by pharmacological manipulations of the dopaminergic system in it. In rats, lesions to mPOA can eliminate the male copulatory behavior but can only diminish appetitive behavior, which suggests that some other parts of the brain, except for mPOA, are also responsible for sexually appetitive behavior.
Role of SDN in sexual partner preference
Role of SDN in male partner preference
Researches on the ovine sexually dimorphic nucleus (oSDN) in sheep demonstrate that the volume of oSDN varies with sexual partner preference in male sheep (rams). Homosexual rams (roughly 8% of the population) have been found to have oSDNs that are about half the size of those in heterosexual rams. In one study conducted by Roselli, et al., 4 heterosexual rams and 9 homosexual rams were exposed to 2 estrous ewes and 2 rams, with their sexual behaviors (mounts and ejaculations) being recorded. Heterosexual rams displayed significantly more mounts and ejaculations with ewes than with stimulus rams, whereas homosexual rams showed the opposite. Then series of brain sections, including hypothalamic, temporal lobe and diencephalon tissues, were imaged. Also, in situ hybridization was conducted to examine the level of the expression of cytochrome P450 aromatase in these brain sections. The results showed that the volume of oSDN in heterosexual rams is approximately 2 times greater than that in homosexual rams. The number of neurons within oSDN is significantly greater in homosexual rams than in heterosexual rams, so it is with the mean length of the oSDN. But the neuron density is similar in both kinds of rams. In addition, aromatase mRNA levels are also tested, showing that the level of aromatase mRNA is significantly greater in heterosexual rams than in homosexual rams.
Other species have similar relationships between sexual preferences and the volume of SDN. For example, INAH3 in humans (homologue of oSDN) is significantly larger in heterosexual men than in homosexual men.
Damage of SDN and changes in sexual partner preferences in males
Bilateral damage to SDN in the medial preoptic area in male ferrets causes the change of males from male-typical preference to female-typical preference. Male ferrets which were sexually experienced and responded to female body odor, when treated by bilateral lesions to SDN, change to respond to male body odor. It is probable that SDN plays an important role in leading to mating and successful reproduction.
Role of SDN in female partner preference
Although SDN is much related to sexual partner preferences in males, it does not show the same relationship to partner preferences in females. Evidence shows that SDN in medial preoptic area is not the prerequisite for the expression of male-typical sexual behaviour and sexual partner preferences in females. One piece of evidence comes from the study on female Japanese macaque, which routinely court, mount (with pelvic thrust), compete for, and even prefer certain female sexual partners over certain males. The part of the brain examined is the anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AHdc), a homologue of SDN-POA. Comparison of the AHdc nucleus volumes between Japanese macaque and rhesus macaque (a closely related sister species of Japanese macaque) shows that there is no significant difference between the volume of AHdc in more male-typical macaques and that in female-typical macaques.
Role of SDN in Human Sexual Orientation
In 1991, LeVay published a study of 41 autopsies on 16 heterosexual men, 19 homosexual men, and 6 heterosexual women that targeted the interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH 1, 2, 3, and 4). He showed that there were no significant differences between the three groups' INAH 1, 2, and 4, which prior research already showed. However, INAH 3 was larger in heterosexual men in comparison to homosexual men and heterosexual women. This research linked an established sexually dimorphic area of the brain to hetero- and homosexual behavior in men.
A later study determined that the size of the INAH3 of homosexual men was intermediate between that of heterosexual men and heterosexual women. It also determined that the reason why the INAH3 is smaller in homosexual versus heterosexual men is because homosexual men have a higher neuronal packing density (the number of neurons per cubic millimeter) in the INAH3 than heterosexual men; there is no difference in the number or cross-sectional area of neurons in the INAH3 of homosexual versus heterosexual men. It was also found that there is no effect of HIV infection on the size of INAH3, that is, HIV infection cannot account for the observed difference in INAH3 volume between homosexual and heterosexual men.
These findings only partially corroborate LeVay's hypothesis that homosexual males have a "female-like hypothalamus" — given that the INAH3 was smaller in homosexual men, intermediate in size between that of heterosexual males and heterosexual females. Furthermore, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of homosexual males is larger than the SCN of heterosexual men and women; both the volume and the number of neurons of the SCN are twice as many in homosexual males than in heterosexual males. These areas of the hypothalamus have not yet been explored in homosexual females nor bisexual males nor females. In sum, some contemporaries cast serious doubt over LeVay's hypothesis that homosexual males have a "female hypothalamus" and that the key mechanism of differentiating the "male brain from originally female brain" is the epigenetic influence of testosterone during prenatal development.
Effects of proteins and other molecules on SDN in medial preoptic area
NELL2
NELL2 is a tissue-specific protein in the nervous system. It contains EGF (epidermal growth factor)-like repeat domain and its gene expression is regulated by estrogen. NELL2 is also known to play a neuroprotective role rat hippocampus neurons. When NELL2 synthesis is blocked by intracerebroventricular injection of antisense (AS) NELL2 oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) into neonatal male rat brains (postnatal day0-day5), the size of SDN-POA is decreased. Since volume of SDN is related to the level of testosterone, it is quite possible that the volume is finally due to the neuroprotective effect of estradiol which is produced from testosterone by aromatase. So the result that NELL2 blockage reduces the size of SDN-POA suggests that it probably has neuroprotective effect on SDN-POA.
Somatostatin
The sex-specific transcription of somatostatin gene coincides with the establishment of sex differences in SDN-POA. It is observed that somatostatin mRNA appears in the SDN-POA of both males and females. On postnatal day 8 through postnatal day 35, the area of somatostatin mRNA-positive cells was significantly larger in males than in females, with males attain the maximum size of that area on day15 before decrease whereas females show no changes. Eventually the expression of somatostatin mRNA shows no difference between sexes. It is possible that somatostatin is related to the estrogen-dependent organization of SDN-POA.
Fenitrothion
Fenitrothion is a kind of organophosphate and it can affect the development of reproductive system of male rats. Treatment with fenitrothion to male rats causes regression of androgen-dependent organ weights because fenitrothion is a potent competitive androgen receptor antagonist. Its effect on SDN-POA is different between male rats and female rats. In male rats, prenatal exposure to fenitrothion causes significantly increase of the volume of SDN-POA; whereas, in female rats, prenatal exposure to fenitrothion causes significantly decrease of the volume of SDN-POA. One possible explanation is that fenitrothion can alter the activity of aromatase, which then alters the level of estrogens converted by it from androgens and finally alters the volume of SDN-POA.
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) is a synthetic nonsteroidal estrogen and was widely used for preventing threatened abortion. DES also has effect on development of the reproductive system. Low dose of DES exhibits inhibitory effect on plasma testosterone concentration in male rats while promotes follicular maturation in female rats. Experiments were done to see the effects of DES on SDN-POA volume. It is demonstrated that DES treatment altered the volume of SDN-POA in females by increasing it, resulting in larger volume SDN than in untreated females. However, a low dose of DES did not change the volume of the SDN-POA in male rats.
Morphine
Morphine can also alter the activities within the sexually dimorphic brain regions. Prenatal exposure to morphine increases copulatory behavior in male rats while decreases estrous behavior in female rats.
Other sexually dimorphic areas in the brain
Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMN) has long been considered as a sexually dimorphic nucleus. It is an important region for regulating the sexual responses in female rodents. The neurons within VMN have significant estrogen-dependent functional and structural plasticity. The synaptic organization of the VMN is sexually dimorphic. Females have more dendrite chemical synapses within VMN while males have more somatic synapses within that region. In addition, the size of postsynaptic densities of axospinous and axosomatic synapses is sexually dimorphic, with males having larger density than females. Estrogen plays an important role in modulating the sexually dimorphic synaptic connectivity of VMN. Estradiol levels are high on proestrus rats and return to low levels on diestrus rats. The volume of cell bodies within VMN in proestrus rats and male rats is larger than diestrus rats. Also, proestrus rats have significantly higher synapse density in VMN than diestrus rats. Moreover, Gamma-aminobutyric acid plays a role in VMN development such as sexual differentiation.
References
Limbic system
Neuroendocrinology
Animal sexuality
Hypothalamus |
4346007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudens | Rudens | Rudens is a play by Roman author Plautus. Its name translates from Latin as "The Rope;" in English translation it has been called The Shipwreck or The Fisherman's Rope. It is a Roman comedy, which describes how a girl, Palaestra, stolen from her parents by pirates, is reunited with her father, Daemones, ironically, by means of her pimp, Labrax. The play is set on the coast of Cyrene, in north Africa, although the characters come from a range of cities around the Mediterranean, most notably, Athens.
The date of the play is unknown, but from the average amount of musical passages that it contains, it is thought that it probably belongs to Plautus's middle period, about 200 BC.
The story
The scene
The scene shows the entrance to a villa, and next to it a temple, with an altar in front of it. On the audience's left is a road leading to the town; on the right is a path leading to the sea. The neighbouring parts of the stage are supposed to be overgrown with bulrushes and other plants.
Prologue
Rudens is introduced by an actor representing the star Arcturus. Arcturus reminds the audience that Jupiter protects the virtuous and punishes those who have perjured themselves for gain. He then explains that the play they are about to hear was originally by Diphilus, and that the scene is Cyrene (in north Africa). The villa they see before them belongs to an old Athenian citizen in exile, whose daughter was lost when she was small. He explains how a vicious pimp had bought the girl and transported her to Cyrene, where a young Athenian man had fallen in love with her and paid the pimp 30 minae to purchase her. However, meanwhile the pimp had met a Sicilian man, who had persuaded him to break his oath and take her and another girl to Sicily, where they would earn a lot of money for him as prostitutes. He explains that the temple the audience see is the temple of Venus, where the pimp had invited the young man to breakfast. After the pimp embarked, he, Arcturus, had raised a storm that had shipwrecked them. The girls have escaped in a small boat and at this moment are approaching the shore.
Act 1
1 The slave Sceparnio emerges from Daemones' house, and explains that there has been a great storm in the night which has blown all the tiles off the roof.
2 The young man Plesidippus appears with three friends. He apologises to them that their mission to catch the pimp at the port has failed, and declares that he is going to pray at the temple of Venus. Daemones, an elderly Athenian man, comes out and calls Sceparnio; Sceparnio behaves cheekily towards his master, who seems to lack the strength to contest this behaviour. Plesidippus greets Daemones. After some banter between Sceparnio and Plesidippus, the latter finally asks Daemones whether he has seen Labrax recently at the temple of Venus. He also describes Labrax as bringing with him two girls, who are later to be named as Ampelisca and Palaestra. Suddenly, Daemones notices two men, shipwrecked, attempting to swim towards the shore; Plesidippus immediately leaves with his friends, in the hope that one of them might be Labrax. After he has left, Sceparnio spots a boat in the turbulent sea, containing two girls. He describes the girls being knocked around on the sea, and then being thrown out. Daemones, however, sharply tells Sceparnio that, should he wish to dine at his master's expense, he should get back to work of collecting mud and reeds to mend the roof.
3 The next scene opens with the first girl, Palaestra, lamenting her situation; she is in an unknown country, and the gods have punished her unjustly. She suggests that her ordeal would be less awful if her companion, Ampelisca, were with her.
4 Nearby, Ampelisca is similarly upset. She sings that she wishes to die, and that she has nothing to live for; nevertheless, she is driven to continue by the prospect that her friend might be alive. Ampelisca's soliloquy is cut short when Palaestra hears her voice. After a time, the girls realise that they have heard each other's voices, and follow them. Finally, the two girls turn around a rock and meet each other, grasping each other's hands with joy. The girls can see only the temple nearby, and so decide to go in that direction. Outside the temple, the girls pray desperately to its god (at this point, they do not know which god the temple belongs to), so loudly, in fact, that the priestess, Ptolemocratia, is drawn outside.
5 The priestess sings in a rather pompous tone, asking the girls why they have turned up to the temple so poorly dressed, seemingly disregarding the fact that they have been shipwrecked. However, Palaestra's desperate pleas for mercy and supplication soon soften her spirit, and, after complaining that she has barely enough resources to look after herself, she states that she has a moral duty to do what little she can to help the girls, and invites them into the temple.
Act 2
1 A group of fishermen cross the stage heading towards the sea, singing about their poor lives.
2 Plesidippus' slave Trachalio enters the scene, and in a tone of banter asks the fishermen whether they have seen his master. Having stated that they have seen neither Plesidippus nor Labrax, they leave. Because neither Labrax nor Plesidippus can be found, Trachalio comes to the conclusion that his master has been cheated by the pimp; Trachalio states that he had predicted this, and comically proclaims that he is a soothsayer.
3 On his way to the temple, to seek information from the priestess, Trachalio walks into Ampelisca, who is going to a nearby house (Daemones') to fetch water. Trachalio states that he recognises the girl, and Ampelisca recognises him; they enter into a friendly conversation, with Trachalio explaining that his master cannot be found and that Labrax has cheated him. Fuelling his ego, Ampelisca, too, states that he is a soothsayer, introducing further humour. Ampelisca refers to Palaestra being with her, the mention of whom prompts Trachalio to state that she is his master's girl. The conversation continues, as Trachalio obviously, but sweetly, flirts with Ampelisca who, apparently flattered, replies in similar ways; this gives further humour: while Plesidippus was negotiating the terms of buying Palaestra (his girl, according to Trachalio), Trachalio was forming a relationship with Labrax's other girl and Palaestra's friend, Ampelisca. Trachalio's wit is obvious soon after, explaining a rather complex logical argument to explain how Labrax could not have been caught by Plesidippus. Towards the end of this scene, Ampelisca states that Palaestra's misery is being caused by the fact that she has lost a chest, in the shipwreck, containing articles which would identify her to her parents, should she ever find them again; this becomes extremely important later in the play. Trachalio leaves the scene, entering the temple to speak to Palaestra.
4 Ampelisca continues with her task, and knocks on the villa door to get water. Sceparnio, Daemones' slave answers, and is delighted to see a woman — hardly the behavior of a slave, and thus another source of humor. Indeed, he interrupts her to suggest that it would be more appropriate for her to call again in the evening. He is given an extremely cold reception by Ampelisca, who is keen to complete her work. Incredibly, Sceparnio then announces that he is the resident priest, and that Ampelisca must speak to him nicely to get what she wants — an outrageous statement to be made by a slave. Finally, Ampelisca, tired of arguing, agrees to do whatever he wants, and so Sceparnio scurries away to fill her jug with water. However, after he leaves, Ampelisca looks out at the sea and notices, on the shore, two men, whom she instantly realizes as being Labrax and his friend, Charmides. Terrified, she retreats back to the temple to tell Palaestra and to seek safety.
5 Meanwhile, Sceparnio is returning with the filled jug, convinced that Ampelisca is deeply in love with him. When he does not see her, he presumes that she is playfully hiding, before his mood becomes more sour, until he gets tired of searching. However, worried that he would be in great trouble for leaving the jug, elaborately decorated, unattended, he takes it into the temple himself.
6 The emphasis shifts to Labrax and Charmides on the shore. They pointlessly argue for some time, blaming one another for the current situation; they suspect that the girls are both dead and that Plesidippus will not be happy, since he had paid a deposit for Palaestra.
7 Suddenly, they come across Sceparnio, now leaving the temple, and wondering why two women are there, crying. Hearing this, Labrax interrogates Sceparnio, realising that they are Ampelisca and Palaestra; his continual questioning annoys Sceparnio, who is then cheekily asked by Labrax whether he can provide them with a place to stay. Sceparnio does not oblige, but does offer to dry their clothes — an offer which Charmides refuses. The scene ends as Charmides enters the temple to seek shelter.
Act 3
1 Shortly after, Daemones emerges from his villa, explaining a dream he had had about being attacked by a monkey, trying to climb a tree to get to a swallow's nest, because he did not lend the monkey a ladder; like the audience at this stage, he has no idea what the dream meant.
2 Daemones hears a great noise from inside the temple, and then sees Trachalio running out, exclaiming incomprehensible pleas for help. Trachalio hysterically approaches Daemones, begging for help in the same complex way, but still making no sense to the latter. Finally, he explains that two girls and the priestess are being attacked in the temple; he expands on this, explaining that a man (known to the audience as Labrax) is trying to take the girls, clinging to the altar, away. Being a decent man, Daemones calls upon two strong slaves, Turbalio and Sparax, to go into the temple to help them; Palaestra and Ampelisca leave the temple.
3 Having been found by the pimp, from whom she thought she was now safe, Palaestra despairs, asking what will become of herself and Ampelisca now; once again, she states that it would be better for them to die. Suddenly, the girls notice Trachalio, giving them some hope; however, despite Trachalio's reassurances, both girls insist that they are intent on suicide. Trachalio tells the girls to wait at the altar outside the temple, where both he and Venus will ensure their safety. Ampelisca prays to Venus for this protection, joined by Trachalio who begs for the goddess to help them both.
4 Daemones then emerges from the temple, along with Turbalio and Sparax, who bring Labrax. Another, more violent side of Daemones is seen: he insults Labrax, and instructs one of his slaves to punch him. Nevertheless, Labrax remains defiant, stating that he will have his revenge against Daemones and that the girls are, at least by the law of his own country, his property. However, Trachalio interjects, insisting that if any Cyrenian judge were summoned, he would agree that the girls should be free and that Labrax should spend the rest of his life in prison. Labrax responds harshly to having a slave arguing with him, continuing to speak to Daemones. However, seemingly enjoying the exchange between Trachalio and Labrax, Daemones orders the pimp to continue his argument with the slave. Finally, Labrax is defeated in his resolve, and converses with Trachalio, who threatens that even the slightest touch of the girls will result in him being beaten. Greedy as always, Labrax states that Trachalio may have the girls, but only if he is willing to pay, and indeed that Venus could have them if she were to pay. Daemones is outraged at the idea of Venus ever giving money to a pimp, and threatens him with further violence with even the slightest offense against them. Suddenly, Trachalio states that one of the girls is Greek, and has Athenian parents, which interests Daemones, realising that she is of the same nationality as him. This brings back the memories of his lost daughter, stating that she was only three years old when she was stolen by pirates, and that she would now be as old as Palaestra if she were still alive (not realising yet that Palaestra is his daughter). Trachalio then suggests that, to determine whether he or Labrax is more honest, they should compare each other's backs for weals from whipping for crimes; he believes that Labrax' back will be covered with more weals than a warship has nails, and that his will be smooth enough for a bottle-maker to execute his art. Labrax takes no notice of the threats, and makes for the villa, stating that he intends to fetch Vulcan (representative of fire), since he is an enemy of Venus. One of the two slaves makes a humorous comment, that there will be no fire in the house since they are allowed to eat nothing but dried figs. This is ignored, and Labrax explains his plan to build a fire with which to kill the girls; however, Daemones suggests that Labrax is burnt instead. Trachalio decides to leave to fetch his master, Plesidippus, to whom Labrax had sold Palaestra; his exit is slow, as he continually reminds Daemones to watch Labrax carefully.
5 After Trachalio has left, Daemones toys with Labrax, daring him to go and touch the girls. This carries on for some time, until Daemones sends one of his slaves, Turbalio, into the villa to fetch two clubs. On his return, Daemones carefully positions both slaves around the pimp, instructing them as to exactly how they should hold the clubs, threatening absolutely that any attempt to touch them whatsoever will result in their death, stressing also that he is not allowed to leave. Daemones then leaves to return to the villa. Labrax is left alone with the two slaves behind him. He jokes about the fact that, although the temple had formerly been Venus’, the presence of the two heavy-handed slaves with their clubs, makes it seem that it is now Hercules’. Having called out to Palaestra, Sparax answers, asking what he wants – Labrax is familiarly rude. Testing their patience, he asks whether he can move closer to the girls, but is threatened with the clubs; the slaves toy with him, encouraging him to move forward.
6 Trachalio returns with his master, Plesidippus. Despite Trachalio's diligent efforts to protect the girls and his hate for Labrax, he is berated by his master for not having killed the pimp; quite surprisingly, Trachalio shows significant mercy towards Labrax, appealing at Plesidippus’ suggestion that he should have killed the pimp ‘like a dog’. Labrax greets Plesidippus cheekily, but it is received with contempt. Plesidippus sends Trachalio to fetch the men who had accompanied him in the first instance, when meeting Daemones and Sceparnio, leaving, essentially, just Plesidippus and Labrax. Labrax questions Plesidippus, asking with which crime he is being charged; he then states that he cannot be charged, since he did not actually take the girls away – he just took them some of the way, hindered by the storm. Tired of the banter, Plesidippus throws a rope around Labrax's neck and orders him to march with him to the magistrate. As they walk past, Labrax's friend, Charmides, emerges from the temple, at Labrax's calls for help. Expecting to receive assistance from his friend, Labrax asks him why he is failing to act; Charmides ignores his former friend, and instead congratulates Plesidippus, and then tells Labrax that he is getting exactly what he deserves. As he is led off, the girls are brought into the safety of Daemones’ villa, and Charmides, in soliloquy, states humorously that he intends to testify at the court...for the prosecution.
Act 4
1 Daemones emerges from his villa, again in soliloquy, stating what a good job he has done in saving the two girls, and how beautiful he considers the two girls, in his protection, to be. This leads onto his wife, who is now intently watching him, mistrustful of his fidelity. He refers to his slave, Gripus, who is a fisherman whom he sent out the last night to fish. He is late, and Daemones doubts that, given the severity of the storm, he could have caught anything.
2 The scene switches to Gripus, alone, carrying his net behind him; his mood is unusually raised considering that he could not have caught much. However, he soon states that his net is heavy because of gift from Neptune and furthermore, that he hasn't caught a single fish. Gripus explains how he has been blessed with his prized catch because of his diligence, and then reveals that what he has caught is a wickerwork trunk — because of its weight, he presumes that it is filled with gold, and gets carried away imagining that he can buy his own freedom and become rich and famous. He drags off the trunk to hide it.
3 Trachalio calls him. Despite Gripus' assumption that he has come looking for fish, Trachalio insists that he only wishes to speak with him, while carefully examining the contents of the net. Trachalio begins to explain his interest in Gripus' catch. Trachalio explains that he knows the owner of the trunk, and that it should be returned — Gripus takes no notice, arguing that it is his property now. He justifies his cause by using the example of a fish — a fish in the sea cannot belong to anyone, but once it has been caught, it is the property of the fisherman. Trachalio, showing his quick-wit, states that if he is correct, the trunk is as much his as it is Gripus's. The argument becomes increasingly obscure as Trachalio demands in which way a trunk can be treated in the same way as a fish, to which Gripus states that there is such thing as a trunk-fish. Trachalio becomes sick of the argument, and instead suggests that they seek an arbitrator to make a decision — characteristic of Gripus, he suggests a tug of war — an idea much scorned by Trachalio. Humorously, Trachalio threatens to punch Gripus (even though the latter is obviously far stronger); a similar threat from Gripus makes him back down quickly, offering a 50:50 share of the trunk. A failed attempt by Trachalio to carry off the trunk leads to more argument; Gripus quickly gives up, lacking the wit to keep up with Trachalio. There is a final futile attempt by Gripus to win the trunk by reasoning, suggesting that if Trachalio leaves him with the trunk, he will not be an accessory to the crime. Trachalio finally suggests that the man living in the nearby villa (Daemones) should act as the arbitrator; to himself, Gripus utters that he cannot lose the trunk now, presuming that his master will side with him.
4 The scene moves to the entrance of the villa, where Daemones has been forced, by his jealous wife, to let the girls go from the house — Ampelisca and Palaestra are despairing once again. Gripus and Trachalio arrive at the villa and greet Daemones, when, upon hearing that Gripus is Daemones' slave, Trachalio is astounded. However, he speaks politely to Daemones, greeting him, and then, surprisingly, stating how excellent it is that they are master and slave. Gripus and Trachalio enter into a childish race to give their side of the story first — to the audience's (and Gripus') surprise, Daemones gives Trachalio the right to speak first — after a brief explanation that the trunk belongs to Labrax, they quarrel again. Daemones appears to be watching the spectacle as a comic event, commenting on the wit of either side and laughing at insults hurled by each of them. Trachalio continues the story by stating that he does not claim anything in the trunk, and that he instead wishes to return an item to Palaestra — a box containing toys from when she was a baby. Instantly, Daemones agrees that he should have the box, despite an appeal from Gripus that they might be gold. However, showing absolute devotion to the girls, he states that he will pay Gripus in gold for whatever he takes from the trunk — despite not having the means. Trachalio then proposes that Palaestra should be made to recognise the box, to make sure that he is correct; Gripus protests again. Daemones asks Trachalio to explain the story again, invoking considerable annoyance, and even more with an interruption from Gripus. Finally, Gripus hands the trunk over to Daemones, on condition that anything not belonging to the girls he can keep. Daemones asks the girls whether the trunk is that in which the box of trinkets was kept — they confirm it, and Gripus, cynical, states that they did not even look at it. Palaestra counters this by telling Daemones to look inside the trunk and box, while she describes all the contents. As Palaestra recognizes the box, she exclaims that her parents are in there, which Gripus comically takes literally, stating that she will be punished for imprisoning her parents in a box. They begin the proof of ownership, as Palaestra describes the items in the box; the first is a small golden sword with an inscription, "Daemones," which she states is her father's name. Daemones begins to realize the truth — that Palaestra is his daughter. The next is a small axe with another inscription — Daedalis — the name of Palaestra's mother and of Daemones' wife. The scene erupts into three simultaneous soliloquies — Daemones exclaiming his joy at finding his daughter, Gripus lamenting the loss of the articles in the trunk, Palaestra continuing to describe the items in the box. Finally, this is broken when Daemones states that he is her father, and that her mother is just inside the house. Trachalio congratulates Daemones, and they all — except for Gripus — enter the house. Gripus laments his loss, suggesting that he should just hang himself.
5 Daemones comes out from his villa, talking to himself about his good fortune and his intention to marry his new-found daughter to Plesidippus. Through the door of the house he spots his wife hugging Palaestra.
6 He orders his wife to prepare a thanksgiving sacrifice. Trachalio comes out and Daemones orders him to fetch his master, and tell him that he intends to give Palaestra to him as his wife. To everything Trachalio replies "no problem!" (). Trachalio in turn begs Daemones to ask Plesidippus to grant him his freedom, and allow him to marry Ampelisca, which Daemones agrees to in the same manner. Trachalio departs.
7 Gripus comes out of the villa and advises Daemones to keep Labrax's money for himself. Daemones says this would be dishonest and states that he will return it to its rightful owner. They both go into the house.
8 Trachalio comes back with Plesidippus, who is asking him for his advice, to which Trachalio repeatedly answers "Good idea!" ( until finally Plesidippus asks if he should hug the mother and daughter, to which Trachalio answers They enter the villa.
Act 5
1 Labrax enters, bemoaning his misfortune. He says he is going into the temple to fetch his remaining slave, Ampelisca, so that at least he won't lose everything.
2 Gripus comes out and begins to rub the rust off an iron spit needed for the sacrifice. He grumbles that he has been given no reward finding the travelling case and that he intends to advertise for the owner. Labrax, overhearing this, and delighted that the case has been found, questions Gripus about it. Gripus offers to take him to it for a large reward. After bargaining, Labrax agrees to swear on the altar nearby that he will pay him. But after Gripus goes inside Labrax declares that he has no intention of keeping his word.
3 Daemones and Gripus come out and Labrax tells Daemones he is happy to let Palaestra stay with her father without payment. Gripus now demands his reward, which Labrax refuses to pay. Hearing this Daemones insists that Labrax should pay it. Despite Gripus's constant interjections, Daemones comes to an arrangement with Labrax, that Labrax will pay the money; half will be given back to him in return for Ampelisca's freedom, and half will be given to Gripus with which he can buy his freedom. He invites `Labrax to dine with him, and Labrax agrees. They all go inside the house.
Two plays in one?
It has been argued, because of its length and certain inconsistencies in the story, that the Rudens in fact combines the plots of two Greek plays. According to this theory the first half is copied from a play by Diphilus, rich in mythological allusion and tragic monody. In this play, when the young man catches up with the pimp, he takes him to court on the grounds of a broken contract, with no mention being made of the fact that the girl is free-born. Sceparnio, Ampelisca, Charmides, and the priestess of Venus play an important role, and the setting is Cyrene in north Africa.
The second half (according to this argument) is taken from a play possibly by a different author, equally containing a shipwreck, but not necessarily in north Africa. In the second play a different slave of Daemones finds the chest, the shipwrecked girl is recognised as Daemones' daughter, and the young man is recognised as a relative of Daemones. This second half of Rudens is in a different style, with no mythological allusions, but full of verbal quibbles such as Trachalio's repeated in Act 4.6 and his repeated in Act 4.8. One inconsistency between the two halves of Rudens is that Trachalio is sent in Act 3.6 to fetch Plesidippus's three friends, but he does not do so.
Another theory to explain the apparent inconsistencies in the play is that the characters of Sceparnio, Ampelisca, and Charmides may have been added by Plautus himself to Diphilus's Greek original.
Another play which apparently had a very similar theme to Rudens is the fragmentary Vidularia of Plautus, named after the or travelling case which contained the tokens needed to prove the shipwrecked girl's identity. Vidularia seems to be more like the second half of Rudens than the first. In an article on the play, Katalin Dér writes: "Vidularia lacks the roles of the Sicilian and the priestess of Venus, of Ampelisca and Sceparnio". The shipwrecked girl does however take refuge in a temple of Venus.
Metrical structure
Plautus's plays are traditionally divided into five acts; these are referred to here for convenience, since many editions make use of them. However, it is not thought that they go back to Plautus's time, since no manuscript contains them before the 15th century. Also, the acts themselves do not always match the structure of the plays.
The different scenes of the play are more clearly differentiated by changes of metre from one to another. The usual pattern is to begin each section with iambic senarii (which were spoken without music), then a scene of music in various metres. Each section is rounded off by trochaic septenarii, which were apparently recited or sung to the accompaniment of (a pair of reed pipes). The scheme in the Rudens is slightly different. Instead of ABC, ABC, ABC... the scheme is as follows:
ABBC, AC, ACBBC; ABBC, AC, ACBAC
In each of the first two sections, the musical interlude consists of a polymetric passage followed by iambic septenarii; there is another long passage of iambic septenarii in the fourth section. The iambic septenarius was particularly associated with comedy (and never used in tragedy). Often this metre is associated with love, as in Act 2, scene 3, but it seems that Plautus here experiments with other uses, such as the bargaining between Gripus and Labrax over a reward in Act 5.
The girls escape from the sea
Prologue; Act 1.1–1.2 (lines 1–184): iambic senarii (181 lines)
The star Arcturus introduces the scene and tells how he caused a storm.
(line 83) Daemones' slave Sceparnio complains about the storm. The young man Plesidippus arrives and asks Daemones if he has seen Labrax. Suddenly Daemones spots two men on the beach. Sceparnio spots the two girls approaching the shore in a boat.
Act 1.3–1.5 (185–289): polymetric song (105 lines)
Palaestra and Ampelisca sing a tearful lament in a variety of metres at first separately and then together. The metres are reizianum, iambic, bacchiac, anapaestic, cretic, and trochaic The kindly priestess welcomes them, singing in bacchiacs, an appropriately dignified metre.
Act 2.1–2.3 (290–413): iambic septenarii (123 lines)
Some fishermen cross the stage singing of their lot. Trachalio (Plesidippus' slave) questions them if they have seen Labrax or Plesidippus. Next he meets Ampelisca and flirts with her. She tells him about her mistress's lost travelling-case.
Act 2.4 (414–441): trochaic septenarii (28 lines)
Ampelisca begs Sceparnio for water. Sceparnio flirts with her shamelessly before eventually agreeing to fetch some water for her.
Labrax discovers the girls
Act 2. (cont.)–2.6 (442–558): iambic senarii (109 lines)
Ampelisca sees the pimp Labrax approaching and runs into the temple. Sceparnio is puzzled to find her gone, and carries the pitcher of water over to the temple himself. While he is inside, Labrax and Charmides appear, soaking wet, each blaming the other for the disaster.
Act 2.7 (559–592): trochaic septenarii (34 lines)
Sceparnio comes out of the temple and unwittingly reveals that the girls are inside.
Daemones rescues the girls
Act 3.1 (593–614): iambic senarii (24 lines).
Daemones relates a strange dream about a monkey who was demanding a ladder to climb up to a swallow's nest.
Act 3.2 (615–663): trochaic septenarii (49 lines).
Trachalio comes out of the temple and calls Daemones for help. Daemones rescues the girls from the temple.
Act 3.3 (664–681a): mostly cretics (18 lines)
Palaestra laments her lot.
Act 3.3 (cont.) (682–705): iambic septenarii (24 lines)
Trachalio encourages the girls to take refuge by sitting on the altar. The girls pray to Venus.
Act 3.4 (706–779): trochaic septenarii (74 lines)
Daemones summons two ("whip men") to keep guard on Labrax.
Daemones recognises his daughter
Act 3.5–4.1 (780–905): iambic senarii (125 lines)
Daemones leaves the slaves to watch over Labrax. Trachalio returns with Plesidippus, who forces Labrax to accompany him to the magistrate. The girls are taken into Daemones' villa. Daemones comes out and wonders why his slave Gripus, who had gone off to fish, has not returned.
Act 4.2–4.3 (906–962): polymetric (57 lines)
Gripus enters with his net, trailing a rope, singing in various metres but especially anapaestic octonarii of how rich he will be after finding a chest in the sea. The metre switches to iambic quaternarii when Trachalio grabs the rope, then to anapaestic quarternarii when he threatens to reveal Gripus's theft.
Act 4.3 (cont.)–4.4 (963–1190): trochaic septenarii (228 lines)
Trachalio and Gripus argue over the trunk; Daemones forces the girls to leave the house and sit on the altar; Trachalio and Gripus continue arguing until the contents are revealed and Daemones recognises his daughter.
Trachalio begs his freedom
Act 4.5 (1191–1204): iambic senarii (14 lines)
Daemones speaks of his good fortune.
Act 4.6 (1205–1226): trochaic septenarii (22 lines)
Daemones orders Trachalio to fetch Plesidippus with a message that he may marry Palaestra; Trachalio in turn begs Daemones to ask Plesiddipus to give him his freedom, so that he, Trachalio, can marry Ampelisca.
Gripus and Ampelisca are freed
Act 4.7 (1227–1264): iambic senarii (38 lines)
Gripus advises Daemones to keep the money, but Daemones refuses his advice.
Act 4.8 (1265–1280): trochaic septenarii (16 lines)
Trachalio brings Plesidippus, who is excited at the news.
Act 5.1–5.2 (1281–1337): iambic septenarii (57 lines)
Labrax bemoans his ill luck. Gripus tells him about the chest, and offers to take him to it in return for a large reward.
Act 5.2 (cont.) (1338–1356): iambic senarii (19 lines)
Gripus forces Labrax to swear on the altar that he will pay the reward.
Act 5.3 (1357–1423): trochaic septenarii (67 lines)
Labrax tells Daemones he may keep Palaestra free of charge. Gripus demands his reward, which Labrax refuses, but Daemones insists the reward must be paid. He uses half to free Ampelisca, and half to buy Gripus's freedom.
Modern versions
"A-21"
Louis Zukofsky included an adaptation of Rudens as section "A-21" in his long poem "A"; this adaptation was written in 1967.
The Storm
In July 2005, a new translation by Peter Oswald entitled The Storm was produced at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre in London as part of the "World and Underworld" Season.
Tug of War
In 2007, a translation by UCLA academic Amy Richlin formed the basis for Tug of War, performed at the Getty Villa in California.
Translations
Henry Thomas Riley, 1912
Paul Nixon, 1916-38
Cleveland K Chase, 1942
E. F. Watling, 1964
Christopher Stace, 1981
Peter L. Smith. 1991
Robert Wind, 1995
Constance Carrier, 1995
Peter Oswald, 2005.<ref>Plautus, The Storm or 'The Howler''', translated/adapted by Peter Oswald, Oberon Books, London, 2005, .</ref>
David M. Christenson, 2010
Wolfgang de Melo, 2012
Editions
Plautus, Rudens'', edited by H. C. Fay, Bristol Classical Press, Bristol, 1969, .
References
External links
Images of a production of Rudens — St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota.
Plays by Plautus
Plays set in Libya |
4346015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Liverpool | History of Liverpool | The history of Liverpool can be traced back to 1190 when the place was known as 'Liuerpul', possibly meaning a pool or creek with muddy water, though other origins of the name have been suggested. The borough was founded by royal charter in 1207 by King John, made up of only seven streets in the shape of the letter 'H'. Liverpool remained a small settlement until its trade with Ireland and coastal parts of England and Wales was overtaken by trade with Africa and the West Indies, which included the slave trade. The world's first commercial wet dock was opened in 1715 and Liverpool's expansion to become a major city continued over the next two centuries.
By the start of the nineteenth century, a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened. The population grew rapidly, especially with Irish migrants; by 1851, one quarter of the city's population was Irish-born. As growth continued, the city became known as "the second city of the Empire", and was also called "the New York of Europe". During the Second World War, the city was the centre for planning the crucial Battle of the Atlantic, and suffered a blitz second only to London's.
From the mid-twentieth century, Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline, with the advent of containerisation making the city's docks obsolete. The unemployment rate in Liverpool rose to one of the highest in the UK. Over the same period, starting in the early 1960s, the city became internationally renowned for its culture, particularly as the centre of the "Merseybeat" sound which became synonymous with The Beatles. In recent years, Liverpool's economy has recovered, partly due to tourism as well as substantial investment in regeneration schemes. The city was the European Capital of Culture for 2008.
Iron Age and Britons
In the Iron Age the area around modern-day Liverpool was sparsely populated, though there was a seaport at Meols. The Calderstones are thought to be part of an ancient stone circle and there is archaeological evidence for native Iron Age farmsteads at several sites in Irby, Halewood and Lathom. The region was inhabited by Brythonic tribes, the Setantii as well as nearby Cornovii and Deceangli.
Romans
The area came under Roman influence in about 70 AD, with the northward advance to crush the druid resistance on Anglesey and to end the internal strife between the ruling family of Brigantes. The main Roman presence was at the fortress and settlement at Chester. According to Ptolemy, the Latin hydronym for the Mersey was Seteia Aestuarium, which derives from the Setantii tribe.
In 2007 evidence of a Roman tile works was found around the Tarbock Island area of the M62 and various Roman coins and jewellery have been found in the Liverpool area.
Anglo-Saxons
After the withdrawal of Roman troops, land in the area continued to be farmed by native Britons. The Hen Ogledd (Old North) was subject to fighting among four medieval kingdoms: the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Mercia eventually defeated its rival Northumbria as well as the Celtic kingdoms of Gwynedd and Powys, with the Battle of Brunanburh perhaps taking place at nearby Bromborough. The settlements at Walton (Wealas tun meaning 'farmstead of the Wealas'), and Wallasey (Wealas-eg meaning 'island of the Wealas') were named at this time with Wealas being Old English for 'foreigner', referring to the native Celtic and Romanized inhabitants.
Vikings
The pseudo-historical Fragmentary Annals of Ireland appear to record the Norse settlement of the Wirral in their account of the immigration of Ingimundr near Chester. This Irish source places this settlement in the aftermath of the expulsion of the Vikings from Dublin in 902 and an unsuccessful attempt to settle on Anglesey soon afterwards. Following these setbacks, Ingimundr is stated to have settled near Chester with the consent of Æthelflæd, co-ruler of Mercia. The Norse settlers eventually joined up with another group of Viking settlers who populated west Lancashire, and for a time had an independent Viking mini-state, with Viking placenames evident all over Merseyside.
Viking placenames include the suffix -by from Old Norse byr meaning village or farm, as found in Kirkby, West Kirkby, Crosby, Formby, West Derby, Roby, Frankby, Greasby, Irby, Raby. The -teth suffix from stathir meaning homestead as in Toxteth and Croxteth. The -dale suffix comes from dalr meaning valley as found in Kirkdale, Ainsdale, Birkdale. The prefix hale from halh meaning river meadow as found in Hale Bank and Halewood. The word Meols and suffix -mere come from melr meaning sandbank as in Meols and Tranmere. The Norse name Thorsteinn is shown in Thursaston. The thing-vollr in Norse meaning assembly field is found in Thingwall place names on both sides of the Mersey in West Derby and Wirral.
Normans
In 1086, the Domesday Book survey lists Roger de Poitou as the South Lancashire tenant-in-chief for Inter Ripam et Mersam lands between the Ribble and Mersey rivers, in the West Derby Hundred and, at the time, the northern part of Cheshire. The Wirral settlements are administered as the Hundred of Wilaveston from the village of Willaston.
Liverpool itself is not listed in the Domesday Book but there is a large settlement listed at West Derby (Derbei). Other settlements are named in the West Derby Hundred including Bootle (Boltelai), Kirkdale (Circhdele), Walton (Waletone), Toxteth (Stochestede), Smithdown (Esmidune), Wavertree (Wauretreu), Childwall (Cildeuuelle), Allerton (Alretune), Little and Much Woolton (Uluentune), (Ulletone), Speke (Spec), Tarbock (Tarboc), Roby (Rabil), Huyton (Hitune), Knowsley (Chenulveslei), Kirkby (Cherchebi), Melling (Melinge), Maghull (Magele), Lydiate (Leidte), Sefton (Sextune), Thornton (Torentun), Litherland (Liderlant), Crosby (Crosebi), Formby (Fornebei), Ravenmeols (Mele), Little Altcar (Acrer), Ainsdale (Einulvesdel), North Meols (Otegrimele).
Origins of the name
The name comes from the Old English liver, meaning thick or muddy, and pol, meaning a pool or creek, and is first recorded around 1190 as Liuerpul. According to the Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names, "The original reference was to a pool or tidal creek now filled up into which two streams drained". The adjective Liverpudlian is first recorded in 1833.
Origins of the town
Although a small motte and bailey castle had earlier been built at West Derby, the origins of the city of Liverpool are usually dated from 28 August 1207, when letters patent were issued by King John advertising the establishment of a new borough, "Livpul", and inviting settlers to come and take up holdings there. It is thought that the King wanted a port in the district that was free from the control of the Earl of Chester. Initially it served as a dispatch point for troops sent to Ireland, soon after the building around 1235 of Liverpool Castle, which was removed in 1726. St Nicholas Church was built by 1257, originally as a chapel within the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill. In the 13th century Liverpool as an area consisted of just seven streets.
With the formation of a market on the site of the later town hall, Liverpool became established as a small fishing and farming community administered by burgesses and, slightly later, a mayor. There was probably some coastal trade around the Irish Sea and there were occasional ferries across the Mersey. However for several centuries it remained a small and relatively unimportant settlement, with a population of no more than 1,000 in the mid 14th century. By the early 15th century a period of economic decline set in and the county gentry increased their power over the town, the Stanley family fortifying their house by building Stanley Tower on Water Street. This was a catalyst for a feud between the Stanley and Molyneux families since the Molyneux family had permission to live at the nearby Liverpool Castle at that time. The resulting rivalry nearly spilled into a riot in 1424. In the middle of the 16th century the population of Liverpool had fallen to around 600 and the port was regarded as subordinate to Chester until the 1650s.
Elizabethan era and the Civil War
In 1571 the people of Liverpool sent a memorial to Queen Elizabeth I, praying relief from a subsidy which they thought themselves unable to bear, wherein they styled themselves "her majesty's poor decayed town of Liverpool". Some time towards the close of this reign, Henry Stanley, 4th Earl of Derby, on his way to the Isle of Man, stayed at his house, the Tower; at which the corporation erected a handsome hall or seat for him in the church, where he honoured them several times with his presence.
By the end of the sixteenth century, the town began to be able to take advantage of economic revival and the silting of the River Dee to win trade, mainly from Chester, to Ireland, the Isle of Man and elsewhere. In 1626, King Charles I gave the town a new and improved charter.
In June 1644 Prince Rupert of the Rhine arrived in Liverpool with 10,000 men in an attempt to capture Liverpool Castle. A sixteen-day siege of Liverpool then took place. To defend the city the Parliament Army dug a trench across much of the town centre. Prince Rupert eventually took hold of the castle only to be driven out again to take refuge in the present-day Everton area of the city (this link was used in naming the small jail tower (Prince Rupert's Tower) that was built over a century later in the area, and is also depicted on the Everton Football Club badge.).
Transatlantic trade
The first cargo from the Americas was recorded in 1648. The development of the town accelerated after the Restoration of 1660, with the growth of trade with America and the West Indies. From that time may be traced the rapid progress of population and commerce, until Liverpool had become the second metropolis of Great Britain. Initially, cloth, coal and salt from Lancashire and Cheshire were exchanged for sugar and tobacco; the town's first sugar refinery was established in 1667.
In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish on its own by Act of Parliament, separate from that of Walton-on-the-Hill, with two parish churches. At the same time it gained separate customs authority from Chester.
Slave trade, privateering
In 1699 the first known slave ship to sail from Liverpool departed, its name and number of victims unknown. The last recorded slaving voyage out of Liverpool was in 1862, of a total of 4,973 such voyages. One example is the Liverpool Merchant that set sail for Africa on 3 October 1699, the very same year that Liverpool had been granted status as an independent parish. It arrived in Barbados with a 'cargo' of 220 Africans, returning to Liverpool on 18 September 1700. By the close of the 18th century 40% of the world's, and 80% of Britain's activity in the Atlantic slave trade was accounted for by slave ships that voyaged from the docks at Liverpool. In the peak year of 1799, ships sailing from Liverpool carried over 45,000 enslaved people from Africa.
Liverpool merchants such as Foster Cunliffe and his apprentice William Bulkeley co-owned voyages for slaves, for Greenland whaling, and, especially during the Seven Years' War, privateering. They traded also in tobacco and other commodities. James Stonehouse recalled his father's ship being fitted out: "I was often taken on board. In her hold were long shelves, with ring bolts in rows in several places. I used to run along these shelves little thinking of what dreadful scenes would be enacted upon them. The fact is that [she] was destined for the African trade, in which she made many successful voyages. In 1779, however, she was converted into a privateer. My father, at the present time, would not perhaps be thought very respectable; but I assure you that he was so considered in those days. So many people in Liverpool were... "tarred with the same brush" that these occupations were... not at all regarded as derogatory."
Vast profits transformed Liverpool into one of Britain's foremost cities. Liverpool became a financial centre, rivaled by Bristol, another slaving port, and exceeded only by London. The first commercial wet dock in the world was built in Liverpool and completed in 1715, with a capacity of 100 ships. The commercial growth led to the opening of the Consulate of the United States in Liverpool in 1790, its first consulate anywhere in the world, and to many other social changes: "As a young boy, I have seen it ranked only as a third-class seaport. Its streets tortuous and narrow, with pavements in the middle, skirted by mud or dirt as the season happened. The sidewalks rough with sharp-pointed stones, that made it misery to walk upon them. I have seen houses, with little low rooms, suffice for the dwelling of the merchant or well-to-do trader, the first being content to live in Water-St. or Oldhall-St., while the latter had no idea of leaving his little shop, with its bay or square window, to take care of itself at night... The most enlightened of its inhabitants, at that time, could not boast of much intelligence, while [the] lower orders were plunged in the deepest vice, ignorance, and brutality... so barbarous were they in their amusements, bullbaiting and cock and dog fightings, and pugilistic encounters. What could we expect when we opened no book to the young... deriving our prosperity from two great sources - the slave trade and privateering... Swarming with sailormen flushed with prize money, was it not likely that the inhabitants generally would take a tone from what they daily beheld and quietly countenanced?...
As a man, I have seen the old narrow streets widening – the old houses crumbling... and the sea influence recede before improvement, education and enlightenment of all sorts. The three-bottle and punch drinking man is the exception now, and not the rule of the table."
Liverpool politicians and slavery
Richard Pennant was returned unopposed as one of the two Members of Parliament for Liverpool at a by-election in 1767. He then won two successive general elections, in 1768 and 1774. He was defeated in 1780 general election, when Bamber Gascoyne (the younger) was returned instead. Pennant was given an Irish peerage, becoming Lord Penrhyn. He was returned as an MP for Liverpool in the 1784 general election. Between 1784 and 1790, when he stood down and was replaced by Banastre Tarleton, Penrhyn is reported to have made more than thirty speeches, all in vigorous defence of Liverpool trade or the West Indies. From 1788 to 1807, he was also Chairman of the London Society of West India Planters and Merchants. In May 1788, Penrhyn and Bamber Gascoyne (the younger), were the only two Members who ventured to justify the slave trade. Penrhyn spoke frequently in defence of the slave trade 'denying the facts advanced, appealing to the prudence and policy of the House against their compassion'. On 12 May 1789 he told the House that 'if they passed the vote of abolition they actually struck at seventy millions of property, they ruined the colonies, and by destroying an essential nursery of seamen, gave up the dominion of the sea at a single glance'. Bamber Gascoyne continued as a Liverpool MP until 1796.
Banastre Tarleton succeeded Lord Penrhyn as MP in 1790, and apart from one year, remained as an MP for Liverpool until 1812. He was a frequent speaker in the House of Commons, 'spirited and animated', in debate. In 1791 he visited Paris and was barred from the Jacobin Club because of his consistent and outspoken defence of the slave trade. His rhetoric was versatile; in 1794 he opposed William Wilberforce's bid to veto the export of slaves to foreign countries as an attack on private property. In 1796 he thwarted a further bid to abolish the slave trade and went on to thwart the slave carrying bill. In 1803 his opposition to abolition of the slave trade was based on the danger from Napoleon, adding in 1805 that Liverpool's growth and prosperity depended on the trade. By 1806 he believed that the United States would benefit more from abolition, and he 'was sorry to observe that ministers were much more active in injuring the trade of the country than in providing for its defence'.
Even in Liverpool, abolitionist sentiment was expressed. The Liverpool-born politician William Roscoe was member for Liverpool in 1806–1807, and was able to vote for the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. This legislation imposed fines that did little to deter slave trade participants; 29 avowed slaving voyages left Liverpool in 1808, but none in 1809, two in 1810, and two more in 1811. In 1811 Henry Brougham introduced the Slave Trade Felony Act 1811 which made slave traders liable to effective penalties including penal transportation for up to fourteen years. Thereafter, though the trade continued in illicit forms, only one more slaving voyage, in 1862, is recorded from Liverpool. Many merchants managed to ignore the laws and continued to deal in slave trafficking, supplying the markets that remained open in Brazil and elsewhere.
Slavery in British colonies was finally abolished in 1833, replaced by "apprenticeships", which ran until 1838 when they were abolished as well.
Industrial revolution and commercial expansion
The international trade of the town continued to grow. While this did include slave trading, it encompassed a wide range of commodities. In particular, cotton, which Liverpool became the leading world market. From Liverpool, the textile mills of Manchester and Lancashire were supplied.
During the eighteenth century the town's population grew from some 6,000 to 80,000, and its land and water communications with its hinterland and other northern cities steadily improved. Liverpool was first linked by canal to Manchester in 1721, the St. Helens coalfield in 1755, and Leeds in 1816. In 1830, Liverpool became home to the world's first inter-urban rail link to another city, Manchester, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the maiden journey of Stephenson's The Rocket.
Liverpool's importance was such that it was home to a number of world firsts. This included the world's first fully electrically powered overhead railway, the Liverpool Overhead Railway. It opened in 1893, predating more famous systems subsequently constructed in New York City and Chicago.
The urban area grew rapidly from the 18th century onwards. The Bluecoat Hospital for poor children was established in 1718. With the demolition of the castle in 1726, only St Nicholas Church and the historic street plan – with Castle Street as the spine of the original settlement and Paradise Street following the line of the Pool – remained to reflect the town's mediaeval origins. The Town Hall, with a covered exchange for merchants designed by architect John Wood, was built in 1754, and the first office buildings, including the Corn Exchange, were opened in 1808.
Throughout the 19th century Liverpool's trade and its population continued to expand rapidly. Growth in the cotton trade was accompanied by the development of strong trading links with India and the Far East, following the ending of the Honourable East India Company's monopoly in 1813. More than of new docks, with of quay space, were opened between 1824 and 1858. In 1848, Liverpool's public abattoir, in the town centre, was considered the best in England. However,by 1900 it was said to be inferior to a private slaughterhouse.
Between 1845 and 1849, due to the Great Famine, there was an influx of Irish people into Liverpool. Almost 300,000 arrived in 1847, and by 1851 approximately 25 per cent of the town's population was Irish-born. The Irish influence is reflected in the unique place Liverpool occupies in UK and Irish political history, being the only local outside Ireland to elect a member of parliament from the Irish Parliamentary Party to the British parliament in Westminster. T.P. O'Connor represented the constituency of Liverpool Scotland from 1885 to 1929.
As the town became a leading port of the British Empire, a number of major buildings were constructed. These included St George's Hall (1854) and Lime Street Station. The Grand National steeplechase was first run at Aintree in 1837.
Between 1851 and 1911, Liverpool attracted at least 20,000 people from Wales each decade, peaking in the 1880s. One of the first Welsh-language journals, Yr Amserau, was founded in Liverpool by William Rees (Gwilym Hiraethog), and more than 50 Welsh chapels were constructed.
Early regular scheduled Liverpool transatlantic passenger travel began in the 1810s, with American lines such as Black Ball Line (trans-Atlantic packet) and Collins Line. In the 1840s, Liverpool-based companies' emerged that included Cunard Line and White Star Line.
When the American Civil War broke out, Liverpool became a hotbed of intrigue, and Confederate agent James Dunwoody Bulloch set up a base of operations there. Given the crucial place cotton held in the town's economy, Liverpool became "the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself" per the historian Sven Beckert. The Confederate Navy ship, the CSS Alabama, was built at Birkenhead on the Mersey, and the CSS Shenandoah surrendered there (being the final surrender at the end of the war). The city was also the center of Confederate purchasing war materiel, including arms and ammunition, uniforms, and naval supplies to be smuggled by British blockade runners to the South.
Liverpool was granted city status in 1880 and the following year its university was established. By 1901, the city's population had grown to over 700,000, and its boundaries had expanded to include Kirkdale, Everton, Walton, West Derby (in 1835 and 1895), Toxteth and Garston.
20th century
1900-1938
During the first part of the 20th century Liverpool continued to expand, pulling in immigrants from Europe. In 1903 an International Exhibition took place in Edge Lane. In 1904, the building of the Anglican Cathedral began, and by 1916 the three Pier Head buildings, including the Liver Building, were complete. This period marked the pinnacle of Liverpool's economic success, when it regarded itself as the "second city" of the British Empire. The formerly independent urban districts of Allerton, Childwall, Little Woolton and Much Woolton were added in 1913, and the parish of Speke added in 1932, with large housing developments, mostly by the local authority, being built over the next few years.
Adolf Hitler's half-brother Alois and his Irish sister-in-law Bridget Dowling are known to have lived in Upper Stanhope Street in the 1910s. Bridget's alleged memoirs, which surfaced in the 1970s, said that Adolf stayed with them in 1912–13, although this is much disputed as many believe the memoirs to be a forgery.
The maiden voyage of Titanic in April 1912 was originally planned to depart from Liverpool, as Liverpool was its port of registration and the home of owners White Star Line. However, it was changed to depart from Southampton instead.
Aside from the large Irish community in Liverpool, there were other pockets of cultural diversity. The area of Gerard, Hunter, Lionel and Whale streets, off Scotland Road, was referred to as Little Italy. Inspired by an old Venetian custom, Liverpool was 'married to the sea' in September 1928. Liverpool was also home to a large Welsh population, and was sometimes referred to as the Capital of North Wales. In 1884, 1900 and 1929, Eisteddfods were held in Liverpool.
Economic changes began in the first part of the 20th century, as falls in world demand for the North West's traditional export commodities contributed to stagnation and decline in the city. Unemployment was well above the national average as early as the 1920s, and the city became known nationally for its occasionally violent religious sectarianism.
When Everton F.C. won the Football League First Division title in 1928, their centre-forward Dixie Dean scored a Football League record of 60 goals in the same season.
The Great Depression hit Liverpool badly in the early 1930s with thousands of people in the city left unemployed. This was combated by a large amount of housing mostly built by the local council being constructed, creating jobs mostly in the building, plumbing and electrical trades. About 15 per cent of the city's population were rehoused in the 1920s and 1930s with more than 30,000 new council houses being built to replace the slums in the city.
The rising popularity of motor cars led to congestion in the city, and in 1934 the city gained its first direct road link with the Wirral Peninsula, when the first Mersey Tunnel road was opened. The Queensway, as the new tunnel was named, linked Liverpool with Birkenhead at the other side of the Mersey. Many other buildings were built in the city in the 1930s to ease the depression and became local landmarks, with many buildings featuring American inspired architecture.
1939-1945: World War II
During World War 2, Liverpool was the control centre for the Battle of the Atlantic. There were eighty air-raids on Merseyside, with an especially concentrated series of raids in May 1941 which interrupted operations at the docks for almost a week. Some 2,500 people were killed, almost half the homes in the metropolitan area sustained some damage and some 11,000 were totally destroyed. Over 70,000 people were made homeless. John Lennon, one of the founding members of The Beatles, was born in Liverpool during an air-raid on 9 October 1940. All four members of The Beatles were born in the city during the war, rising to fame in the early 1960s.
Thousands of Chinese sailors were recruited to aid the war effort and came to Liverpool, many forming relationships with local women. However, once the war was ended, they were mostly forcibly repatriated.
1946-1979
Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain. However, the city has been suffering since the 1950s with the loss of numerous employers. By 1985 the population had fallen to 460,000. Declines in manufacturing and dock activity struck the city particularly hard. In 1956 Liverpool Overhead Railway and its fourteen stations were closed and demolished and in 1957 Liverpool Corporation Tramways closed after the last tram ran in Liverpool.
In 1955, the Labour Party, led locally by Jack and Bessie Braddock, came to power in the City Council for the first time.
In 1956, a private bill sponsored by Liverpool City Council was brought before Parliament to develop a water reservoir from the Tryweryn Valley. The development would include the flooding of Capel Celyn. By obtaining authority via an Act of Parliament, Liverpool City Council would not require planning consent from the relevant Welsh local authorities.
In the 1960s Liverpool became a centre of youth culture. The city produced the distinctive Merseybeat sound, most famously The Beatles, and the Liverpool poets.
From the 1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into further sharp decline. The advent of containerisation meant that Liverpool's docks ceased to be a major local employer. Liverpool Central High Level railway station closed in 1972, as well as the Waterloo, Victoria and Wapping tunnels. In 1974, Liverpool became a metropolitan district within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside. In 1977 Liverpool Exchange railway station closed, and in 1979 the North Liverpool Extension Line closed too. In 1972 Canadian Pacific unit CP Ships were the last transatlantic line to operate from Liverpool.
1980s
The 1980s saw Liverpool's fortunes sink to their lowest postwar point. Although the 1970s, along with the rest of Britain, had brought economic difficulties and a steady rise in unemployment, the situation in Liverpool went from bad to worse in the early 1980s, with endless factory closures and some of the highest unemployment rates in the UK. An average of 12,000 people each year were leaving the city, and 15% of its land was vacant or derelict.
In July 1981 the infamous Toxteth Riots took place, during which, for the first time in the UK outside Northern Ireland, tear gas was used by police against civilians. In the same year, the Tate and Lyle sugar works, previously a mainstay of the city's manufacturing economy, closed down. The docks had already declined dramatically by this stage, depriving the city of another major source of employment.
By 1985, unemployment in Liverpool exceeded 20%, around double the national average. About this time the scourge of heroin, always present in port cities, began to rise.
Liverpool City Council was dominated by the far-left wing Militant group during the 1980s, under the de facto leadership of Derek Hatton (although Hatton was formally only Deputy Leader). The city council sank heavily into debt, as the City Council fought a campaign to prevent central government from reducing funding for local services. Ultimately this led to 49 of the city's Councillors being removed from office by the District Auditor for refusing to cut the budget, refusing to make good the deficit and forcing the City Council into virtual bankruptcy. The conduct of Hatton and the militant tendency had even come under the scrutiny of Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock, who was keen to remove the militant tendency from the party as part of the attempt to make it electable again. At the same time, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher was deeply unpopular in Liverpool, with the Conservatives share of the vote in most local council and parliamentary elections being consistently low throughout the 1980s.
On 15 April 1989 and subsequently 97 Liverpool F.C. fans (mostly from Merseyside but also from neighbouring parts of Cheshire and Lancashire) died in the Hillsborough disaster at an FA Cup semi-final in Sheffield. This had a traumatic effect on people across the country, particularly in and around the city of Liverpool, and resulted in legally imposed changes in the way in which football fans have since been accommodated, including compulsory all-seater stadiums at all leading English clubs by the mid-1990s. Many clubs removed their perimeter fencing almost immediately after the tragedy and such measures at football grounds in England have long since been banned.
In particular it led to strong feeling in Liverpool because it was widely reported in the media that the Liverpool fans were at fault. The Sun sparked particular controversy for publishing such allegations in an article four days after the disaster. Sales of the newspaper in Liverpool slumped and many newsagents refused to stock it. Three decades later many people in the city still refuse to buy The Sun and a number of newsagents still refuse to sell it. Other media outlets, including the Daily Star and Daily Mail, also printed stories in which the behaviour of Liverpool fans was alleged to have been a major factor in the tragedy.
There was further controversy surrounding the tragedy in March 1991 when a verdict of accidental death was recorded on the 95 people who had died at Hillsborough (the 96th victim did not die until 1993), much to the dismay of the bereaved families, who had been hoping for a verdict of unlawful killing, or an open verdict, to be recorded; and for criminal charges to be brought against South Yorkshire Police. This verdict was eventually replaced by one of unlawful killing at fresh inquest 25 years later.
It has since become clear that South Yorkshire Police made a range of mistakes at the game, though the senior officer in charge of the event retired soon after.
The success of Liverpool FC was some compensation for the city's economic misfortune during the 1970s and 1980s. The club, formed in 1892, had won five league titles by 1947, but enjoyed its first consistent run of success under the management of Bill Shankly between 1959 and 1974, winning a further three league titles as well as the club's first two FA Cups and its first European trophy in the shape of the UEFA Cup. Following Shankly's retirement, the club continued to dominate English football for nearly 20 years afterwards. By 1990, Liverpool FC had won more major trophies than any other English club - a total of 18 top division league titles, four FA Cups, four Football League Cups, four European Cups and two UEFA Cups. The club's iconic red shirt had been worn by some of the biggest names in British sport of the 1970s and 1980s, including Kevin Keegan, Kenny Dalglish (who also served as manager from 1985 to 1991 and again from 2011 to 2012), Phil Neal, Ian Rush, Ian Callaghan and John Barnes. The club has since won their first Premier League title and a further three FA Cups, three League Cups, a UEFA Cup and two European Cups, and fielded a new wave of stars including Robbie Fowler, Michael Owen, Jamie Carragher and Steven Gerrard.
Everton F.C., the city's original senior football club, also enjoyed a degree of success during the 1970s and 1980s. The club had enjoyed a consistent run of success during the interwar years and again in the 1960s, but after winning the league title in 1970 went 14 years without winning a major trophy, although they did hold onto the First Division place which had been theirs since 1954. Then, in 1984, Everton won the FA Cup under the management of Howard Kendall, who had once been a player at the club. A league title win followed in 1985, along with the club's first European trophy – the European Cup Winners' Cup. By 1986, the city's two clubs were firmly established as the leading club sides in England as Liverpool finished league champions and Everton runners-up, and the two sides also met for the FA Cup final, which Liverpool won 3–1. The Everton side of the mid-1980s included some of the highest rated footballers in the English league at the time; goalkeeper Neville Southall, winger Trevor Steven, forwards Graeme Sharp and Andy Gray, and Gray's successor Gary Lineker.
Everton have enjoyed an unbroken run in the top flight of English football since 1954, although their only major trophy since the league title in 1987 came in 1995 when they won the FA Cup. Everton added another league title in 1987, with Liverpool finishing runners-up.
Another all-Merseyside FA Cup final 1989 saw Liverpool beat Everton 3–2. This match was played just five weeks after the Hillsborough disaster.
1990s
A similar national outpouring of grief and shock to the Hillsborough disaster occurred in February 1993 when James Bulger was killed by two ten-year-old boys, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson. The two boys were found guilty of murder later in the year and sentenced to indefinite detention.
The 1990s saw the continued regeneration of the city which had started in the 1980s. This is still happening in 2020.
Recent history
A general economic and civic revival has been underway since the mid-nineties. Liverpool's economy has grown faster than the national average and its crime levels have remained lower than most other metropolitan areas in England and Wales, with recorded crime per head in Merseyside comparable to the national average—unusually low for an urban area.
In recent years, the city has emphasised its cultural attractions. Tourism has become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy, capitalising on the popularity of the Beatles and other groups of the Merseybeat era. In June 2003, Liverpool won the right to be named European Capital of Culture for 2008, beating other British cities such as Newcastle and Birmingham to the coveted title. The riverfront of the city was also designated as a World Heritage Site in 2004 until its revocation in 2021.
In October 2005, Liverpool City Council passed a public apology for the flooding of Capel Celyn in Wales.
In October 2007, Liverpool and London continued with wildcat strikes, after the end of the official CWU strikes, that had been ongoing since June in a dispute with the Royal Mail over pay, pensions, and hours.
On November 11, 2021, a bomb inside a taxi detonated outside Liverpool Women’s Hospital. It has been recognised as a terror attack.
See also
History of housing in Liverpool
Timeline of Liverpool
References
Further reading
External links
The History of Liverpool
Various tales from Liverpool's history
Liverpool Slavery Remembrance Initiative
British History Online
Liverpool John Moores University
BBC Local History
Local Histories
Liverpool and the American Civil War
"Liverpool and the Slave Trade", lecture by Anthony Tibbles at Gresham College, 19 March 2007 (available for download as video or audio files)
Liverpool The Gateway To America
Recollections of Old Liverpool, by A Nonagenarian, published 1836, from Project Gutenberg
Ward Lock Guide to Liverpool, excerpts, published 1949 |
4346335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20the%20Gulf%20War | Aftermath of the Gulf War | The aftermath of Gulf War saw drastic and profoundly significant political, cultural, and social change across the Middle East and even in areas outside those that were directly involved.
Palestinian community in Kuwait
Significant demographic changes occurred in Kuwait as a result of the Gulf War. There were 400,000 Palestinians in Kuwait before the Gulf War. During the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, 200,000 Palestinians left Kuwait due to various reasons (fear or persecution, food shortages, medical care difficulties, financial shortages, fear of arrest and mistreatment at roadblocks by Iraqis). After the Gulf War of 1991, nearly 200,000 Palestinians fled Kuwait, partly due to economic burdens, regulations on residence and fear of abuse by Kuwaiti security forces.
Kuwait's lack of support for Palestinians after the Gulf War was a response to the alignment of Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and the PLO with Saddam Hussein, who had earlier invaded Kuwait. On March 14, 1991, 200,000 Palestinians were still residing in Kuwait, out of initial 400,000. Palestinians began leaving Kuwait during one week in March 1991, following Kuwait's liberation from Iraqi occupation. During a single week in March, the Palestinian population of Kuwait had almost entirely fled the country. Kuwaitis said that Palestinians leaving the country could move to Jordan, since most Palestinians held Jordanian passports. According to the New York Times, Kuwaitis said the anger against Palestinians was such that there was little chance that those who had left during the seven-month occupation could ever return and relatively few of those remaining will be able to stay.
The Palestinians who fled Kuwait were mostly Jordanian citizens. Only in 2004, the political situation between Kuwaiti and Palestinian leadership improved with official apology of Mahmud Abbas on PLO support of the Iraqi invasion in 1991. In 2012, the official Palestinian embassy in Kuwait was re-opened. In 2012, 80,000 Palestinians lived in Kuwait.
Gulf War syndrome
Many returning Coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. Common symptoms that were reported are chronic fatigue, Fibromyalgia, and Gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the reported birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Gulf War veterans' children born after the war had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to depleted uranium, chemical weapons, anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and/or infectious diseases. Major Michael Donnelly, a USAF officer during the War, helped publicize the syndrome and advocated for veterans' rights in this regard.
Effects of depleted uranium
Depleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20–30 mm cannon ordnance. Significant controversy regarding the long term safety of depleted uranium exists, although detractors claim pyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal effects. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.
Some say that depleted uranium is not a significant health hazard unless it is taken into the body. External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is generally not a major concern because the alpha particles emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium-235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low-energy gamma radiation. However, if allowed to enter the body, depleted uranium, like natural uranium, has the potential for both chemical and radiological toxicity with the two important target organs being the kidneys and the lungs
Highway of Death
On the night of 26–27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris—the Highway of Death. New York Times reporter Maureen Dowd wrote, "With the Iraqi leader facing military defeat, Mr. Bush decided that he would rather gamble on a violent and potentially unpopular ground war than risk the alternative: an imperfect settlement hammered out by the Soviets and Iraqis that world opinion might accept as tolerable."
Chuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written:
Bulldozer assault
Another incident during the war highlighted the question of large-scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the "bulldozer assault", wherein two brigades from the U.S. 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified "Saddam Hussein Line". After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. Not a single American was killed during the attack. Reporters were banned from witnessing the attack, near the neutral zone that touches the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq. Every American in the assault was inside an armored vehicle. One newspaper story reported that U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two-day assault 24–26 February 1991. Patrick Day of Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. 'I came through right after the lead company,' [Col. Anthony] Moreno said. 'What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples' arms and things sticking out of them... However, after the war, the Iraqi government said that only 44 bodies were found. In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that U.S. forces attempted to cover up the incident. After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: "I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets." Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney did not mention the First Division's tactics in an interim report to Congress on Operation Desert Storm. In the report, Cheney acknowledged that 457 enemy soldiers were buried during the ground war.
Coalition bombing of Iraq's civilian infrastructure
In the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of [Iraq] ... Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society ... They deliberately did great harm to Iraq's ability to support itself as an industrial society ..." In the Jan/Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: "[T]he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government's madness ... Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies." However, the U.N. subsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.
Abuse of Coalition POWs
During the conflict, Coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment, Air Force Captain, Richard Storr was allegededly tortured by Iraqis during the Persian Gulf War. Iraqi secret police broke his nose, dislocated his shoulder and punctured his eardrum. Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time. Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to Coalition forces. Only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group's other surviving members were violently tortured. Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors after the Black Hawk she was riding in was shot down while searching for a downed F-16 pilot.
Operation Southern Watch
Since the war, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia – a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq. Operation Southern Watch enforced the no-fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet.
Since Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks, the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia. Osama bin Laden interpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for U.S. troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca" and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.
Sanctions
On 6 August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition.
During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.
Draining of the Qurna Marshes
The draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90% of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over .
The draining of the Qurna Marshes also called The Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes occurred in Iraq and to a smaller degree in Iran between the 1950s and 1990s to clear large areas of the marshes in the Tigris-Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi), the large complex of wetlands was 90% drained prior to the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The marshes are typically divided into three main sub-marshes, the Hawizeh, Central, and Hammar Marshes and all three were drained at different times for different reasons. Initial draining of the Central Marshes was intended to reclaim land for agriculture but later all three marshes would become a tool of war and revenge.
Many international organizations such as the U.N. Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.
Oil spill
On 23 January, Iraq dumped of crude oil into the Persian Gulf , causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time. It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep U.S. Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt). About 30–40% of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.
Kuwaiti oil fires
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait. By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution.
Environmental impact
Immediately following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, predictions were made of an environmental disaster stemming from Iraqi threats to blow up captured Kuwaiti oil wells. Speculation ranging from a nuclear winter type scenario, to heavy acid rain and even short term immediate global warming were presented at the World Climate Conference in Geneva that November.
On 10 January 1991, a paper appearing in the Journal Nature, stated Paul Crutzen's calculations that the setting alight of the Kuwait oil wells would produce a "nuclear winter", with a cloud of smoke covering half of the Northern Hemisphere after 100 days had passed and beneath the cloud, temperatures would be reduced by 5-10 Celsius. This was followed by articles printed in the Wilmington morning star and the Baltimore Sun newspapers in mid to late January 1991, with the popular TV scientist personality of the time, Carl Sagan, who was also the co-author of the first few nuclear winter papers along with Richard P. Turco, John W. Birks, Alan Robock and Paul Crutzen together collectively stated that they expected catastrophic nuclear winter like effects with continental sized impacts of "sub-freezing" temperatures as a result of if the Iraqis went through with their threats of igniting 300 to 500 pressurized oil wells and they burned for a few months.
Later when Operation Desert Storm had begun, Dr. S. Fred Singer and Carl Sagan discussed the possible environmental impacts of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program Nightline. Sagan again argued that some of the effects of the smoke could be similar to the effects of a nuclear winter, with smoke lofting into the stratosphere, a region of the atmosphere beginning around above sea level at Kuwait, resulting in global effects and that he believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the Year Without a Summer.
He reported on initial modeling estimates that forecast impacts extending to south Asia, and perhaps to the northern hemisphere as well. Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited. Both height estimates made by Singer and Sagan turned out to be wrong, albeit with Singer's narrative being closer to what transpired, with the comparatively minimal atmospheric effects remaining limited to the Persian Gulf region, with smoke plumes, in general, lofting to about and a few times as high as .
Along with Singer's televised critique, Richard D. Small criticized the initial Nature paper in a reply on 7 March 1991 arguing along similar lines as Singer.
Sagan later conceded in his book The Demon-Haunted World that his prediction did not turn out to be correct: "it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6 °C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared."
At the peak of the fires, the smoke absorbed 75 to 80% of the sun's radiation. The particles rose to a maximum of , but were scavenged by cloud condensation nuclei from the atmosphere relatively quickly.
Sagan and his colleagues expected that a "self-lofting" of the sooty smoke would occur when it absorbed the sun's heat radiation, with little to no scavenging occurring, whereby the black particles of soot would be heated by the sun and lifted/lofted higher and higher into the air, thereby injecting the soot into the stratosphere where it would take years for the sun blocking effect of this aerosol of soot to fall out of the air, and with that, catastrophic ground level cooling and agricultural impacts in Asia and possibly the Northern Hemisphere as a whole.
In retrospect, it is now known that smoke from the Kuwait oil fires only affected the weather pattern throughout the Persian Gulf and surrounding region during the periods that the fires were burning in 1991, with lower atmospheric winds blowing the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities such as Dhahran and Riyadh, and countries such as Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled skies and carbon soot rainout/fallout.
Thus the immediate consequence of the arson sabotage was a dramatic regional decrease in air quality, causing respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis and those in neighboring countries.
According to the 1992 study from Peter Hobbs and Lawrence Radke daily emissions of sulfur dioxide (which can generate acid rain) were 57% of that from electric utilities in the United States, emissions of carbon dioxide were 2% of global emissions and emissions of soot were 3400 metric tons per day.
In a paper in the DTIC archive, published in 2000, it states that "Calculations based on smoke from Kuwaiti oil fires in May and June of 1991 indicate that combustion efficiency was about 96% in producing carbon dioxide. While, with respect to the incomplete combustion fraction, Smoke particulate matter accounted for 2% of the fuel burned, of which 0.4% was soot."[With the remaining 2%, being oil that did not undergo any initial combustion].
Peter V. Hobbs also narrated a short amateur documentary titled Kuwait Oil Fires that followed the University of Washington/UW's "Cloud and Aerosol Research Group" as they flew through, around and above the smoke clouds and took samples, measurements, and video of the smoke clouds in their Convair C-131(N327UW) Aerial laboratory.
See also
Iraq War (2003–2011)
War on Terror
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (April 1991 – October 2003)
Kuwait–Iraq barrier
Notes
Gulf War
1991 in Kuwait |
4346758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel%20Devine | Noel Devine | Noel Devine (born February 16, 1988) is a former American football running back. Devine played college football for the West Virginia Mountaineers and holds the record for career-all purpose yardage (5,761 yards).
Devine was signed by the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League (NFL) as an undrafted free agent in 2011, but was released four days later after departing the team due to personal matters. Devine spent several years playing in the Canadian Football League (CFL) and helped guide the West Virginia Roughriders of the American Arena League (AAL) to the 2019 championship.
Devine currently owns and operates DevineSpeed, LLC, a speed training business where he trains young athletes at all levels. Devine, the highest rated recruit in Mountaineer football history, was inducted into the West Virginia University (WVU) Sports Hall of Fame on October 30, 2021.
High school career
Devine went to North Fort Myers High School, the same high school attended by NFL stars Deion Sanders and Jevon Kearse. Devine rushed for 627 yards and averaged 8.6 yards per carry as a freshman. In his sophomore year, Noel had 1289 yards and 23 TDs on 206 carries, for an average of 6.3. One of the most impressive games of his 10th grade year was in the 63–7 victory over Estero High. Devine rushed for 365 yards and six touchdowns on only nine carries. Devine also returned a kickoff 84 yards for a touchdown. As a Junior, Devine rushed for 1,986 yards and 24 touchdowns on 173 carries, averaging 11.5 yards per carry. In his senior year, Devine totaled 2,148 yards and 31 touchdowns.
On October 20, 2006, Noel became the all-time leader in rushing yards for Lee County, surpassing former Mariner High School student and Tampa Bay running back Earnest Graham. Coincidentally, it was Graham's alma mater against which Devine was playing when the record was broken - he scored on a 65-yard touchdown run late in the 3rd quarter. He finished his high school career with 92 touchdowns, another Lee County record.
In the U.S. Army All-American Bowl game, he amazingly took David Green's kickoff back 88 yards before catching his big right toe on the turf and falling just short of the end zone.
Devine was the #3 ranked running back (and #6 prospect overall) in the nation by ESPN's 2007 Recruit Tracker. Before signing with West Virginia, he was recruited by coaches from some of the nation's other top collegiate programs, such as the University of Nebraska, University of Alabama and Florida State University.
Collegiate career
Freshman season
Devine got his first chance to play in the 4th quarter of West Virginia's season opener against Western Michigan. Devine showed his speed as he beat the defense to the corner as he went 23 yards after spinning off of a defender. Devine scored his first collegiate touchdown on an 8-yard run to score WVU's final score, as the #3 ranked Mountaineers beat Western Michigan 62–24. Devine finished the game with 7 carries for 44 yards and a reception for 19 yards.
In the second game of the season, Devine helped the WVU seal a 4th quarter victory over in-state rival Marshall. Devine only had 5 carries, but managed to rack up 76 yards and 2 touchdowns to help the third-ranked Mountaineers beat the Thundering Herd 48–23. Devine also had two kickoff returns for 40 yards. His longest run of the day was 39 yards.
In the third game of the season, against Maryland, Devine had the best game of the season to that point. In the 31–14 win, Devine rushed for 136 yards on just 5 carries; a 27.2 yards average. His biggest run of the day was a 76 yards dash down the sideline to the one-yard line. On his next carry he juked out a number of defenders and spun off a facemask grab to cap off the 18-yard gain. He also had one reception for two yards and two kick returns for 47 yards. Devine took only two carries to reach 100 yards against Maryland.
In the next game against ECU, Devine had 7 rushes for 11 yards, a reception for 7 yards and a kick return for 25 yards. In the Mountaineers' first loss of the season against USF, 21–13, Devine had 4 carries for 36 yards. He also had 36 yards on two kick returns. In the 55–14 win over Syracuse, Devine was held to 13 yards on 4 carries, with 33 yards on two kick returns. Devine sat out the Mississippi State game. Against twenty-fifth-ranked Rutgers, Devine had 6 carries for 40 yards.
Against Louisville, Devine had 2 rushes for 11 yards and one reception for 4 yards. He also had 4 kick returns for 97 yards, including a 41-yarder. After the 38–31 Louisville win, rumors circulated that Devine was mad about lack of playing time and had supposedly "torn up his locker" in a fit of anger. In an article with Rivals.com, Devine dismissed the rumors saying, "If I really wanted to play I would have gone to a sorry team...I didn't expect a lot of playing time." Devine also said, "I think I have played fairly. There's people that are not playing and they're on the team and they're happy. You got a great running back ahead of you. Really, I'm not expecting a lot."
In the 28–23 road win against twenty-second-ranked Cincinnati, Devine had only 23 yards on 2 carries, including a 17-yard rush. However, had four kick returns for 86 yards, averaging 21.5 yards per return. In the Big East Championship-clinching 66–21 win over twentieth-ranked Connecticut, Devine rushed for 118 yards and a score on 11 carries, which ranked second-best on the team, trailing only quarterback Pat White.
Subsequently, the then second-ranked Mountaineers were upset 13–9 by Pittsburgh in the 100th edition of the Backyard Brawl. Devine had only 11 yards on 7 carries; a 1.6 average. However, in the 4th quarter, Devine returned a kickoff 48 yards in the final minutes of the game. But, ultimately, the Mountaineers were stopped on fourth down to end the game.
Devine would finish his freshman season in West Virginia's Fiesta Bowl win over Oklahoma. After losing Steve Slaton to a leg injury in the first quarter, Devine filled in for WVU with 105 yards on 12 carries and 2 touchdowns, including a 65-yard run which provided the final score of the game. The run broke a West Virginia bowl record for longest rush and was the second longest play from scrimmage for the Mountaineers in the season. He also returned 4 kickoffs for 88 yards, a 22.0 yards average, and pulled in two receptions for 47 yards.
Devine was given honorable mention for the Freshman All-American team by various sources, including SportingNews, and was awarded the team's Danny Van Etten Rookie of the Year Award by head coach Rich Rodriguez. After Rich Rodriguez left the team before the 2008 Fiesta Bowl that offseason Devine thought about transferring. He finished his freshman season with 73 carries for 627 yards and 6 touchdowns. He also added 7 receptions for 90 yards and 26 returns for 599 yards. Devine ended the season with 1,316 all-purpose yards, the 21st most in a single-season in school history. Devine also finished the year ranked tenth in the Big East in rushing yards per game and #5 in the conference in kickoff return yards.
Sophomore season
After former head coach Rich Rodriguez left West Virginia and announced his decision to accept the head coaching job at the University of Michigan, Noel Devine considered transferring, but decided he would finish his career at West Virginia. On January 14, 2008, West Virginia starting running back Steve Slaton announced his desire to enter the NFL Draft instead of returning for his senior season. Slaton's departure meant Devine would be the probable starter for the 2008 season.
Devine and quarterback Pat White were named the #1 "scary star" of the 2008 by Rivals.com. Shortly afterwards, the Mountaineers began their first spring practice. West Virginia running backs coach, Chris Beatty, said of Devine, “He’s as quick as he looked on television...So quick and yet he has great patience and things like that. My goal is to just let him run fast and do the things he does so well.” Devine also commented that he could handle at least 30 carries a game as the feature back, despite his size; which he said he wanted to jump up to 180 pounds. Head coach Bill Stewart also said that Devine maxed out at 405 pounds at the bench press during the spring.
To begin the 2008 season, Noel Devine rushed for 47 yards on 9 carries and also had 37 yards on 6 receptions in the season opening victory against the Villanova Wildcats, 48–21. In the following 24–3 loss to the ECU Pirates, Devine rushed 12 times for 94 yards (7.8 yard per carry average) and returned two kickoffs for 47 yards. In West Virginia's following 14–17 overtime loss to Colorado, Devine rushed 26 times for 133 yards and also had 11 yards on three receptions (second on the team in rushing behind quarterback Pat White).
In the 27–3 victory over Marshall, Devine rushed 14 times for 125 yards (8.9 yards per run) and his first touchdown of the season. To begin Big East play, Devine rushed 19 times for 55 yards, a 2.9 yard per carry average, in the 24–17 victory over Rutgers. In the following 17–6 victory over Syracuse, Devine rushed for 188 yards on 18 carries for a touchdown. His 188 yards was a career-high, and his 92-yard rushing touchdown in the 4th quarter not only was a career-long, but also was the second-longest rush in school and stadium history. Devine's performance in the Syracuse win won him the Big East Offensive Player of the Week honors. Following the 188-yard performance against Syracuse, Devine totaled a career-high 207 yards and a touchdown on 17 carries in the Mountaineers' 34–17 victory over Auburn. For the game, Devine recorded six runs of at least 20 yards. The two-game stretch totaled 395 yards and two touchdowns.
West Virginia then defeated #25 UCONN 35–13, the team's first road win of the season, in which Devine rushed 17 times for 60 yards - a 3.5 yard per rush average. However, West Virginia was then defeated by Cincinnati in a 26–23 overtime loss, as the Mountaineers rallied from being down 20–7 with under two minutes left in the game to tie it and send it to overtime. Devine, however, finished the game with 19 rushes for 58 yards and 6 receptions for 48 yards - a total of 106 yards of offense.
Devine and West Virginia bounced back in the following 35–21 victory over Louisville in their annual series. Devine posted his fifth 100-yard rushing game on the season with 154 yards on 13 carries. The performance included a 79-yard run, which was a school record for the longest non-touchdown run in school history. However, the Mountaineers then lost in the Backyard Brawl to Pittsburgh 19–15. Devine carried the ball 12 times for 17 yards - a 1.4 yard per carry average - and caught 3 passes for 6 yards in the loss.
Devine finished out the regular season with 17 carries for 90 yards and 3 receptions for 21 yards - 111 total yards of offense - in the 13–7 win over South Florida, however Devine did not start as head coach Bill Stewart said he was disappointed in his performance the prior week. However, Devine was named a second-team All-Big East selection following the victory.
In the Meineke Car Care Bowl victory over North Carolina, Devine rushed 13 times for 61 yards and a touchdown. He finished his sophomore season with 1,289 yards and 4 touchdowns.
Junior season
Devine played in 13 games and started 10, leading the team in rushing with 1,465 yards, averaging 6.1 yards a carry with 13 touchdowns rushing. He finished the season as the #2 rusher in the conference and #17 nationally. He was named a unanimous all-Big East first-team selection by league coaches, Phil Steele and ESPN.com, and was named one of 16 semifinalists for the Maxwell Award, signifying the top offensive player in the nation.
On January 14, 2010, Devine announced his intention to forgo the NFL draft and returned for his senior season with the Mountaineers.
Senior season
Prior to the season, Devine was named a preseason All-American by numerous publications, and was considered a leading contender for the Heisman Trophy.
He appeared headed for another 1,000-yard season after producing 100-yard rushing efforts in wins against Coastal Carolina, Marshall and Maryland, but a turf toe injury sustained against LSU and later an ankle injury against Louisville severely limited his production.
Devine reached the 100-yard mark just one more time against Syracuse, and finished the season with just four carries for 24 yards against Pitt, 13 carries for 31 yards against Rutgers and eight carries for 50 yards against NC State in the Champs Sports Bowl. With 122 yards rushing against the Syracuse Orange on October 23, Devine became the fourth player in Big East history to rush for 4,000 career yards, joining fellow Mountaineers Avon Cobourne and Pat White, and Rutgers' Ray Rice.
Devine finished the season with 1254 all-purpose yards; however, the injuries he suffered nagged him throughout the season, and his yards per carry average dipped considerably as a result. These injuries, combined with his lack of size and a perceived unwillingness to block, labeled him "undraftable" by many NFL teams. He was unable to participate in the NFL Combine due to his ankle injury and this further hurt his chances at being drafted.
Career statistics
Professional career
2011 NFL Combine
2011 NFL Draft
Despite Devine's high-profile coming out of high school and subsequent successful college career, he was projected to be a seventh-round pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. His injuries, coupled with his inability to perform at the NFL Combine, prevented him from being drafted.
Philadelphia Eagles
Devine was signed by the Philadelphia Eagles as a free agent on July 26, 2011. The Eagles waived him on July 30 after he left the squad.
Omaha Nighthawks
The Omaha Nighthawks of the United Football League signed Devine on August 18, 2011.
Montreal Alouettes
Devine signed with the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League on February 10, 2012. In six games with the Alouettes, Devine fumbled six times, including a three-fumble game on August 8 during a 38–13 loss to the Toronto Argonauts. After fumbling a punt-return in the fourth quarter, he left that game with an ankle injury. In a telephone interview with the Montreal Gazette on August 9, interim head coach and general manager Jim Popp suggested Devine may be released by the team, when and if he is cleared to play by the medical staff.
Edmonton Eskimos
Devine signed with the Edmonton Eskimos on July 8, 2014.
Spring League
Devine participated in The Spring League in 2017.
Personal life
Devine was only three months old when his father died in 1988 of complications from AIDS, and 11 years old when his mother also died of AIDS. Custody passed to his maternal grandmother, but the two were not compatible. Eventually, Noel moved in with Liz and Robert Harlow Sr, parents of one of Noel's friends. By his junior year in high school, Devine had fathered two children by two different women. He was also witness to a shooting in late 2004, in which one of his friends, 15-year-old Rashard Patterson, was killed by a shotgun blast to the chest.
Devine has a relationship with Deion Sanders, who himself is a graduate of North Fort Myers High School. At one point, Sanders planned to become Devine's legal guardian. Devine moved to Prosper, Texas, where he lived with Sanders, but after a few weeks, he took Sanders' wife's vehicle to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, where a plane ticket back to Florida awaited him. Devine and Sanders remained in contact, perhaps more so as the 2007 signing day approached, when Sanders assisted Devine in preparing to sign a letter of intent to play football in the college ranks. Sanders revealed the nature of his mentor role in Devine's decisions in his column for The News-Press, a Fort Myers news outlet. He had recommended that a prep school would better prepare Devine for college.
Devine was interviewed by ESPN The Magazine under their NEXT editions, which picks the next big athlete of the year. Devine was a nominee for the 2008 edition, along with Brandon Roy, Joba Chamberlain, Tyson Gay, Patrick Willis, and Novak Djokovic. In the interview, Devine stated that his idol is Barry Sanders, and that his best game of his career at that point was against Maryland.
References
External links
Edmonton Eskimos bio
West Virginia Mountaineers bio
Just Sports Stats
1988 births
Living people
African-American players of American football
American football running backs
Edmonton Elks players
Montreal Alouettes players
Omaha Nighthawks players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Players of American football from Lee County, Florida
Sportspeople from Fort Myers, Florida
West Virginia Mountaineers football players
The Spring League players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people |
4347285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommie%20Frazier | Tommie Frazier | Tommie James Frazier Jr. (born July 16, 1974) is an American former football player and coach who played quarterback for the University of Nebraska–Lincoln.
Frazier led his team to consecutive national championships in 1994 and 1995, and is one of six quarterbacks to have done so since the 1950s: Oklahoma's Steve Davis, Nebraska's Jerry Tagge, USC's Matt Leinart, Alabama's A. J. McCarron and Georgia's Stetson Bennett being the others. He was named Most Valuable Player of three consecutive national championship games, the only player ever to accomplish that feat. The 1995 Nebraska football team is considered to have been one of the most dominant in the history of American college football and, in a 2006 ESPN.com poll, was voted the best college football team of all time.
Frazier was selected by Sports Illustrated in 1999 as a back-up quarterback in their "NCAA Football All-Century Team." He was one of six Nebraska Cornhuskers on this 85 man roster, along with Johnny Rodgers, Rich Glover, Dave Rimington, Dean Steinkuhler and Aaron Taylor. In 2013, Frazier was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame.
Frazier was not drafted by the NFL due to a blood clot in his left leg, a side effect of Crohn's disease.
Personal life
Frazier grew up in Palmetto, Florida, and attended Manatee High School. He was an option quarterback at Manatee High School who in his final two seasons ran for 1,600 yards and 33 touchdowns, and passed for 2,600 yards and 30 touchdowns. Frazier is married to Andrea Stephens Frazier, originally from Sioux Falls, South Dakota. The couple has a son named Tommie James Frazier III, and a daughter named Ava.
Frazier is a member of Iota Phi Theta fraternity. He was the host of Tommie Frazier's X's and O's and of The Husker Express Radio Show with Tommie Frazier, which aired on ESPN 590 AM in Omaha, Nebraska.
Collegiate playing career
1992 season
Frazier received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, and played for the Nebraska Cornhuskers football team. After several years in which the Cornhuskers had suffered blowout losses in bowl games, frequently in Orange Bowl matchups against the University of Miami Hurricanes and the Florida State Seminoles, head coach Tom Osborne changed his recruiting strategy in the early 1990s and began to recruit faster players at all positions. Osborne reportedly shed tears upon receiving the news of Frazier's decision to accept a scholarship from Nebraska. Frazier, rated as the No. 3 college recruit in the country by analyst Tom Lemming, led Nebraska to four consecutive New Year's Day bowl games.
Tommie Frazier joined the Nebraska football team as an 18-year-old true freshman in the summer of 1992, at 6-1 and 190 pounds, and began as a backup to senior Mike Grant. Nebraska started the season with a 4–1 record under Grant, but an early 29–14 loss to the second-ranked Washington Huskies set up Frazier's opportunity to take over as the starting quarterback. He did so at Missouri on October 24, a 34-24 Nebraska victory. Frazier gained national recognition with the following two games, both blowout wins broadcast nationally in evening time slots on ESPN. He led the team on Halloween to a 52–7 win against a powerful Colorado team that carried a 9-1-1 record and was led by quarterback Kordell Stewart. Frazier threw sparingly, completing 4 of 12 passes for 55 yards and two touchdowns, but rushed 16 times for 86 of Nebraska's 373 rushing yards. Frazier's arm was showcased the following week, November 7, in a 49–7 win over Kansas. Play-action fakes resulted in long touchdown passes of 36 and 46 yards, and Frazier finished the game with 6 of 11 passes completed, for 161 yards and three touchdowns.
Nebraska finished the season with a 9–3 record, and Frazier registered seven starts at quarterback. He played well in the FedEx Orange Bowl on January 1, 1993, against an 11-1 Florida State team led by quarterback Charlie Ward, wide receiver Tamarick Vanover, and linebacker Marvin Jones. Florida State took an early 20–0 lead, but Frazier, who started the game in a shotgun formation, responded with a 41-yard touchdown pass to Corey Dixon and a red zone touchdown pass to Gerald Armstrong. The Seminoles won the game, 27–14.
Frazier played in nine games during the 1992 regular season, and completed 44 of 100 passes for 727 yards and only one interception. He rushed for 399 yards, and scored 17 touchdowns, rushing and passing. His longest run was 52 yards, against Iowa State on November 14.
1993 season
Frazier helped the Cornhuskers to edge past UCLA on September 18 in what appeared to be a pivotal win that season. He completed 13-of-19 passes for 145 yards and an 11-yard touchdown pass in a 14–13 victory over the Bruins, who had the Pac-10's top pass defense. This enabled Nebraska to achieve an undefeated record during the regular season in 1993. Frazier rushed for over 1,000 yards through the regular- and post-season, though the official total is lower due to negative yardage from sacks. He rushed for nine touchdowns, with a longest run of 58 yards, and completed 77 of 162 passes for 12 touchdowns, four interceptions and 1,159 yards in 11 games. His longest pass play of the season was a 60-yard touchdown to wingback Corey Dixon on October 30 against the Colorado Buffaloes.
The FedEx Orange Bowl game played on January 1, 1994, featured a rematch between Nebraska and Florida State. Frazier, now a sophomore, was pitted against newly crowned Heisman Trophy winner Charlie Ward. A last minute drive by Ward led to a Seminoles field goal that prevented the Cornhuskers from winning the national title. Frazier's 29-yard pass to split end Trumaine Bell positioned Nebraska for a potentially game-winning 45-yard field goal attempt with 0:01 left on the game clock, but the kick sailed wide left, and Florida State won 18–16. Frazier was named Most Valuable Player of the national title game despite the loss, completing 13 of 24 passes for 206 yards and a 34-yard touchdown, and rushing 14 times for 77 yards with a 32-yard run. The Cornhuskers finished the season with an 11–1 record.
1994 season
Frazier earned consideration as a Heisman Trophy candidate in the first half of the 1994 season, but missed the second half due to a blood clot in his leg. He gave an explosive performance against West Virginia on August 28, in which he completed 8 of 16 passes for 100 yards and ran 12 times for 130 yards, and scored on an 11-yard touchdown pass and runs of 25, 27, and 42 yards in a 31-0 Nebraska victory. His last game of the regular season was on September 24, when he began to experience difficulties in his right calf as the result of blood clotting. Nebraska beat Pacific 70–21, but Frazier played sparingly, and attempted only two passes, with one 26-yard completion.
Dropback passer Brook Berringer led the team back to the FedEx Orange Bowl with a 12–0 record, where the Cornhuskers faced the third-ranked Miami Hurricanes in the de facto national championship game. Frazier started the game, but was replaced by Berringer after a deep throw to the end zone on Nebraska's initial drive resulted in a turnover. The Hurricanes gained the momentum, and led by 17-7 early in the 3rd quarter. With seven minutes left in the game and the team trailing 17–9, Osborne placed Frazier back in the lineup. Frazier led two touchdown drives that gave Nebraska a 24–17 victory. Nebraska's option plays tired the Miami defenders, and Frazier's fake of the option play enabled fullback Cory Schlesinger to score on 15 and 14 yard runs. The Cornhuskers celebrated their first national title since 1971, and the first of coach Osborne's career. Frazier was again named MVP, as despite the three-month layoff he completed 3 of 5 passes for 25 yards, and ran seven times for 31 yards, including a 25-yard option keeper.
1995 season
Frazier was back to health in 1995, and led the Cornhuskers through another undefeated campaign. He had a strong arm, though not a particularly accurate one, but by his senior year had improved his passing to the point that he completed 56.4 percent of his passes and had an efficiency rating of 156.1, along with 17 touchdowns. His best passing performance of the season came in a 44–21 victory over Colorado on October 28, in which he had 14 completions in 23 attempts against a 10-2 Colorado Buffaloes team. He threw for 241 yards and two scores in that game, including a 52-yard touchdown to wingback Clester Johnson. This performance put Frazier into consideration for the Heisman Trophy, though he would finish the season as the runner-up to Ohio State's Eddie George in Heisman voting.
The 1995 roster matched Frazier with a number of running backs that included Lawrence Phillips, Ahman Green, Clinton Childs, Damon Benning, Joel Makovicka, and Jay Sims, to form a backfield that set an NCAA record 7.0 yards per rushing attempt. The Cornhuskers averaged 399.8 rushing yards and 52.4 points per game. In the regular season, Frazier completed 92 of 163 passes for 1,362 yards and four interceptions, rushed 97 times for 604 yards and 14 touchdowns, and was never sacked. His longest pass play went 76 yards to split end Reggie Baul, against Oklahoma State on August 31.
Nebraska finished the regular season with an 11–0 record, and were matched with the 12-0 Florida Gators in the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl on January 2, 1996. Frazier collected his third consecutive national championship game MVP award as the Cornhuskers defeated Florida's "Fun 'n' Gun" offense by a score of 62–24. He rushed 16 times for 199 yards, and completed 6 of 14 passes for 105 yards, with a 16-yard TD pass to Phillips. On what appeared to be a routine short-yardage option sweep to the right sideline in the closing seconds of the 3rd quarter, Frazier kept the ball, turned upfield, and broke seven tackles in a career-high 75-yard touchdown run that was named by Sports Illustrated as one of college football's greatest plays.
CBS reporter Michele Tafoya handed Fraizer the microphone during the postgame celebration following the game: "Oh listen, I had a great career at Nebraska…There is no better way to end it; I want to thank all the fans for all the support, and I want to thank all my teammates—most of all important, I want to thank the Lord Jesus Christ above, because without him, I wouldn't have been able to accomplish anything I have."
Legacy
Frazier's place in the University of Nebraska's football history was firmly secured after helping the Cornhuskers win multiple national and conference championships, going 45–4 with 5,476 total yards of offense and 79 touchdowns. With his jersey number being retired in 1996, he was listed as one of the greatest college football players of the century according to Sport Magazine.
Sports Illustrated's Tim Layden, who covered Frazier in the Tostitos Fiesta Bowl, discussed his leadership and toughness following Nebraska's 62-24 dismantling of the Florida Gators. "On that memorable 75-yard touchdown run, Frazier broke seven tackles and dragged two Florida defenders several yards before shaking free and rolling down the sideline alone," Layden elaborated. "And after playing brilliantly in both Nebraska's 18-16 Orange Bowl loss to Florida State in 1994 and the Cornhuskers' 24-17 national-title victory over Miami last season, he must now be considered one of the best big-game quarterbacks in college football history—it’s Tommie Fraizer."
On May 7, 2013, Tommie Frazier was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame.
Professional playing career
Frazier won the MVP award for his 34–18 victory in the East-West Shrine Game, nationally televised on ESPN on January 13, 1996. West Coach Terry Donahue said there was no doubt that Frazier's performance had improved his standing in regards to the NFL draft. "I think he came here with all kinds of doubts...this game really helped him and somebody is going to invest in him. I am really high on him. When I did the Fiesta Bowl, I said the guy was the most dangerous player in college football and I mean it more now. This guy's dangerous. He's great." Frazier completed 11 of 20 passes for 163 yards, rushed six times for 33 yards, scored on a five-yard run, and threw a 52-yard touchdown pass to Kevin Jordan with 5:57 left in the contest.
The East-West Shrine Game showcased Frazier's skill set for the many NFL scouts in attendance, but before the NFL Scouting Combine, he experienced more problems with blood clots. Recruiting analyst Forrest Davis' publication had listed Frazier's speed in the 40-yard dash as 4.50 seconds when he came out of high school, and his test results at Nebraska had been similar. However, Frazier's February 1996 performance at the NFL Scouting Combine was described as "pedestrian" by the February 12, 1996, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Due primarily to health issues, Frazier went unselected in the NFL Draft, but received an offer from the Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League. He signed a contract with the Alouettes on July 15, 1996, and served as the third-string quarterback behind starter Tracy Ham and top reserve Jim Kemp. Frazier played in only one game, on August 30, 1996, a 17–6 loss to the Ottawa Rough Riders in which he came off the bench in the 4th quarter and completed 6 of 17 passes for 55 yards.
Frazier's brief professional football career ended when, on September 4, 1996, he was admitted to Montreal General Hospital with pneumonia. He was given blood thinners because of his history of clots, but spat blood. Frazier needed two weeks to recover, and on his September 17 release, retired from football.
Coaching career
Frazier served as an assistant football coach at Baylor University, and as an assistant director of athletic development at Nebraska. At Baylor, Frazier joined head coach Kevin Steele's coaching staff as a graduate assistant, and worked with the quarterbacks in 1999. He was promoted to a full-time position, and coached Baylor's running backs from 2000 to 2002. Steele failed to improve on Baylor's losing record, and the coaching staff was let go after going 3–9 in 2002. Baylor went 9–36 while Frazier was as an assistant coach for the Bears.
In 2005, Frazier became the 32nd head football coach at Doane College, in Crete, Nebraska, and held that position for two seasons.
Head coaching record
Records and statistics
33–3 record as starter
2 national championships
4 Big Eight Conference championships
former Nebraska Cornhuskers record for total offense, career (5,476 yards)
former Nebraska Cornhuskers record for touchdown passes, career (43)
former Nebraska Cornhuskers record for rushing touchdowns by a quarterback, season (14)
former NCAA record for rushing yards in a bowl game by a quarterback (199)
former Nebraska Cornhuskers record for total offense in a bowl game (304 yards)
longest touchdown run in a bowl game (75 yards)
Notes - Statistics from the wikitable include bowl game performances.
Additional accolades
Football Writers 1995 First Team All American
Walter Camp 1995 First Team All American
Associated Press 1995 First Team All American
United Press International 1995 First Team All American
AFCA 1995 First Team All American
Sporting News Offensive Player of the Year (1995)
TD Club of Columbus Quarterback of the Year (1995)
Sport magazine Top 10 Players of the Century
Heisman Trophy Runner-Up (1995)
ESPY's College Football Play of the Year (1996)
References
Further reading
Athlon Football - Nebraska & the Big Eight - 1992 Edition, Volume 16 (magazine)
Athlon Football - Nebraska & the Big Eight - 1993 Edition, Volume 17 (magazine)
Athlon Football - Nebraska & the Big Eight - 1994 Edition, Volume 18 (magazine)
Athlon Football - Nebraska & the Big Eight - 1995 Edition, Volume 19 (magazine)
Atlanta Journal-Constitution - "Scouts seek next Slash; Just a QB, Frazier says", edition of February 12, 1996 (newspaper)
VHS recording of CBS Tostitos Fiesta Bowl, January 1, 1996
Lindy's Big Eight Football Annual / 1992, Volume 6 (magazine)
Bob Schaller's "Touchdown Tommie - The Tommie Frazier Story"
Sports Illustrated Presents - College Football '95 - Premier Edition (magazine)
Phil Steele's 1995 College Football Preview, Volume 1 (magazine)
Strong Arm Tactics: A History and Statistical Analysis of the Professional Quarterback
Tommie Frazier -- HuskerMax
USA Today - "East-West Shrine Game" (box score), January 13, 1996 (newspaper)
The Washington Post - "Frazier Shows Off Arm for Scouts", January 14, 1996 (newspaper)
External links
1974 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Canadian football quarterbacks
Baylor Bears football coaches
Doane Tigers football coaches
Montreal Alouettes players
Nebraska Cornhuskers football players
All-American college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Players of American football from Bradenton, Florida
Players of Canadian football from Florida
African-American coaches of American football
African-American players of American football
African-American players of Canadian football
People from Palmetto, Florida
Players of American football from Manatee County, Florida
People with Crohn's disease
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople |
4347315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mymoorapelta | Mymoorapelta | Mymoorapelta (Meaning "Vannetta Moore and Pete and Marilyn Mygatt's shield" after a combination of the names of the discoverers of the Mygatt-Moore Quarry that fossils were originally collected from, and the Greek word pɛltə "shield") is a nodosaurid ankylosaur from the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, around 155 to 150 million years ago) Morrison Formation (Brushy Basin Member) of western Colorado and central Utah, USA. The animal is known from a single species, Mymoorapelta maysi, and few specimens are known. The most complete specimen is the holotype individual from the Mygatt-Moore Quarry, which includes , a partial , , and other bones. It was initially described by James Kirkland and Kenneth Carpenter in 1994. Along with Gargoyleosaurus, it is one of the earliest known nodosaurids.
Mymoorapelta is one of the smaller known nodosaurids, with the estimated length of the largest specimen only reaching . It had a narrow snout and almost triangular skull in dorsal view, with two large horns pointing backwards from the brow and two horns below these that pointed backwards and down on the . Five different armor types have been observed in Mymoorapelta, ranging from elongated, sharp spines on the side of the body to a giant shield composed of tiny osteoderms, called ossicles, that covered the top of the pelvis. In contrast to the club-tailed ankylosaurids, the tail bore spikes that Mymoorapelta likely used for defense.
Mymoorapelta was a low browser in the Morrison ecosystem, feeding on cycads and conifers, in contrast to the high-browsing Apatosaurus known from the same quarries. Other dinosaur groups were also present, including the large theropods Allosaurus and Ceratosaurus and possibly the ornithischian Nanosaurus. Both of the theropods have also been found in association with the animal, and we have evidence that the former preyed on Mymoorapelta.
Discovery and naming
The Mygatt-Moore Quarry was first discovered in March of 1981 by hikers Vanetta Moore and Pete and Marilyn Mygatt in Mesa County, west-central Colorado. The quarry's strata come from the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation, which dates to the Upper Jurassic. Fossils of Mymoorapelta were first discovered in the quarry in 1990, and since then over 160 elements have been found scattered over of the quarry. A few of these elements are part of a single adult individual and were described by American paleontologists James Kirkland and Kenneth Carpenter in 1994. This specimen (MWC 1815) would be designated the holotype of the species and includes a left (hip bone) with preserved bitemarks. Kirkland and Carpenter named the species Mymoorapelta maysi, the generic name deriving from the names of Marilyn Mygatt and the Moores, who had discovered the quarry, and the Greek root pelta, meaning “shield”, due to the preserved armor. The specific name is after Chris Mays, the president of the Dinamation International Corporation and Society, who funded the initial excavation of the Mygatt-Moore Quarry. Mymoorapelta was the first Jurassic ankylosaur named from North America, with the closely related Gargoyleosaurus being named four years later in 1998. Other parts of the type specimen that were excavated from the quarry include several (back) and (tail) vertebrae, , isolated limb bones, and many osteoderms, including the signature triangular cervical spine of basal ankylosaurs. Some osteoderms which have been found in the quarry and referred to Mymoorapelta come from a higher stratigraphic layer, suggesting that a second individual is preserved.
In 1998, a partial skeleton referred to Mymoorapelta was described by Kirkland et al from Cactus Park, Colorado, though at the time the fossil was still undergoing fossil preparation. The skeleton preserved natural molds and body fossils of the sacrum, caudal vertebrae, (bones attached to the underside of the tail vertebrae in dinosaurs), (foot), and many pieces of the dermal armor, including parts of the sacral shield, which was a type of armor that would cover the top of the pelvis. Though skull material was mentioned to be preserved it is still in preparation and undescribed. Some of the material, namely from the pes and sacral shield, was preserved in articulation making it the only known articulated specimen of the taxon. In a 2010 abstract, Kirkland and colleagues mentioned the discovery of many more elements of Mymoorapelta at Mygatt-Moore Quarry including a nearly complete skull and every postcranial element except the pubis and femur. All of the fossils found at Mygatt-Moore Quarry and Cactus Park are currently deposited in the Dinosaur Journey Museum of Western Colorado in Fruita. 2015 saw the presentation of an abstract by Katie Tremaine et al that mentions a new Mymoorapelta specimen unearthed at Hanksville-Burpee Quarry near Hanksville, Utah. The specimen includes one individual preserving: 24 osteoderms, three ribs, one vertebra, and a femur, though more material has yet to be excavated. The discovery of a single, dorsal osteoderm that had been collected from the Peterson Quarry outside of Albuquerque, New Mexico was described in 2016. The osteoderm is morphologically (based on external anatomy) similar to Mymoorapelta, however it is stratigraphically (based on rock layers) closer to Gargoyleosaurus.
Description
Mymoorapelta is one of the smallest ankylosaurs known and the smallest known quadrupedal dinosaur from the Morrison Formation. However, few individuals have been found and only a portion of the known material has been described in detail. The Cactus Park specimen is the largest described individual, with its length being estimated at around long in 1998. Body mass estimates based on the type specimen give a weight of around .
Skull and dentition
The specifically has not been described in detail, but the preserved morphology (external anatomy) is very similar to that of Gargoyleosaurus, which also hails from the Morrison Formation. It had a narrow snout and almost triangular shaped skull in dorsal (top) view, with two large horns pointing backward from the back of the brow, and two horns below these that pointed backward and down from the (cheek bone). A preserved jugal described in 1998 has a wedge-shaped, armored morphology and projects ventrolaterally (down and outwards) like in ankylosaurids. The (bones at the tip of the snout) probably possessed a narrow, toothed, and trapezoidal muzzle like in Gargoyleosaurus. In the back of the skull, the -articular area (place of contact between the skull and lower jaw) faces slightly medially (towards the midline of the body), and is subtly lengthened anteroposteriorly (front to back). The distal surface of the quadrate, especially on the medial condyle, is robust and elongated anteroposteriorly. In all ankylosaurs, the jaw joint (joint connecting the skull to the jaw bone) is placed ventrally to the occlusal plane (contact surface between teeth). The (bony projection on the lower jaw) is very well developed in nodosaurids, and the jaw joint is well depressed in turn, which corresponds to a higher relative bite force.
Most ankylosaurs have heterodont dentition (variation in tooth morphology), but not in Gargoyleosaurus, which shows only subtle morphological differences in the premaxillary, maxillary, and dentary teeth. Ankylosaur teeth are compressed labiolingually and are phylliform (leaf-shaped), with an apical cusp and secondary cusps along the mesial and distal edges. Nodosaurid teeth are blade-like, larger, and usually more complex than the basic cusps of ankylosaurids, having a larger crown, a rough enamel surface, confluent fluting with grooves of the marginal cusps, and a crenelated (shelf-like bulge surrounding the base of a tooth crown). The wear facets on Ankylosaur teeth vary greatly, but in nodosaurids they are usually more extensive and steeply inclined than in ankylosaurids, demonstrating underlying patterns of shape-constrained function. In early nodosaurids like Gargoyleosaurus and Gastonia, the (a dermal, paired bone of the palate) is not yet well developed anteroposteriorly and mediolaterally, but in later species they are much wider, with more robust lateral wings, and they are more expanded anteroposteriorly than in basal forms, reaching the level of the distal quadrate condyles. This suggests more developed pterygoid muscles in later nodosaurids than in ankylosaurids, reflecting a more efficient jaw adductor system in nodosaurids. The mandibular adductor chamber and the coronoid process are generally taller in nodosaurids than in ankylosaurs, suggesting differences in the size and attachment of muscles.
Postcranial skeleton
A large part of the postcranial (behind the skull) skeleton of Mymoorapelta is known. For instance, many (vertebrae of the neck) are known, though many of them have not been fully researched or excavated. In the cervicals, the faces (ends) of the are wider than they are tall and display a heart-shaped morphology. The centra overall are anteroposteriorly short with lengths that are around equal to their width. The are short and thick,and possess round, circular neural canals. A deep, tear-shaped fossa (small opening in bone) is present between the (backwards projections of the vertebral arch). Several dorsal (back, sometimes referred to as thoracic) vertebrae are known from Mymoorapelta, and they are unique when compared to those of Cretaceous nodosaurids. The centra are cylindircal, longer posteriorly, and less laterally compressed than those of other, later nodosaurids like Sauropelta and Dracopelta. The anterior dorsals are unique in that they bear a triangular pit between the (forwards projections of the vertebral arch), which are also much more elongate at the anterior end of the vertebra. Meanwhile, the postzygapophyses are truncated at the posterior end, with the left and right postzygapophyses divided by a large groove. The mid dorsal vertebrae differ in that they are rounded ventrally and have a weak keel at the bottom. The transverse processes of the dorsal vertebrae do not ascend steeply and are instead gradually heightened, similar to the condition in basal ankylosaurs, and differing from that of nodosaurids. Mymoorapelta has 13 ribs, all of which have triangular cross-sections and a weak T-shape, in contrast to other ankylosaurs. Mymoorapelta is also one of the few ankylosaurs with 4 sacral ribs, a trait it shares with only 3 other taxa.
The caudal (tail) vertebrae of Mymoorapelta and other nodosaurids are longer than they are wide, and dorsoventrally (top-bottom) flattened with a reduction of the neural spines when compared to the anterior caudals. The haemal spine takes on a rounded, hatchet-shaped appearance. The prezygapophyses are short and extend past the anterior edge of the centra by only 25% or less. This trait is only present in nodosaurids and basal anklosaurs, but in taxa like Liaoningosaurus and more derived ankylosaurids they overlap by at least 50% of its length, making them more fused together. Mymoorapelta lacks tail club handles or tail club knobs, as in other nodosaurids, giving them less ankylosis. The transition from anterior to posterior caudal vertebrae is less abrupt compared to ankylosaurids, which have an abrupt transition at the midcaudals, the lack of this abrupt transition would give the tail more flexibility, which is unique to nodosaurids when compared to the strongly fused tails of ankylosaurids. The vertebral centra and neural spines are much shorter when compared to Gargoyleosaurus. Mymoorapelta, like other dinosaurs, preserves chevrons along the undersides of the caudal vertebrae, and just like in many other ankylosaurs, the chevrons are strongly fused to the lower posterior part of the centra, and the haemal arches extend parallel to the elongate vertebral centra. The extension of these arches is greater anteriorly than posteriorly, forming a continuous bony structure underneath the haemal canal. One of the preserved chevrons measures and is strongly recurved posteriorly.
The scapular spine forms a vertical ridge opposite the glenoid in Mymoorapelta, as in other ankylosaurids and in an indeterminate ankylosaur scapula found in the nearby Dry Mesa Quarry. In the pelvic region, Mymoorapelta displays an intermediate between some features of basal and more derived ankylosaurs. The ischium is bent as in other nodosaurids and polacanthines, indicating that a straight ischium is a derived feature in ankylosaurids. In the forelimbs, the ulna has a broad, massive olecranon process that preserves rugosities. The coronoid process develops about 1/3rd of the way down the ulna’s shaft, compared to 1/4th of the way down in taxa like Stegopelta and Polacanthus. In the pes (foot), the genus preserves short, wide metapodials with long phalanges, with the distal phalanges looking triangular and pointed in side view, contrary to other nodosaurids like Edmontonia.
Armor
A prominent feature of Mymoorapelta was its armor, which mostly consisted of large spiked osteoderms (bony armor) protruding from the lateral and dorsal sides of the body. These have not been found in articulation, so their exact placement on the body is unknown, though their position can be surmised based on the well preserved skeletons of other nodosaurids and ankylosaurs. In Mymoorapelta, there are five different preserved armor types: elongated spines with a large, hollow base; thin triangular plates with a narrow, asymmetrical base; small bladelike spines with a rounded, solid base; isolated, flat, keeled scutes; and scutes fused into a single plate of armor. The large spine is assumed to have extended from the base of the neck outward laterally, with the point curving posteriorly. Evidence from Borealopelta also supports the extension of the spike by a large keratin sheath. The aforementioned thin triangular plates, of which eight are known, are preserved similarly to those in Polacanthus further down the body. It was theorized by Kirkland and Carpenter that the largest of these plates were attached to the proximal part of the tail, and protruded laterally along the sides of the body. A specimen of Mymoorapelta preserves one of these at in length. A single, small triangular plate was reported in 1994 and it preserves a thin, bladelike morphology, though its position is unknown. Twelve of the previously mentioned keeled, flat scutes were recovered from a specimen of Mymoorapelta in 1994, they preserve a keeled oval shape and an external surface that bears uniform, weak pitting, and a privation of neurovascular grooves (the system that controls blood flow and homeostasis) and (small openings within bones). In the internal structure of the scutes, half of the space is made up of trabecular bone, while the rest is made up of thick external and basal cortices.
Lastly, a small fragment of dermal armor preserves a rosette (a large osteoderm surrounded by smaller osteoderms, forming a flower-like arrangement) formed by a large central scute surrounded on all sides by smaller ossicles. This piece of armor comes from the sacral shield, which is a large plate of small, connected armor across the sacrum and pelvis for protection. A more complete sacral shield was preserved in the Cactus Park specimen, with estimates placing the complete sacral shield at in width for a pelvis that is wide. The sacral shield also preserves two middle rows of larger scutes, with each row preserving seven. Mymoorapelta preserves a category 2 sacral shield, which is characterized by bosses (keeled osteoderms) that border tubercles (elevated knobs) as well as rosettes of co-ossified osteoderms. This category of sacral shield is mostly found in the "polacanthids", but the status of this group is generally unstable, and the trait is also known in some ankylosaurids like Shamosaurus. The category 2 shield is most similar to that of category 3, though the latter preserves polygonal osteoderms that lack rosettes. However, Victoria Arbour et al. (2011) suggested that category 1 shields could simply be an ontogenetic (growth) stage of category 2, as they have very similar morphology but are not co-ossified, which is an ontogenetic trait present in extant armored animals like armadillos and alligators. The current categorisation of sacral shields into distinct categories finds its origins in a 2011 paper by Arbour, Michael E. Burns and Philip J. Currie, and gives three distinct characteristics, one for each of the three categories. Category 1 shields are characterized by non-coosified osteoderms, category 2 shields by coossified rosettes, and category 3 by uniformly sized coossified polygons.
On the upper surface of the back and tail, the skin was covered in small osteoderms, which are sometimes referred to as ossicles, in-between larger plates of armor as inferred by Sauropelta, though ossicles themselves are not known confidently outside of the sacral shield in Mymoorapelta. The armor of Mymoorapelta differs from that of Gargoyleosaurus in that the former has solid conical armor compared to the thin-walled armor of the latter.
Paleobiology
Diet and feeding
Mymoorapelta was a low-browsing herbivore like its relatives, likely feeding on the ferns, cycads, and conifers that dominated the flora of its time due to the lack of complex grasses in the Jurassic. Nodosaurids like Mymoorapelta had narrow snouts, an adaptation seen today in animals that are selective browsers as opposed to the wide muzzles of grazers. In ankylosaurs, the Jurassic and mid-Cretaceous forms with narrow and pointed muzzles were apparently the most selective feeders, akin to extant mammalian browsers. This is in stark contrast to the later ankylosaurs that were adapted to bulk feeding on food with lower nutritional value. The preservation of complete a in taxa like the ankylosaurid Pinacosaurus and the nodosaurid Edmontonia demonstrate that ankylosaurs had fleshy, muscular tongues that could have assisted with feeding on plants that grew low to the ground. Tongue protrusion and prehension is not confidently known, but lingual food manipulation could have been used in later ankylosaurids to crop food, like in giraffes. The preservation of cheek plates in Edmontonia and Panoplosaurus provide evidence for fleshy cheeks and chewing, with the cheek covering the tooth rows both for defense and to prevent food loss when eating.
Tooth occlusion is not directly preserved in Mymoorapelta or its close relative Gargoyleosaurus, but it has been found in other nodosaurids from the Cretaceous. The earliest evidence of nodosaurid dental occlusion is in Sauropelta, which demonstrated a basic motion, in that the power strokes moved vertically. In contrast to later nodosaurids, tooth-to-tooth contact was incidental or local when present and a biphasial jaw mechanism was lacking in both Mymoorapelta and Gargoyleosaurus. Ankylosaurs generally demonstrate more variable wear patterns than the contemporary ceratopsids and hadrosaurids of the Cretaceous. Even though ankylosaurs may not have fed on fibrous and woody plants, they may have had a varied diet which included tough leaves and pulpy fruits.
Habitat preference
Due to competition with Diplodocid sauropods, Mymoorapelta seems more adapted for open environments. Mymoorapelta has a very limited known distribution, having only been found at two sites in Western Colorado, in addition to the Hanksville-Burpee and potential Albuquerque specimens. This could be due to Mymoorapelta preferring to feed on a specific variety of plant, constricting its possible distribution. The Hanksville-Burpee specimen's taphonomy (how and where it decomposed to end up as a fossil) suggests that the individual had died inland, contrary to the coastal distribution previously inferred for nodosaurids.
Limb movements
Reconstructions of ankylosaur forelimb musculature made by Coombs in 1978 suggest that the forelimbs bore the majority of the animal's weight and that they were adapted for high force delivery on the front feet, possibly for food gathering. In addition, Coombs suggested that ankylosaurs may have been capable diggers, though the hoof-like structure of the would have limited fossorial capibilities. Ankylosaurs were likely to have been slow-moving and sluggish animals, though they may have been capable of quick movements when necessary. Mymoorapelta preserves very short limbs with even shorter distal limb elements, which is in contrast to the longer distal limb elements known in other nodosaurids but similar to the condition found in ankylosaurids and Polacanthus.
Armor and tail
The scientific literature mostly considers the armor of ankylosauroids to have been used for defensive purposes, mainly to fend off any attacking carnivores. The tails of these animals have a complex evolutionary history, with basal taxa like Mymoorapelta possessing a flexible tail with pointed osteoderms on either side and on top. The aforementioned flexibility of the tail would allow for a greater range of motion than the stiff tails of later ankylosaurids and nodosaurids. It is thought that the tail could also have been used in defense against predators, though more recent findings by Arbour et al. in 2022 also consider the possibility that the tails of ankylosaurids were used for intraspecific combat and might have primarily evolved to fill a function here, which might indicate a similar use in more basal taxa like Mymoorapelta and Gargoyleosaurus.
Classification
Mymoorapelta is one of the basalmost known genera of Nodosauridae, an extinct family of medium to large, heavily built, quadrupedal, herbivorous dinosaurs which possess small, leaf-shaped teeth. The clade was named in 1890 by Othniel Charles Marsh, who designated the Cretaceous genus Nodosaurus as the type genus based on the heavy dermal armor, solid bones, large forelimbs, and ungulate feet it preserves. Nodosaurids first evolved in the Late Jurassic (ca. 155 mya), with Mymoorapelta and the similarly sized Gargoyleosaurus being early members of the evolutionary radiation which would continue into the Cretaceous in accordance with Cope's Rule. The nodosaurids went extinct in the Late Cretaceous (ca. 66 mya) during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event along with the other non-avian dinosaurs.
Nodosaurids are situated within the group Euankylosauria, together with the closely related family Ankylosauridae. Nodosaurids differ from ankylosaurids in the fact that ankylosaurids evolved more recently, during the Early Cretaceous, and in several distinct anatomical characteristics; most notably the lack of mace-like tail clubs, with nodosaurs having osteoderm-lined, flexible tails instead, and the possession of sacral shields. Many nodosaurids also had spikes projecting outwards from their shoulders, and two armored half-rings on their neck, among other traits. A third proposed family, Polacanthidae, was erected for several genera that were similar to nodosaurids but had more fragile armor and a different distribution. However, it has seen little support from phylogenetic analyses in recent years and is in a state of flux. Euankylosauria encompasses all members of Ankylosauria except for the clade Parankylosauria, which is a smaller group known exclusively from a few taxa that lived in the Cretaceous of Gondwana, rather than the euankylosaurs, who were endemic to Laurasia.When Mymoorapelta was originally named, Kirkland and Carpenter placed the taxon as a potential nodosaurid, though at that time there were only a few taxa to compare the material to. The phylogenetic placement was changed in 1998 when it was considered closer to the European polacanthids, though this affiliation has been doubted. Matthew Vickaryous et al. (2004) considered the genus Ankylosauria incertae sedis, while a cladistic analysis performed by Thompson et al. (2011) suggests that Mymoorapelta is a basal nodosaurid as originally theorized by Kirkland and Carpenter. A 2010 phylogenetic analysis utilizing undescribed material resulted with Mymoorapelta as the sister taxon to Gargoyleosaurus in their own group outside of Polacanthidae, Nodosauridae, and Ankylosauridae. In a 2018 phylogenetic analysis by Rivera-Sylva and colleagues which has been reproduced below, Mymoorapelta is recovered as a basal nodosaurid in a clade with Sauroplites and Dongyangopelta that represents the most basal group within Nodosauridae, while Gargoyleosaurus is recovered as more derived, further proving their distinction. Alternatively, Mymoorapelta may also be an ankylosaur outside both Nodosauridae and Ankylosauridae.
Below at left is a reproduced phylogenetic analysis from Soto-Acuña (2021), which uses a modified version of the matrix from Arbour & Currie (2016) with Nodosaurinae and Ankylosaurinae collapsed for simplicity. Below at right is a 2018 phylogenetic analysis by Rivera-Sylva and colleagues, with Panoplosaurini and Struthiosaurini having been collapsed for simplicity.
Paleoecology
The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, ranges between 156.3 million years old (Ma) at its base, to ~150 ma at the top, placing it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Upper Jurassic period. The paleoenvironment of the Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons, and flat floodplains. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of conifers, tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria-like conifer Brachyphyllum. The Morrison Basin where dinosaurs lived stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan, and was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels and floodplains.
The Mygatt-Moore Quarry where Mymoorapelta was first found has been dated between 151.89 and 152.47 million years old, firmly placing it within the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation. The broader paleoenvironment of the area has been interpreted as a riparian (riverine) ecosystem with abundant flora and a high water table, with the quarry itself having been interpreted as an attritional accumulation of dinosaur fossils at a seasonal waterhole. This has allowed it to become one of the most fossil abundant sites in the United States, with the site notably preserving plants, pollen, coprolites, and even skin impressions preserved alongside dinosaur fossils. The quarry's abundant plant fossils include horsetails, cycads, Gingkoales, Czekanowskiales, and many different Coniferales represented by leaf, wood, and pollen fossils. Invertebrates represented in the quarry include gastropods and, most notably, fossils of fossil crayfish.
As for vertebrates, three different kinds of fish have been described from the quarry based on fossils of astonishing quality, including Hulettia hawesi and Morrolepis schaefferi. The most common fossils from the quarry are dinosaurian in nature. Allosaurus, a large carnivorous theropod, and Apatosaurus, a large diplodocid sauropod, are the two most common dinosaurs in the quarry, with Mymoorapelta being the third most common at the site. Fossils of several other dinosaurs are known from the quarry, including the theropod Ceratosaurus, the sauropods Camarasaurus and Diplodocus, and potentially the small ornithischian Nanosaurus. Remains of other vertebrate groups like crocodyliforms and turtles are rare in the quarry, indicating the lack of continuous standing water in the form of lakes or ponds.
Fossils of Mymoorapelta and the theropod Allosaurus that preserve bite marks have been described from the Mygatt-Moore Quarry by Stephanie Drumheller et al. (2020), alongside other bones found with feeding traces. Unlike the others, the fossils of Mymoorapelta and Allosaurus preserve striations that, when measured to determine denticle (serration) width, produced tooth and body size extrapolations greater than any known specimen of Allosaurus or Ceratosaurus, the two large predators of the quarry that are known from osteological remains. The extrapolations are instead coherent either with an unusually large specimen of Allosaurus, or a separate large taxon like Torvosaurus or Saurophaganax, neither of which preserves fossil material within the quarry. The result either increases the known diversity of the site based on ichnological evidence alone, or represents powerful evidence of cannibalism in Allosaurus. Based on the position and nutrient value associated with the various skeletal elements with bite marks, it is predicted that Mymoorapelta was either predated upon or scavenged shortly after death.
See also
Gargoyleosaurus
Gastonia
Polacanthus
Timeline of ankylosaur research
References
Nodosaurids
Late Jurassic dinosaurs of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1994
Dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation
Taxa named by James I. Kirkland
Taxa named by Kenneth Carpenter
Paleontology in Colorado
Ornithischian genera |
4347620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Cleveland | Roman Catholic Diocese of Cleveland | The Diocese of Cleveland () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church in northeastern Ohio in the United States. , the bishop is Edward Malesic. The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist, located in Cleveland, is the mother church of the diocese.
The Diocese of Cleveland is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Cincinnati.
Territory
The Diocese of Cleveland is currently the 17th-largest diocese in the United States by population, encompassing the counties of Ashland, Cuyahoga, Geauga, Lake, Lorain, Medina, Summit, and Wayne.
History
Early history
During the 17th century, present day Ohio was part of the French colony of New France. The Diocese of Quebec, had jurisdiction over the region. However, unlike other parts of the future American Midwest, there were no attempts to found Catholic missions in Ohio.
In 1763, Ohio Country became part of the British Province of Quebec, forbidden from settlement by American colonists. After the American Revolution ended in 1783, Pope Pius VI erected in 1784 the Prefecture Apostolic of the United States, encompassing the entire territory of the new nation. In 1787, the Ohio area became part of the Northwest Territory of the United States. Pius VI created the Diocese of Baltimore, the first diocese in the United States, to replace the prefecture apostolic in 1789.
In 1808, Pope Pius VII erected the Diocese of Bardstown in Kentucky, with jurisdiction over the new state of Ohio along with the other midwest states. Pope Pius VII on June 19, 1821, erected the Diocese of Cincinnati, taking all of Ohio from Bardstown.
Diocese of Cleveland
1840 to 1870
Pope Pius IX erected the Diocese of Cleveland on April 23, 1847, with territory taken from the Archdiocese of Cincinnati. At that point, the diocese included counties going west to Toledo and south to Youngstown He named Reverend Louis Rappe as the first bishop of Cleveland.
When Rappe took office, the diocese contained 42 churches and 21 priests; the first and only Catholic church in Cleveland was St. Mary's on the Flats. He soon established the city's first parochial school, which doubled as a chapel.
Rappe purchased an episcopal residence in 1848, founding a seminary there. He laid the cornerstone of St. John's Cathedral in 1848. In 1849, Rappe went to Europe to recruit clergy for the diocese. He returned in 1850 with four priests, five seminarians, two Sisters of Charity and six Ursuline nuns. The Daughters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary opened St. Mary's Orphan Asylum for Females in 1851. Rappe consecrated St. John's Cathedral on November 7, 1852. The Sisters of Charity opened St. Vincent's Asylum for Boys in 1852. He also introduced the Grey Nuns to the diocese in 1856.
In 1865, Rappe established St. Vincent Charity Hospital, the first public hospital in Cleveland. He brought in the Good Shepherd Sisters (1869), the Little Sisters of the Poor (1870), the Friars Minor (1867) and the Jesuits (1869), and organized the Sisters of Charity of St. Augustine as a new congregation. Rappe retired in 1870 after 33 years as bishop of Cleveland.
1870 to 1900
In 1872, Pope Pius IX appointed Reverend Richard Gilmour of the Archdiocese of Cincinnati as the second bishop of Cleveland. As bishop, Gilmour founded The Catholic Universe newspaper in 1874. In 1877, the Cuyahoga County auditor announced plans to tax Catholic churches and schools. Gilmour fought the auditor in court, winning his case six years later. He was also wary of the public school system. He established St. Ann's Asylum and Maternity Home, St. Michael Hospital, and St. John Hospital.In 1882, Gilmour condemned the Ladies Land League chapter in Cleveland.. Founded in Ireland, the League was a women's organization that assisted tenants being evicted from their homes. After Gimour died in 1891, Pope Leo XIII named Reverend Ignatius Horstmann of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia as the new bishop of Cleveland.
Horstmann founded the following institutions in the diocese:
Loyola High School in Cleveland (1902),
St. John's College in Toledo (1898),
St. Anthony Home for Working Boys in Cleveland.
The Catherine Horstmann Home in Cleveland for homeless women.
In the early 1890s, Horstmann faced a schism within the Diocese of Cleveland. Polish parishioners at St. Stanislaus Parish in Cleveland, led by Reverend Anton Kolaszewski, were demanding more control over their parish and more sensitivity to their customs. Despite Horstmann's refusal, Kolaszewski continued to press for independence and accused the bishop of sexual abuse crimes. In 1892, Horstmann relieved Kolaszewski of his post. When the new pastor arrived at St. Stanislaus Church for his first mass, a brawl broke out among the parishioners. In 1894, a group of parishioners started a new independent parish, Immaculate Heart of Mary, with Kolaszewski as pastor; Horstmann excommunicated all of them. Years later, after the deaths of both men, the diocese accepted the new church.
1900 to 1945
In 1907, Horstmann faced a second schism with Polish Catholics. After removing Reverend Casimir Zakrekac as pastor of St. Vitus Parish in Cleveland, he faced violent protests. After the parish rectory was stoned, the replacement priest was forced to flee. Over 100 people were arrested. On September 22, 1907, 5,000 Polish protesters marched on Horstmann's residence, demanding Zakrekac's reinstatement and home rule for St. Vitus. Horstmann died in 1908.
Pope Pius IX named Reverend John Farrelly of the Diocese of Nashville as bishop of Cleveland in 1909. The next year, Pius IX erected the Diocese of Toledo, removing the Toledo area counties from the Diocese of Cleveland. During his 12-year-long tenure as bishop, Farrelly improved the parochial school system; organized Catholic Charities; and erected 47 churches and schools, including Cathedral Latin High School in Chardon, Ohio. During World War I, Farrelly was appointed by Cleveland Mayor Harry L. Davis to the Cleveland War Commission. Farrelly also ordered English to be spoken at all German language churches and schools in the diocese. Farrely served as bishop until his death in 1921.
Bishop Joseph Schrembs of the Diocese of Toledo was appointed bishop of Cleveland in 1921 by Pope Pius XI. In 1925, the pope presented the relics of St. Christine to Schrembs. Christine, a 13-year-old girl who died for her Catholic faith around 300 AD, was moved from the Roman catacombs to St. John's Cathedral in Cleveland. The diocese had previously donated money to the Vatican for the establishment of the House of Catacombs outside Rome. During his tenure, Schrembs erected 27 parishes in Cleveland and 35 outside the city. In 1942, as Schrembs' diabetes worsened, Pope Pius XII named Bishop Edward Hoban from the Diocese of Rockford as Schrembs' coadjutor bishop to help him with his duties. In 1943, Pius XII erected the Diocese of Youngstown. taking counties from the Youngstown area away from the Diocese of Cleveland.
1945 to 1980
After Schrembs died in 1945, Hoban automatically succeeded him as bishop of the Diocese of Cleveland. As bishop, Hoban encouraged refugees displaced by World War II to settle in Cleveland. He also established national and ethnic parishes, but insisted that their parochial schools only teach in English. He helped rebuild and remodel St. John's Cathedral, and enlarged St. John's College, both in Cleveland. Hoban centralized Parmadale Family Services, constructed additional nursing homes, and opened Holy Family Cancer Home in Parma, Ohio, a hospice for cancer patients. Hoban opened a minor seminary and expanded the Newman Apostolate for Catholic students attending public universities and colleges. During Hoban's 21-year-long tenure, the number of Catholics in the diocese increased from 546,000 to 870,000. Hoban also established 61 parishes, 47 elementary schools, and a dozen high schools. Pope Paul VI appointed Bishop Clarence Issenmann of the Diocese of Columbus as coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of Cleveland on October 7, 1964. When Hoban died in 1966, Issenmann automatically became his replacement in Cleveland.
As bishop, Issenmann constructed the following schools in the diocese:
Villa Angela Academy in Cleveland,
Lake Catholic High School in Mentor
Lorain Catholic High School in Lorain
St. Vincent-St. Mary High School in Akron
In November 1968, Issenmann asked all adults attending mass in the diocese to sign petitions of support for Humanae vitae, Pope Paul VI's 1969 encyclical against artificial birth control. Issenmann was the only bishop in the country to make that request of parishioners. issenmann retired in 1974 due to poor health. Pope Paul VI in 1974 named Auxiliary Bishop James Hickey of the Diocese of Saginaw as the new bishop of Cleveland. Six years later, in 1980, the pope named him as archbishop of the Archdiocese of Washington.
1980 to present
John Paul II appointed Auxiliary Bishop Anthony Pilla to replace Hickey as bishop of Cleveland in 1980. In 2005, 36 lay members of the diocese sued Pilla, accusing him of allowing $2 million in diocesan funds to be stolen. The judge dismissed the lawsuit, saying that the plaintiffs did not have the legal standing to sue in this case. After 26 years as bishop, Pilla resigned in 2006.
In 2004, Phila received an anonymous letter accusing Joseph Smith, the assistant treasurer for the diocese, of theft. After meeting with Pilla, Smith went on administrative lead and later resigned. In 2005, 36 parishioners sued the diocese, claiming that Smith and two other diocesan officials had diverted $2 million of diocese funds to their own businesses.
On April 5, 2006, Pope Benedict XVI named Auxiliary Bishop Richard Lennon of the Archdiocese of Boston as the tenth bishop of the Diocese of Cleveland.
In August 2007 Smith and Anton Zgoznik, a hired consultant, were charged with 17 counts of money laundering and tax evasion. Smith steered contracts worth $17.5 to Zgonik, who gave Smith kickbacks of $784,000. Zgoznik was convicted in October 2007 of conspiracy to commit mail fraud and mail fraud. In December 2008, Smith was acquitted of embezzlement, but convicted of tax evasion; he received one year in prison.
In 2009, the diocese announced the closing or merging of 52 parishes, due to the shortage of priests, the migration of Catholics to the suburbs, and the financial difficulties of some parishes. The diocese also closed or merged several number of parish schools. The hardest hit were urban parishes in Cleveland, Akron, Lorain, and Elyria. Parishioners from 13 urban parishes appealed Lennon's action to the Congregation for the Clergy in Rome. In 2012, the Congregation for the Clergy overturned all 13 closings because Lennon did not follow proper procedure or canon law. Lennon resigned in 2016 due to poor health.
Pope Francis in 2017 appointed Auxiliary Bishop Nelson J. Perez of the Diocese of Rockville Centre to replace Lennon. Three years later, the pope name Perez as archbishop of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia. As of 2023, the current bishop of Cleveland is Bishop Edward C. Malesic of the Diocese of Greensburg, named by Francis in 2020.
Reports of sex abuse
In March 2002, Bishop Pilla published a list of 28 priests accused of sexual abuse of minors. Fifteen of them were active priests, whom Pilla suspended from ministry. Earlier that year, Cuyahoga County Prosecutor William Mason announced an investigation of sexual abuse of minors by diocesan priests.
In July 2011, an Ohio man sued Pilla and the diocese, saying that their negligence allowed a priest to sexually abuse him when he was a boy. The plaintiff said that Reverend Patrick O’Connor, a diocesan priest at St. Jude Parish in Elyria, abused him from 1997 to 1999. Pilla knew that O'Connor had abused a child during the 1980s at St. Joseph Parish in Cuyahoga Falls. The diocese settled with that victim in 2003 and sent O'Connor to another parish Elyria. He resigned from the priesthood in 2008. O'Connor pleaded guilty to corruption of a minor in 2009 and was sentenced to 90 days in prison.
In July 2019, the diocese added 22 more names to its list of "credibly accused" clergy.
In December 2019, Reverend Robert McWilliams, a diocesan priest, was arrested at St. Joseph Parish in Strongsville on four counts of possessing child pornography. Bishop Perez had called for McWilliams's arrest, describing the case as a "painful situation." McWilliams pleaded guilty in July 2021 to sex trafficking of youths, sexual exploitation of children and possession of child pornography. Sentenced to life in prison in November 2021, McWilliams committed suicide in February 2022. A young man sued the diocese in March 2022, stating that he had been raped by McWilliams in 2018 in Strongsville. The plaintiff said that when he was 15, McWilliams paid him $200 for three sex acts. The plaintiff was one of the victims in the criminal case against McWilliams.
In March 2023, four women sued the diocese, saying that they had been sexually and physically assaulted at the Parmadale Children’s Village in Parma. The abuse allegedly occurred over several decades before the facility closed in 2017. The plaintiffs said they were used sexually by one of the priests and by staff employees; one plaintiff said the staff forced her to have sex with other residents while they watched.
Statistics
As of 2023, the Diocese of Cleveland had a population of approximately 613,000 Catholics and contained 185 parishes, three Catholic hospitals, three universities, two shrines (St. Paul Shrine Church and St. Stanislaus Church), and two seminaries (Centers for Pastoral Leadership).
Bishops
Bishops of Cleveland
Louis Amadeus Rappe (1847–1870)
Richard Gilmour (1872–1891)
Ignatius Frederick Horstmann (1891–1908)
John Patrick Farrelly (1909–1921)
Joseph Schrembs (1921–1945), appointed Archbishop ad personam by Pope Pius XII in 1939
Edward Francis Hoban (1945–1966; coadjutor bishop 1942–1945), appointed Archbishop ad personam by Pope Pius XII in 1951
Clarence George Issenmann (1966–1974; coadjutor bishop 1964–1966)
James Aloysius Hickey (1974–1980), appointed Archbishop of Washington (Cardinal in 1988)
Anthony Michael Pilla (1980–2006)
Richard Gerard Lennon (2006–2016)
Nelson Jesus Perez (2017–2020), appointed Archbishop of Philadelphia
Edward Charles Malesic (2020–present)
Auxiliary Bishops of Cleveland
Joseph Maria Koudelka (1907–1911), appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Milwaukee and later Bishop of Superior
James A. McFadden (1922–1943), appointed Bishop of Youngstown
William Michael Cosgrove (1943–1968), appointed Bishop of Belleville
John Raphael Hagan (1946)
Floyd Lawrence Begin (1947–1962), appointed Bishop of Oakland
John Joseph Krol (1953–1961), appointed Archbishop of Philadelphia (Cardinal in 1967)
Clarence Edward Elwell (1962–1968), appointed Bishop of Columbus
John Francis Whealon (1961–1966), appointed Bishop of Erie and later Archbishop of Hartford
Gilbert Ignatius Sheldon (1976–1992), appointed Bishop of Steubenville
Michael Joseph Murphy (1976–1978), appointed Bishop of Erie
James Anthony Griffin (1979–1983), appointed Bishop of Columbus
James Patterson Lyke O.F.M. (1979–1990), appointed Archbishop of Atlanta
Anthony Michael Pilla (1979–1980), appointed Bishop of Cleveland
Anthony Edward Pevec (1982–2001)
Alexander James Quinn (1983–2008)
Martin John Amos (2001–2006), appointed Bishop of Davenport
Roger William Gries, O.S.B. (2001–2013)
Michael Gerard Woost, (2022–present)
Other affiliated bishops
John Patrick Carroll, Bishop of Helena (1889–1904)
Augustus John Schwertner, Bishop of Wichita in 1921 (1897–1910)
Thomas Charles O'Reilly, Bishop of Scranton (1898–1927)
Edward Mooney, titular Archbishop and Apostolic Delegate, and later Archbishop (ad personam) of Rochester and Archbishop of Detroit (Cardinal in 1946) (1909–1926)
Charles Hubert Le Blond, Bishop of Saint Joseph (1909–1933)
Michael Joseph Ready, Bishop of Columbus (1918–1944)
John Patrick Treacy, Coadjutor Bishop and later Bishop of La Crosse (1918–1945)
Joseph Patrick Hurley, Bishop of Saint Augustine (and Archbishop (ad personam) in 1949) (1919–1940)
John Francis Dearden, Coadjutor Bishop and later Bishop of Pittsburgh and Archbishop of Detroit (Cardinal in 1969) (1932–1948)
Paul John Hallinan, Bishop of Charleston and later Archbishop of Atlanta (1937–1958)
Raymond Joseph Gallagher, Bishop of Lafayette in Indiana (1939–1965)
Timothy P. Broglio, Apostolic Nuncio to the Dominican Republic and later Archbishop for the Military Services, USA (1977–2001)
David John Walkowiak, Bishop of Grand Rapids (1979–2013)
Neal James Buckon, Auxiliary Bishop for the Military Services, USA (1995–2011)
Churches
Education
As of 2023, the Diocese of Cleveland had 20 high schools and 86 elementary schools with a total enrollment exceeding 38,000 students.
High schools
Closed schools
Lorain Catholic High School – Lorain (co-ed) Closed in 2004.
Nazareth Academy – Parma Heights (girls), (Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph 1957–1980). Closed in 1980, Holy Name High School moved into its building.
Regina High School – South Euclid (girls), (Sisters of Notre Dame), Closed in 2010
St. Augustine Academy – Lakewood (girls) Closed 2005. Now Lakewood Catholic Academy elementary school.
St. Peter Chanel High School – Bedford (co-ed) (Marist Fathers 1957–1973); (Diocese of Cleveland 1973–2013). Closed in 2013
See also
Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States
List of the Catholic dioceses of the United States
St. Peter Catholic Church (Norwalk, Ohio)
References
External links
Roman Catholic Diocese of Cleveland official website
Cleveland
Cleveland
Religious organizations established in 1847
Culture of Cleveland
Cleveland
Christianity in Cleveland
1847 establishments in Ohio |
4347848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Diocese%20of%20Columbus | Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus | The Diocese of Columbus () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory, or diocese, of the Catholic Church covering 23 counties in central Ohio in the United States. It is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Cincinnati.
The mother church of the Diocese of Columbus is St. Joseph Cathedral in Columbus. The diocese was erected on March 3, 1868, by Pope Pius IX. The current bishop of Columbus is Earl K. Fernandes.
Geography
The Diocese of Columbus contains 108 parishes in 23 counties:
Coshocton, Delaware, Fairfield, Fayette, Franklin, Hardin, Hocking, Holmes, Jackson, Knox, Licking, Madison, Marion, Morrow, Muskingum, Perry, Pickaway, Pike, Ross, Scioto, Tuscarawas, Union, and Vinton.
History
1700 to 1860
During the 17th century, present day Ohio was part of the French colony of New France. The Diocese of Quebec, had jurisdiction over the region. However, unlike other parts of the future American Midwest, there were no attempts to found Catholic missions in Ohio.
In 1763, Ohio Country became part of the British Province of Quebec, forbidden from settlement by American colonists. After the American Revolution ended in 1783, Pope Pius VI erected in 1784 the Prefecture Apostolic of the United States, encompassing the entire territory of the new nation. In 1787, the Ohio area became part of the Northwest Territory of the United States. Pius VI created the Diocese of Baltimore, the first diocese in the United States, to replace the prefecture apostolic in 1789.
In 1808, Pope Pius VII erected the Diocese of Bardstown in Kentucky, with jurisdiction over the new state of Ohio along with the other midwest states. Dominican priests from Bardstown were the first missionaries and clergy in the Columbus area. The first Catholic chapel built in Ohio was a log structure in Perry County; it was dedicated in 1818 by Edward Fenwick
Pope Pius VII in 1821 erected the Diocese of Cincinnati, taking all of Ohio from Bardstown. The visit of Cincinnati Bishop John Purcell to central Ohio in June 1836, began the activity of the Catholic Church in the city of Columbus. After saying Mass in a house on Canal Street on June 5, Purcell asked the Catholic men in attendance to meet regarding the construction of a church. They developed a plan to build a church on a lot already owned by the Catholics of the area—where Holy Cross Church now stands. In 1837, the diocese sent a resident pastor, Henry Juncker, to cover the Columbus and Chillicothe areas. Juncker built Holy Cross Church, opening it in 1838 with a Sung Mass. By 1843, Holy Cross parish was scheduling multiple masses on Sundays and building a school.
1860 to 1900
At the close of the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, the American bishops petitioned Pope Pius IX to establish a new diocese with its seat in Columbus. On March 3, 1868, the pope erected the Diocese of Columbus, encompassing the portions of Ohio "...lying south of 40' and 41" and between the Ohio River on the East and the Scioto River on the West together with the Counties of Franklin, Delaware and Morrow." Pius IX appointed Auxiliary Bishop Sylvester Rosecrans of Cincinnati as the first bishop of Columbus.
When the Diocese of Columbus was erected, it had only three churches, all in the city of Columbus: Holy Cross, St. Patrick's, and St. Mary's. The diocese was mostly agricultural, having been settled first by Maryland and Pennsylvania residents who had moved west, and then later by German and Irish immigrants. Rosecrans established the Catholic Columbian, a newspaper for the diocese, in addition to opening St. Aloysius Seminary and St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum. He oversaw the construction of St. Joseph Cathedral to its consecration in 1878, before dying the following morning.
To replace Rosencrans, Pope Leo XIII appointed John Watterson as the second bishop of Columbus in 1880. The major challenge facing the diocese was the debt accrued by the construction of St. Joseph. During his 19-year-long tenure, Watterson increased the number of priests and schools in the diocese, oversaw the building of two hospitals and the Pontifical College Josephinum in Columbus and erected many new missions and parishes.
1900 to 1945
On April 6, 1900, Henry K. Moeller, chancellor of the Archdiocese of Cincinnati, was appointed the third bishop of Columbus by Leo XIII. During his episcopacy, the diocesan debt was split among the parishes and nearly eliminated in three years and a diocesan synod was convened. Moeller also established missions, parishes, and schools to serve the increasing immigrant population of the Diocese. Moeller was appointed as the coadjutor bishop of Cincinnati by Pope Pius X in 1903.
Moeller's replacement, James Hartley, was appointed bishop in 1903. During his tenure, Hartley oversaw a significant growth of the diocese In 1905, he erected his first parishes, Holy Rosary and St. Aloysius. In 1906, he retired the debt on St. Joseph Cathedral. Within the first five years of his episcopate, Hartley began or dedicated over 25 churches, schools, and chapels. He established the following institutions:
St. Charles Seminary in Columbus
St. Joseph Cemetery in Lockbourne
St. Ann Hospital in Westerville
Mercy Hospital in Portsmouth
Good Samaritan Hospital in Zanesville
Mercy Hospital in Mount Vernon
St. Therese Shrine in Columbus
Toward the end of his term as bishop, Hartley consecrated Edward Hettinger as the first auxiliary bishop of the Columbus diocese. Hartley died in 1944.
1945 to 1968
Pope Pius XII appointed Michael Ready as bishop of Columbus in 1945. That same year, the pope established the Diocese of Steubenville. He removed 13 counties from the Diocese of Columbus to form the new diocese (Carroll, Jefferson, Harrison, Guernsey, Belmont, Noble, Monroe, Morgan, Washington, Athens, Meigs, Gallia, and Lawrence). At the same time, the pope added nine counties (Hardin, Marion, Union, Madison, Fayette, Pickaway, Ross, Pike and Scioto) to the Diocese of Columbus from the Archdiocese of Cincinnati.
One of Ready's first tasks was overseeing the erection of the new Diocese of Steubenville. He established the Catholic Welfare Bureau and appointed a director of charities for the diocese. Ready was a critic of the Ohio State University board of trustees decision in 1951 that all campus speakers had to be cleared by University President Howard L. Bevis in advance.
Ready also organized the Holy Name Society, a Parent-Teacher Organization, the Council of Catholic Women, the Catholic Youth Council, and the St. Vincent de Paul Society in the diocese. He created 18 new parishes and oversaw the construction of nine elementary and five high schools. Ready founded two nursing homes, the diocesan Child Guidance Center, and the Catholic Student Center at Ohio State University. He worked with his fellow Ohio bishops to start the Ohio Catholic Welfare Conference. Ready died in 1957.
Pope Pius XII appointed Auxiliary Bishop Clarence Issenmann of the Archdiocese of Cincinnati as the sixth bishop of Columbus on December 5, 1957. As bishop, Issenmann established the Diocesan Development Fund so as to supply for the expansion of the diocese, which added eight parishes and six high schools under Issenmann. He also found a new building to house diocesan offices, and offered a televised Mass every week. Pope Paul VI named him as coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of Cleveland in 1964.
Bishop John Carberry from the Diocese of Lafayette in Indiana was appointed the seventh bishop of Columbus by Pope Paul VI on January 16, 1965. As bishop, he implemented the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and supported the Civil Rights Movement and ecumenical movement. He established the Clergy Advisory Council, and oversaw the renovation of St. Joseph's Cathedral after issuing regulations for liturgical changes. Carberry also bought a new building to centralize the offices of the diocesan chancery. He helped found the Inter-Church Board for Metropolitan Affairs, the first organization in the United States uniting Protestants and Catholics for ecumenism and social action. In January 1968, he became the first Catholic bishop to receive the Ohio Council of Churches' annual "Pastor of Pastors" award. Carberry was named archbishop of the Archdiocese of St. Louis in 1968.
1968 to 1982
Paul VI named Auxiliary Bishop Clarence Elwell from the Diocese of Cleveland as the eighth bishop of Columbus in 1968. During his tenure as bishop, Elwell continued the implementation of the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, initiated under Carberry. An advocate of Catholic education, he opened the following schools in Ohio:
Tuscarawas Central Catholic High School in New Philadelphia
William V. Fisher Catholic High School in Lancaster
Bishop Rosecrans High School in Zanesville
Elwell also converted the diocesan seminary in Columbus into St. Charles College Preparatory School. He also established Resurrection Cemetery in Lewis Center, Ohio, St. Peter Parish in Worthington, Ohio, the Sisters' Council, and the Pastoral Council. He significantly expanded the Development Office, the Parish Aid Fund, and the diocesan self-insurance program. Elwell died in 1973.
Auxiliary Bishop Edward Herrmann from the Archdiocese of Washington was appointed bishop of Columbus in 1973, by Paul VI. Herrmann helped establish Operation Feed in Columbus, a countywide food drive that now provides millions of meals every year to people in the Columbus area. He also reorganized the diocese into the 15 vicariates and instituted the Emmaus Spirituality Program for priests. Hermann died in 1982.
1982 to 2020
In 1983, Pope John Paul II appointed Auxiliary Bishop James Griffin from the Diocese of Cleveland as the tenth bishop of the Diocese of Columbus. In 1985, Griffin established the Foundation of the Catholic Diocese of Columbus and initiated the Legacy of Catholic Learning campaign in 1989 and Challenge In Changing Times campaign. He also established "Breaking The Silence" task force to reduce family violence. Griffin also served on a number of committees of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and was president of Catholic Relief Services (1991–1995). In 2004, after 21 years as bishop of Columbus, Griffin retired.
In 2004, John Paul II appointed Auxiliary Bishop Frederick F. Campbell from the Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis as the eleventh bishop of Columbus. In 2005, Campbell proposed the establishment of a civil registry of priests from the diocese of Columbus who had been "credibly accused" of sexual abuse. Campbell spoke out in 2006 against a proposed law in the Ohio General Assembly that would have allowed a 20-year statute of limitations for sexual abuse cases. In his testimony to the legislature, Campbell claimed that the 20-year window for prosecution wasn't fair and would curtail the church's charitable work. In the end, the assembly passed the legislation with a 10-year window.
In April 2013, the diocese fired Carla Hale, a teacher at Bishop Watterson High School in Columbus. The diocese took action after receiving a complaint that Hale had a domestic partner who was a woman. Hale then threatened to file a complaint with the City of Columbus under its anti-discrimination ordinances. Hale and the diocese later reached a settlement in which she would not return to Bishop Watterson.
After Campbell resigned in 2019, Pope Francis appointed Auxiliary Bishop Robert J. Brennan from the Diocese of Rockville Centre as bishop of Columbus that same year. Brennan initiated the elevation of Saint Mary of the Assumption in Lancaster to the rank of a minor basilica in August 2019. In December 2020, Brennan announced the "Real Presence Real Future" strategic planning initiative, aiming at "increasing the presence of Christ throughout its 23 counties over the next three years and upholding the Faith for future generations." According to Brennan, the process would likely result in some parishes closing.
2020 to present
In February 2020, the diocese announced the closure of two diocesan retreat centers, St. Therese's in Columbus and Sts. Peter and Paul in Newark. The shuttering was due to dwindling use in part because of more parishes having parish centers, newer non-diocesan facilities being built, and the necessity of repairs at both sites.
Sts. Peter and Paul was constructed as a seminary for the Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions in 1957. It closed in 1990, was acquired by the diocese and reopened as a retreat center in 2003. It served as the convent for the Dominican Nuns of the Perpetual Rosary until the community left the diocese in 2023.
St. Therese Retreat Center was opened in 1931. St. Therese now houses the Daughters of Holy Mary of the Heart of Jesus, a group ministering to girls and young women.
Francis appointed Brennan as bishop of the Diocese of Brooklyn in 2021 and then named Reverend Earl K. Fernandes of Cincinnati is the current bishop of Columbus, appointed by Francis in 2022. Fernandes has continued the "Real Presence Real Future" process started by Brennan. In October 2022, the Diocese of Steubenville announced that the Vatican was considering a merger with the Diocese of Columbus. However, facing strong opposition within Steubenville, Bishop Jeffrey Monforton of Steubenville announced a few weeks later that the merger proposal had been put on hold.
In May 2023, the diocese announced that it would closed 15 parishes as part of the “Real Presence, Real Future” initiative. As of 2023, Fernandes is the current bishop of Columbus.
Bishops
Bishops of Columbus
Sylvester Horton Rosecrans (1868–1878)
John Ambrose Watterson (1880–1899)
Henry K. Moeller (1900–1903), appointed Coadjutor Archbishop and later Archbishop of Cincinnati
James Joseph Hartley (1903–1944)
Michael Joseph Ready (1944–1957)
Clarence George Issenmann (1957–1964), appointed Coadjutor Bishop and later Bishop of Cleveland
John Joseph Carberry (1965–1968), appointed Archbishop of Saint Louis (elevated to Cardinal in 1969)
Clarence Edward Elwell (1968–1973)
Edward John Herrmann (1973–1982)
James Anthony Griffin (1983–2004)
Frederick Francis Campbell (2005–2019)
Robert J. Brennan (2019–2021), appointed Bishop of Brooklyn
Earl K. Fernandes (2022–present)
Auxiliary bishops of Columbus
Edward Gerard Hettinger (1941–1977)
George Avis Fulcher (1976–1983), appointed Bishop of Lafayette in Indiana
Other diocesan priests who became bishops
Nicholas Aloysius Gallagher (1846-1916), appointed Bishop of Galveston in 1892
Francis William Howard, appointed Bishop of Covington in 1923
Parishes
As of 2020, the Diocese of Columbus comprises 103 parishes and two missions. The parishes are divided into the following deaneries:
Center - South Columbus Deanery
Community of Holy Rosary/St. John the Evangelist – Columbus (African American; 1979)
Corpus Christi – Columbus (1923)
Holy Cross – Columbus (German; 1846)
Sts. Augustine & Gabriel – Columbus (Vietnamese 1925)
St. Dominic – Columbus (African American 1889)
St. Joseph Cathedral – Columbus (1866)
St. Ladislas – Columbus (Hungarian/Croatian 1908)
St. Mary of the Assumption – Columbus (German 1865)
St. Patrick – Columbus (Irish 1852)
St. Thomas the Apostle – Columbus (1900)
St. Leo the Great (1902)
Northwest Columbus Deanery
Our Lady of Victory – Marble Cliff (1922)
St. Agatha – Columbus (1940)
St. Andrew – Columbus (1955)
Saint Brendan the Navigator Church – Hilliard (1956)
St. Brigid of Kildare – Dublin (1987)
St. Christopher – Columbus (1947)
St. Joan of Arc – Powell (1987)
St. Margaret of Cortona – Columbus (Italian 1921)
St. Peter – Columbus (1970)
St. Timothy – Columbus (1961)
North High Deanery
Holy Name – Columbus (1905)
Immaculate Conception – Columbus (1916)
Our Lady of Peace – Columbus (1946)
Parroquia Santa Cruz – Columbus (Hispanic 1993)
Sacred Heart – Columbus (1875)
St. Francis of Assisi – Columbus (1892)
St. John the Baptist – Columbus (Italian 1895)
St. Michael the Archangel – Worthington (1946)
St. Thomas More Newman Center – Columbus (1906)
Northland Columbus Deanery
Church of the Resurrection – New Albany (1983)
St. Anthony – Columbus (1963)
St. Elizabeth – Columbus (1967)
St. James the Less – Columbus (1947)
St. John Neumann – Sunbury (1977)
St. Matthias – Columbus (1956)
St. Paul – Westerville (1913)
West Columbus Deanery
Holy Family Church – Columbus (Irish; 1877)
Our Lady of Perpetual Help – Grove City (1954)
Sts. Simon & Jude – West Jefferson (German/Irish 1867)
St. Agnes, Columbus (1954)
St. Aloysius – Columbus (1906)
St. Cecilia – Columbus (1882)
St. Joseph – Plain City (1864)
St. Mary Magdalene – Columbus (1928)
St. Patrick – London (German/Irish 1866)
St. Stephen the Martyr – Columbus (Hispanic 1963)
East Columbus Deanery
St. John XXIII – Canal Winchester (2000)
Christ the King – Columbus (1946)
Holy Spirit – Columbus (1947)
Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal – Columbus (1967)
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Parish – Pickerington (1978)
St. Catharine of Siena – Columbus (1931)
St. Mary – Groveport (1871)
St. Matthew – Gahanna (1959)
St. Philip the Apostle – Columbus (1956)
St. Pius X – Reynoldsburg (1958)
Marion Deanery
Immaculate Conception – Kenton (1866)
Our Lady of Lourdes – Ada (1874)
Our Lady of Lourdes – Marysville (1866)
Sacred Hearts of Jesus & Mary – Cardington (1971)
St. Mary – Delaware (1854)
St. Mary – Marion (1864)
Perry County-Zanesville Deanery
Church of the Atonement – Crooksville (1902)
Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary – Mattingly Settlement (1856)
Holy Trinity – Somerset (1826)
St. Ann – Dresden (1877)
St. Bernard – Corning (1885)
St. Joseph – Somerset (1818)
St. Nicholas – Zanesville (German 1842)
St. Patrick – Junction City (1827)
St. Rose of Lima – New Lexington (1867)
St. Thomas Aquinas – Zanesville (Irish/Italian 1842)
Knox-Licking Deanery
Church of the Ascension – Johnstown (1912)
Church of the Blessed Sacrament – Newark (1904)
Our Lady of Mt. Carmel – Buckeye Lake (1928)
St. Edward the Confessor – Granville (1947)
St. Francis de Sales – Newark (1844)
St. Leonard – Heath (1962)
St. Luke – Danville (1823)
St. Vincent de Paul – Mt. Vernon (1839)
Tuscawaras-Holmes-Coshocton Deanery
Holy Trinity – Zoar (1995)
Immacualte Conception – Dennison (Irish 1870)
Sacred Heart – Coshocton (1897)
Sacred Heart – New Philadelphia (1895)
Sts. Peter & Paul – Glenmont (1855)
St. Francis de Sales – Newcomerstown (1918)
St. Joseph – Dover (German/Italian 1848)
St. Peter – Millersburg (1877)
Lancaster Deanery
St. Bernadette, Lancaster (1963)
St. Mary – Bremen (1917)
St. Mark – Lancaster (1959)
Basilica of St. Mary of the Assumption – Lancaster (1819)
St. John the Evangelist – Logan (1838)
St. Joseph – Sugar Grove (1892)
Chillicothe Deanery
Holy Trinity – Jackson (1880)
Sts. Peter & Paul – Wellston (1881)
St. Colman of Cloyne – Washington Court House (1881)
St. Joseph – Circleville (1845)
St. Mary – Chillicothe (1837)
St. Mary Queen of the Missions – Waverly (1878)
St. Peter – Chillicothe (German 1846)
St. Sylvester – Zaleski (Irish 1864)
Scioto County Deanery
Holy Redeemer – Portsmouth (Irish; 1853)
Holy Trinity – Pond Creek (French 1854)
St. Mary of the Annunciation – (German 1850)
St. Peter in Chains – Wheelersburg (1849)
Education
Museum of Catholic Art and History
The diocese is home to the Museum of Catholic Art and History – the largest institution of its kind in the United States It was founded in 1998 as the Jubilee Museum.
Colleges
Mount Carmel College of Nursing – Columbus
Ohio Dominican University – Columbus
Pontifical College Josephinum – Columbus (Jurisdiction of the Apostolic Nuncio)
High schools
Bishop Hartley High School – Columbus
Bishop Ready High School – Columbus
Bishop Rosecrans High School – Zanesville
Bishop Watterson High School – Columbus
Cristo Rey Columbus High School – Columbus
Newark Catholic High School – Newark
Notre Dame High School – Portsmouth
Saint Charles Preparatory School – Columbus
St. Francis DeSales High School – Columbus
Tuscarawas Central Catholic High School – New Philadelphia
William V. Fisher Catholic High School – Lancaster
Closed schools
Bishop Flaget High School – Chillicothe (Currently a grade school)
Corpus Christi School – Columbus
Father Wehrle High School – Columbus
Holy Family School – Columbus
Holy Name School – Columbus
Holy Rosary (Grade School & High School)
Marion Catholic High School – Marion
St. Aloysius Academy – New Lexington
St. Ladislas School – Columbus
St. Leo School – Columbus
St. Mary – Chillicothe
St. Mary High School – Columbus
St. Peter – Chillicothe
St. Rose of Lima – New Lexington (closed 2021)
St. Thomas the Apostle Grade School – Columbus
Elementary schools
All Saints Academy – Columbus
Bishop Fenwick – Zanesville
Bishop Flaget – Chillicothe
Blessed Sacrament – Newark
Holy Spirit – Whitehall
Holy Trinity – Somerset
Immaculate Conception – Columbus
Immaculate Conception – Dennison
Notre Dame Elementary – Portsmouth
Our Lady of Bethlehem – Columbus
Our Lady of Peace – Columbus
Our Lady of Perpetual Help – Grove City
Sacred Heart – Coshocton
St. Agatha – Columbus
St. Andrew – Columbus
St. Anthony – Columbus
St. Bernadette – Lancaster
St. Brendan – Hilliard
St. Brigid of Kildare – Dublin
St. Catharine – Columbus
St. Cecilia – Columbus
St. Francis de Sales – Newark
St. James the Less – Columbus
St. John – Logan
St. Joseph Montessori – Columbus
St. Mary Elementary – Lancaster
St. Mary Magdalene – Columbus
St. Mary – Columbus
St. Mary – Delaware
St. Mary – Marion
St. Matthew – Gahanna
St. Matthias – Columbus
St. Michael – Worthington
St. Patrick – London
St. Paul – Westerville
St. Pius X – Reynoldsburg
St. Timothy – Columbus
St. Vincent de Paul – Mt. Vernon
Sts. Peter and Paul – Wellston
Trinity Elementary – Columbus
Tuscarawas Central Catholic Elementary School – Dover
Hospitals
Current hospitals
Genesis HealthCare System – Zanesville (combination of Good Samaritan Hospital and Bethesda Hospital). Good Samaritan Hospital began in 1900 and is co-sponsored by the Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity of Manitowoc – Wisconsin.
Mt. Carmel Hospitals – Columbus (Mt. Carmel – East; Mt. Carmel – West; St. Ann, Westerville). Mt. Carmel opened in 1886, by the Sisters of the Holy Cross from St. Mary's, Indiana. In 1972, Mt. Carmel East opened to serve the suburbs. Also, St. Ann's Hospital was bought by Mt. Carmel in 1995. At one time, St. Ann's was operated by the Sisters of St. Francis of Penance and Christian Charity.
Trinity Hospital Twin City – Dennison. Bought by the Sisters of St. Francis of Sylvania in May 2011.
Closed hospitals
Mercy Hospital – Mt. Vernon (1919–1975). Owned by the Sisters of Charity of Nazareth. This hospital closed and merged with the local public hospital of Mt. Vernon.
Mercy Hospital – Portsmouth (1917–1981). This hospital was owned by the Sisters of St. Francis of the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes from Rochester, Minnesota. It was sold to the community hospital in the city.
San Antonio Hospital – Kenton (1897–1963). The Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati owned the facilities.
St. Anthony's Hospital – Columbus (1891–1991). Also operated by the Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis. The original building was razed in 1971 and was finally sold in 1991. It is now part of the Ohio State University hospital system.
St. Francis Hospital – Columbus (1862–1955). Operated by the Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis. The building was razed in 1957 and today it is the site of Grant Hospital.
Religious institutes
Religious men
Religious sisters
Bridgettine Sisters (Order of the Most Holy Savior) – Holy Family Church – Columbus
Carmelite Sisters for the Aged and Infirm – Columbus
Daughters of Holy Mary of the Heart of Jesus
Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist, St. Michael School – Worthington
Dominican Sisters of Peace – Columbus
Dominican Sisters of the Immaculate Conception – Columbus
Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity – Zanesville
Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary
Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (from Kerala) – St. Peter – Chillicothe
Leaven of the Immaculate Heart of Mary – Portsmouth
Little Servant Sisters of the Immaculate Conception – Columbus, St. John Paul II Education Center
Salesian Sisters of Don Bosco, St. Francis DeSales High School – Columbus
Sisters of Charity of Cincinnati – Columbus and Mount Vernon
Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur – Columbus
Sisters of the Good Shepherd – Columbus
Sisters of the Holy Cross – Columbus
Sisters of St. Francis of Penance and Christian Charity – Columbus
Third Order of St. Francis (Joliet) – Columbus
Catholic radio
Stations in the diocese
WFOT at 89.5 FM licensed to Lexington and serving the Mansfield area. Annunciation Radio airs programming from EWTN Global Catholic Radio. WFOT broadcasts as a simulcast of WNOC.
WVSG 820 AM Saint Gabriel Radio (the former WOSU (AM))
Other stations reaching the diocese
WNOP "Sacred Heart Radio" 720 AM licensed to Newport, Kentucky and based in Cincinnati which also airs local and EWTN programming...plus an FM sister, WHSS 89.5 in Hamilton.
WULM "Radio Maria" 1600 AM in Springfield Radio Maria USA is based at originating station KJMJ 580 AM in Alexandria, Louisiana.
Clergy abuse scandal
History
In 1993, Bishop Griffin removed Reverend Phillip Jacobs from his parish due to allegations that he had sexually abused a teenage boy. The boy's family requested that the police not be notified, but years later Griffin made the notification. When the Diocese of Victoria in British Columbia was considering hiring Jacobs, Griffin informed the diocese about the allegations against him. The Diocese of Victoria hired Jacobs anyway. In 2010, Jacobs was arrested in Victoria, British Columbia for sexual abuse of minors. Jacobs was convicted in 2013 and sentenced to five months of home detention.
In August 2018, Bishop Campbell and the diocese were named in a $2 million lawsuit by Kevin Heidtman, a former student at St. Charles Preparatory School in Columbus. Heidtman alleged that he was sexually molested on at least six occasions at the school by Reverend Thomas Bennett between 2002 and 2003. Bennett died in 2008. The lawsuit alleged that Campbell and the diocese became aware of Bennett's molestation of Heidtman, but failed to take any action. After Heidtman filed suit, two other students came forward with accusations again Bennett.
In March 2019, the diocese released a list of 36 clergy with credible accusations of sexual abuse of children, and updated the list to number nearly 50 in September of the same year In August 2020, the diocese paid a $1 million settlement to Heidtman.
Until 2020, the diocese was one of only three dioceses in the nation to have a priest serve as victim assistance coordinator. Victim advocates criticized this practice, saying it can re-traumatize survivors and discourage the reporting of abuse. The diocese hired an outside licensed counselor in July 2020, coinciding with the formation of a Safe Environment Task Force by Bishop Brennan.
List of credibly accused clergy
Living clergy with credible accusations
Deceased clergy with credible accusations
Living clergy with credible accusations from outside the diocese
Extern or religious clergy from outside the diocese with credible accusations
Extern or religious clergy from the diocese with credible accusations elsewhere
References
External links
Diocesan website
Columbus
Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of Cincinnati
Religious organizations established in 1868
Religion in Columbus, Ohio
Columbus
1868 establishments in Ohio |
4348176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross%20Sea%20party | Ross Sea party | The Ross Sea party was a component of Sir Ernest Shackleton's 1914–1917 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Its task was to lay a series of supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier from the Ross Sea to the Beardmore Glacier, along the polar route established by earlier Antarctic expeditions. The expedition's main party, under Shackleton, was to land near Vahsel Bay on the Weddell Sea on the opposite coast of Antarctica, and to march across the continent via the South Pole to the Ross Sea. As the main party would be unable to carry sufficient fuel and supplies for the whole distance, their survival depended on the Ross Sea party setting up supply depots, which would cover the final quarter of their journey.
Shackleton set sail from London on his ship , bound for the Weddell Sea in August 1914. Meanwhile, the Ross Sea party personnel gathered in Australia, prior to departure for the Ross Sea in the second expedition ship, . Organisational and financial problems delayed their start until December 1914, which shortened their first depot-laying season. After their arrival the inexperienced party struggled to master the art of Antarctic travel, in the process losing most of their sled dogs.
A greater misfortune occurred at the onset of the southern winter when the Aurora, locked in an ice-floe which broke off from the main shelf, was torn from its moorings. The ocean currents then took the ship further away from the sledding parties marooned on shore, and drifted for over six months before breaking free of the ice. The Auroras damaged rudder forced her to return to New Zealand rather than returning for the stranded shore party.
Despite these setbacks, the Ross Sea party survived inter-personnel disputes, extreme weather, illness, and the deaths of three of its members to carry out its mission in full during its second Antarctic season. This success proved ultimately without purpose, because Shackleton's main expedition was unable to land after Endurance was crushed in the Weddell Sea ice. Shackleton eventually led his men to safety, but the transcontinental march did not take place and the Ross Sea party's depots were not required.
The Ross Sea party remained stranded until January 1917, when Aurora, which had been repaired and refitted in New Zealand, arrived to rescue them. Public recognition of their efforts was slow in coming, but in due course four Albert Medals were awarded to members of the party, two posthumously. Shackleton later wrote that those who died "gave their lives for their country as surely as those who gave up their lives in France or Flanders."
Background
After the conquest of the South Pole by Roald Amundsen in December 1911, Shackleton, who had sought this achievement himself, was forced to rethink his polar ambitions. He believed that there remained "one great main objective of Antarctic journeyings—the crossing of the South Polar continent from sea to sea." Basing his strategy on plans developed earlier by the Scottish explorer William Spiers Bruce, Shackleton planned to land with his main party as far south as possible, on the Weddell Sea coast. His transcontinental team would then march southward to the Pole, before continuing across the polar plateau and descending via the Beardmore Glacier (which Shackleton had discovered in 1909) to the Great Ice Barrier. The final stretch would take them across the Barrier to McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea coast.
Shackleton estimated that the crossing would cover approximately , a distance too great for his party to carry all its supplies. In support of the main journey, therefore, a separate Ross Sea party would land in McMurdo Sound and would lay a series of supply depots across the width of the Barrier, to assist the crossing group home. It would also carry out scientific investigations. Shackleton described the depot-laying as vital to the success of the whole undertaking, but believed it would not present any great difficulties in execution. He would later provide the leader of his Ross Sea support party with conflicting instructions on the task; stating on one hand it was of "supreme importance" to have the depots laid, but on the other that he would be carrying what he described as "sufficient provisions and equipment" to cross Antarctica to McMurdo Sound.
In a letter of 18 September 1914, Shackleton stated that he did not want his support party to "have the anxiety of feeling" that he was absolutely dependent on the depots—"in case some very serious accident" incapacitated the depot-laying. The Ross Sea party's vessel would be , a ship recently used by Douglas Mawson and the Australasian Antarctic Expedition.
Personnel
To lead the Ross Sea party Shackleton chose Aeneas Mackintosh, having first attempted to persuade the Admiralty to provide him with a naval crew. Mackintosh, like Shackleton, was a former Merchant Navy officer, who had been on the Nimrod Expedition until his participation was cut short by an accident that resulted in the loss of his right eye.
Another Nimrod veteran, Ernest Joyce, whose Antarctic experiences had begun with Captain Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition, was appointed to take charge of sledging and dogs. Joyce was described by Shackleton's biographer, Roland Huntford, as "a strange mixture of fraud, flamboyance and ability", but his depot-laying work during the Nimrod Expedition had impressed Shackleton. On Nimrod, Joyce led the team that laid vital supplies for Shackleton's returning southern party, and Shackleton said "Joyce knows his work well". Ernest Wild, a Royal Naval petty officer, was added to the party possibly through the persuasion of his brother, Frank Wild, who was travelling as Shackleton's second-in-command on Endurance.
Some of the appointments to the party were made rather hurriedly, reflecting the limited time frame that Shackleton had allowed for preliminary organisation. Joseph Stenhouse, a young officer from the British India Steam Navigation Company, was appointed as the Auroras first officer after travelling from Australia to London to seek an interview with Shackleton. The Reverend Arnold Spencer-Smith, a Scottish Episcopal Church priest and former schoolmaster, joined as a replacement for one of the original members of the expedition who had left for active service in the First World War. Victor Hayward, a London finance clerk with a taste for adventure was recruited on the basis of his having worked on a ranch in Canada.
Although the Ross Sea party's main role was to lay supply depots, Shackleton added a small scientific team to carry out biological, meteorological and magnetic research in the region. The chief scientist in this group was Alexander Stevens, a Scots geologist and former theology student. John Cope, a 21-year-old Cambridge graduate, was the team's biologist; a would-be medical student, he later became ship's surgeon. Two other scientists were appointed in Australia, the physicist Dick Richards (who signed up for a nominal wage of £1 per week) and industrial chemist Keith Jack. An Australian cousin of Spencer-Smith's, Irvine Gaze, was taken on as a general assistant.
Problems in Australia
Mackintosh and the nucleus of the party arrived in Sydney, late in October 1914. They found that Aurora was in no condition for an Antarctic voyage, and required an extensive overhaul. The registration of the ship in Shackleton's name had not been properly completed, and Shackleton had evidently misunderstood the terms under which he had acquired the vessel from Mawson. Mawson had reclaimed much of the equipment and stores that had been aboard, all of which needed replacing. To compound the problem, Shackleton had reduced the funds available to Mackintosh from £2,000 to £1,000, expecting him to bridge the difference by soliciting for supplies as free gifts and by mortgaging the ship. There was no cash available to cover the wages and living expenses for the party.
Shackleton was now beyond reach, aboard Endurance en route for Antarctica. Supporters of the expedition in Australia, notably Edgeworth David who had served as chief scientist on the Nimrod Expedition, were concerned at the plight in which Mackintosh's party had been placed. They helped to raise sufficient funds to keep the expedition alive, but several members of the party resigned or abandoned the venture. Some of the last-minute replacements were raw recruits; Adrian Donnelly, a locomotive engineer with no sea experience, signed as second engineer, while wireless operator Lionel Hooke was an 18-year-old electrical apprentice.
Despite all these difficulties, Aurora set out from Sydney on 15 December 1914, bound for Hobart, where she arrived on 20 December to take on final stores and fuel. On 24 December, three weeks later than the original target sailing date, the Aurora finally sailed for the Antarctic, arriving off Ross Island on 16 January 1915. Mackintosh decided to establish a shore base at Cape Evans, Captain Robert Falcon Scott's headquarters during the 1910–1913 Terra Nova Expedition, and to find a safe winter mooring nearby for Aurora. Joyce called this decision of Mackintosh to winter the ship—which would have serious ramifications later on—as "the silliest damn rot that could have possibly occurred". It was the first of a number of decisions by Mackintosh that Joyce disagreed with.
First season, 1914–1915
Depot-laying, January–March 1915
Believing that Shackleton might attempt a crossing during the first season, Mackintosh decided that the first two depots had to be laid without delay, one at 79°S near Minna Bluff, a prominent Barrier landmark, and another further south at the 80° mark. These were, in his view, the minimum that would enable Shackleton's party to survive a crossing of the Barrier. The delayed arrival of Aurora in the Antarctic had given little time for acclimatisation for the dogs and for the untrained men, and this led to differences of view about how to proceed. Ernest Joyce, by far the most experienced Antarctic traveller in the party, favoured a cautious approach and wanted to delay the start by at least a week. Joyce claimed that Shackleton had given him independent control over sledging activities, a view rejected by Mackintosh and later demonstrated as without foundation.
Mackintosh's view having prevailed, on 24 January 1915 the first of three parties set out for the Barrier journey, the others following on the next day. Further dissension soon arose between Joyce and Mackintosh about how far south the dogs should be taken. Joyce wanted them to go no further than the Bluff, but Mackintosh's sense of urgency meant that they were taken on to 80°S. A further setback was the failure of the attempts to move stores by motor tractor. Although, ultimately, the depots were laid at Minna Bluff and at 80°S, the overall operation was beset by problems. Not all the stores had reached the depots, and, as well as the motor tractor failure, all ten dogs taken on the journey perished during the return.
By the time that all parties were reunited at Hut Point (Scott's old Discovery base at the edge of the Barrier) on 25 March, the men themselves were exhausted and frostbitten, and there was a significant loss of confidence in Mackintosh. The condition of the sea ice in McMurdo Sound made the journey back to Cape Evans impossible, so the party was stranded until 1 June, in spartan conditions and relying on seals for fresh meat and blubber fuel.
It was later revealed that this first depot-laying season, and its attendant hardships, had been unnecessary. Shackleton had stated, in a letter sent from South Georgia on 5 December 1914 (the date that Endurance left South Georgia for the Weddell Sea) to Ernest Perris of the Daily Chronicle, that he had "no chance of crossing that season". Mackintosh was to have been informed of this, but "the cable was never sent".
Loss of the Aurora
When Mackintosh departed on 25 January 1915 to lead the depot-laying parties he left the Aurora under the command of First Officer Joseph Stenhouse. The priority task for Stenhouse was to find a winter anchorage in accordance with Shackleton's instructions not to attempt to anchor south of the Glacier Tongue, an icy protrusion midway between Cape Evans and Hut Point. This search proved a long and hazardous process. Stenhouse manoeuvred in the Sound for several weeks before eventually deciding to winter close to the Cape Evans shore headquarters. After a final visit to Hut Point on 11 March to pick up four early returners from the depot-laying parties, he brought the ship to Cape Evans and made it fast with anchors and hawsers, thereafter allowing it to become frozen into the shore ice.
On the night of 7 May, a severe gale erupted, tearing the Aurora from its moorings and carrying it out to sea attached to a large ice floe. Attempts to contact the shore party by wireless failed. Held fast, and with its engines out of commission, the Aurora began a long drift northward away from Cape Evans, out of McMurdo Sound, into the Ross Sea and eventually into the Southern Ocean. Ten men were left stranded ashore at Cape Evans. Aurora finally broke free from the ice on 12 February 1916, and managed to reach New Zealand on 2 April.
Improvisation
Because Mackintosh had intended to use Aurora as the party's main living quarters, most of the shore party's personal gear, food, equipment and fuel was still aboard when the ship departed. Although the sledging rations intended for Shackleton's depots had been landed, the ten stranded men were left with "only the clothes on their backs". Mackintosh summarised their situation: "We have to face the possibility that we may have to stay here, unsupported, for two years. We cannot expect rescue before then, and so we must conserve and economize on what we have, and we must seek and apply what substitutes we can gather".
Their first recourse was to the food and materials from supplies left behind by Scott's and Shackleton's earlier expeditions. These supplies provided a harvest of material, which enabled clothing, footwear and equipment to be improvised, while the party used seal meat and blubber as extra sources of food and fuel. "Joyce's Famous Tailoring Shop" fashioned clothes from a large canvas tent abandoned by Scott's expedition. Even a brand of tobacco—"Hut Point Mixture"—was concocted by Ernest Wild from sawdust, tea, coffee and a few dried herbs. By these means the party equipped itself for the sledging journeys that lay ahead in the second season. On the last day of August, Mackintosh recorded in his diary the work that had been completed during the winter, and ended: "Tomorrow we start for Hut Point".
Second depot-laying season, 1915–1916
Journey to Mount Hope
The second season's work was planned in three stages. First, all depot stores— in total—were to be transferred from Cape Evans to Hut Point. These stores would then be transported from Hut Point to a base depot at Minna Bluff. Finally, a journey south would be made, to reinforce the 80° depot and lay new ones at 81°, 82°, 83°, and lastly at Mount Hope, near the foot of the Beardmore Glacier, at 83°30'.
Nine men in teams of three would undertake the sledging work. The first stage, hauling over the sea ice to Hut Point, started on 1 September 1915, and was completed without mishap by the end of the month. The second stage, hauling back and forth between Hut Point and the Bluff, proved more problematic, with unfavourable weather, a difficult Barrier surface, and more dissension between Mackintosh and Joyce over methods. This time, Mackintosh favoured man-hauling while Joyce wanted to use the four fit dogs—of the six dogs that had survived the winter, two were pregnant and could not work. Mackintosh allowed Joyce to proceed in his own way, leading a party of six with the dogs, while Mackintosh continued to man-haul with Wild and Spencer-Smith. Joyce's methods proved the more effective in terms of loads carried and the fitness of the men. The base depot at Minna Bluff was completed by 28 December.
Shortly after the main march to Mount Hope began, on 1 January 1916, the failure of a Primus stove led to three men (Cope, Jack and Gaze) returning to Cape Evans, where they joined Stevens. The scientist had remained at the base to take weather measurements and watch for the ship. The remaining six sledged south, with Spencer-Smith failing rapidly and Mackintosh complaining of a painful knee. They battled on, laying the depots, using only minimum provisions themselves although, at Joyce's insistence, keeping the dogs well-fed: "The dogs are our only hope; our lives depend on them." As they neared Mount Hope, Spencer-Smith collapsed, unable to proceed. The others left him alone in a small tent and travelled the remaining few miles to lay the final depot at Mount Hope on 26 January. Ernest Wild left a letter for his brother Frank who he assumed was by then travelling across from the Weddell Sea with Shackleton.
Return
The party turned for home on 27 January, picking up Spencer-Smith on 29th. He was by now physically helpless and had to be loaded on to the sledge. Mackintosh was soon unable to pull, and could only stagger along beside the sledge; by this time the de facto leadership of the group had passed to Joyce and Richards. Joyce described the group's plight: "I have never known such shocking conditions. This is one of the hardest pulls since we have trekked ... all we can do is to slog on with the greatest possible speed."
In spite of their difficulties the party made good progress until, on 17 February about short of the Bluff depot, they were halted by a blizzard. They remained tent-bound for five days, by which time their supplies had run out. In desperation the party left the tent the next day, but it soon proved impossible for Mackintosh and Spencer-Smith to travel further. Joyce, Richards and Hayward then sledged through the blizzard to the Bluff, leaving the invalids in a tent under the care of Wild. Three of the dogs, Con, Towser and Gunner had performed stoutly on the journey but were exhausted. The fourth dog Oscar was inclined to be lazy but "in the crisis the massive Oscar just lowered his great head and pulled as he never did when things were going well ... he alone gave that extra little strength that enabled us to finally make the depot."
This round trip of about took them a week to complete. They returned with food and fuel to sustain their comrades, and the march resumed. Within a short time Mackintosh joined Spencer-Smith on the sledge, and before long, Hayward too collapsed. The three men still on their feet were by now too weak to haul three invalids, so on 8 March Mackintosh volunteered to stay in the tent while the others attempted to take Spencer-Smith and Hayward to Hut Point. A day later Spencer-Smith died, utterly worn out by exhaustion and scurvy, and was buried in the ice. Joyce and Wild reached Hut Point with Hayward on 11 March and went back for Mackintosh. By 16 March, the whole surviving party had reached the hut.
From the start of the hauling of loads from Cape Evans on 1 September 1915 to the arrival of the survivors back at Hut Point, a total of 198 days had passed, the longest sledging journey in terms of elapsed time undertaken on any expedition up to that time.
Deaths of Mackintosh and Hayward
The five survivors slowly recovered their strength with a diet of seal meat. The ice was too thin for them to risk the final trip to Cape Evans, and the monotony of their diet and surroundings became wearisome. On 8 May, Mackintosh announced that he and Hayward intended to risk the ice and walk to Cape Evans. Against the strenuous objections of their companions they departed, and within the hour disappeared into a blizzard.
The others went to look for them after the storm and found only tracks leading to the edge of the broken ice. Mackintosh and Hayward were never seen again. They had either fallen through the thin ice or had been carried out to sea on an ice floe. Richards, Joyce and Wild waited until 15 July to make the trip to Cape Evans, where they were at last reunited with Stevens, Cope, Jack and Gaze.
Rescue
After Auroras arrival in New Zealand in April 1916, Stenhouse began the task of raising funds for the ship's repair and refit, prior to its return to Antarctica to rescue the marooned men. This proved difficult: nothing had been heard from Shackleton since Endurance had left South Georgia in December 1914, and it seemed likely that relief expeditions were necessary for both strands of the expedition. However, the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was completely out of funds, and there was no obvious alternative source of finance. Given the chaotic financial circumstances in which Aurora had departed from Australia, private subscribers were hard to find. Finally, the governments of Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain agreed jointly to fund the refit of Aurora, but insisted on their joint committee having full control of the relief expedition.
On 20 May, Shackleton arrived in South Georgia with the story of his escape after the loss of Endurance in the Weddell Sea. His first priority was to effect the rescue of the rest of the Weddell Sea party, stranded on Elephant Island, and it was early December before he arrived in New Zealand. He was too late to influence the organisation of the Ross Sea party's relief; the joint committee had appointed John King Davis to lead the expedition and had dismissed Stenhouse and Auroras other officers. Davis was a veteran of Mawson's recent Australasian expedition, and had turned down Shackleton's offers in 1914 of the command of either Endurance or Aurora. As a gesture, Shackleton was permitted to sail as a supernumerary officer when the ship left on 20 December. On 10 January 1917, when Aurora reached Cape Evans, the survivors were astonished to see Shackleton approaching them; they then learned for the first time the futility of their labours. After a further week spent in a vain search for the bodies of Mackintosh and Hayward, Aurora headed north for New Zealand, carrying the seven survivors of the original shore party.
Aftermath
The Hut Point and Cape Evans huts remain, protected by the Antarctic Heritage Trust and the New Zealand government. Within the Cape Evans hut an inscription by Richards on the wall near his bunk, listing the names of those lost, can still be read, but the generally deteriorating condition of the huts has caused concern.
The Aurora survived for less than a year after her final return from the Ross Sea. Shackleton had sold her for £10,000, and her new role was as a coal-carrier between Australia and South America. After leaving Newcastle, New South Wales on 20 June 1917, Aurora disappeared in the Pacific Ocean. On 2 January 1918, she was listed as missing by Lloyd's of London and presumed lost, having either foundered in a storm or been sunk by an enemy raider. Aboard her was James Paton of the Ross Sea ship's party, who was still serving as her boatswain. Ernest Wild was also a victim of the First World War. He died of typhoid in Malta, on 10 March 1918, while serving with the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean.
On 4 July 1923, Joyce and Richards were awarded Albert Medals by George V for their bravery and life-saving efforts during the second depot-laying journey. Wild and Victor Hayward received the same award, posthumously. Many of the survivors enjoyed long and successful careers. The young wireless operator, Lionel Hooke, joined Amalgamated Wireless Australasia Ltd and was responsible for many technological innovations. He became the company's managing director in 1945 and its chairman in 1962, having been knighted for services to industry in 1957. Of the four dogs who survived the trek, Con was killed by the other dogs in a fight before the rescue. The others, Oscar, Gunner and Towser, returned in the ship to New Zealand and were placed in Wellington Zoo, where Oscar lived, allegedly, to the age of 25. Near the end of his life Dick Richards, the last survivor of the party, was without regrets and did not regard the struggle as futile. Rather, he believed, it was something that the human spirit had accomplished, and that no undertaking carried through to conclusion was for nothing.
See also
List of Antarctic expeditions
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
Notes and references
Sources
External links
The Ross Sea party story at the State Library of Victoria
The Trans-Antarctic Expedition 1914–1917
Nova Online – Shackleton's Lost Men
Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition |
4348367 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923%20in%20baseball | 1923 in baseball |
Champions
World Series: New York Yankees over New York Giants (4–2)
Awards and honors
League Award
Babe Ruth, New York Yankees, OF
Statistical leaders
Major league baseball final standings
American League final standings
National League final standings
Negro leagues final standings
Negro National League final standings
†Memphis was not in the league but their games counted in the standings.
Eastern Colored League final standings
Events
January
January 3 – The New York Yankees selects two rookies from the Boston Red Sox; pitcher George Pipgras and outfielder Harvey Hendrick in exchange for backup catcher Al DeVormer. Then 27 days later, the Red Sox continue to feed the Yankees by sending them pitcher Herb Pennock for infielder Norm McMillan, outfielder Camp Skinner, pitcher George Murray, and $50,000 cash.
February
February 2 – Red Schoendienst is born in Germantown, Illinois. Primarily a second baseman, Schoendienst will hit .289 during a 19-year career with the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Giants and Milwaukee Braves. He will win election to the Hall of Fame in 1989.
February 20 – Christy Mathewson, along with Emil Fuchs, purchase the Boston Braves franchise for $300,000. Matthews is named as team president, though failing health reduces Matthewson's role to just a figurehead and he turns over the role of team president to Fuchs at the end of the season.
March
March 6 – The St. Louis Cardinals announce that their players will wear numerals on their uniforms and number them according to the batting order, but it does not happen this season.
March 8 – Pitcher Rube Benton is reinstated by Commissioner Landis even though Benton admitted to having prior knowledge regarding the 1919 world Series fix.
April
April 3 – Swede Risberg and Happy Felsch sue the Chicago White Sox seeking back salary and an addition $400,000 in damages. Though acquitted on charges they fixed the 1919 World Series, both players were banned for life.
April 7 – The longest National League opener (to date) took place with the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies battling head-to-head for a grueling, fourteen innings and a 5–5 tie.
April 18 – The New York Yankees defeat the Boston Red Sox, 4–1, in the very first game at old Yankee Stadium. In the third inning, Babe Ruth hits the stadium's first-ever home run, a shot off Howard Ehmke with Whitey Witt and Joe Dugan on base.
April 20 – In a 5–3 loss to the St. Louis Browns, Detroit Tigers future Hall of Famer Heinie Manush makes his major league debut, and hits a double in his only at-bat.
April 23 – The New York Yankees sign first baseman Lou Gehrig
May
May 2 – Washington Senators pitcher Walter Johnson gets his 100th career shutout and New York Yankees shortstop Everett Scott gets a gold medal from the American League for playing in his 1,000th consecutive game. Scott began his streak on June 20, 1916. Washington defeats the Yankees, 3–0, as Johnson allows just three hits.
May 11:
The Philadelphia Phillies and the St. Louis Cardinals bash a game-record 10 home runs, as the Phillies beat the Cardinals, 20–14. Cy Williams hit three homers with seven RBI for Philadelphia, while teammate Johnny Mokan adds two homers, a double, and seven RBI. Besides, Les Mann belts two homers for St. Louis‚ and losing pitcher Bill Sherdel connects one. Overall, 23 batters hit safely with the two teams combining for 79 total bases. Williams now has 12 home runs, which tops the Major Leagues.
In Pacific League action, Vernon Tigers outfielder Pete Schneider collects five home runs, including two grand slams and 14 runs batted in, in a 35–11 victory over the Salt Lake Bees. Vernon also adds a double that hits two feet from the top of the center field wall. A former Major League pitcher, Vernon won 20 games for the Cincinnati Reds in its 1917 season, while his five homers and 14 RBI, settled records in the Pacific League that still stands today.
May 12 – The St. Louis Browns sell the contract of pitcher Sloppy Thurston to the Chicago White Sox.
May 13 – Joe Sewell of the Cleveland Indians strikes out twice in one game for the first time in his career. Washington Senators rookie Cy Warmoth is the pitcher. In a 14-year career, Sewell will have only one other multiple strikeout game.
May 18 – Benny Bengough makes his major league debut for the New York Yankees in their 9–4 win over the St. Louis Browns. Bengough would serve as a back-up catcher on the Yankees 1927 Murders Row team.
May 19 – For the first time in major league history, brothers on opposite teams hit home runs in the same game. Boston Red Sox catcher Rick Ferrell homers off his brother Wes Ferrell in the second inning, but the Cleveland Indians pitcher returns the favor as he homers in the third on a pitch called by his sibling. It is the only time that the Ferrell brothers homer in the same game.
May 25 – Detroit Tigers legend Ty Cobb scored his 1,741 run to pass another legend, Pittsburgh Pirates' Honus Wagner. Cobb went on to hold ninety separate Major League records when he retired in 1928.
June
June 1 – Heinie Groh, Ross Youngs and Jimmie O'Connell collects five hits apiece, a first in the 20th century, as the New York Giants score in all nine innings, setting also a Major League record, while beating the Philadelphia Phillies 22–8 at Baker Bowl. It has been done only once since in the National League by the St. Louis Cardinals (September 13,‚1964), but never in the American League. O'Connell hit three doubles, one home run‚and a single in his five safeties, good for seven runs batted in. Pitcher Claude Jonnard is credited with the win.
June 3 – After pitching a complete game the day before, Detroit Tigers Herman Pillette relieves in the 8th inning against the Cleveland Indians with Detroit up, 7–5. Pillette allows both inherited runners to score, but the Tigers tally a run in the bottom of the 9th to give him his second win in two days.
June 7 – The Boston Braves trade Hank Gowdy and Mule Watson to the New York Giants in exchange for Earl Smith and Jesse Barnes.
June 15 – After going two-for-four with a double, two runs batted in and a run scored, New York Yankees star first baseman Wally Pipp is rested by manager Miller Huggins, allowing recently signed rookie Lou Gehrig to make his major league debut in the Yankees' 10–0 victory over the St. Louis Browns. Gehrig does not receive an at bat.
June 23 through July 22 – The Cleveland Indians play 31 consecutive home games against the other American League teams, finishing their homestand with a 16–15 record.
June 26 – Moe Berg, who would go on to be a spy for the United States during World War II, is signed by the Brooklyn Robins as a free agent.
July
July 2 – Already down 7–0 to the St. Louis Browns, future Hall of Fame pitcher Ted Lyons makes his major league debut with the Chicago White Sox, and throws a perfect inning.
July 7 – In the first game of a double header at Dunn Field, the Cleveland Indians set an American League record after scoring in every inning against the Boston Red Sox. The feat was completed in eight innings (the home team did not bat in the ninth). The Indians collected 24 hits and 14 walks, while scoring 13 runs in the sixth inning for an embarrassing 27–3 victory. Cleveland win the second game as well, 8–5.
July 10 – In a doubleheader, St. Louis Cardinals rookie pitcher Johnny Stuart hurled two complete game victories over the Boston Braves, winning by scores of 11–1 and 6–3, while allowing three hits in the opener and 10 in the nightcap.
July 11 – Harry Frazee, owner of the Boston Red Sox since 1916, sells the club for over $1 million to a group of Ohio businessmen. Veteran front office man Bob Quinn will run the Red Sox, and as team president he will work to restore the credibility of a franchise whose best players had been sold off by Frazee over the years.
July 22 – Walter Johnson of the Washington Senators founds the 3,000 strikeout club.
July 24 – New York Yankees pitcher Carl Mays beats the Philadelphia Athletics at Shibe Park, 9–2, setting an American League record with his 24th straight win. This also matches the Major League high of Christy Mathewson, who won 24 consecutive games in the National League.
August
August 3 – All Major League Baseball games are postponed after the sudden death of U.S. President Warren G. Harding the night before.
August 4 – Travis Jackson drives in eight runs on four hits to lead the New York Giants to a 14–4 victory over the Cincinnati Reds.
August 13 – Pittsburgh Pirates outfielder Max Carey steals second base, third base and home plate against the Brooklyn Robins. Carey will again lead the National League with 51 stolen bases and, equally fleet in the field, will garner 450 putouts and 28 assists in the season. Besides, Carey becomes the first outfielder in the majors to catch 400 or more putouts six times. Richie Ashburn will later do it nine times.
August 15 – Washington Senators left-hander George Mogridge becomes the only pitcher in Major League history to steal home in extra innings, when he scores an insurance run in the 12th in a 5–1 win over the Chicago White Sox at Comiskey Park.
August 17 – The New York Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns at Sportsman's Park, 5–4. Babe Ruth hits his 31st home run in the 1st inning and adds a double in the 8th. After 111 games, Ruth is batting .401. He will wind up with his highest average at .393, leading the American League with 205 hits, 41 homers, 151 runs, a Major League record 170 walks, and will reach base a record 379 times en route to the AL MVP Award.
September
September 4 – Sad Sam Jones pitches a no-hitter for the New York Yankees in a 2–0 win over the Philadelphia Athletics.
September 7 – Boston Red Sox pitcher Howard Ehmke tosses a no-hitter in a 4–0 win over the Philadelphia Athletics, marking the second time in four days Philadelphia is no-hit.
September 14 – Boston Red Sox first baseman George Burns completed the third unassisted triple play in Major League Baseball history during the second inning of a game against the Cleveland Indians, as he gathered in a Frank Brower line drive, tags Rube Lutzke coming from first base, and beat Riggs Stephenson while returning to second. Boston wins, 2–0.
September 16 – A riot broke out at Wrigley Field after umpire Charley Moran made an out call at second base on Chicago Cubs' Sparky Adams. Commissioner Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis was in attendance and shook his cane at the angry mob, as Moran and the other officials were pelted by hundreds of empty bottles. After holding up play for over fifteen minutes, the game resumed with the visiting New York Giants winning, 10–6.
September 17 – George Kelly of the New York Giants sets a major-league record by hitting home runs in three consecutive innings (3rd, 4th and 5th) against Chicago Cubs pitcher Vic Aldridge, as New York rolls to a 13–6 win. Kelly adds a single and double to run his total bases to 15 for the game. Kelly has now hit a record six homers off cousin Aldridge this year, a mark off one pitcher that will be tied by Ted Williams in the 1941 season, off Johnny Rigney, and Ted Kluszewski in 1954, off Max Surkont.
September 24 – Future Hall of Famer Bill Terry makes his major league debut with the New York Giants in a 6–3 loss to the Cincinnati Reds.
September 28 – The New York Yankees defeat the Boston Red Sox by a difference of twenty runs at Fenway Park, 24–4.
September 29 – Future Hall of Famer Hack Wilson makes his major league debut for the New York Giants in a 5–1 loss to the Brooklyn Dodgers.
October
October 6 – In the fourth inning of the second game of a doubleheader, Boston Braves shortstop Ernie Padgett turns the fourth unassisted triple play in Major League history in a 4–1 Braves win over the Philadelphia Phillies.
October 10 – Game One of the 1923 World Series is won by the New York Giants on a ninth inning inside-the-park home run by Casey Stengel.
October 11 – The New York Yankees win their first World Series game against the New York Giants in nine tries on two home runs by Babe Ruth. Going back to the 1921 World Series, they were 0-8-1, with a tie game in the 1922 World Series.
October 12 – A solo home run by Casey Stengel in the seventh inning is the only run of the third game of the World Series.
October 13 – The Yankees get off to an 8–0 lead in game four of the World Series, and win it, 8–3.
October 14 – Joe Dugan hits the second inside-the-park home run of the World Series, as the Yankees defeat the Giants, 8–1.
October 15 – The New York Yankees defeat the New York Giants, 4–2, in Game 6 of the World Series to win their first World Championship, four games to two. The Yankees opened their new Yankee Stadium in April making it the third time that a team had inaugurated a new stadium with a World Series win. The three consecutive matchups between the Yankees and Giants (1921–1923) marked the only time, to date, that three straight World Series featured the same two clubs.
November
November 12 – New York Giants owner and manager John McGraw trades outfielders Casey Stengel and Bill Cunningham along with shortstop Dave Bancroft to the Boston Braves in exchange for pitchers Joe Oeschger and Bill Southworth.
December
December 11 – Pitcher Carl Mays is purchased by the Cincinnati Reds from the New York Yankees.
December 13 – Boston Braves acquire second baseman Cotton Tierney from the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for shortstop Hod Ford and outfielder Ray Powell, who is later replaced by outfielder Al Nixon.
December 16 – The Eastern Colored League is formed with Ed Bolden serving as chairman.
Births
January
January 3 – John André
January 5 – Johnny Ritchey
January 6 – Red Hardy
January 8 – Ray Flanigan
January 11 – Frank Fanovich
January 14 – Ken Johnson
January 16 – Dick Sipek
January 20 – Elizabeth Emry
January 23 – Cot Deal
January 30 – Walt Dropo
February
February 2 – Red Schoendienst
February 3 – Edith Barney
February 5 – Chuck Diering
February 16 – Ribs Raney
February 17 – Dorothy Ferguson
February 17 – Bill Sommers
February 19 – Russ Sullivan
February 20 – Walter McCoy
February 22 – Anne Surkowski
February 26 – Jean Ladd
March
March 3 – Barney Martin
March 7 – Bobo Holloman
March 17 – Pat Seerey
March 21 – Jim Hughes
March 21 – Merle Keagle
March 22 – George Crowe
March 23 – Barney Koch
March 24 – Zander Hollander
April
April 7 – Lois Barker
April 9 – Josephine Figlo
April 11 – Scott Cary
April 14 – Alonzo Perry
April 17 – Solly Hemus
April 20 – Philomena Gianfrancisco
April 20 – Preston Gómez
April 23 – Daniel Donahue
April 23 – Alice Haylett
April 23 – Sammy Meeks
April 27 – Kite Thomas
April 28 – Dolores Klosowski
May
May 1 – Kay Blumetta
May 5 – Jim Kirby
May 6 – Earl Turner
May 11 – Louise Arnold
May 12 – Ed Lyons
May 15 – Dale Matthewson
May 18 – Don Lund
May 20 – José Zardón
May 21 – Alta Little
May 23 – Jerry McCarthy
May 28 – Bob Kuzava
June
June 3 – Elma Steck
June 8 – Hal Kleine
June 11 – Jerre DeNoble
June 16 – Allie Clark
June 23 – Pablo García
June 24 – Mel Hoderlein
June 25 – Barney White
June 27 – Gus Zernial
July
July 7 – Ed Sanicki
July 7 – Joe Smaza
July 15 – Bruce Edwards
July 15 – Marion Fricano
July 16 – Len Okrie
July 18 – Lorraine Borg
July 21 – Paul Burris
July 23 – Luis Aloma
July 26 – Leo Thomas
July 27 – Ray Boone
July 30 – Paul Minner
August
August 1 – George Bamberger
August 9 – George Vico
August 10 – Gary Gearhart
August 10 – Pete Gebrian
August 10 – Bob Porterfield
August 17 – Tom Clyde
August 17 – Duke Markell
August 21 – Hilly Flitcraft
August 27 – Don Grate
September
September 17 – Les Peden
September 17 – Bob Rothel
September 18 – Joe Tepsic
September 22 – Tom Wright
September 23 – Dorothy Collins
September 24 – Geraldine Guest
September 26 – Elsie Wingrove
October
October 3 – Joanne Overleese
October 10 – Saul Rogovin
October 11 – Martha Haines
October 25 – Russ Meyer
October 25 – Bobby Thomson
October 26 – Tommy Glaviano
October 28 – Thelma Grambo
October 29 – John Mackinson
November
November 9 – Ted Sepkowski
November 10 – Cal Ermer
November 11 – Lee Howard
November 17 – Mike Garcia
November 18 – Roy Wise
November 24 – Danny Ozark
November 25 – Archie Wilson
November 27 – Bob Schultz
December
December 4 – Dick Strahs
December 5 – Eleanor Dapkus
December 8 – Stan Landes
December 13 – Larry Doby
December 14 – Paul LaPalme
December 15 – Bill Bonness
December 19 – Vern Freiburger
December 20 – Grant Dunlap
December 22 – Bob Hall
December 28 – Tony Daniels
December 28 – Don Thompson
December 30 – Harry Elliott
Deaths
January–February
January 1 – Willie Keeler, 50, Hall of Fame right fielder and prolific bunter who compiled a .341 lifetime batting average, two National League batting champion titles, batted over .370 from 1894–99, including a .424 mark and record 44-game hitting streak for 1897 Orioles, while leading the league in singles seven times, hits three times and runs once, ranking second all-time in hits and runs upon retirement.
January 22 – Fred Cooke, 49, outfielder for the 1897 Cleveland Spiders of the National League.
January 25 – Nick Wise, 56, catcher/outfielder for the 1888 Boston Beaneaters of the National League.
January 28 – John Meister, 59, infield/outfield utility for the New York Metropolitans of the American Association during the 1886–1887 seasons.
February 4 – George Tebeau, 61, outfielder nicknamed ″White Wings″ for his blazing speed, who hit .269 and stole 228 bases in 627 games for four teams, and later became the owner of the Kansas City Blues American Association franchise.
February 17 – George Meakim, 57, pitcher who played between 1890 and 1895 with the Louisville Colonels, Chicago Colts, Philadelphia Athletics and Cincinnati Reds.
February 28 – Jim Britt, 67, pitcher who played from 1872 to 1873 for the Brooklyn Atlantics of the National Association.
March–April
March 3 – Harry Clarke, 62, right fielder for the 1889 Washington Nationals of the National League.
March 3 – Ducky Hemp, 60, outfielder for the Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Alleghenys and Stars between 1887 and 1890.
March 15 – Pete Wood, 56, Canadian-born pitcher for the Buffalo Bisons in 1885 and the Philadelphia Quakers in 1889.
March 15 – Goat Anderson, 43, outfielder for the 1907 Pittsburgh Pirates.
March 17 – Mortimer Hogan, 61, outfielder for the Milwaukee Brewers, New York Metropolitans and Cleveland Blues between 1884 and 1888.
April 10 – Jay Faatz, 62, first baseman for three teams, who also played and managed for the 1890 Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League in the 1890 season.
April 10 – Jim Gill, 57, second baseman/centerfielder for the 1889 St. Louis Browns of the American Association.
April 13 – Gene Krapp, 35, pitcher who played with the Cleveland Naps of the American League (1911–1912) and the Buffalo Buffeds/Blues of the Federal League (1914–1915).
April 20 – Jack Lynch, 66, pitcher who posted a 110–105 record and a 3.69 ERA in 221 games for three teams, and a member of the New York Metropolitans team who won the American Association pennant in 1884.
April 21 – Joe Ellick, 69, right fielder for four different teams and a player/manager for the Chicago Browns/Pittsburgh Stogies of the Union Association in 1884; later, umpired in the National League (1886) and American Association (1888–1889).
April 27 – Paul Sentell, 43, infielder who played from 1906 to 1907 for the Philadelphia Phillies.
May–June
May 23 – Willard Mains, 54, pitcher who posted a 16–17 record and a 3.53 ERA in parts of four seasons for the Chicago White Stockings, Cincinnati Kelly's Killers, Milwaukee Brewers and Boston Beaneaters.
June 3 – Harry Billiard, 39, pitcher who played with the New York Highlanders (1908), Indianapolis Hoosiers (1914) and Newark Pepper (1915).
June 10 – Bill Annis, 66, outfielder for the 1884 Boston Beaneaters of the National League.
June 11 – George Hall, 74, British-born outfielder who played from 1866 through 1877 for nine different teams, while hitting a .322 average in 365 career games and leading the National League in home runs in 1876.
June 12 – Cliff Carroll, 63, outfielder who hit a .251 average in 991 games for six different teams between 1882 and 1893.
June 19 – Tom Jones, 46, first baseman who hit .251 with 964 hits and 135 stolen bases for three American League teams between 1902 and 1910.
June 21 – Claude Elliott, 46, pitcher who played from 1904 to 1905 for the Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants.
June 21 – Bill Grevell, 25, pitcher for the 1919 Philadelphia Athletics of the American League.
July–August
July 10 – Joe Stabell, [?], outfielder for the 1885 Buffalo Bisons of the National League.
July 19 – Nate Kellogg, 64, shortstop who played briefly for the 1885 Detroit Wolverines of the National League.
August 15 – Marty Hogan, 53, British-born outfielder who played from 1894 through 1895 for the Cincinnati Reds and St. Louis Browns of the National League.
August 16 – Bill Day, 56, pitcher for the Philadelphia Quakers/Phillies and the Pittsburgh Alleghenys of the National League from 1889 to 1890.
August 16 – Jim Scoggins, 32, pitcher for the 1913 Chicago White Sox of the American League.
August 22 – Jay Budd, 57, left fielder who played one game in 1890 for the Cleveland Infants of the short-lived Players' League.
August 29 – Jocko Milligan, 62, catcher/first baseman who played from 1884 to 1893 for six National League teams, most prominently with the Philadelphia Athletics.
September–October
September 1 – Frank McManus, 48, catcher who played between 1899 and 1904 with the Washington Senators and Brooklyn Superbas of the National League and the Detroit Tigers and New York Highlanders of the American League.
September 3 – Jack Barnett, 43, backup outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1907 season.
September 5 – Dots Miller, 36, infielder who spent twelve seasons with the Pittsburgh Pirates, St. Louis Cardinals and Philadelphia Phillies, and a member of the Pittsburgh team that won the National League pennant and defeated the Detroit Tigers in the 1909 World Series.
September 9 – George Keerl, 76, second baseman for the 1875 Chicago White Stockings of the National League.
September 18 – General Stafford, 55, versatile fielder who played over 100 games at three different positions for five teams, and a member of the 1898 National League Champion Boston Beaneaters.
October 21 – Biff Sheehan, 55, outfielder/first baseman for the St. Louis Browns of the National League during the 1895 and 1896 seasons.
October 22 – Warren McLaughlin, 47, pitcher who played for the Philadelphia Phillies and Pittsburgh Pirates between 1900 and 1903.
October 29 – Jack Nabors, 35, pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics of the American League from 1915 to 1917, who lost 19 consecutive decisions in 1916 to set a major league record that has never been matched.
October 29 – Jimmy Ryan, 60, center fielder for five teams between 1895 and 1903; a .306 career hitter who led the National League in hits, home runs, doubles and slugging in 1888; recovered from a serious injury in 1893 train wreck to hit .361 the next year, and finished third all-time in hits, fourth in runs and home runs upon retirement.
November–December
November 5 – Buck Becannon, 64, pitcher who played from 1884 to 1885 for the New York Metropolitans of the American Association and with the 1887 New York Giants of the National League.
November 12 – Mark Polhemus, 63, outfielder who played in 1887 with the Indianapolis Hoosiers of the Union Association.
November 16 – Fred House, 33, pitcher who posted a 1–2 record and a 5.20 ERA for the Detroit Tigers in 1913.
November 19 – Frank Pears, 57, pitcher for the 1889 Kansas City Cowboys of the American Association and the 1893 St. Louis Browns of the National League.
December 9 – Wild Bill Donovan, 47, pitcher who had 25-win seasons with 1901 Brooklyn and 1907 Detroit teams; later managed Highlanders and Phillies
References |
4348432 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne%20Krug | Champagne Krug | Krug Champagne is a Champagne house founded by Joseph Krug in 1843. It is based principally in Reims, the main city in France's Champagne region and is one of the famous Champagne houses that formed part of the Grandes marques. Today the house is majority owned by the multinational conglomerate LVMH Moët Hennessy – Louis Vuitton S.E. whose portfolio includes other well known wine brands such as Moët & Chandon, Veuve Clicquot, Château d'Yquem and Ruinart. Despite LVMH's majority ownership, the Krug family is still actively involved in all the key decisions of the house but does not manage the day-to-day operations.
History
Joseph Krug founded the House of Krug in 1843. He was born Johann-Joseph Krug, a butcher's son, in Mainz, on the Rhine, in 1800, at a time when the city was part of the Napoleonic Empire. Having dispensed with the name Johann, he left Mainz in 1824 and by 1834 he was in Paris. Germans were then much in demand in France as accountants and book-keepers and, as such, Joseph joined Champagne Jacquesson in Châlons-sur-Marne.
He spent eight years with Jacquesson, with his work taking him beyond accountancy as he went on the road around Europe testing the market and assessing criticism from wine sellers and customers. He learned about composition and taste so that by 1840 he already seems to have been blending Champagne for at least one other house. In 1841 he married Emma-Anne Jaunay, the daughter of a French hotelier based in London's Leicester Square, and an English mother. The following year their son, Paul Krug, was born. In 1842 came the move to Reims and, following a year of negotiations, Krug et Cie. was founded in 1843 with sleeping partner Hyppolite de Vivès. Joseph was also fluent in French, English and German and spoke some Russian, putting the company in position to exploit key overseas markets.
Joseph died in 1866 and was succeeded by his son Paul Krug, who had been trained by his father for the business in France and abroad. Joseph had laid the foundations and under the supervision of Paul the House was established as a grande marque. By the 1880s the prestige of Krug was acknowledged in the United Kingdom, then the primary overseas market for Champagne. In 1866 the House moved into the premises in Rue Coquebert, in Reims, that it still occupies.
After Paul's death in 1910, he was succeeded by his son, Joseph Krug II. However, during World War I Joseph II was taken prisoner and his wife Jeanne played a key role in the House, at a time when the Western Front divided the region between the Allies and the Germans. After the war, Joseph II's slow recovery led to his nephew Jean Seydoux becoming joint manager in 1924. In that decade, too, the Krug 1926 and 1928 vintages were created, which have been considered by critics to be amongst the greatest Champagnes. The lawyer and wine writer Maurice Healey observed in 1940 that "Krug holds my allegiance as the king of them all; my recollection does not go beyond the Krug 1919, but that was truly an excellent wine. And Krug 1928 must be the best wine made in the present century."
By the mid-1930s, Paul Krug II, the son of Joseph II, was active in the business and would go on to become head of the House from 1959 to 1977. His father died in 1967, by which time he was, according to Patrick Forbes, "one of the most popular and respected figures in the Champagne district".
In 1962 Henri Krug, the son of Paul II, joined the management, as did his brother Remi three years later. Their arrival was followed by a series of innovations, including extensions in the range of Champagnes. In 1979, for the first time, a graduate winemaker joined the House. In January 1999 the House became part of LVMH and by 2007, the brothers, while remaining on the tasting committee, had stepped down from day-to-day responsibilities. In 2009 Olivier Krug, the son of Henri, became House director.
In 2022, Ryuchi Sakamoto released a symphony, “Suite for Krug in 2008”, about his experiences tasting Krug champagne in 2008.
Champagnes
Krug produces mainly Krug Grande Cuvée, supplemented by a non-vintage rosé, a vintage blanc, a vintage blanc de blancs from the Clos du Mesnil in the Cotes de Blancs, a vintage blanc de noirs from the Clos d'Ambonnay and older vintages released as Krug Collection series.
On the nose, Krug is characterized by toasted, grilled, pastry or almond notes born from at least 6 years of ageing sur lies. On the palate, Krug is characterized by notes of fresh fruit, particularly citrus, and a freshness linked to grape selection. Krug does not suppress malolactic fermentation nor does it provoke it, with the majority of its wines not undergoing the process. Its wines are almost invariably dry (never more than 6.5g/L residual sugar).
The Krug line-up of Champagnes currently includes:
Krug Grande Cuvée
Krug Rosé
Krug Vintage 2000, Krug Vintage 2003 and Krug Vintage 2004
Krug Collection 1989
Krug Clos du Mesnil 2000 and Krug Clos du Mesnil 2003
Krug Clos d'Ambonnay 1998 and Krug Clos d'Ambonnay 2000
Krug Grande Cuvée (non-vintage) A blend of over 120 wines coming from ten or more different vintages – some up to fifteen years in age – and three grape varieties (Pinot noir, Chardonnay and Pinot Meunier) from numerous vineyards. It is re-created on a yearly basis. It is distinguished by its deep golden color and fine bubbles. In total, about twenty years are required to create a bottle of Krug Grande Cuvée, including at least six years during which the bottle sits in the Krug cellars.
Krug Rosé is described by the House as a gastronomic Champagne. The fruit of an experiment carried out by Henri and Rémi Krug in the 1970s, the first bottles of Krug Rosé were presented for tasting in 1983, 140 years after the company's founding. Krug Rosé is a blend of three grape varieties, several different vintages from Krug's library of 150 reserve wines and a skin-fermented Pinot noir wine which gives it its color and unique flavor. Krug Rosé spends at least five years in the House's cellars. It is re-created on a yearly basis.
Krug Vintage is, according to the House, "not the selection of the best wines of a particular year, but rather the expression of that year according to Krug." Composed only of wines from a single year, Krug Vintage sits in Krug's cellars for at least a decade before release. The 2000 vintage was born of the House's desire to create a vintage for the last year of the millennium.
In the early 1980s, Krug introduced Krug Collection, an extension of Krug Vintage, consisting of bottles that have been kept in the House's cellars in Reims for at least ten additional years to allow the development of second-life aromas and flavours. The current offering is Krug Collection 1989. It is the first vintage from the trilogy of 1988, 1989 and 1990 to be released as part of Krug Collection, preceding 1988 upon the House's decision.
Krug Clos du Mesnil comes from a single plot (known as a clos in French) of Chardonnay: a 1.84-hectare vineyard protected by walls since 1698 in the centre of Mesnil-sur-Oger, a village in the Champagne region of France. It comes from a single year and is kept in Krug's cellars for over a decade.
Krug Clos d'Ambonnay also comes from a single year, and its grapes from a single 0.68-hectare walled plot of Pinot noir in the heart of Ambonnay, another village in France's Champagne region that plays a key role in Champagne making. Bottles are aged for over twelve years in Krug's cellars and are rare due to the small size of the vineyard.
Winemaking
Krug utilizes all three Champagne varieties in their wines, Chardonnay, Pinot noir, and Pinot Meunier. For their two single vineyard vintages, Krug Clos du Mesnil is made in the Blanc de blancs style, completely from Chardonnay, while Krug Clos d'Ambonnay is made exclusively from Pinot noir.
The winemaking process at Krug begins with the individual selection of each plot of vines and continues with the initial vinification of the grapes from each plot in wooden casks, which – unlike tanks – are small enough to give the House the flexibility to hold a single plot's wine and therefore avoid pre-mature blending. In the event that a plot's wine is not up to the required level, it will leave the house as a bulk, never again to be labelled a Krug base wine.
Pressing and initial fermentation
Immediately following the harvest, the grapes are pressed close to Krug's plots, with this first grape juice kept for 24 hours in a vat in preparation for the fermentation stage.
The pressing from each plot is vinified separately. A pressing contains 4,000 kg of grapes and yields 20.5 hectolitres of first juice (the "cuvée"), which is poured into twelve oak casks chosen at random. Once fermentation is complete, the eleventh and twelfth casks are used to top up the other ten casks to protect the new wines from oxidation. For fifteen days, each cask is topped up with wine from the same plot.
Krug uses small 205-litre oak casks tailor-made from trees that are more than two centuries old in the forests of Hautes Futaies in Central France. Krug never use these casks immediately; during the first two or three years, they receive only second and third grape juices, with the goal of "tanning" the casks through the fermentation process, ridding them naturally of their woody aromas, making them well-seasoned and organoleptically inert. The average age of Krug oak casks is 20 years. They are retired after approximately 40 years of use.
During the summer preceding the harvest, casks are regularly watered to humidify the wood, a process Krug deems essential as its wines are not wood-aged and its casks are therefore empty for eight to nine months of the year.
The wines remain in the casks for several weeks. During this period, clarification occurs naturally from the cool temperature of the cellar given the coming winter, as does a micro-oxygenation process from the use of natural containers, making the wine more resistant to oxygen over time. Finally, between December and January, the wine is drawn off into small stainless-steel vats. From here, depending on the decisions of Krug's tasting committee, the wines will either contribute to that year's assemblage or be stored in steel vats in the House's library of 150 reserve wines to be used in the blend of a future Krug Grande Cuvée and Krug Rosé.
Tasting committee and assemblage
Over a period of five months in autumn and winter, the base wines and the reserve wines are tasted by the members of the tasting committee, composed of five permanent members (Olivier Krug, representing the sixth generation of the Krug family; Eric Lebel, Krug cellar master and winemaker; Julie Cavil and Raphaele Leon-Grillon, who make up the Krug winemaking team; and Laurent Halbin, head of winemaking operations) and two members present according to their availability (Rémi and Maggie Henriquez, President and CEO of Krug).
At each session, between 15 and 18 samples are blind tasted, commented on and scored. During the tasting period, wine from each plot is carefully referenced, tasted at least two or three times and given a mark out of 20. By the end of December, the tasting committee establishes what Krug calls a "character sketch" of the year and begins tasting the 150 reserve wines from which it will draw the missing elements needed to re-create the character of Krug Grande Cuvée year after year.
In the spring, a second tasting session of wines from the year reveals how the wines have evolved over the winter period. Eric Lebel then proposes up to three blends for the Champagnes of that year, with each member of the committee having one vote. Once the blend has been decided, the House prepares for bottling which takes place once a year between April and May.
Cellars
All Krug Champagnes are bottled during a single session, thirty weeks after the harvest. Once bottled, they are kept in the House's cellars in Reims. Krug characterizes this final stage of its winemaking process by very extended aging on the lees. Indeed, Krug's main champagne, Krug Grande Cuvée stays in the cellars for at least six years, Krug Rosé for five years, and Krug Vintage, Krug Clos du Mesnil and Krug Clos d'Ambonnay for at least ten years.
Vineyards
The House owns 30% of the vineyards that produce its wines – a relatively high percentage in Champagne-making – with 20 hectares of vines in Ambonnay, Aÿ, Le Mesnil and Trépail. It obtains the rest of its grapes from long-term contract growers for a total of 250 plots selected from the 270,000 listed in France's Champagne region. Seventy to one hundred winegrowers currently work with Krug, providing 65% to 70% of the company's grapes. Additionally, because Krug preserves the individual character of each wine, winegrowers are able to taste each of the wines selected from their plots and follow their evolution over time in the event that their wines are selected as Krug reserve wines.
Clos du Mesnil
In 1971, Rémi and Henri Krug purchased six hectares of vines around the renowned Chardonnay village of Mesnil-sur-Oger. Upon their initial visit, they discovered that their purchase included a walled vineyard of a mere 1.85 acres located in the heart of the village and bearing an inscription: "In the year 1698, this wall was built by Claude Jannin and Pierre Dehée Metoen and in the same year the vines were planted by Gaspard Jannin, son of Claude."
Krug stresses that the wall and unusual location in the center of the village create a micro-climate that accords a unique character to its grapes. It was for this reason that the House was inspired to devote a Champagne to a single plot for the first time in its history, resulting in Krug Clos du Mesnil 1979, presented in 1986.
Clos d'Ambonnay
Following Krug Clos du Mesnil, Rémi and Henri Krug turned their attention to Pinot noir grapes, in particular those from Ambonnay, a grand cru known for its Pinot noir that had been a main source of supply for Krug since its founding. In 1991, after seven years of searching, they found a walled plot of just 0.68 hectares on the edge the village, on the south-eastern slope of the Montagne de Reims. Like the Clos du Mesnil, the plot was also surrounded by protective walls, which date back to the year 1766, although in this case the vineyard itself was not planted until the 20th century. Krug purchased the land in 1994 and released its first vintage – Krug Clos d'Ambonnay 1995 – in 2007.
Marketing
LVMH, Paris, selected ceft and company new york, to create a global communications campaign for Krug Champagne. The campaign featured Jean Nouvel, Anjelica Huston, Buzz Aldrin, and David Lynch. The campaign won a gold award at the World Luxury Awards in Monaco.
Krug Lovers
In 2011, Krug launched a community of Krug aficionados who share a love for Krug. The House-created program offers a platform for stories, inspirations and favorite getaways and is open to the public via registration on the Krug.com website. The program features member profiles and their collaborations with Krug, such as a drawing created by Italian illustrator Gianluca Biscalchin following Krug's Grand Musée de Beaux-Arts event, the Krug Room at the Mandarin Oriental Hong Kong from chef Uwe Opocensky, or a series of photographs by Dutch artist Scarlett Hooft Graafland, commissioned by Krug.
Krug ID
Since summer 2011, all bottles of Krug Champagne feature a KRUG ID located on the left-hand side of the back label. This six-digit number – with the first digit indicating the quarter in which the bottle left Krug's cellars and the following two digits indicating the year – serves as a reference for wine collectors and a portal to further information about that particular bottle.
For Krug Grande Cuvées, the KRUG ID reveals the oldest and youngest wines that went into the making of the bottle, as well as the details and challenges of that particular season. For other Krug cuvees, the KRUG ID recounts the story of the year, the objectives behind the creation of the specific bottle or the behavior of the plots.
Burning Man controversy
In 2011, Krug, with the Silkstone events agency, shot a marketing campaign at the Burning Man festival in Nevada. Festival-goers were told they were attending a birthday party, but were filmed and photographed as part of this campaign. The Burning Man organization posted an exposé on their blog, rebuking Krug for breaking many rules of the festival both in letter and spirit, including product placement, photography for commercial gain and leaving behind a mess. Members of the Burning Man community denounced the campaign and Krug in various social media.
See also
List of Champagne houses
References
Further reading
Arlott, John. Krug, House of Champagne; illustrations by Timothy Jaques. London: Davis-Poynter, 1976 , 224p.
Krug, Henri et Rémi. L'Art du Champagne. Paris: R. Laffont, 1979 , 233p.
Rougemont, Maurice. Gestes de Krug. Reims: Krug, 1993, 51p.
External links
Krug official site
Krug
Krug
LVMH brands
French brands
1843 establishments in France
Comité Colbert members |
4348490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20Fuchs | Kenneth Fuchs | Kenneth Daniel Fuchs (born July 1, 1956) is a Grammy Award-winning American composer. He currently serves as Professor of Music Composition at the University of Connecticut in Storrs.
Music
Kenneth Fuchs is the first living American composer recorded by the Sinfonia of London and its conductor, John Wilson (conductor). In July 2023, Chandos Records released Cloud Slant, Orchestral Works, Volume 1, which includes two works for full orchestra, a composition for strings, and a concerto for C and alto flute, performed by Adam Walker (flautist).
Fuchs recorded for Naxos five albums with the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta, the last of which won the 2018 Grammy Award in the category Best Classical Compendium. The Recording Academy announced the accolade in the Classical category at the 61st annual awards ceremony at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, February 10, 2019.
Fuchs has composed music for orchestra, band, voice, chorus, and various chamber ensembles. With Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright Lanford Wilson, he created three chamber musicals:The Great Nebula in Orion, A Betrothal, and Brontosaurus, which were originally presented by Circle Repertory Company in New York City. Fuchs's operatic monodrama Falling Man (text by Don DeLillo, adapted by J. D. McClatchy) was presented at the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in commemoration of the 15th anniversary of 9/11. His music has achieved significant global recognition through performances, media exposure, and digital streaming and downloading throughout North and South America, Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Australia.
The London Symphony Orchestra, under the baton of JoAnn Falletta, has recorded five albums of Fuchs's music for Naxos American Classics. The first, released in August 2005, was nominated for two Grammy Awards (Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra) (Thomas Stacy, English horn, JoAnn Falletta, conductor) and Producer of the Year, Classical (Michael Fine)). The second album, which features music for horn, was released in January 2008. Following its release, MusicWeb-International stated, Fuchs's distinctive voice is evident from the outset, and his flair for orchestral colours and sheer lyricism shine through. The third album, recorded in August 2011 at London's Abbey Road Studios, was released in August 2012. Following its release, BBC Music Magazine stated, "Kenneth Fuchs writes tonal orchestral music of great imagination. He's a master of orchestral writing." This album was included in the 2012 Grammy Award nominations for the category Producer of the Year, Classical (Tim Handley). The fourth album, recorded at Abbey Road Studios in August 2013, featuring a program of vocal music based on texts by Don DeLillo, John Updike, and William Blake, was released in August 2014. Gramophone Magazine featured the disc in its Awards Issue (October 2014), stating, "Fuchs claims his own expressive warmth and colour.... The performances are exemplary, from baritone Roderick Williams's commanding artistry to the bold, fresh playing of the London Symphony Orchestra under JoAnn Falletta's sensitive direction." The fifth album, recorded at Abbey Road Studios in August 2017, featuring a program of concerti for piano, electric guitar, alto saxophone, and an orchestral song cycle for countertenor based on twelve poems of Judith G. Wolf, was released in August 2018. James Jolley, Editor-in-Chief of Gramophone Magazine stated, "The American composer Kenneth Fuchs now has quite a sizeable discography of his music on Naxos, invariably played by the LSO who have played a major role in inspiring him to write for the orchestra with impressive authority and imagination." The album won the 2018 Grammy Award Award in the category Best Classical Compendium (JoAnn Falletta, conductor; Tim Handley, producer), announced by the Recording Academy at the 61st annual awards ceremony in Los Angeles, February 10, 2019.
Fuchs's seventh album for Naxos, released in August 2020, includes seven works for symphonic winds recorded by the United States Coast Guard Band. The album debuted at #9 on the Amazon Hot 100 Classical Releases and remained in the Top 20 for four consecutive weeks, an unprecedented achievement for an album of wind band music.
Fuchs's album of chamber music was released by Naxos in April 2013 and includes Falling Canons (Christopher O'Riley, piano), Falling Trio (Trio21), and String Quartet No. 5 "American" (Delray String Quartet). The album received outstanding reviews in print and in online sources, including Fanfare Magazine, Gramophone Magazine, and MusicWeb-International.
Fuchs's recent orchestral commissions include Piano Concerto 'Spiritualist' (After Three Paintings by Helen Frankenthaler, Poems of Life (After Twelve Poems by Judith G. Wolf for Countertenor, violoncello, and Orchestra), Glacier (Concerto for Electric Guitar), Bass Trombone Concerto (scored for both orchestra and band), and Rush (Concerto for Alto Saxophone (scored for both orchestra and band). In 2013, the Wheeling Symphony Orchestra invited Fuchs to compose a fanfare-overture, Forever Free, to celebrate the Sesquicentennial of the State of West Virginia. Fuchs created a version of the work for band, which was performed by ensembles throughout the State to celebrate the occasion.
In 2012, the United States Air Force Band of Flight (Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio) commissioned Fuchs's celebration fanfare for brass and percussion From the Field to the Sky. The work, dedicated to the National Museum of the United States Air Force, was premiered under the baton of Lieutenant Daniel W. Boothe on November 3, 2012. In 2008, the United States Air Force Academy Band (Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado) commissioned Fuchs's work for band United Artists. Following performances on tour throughout the U.S., the band recorded the work under the baton of Colonel Larry H. Lang for inclusion on the disc Windscapes, which was released in December 2009. The work was simultaneously published and released by the Hal Leonard Corporation, the world's largest music print publisher. Since its release the work has been played by high school and college bands throughout the United States and in China. Subsequently, Hal Leonard published two other works scored for band, Discover the Wild and Forever Free.
The Adrian Symphony Orchestra in Michigan appointed Fuchs as composer in residence for the 2009–10 seasons. In collaboration with music director John Thomas Dodson, the residency included world premiere performances of five works. The residency concluded with the premiere of Divinum Mysterium (concerto for viola and orchestra) on April 10, 2010. The concerto was composed especially for London Symphony Orchestra principal Paul Silverthorne, who performed the premiere in Adrian. Silverthorne recorded the work with the LSO for Fuchs's third Naxos disc on August 19, 2011.
Marin Alsop selected Fuchs as one of ten composers in residence for the Cabrillo Festival of Contemporary Music in August 2007. Alsop conducted the world premiere of the original orchestral version of Fuchs's work United Artists, following which critic Jason Victor Serinus wrote in the American Record Guide, "the work's dramatic, resounding chords and gloriously ringing flourishes constitute a modern fanfare of sorts."
The album Kenneth Fuchs: String Quartets 2, 3, 4 performed by the American String Quartet was released by Albany Records in 2001. Following the release of this disc, the American Record Guide stated quite simply, "String quartet recordings don't get much better than this."
Fuchs received his Bachelor of Music degree (1979) in composition from the University of Miami where he graduated Omicron Delta Kappa. He earned a Master of Music (1983) and Doctor of Musical Arts (1988) degrees from the Juilliard School in New York City. His teachers included Milton Babbitt, David Diamond, Vincent Persichetti, David Del Tredici, Alfred Reed and Stanley Wolfe. The University of Miami Frost School of Music named him Distinguished Alumnus for the Year 2000. The University of Miami Band of the Hour Association inducted him into their Hall of Fame in 2008. Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, the national music fraternity, named Fuchs a Signature Sinfonian in 2009. The designation "recognizes alumni members who have achieved a high standard of accomplishment in their field or profession, thereby bringing honor to Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Fraternity."
Fuchs has also been deeply committed to arts administration. He served as head of the department of music at the University of Connecticut from 2005 to 2008. Prior to this, he served as director of the school of music at the University of Oklahoma from 1998 to 2005. Previous administrative positions include dean of students and academics at the Manhattan School of Music (1990–1998), assistant dean of the school of music at the North Carolina School of the Arts (1988–1989), and assistant to the associate dean at the Juilliard School (1985–1988). Fuchs served as a member of the Commission on Accreditation for the National Association of Schools of Music (2003–2009), evaluating music curricula at collegiate institutions throughout the United States. He served as an on-site evaluator to such institutions as the Cleveland Institute of Music, Curtis Institute of Music, Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University, Arizona State University, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and the University of Washington.
Fuchs has composed scores for orchestra, band, solo instruments, voice, chorus, standard and mixed chamber ensembles, and musical theater. His music is published by Bill Holub Music, Edward B. Marks Music Company (an imprint of Round Hill Music) represented by Keiser Southern Music, Hal Leonard Corporation, Theodore Presser Company, and Yelton Rhodes Music.
Fuchs has been awarded artist residencies at the Atlantic Center for the Arts (New Smyrna Beach, Florida); The Hermitage (Manisota Key, Florida); The MacDowell Colony (Peterborough, New Hampshire); The Helene Wurlitzer Foundation of New Mexico (Taos); and Yaddo (Saratoga Springs, New York). His professional memberships include ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers); American Composers Forum; College Music Society; Dramatists Guild; National Association of Schools of Music, and The Recording Academy.
In April 2008, Steve Schwartz wrote on the Moderated Classical Music List, "Kenneth Fuchs studied with, among others, Babbitt, Diamond, and Persichetti. In sound, the bustling Persichetti exercises the dominating influence, but Babbitt probably wields more in Fuchs's habits of construction. Most immediately, the sound of Fuchs's music grabs your attention in ways similar to Copland's. Bright, lean sonorities – high strings, widely spaced chords, big-shoulder brass, and so on – prevail. Yet, also like Copland, Fuchs has more to offer than orchestration – namely, real matter and argument. Fuchs builds almost all the scores here out of limited sets of intervals or even specific pitches.... It's all tonal, even mainly diatonic, although not really minimalist, if you care. However, the means allow Fuchs to take an individual approach to tonality. Key-change means less than rhythmic and textural change. The piece takes shape as we hear the basic building blocks – like individual tiles in a mosaic – slipping into place."
Discography
Recordings of Fuchs's music include:
Cloud Slant (Orchestral Works, Volume 1); Sinfonia of London conducted by John Wilson (conductor) with soloist Adam Walker. (Chandos Records 5296), 2023.
Point of Tranquility (Seven Works for Symphonic Winds); United States Coast Guard Band conducted by Adam Williamson; (Naxos Records 8.573567), 2020.
Piano Concerto Spiritualist (After Three Paintings by Helen Frankenthaler); Poems of Life (Twelve Poems by Judith G. Wolf for Countertenor and Orchestra); Glacier (Concerto for Electric Guitar and Orchestra); Rush (Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra). London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta with soloists D.J. Sparr, electric guitar; Jeffrey Biegel, piano; Aryeh Nussbaum Cohen, countertenor; and Timothy McAllister, saxophone. (Naxos Records 8.559824), 2018. WINNER of the 2018 Grammy Award in the category Best Classical Compendium (JoAnn Falletta, conductor; Tim Handley, producer).
Orion Nocturne, including “Orion Nocturne,” completed 2005; Johanna Cox Pennington, oboe, Albany Records (Troy 1737), 2018.
New Music for Violin and Piano, including “Duo for Violin and Piano,” 2013, Julie Rosenfeld, violin, Albany Records (Troy 1717), 2018.
Falling Man (for Baritone Voice and Orchestra, text by Don DeLillo, adapted by J. D. McClatchy); Movie House (Seven Poems by John Updike for Baritone Voice and Chamber Ensemble); Songs of Innocence and of Experience (Four Poems by William Blake for Baritone Voice and Chamber Ensemble). London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta with soloist Roderick Williams, baritone. (Naxos Records 8.559753), 2014.
String Quartet No. 5 ("American"; Falling Canons (Seven Canons for Piano); Falling Trio (for Piano, Violin, and Violoncello). Christopher O'Riley, piano; Trio21 (Jeffrey Biegel, Kinga Augustyn, Robert DeMaine); Delray String Quartet (Mei Mei Luo, Tomas Cotick, Richard Fleischman, Claudio Jaffé). (Naxos Records 8.559733), 2013.
Atlantic Riband (for Orchestra); American Rhapsody (Romance for Violin and Orchestra); Concerto Grosso (for String Quartet and String Orchestra); Discover the Wild (for Orchestra); and Divinum Mysterium (Concerto for Viola and Orchestra). London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta with soloists Michael Ludwig, violin, and Paul Silverthorne, principal viola of the LSO. (Naxos Records 8.559723), 2012. Nominated for a 2012 Grammy Award in the category Producer of the Year, Classical (Tim Handley).
Evensong (for Horn and Guitar), “Horn Constellation: Jacek Muzyk,” JoAnn Falletta, guitar; Summit Records (DCD-563), 2011.
United Artists (Fanfare-Overture for Winds, Brass, and Percussion), "Windscapes", United States Air Force Academy Band, 2009.
Canticle to the Sun (Concerto for French horn and orchestra); United Artists (for Orchestra); Quiet in the Land (Idyll for flute, clarinet, English horn, viola, and cello); Fire, Ice, and Summer Bronze (Idyll for Brass Quintet After Two Works on Paper by Helen Frankenthaler); and Autumn Rhythm (Idyll for Woodwind Quintet After a Painting by Jackson Pollock). London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta with soloist Timothy Jones, principal horn of the LSO. (Naxos Records 8.559335), 2008.
On Silver Wings (Fanfare-Overture for Winds, Brass, and Percussion), "On Silver Wings", United States Air Force Band of Liberty, 2006.
Immigrants Still (Poem by Richard Wilbur), "Songs of Liberation", CONCORA, 2006.
An American Place (for Orchestra); Eventide (Concerto for English Horn, Harp, Percussion, and String Orchestra); Out of the Dark (Suite for Chamber Orchestra After Three Paintings by Helen Frankenthaler). London Symphony Orchestra conducted by JoAnn Falletta with soloists Thomas Stacy, English horn, and Timothy Jones, principal French horn of the LSO. (Naxos Records 8.559224), 2005. Nominated for two 2006 Grammy Awards in the categories Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra) (Thomas Stacy, English horn, and JoAnn Falletta for Eventide) and Producer of the Year, Classical (Michael Fine).
String Quartets Nos. 2, 3 & 4, American String Quartet, Albany Records (Troy 480), 2001.
Christina's World (Idyll for Winds, Brass, and Percussion After a Painting by Andrew Wyeth), "Christina's World", University of Miami Frost School of Music Wind Ensemble, Albany Records (Troy 403), 2000.
In the Clearing (Eight Poems by Robert Frost), "In the Clearing", Coro Allegro (Boston), 1998.
Face of the Night (After a Painting by Robert Motherwell), "New York Legends: Recitals with Principals from the New York Philharmonic," Thomas Stacy, English horn, Cala Records (CACD0511), 1997.
Private life
Kenneth Fuchs resides in Mansfield Center, Connecticut. His life partner since 1980 is graphic designer Chris von Rosenvinge. They were married in Connecticut on April 28, 2009, the first day of their thirtieth year as a couple.
External links
20th-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
American male conductors (music)
1956 births
Living people
American LGBT musicians
University of Connecticut faculty
University of Miami Frost School of Music alumni
Juilliard School alumni
University of Oklahoma faculty
Manhattan School of Music faculty
North Carolina School of the Arts faculty
Juilliard School faculty
Pupils of Vincent Persichetti
21st-century classical composers
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
Naxos Records artists
20th-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians |
4348686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20James%20DeAngelo | Joseph James DeAngelo | Joseph James DeAngelo Jr. (born November 8, 1945) is an American serial killer, serial rapist, burglar, former police officer, and mechanic who committed at least 13 murders, 51 rapes, and 120 burglaries across California between 1974 and 1986. He is responsible for three known separate crime sprees throughout the state, each of which spawned a different nickname in the press, before it became evident that they were committed by the same person.
In the San Joaquin Valley, DeAngelo was known as the Visalia Ransacker before moving to the Sacramento area, where he became known as the East Area Rapist and was linked by modus operandi to additional attacks in Stockton, Modesto and Contra Costa County. DeAngelo committed serial murders in Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Orange counties, where he was known as the Night Stalker and later the Original Night Stalker (in order to differentiate him from Richard Ramirez, a later serial killer who also became known as Night Stalker). He is believed to have taunted and threatened both victims and police via obscene phone calls and possibly written communications.
During the decades-long investigation, several suspects were cleared through DNA evidence, alibis or other investigative methods. In 2001, after DNA testing indicated that the East Area Rapist and the Original Night Stalker were the same person, the combined acronym EARONS came into use. The case was a factor in the establishment of California's DNA database, which collects DNA from all accused and convicted felons in California and has been called second only to Virginia's in effectiveness in solving cold cases. In an attempt to increase wider awareness, crime writer Michelle McNamara coined the name Golden State Killer in early-2013.
On June 15, 2016, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and local law enforcement agencies held a news conference to announce a renewed nationwide effort, offering a $50,000 reward for the Golden State Killer's capture. On April 24, 2018, California authorities charged 72-year-old DeAngelo with eight counts of first-degree murder, based upon DNA evidence; investigators had identified members of DeAngelo's family through forensic genetic genealogy. This was also the first announcement connecting the Visalia Ransacker crimes to DeAngelo.
Owing to California's statute of limitations on pre-2017 rape cases, DeAngelo could not be charged with the rapes he had committed in the 1970s; but he was charged in August 2018 with thirteen related kidnapping and abduction attempts. On June 29, 2020, DeAngelo pled guilty to multiple counts of murder and kidnapping. As part of a plea bargain that spared him the death penalty, DeAngelo also admitted to numerous crimes with which he had not been formally charged, including rapes. On August 21, 2020, DeAngelo was sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole.
Early life and career
Joseph James DeAngelo Jr. was born on November 8, 1945, in Bath, New York, to Kathleen “Kay” Louise DeGroat (June 30, 1923 – August 21, 2010) and Joseph James DeAngelo Sr. (January 19, 1920 – February 15, 1995), a sergeant in the United States Army. He had two older sisters, Connie and Rebecca, and a younger brother, John. A relative reported that when DeAngelo was a young child, he witnessed the rape of Connie by two airmen in a warehouse in West Germany, where the family was stationed at the time. Following DeAngelo's conviction, Rebecca claimed that he was abused by their father while he was growing up.
Between 1959 and 1960, DeAngelo attended Mills Junior High School in Rancho Cordova, California. Beginning in 1961, he attended Folsom High School, from which he received a GED certificate in 1964. He played on the school's junior varsity baseball team. Prosecutors reported that DeAngelo committed burglaries and tortured and killed animals during his teenage years.
DeAngelo joined the United States Navy in September 1964 and served for 22 months during the Vietnam War as a damage controlman on the cruiser and the destroyer tender . Beginning in August 1968, DeAngelo attended Sierra College in Rocklin, California; he graduated with an associate degree in police science, with honors. He attended Sacramento State University in 1971, where he earned a bachelor's degree in criminal justice. DeAngelo later took post-graduate courses and further police training at the College of the Sequoias in Visalia, then completed a 32-week police internship at the police department in Roseville.
Police officer
From May 1973 to August 1976, DeAngelo was a burglary unit police officer in Exeter, having relocated from Citrus Heights. He then served in Auburn from August 1976 to July 1979, when he was arrested for shoplifting a hammer and dog repellent; he was sentenced to six months of probation and fired that October. During the process of being fired, DeAngelo threatened to kill the chief of police and allegedly stalked the chief's house.
Marriage and relationships
In May 1970, DeAngelo became engaged to nursing student Bonnie Jean Colwell, a classmate at Sierra College, but she broke it off in 1971 after he became manipulative and abusive, culminating in his demand that she help him cheat on an abnormal psychology test. After the break-up, he attempted to force her to marry him by threatening her with a gun.
In November 1973, he married Sharon Marie Huddle of Citrus Heights. The wedding was held at Auburn First Congregational Church. In 1980, they purchased a house in Citrus Heights, where he was eventually arrested decades later. Huddle became a divorce attorney in 1982, and they had three daughters: two were born in Sacramento and one was born in Los Angeles.
The couple separated in 1991. In July 2018, several months after DeAngelo's arrest, Huddle filed for a divorce, which was finalized the following year. DeAngelo committed most of the offenses while he was married and raising a family. Neither his wife nor his children ever suspected he was committing serious crimes. His eldest daughter claimed he was a "perfect father", while his wife believed his dishonest reasons for leaving home.
Other employment
DeAngelo's employment history during the 1980s is unknown. From 1990 until his retirement in 2017, he worked as a truck mechanic at a Save Mart Supermarkets distribution center in Roseville. He was arrested in 1996 for failing to pay for gas, but the charge was dismissed.
Loud outbursts
DeAngelo's brother-in-law claimed that he would casually bring up the East Area Rapist in conversation around the time of the original crimes. Neighbors also reported that he would frequently engage in loud, profane outbursts. One neighbor reported that his family received a phone message from DeAngelo threatening to "deliver a load of death" because of their barking dog. He was living with a daughter and granddaughter at the time of his arrest.
Crimes
DNA evidence linked DeAngelo to eight murders in Goleta, Ventura, Dana Point, and Irvine; two other murders in Goleta, lacking DNA evidence, were linked by modus operandi. DeAngelo pleaded guilty to three other murders: two in Rancho Cordova and one in Visalia. He also committed more than 50 known rapes in the California counties of Sacramento, Contra Costa, Stanislaus, San Joaquin, Alameda, Santa Clara, and Yolo; and he was linked to hundreds of incidents of thefts, burglaries, vandalism, peeping, stalking, and prowling.
Visalia Ransacker (1974–1976)
It was long suspected that the training ground of the criminal who became the East Area Rapist was Visalia, although earlier Visalia crimes dating back as early as May 1973 and other sprees like that of the "Cordova Cat Burglar" and the "Exeter Ransacker" as well as Visalia burglaries that took place after the McGowen shooting, are now suspected to be linked also. Over a period of 20 months, DeAngelo is believed to have been responsible for one murder and around 120 burglaries.
In late-April 2018, the Visalia chief of police stated that while there was no DNA linking DeAngelo to the Central Valley cases, his department had other evidence that played a role in the investigation; and he was "confident that the Visalia Ransacker has been captured". Though the statutes of limitations for the burglaries have each expired, DeAngelo was formally charged on August 13, 2018, with the first degree murder of Claude Snelling in 1975. In 2020, DeAngelo pleaded guilty to the Snelling murder.
Burglaries
The first recorded ransacking occurred on March 19, 1974, when a sum of $50 in coins was stolen from a piggy bank. Most of the Ransacker's activities involved breaking into houses, rifling through or vandalizing the owner's possessions, scattering women's underclothes and stealing a range of low-value items while often ignoring banknotes and higher-valued items in plain sight. The Ransacker would also often arrange or display items in the house. Items emptied included piggy banks and coin jars; and stolen items often included Blue Chip Stamps, foreign or historic coins, and personal items (such as single earrings, cuff-links, rings, or medallions) but also included six weapons and various types of ammunition. Multiple same-day ransackings were common as well, including 12 separate incidents on November 30, 1974. Common characteristics of the burglaries included:
climbing fences and moving through established routes such as parks, walkways, ditches, and trails
attempting to pry open multiple points of entry, particularly windows
leaving multiple points of escape open, especially windows, as well as the house, garage, and garden doors
moving removed window screens onto beds or into bedrooms
placing "warning items" such as dishes or bottles against doors and on door handles
wearing gloves (given the absence of fingerprint evidence)
Shootings
On September 11, 1975, DeAngelo broke into the home of Claude Snelling, 45, at 532 Whitney Lane. Snelling, a journalism professor at the College of the Sequoias, had previously chased a prowler discovered under his daughter's window around 10:00 p.m. on February 5, 1975. On September 11, he was awakened around 2:00 a.m. by strange noises. Upon leaving his bedroom, Snelling ran through the open back door and confronted a ski-masked intruder in his carport attempting to kidnap his daughter, who had been subdued with threats of being stabbed or shot. Snelling was then shot twice, staggered back into the house to his wife, and later died. After the shooting, the assailant fled the scene, leaving behind a stolen bicycle at 615 Redwood Street. After the murder, Beth Snelling, 16, underwent hypnosis in order to gather further details. The Visalia police also committed more resources to apprehending the Ransacker, and a $4,000 reward was posted. Nighttime stakeouts were set up near houses that he had previously prowled, but the ransackings continued.
Around 8:30 p.m. on December 12, 1975, a masked man entered the back yard of a house at 1505 W. Kaweah Avenue, near where the Ransacker had been reported to frequent. When Detective William McGowen (on stakeout inside the garage) attempted to detain the man, the suspect shrieked, removed his mask, and feigned surrender after McGowen fired a warning shot. However, after jumping the fence to the house at 1501, he also pulled out a revolver with his left hand and fired once near McGowen's face, shattering his flashlight. Nearby officers rushed to aid McGowen, and the shooter was able to escape. Items collected as evidence included the flashlight, tennis shoe tracks, and dropped loot, namely Blue Chip Stamps and a sock full of coins.
East Area Rapist (1976–1979)
DeAngelo moved to the Sacramento area in 1976, where his crimes escalated from burglary to rape. The crimes initially centered on the then-unincorporated areas of Carmichael, Citrus Heights, and Rancho Cordova, east of Sacramento. His initial modus operandi was to stalk middle-class neighborhoods at night in search of women who were alone in one-story homes, usually near a school, creek, trail or other open space that would provide a quick escape. He was seen a number of times but always successfully fled; on one occasion, he shot and seriously wounded a young pursuer.
Most victims had seen or heard a prowler on their property before the attacks, and many had experienced break-ins. Police believed that the offender would conduct extensive reconnaissance in a targeted neighborhood—looking into windows and prowling in yards—before selecting a home to attack. It was believed that he sometimes entered the homes of future victims to unlock windows, unload guns, and plant ligatures for later use. He frequently telephoned future victims, sometimes for months in advance, to learn their daily routines.
Although DeAngelo originally targeted women alone in their homes or with children, he eventually preferred attacking couples. This change in modus operandi is believed to be a direct result of media reports claiming he only attacked women alone in the home. His usual method was to break in through a window or sliding glass door and awaken the sleeping occupants with a flashlight, threatening them with a handgun. Victims were subsequently bound with ligatures (often shoelaces) that he found or brought with him, then blindfolded and gagged them with towels that he had ripped into strips. The female victim was usually forced to tie up her male companion before she was bound. The bindings were often so tight that the victims' hands were numb for hours after being untied. He then separated the couple, often stacking dishes on the male's back and threatening to kill everyone in the house if he heard them rattle. He would then move the female to the living room and rape her, often again and again. A decade later, police reported that DeAngelo repeatedly said, “I hate you, Bonnie,” during a 1978 rape, the 37th attack.
DeAngelo sometimes spent hours in the home ransacking closets and drawers, eating food in the kitchen, drinking beer, raping the woman again, or making additional threats. Victims sometimes thought he had left the house before he "jump[ed] from the darkness". He typically stole items—often personal objects and items of little value, but occasionally cash and firearms. He would then creep away, leaving victims uncertain whether he had left. He was believed to escape on foot through a series of yards and then use a bicycle to go home or to a car, making extensive use of parks, schoolyards, creek beds, and other open spaces that kept him off of the street.
The East Area Rapist operated in Sacramento County from the first attacks in June 1976 until May 1977. After a three-month gap, he struck in nearby San Joaquin County in September before returning to Sacramento for all but one of the next ten attacks. The rapist attacked five times during the summer of 1978 in Stanislaus and Yolo counties before disappearing again for three months. Attacks then moved primarily to Contra Costa County in October and lasted until July 1979.
Rapes
Maggiore murders
A young Sacramento couple—21-year-old Brian Keith Maggiore, a military policeman at Mather Air Force Base, and his 20-year-old wife Katie Lee Maggiore—were walking their dog in the Rancho Cordova area on the night of February 2, 1978, near where five East Area Rapist attacks had occurred. The Maggiores fled after a confrontation in the street but were chased down and shot to death. Some investigators suspected that they had been murdered by the East Area Rapist because of their proximity to the other attacks' locations, and a shoelace was found nearby. The FBI announced on June 15, 2016, that it was confident that the East Area Rapist had murdered the Maggiores. On June 29, 2020, DeAngelo entered a plea of guilty to these murders.
Original Night Stalker (1979–1986)
Shortly after the rape committed on July 5, 1979, DeAngelo moved to Southern California and began killing his victims, first striking in Santa Barbara County in October. The attacks lasted until 1981, with a lone 1986 attack, only the couple in the first attack survived, alerting neighbors and forcing the intruder to flee; the other victims were murdered by gunshot or bludgeoning. Since DeAngelo was not linked to these crimes for decades, he was known as the Night Stalker in the area, before being renamed the Original Night Stalker after serial killer Richard Ramirez received the former nickname.
1979
On October 1, an intruder broke in and tied up a Goleta couple. Alarmed at hearing him say, "I'll kill 'em" to himself, the man and woman tried to escape when he left the room, and the woman screamed. Realizing that the alarm had been raised, the intruder fled on a bicycle. A neighbor (an FBI agent) responded to the noise and pursued the perpetrator, who abandoned the bicycle and a knife and escaped on foot through local backyards. The attack was later linked to the Offerman–Manning murders by shoe prints and twine used to bind the victims.
On December 30, 44-year-old Robert Offerman and 35-year-old Debra Manning were found shot to death at Offerman's condominium on Avenida Pequena in Goleta. Offerman's bindings were untied, indicating that he had lunged at the attacker. Neighbors had heard gunshots. Paw prints of a large dog were found at the scene, leading to speculation that the killer may have brought one with him. The killer had also broken into the vacant adjoining residence and stolen a bicycle, later found abandoned on a street north of the scene, from a third residence in the complex.
1980
On March 13, 33-year-old Charlene Smith and 43-year-old Lyman Smith were found murdered in their Ventura home; Charlene Smith had been raped. A log from a woodpile on the side of the house was used to bludgeon the victims to death. Their wrists and ankles had been bound with drapery cord. An unusual Chinese knot, a diamond knot, was used on Charlene's wrists; the same knot was noted in the East Area Rapist attacks, at least one confirmed case of which was publicly known. The murderer was, therefore, briefly given the name Diamond Knot Killer.
On August 19, 24-year-old Keith Eli Harrington and 27-year-old Patrice Briscoe Harrington were found bludgeoned to death in their home on Cockleshell Drive in Dana Point's Niguel Shores gated community. Patrice Harrington had also been raped. Although there was evidence that the Harringtons' wrists and ankles were bound, no murder weapon or ligatures were found at the scene. The Harringtons had been married for three months at the time of their deaths. Patrice was a nurse in Irvine, and Keith was a medical student at UC Irvine. Keith's brother Bruce later spent nearly $2 million supporting California Proposition 69, authorizing DNA collection from all California felons and certain other criminals.
1981
On February 6, 28-year-old Manuela Witthuhn was raped and murdered in her Irvine home. Although Witthuhn's body had signs of being tied before she was bludgeoned, no murder weapon or ligatures were found. Though the victim was married, her husband was away, hospitalized; and she was alone at the time of the attack. Witthuhn's television was found in the backyard, possibly the killer's attempt to make the crime appear to be a botched robbery.
On July 27, 35-year-old Cheri Domingo and 27-year-old Gregory Sanchez became the Original Night Stalker's tenth and eleventh murder victims. Both were attacked in Domingo's residence on Toltec Way in Goleta (several blocks south of Robert Offerman's condominium), where Domingo was living temporarily; it was owned by a relative and up for sale. The offender entered the house through a small bathroom window. Sanchez had not been tied and was shot and wounded in the cheek before he was bludgeoned to death with a garden tool.
Some believe that Sanchez may have realized he was dealing with the man responsible for the Offerman–Manning murders and tried to tackle the killer rather than be tied up. Again, no neighbors responded to the gunshot. Sanchez's head was covered with clothes pulled from the closet. Domingo was raped and bludgeoned; bruises on her wrists and ankles indicated that she had been tied, although the restraints were missing. A piece of shipping twine was found near the bed, and fibers from an unknown source were scattered over her body. Authorities believed that the attacker may have worked as a painter or in a similar job at the Calle Real Shopping Centre.
1986
On May 4, 18-year-old Janelle Lisa Cruz was found dead after she was raped and bludgeoned in her Irvine home. Her family was on vacation in Mexico at the time of the attack. A pipe wrench, reported missing by Cruz's stepfather, was thought to be the murder weapon. Initially, investigators in respective jurisdictions did not think the southern California murders were connected. A Sacramento detective strongly believed that the East Area Rapist was responsible for the Goleta attacks, but the Santa Barbara County Sheriff's Office attributed them to a local career criminal who was later murdered. Unaware of the Goleta murders, local police in surrounding jurisdictions followed false leads related to men who were close to the female victims. One person, later cleared, was charged with two of the murders. Many years later, the cases were linked almost entirely by DNA testing.
Other suspected murders
After DeAngelo was arrested, he was also suspected of committing the 1974 Visalia rape and murder of Jennifer Armour, the 1975 Exeter rape and murder of Donna Jo Richmond, and a 1978 murder of a woman and her son in Simi Valley, but was cleared as a suspect in all four murders by DNA testing. Victoria Police ruled out a link between DeAngelo, who docked in Australia during his Navy service, and the Melbourne serial child rapist and murderer known as "Mr Cruel".
Communications
Written
"Excitement's Crave" poem
In December 1977, someone claiming to be the East Area Rapist sent a poem, "Excitement's Crave", to The Sacramento Bee, the Sacramento mayor's office, and television station KVIE. On December 11, a masked man eluded pursuit by law-enforcement personnel after alerting authorities by telephone that he would strike on Watt Avenue that night:
Homework pages and punishment map (December 9, 1978)
During the investigation in Danville of the 42nd attack, investigators discovered three sheets of notebook paper near where a suspicious vehicle had reportedly been parked. They believe the pages were dropped accidentally, perhaps by falling out of a bag. The first sheet appears to be a homework essay on General George Armstrong Custer.
The second sheet contains a journal-style entry describing a teacher who made students write lines, which the author found humiliating:
On the last sheet was a hand-drawn map of what appears to be a suburban neighborhood, with the word "punishment" scrawled across the reverse side. Investigators were unable to identify the area depicted in the map, although the artist clearly had knowledge of architectural layout and landscape design. According to Detective Larry Pool, the map is a fantasy location representing the rapist's desired striking ground.
Phone calls
"I'm the East Side Rapist" (March 18, 1977)
On March 18, 1977, the Sacramento County Sheriff's Office received three calls from a man claiming to be the East Area Rapist; none were recorded. The first two calls, received at 4:15 and 4:30 p.m., were identical and ended with the caller laughing and hanging up. The final call came in at 5:00 p.m., with the caller saying: "I'm the East Side Rapist and I have my next victim already stalked and you guys can't catch me."
"You're never gonna catch me" (December 2, 1977)
A man claiming to be the rapist called the Sacramento Police Department, saying: "You're never gonna catch me, East Area Rapist, you dumb fuckers; I'm gonna fuck again tonight. Be careful!" The call was recorded and later released. As with the previous call, the next victim was attacked that night.
"Merry Christmas" (December 9, 1977)
During the 1977 Christmas season, a previous victim received a phone call that she attributed to her attacker. The caller said, "Merry Christmas, it's me again!"
"Watt Avenue" (December 10, 1977)
Shortly before 10:00 p.m. on December 10, 1977, Sacramento authorities received two identical calls, saying, "I am going to hit tonight. Watt Avenue ." Both were recorded, and the caller was identified as the same person who placed the call on December 2. Law-enforcement patrols were increased that night; and at 2:30 a.m., a masked man eluded officers after being seen bicycling on the Watt Avenue bridge. When spotted again at 4:30 a.m., he discarded the bicycle and fled on foot. The bicycle had been stolen.
"Gonna kill you" (January 2, 1978)
The first known rape victim received a wrong-number call asking for "Ray" on January 2, 1978. The call was recorded, and police suspect that it may have been the same caller who made a threatening call to her later that evening. That call was also recorded and identified by the victim as the voice of her assailant. The caller said, "Gonna kill you ... gonna kill you ... gonna kill you ... bitch ... bitch ... bitch ... bitch ... fuckin' whore."
Counseling service (January 6, 1978)
A man claiming to be the East Area Rapist called the Contact Counseling Service and said, "I have a problem. I need help because I don't want to do this anymore." After a short conversation, the caller said, "I believe you are tracing this call" and hung up.
Later calls (1982–1991)
In 1982, a previous victim received a call at her place of work—a Denny's restaurant—during which the rapist threatened to rape her again. According to Contra Costa County investigator Paul Holes, the rapist must have chanced to patronize the restaurant and recognized his victim there.
In 1991, a previous victim received a phone call from the perpetrator and spoke with him for one minute. She could hear a woman and children in the background, leading to speculation that he had a family.
Final call (2001)
On April 6, 2001, one day after an article in The Sacramento Bee linked the Original Night Stalker and the East Area Rapist, a victim of the rapist received a call from him; he asked, "Remember when we played?"
Investigation
Before officially connecting the Original Night Stalker to the East Area Rapist in 2001, some law-enforcement officials (particularly from the Sacramento County Sheriff's Department) sought to link the Goleta cases as well. The links were primarily due to similarities in modus operandi. One of the already-linked Original Night Stalker double murders occurred in Ventura, southeast of Goleta; and the remaining murders were committed in Orange County, an additional southeast. In 2001, several rapes in Contra Costa County believed to have been committed by the East Area Rapist were linked by DNA to the Smith, Harrington, Witthuhn, and Cruz murders. A decade later, DNA evidence indicated that the Domingo–Sanchez murders were also committed by the East Area Rapist (also identified as the Golden State Killer).
On June 15, 2016, the FBI released further information related to the crimes, including new composite sketches and crime details; a $50,000 reward was also announced. The initiative included a national database to support law enforcement's investigating of the crimes and to handle tips and information. Eventually, "through the use of genetic genealogy searching on GEDmatch, investigators identified distant relatives of DeAngelo—including family members directly related to his great-great-great-great grandfather dating back to the 1800s. Based on this information, investigators built about 25 different family trees. The tree that eventually linked to [DeAngelo] alone contained approximately 1,000 people. Over the course of a few months, investigators used other clues like age, sex, and place of residence to rule out suspects populating these trees, eliminating suspects one by one until only DeAngelo remained."
Identification of DeAngelo began in December 2017 when officials, led by detective Paul Holes and FBI lawyer Steve Kramer, uploaded the killer's DNA profile from a Ventura County rape kit to the personal genomics website GEDmatch. The website identified ten to twenty people who had the same great-great-great grandparents as the Golden State Killer; a team of five investigators working with genealogist Barbara Rae-Venter used this list to construct a large family tree. From this tree, they established two suspects; one was ruled out by a relative's DNA test, leaving DeAngelo the main suspect.
On April 18, 2018, a DNA sample was surreptitiously collected from the door handle of DeAngelo's car; another sample was later collected from a tissue found in DeAngelo's curbside garbage can. Both were matched to samples associated with Golden State Killer crimes. Since DeAngelo's arrest, some commentators have raised concerns about the ethics of the secondary use of personally identifiable information. During the investigation, several people were considered and later eliminated as suspects:
Brett Glasby, from Goleta, was considered a suspect by Santa Barbara County investigators. He was murdered in Mexico in 1982 before the murder of Janelle Cruz, eliminating him as a suspect.
Paul "Cornfed" Schneider, a high-ranking member of the Aryan Brotherhood, was living in Orange County when the Harringtons, Manuela Witthuhn, and Janelle Cruz were killed. A DNA test cleared him in the 1990s.
Joe Alsip, a friend and business partner of the victim Lyman Smith. Alsip's pastor said that Alsip had confessed to him during a family-counseling session. Alsip was arraigned for the Smith murders in 1982, but the charges were later dropped, and his innocence was confirmed by DNA testing in 1997.
Arrest, trial and incarceration
On the evening of April 24, 2018, Sacramento County Sheriff's deputies arrested DeAngelo in the side yard of his Sacramento home. He was charged with eight counts of first-degree murder with special circumstances. On May 10, the Santa Barbara County District Attorney's office charged DeAngelo with four additional counts of first-degree murder. DeAngelo made a confession of sorts after his arrest that cryptically referred to an inner personality named "Jerry", who had forced him to commit the wave of crimes that ended abruptly in 1986. According to Sacramento County prosecutor Thien Ho, DeAngelo said the following to himself while alone in a police interrogation room after his arrest in April 2018: "I didn't have the strength to push him out. He made me. He went with me. It was like in my head, I mean, he's a part of me. I didn't want to do those things. I pushed Jerry out and had a happy life. I did all those things. I destroyed all their lives. So now I've got to pay the price." Detectives ignored DeAngelo's initial requests to speak to an attorney, later citing a legal theory that this potential Miranda violation would be justified, with the understanding that prosecutors could not use the interview against the defendant in court.
DeAngelo could not be charged with rapes or burglaries, as the statute of limitations had expired for those offenses, but he was charged with 13 counts of murder and 13 counts of kidnapping. DeAngelo was arraigned in Sacramento on August 23, 2018. In November 2018, prosecutors from six involved counties collectively estimated that the case could cost taxpayers $20 million and last ten years. At an April 10, 2019 court proceeding, prosecutors announced that they would seek the death penalty, and the judge ruled that cameras could be allowed inside the courtroom during the trial. On March 4, 2020, DeAngelo offered to plead guilty if the death penalty were taken off the table, which was not accepted at the time. On June 29, as part of a plea bargain to avoid the death penalty, DeAngelo pleaded guilty to thirteen counts of first-degree murder and special circumstances (including murder committed during burglaries and rapes), as well as thirteen counts of kidnapping. On August 21, 2020, DeAngelo received multiple consecutive life sentences without the possibility of parole. DeAngelo offered a brief apology after listening to days of pre-sentencing victim impact statements: "I've listened to all your statements, each one of them, and I'm truly sorry to everyone I've hurt." In November 2020, DeAngelo was transferred to the North Kern State Prison. As of February 2021, DeAngelo is incarcerated in protective custody at California State Prison, Corcoran.
See also
List of serial killers in the United States
List of serial rapists by number of victims
References
Further reading
Literature
Periodicals
(includes numerous photos and maps)
A seven-part series that profiles California's most prolific uncaught serial killer.
Podcasts
Television
Academic articles
External links
Cold Case – EARONS at coldcase-earons.com
EAR/ONS magazine – 188-page magazine of related photos and news articles (from Casefile)
Map of the EAR/ONS crimes
Map of the East Area Rapist / Original Night Stalker / Golden State Killer Crimes
True Crime Diary at truecrimediary.com
Collection of newspaper clippings about the Golden State Killer at Newspapers.com
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4348818 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logstown | Logstown | The riverside village of Logstown (1725?, 1727–1758) also known as Logg's Town, French: Chiningue (transliterated to Shenango) near modern-day Baden, Pennsylvania, was a significant Native American settlement in Western Pennsylvania and the site of the 1752 signing of the Treaty of Logstown between the Ohio Company, the Colony of Virginia, and the Six Nations, which occupied the region. Being an unusually large settlement, and because of its strategic location in the Ohio Country, an area contested by France and England, Logstown was an important community for all parties living along the Ohio and tributary rivers. Logstown was a prominent trade and council site for the contending British and French colonial governments, both of which made abortive plans to construct forts near the town. Logstown was burned in 1754 and although it was rebuilt, in the years following the French and Indian War it became depopulated and was eventually abandoned.
Location
Logstown is located in Harmony Township, about 14 miles northwest of the Forks of the Ohio (now in downtown Pittsburgh) in an area on the east bank of the Ohio River opposite Aliquippa. The site is also due north of the Pittsburgh International Airport. Today the site is marked with a stone bearing a brass plaque placed there by the Fort McIntosh chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1932, memorializing the visit of Major George Washington to the town in November, 1753.
Etymology
A few sources claim that in 1747 the French built about 30 log cabins, some with stone chimneys, on a plateau above the original Logstown village, and that these log cabins supposedly gave the town its name. However, George P. Donehoo says that the name "was probably due to the fact that large numbers of logs were left upon the flat after the floods in the Ohio River."
Donehoo and several other sources report that the original Lenape name of the village was Maughwawame, which translates to "extensive flats."
The French referred to the town as "Chiningue" which Father Joseph Pierre de Bonnecamps notes was their designation and not a Native name: "We called it Chiningue, from its vicinity to a river of that name." Donehoo says that chiningue is a French word for beaver, but also suggests that it may be a corruption of ochenango, a Seneca word meaning "large bull thistles."
Early history
The original village was settled by Shawnees, possibly as early as 1725 or 1730 on low-lying land less than a mile north of present-day Ambridge in Beaver County, Pennsylvania. The population grew as groups of Lenape, Cayugas, Senecas, and Shawnees migrated west into the Ohio River Valley seeking to escape a smallpox epidemic in 1733 and a drought in 1741, creating a multi-ethnic community. In August 1744 the town's population increased significantly when Kakowatcheky arrived with his band of Shawnee warriors and their families from Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania. Kakowatcheky is sometimes credited with founding Logstown. Another early resident was Opessa Straight Tail, who moved to Logstown some time before 1750. The town's population varied from approximately 200 to 500 people. In 1749 Céloron de Blainville observed fifty cabins housing about sixty warriors, suggesting a population of 200 to 250 total, while in late 1758 George Croghan noted forty houses for about one hundred and twenty warriors, suggesting a total population of 350 to 500.
In late April 1745, the Pekowi Shawnee leader Peter Chartier and about 400 Shawnees, including Meshemethequater and Neucheconeh, stopped at Logstown to visit Kakowatcheky and to try to persuade him to join them. Chartier was angry with the Provincial government of Pennsylvania for their failure to control the sale of alcohol in Shawnee communities, and his plan at that time was to bring as many Shawnees as he could over to French protection. He was on his way to Lower Shawneetown to address the Shawnees living there. Kakowatcheky, however, refused to join him, and Chartier and his people left Logstown after a brief stay.
Most sources agree that the main section of the town was built on the broad, flat floodplain along the east bank of the Ohio River, with a few structures located on the west bank. Gardens and cornfields were planted on both sides of the river, on fertile, alluvial flatlands, where the town's residents cultivated maize, beans, squash, gourds, tobacco, and sunflowers. One source states that "in the year 1752...the Shawanese Inhabited Loggs Town, on the West Side of the Ohio, and tended Corn on the East Side of the River." On the east bank of the river, a few homes were built on a grassy terrace above the floodplain, the so-called "upper town."
In 1747, the Six Nations Confederacy Haudenosaunee sent two headmen as emissaries to live in Logstown and supervise the Iroquois allies: Tanacharison, a Seneca, and Scarouady, an Oneida. Tanacharison oversaw the Delawares and Scarouady supervised the Shawnees.
Visit by George Croghan, 1748
The provincial government of Pennsylvania was anxious to keep Native Americans in the Ohio Valley from being influenced by the French. As early as 1731, agents from Montreal had visited communities along the Ohio River, distributing goods and urging the tribes to send emissaries to Quebec to establish alliances. On September 18, 1747, George Croghan wrote to Thomas Lawrence in Philadelphia, a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Council, that one of his men, who had just come "down from ye Woods," had informed him that "the Indians at this side of the Lake Erie are making war very briskly against the French, but is very impatient to hear from their brothers, ye English, expecting a present of powder and lead; which, if they don't get, I am of opinion, by the best accounts, that they will turn to the French." In November 1747 Scarouady and other Iroquois leaders visited Philadelphia to sign the "Treaty Between the President and Council of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Ohio Indians," promising a military alliance against the French in exchange for supplies and trade goods. The Council obtained £200 worth of goods and sent Croghan to Logstown in April, 1748 to cement the terms of the treaty and secure the tribes' loyalty to the British. Conrad Weiser was to follow in August with more gifts. Croghan met in council with 1500 men at Logstown, and finding the Council's gifts insufficient for all of them, he added an additional £224 in powder, lead, knives, flints, brass wire, and tobacco from his own stock. This gesture was influential in maintaining the alliance between the British and the Ohio tribes.
In late July, fifty-five representatives of the Six Nations, Delawares, Shawnees, Nanticokes, and Twightwees met at the courthouse in Lancaster, Pennsylvania and signed a peace treaty with the Pennsylvania Provincial Council. This treaty guaranteed commercial access to tribes across the Ohio Valley as far west as the Wabash River, an unprecedented diplomatic achievement for the English.
Visit by Conrad Weiser, 1748
In 1748, the colony of Pennsylvania sent Conrad Weiser, Pennsylvania's ambassador to the Six Nations, to Logstown. Arriving on August 27, he set up his headquarters in Croghan's trading post and visited the surrounding villages. Soon a large number of Delaware, Shawnee, Iroquois and Wyandot Indians gathered at Logstown, including the Wyandot chief Orontony and five other leaders from Kuskusky, who "behav’d like People of good Sense & Sincerity." Weiser met each tribe separately and then in a general council he announced that King George's War had ended and that England and France signed a peace treaty. As a result, the English had no more war supplies for them and he distributed gifts instead. The chiefs complied with his request for a count of their warriors in the Ohio Valley region:
Iroquois, or Six Nations:
Senecas: 163
Onondagas: 35
Oneidas: 15
Cayugas: 20
Mohawks: 74
Allies of Iroquois:
Wyandots: 100
Others:
Shawnees: 162
Tisagechroamis: 40
Mohicans: 15
Lenape (Delaware): 165
Total : 789
Weiser was accompanied by "English traders, of whom there were above twenty," intending to formally establish trade with tribes represented at the council, to create a stronger relationship that would further exclude the French from operating in the region. During the council, a trader from Maryland named Nolan arrived with 30 gallons of rum and began to sell it to the Indians, much to the dismay of Weiser and Croghan, who were afraid that violence would erupt if the Indians drank too much. Several of the Logstown leaders were also unhappy, as they had petitioned the Pennsylvania provincial government as early as 1734 to restrict the sale of alcohol in Native American communities because of the social and economic problems it caused. Croghan eventually decided to break open the kegs and spill the rum, in accordance with a newly-enacted Pennsylvania statute issued by Lieutenant-Governor George Thomas.
After the gifts had been distributed, the chiefs told Weiser and Croghan, "Our brethren the White Men have indeed tied our hearts to theirs. We at present can but return thanks with an empty hand till another opportunity serves to do it sufficiently...In the meantime, look upon us as your true brothers."
Among those accompanying Weiser was Benjamin Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin, only nineteen at the time, probably sent by his father as a part of his education. Franklin kept a journal of his trip which Lewis Evans used in making his 1749 map. William's journey subsequently inspired his father's keen interest in the frontier.
Visit by Céloron de Blainville, 1749
In 1749, the Comte de La Galissonière wanted to strengthen French control over the Ohio Country, and in August he ordered the military commander at Detroit, Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville to travel down the Ohio River to demonstrate French dominance. Leading a force of eight officers, six cadets, an armorer, 20 soldiers, 180 Canadians, 30 Iroquois and 25 Abenakis, Céloron moved down the river on a flotilla of 23 large boats and birch-bark canoes, on his "lead plate expedition," burying lead plates at six locations where major tributaries entered the Ohio and nailing copper plates bearing royal arms to trees to claim the territory for New France.
Céloron arrived at Logstown on August 8, 1749. He regarded the town as an important point in his expedition, writing in his journal:
I made the men of my detachment brush themselves up as well as possible, so as to give them a better appearance, and I arranged everything...in good order, as I considered this one of the most considerable villages of the Beautiful River (the Ohio River)...When I was in sight of the village I discovered three French and one English flag...I had M. de Joncaire tell them to ...knock down the English [flag], or I would have it taken away myself. This was done immediately, a woman cut the pole and the flag has not been seen since...I fixed my camp securely near the village, and made it appear as strong as it was possible for me. I had body guards placed on the right and the left, I ordered sentinels to be placed at a short distance from each other, and bivouacked for the night.
The Jesuit priest Joseph Pierre de Bonnecamps, who accompanied Céloron, wrote about Logstown, which he called by its French name: "The village of Chiningué is quite new; it is hardly more than five or six years since it was established. The savages who live there are almost all Iroquois; they count about sixty warriors."
Céloron reported that he was informed that warriors in Logstown had planned to attack his camp during the first night, but that his well-armed force, sentinels, and carefully planned encampment discouraged them from doing so. Later that evening "the Chiefs, accompanied by thirty or forty braves, came to salute me." They apologized for the English flag, saying that it had been put on display by some young men "for show...and without perceiving the consequences," adding that "our heart is entirely French."
Céloron described Logstown and its inhabitants briefly:
This village consists of fifty cabins, composed of Iroquois, Channanous, Loups and a part of the men of the villages I had passed, who had come to seek refuge there, and to render them stronger...Besides these three nations there are in this village Iroquois from the Sault St. Louis (Kahnawake), from the Lake of Two Mountains (Mohawks of Kanesatake), and Indians from the Nepisiniques and the Abenakis, with Ontarios and other nations. This gathering forms a bad village, which is seduced by the allurements of cheap merchandise furnished by the English, which keeps them in very bad disposition towards us.
He discovered some British traders living in Logstown. Incensed, he warned them to leave this territory which belonged to France. and wrote a scolding note to the governor of Pennsylvania, which stated in part:
I have been very much surprised to find some merchants of your government in this country, to which England has never had any pretensions. I have treated them with all possible mildness, though I had a right to look upon them as intruders and mere vagrants, their traffic being contrary to the preliminaries of the peace (Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)), signed more than fifteen months ago. I hope, Sir, you will condescend to forbid this trade for the future, which is contrary to the treaties; and that you will warn your traders not to return into these territories; for, if so, they can only impute to themselves the evils which might befall them. I know that our Governor-General would be very sorry to have to resort to violent measures, but he has received positive orders not to allow foreign merchants or traders in his government.
During the night, Céloron was warned by Chabert de Joncaire that preparations were again being made in Logstown to attack the French camp, and he gave orders to his men to prepare for battle. He then sent Joncaire (who had lived in a Seneca village and spoke the language fluently) to advise the chiefs that the French were aware of their plans. Céloron writes that the warriors did not attack, but "filed before my camp and made the accustomed salute." Chiefs from the village visited the French camp the next day with pipes of peace, and Céloron reprimanded them for contemplating violence, adding: "I know how to make war, and those who have made war with us ought to know it, too."
The following day, 10 August 1749, Céloron delivered a prepared message from the Marquis de La Galissonière, the Governor of New France, which described how the English were deceiving the Ohio tribes and planning their "total ruin," adding: "I know the English only inspire you with evil sentiments, and, besides, intend, through their establishments on the Beautiful River, which belongs to me, to take it from me." The aged chief Kakowatcheky, listening in the audience, was apparently outraged. George Croghan, who arrived in Logstown a few days after Céloron had left, told Richard Peters that
Old Cackewatcheka was so exasperated at the Pride & Insolence of the French pretending to say that the Indian's land belonged to them that while he [Céloron] was in the midst of his Speech, the old King being blind and unable to stand without somebody to support him said in a low voice to those next to him, Why don't you shoot this French Fellow - Shoot him - shoot him.
Afterwards, Céloron called the English traders who were living in Logstown to meet with him, "to whom I addressed a summons to retire into their own territory with all their servants...They answered...that they would do so, that they knew well they had no right to trade on the Beautiful River." Bonnecamps wrote in his own diary:
The English there were 10 in number, and one among them was their chief. Monsieur de Céloron had him come, and ordered him, as he had done with the others, to return to his own country. The Englishman, who saw us ready to depart, acquiesced in all that was exacted from him, — firmly resolved, doubtless, to do nothing of the kind, as soon as our backs were turned.
Céloron then distributed gifts and departed from Logstown on 12 August, proceeding downriver to Lower Shawneetown. The expulsion of the British traders and Céloron's condescending attitude irritated the Shawnees, some of whom returned to their home villages, "tearing down and trampling underfoot with contempt" the French copper plates as they went."
Governor James Hamilton sent George Croghan to Logstown as soon as they learned of Céloron's visit, to find out how the Indians had reacted to the French expedition. Croghan arrived in late August, only a few days after Céloron's departure, and reported that the Indians had told Céloron "that the land was their own, and while there were any Indians in those parts they would continue to trade with the English," adding that “to separate them from their brothers, the English, would be like cutting a man in two halves and then expecting him to live.”
Visit by Christopher Gist, 1750
In September, 1750 the Ohio Company ordered Christopher Gist to survey lands along the Ohio to find an area of 200,000 acres that the Company could take possession of, according to a 1749 grant from King George II of England. Gist was instructed to
Search out and discover the Lands upon the River Ohio, & other adjoining Branches of the Mississippi down as low as the great Falls thereof: You are particularly to observe the Ways & Passes thro all the Mountains you cross, & take an exact Account of the Soil, Quality, & Product of the Land, and the Wideness and Deepness of the Rivers, & the several Falls belonging to them, together with the Courses & Bearings of the Rivers & Mountains as near as you conveniently can: You are, also to observe what Nations of Indians inhabit there, their Strength & Numbers, who they trade with, & in what Comodities they deal.
Gist arrived in Logstown on 25 November, describing the path of the Ohio River as it appeared before reaching the town: "Down the River...to Loggs Town, the Lands these last 8 [miles] very rich, the Bottoms above a Mile wide, but on the SE side, scarce a Mile wide, the Hills high and steep. In the Loggs Town, I found scarce any Body but a Parcel of reprobate Indian Traders, the Chiefs of the Indians being out a hunting." In the town he found the people suspicious of his reasons for being there, as it was already clear to the Natives that the colonial governments were hoping to take possession of the land: "The People in this Town, began to enquire my Business, and because I did not readily inform them, they began to suspect me, and said, I was come to settle the Indian's Lands and they knew I should never go Home again safe." Gist invented a reason for his visit, that "I had a Message to deliver the Indians from the King, by Order of the President of Virginia," which "obtained me Quiet and Respect among them." Gist spent one night in the town and left the next day, observing the river downstream from the town: "The Bottoms upon the River below the Logg's Town very rich but narrow, the high Land pretty good but not very rich."
Visit by Chabert de Joncaire, 1750-51
After Céloron returned and reported his experiences, the new Governor-General of New France, the Marquis de la Jonquière, decided to send Philippe-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire back to Logstown to establish a permanent French base there. In early July 1750, Joncaire set out from Montreal with a staff of eight cadets and four soldiers, in addition to two Cayuga guides. They traveled with two canoes loaded with goods, including powder and shot, intended as gifts for the Indians and for trade. They proceeded down the Allegheny to Logstown, where Joncaire had orders to establish a trading-house, two stories high, its walls fitted with crénelés, (loopholes) for defense. Joncaire was directed to explore the region, to learn all he could about the Monongahela River, to find a new route from southern Ohio to Lake Erie, to visit Lower Shawneetown and establish relations with the chiefs there, and finally, to report back to Céloron in Detroit.
Throughout September and October the Pennsylvania government received reports that a Frenchman named "Jean Coeur," or "John Ceur" was traveling up and down the Ohio River, distributing gifts and gaining influence with the Indians.
Croghan returned to Logstown again in November, 1750, to tend to his trading post there. He wrote to Governor James Hamilton on 16 November: "Yesterday, Andrew Montour and I got to this Town, where we found thirty warriors of the Six Nations...They told us that they saw John Coeur [Joncaire] about one hundred and fifty miles up this River at an Indian Town, where he intends to build a Fort if he can get liberty from the Ohio Indians. He has five canoes loaded with goods, and is very generous in making presents to all the chiefs of the Indians that he meets with."
Alarmed by these continued attempts of the French to maintain influence over the Ohio tribes, the Pennsylvania government purchased gifts and sent Croghan and Montour back to Logstown. They arrived on 18 May 1751, and were welcomed warmly. Two days after they arrived, "Mr. loncoeur and one Frenchman more" arrived, accompanied by forty Iroquois warriors. On 21 May Joncaire called a council with the leaders of Logstown, and Croghan was also there. Joncaire requested that the leaders respond to Céloron's speech of August, 1749, challenging them to end all trade relations with the English. In his letter to Governor Hamilton, Croghan noted, "To enforce that speech he gave them a very large belt of wampum," a symbol of the importance of his message. Keeshequeatama, Speaker for the Six Nations, replied:
You desire we may turn our Brothers, the English, away, and not suffer them to come and trade with us again.
I now tell you from our hearts, we will not; for we ourselves brought them here to trade with us and they shall live amongst us as long as there is one of us alive. You are always threatening our Brothers what you will do to them, and in particular, to that man (pointing to George Croghan); now, if you have anything to say to our Brothers, tell it to him if you be a man, as you Frenchmen always say you are, and the Head of all Nations. Our Brothers are the people we will trade with, and not you.
He then returned the belt of wampum, symbolically rejecting the French challenge to end trade with the English.
On 25 May Croghan met with Joncaire, who apologized for urging the leaders of Logstown to end trade with the English, saying that he was following orders from the Governor of Canada, but added that "he was sure the French could not accomplish their designs with the Six Nations, without it could be done by force; which, he said, he believed they [the French] would find to be as difficult as the method they had just tried, and would meet with the like success."
At another meeting with the town's leaders on 28 May, the Speaker of the Six Nations addressed Joncaire directly, saying, "Is it not our land (stamping on the ground, and putting his finger to Joncair's nose)? What right has Onontio (the Governor of New France) to our lands? I desire you may go home directly off our lands and tell Onontio to send us word immediately what was his reason for using our Brothers so, or what he means by such proceedings, that we may know what to do; for I can assure Onontio that we, the Six Nations, will not take such usage."
On 4 June 1751 Joncaire wrote directly to Governor Hamilton from Logstown, in French, with a warning:
Monsieur the Marquis de La Jonquiere, Governor of the whole of New France, having honored me with his orders to watch that the English should make no treaty in the country of the Ohio, I have directed the traders of your government to withdraw. You cannot be ignorant, sir, that all the lands of this region have always belonged to the King of France, and that the English have no right to come there to trade. My superior has commanded me to apprise you of what I have done, in order that you might not affect ignorance of the reasons of it, and he has given me this order with so much the greater reason because it is now two years since Monsieur Céloron, by order of Monsieur de La Galissoniere, then Commandant General, warned many English who were trading with the Indians along the Ohio, against doing so, and they promised him not to return to trade on the lands, as Monsieur Céloron wrote to you.
I have the honor to be, with great respect, Sir, Your very humble and obedient servant,
Joncaire
Lieutenant of a detachment of the Marine
Joncaire apparently abandoned the idea of constructing a blockhouse, and Governor Duquesne began preparations to send French and Canadian troupes de la marine to the south shore of Lake Erie, under the command of Paul Marin de la Malgue, to build a road and construct a series of forts (Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, Fort Machault), and later, Fort Duquesne.
English attempts to build a fort at Logstown
The Ohio Iroquois had been reluctant to allow the English to build forts in the region. As early as March 23, 1731, Seneca chiefs sent a message to Governor Patrick Gordon: "It is [our] land but your people may trade there but not build Stone or Timber houses, but of Bark." Twenty years later, the English began working to obtain permission to build forts.
George Croghan was in Logstown in November, 1750 when the residents mentioned to him that Joncaire was exploring the idea of building a French fort nearby. In his letter of 16 November to Governor Hamilton, Croghan then adds: "We have seen but very few of the Chiefs of the Indians they being all out a hunting, but those we have seen are of opinion that their Brothers the English ought to have a Fort on this River to secure the Trade." Governor Hamilton was evidently anxious to pursue this opportunity, and wanted Croghan to obtain approval from the Logstown sachems for the construction of an English fort, but told Croghan that no official request to build a fort should be made. Instead, Croghan was instructed to find out how the Indians felt about having an English stronghold on the Ohio.
On 29 May 1751, at a council meeting at Logstown between George Croghan, Andrew Montour and representatives of the Six Nations, Croghan reported the following statement from Iroquois speaker Toanahiso:
We expect that you our Brothers will build a Strong House on the River Ohio, that if we should be obliged to engage in a war that we should have a Place to secure our Wives and Children...Now, Brothers, we will take two months to consider and choose out a place fit for that Purpose, and then we will send You word. We hope Brothers that as soon as you receive our Message you will order such a House to be built. Brothers: that you may consider well the necessity of building such a Place of Security to strengthen our arms, and that this, our first request of that kind may have a good effect on your minds.
Governor Hamilton used this statement as evidence to the Pennsylvania Provincial Council that they should pay for the construction of a fort at a site selected by the sachems at Logstown, arguing that unless the fort were built, the English might lose not only Indian support, but control over the fur trade in Ohio. But Andrew Montour contradicted Croghan's account, stating that the Indians had never requested a fort but had only agreed to consider the idea. Montour doubted that they would allow a fort to be built near Logstown. As a result, the Provincial Council decided not to provide funding for a fort, arguing that fair dealings and occasional presents would hold the Indians as allies. At the Treaty of Logstown in June 1752, Tanacharison agreed to the construction of a fort upriver from Logstown, but his figurehead authority as half-king did not allow him to speak for the Onondaga Council. The following summer, Virginia's Ohio Company obtained permission from the Six Nations to build Fort Prince George, but construction did not begin until February of 1754.
Treaty of Logstown, 1752
In 1749 the British Crown awarded the Ohio Company a grant of 500,000 acres in the Ohio Country between the Monongahela and the Kanawha Rivers, provided that the company would settle 100 families within seven years. The Ohio Company was also required to construct a fort and provide a garrison to protect the settlement at their own expense. The Treaty of Logstown was intended to open up land for settlement so that the Ohio Company could meet the seven-year deadline, and to obtain explicit permission to construct a fort.
Between 1 and 13 June 1752, the British held a council at Logstown with representatives of the Six Nations, and the Lenape and Shawnee who had been tributary to them. Colonel Joshua Fry, James Patton, and Lunsford Lomax represented the Colony of Virginia, and Christopher Gist, Thomas Lee, William Trent, and William Beverley represented the Ohio Company.
One of the main purposes of the Logstown treaty conference was to confirm the 1744 Lancaster Treaty in which the Six Nations supposedly gave up territory to Virginia, along the Ohio River on the southeast, as there was anxiety on the part of the colonial authorities as to whether the Indians were still willing to abide by the treaty. The Ohio Company and the Virginia commissioners also wanted the Ohio tribes to grant permission to build a fort at the forks of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers and to allow new English settlements to be established on a half-million acres of unsettled land to the west and north of the Ohio River. The Company wanted to open trade with the Ohio Indians, which the French had forbidden. The Virginia and Pennsylvania delegates reminded the Delawares and Shawnees, "We advise and exhort you to beware of French Councils, and that you will adhere to a strict friendship with us (the English colonies and the Six Nations)."
At first, the Iroquois sachem, Tanacharison (referred to in the treaty as "Thonariss, called by the English the half King"), reminded the Virginia officials that "the lands then sold [by the Six Nations at Lancaster in 1744] were to extend no further to the sunset [west] than the hill on the other [eastern] side of Allagany Hill," but he was eventually forced to cede Iroquois lands beyond the Alleghenies, granting access to the territory the colonial authorities wanted. The Virginia representatives also tried to pretend that Indians would still have access to these lands, stating in the treaty: "Be assur'd that the King, our Father, by purchasing your Lands, had never any Intention of takeing them from you, but that we might live together as one People, & keep them from the French, who wou'd be bad Neighbours."
After much urging from Andrew Montour, Tanacharison reluctantly agreed to allow a British fort to be built at the mouth of the Monongahela River, the site of present-day Pittsburgh.
At the conclusion of the Logstown conference, Tanacharison promised that existing settlements southeast of the Ohio River "shall be unmolested by us, and that we will, as far as in our power, assist and Protect the British Subjects there." In spite of Tanacharison's promises, the Ohio Indians did not agree to allow English settlements in the Ohio region, and Scarouady, the Oneida half king to the Shawnees, warned, "we [the Ohio Indians] intend to keep our country clear of settlements." Tanacharison himself had regrets, and a year later he told the French "we live in a country in between [the French and the English colonies], therefore the land belongs to neither one nor t'other."
Technically, the treaty signed by the "Half-king" was not binding on the part of the Onondaga Council, although the colonial commissioners and the Ohio Company hoped that they would support the treaty, or at least agree to consider additional treaties in the coming months.
Appointment of Shingas as chief of the Lenape
Since the death of Sassoonan in 1747, the Lenape had been without an effective leader. Sassoonan had selected Pisquetomen as his successor, but James Logan saw him as an obstinate and independent obstructionist to Pennsylvania's political agenda. Logan also wanted a leader with the determination to bring those Lenape who had migrated to Ohio back to the Susquehanna region, and felt that Pisquetomen would be unable and unwilling to attempt this. Logan and Weiser actively tried to promote Lappapitton as Sassoonan's successor, but Lappapitton declined out of respect for Pisquetomen. The Iroquois instructed Tanacharison to decide on a leader acceptable to all parties, and at Logstown Tanacharison presented Shingas as his choice, arguing "that is our right to give you a King" to represent the Lenape in "all publick Business" between the Lenape, the Six Nations, and the British. Tanacharison announced to the Virginia commissioners, "we have given our Cousins, the Delawars, a King, who lives there, we desire you will look upon him as a Chief of that Nation." Shingas was absent from the treaty conference, so Tamaqua "stood proxy for his brother and was presented with a lace hat and jacket and suit."
French response to the treaty
The French wanted to maintain control of the Ohio Valley because it lay between their two great provinces of Canada and La Louisiane, and English control of the region would make French commerce, defense and communication slower, more expensive, and less secure. They responded to the news of the treaty by sending troops to construct and garrison a series of forts, intended to solidify their military presence in the Ohio region, intimidate the Native American inhabitants, and keep the British out. Francois Bigot, intendant of New France since 1748, wrote this summary of the French plan on 26 October 1752:
It is necessary to send 2000 Frenchmen with 200 of our domiciliated savages to this river (the Ohio)...in the spring; to build a store house at the lower end of this portage on the shore of Lake Erie, and another at the end of this same portage on Lake Chatakouin; likewise, to make a fort at La Paille Coupée (Brokenstraw Creek, later the site of Fort Le Boeuf) where M. de Joncaire is located, another at the Written Rock (McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, below Pittsburgh) or at Chiningué (Logstown), and a third at Sonhioto (the Scioto River, site of Lower Shawneetown). The garrisons of these forts will be taken from the 2000 men.
In late 1753 (the exact date is unknown) the sachems at Logstown received a letter from Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre stating:
I am commanded to build four strong Houses, viz. at Weningo, Mohongialo Forks, Logs-Town, and Beaver Creek, and this I will do...All the Land and Waters on this Side Allegheny Hills are mine, on the other Side theirs; this is agreed on between the two Crowns over the great Waters. I do not like your selling your Lands to the English; they shall draw you into no more foolish Bargains. I will take Care of your Lands for you, and of you.
Visit by George Washington, 1753
In late 1753, Virginia Governor Dinwiddie appointed newly-commissioned Major George Washington as a special envoy to the French commander at Fort Le Boeuf to demand that the French vacate the Ohio Valley territory, which the British had claimed. Washington was also ordered to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces.
Washington left Williamsburg, Virginia on 30 October with eight men, heading to Logstown to meet with Iroquois allies. On his way, he stopped at the homestead of Christopher Gist near Wills Creek and Gist joined them.
Arriving in Logstown on 23 November, Washington held council with Shingas, Scarouady, and Tanacharison, who had recently returned from a journey to Fort Le Boeuf himself. The chiefs provided Washington with information about the best route to Fort Le Boeuf, and called a council of sachems. Washington explained his mission, and received assurances that the Indians and the English "were brothers." Tanacharison told Washington that "he cou’d not consent to our going without a Guard, for fear some Accident shou’d befall us," and volunteered to accompany Washington, along with Kaghswaghtaniunt (White Thunder), Guyasuta, and Jeskakake, on his journey to Fort Le Boeuf. Their purpose was to return three belts of Wampum sent by the French as a symbol of friendship. Returning the wampum was a gesture intended to show Washington that the sachems at Logstown were allied with the English. Washington wrote in his diary that "I knew that returning of Wampum was the abolishing of Agreements; & giving this up was shaking of all Dependence upon the French."
While at Logstown, Washington encountered four French deserters who had fled from a French military supply convoy from Fort de Chartres in Illinois, under the command of Captain Demazilière and headed towards Lake Erie, where a French military force under the command of Paul Marin de la Malgue was building a road between Fort Presque Isle, Fort Le Boeuf, and Fort Machault. The deserters had learned of La Malgue's sudden death on 29 October and had taken refuge in Lower Shawneetown. They were on their way to Philadelphia in the company of an English trader.
Washington and his men left Logstown on 30 November and reached Venango at French Creek on 4 December, where they were warmly greeted by Philippe-Thomas Chabert de Joncaire, who was in command of the French troops at Venango. Joncaire provided Washington's men with wine and brandy, and the Indians, when intoxicated, declared their loyalty to the French. It took Washington three days to persuade them to move on to Fort Le Boeuf, where they met the French commander Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Tanacharison tried to return the wampum to Saint-Pierre, "who evaded taking it, & made many fair Promises of Love & Friendship; said he wanted to live in Peace & trade amicably with them; as a Proof of which, he wou’d send some Goods immediately down to the Logstown for them." The French refused to consider leaving the area, and gave Washington a reply to deliver personally to Williamsburg.
French attempts to build a fort at Logstown
After Washington's return to Williamsburg, Governor Dinwiddie wrote to Governor James De Lancey of New York about Washington's mission, stating:
On his arrival he found that the French had taken a post on a branch of the River Ohio, and built a Fort...and that they had in readiness materials for other forts, which they declared their intentions to erect on the River, and particularly at Logstown, the place destined for their chief residence, as soon as the season would permit them to embark.
Tanacharison returned to Logstown on 15 January 1754, escorted by a French detachment under Michel Maray de La Chauvignerie which set up a temporary post nearby. George Croghan had arrived in Logstown the day before, accompanied by the trader John Patten, and observed the arrival of the French troops, "an Ensign, a Sergeant, and Fifteen Soldiers." The next day, as Patten was walking around the town, the French commandant ordered him to be arrested. Tanacharison and Croghan protested vigorously, and Croghan noted that the residents of Logstown seemed very opposed to the presence of French soldiers in the town. The French decided to "board their Canoes and set off to a small Town of the Six Nations about two Miles below the Log's Town, where [La Chauvignerie] intends to stay till the Rest of their Army come down." Correspondence between La Chauvignerie and his superior at Fort Le Boeuf, Saint-Pierre, describe the French soldiers as suffering from hunger and cold, as firewood was difficult to find. La Chauvignerie writes on February 10: "We are on the eve of being without food...The scarcity of wood which prevails in this place causes us all to be exposed to the harshness of the weather...I shall take every care to keep the tribes as peaceful as possible until a reinforcement arrives."
Saint-Pierre was evidently planning to construct a fort near Logstown and to drive away any English settlers. Governor Duquesne wrote orders to Captain Michel Péan:
When Sieur Péan arrives at Chiningué, if Sieur de Contrecoeur thinks it advisable, he will put his troops to work strengthening the establishment of the fort and, if necessary, enlarging it, in order to take care of as many as two hundred men in garrison for an entire year...When this fort is entirely finished or in the final stages of completion by its garrison, Sieur Péan...will continue...to the Rivière à la Roche. In case he found on his way some English establishments not farther than six leagues from the river, he would call on them to retire, would give the plunder to the savages and destroy these settlements."
The French fort at Logstown was to be built by Contrecoeur, whose original orders had been to proceed down the Allegheny and Ohio and establish a military base there. The French had been planning to build a fort at Logstown since 1753, and had sent a sizeable French force to the south shore of Lake Erie to build roads and clear the rivers of rocks and driftwood so that boats could bring supplies. Problems with supplies and illness among the troops had slowed progress, however, and the sudden death of Marin, the commander, at Fort Le Boeuf on 29 October forced the French to postpone the project.
Then on 4 March 1754, La Chauvignerie discovered English soldiers building Fort Prince George at the confluence of the Ohio and the Monongahela rivers. Contrecoeur seized it on 18 April 1754, and razed it to build Fort Duquesne. The French then decided that a fort at Logstown was unnecessary, particularly because of the lack of trees for lumber.
Destruction of Logstown, 1754
A few days before Washington's surrender at Fort Necessity on 3 July, 1754, Scarouady burned down Logstown. Washington's journal entry for 26 June, 1754, reads: "An Indian arrived bearing the news that Monacatoocha (Scarouady) had burned his village, Logstown, and was gone by water with his people to Red-Stone, and might be expected there in two days." Henry Wilson Temple reports that the town's inhabitants destroyed it "fearing lest they might be punished for their alliance with the French." About 200 of the town's Iroquois, Shawnee and Lenape residents moved to Fort Cumberland, and later to the Aughwick Valley near present-day Shirleysburg, Pennsylvania.
Later years
Rebuilding, 1755
In March, 1755, French forces began rebuilding the village. Joseph Gaspard Chaussegros de Lery passed the site of the town on 5 April, 1755 and refers to it as the "Little Chaouanon Village." Progress was initially slow. Charles Stuart, who was taken captive by a group of Lenape and Shawnee warriors in October, 1755, was taken to Logstown in December and reported: "When we came to Loggs town we found all the Cabbins waste but Three."
In December, 1755, George Croghan hired a Lenape Indian named Jo Hickman to visit Kittanning and Logstown and bring back information on the number of warriors and European prisoners in each place, as Indian raids on settlements had become frequent, and the Pennsylvania Provincial Council was contemplating sending a military force to attack one or both of these communities. At Logstown Hickman observed "about 100 Indians and 30 English prisoners."
Christian Frederick Post visited the town in December, 1758, and wrote in his journal: "I came to Logs Town, situated on a hill. On the east end is a great piece of low land, where the Old Log's Town used to stand. In the New Log's Town, the French have built about thirty houses for the Indians."
John McCullough was 8 years old when he was captured by Lenape warriors in July, 1756, and brought to "Shenango," (a corruption of Chiningué). In his captivity narrative he reports living there with a Lenape family for two and a half years and states that Logstown "lay in a semi-circular form, round the bend of a creek." He refers to an upper town and a lower town. In late 1758, he moved to "Kseek-he-ooing" (possibly Saucunk) and was released in December, 1764, along with over 200 other captives, by order of Colonel Henry Bouquet.
Abandonment, 1758
In late 1758, Logtown's inhabitants were invited to establish a new town on the Upper Scioto, at Pickaway Plains, by the former residents of Lower Shawneetown, who had abandoned their village in November 1758. On 26 November, George Croghan and Andrew Montour proceeded down the river to Shingas's Town (Saucunk). In his journal, Croghan writes:
Set off at seven o'clock, in company with six Delawares, and that night arrived at Logs Town, which we found deserted by its late inhabitants. On inquiring the reason of their speedy flight, the Delawares informed me the Lower Shanoes [inhabitants of Lower Shawneetown] had removed off the River up Sihotta (Scioto), to a great plain called Moguck, and sent for those that lived here to come there and live with them, and quit the French, and at the same time the deputies of the Six Nations, which I had sent from Easton, came and hastened their departure. In this Town [Logstown] is forty houses, all built for them by the French, and lived here about one hundred and twenty warriors.
Henry Bouquet passed through the area in 1764, en route with 1,500 troops to Ohio, writing in his journal:
Friday, October 5. In this day's march, the Army passed through Loggstown, situated seventeen miles and an half, fifty-seven perches by the path from Fort Pitt. This place was noted before the last war for the great trade carried on there by the English and French, but its inhabitants abandoned it in the year 1758. The lower town extended about sixty perches over a rich bottom to the foot of a low, steep ridge, on the summit of which, near the declivity, stood the upper town, commanding a most agreeable prospect over the lower and quite across the Ohio, which is quite five hundred yards wide here, and by its majestic, easy current adds much to the beauty of the place.
George Croghan returned to the area in 1765. His journal entry for 16 May says:
We set off at seven o'clock in the morning, and at ten o'clock arrived at the Logs Town, an old settlement of the Shawnesse, about seventeen miles from Fort Pitt, where we put ashore, and viewed the remains of that village, which was situated on a high bank, on the south side of the Ohio river, a fine fertile country round it.
George Washington returned to the area and noted in his journal that on 21 October 1770 he "breakfasted at Logstown" with George Croghan and Alexander McKee, but says nothing of the community or its inhabitants. On 5 September 1772, the Reverend David McClure visited John Gibson, a trader, at "his house in Logs Town, which was the only house there."
Arthur Lee, an Indian Commissioner, visited Fort McIntosh in 1784. His journal entry for December 17 begins: "We embarked on the Monongahela, and soon entered the Ohio...Four miles down the River brings you to Montour's Island...The next place is Loggstown, which was formerly a settlement on both sides of the Ohio, and the place where the Treaty of Lancaster was confirmed by the Western Indians."
Legionville, 1792
In 1792, General Anthony Wayne established a military training base for the newly formed Legion of the United States on ground situated where Logstown's "upper town" had been. Legionville became the first basic training camp for regular Army recruits, and was the first facility established expressly for this purpose. In March, 1793 the Seneca leader Guyasuta, a former resident of Logstown, was invited to Legionville to meet with General Wayne for peace talks. The site was vacated in 1793 after the troops left to fight in the Northwest Indian War.
Archaeological excavations
The only known archaeological studies of the Logstown site took place in 1940 and 1942. The 1955 Annals of the Carnegie Museum states: "One unsuccessful attempt has been made [in 1942] to locate the late Historic village known as Logstown."
In 2011 an archaeological survey of the Beaver Creek area noted that the Logstown site has never been
...formally excavated by professional archaeologists. Advancement of the Colonial period...had a devastating effect on the archaeological record of the last organized native villages of the western part of the state. Further destruction occurred as industry and development expanded, and any remains that survived the initial onslaught [were] likely wiped away.
In 2019 the National Park Service conducted a survey of the route traveled by George Washington from Williamsburg, Virginia to Fort LeBoeuf between October, 1753 and January, 1754, to determine the feasibility of designating this a National Historic Trail. The report notes that "The site of Logs Town, an Indian village that Washington visited in 1753, also has...potential for an archeological survey."
See also
Legionville
Lower Shawneetown
History of Pennsylvania
French and Indian War
History of Pittsburgh
Meshemethequater
Opessa Straight Tail
Kakowatcheky
Further reading
Logstown on the Ohio (1894)
1752 Treaty of Logstown
Henry Wilson Temple, Logstown (1918)
George P. Donehoo, "Logstown," excerpt from "A History of Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania," in Milestones, Vol 3, No 2. Spring 1977
The Story of Logstown Revisited: "Logstown: A Legacy Lost" published by the Logstown Associates Historical Society, South News, September 4, 1997
Jenny Wagner, "Native Americans shaped Beaver County, from its land to its Politics," The Times Online, Feb 25 2015
Shawn MacIntyre, "Logstown." Posted on January 7, 2020
Leon J. Pollom, "Logstown1: You Don’t Know Logstown," Now Then, Pittsburgh: Interesting Bits of the Past. Posted November 4, 2018
Leon J. Pollom, "Logstown2: Where Drowned Trees Went," Now Then, Pittsburgh: Interesting Bits of the Past. Posted November 7, 2018
References
Iroquois
French and Indian War
Native American populated places
1720s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
History of Pittsburgh
Populated places established in 1725
Geography of Beaver County, Pennsylvania
History of Beaver County, Pennsylvania
Shawnee history
Native American history of Pennsylvania
George Washington
Peace treaties of the United States
Former populated places in Pennsylvania
Former Native American populated places in the United States
1754 disestablishments |
4348985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Skull%20and%20Bones%20members | List of Skull and Bones members | Skull and Bones, a secret society at Yale University, was founded in 1832. Until 1971, the organization published annual membership rosters, which were kept at Yale's library. In this list of notable Bonesmen, the number in parentheses represents the cohort year of Skull and Bones, as well as their graduation year.
There are no official rosters published after 1982 and membership for later years is speculative. Some news organizations refer to them as a power elite.
Founding members (1832–33 academic year)
Frederick Ellsworth Mather (1833), Democratic member of the New York State Assembly (1854–1857)
Phineas Timothy Miller (1833), American physician
William Huntington Russell (1833), Connecticut State Legislator, Major General
Alphonso Taft (1833), U.S. Attorney General (1876–1877), Secretary of War (1876), Ambassador to Austria-Hungary (1882) and Russia (1884–1885), father of William Howard Taft
George Ingersoll Wood (1833), American clergyman
19th century
1830s
Asahel Hooker Lewis (1833), newspaper editor and member of the Ohio General Assembly
John Wallace Houston (1834), Secretary of State of Delaware (1841–1844), associate judge Delaware Superior Court (1855–1893)
John Hubbard Tweedy (1834), delegate to the United States Congress from Wisconsin Territory (1847–1848)
William Henry Washington (1834), Whig U.S. Congressman from North Carolina (1841–1843)
John Edward Seeley (1835), US Representative from New York
Thomas Anthony Thacher (1835), Professor of Latin at Yale University (1842–1886)
Henry Champion Deming (1836), U.S. Representative from Connecticut
William Maxwell Evarts (1837), U.S. Secretary of State, Attorney General, Senator, grandson of Roger Sherman
Chester Smith Lyman (1837), astronomer, Yale professor of Industrial Mechanics and Physics
Allen Ferdinand Owen (1837), US Representative from Georgia
Benjamin Silliman Jr. (1837), Yale professor of chemistry
Morrison Remmick Waite (1837), Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
Joseph B. Varnum Jr. (1838), Speaker of the New York State Assembly
Richard Dudley Hubbard (1839), Governor of Connecticut, US Representative
1840s
James Mason Hoppin (1840), Professor emeritus at Yale
John Perkins Jr. (1840), U.S. Representative from Louisiana, and then a senator in the Confederate States Congress
William Taylor Sullivan Barry (1841), U.S. Representative from Mississippi
John Andrew Peters (1842), US Representative from Maine
Benjamin Tucker Eames (1843), US Representative from Rhode Island
Roswell Hart (1843), US Representative from New York
Henry Stevens (1843), bibliographer
Orris Sanford Ferry (1844), US Senator from Connecticut, US Representative, US Brigadier General
William Barrett Washburn (1844), US Senator, Governor of Massachusetts.
Constantine Canaris Esty (1845), US Representative from Massachusetts
Richard Taylor (1845), Confederate General, Louisiana State Senator
Leonard Eugene Wales (1845), US District Court judge
Henry Baldwin Harrison (1846), Governor of Connecticut
Stephen Wright Kellogg (1846), US Representative from Connecticut
Rensselaer Russell Nelson (1846), US District Court judge
John Donnell Smith (1847), botanical researcher, Captain in the Confederate Army
Dwight Foster (1848), Massachusetts Attorney General (1861–64), and a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (1866–69)
Augustus Brandegee (1849), US Representative from Connecticut.
Timothy Dwight V (1849), Yale President (1886–1899)
Francis Miles Finch (1849), New York Court of Appeals judge, Cornell University professor
1850s
Ellis Henry Roberts (1850), US Representative from New York
Richard Jacobs Haldeman (1851), Democratic member of the US House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
William Wallace Crapo (1852), US Representative from Massachusetts
Daniel Coit Gilman (1852), president of the University of California, Johns Hopkins University, and the Carnegie Institution, founder of the Russell Trust Association
George Griswold Sill (1852), Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut
Andrew Dickson White (1853), cofounder and first President of Cornell University
Carroll Cutler (1854), President of Western Reserve College, now known as Case Western Reserve University.
Luzon Buritt Morris (1854), Governor of Connecticut
William DeWitt Alexander (1855), educator, linguist, and surveyor of Hawaii
Chauncey Depew (1856), Vanderbilt railroad attorney, US Senator
Eli Whitney Blake Jr. (1857), American scientist and educator, great-nephew of Eli Whitney
John Thomas Croxton (1857), Civil War Brigadier General, United States Ambassador to Bolivia
Moses Coit Tyler (1857), professor of history at Cornell University
Burton Norvell Harrison (1859), private secretary to Jefferson Davis
Eugene Schuyler (1859), US Ambassador, author and translator
1860s
Lowndes Henry Davis (1860), US Representative from Missouri
William Walter Phelps (1860), US Representative from New Jersey
Simeon Eben Baldwin (1861), Governor and Chief Justice of the State of Connecticut, son of Roger Sherman Baldwin
Anthony Higgins (1861), US Senator
Edward Rowland Sill (1861), poet, professor at the University of California
Daniel Henry Chamberlain (1862), Governor of South Carolina
Franklin MacVeagh (1862), US Secretary of the Treasury
Henry Farnum Dimock (1863), Whitney family attorney, Director of the Yale Corporation
William Collins Whitney (1863), US Secretary of the Navy<ref>The University Magazine, vol. 5 no. 5, November 1891</ref>
Charles Fraser MacLean (1864), New York Supreme Court judge
John William Sterling (1864), lawyer, co-founder Shearman & Sterling
John Manning Hall (1866), lawyer, politician, and railroad executive
George Chandler Holt (1866), US District Court Judge
Henry Morton Dexter (1867), clergyman, editor, author
Albert Elijah Dunning (1867), American theologian and author
Thomas Hedge (1867), US Representative from Iowa
George Peabody Wetmore (1867), US Senator and Governor of Rhode Island
Chauncey Bunce Brewster (1868), Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut
LeBaron Bradford Colt (1868), US Senator and Circuit Court Judge
Wilson Shannon Bissell (1869), Postmaster General
Henry Warren Raymond (1869), [[Presidential appointee, United States Solicitor, Department of State, son of Henry Jarvis Raymond, founder NY Times, and prominent in forming the Republican Party
1870s
William H. Welch (1870), Dean of Johns Hopkins University
Frederick Collin (1871), judge, mayor of Elmira, New York
Edwin Forrest Sweet (1871), US Representative from Michigan
Thomas Thacher (1871), lawyer
William Kneeland Townsend (1871), US Appeals Court judge
George Foot Moore (1872), author, Professor of theology at Harvard University
Theodore Salisbury Woolsey (1872), co-founder of the Yale Review, professor of international law
Eben Alexander (1873), American scholar, educator, dean and ambassador
Samuel Oscar Prentice (1873), Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Connecticut
Frank Bigelow Tarbell (1873), classicist, professor of Greek and history at Yale, Harvard, and the University of Chicago
Edward Rudolph Johnes (1873), Attorney and Author
Almet Francis Jenks (1875), Justice of the New York Supreme Court
John Patton Jr. (1875), US Senator
Edward Curtis Smith (1875), Governor of Vermont
Walker Blaine (1876), United States Department of State official
Charles Newell Fowler (1876), US Representative from New Jersey
Arthur Twining Hadley (1876), Yale President 1899–1921
Roger Sherman Baldwin Foster (1878), lawyer and author
Tudor Storrs Jenks (1878), author
William Howard Taft (1878), 27th President of the United States, Chief Justice of the United States, Secretary of War
Edward Baldwin Whitney (1878), New York Supreme Court justice
Lloyd Wheaton Bowers (1879), Solicitor General of the United States
Ambrose Tighe (1879), member Minnesota House of Representatives
Timothy Lester Woodruff (1879), Lieutenant Governor of New York
1880s
Walter Camp (1880), father of American football and exercise proponent
Sidney Catlin Partridge (1880) Bishop of Kyoto, Japan, Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of West Missouri
Henry Waters Taft (1880), lawyer, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft
Edwin Edgerton Aiken (1881), missionary
Thomas Burr Osborne (1881), chemist, co-discoverer of Vitamin A
Benjamin Brewster (1882), Bishop of Maine and Missionary Bishop of Western Colorado
William Phelps Eno (1882), traffic planner called the "Father of Traffic Safety"
James Campbell (1882), son of businessman Robert Campbell, Harvard Law 1888.
Elihu Brintnal Frost (1883), lawyer, president of several early submarine companies
Eliakim Hastings Moore (1883), mathematician, namesake of the Moore–Penrose pseudoinverse
Joseph Robinson Parrott (1883), president of the Florida East Coast Railway
Horace Dutton Taft (1883), educator, founder of the Taft School
Wilbur Franklin Booth (1884), US federal judge
Maxwell Evarts (1884), member of the Vermont House of Representatives, attorney for E. H. Harriman
Frank Bosworth Brandegee (1885), US Representative and Senator
Alfred Cowles Jr. (1886), lawyer, director Chicago TribuneEdward Johnson Phelps (1886), president of Northern Trust Safe Deposit Company
Clinton Larue Hare (1887), lawyer, college football coach
George Griswold Haven Jr. (1887), businessman
Oliver Gould Jennings (1887), financier, member of Connecticut House of Representatives
William Kent (1887), United States Congressman for California
Irving Fisher (1888), economist and eugenicist
Richard Melancthon Hurd (1888), real estate executive
Amos Alonzo Stagg (1888), college football Hall of Fame coach
Charles Otis Gill (1888), clergyman, author, college football coach
Henry L. Stimson (1888), Governor-General of the Philippines, US Secretary of War, US Secretary of State
Gifford Pinchot (1889), First Chief of U.S. Forest Service
George Washington Woodruff (1889), College Hall of Fame football coach, Acting Secretary of the Interior and Pennsylvania Attorney General
1890s
Thomas F. Bayard Jr. (1890), US Senator
Fairfax Harrison (1890), president Southern Railway Company
Percy Hamilton Stewart (1890), US Representative from New Jersey
Frederic Collin Walcott (1891), US Senator
Hugh Aiken Bayne (1892), lawyer Strong & Cadwalader, Adjutant General's Office and War Department during World War I
Howell Cheney (1892), manufacturer, founded Howell Cheney Technical High School
Benjamin Lewis Crosby Jr. (1892), law student and football coach
Clive Day (1892), Professor of economic history at Yale
Henry S. Graves (1892), co-founder and first Dean of Yale School of Forestry, 2nd chief of the U.S. Forest Service, founding member and 4th president of the Society of American Foresters
James William Husted Jr. (1892), US Representative
Pierre Jay (1892), first chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Thomas Lee McClung (1892), Treasurer of the United States, College Football Hall of Fame player
Edson Fessenden Gallaudet (1893), aviation pioneer
Thomas Cochran (1894), partner in J.P. Morgan & Company
John Howland (1894), pediatrician at the Johns Hopkins Hospital
Ralph Delahaye Paine (1894), journalist and author
Harry Payne Whitney (1894), investment banker, husband of Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney
Frank Seiler Butterworth (1895), member Connecticut State Senate, All-American football player and coach
Francis Burton Harrison (1895), US Representative from New York, Governor-General of the Philippines
Frank Augustus Hinkey (1895), zinc smelting business, College Football Hall of Fame player and coach
Jules Henri de Sibour (1896), architect
Anson Phelps Stokes (1896), clergyman and Secretary of Yale University (1899–1921)
Samuel Brinckerhoff Thorne (1896), mining engineer and executive, College Football Hall of Fame
Henry Sloane Coffin (1897), president of the Union Theological Seminary
Clarence Mann Fincke (1897), All-America football player
Amos Richards Eno Pinchot (1897), Progressive leader
James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. (1898), U.S. Senator from New York
William Payne Whitney (1898), Whitney family businessman and philanthropist
Frederick H. Brooke (1899), architect from Washington, D.C.
James McDevitt Magee (1899), US Representative from Pennsylvania
Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt (1899), member of the Vanderbilt family
20th century
1900s
Frederick Baldwin Adams (1900), railroad executive
Ashley Day Leavitt (1900), Congregational minister, Harvard Congregational Church, Brookline, Massachusetts, frequent lecturer and public speaker
Percy Rockefeller (1900), director of Brown Brothers Harriman, Standard Oil, and Remington Arms
Charles Edward Adams (1904), director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Russell Cheney (1904), American painter and noted portrait artist.
Thomas Day Thacher (1904), US District Court judge, Solicitor General
John Gillespie Magee (1906), Yale Chaplain, documenter of the Rape of Nanking
Foster Rockwell (1906), All-America football player and coach
William McCormick Blair (1907), American financier, heir to the McCormick reaper fortune
Hugh Smith Knox (1907), All-America football player
Samuel Finley Brown Morse (1907), developer and conservationist, All-America football player
Lucius Horatio Biglow (1908), All-America football player and coach
Charles Seymour (1908), President of Yale (1937–1951), founding member of The Council on Foreign Relations
Harold Stanley (1908), co-founder of Morgan Stanley
Harvey Hollister Bundy (1909), Assistant Secretary of State (1931–1933)
Allen Trafford Klots (1909), New York City lawyer and president of the New York City Bar Association, partner at Winthrop & Stimson
1910s
Edward Harris Coy (1910), College Football Hall of Fame player
Albert DeSilver (1910), co-founder American Civil Liberties Union
George Leslie Harrison (1910), President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Stephen Philbin (1910), All-American football player, lawyer
Robert Alphonso Taft (1910), US Senator from Ohio
Robert Abbe Gardner (1912), two-time U.S. Amateur-winning golfer
Gerald Clery Murphy (1912), painter
Alfred Cowles III (1913), economist, founder of the Cowles Commission
Averell Harriman (1913), businessman, founding partner in Harriman Brothers & Company and later Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., U.S. Ambassador and Secretary of Commerce, Governor of New York, Chairman and CEO of the Union Pacific Railroad, Brown Brothers & Harriman, and the Southern Pacific Railroad
Henry Holman Ketcham (1914), College Football Hall of Fame
Edwin Arthur Burtt (1915), philosopher
Archibald MacLeish (1915), poet and diplomat
Wesley Marion Oler Jr. (1916), American baseball player and track and field athlete, competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics
Howard Phelps Putnam (1916), poet
Donald Ogden Stewart (1916), author and screenwriter, Academy Award-winner for The Philadelphia StoryPrescott Bush (1917), founding partner in Brown Brothers Harriman & Co., US Senator from Connecticut. His nickname was "The Japanese".
E. Roland Harriman (1917), co-founder Harriman Brothers & Company
Harry William LeGore (1917), All-America college football player
H. Neil Mallon (1917), CEO of Dresser Industries
Kenneth Farrand Simpson (1917), member of the United States House of Representatives from New York
Howard Malcolm Baldrige (1918), US Representative from Nebraska
F. Trubee Davison (1918), WWI aviator, Assistant US Secretary of War, New York State Representative, Director of Personnel at the CIA
John Chipman Farrar (1918), publisher, founder of Farrar & Rinehart and Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Artemus Lamb Gates (1918), businessman, US Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air
Robert A. Lovett (1918), US Secretary of Defense
Charles J. Stewart (1918), first chairman of Manufacturers Hanover Trust Company
Charles Phelps Taft II (1918), son of President William Howard Taft, Mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio
John Martin Vorys (1918), US Representative from Ohio
1920s
Lewis Greenleaf Adams (1920), architect
Briton Hadden (1920), co-founder of Time-Life Enterprises
Francis Thayer Hobson (1920), chair of William Morrow
David Sinton Ingalls (1920), WWI Navy Flying Ace, Ohio State Representative, Assistant Secretary of the Navy
Henry Luce (1920), co-founder of Time-Life Enterprises
Charles Harvey Bradley Jr. (1921), businessman
Juan Terry Trippe (1921), Founder Pan American Airways
Stanley Woodward (1922), US Foreign Service officer, State Department Chief of Protocol, US Ambassador to Canada
John Sherman Cooper (1923), US Senator from Kentucky
Russell Davenport (1923), editor of Fortune magazine; created Fortune 500 list
F. O. Matthiessen (1923), historian, literary critic
Edwin Foster Blair (1924), lawyer
Walter Edwards Houghton (1924), historian of Victorian literature, compiler of The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals, 1824–1900Charles Merville Spofford (1924), lawyer and NATO official
John Allen Miner Thomas (1924), author
Marvin Allen Stevens (1925), orthopedic surgeon, College Football Hall of Fame player and coach
James Jeremiah Wadsworth (1927), diplomat, US Ambassador to the UN
George Herbert Walker Jr. (1927), financier and co-founder of the New York Mets; uncle to President George Herbert Walker Bush
John Rockefeller Prentice (1928), lawyer and cattle breeder
Lanny Ross (1928), singer.
Granger Kent Costikyan (1929), partner Brown Brothers Harriman
George Crile Jr. (1929), surgeon
Ralph Delahaye Paine Jr. (1929), editor and publisher (Fortune)
1930s
Charles Alderson Janeway (1930), Professor of Pediatrics at Harvard Medical School
H. J. Heinz II (1931), heir to H. J. Heinz Company; father of H. John Heinz III
Lewis Abbot Lapham (1931), banking and shipping executive
John M. Walker (1931), physician, investment banker
Frederick Baldwin Adams Jr. (1932), bibliophile, director of the Pierpont Morgan Library
Samuel Hazard Gillespie Jr. (1932), U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, senior counsel at Davis Polk & Wardwell
Tex McCrary (1932), journalist, public relations and political strategist to President Eisenhower
Eugene O'Neill Jr. (1932), professor of Greek literature, son of Eugene O'Neill
Francis Judd Cooke (1933), composer
Samuel Carnes Collier (1935), advertising, racecar driver
Lyman Spitzer (1935), theoretical physicist and namesake of the NASA Spitzer Space Telescope
Sonny Tufts (1935), actor
Jonathan Brewster Bingham (1936), U.S. Representative (D-New York)
Brendan Gill (1936), author and New Yorker contributor
John Hersey (1936), author
John Merrill Knapp (1936), musicologist, professor at Princeton University
William H. Orrick Jr. (1937), United States federal judge, brother of Andrew Downey Orrick
Potter Stewart (1937), U.S. Supreme Court Justice
J. Richardson Dilworth (1938), Rockefeller family lawyer
Clinton Frank (1938), advertising, College Football Hall of Fame and Heisman Trophy-winning player
Albert Hessberg II (1938), lawyer, first Jewish member of Skull and Bones
William P. Bundy (1939), State Department liaison for the Bay of Pigs invasion, brother of McGeorge Bundy
William Welch Kellogg (1939), climatologist, associate director National Center for Atmospheric Research
1940s
McGeorge Bundy (1940), Special Assistant for National Security Affairs; National Security Advisor; Professor of History, brother of William Bundy
Andrew Downey Orrick (1940), acting chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission
Barry Zorthian (1941), American diplomat, most notably press officer in Saigon for years during Vietnam WarOral history , conducted by Richard B. Verrone, Ph.D., The Vietnam Archive at Texas Tech University, 2006. Pp 27–8. Retrieved 2011-02-11.
David Acheson (1943), author, lawyer, son of Dean Acheson
Harold Harris Healy Jr. (1943), lawyer, partner Debevoise & Plimpton
James L. Buckley (1944), U.S. Senator (R-New York 1971–1977) and brother of William F. Buckley Jr.Bob Dart, "Skull and bones a secret shared by Bush, Kerry", The Gazette, March 7, 2004
John Bannister Goodenough (1944), solid-state physicist at the University of Texas at Austin and winner of the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Townsend Walter Hoopes II (1944), historian, Under Secretary of the Air Force (1967–69)
William Singer Moorhead (1944), US Representative from Pennsylvania
James Whitmore (1944), actor
John Chafee (1947), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy and Governor of Rhode Island, father of Lincoln Chafee
Josiah Augustus Spaulding (1947), lawyer, partner Bingham Dana & Gould
Charles S. Whitehouse (1947), CIA Agent (1947–1956), U.S. Ambassador to Laos and Thailand in the 1970s.
Thomas William Ludlow Ashley (1948), US Representative from Ohio
George H. W. Bush (1948), 41st President of the United States, 11th Director of Central Intelligence (CIA), son of Prescott Bush, father of George W. Bush. His Skull and Bones nickname was "Magog".
William Sloane Coffin (1949), CIA agent (1950–1953), clergyman and peace activist
Daniel Pomeroy Davison (1949), banker, president United States Trust Corporation
Tony Lavelli (1949), basketball player
David McCord Lippincott (1949), novelist and composer
Charles Edwin Lord II (1949), banker, Vice-Chairman of the Export-Import Bank of the United States
1950s
William F. Buckley Jr. (1950), founder of National Review, former CIA officer
William Henry Draper III (1950), Chair of United Nations Development Programme and Export-Import Bank of the United States
Evan G. Galbraith (1950), US Ambassador to France; managing director of Morgan Stanley
Thomas Henry Guinzburg (1950), president Viking Press
Victor William Henningsen Jr. (1950), president Henningsen Foods Inc.
Raymond Price (1951), speechwriter for Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Bush.
Fergus Reid Buckley (1952), author and public speaker
Charles Sherman Haight Jr. (1952), Connecticut District Court judge
Jonathan James Bush (1953), banker, son of Prescott Bush
William H. Donaldson (1953), appointed chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission by George W. Bush; founding dean of Yale School of Management; co-founder of Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette investment firm
John Birnie Marshall (1953), Olympic medal-winning swimmer
James Price McLane (1953), Olympic medal-winning swimmer
George Herbert Walker III (1953), US Ambassador to Hungary
David McCullough (1955), U.S. historian; two-time Pulitzer Prize winner
Caldwell Blakeman Esselstyn Jr. (1956), Olympic medal-winning rower, physician, author
Jack Edwin McGregor (1956), Pennsylvania State Senator, founder Pittsburgh Penguins
R. Inslee Clark Jr. (1957), former Director of Undergraduate Admissions for Yale College; former Headmaster of Horace Mann School
Linden Stanley Blue (1958), aviation executive
Robert Willis Morey Jr. (1958), Olympic medal-winning rower
Stephen Adams (1959), American businessman, founder Adams Outdoor
Winston Lord (1959), Chairman of Council on Foreign Relations; Ambassador to China; Assistant U.S. Secretary of State
1960s
Eugene Lytton Scott (1960), tennis player, founder Tennis WeekMichael Johnson Pyle (1960), National Football League player
John Joseph Walsh Jr. (1961), art historian, director J. Paul Getty Museum
William Hamilton (1962), New Yorker cartoonist
David L. Boren (1963), Governor of Oklahoma, U.S. Senator, President of the University of Oklahoma
Michael Gates Gill (1963), advertising executive, author
William Dawbney Nordhaus (1963), Sterling Professor of Economics at Yale University and winner of the 2018 Nobel Prize in Economics
Orde Musgrave Coombs (1965), author, editor, first black member of Skull and Bones
John Shattuck (1965), US diplomat and ambassador, university administrator
John Forbes Kerry (1966), 68th United States Secretary of State (2013–2017); U.S. Senator (D-Massachusetts; 1985-2013); Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (1983–1985); 2004 Democratic Party Presidential nominee;
David Rumsey (1966), founder of the David Rumsey Map Collection and president of Cartography Associates
Frederick Wallace Smith (1966), founder of FedEx
David Thorne (1966), United States Ambassador to Italy
Victor Ashe (1967), Tennessee State Senator and Representative, Mayor of Knoxville, Tennessee, US Ambassador to Poland
Roy Leslie Austin (1968), appointed ambassador to Trinidad and Tobago by George W. Bush
George W. Bush (1968), grandson of Prescott Bush; son of George H. W. Bush; 46th Governor of Texas; 43rd President of the United States. His nickname was "Gog".
Rex William Cowdry (1968), Acting Director National Institute of Mental Health (1994–96)
Robert McCallum, Jr (1968), Ambassador to Australia
Don Schollander (1968), developer; author; US Olympic Hall of Fame inductee; four-time Olympic Gold medallist swimmer
Brian John Dowling (1969), National Football League player, inspiration for B.D. in DoonesburyStephen Allen Schwarzman (1969), co-founder of The Blackstone GroupAndrew Clark, "The Guardian profile: Stephen Schwarzman", The Guardian, June 15, 2007
Douglas Preston Woodlock (1969), US federal judge
1970s
Charles Herbert Levin (1971), actor
George E. Lewis (1974), trombonist and composer
Christopher Taylor Buckley (1975), author, editor, chief speechwriter for Vice President George H. W. Bush
Robert Curtis Brown (1979), American Film, Television and Stage Actor
1980s
Robert William Kagan (1980), neoconservative writer
Michael Cerveris (1983), American actor, singer, and guitarist
Earl G. Graves Jr. (1984), president of Black EnterpriseEdward S. Lampert (1984), founder of ESL Investments; chairman of Sears Holdings Corporation
James Emanuel Boasberg (1985), judge, United States District Court for the District of Columbia
Steven Mnuchin (1985), United States Treasury Secretary
James Bosquez (1988), political reporter for Vice. Dead Man's Jacket GuitaristDeborah itchell, "A Rich Bounty, Gone For Good", New York Daily News, January 28, 2001
Paul Giamatti (1989), American Actor and Producer; son of A. Bartlett Giamatti, President of Yale 1978-86
1990s to present
Dana Milbank (1990), author and columnist at The Washington Post
Austan Goolsbee (1991), staff director to and chief economist of President Barack Obama's Economic Recovery Advisory Board
David Leonhardt (1994), journalist and columnist at The New York Times
Angela Warnick Buchdahl (1994), senior rabbi at New York's Central Synagogue
Tali Farhadian Weinstein (1997), attorney, professor, and former candidate for New York County District Attorney
References
Further reading
Millegan, Kris, ed. Fleshing Out Skull and Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society. Walterville, OR: Trine Day, 2003.
Sutton, Antony C. America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull & Bones''. Walterville, OR: Trine Day, 2003.
Skull and Bones
Skull |
4349112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental%20studies | Oriental studies | Oriental studies is the academic field that studies Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology. In recent years, the subject has often been turned into the newer terms of Middle Eastern studies and Asian studies. Traditional Oriental studies in Europe is today generally focused on the discipline of Islamic studies, and the study of China, especially traditional China, is often called Sinology. The study of East Asia in general, especially in the United States, is often called East Asian studies.
The European study of the region formerly known as "the Orient" had primarily religious origins, which have remained an important motivation until recent times. That is partly since the Abrahamic religions in Europe (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) originated in the Middle East and because of the rise of Islam in the 7th century. Consequently, there was much interest in the origin of those faiths and of Western culture in general. Learning from medieval Arabic medicine and philosophy and the Greek translations to Arabic was an important factor in the Middle Ages. Linguistic knowledge preceded a wider study of cultures and history, and as Europe began to expand its influence in the region, political, and economic factors, that encouraged growth in its academic study. In the late 18th century, archaeology became a link from the discipline to a wide European public, as artefacts brought back through a variety of means went in display in museums throughout Europe.
Modern study was influenced by imperialist attitudes and interests and by the fascination for the "exotic" East for Mediterranean and European writers and thinkers, and was captured in images by artists, which is embodied in a repeatedly-surfacing theme in the history of ideas in the West, called "Orientalism." In the 20th century, scholars from the region itself have participated on equal terms in the discipline.
History
Before Islam
The original distinction between the "West" and the "East" was crystalized by the Greco-Persian Wars in the 5th century BC, when Athenian historians made a distinction between their "Athenian democracy" and the Persian monarchy. An institutional distinction between East and West did not exist as a defined polarity before the Oriens- and Occidens-divided administration of Roman Emperor Diocletian in the late 3rd century AD, and the division of the Roman Empire into portions that spoke Latin and Greek. The classical world had an intimate knowledge of its Ancient Persian neighbours (and usually enemies) but very imprecise knowledge of most of the world farther east, including the "Seres" (Chinese). However, there was a substantial direct Roman trade with India, unlike that with China, during the Roman Empire.
Middle Ages
The spread of Islam and the Muslim conquests in the 7th century established a sharp opposition or even a sense of polarity in the Middle Ages between European Christendom and the Islamic world, which stretched from the Middle East and Central Asia to North Africa and Andalusia. Popular medieval European knowledge of cultures farther east was poor and depended on the widely-fictionalized travels of Sir John Mandeville and the legends of Prester John, but the equally-famous account by Marco Polo was much longer and was more accurate.
Scholarly work was initially largely linguistic in nature, with primarily a religious focus on understanding both Biblical Hebrew and languages like Syriac with early Christian literature, but there was also a wish to understand Arabic works on medicine, philosophy, and science. That effort, also called the Studia Linguarum, existed sporadically throughout the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance of the 12th century witnessed a particular growth in translations of Arabic texts into Latin, with figures like Constantine the African, who translated 37 books, mostly medical texts, from Arabic to Latin, and Herman of Carinthia, one of the translators of the Qur'an. The earliest translation of the Qur'an into Latin was completed in 1143, but little use was made of it until it was printed in 1543. It was later translated into other European languages. Gerard of Cremona and others based themselves in Andalusia to take advantage of its Arabic libraries and scholars. However, as the Christian Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula began to accelerate in the 11th century, such contacts became rarer in Spain. Chairs of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic were briefly established at Oxford and in four other universities after the Council of Vienne (1312).
There was a vague but increasing knowledge of the complex civilisations of China and of India from which luxury goods (notably cotton and silk textiles as well as ceramics) were imported. Although the Crusades produced relatively little in the way of scholarly interchange, the eruption of the Mongol Empire had strategic implications for the Crusader kingdoms and for Europe itself, which led to extended diplomatic contacts. During the Age of Exploration, European interest in mapping Asia, especially the sea routes, became intense, but most was pursued outside the universities.
Renaissance to 1800
University Oriental studies became systematic during the Renaissance, with the linguistic and religious aspects initially continuing to dominate. There was also a political dimension, as translations for diplomatic purposes were needed even before the West engaged actively with the East beyond the Ottoman Empire. A landmark was the publication in Spain in 1514 of the first Polyglot Bible, containing the complete existing texts in Hebrew and Aramaic, in addition to Greek and Latin.At Cambridge University, there has been a Regius Professor of Hebrew since 1540 (the fifth-oldest regular chair there), and the university's chair in Arabic was founded in about 1643. Oxford followed for Hebrew in 1546 (both chairs were established by Henry VIII). One distinguished scholar was Edmund Castell, who published his Lexicon Heptaglotton Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Samaritanum, Aethiopicum, Arabicum, et Persicum in 1669, and scholars like Edward Pococke had traveled to the East and wrote on the modern history and society of the Eastern peoples.The University of Salamanca had Professors of Oriental Languages at least in the 1570s. In France, Jean-Baptiste Colbert initiated a training programme for Les jeunes de langues (The Youth of Languages), young linguists in the diplomatic service, like François Pétis de la Croix, who, like his father and his son, served as an Arabic interpreter to the King. The study of the Far East was pioneered by missionaries, especially Matteo Ricci and others during the Jesuit China missions, and missionary motives were to remain important, at least in linguistic studies.
During the 18th century, Western scholars reached a reasonable basic level of understanding of the geography and most of the history of the region, but knowledge of the areas least accessible to Western travelers, like Japan and Tibet, and their languages remained limited. The Enlightenment thinkers characterized aspects of the pagan East as superior to the Christian West in Montesquieu's Lettres Persanes and Voltaire's ironic promotion of Zoroastrianism. Others, like Edward Gibbon, praised the relative religious tolerance of the Middle East over what they considered the intolerant Christian West. Many, including Diderot and Voltaire, praised the high social status of scholarship in Mandarin China.
The Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale" (English: University of Naples "L'Orientale"), founded in Naples in 1732, is the oldest school of Sinology and Oriental Studies of Continental Europe.
The late 18th century saw the start of a great increase in the study of the archaeology of the period, which was to be an ever-more important aspect of the field in the next century. Egyptology led the way and, as with many other ancient cultures, provide linguists with new material for decipherment and study.
19th century
With a great increase in knowledge of Asia among Western specialists, the increasing political and economic involvement in the region, and particularly the realization of the existence of close relations between Indian and European languages by William Jones, there emerged more complex intellectual connections between the early history of Eastern and Western cultures. Some of the developments occurred in the context of Franco–British rivalry for the control of India. Liberal economists, such as James Mill, denigrated Eastern civilizations as static and corrupt. Karl Marx, himself of Jewish origin, characterized the Asiatic mode of production as unchanging because of the economic narrowness of village economies and the state's role in production. Oriental despotism was generally regarded in Europe as a major factor in the relative failure of progress of Eastern societies. The study of Islam was particularlt central to the field since most people living in the geographical area that was termed as the Orient were Muslims. The interest in understanding Islam was fueled partly by economic considerations of the growing trade in the Mediterranean region and by the changing cultural and intellectual climate of the time.
During the course of the century, Western archeology spread across the Middle East and Asia, with spectacular results. In the 1850s, for example, the French government was determined to mount large-scale operations in Assyria and Mesopotamia to showcase its dominance in the region. An archaeological team, led by Victor Place, excavated the palace of the Assyrian King Sargon II in Khorsabad (formerly Nineveh), which was the first systematic excavation of the site. The expedition resulted in a pioneering publication, Ninevah and Assyria, which jointly authored by Victor Place and Felix Thomas and was published around 1867. New national museums provided a setting for important archaeological finds, most of which were then bought back to Europe, and they put Orientalists in the public spotlight as never before.
The first serious European studies of Buddhism and Hinduism were by the scholars Eugene Burnouf and Max Müller. The academic study of Islam also developed, and by the mid-19th century, Oriental studies had become a well-established academic discipline in most European countries, especially those with imperial interests in the region. Although scholastic study expanded, so did racist attitudes and stereotypes of Asian peoples and cultures, however, which frequently extended to local Jewish and Romani communities since they were also of Oriental origin and widely recognized as such. Scholarship often was intertwined with prejudicial racist and religious presumptions<ref>J. Go, "'Racism' and Colonialism: Meanings of Difference and Ruling Practice in America's Pacific Empire" in Qualitative Sociology' 27.1 (March 2004).</ref> to which the new biological sciences tended to contribute until the end of the Second World War.
20th century
The participation in academic studies by scholars from the newly-independent nations of the region itself inevitably changed the nature of studies considerably, with the emergence of post-colonial studies and Subaltern Studies. The influence of Orientalism in the sense used by Edward Said in his book of the same name in scholarship on the Middle East was seen to have re-emerged and risen in prevalence again after the end of the Cold War. It is contended that was partly a response to "a lacuna" in identity politics in international relations generally and within the 'West' particularly, which was brought about by the absence of Soviet communism as a global adversary. The end of the Cold War caused an era that has been marked by discussions of Islamist terrorism framing views on the extent to which the culture of the Arab world and of Islam is a threat to that of the West. The essence of the debate reflects a presupposition for which Orientalism has been criticized by the Orient being defined exclusively by Islam. Such considerations were seen to have occurred in the wider context of the way in which many Western scholars responded to international politics after the Cold War, and they were arguably heightened by the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
Symbolic of that type of response to the end of the Cold War was the popularization of the clash of civilizations thesis. That particular idea of a fundamental conflict between East and West was first advanced by Bernard Lewis in his article "The Roots of Muslim Rage", which was written in 1990. Again, that was seen as a way of accounting for new forms and lines of division in international society afyer the Cold War. The clash of civilizations approach involved another characteristic of Orientalist thought: the tendency to see the region as being one homogenous civilization, rather than as comprising various different and diverse cultures and strands. It was an idea that was taken on more famously by Samuel P. Huntington in his 1993 article in Foreign Affairs, "The Clash of Civilizations?"
"Orientalism" and Oriental studies
The term Orientalism has come to acquire negative connotations in some quarters and is interpreted to refer to the study of the East by Westerners who are shaped by the attitudes of the era of European imperialism in the 18th and the 19th centuries. When used in that sense, the term often implies prejudiced outsider-caricatured interpretations of Eastern cultures and peoples. That viewpoint was most famously articulated and propagated by Edward Said in his Orientalism (1978), a critical history of that scholarly tradition. In contrast, the term has also been used by some modern scholars to refer to writers of the colonial era who had pro-Eastern attitudes, as opposed to those who saw nothing of value in non-Western cultures.
From "Oriental studies" to "Asian studies"
Like the term Orient, Orientalism is a term that derives from the Latin word oriens (rising) and, equally likely, from the Greek word ('he'oros', the direction of the rising sun). "Orient" is the opposite of Occident, a term for the Western world. In terms of the Old World, Europe was considered the Occident (the West) and its farthest-known extreme as the Orient (the East). From the Roman Empire to the Middle Ages, what is now in the West considered the Middle East was then considered the Orient. However, the use of the various terms and senses derived from "Orient" has greatly declined since the 20th century, especially since trans-Pacific links between Asia and America have grown, and travel from Asia usually arrive in the United States from the west.
In most North American and Australian universities, the field of Oriental studies has now been replaced by that of Asian studies. In many cases, the field has been localised to specific regions, such as Middle Eastern or Near Eastern studies, South Asian studies, and East Asian Studies. That reflects the fact that the Orient is not a single monolithic region but rather a broad area, encompassing multiple civilizations. The generic concept of Oriental studies has to its opponents lost any use that it may have once had and is perceived as obstructing changes in departmental structures to reflect actual patterns of modern scholarship. In many universities, like the University of Chicago, the faculties and institutions have been divided. The Biblical languages may be linked with theological institutes, and the study of ancient civilizations in the region may come under a different faculty from that of the studies of modern periods.
In 1970, the Faculty of Oriental Studies at the Australian National University was renamed the Faculty of Asian Studies. In 2007, the Faculty of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University was renamed the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, but Oxford still has its Faculty of Oriental Studies, like for Chicago, Rome, London (covering African studies as well), and other universities.
Various explanations for the change to "Asian studies" are offered; a growing number of professional scholars and students of Asian Studies are themselves Asian or from groups of Asian origin (like Asian Americans). This change of labeling may be correlated in some cases to the fact that sensitivity to the term "Oriental" has been heightened in a more politically correct atmosphere, although it began earlier: Bernard Lewis' own department at Princeton University was renamed a decade before Said wrote his book, a detail that Said gets wrong. By some, the term "Oriental" has come to be thought offensive to non-Westerners. Area studies that incorporate not only philological pursuits but identity politics may also account for the hesitation to use the term "Oriental".
Supporters of "Oriental Studies" counter that the term "Asian" is just as encompassing as "Oriental," and may well have originally had the same meaning, were it derived from an Akkadian word for "East" (a more common derivation is from one or both of two Anatolian proper names). Replacing one word with another is to confuse historically objectionable opinions about the East with the concept of "the East" itself. The terms Oriental/Eastern and Occidental/Western are both inclusive concepts that usefully identify large-scale cultural differences. Such general concepts do not preclude or deny more specific ones.
See also
Arabist
Biblical studies
Buddhist studies
Hebraism
Hebraist
Hindu studies
History of Christianity (mentions the beginnings and spread of Christianity in the Middle East and Asia)
Iranistics
Japonism
Javanology (the study of Javanese culture and custom, notable person is Clifford Geertz)
Jewish studies
List of Islamic studies scholars
Orientalism in early modern France
Philology
Silk Road
Institutions
Americas
American Oriental Society
Oriental Club of Philadelphia
Smithsonian Institution, Freer Gallery of Art
Asia
Tōyō Bunko in Tokyo
Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library in India
Europe
Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences
International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden University
References
Further reading
Crawley, William. "Sir William Jones: A vision of Orientalism", Asian Affairs, Vol. 27, Issue 2. (Jun. 1996), pp. 163–176.
Fleming, K.E. "Orientalism, the Balkans, and Balkan Historiography", The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 4. (Oct., 2000), pp. 1218–1233.
Halliday, Fred. "'Orientalism' and Its Critics", British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 2. (1993), pp. 145–163.
Irwin, Robert. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 2006 (hardcover, ). As Dangerous Knowledge: Orientalism and Its Discontents. New York: Overlook Press, 2006 (hardcover, ).
Reviewed by Philip Hensher in The Spectator, January 28, 2006.
Reviewed by Allan Massie in the Telegraph, February 6, 2006.
Reviewed by Terry Eagleton in the New Statesman, February 13, 2006.
Reviewed by Bill Saunders in The Independent, February 26, 2006.
Reviewed by Noel Malcolm in The Telegraph, February 26, 2006.
Reviewed by Maya Jasanoff in the London Review of Books, June 8, 2006.
Reviewed by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz in Frankfurter Rundschau, June 26, 2006.
Reviewed by William Grimes in the New York Times, November 1, 2006.
Reviewed by Michael Dirda in The Washington Post, November 12, 2006.
Reviewed by Lawrence Rosen in the Boston Review, January/February 2007.
Klein, Christina. Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).
Knight, Nathaniel. "Grigor'ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?", Slavic Review, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Spring, 2000), pp. 74–100.
Vasiliev, Leonid. "Stages of the World Historical Process: an Orientalist's View." Electronic Science and Education Journal: "Istoriya" 3:2, 10 (2012). http://history.jes.su/ Accessed: March 19, 2014.
Vasiliev, Leonid. "Stages of the World Historical Process: an Orientalist's View." Electronic Science and Education Journal: "Istoriya" 3:2, 10 (2012). http://history.jes.su/ Accessed: March 19, 2014.
Kontje, Todd. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ().
Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001 (hardcover, ); 2002 (paperback, ); London: I.B. Tauris, 2002 (new ed., hardcover, ).
Murti, Kamakshi P. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 (hardcover, )
Suzanne L. Marchand: German Orientalism in the Age of Empire - Religion, Race and Scholarship, German Historical Institute, Washington, D.C. and Cambridge University Press, New York 2009 (hardback)
Noble dreams, wicked pleasures: Orientalism in America, 1870–1930 by Holly Edwards (Editor). Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).
Katz, Elizabeth. Virginia Law. Democracy in the Middle East. 2006. September 9, 2006
Gusterin, Pavel. Первый российский востоковед Дмитрий Кантемир / First Russian Orientalist Dmitry Kantemir. Moscow, 2008. .
Wokoeck, Ursula. German Orientalism: The Study of the Middle East and Islam from 1800 to 1945. London: Routledge, 2009.
Reviewed by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz in Insight Turkey, 12(2010)4, 225-7.
Lockman, Zachary. Contending Visions of the Middle East. The History and Politics of Orientalism. New York: Cambridge University Press 2004, .
Reviewed by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz in DAVO-Nachrichten'', Mainz, Germany, 23(2006)8, 77–78.
.
External links
Institutions
Americas
School of Oriental Studies at Universidad del Salvador, Argentina
Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago
American Center for Oriental Research
The Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University
Asia
The Institute of Oriental Culture at Tokyo University
Institute for Research in Humanities at the Kyoto University
Europe
Wydział Orientalistyczny UW – Strona Wydziału Orientalistycznego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego The Faculty of Oriental Studies at the University of Warsaw
Asiatica Association, Italy
Faculty of Oriental Studies at the University of Oxford
Oriental Collections at Bulgarian National Library
Uppsala University in Sweden
Ancient Indian & Iran Trust, London UK
Articles
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: China in Western Thought and Culture
John E. Hill, translation in his e-edition of Hou Hanshu
Edward Said's Splash The impact of Edward Said's book on Middle Eastern studies, by Martin Kramer.
Frontier Orientalism — an article by Austrian anthropologist Andre Gingrich
Edward Said and the Production of Knowledge
Orientalism as a tool of Colonialism
Area studies
Asian studies |
4349252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shackleton%E2%80%93Rowett%20Expedition | Shackleton–Rowett Expedition | The Shackleton–Rowett Expedition (1921–22) was Sir Ernest Shackleton's last Antarctic project, and the final episode in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
The venture, financed by John Quiller Rowett, is sometimes referred to as the Quest Expedition after its ship Quest, a converted Norwegian sealer. Shackleton had originally intended to go to the Arctic and explore the Beaufort Sea, but this plan was abandoned when the Canadian government withheld financial support; Shackleton thereupon switched his attention to the Antarctic. Quest, smaller than any recent Antarctic exploration vessel, soon proved inadequate for its task, and progress south was delayed by its poor sailing performance and by frequent engine problems. Before the expedition's work could properly begin, Shackleton died on board the ship, just after its arrival at the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia.
The major part of the subsequent attenuated expedition was a three-month cruise to the eastern Antarctic, under the leadership of the party's second-in-command, Frank Wild. The shortcomings of Quest were soon in evidence: slow speed, heavy fuel consumption, a tendency to roll in heavy seas, and a steady leak. The ship was unable to proceed further than longitude 20°E, well short of its easterly target, and its engine's low power coupled with its unsuitable bows was insufficient for it to penetrate southward through the pack ice. Following several fruitless attempts, Wild returned the ship to South Georgia, on the way visiting Elephant Island where he and 21 others had been stranded after the sinking of the ship Endurance, during Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition six years earlier.
Wild had thoughts of a second, more productive season in the ice, and took the ship to Cape Town for a refit. Here, in June 1922, he received a message from Rowett ordering the ship home to England, so the expedition ended quietly. The Quest voyage is not greatly regarded in the histories of polar exploration, due to the event that defines it in public memory, overshadowing its other activities: Shackleton's untimely death.
Background
Shackleton after the Endurance
Shackleton returned to Britain from the Endurance expedition in late May 1917, while World War I was under way. Many of his men enlisted promptly upon their return. Too old to enlist, Shackleton nevertheless sought an active role in the war effort, and eventually departed for Murmansk with the temporary army rank of major, as part of the North Russia intervention. Shackleton expressed his dissatisfaction with this role in letters home: "I feel I am no use to anyone unless I am outfacing the storm in wild lands." He returned to England in February 1919 and began plans to set up a company that would, with the cooperation of the North Russian Government, develop the natural resources of the region. This scheme came to nothing, as the Red Army took control of that part of Russia during the Russian Civil War; to provide himself with an income, Shackleton had to rely on the lecture circuit. During the winter of 1919–20 he lectured twice a day, six days a week, for five months.
Canadian proposal
Despite the large debts still outstanding from the Endurance expedition, Shackleton's mind turned towards another exploration venture. He decided to turn away from the Antarctic, go northwards and, as he put it, "fill in this great blank now called the Beaufort Sea". This area of the Arctic Ocean, to the north of Alaska and west of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, was largely unexplored; Shackleton believed, on the basis of tidal records, that it contained large undiscovered land masses that "would be of the greatest scientific interest to the world, apart from the possible economic value".
Shackleton also hoped to reach the northern pole of inaccessibility, the most remote point in the Arctic regions. In March 1920, his plans received the general approval of the Royal Geographical Society and were supported by the Canadian government. On this basis Shackleton set about acquiring the necessary funding, which he estimated at £50,000.
Later that year, Shackleton met by chance an old school-friend, John Quiller Rowett, who agreed to put up a nucleus of cash to get Shackleton started. With this money, in January 1921, Shackleton purchased the wooden Norwegian whaler Foca I together with other equipment, and began the process of hiring of a crew.
In May 1921, the policy of the Canadian government towards Arctic expeditions changed with the advent of a new prime minister, Arthur Meighen, who withdrew support from Shackleton's proposal. Shackleton was required to rethink his plans, and decided to sail for the Antarctic instead. A varied programme of exploration, coastal mapping, mineral prospecting and oceanographic research in the Southern Ocean would replace the abandoned Beaufort Sea venture.
Antarctic preparation
Objectives
Even before his problems with the Canadian government, Shackleton had been considering a southern expedition as a possible alternative to the Beaufort Sea. According to the RGS librarian Hugh Robert Mill, as early as March 1920 Shackleton had talked about two possible schemesthe Beaufort Sea exploration, and "an oceanographical expedition with the object of visiting all the little-known islands of the South Atlantic and South Pacific". By June 1921, the latter plan had expanded to include a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent and the mapping of around 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of uncharted coastline. It would also encompass a search for "lost" or wrongly charted sub-Antarctic islands (including Dougherty Island, Tuanaki, and the Nimrod Islands), and would investigate possible mineral resources to be exploited in these rediscovered lands. A scientific research program would include a visit to Gough Island, and an investigation of a possible "underwater continental connection between Africa and America." Shackleton's biographer Margery Fisher calls the plan "diffuse", and "far too comprehensive for one small body of men to tackle within two years", while according to Roland Huntford, the expedition had no obvious goal and was "only too clearly a piece of improvisation, a pretext [for Shackleton] to get away".
Fisher describes the expedition as representing "the dividing line between what has become known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration and the Mechanical Age". Shackleton called the voyage "pioneering", referring specifically to the aeroplane that was taken (but ultimately not used) on the expedition. In fact this was only one of the technological "firsts" that marked the venture; there were gadgets in profusion. The ship's crow's nest was electrically heated; there were heated overalls for the lookouts, a wireless set, and a device called an odograph which could trace and chart the ship's route automatically. Photography was to figure prominently, and "a large and expensive outfit of cameras, cinematographical machines and general photographic appliances [was] acquired". Among the oceanographical research equipment was a Lucas deep-sea sounding machine.
This ample provision arose from the sponsorship of Rowett, who had extended his original gift of seed money to an undertaking to cover the costs of the entire expedition. The extent of Rowett's contribution is not recorded; in an (undated) prospectus for the southern expedition Shackleton had estimated the total cost as "about £100,000". Whatever the total, Rowett appears to have funded the lion's share, enabling Frank Wild to record later that, unique among Antarctic expeditions of the era, this one returned home without any outstanding debt. According to Wild, without Rowett's actions the expedition would have been impossible: "His generous attitude is the more remarkable in that he knew there was no prospect of financial return, and what he did was in the interest of scientific research and from friendship with Shackleton." His only recognition was the attachment of his name to the title of the expedition. Rowett was, according to Huntford, "a stodgy, prosaic looking" businessman, who was, in 1920, a co-founder and principal contributor to an animal nutrition research institute in Aberdeen known as the Rowett Research Institute (now part of the University of Aberdeen). He had also endowed dental research work at the Middlesex Hospital.
Quest
In March 1921, Shackleton renamed his expedition vessel Quest. She was a small ship, 125 tons according to Huntford, with sail and auxiliary engine power purportedly capable of making eight knots, but in fact rarely making more than five-and-a-half. Huntford describes her as "straight-stemmed", with an awkward square rig, and a tendency to wallow in heavy seas. Fisher reports that she was built in 1917, weighed 204 tons, and had a large and spacious deck. Although she had some modern facilities, such as electric lights in the cabins, she was unsuited to long oceanic voyages; Shackleton, on the first day out, observed that "in no way are we shipshape or fitted to ignore even the mildest storm". Leif Mills, in his biography of Frank Wild, says that had the ship been taken to the Beaufort Sea in accordance with Shackleton's original plans, she would probably have been crushed in the Arctic pack ice. On her voyage south she suffered frequent damage and breakdowns, requiring repairs at every port of call.
Personnel
The Times had reported that Shackleton planned to take a dozen men to the Arctic, "chiefly those who had accompanied him on earlier expeditions". In fact, Quest left London for the south with 20 men, of whom eight were old Endurance comrades; another, James Dell, was a veteran from the Discovery, 20 years previously. Some of the Endurance hands had not been fully paid from the earlier expedition, but were prepared to join Shackleton again out of personal loyalty. Another Shackleton loyalist, Ernest Joyce, had fallen out with Shackleton over the money he claimed was owed to him, and was not invited to join the expedition.
Frank Wild, on his fourth trip with Shackleton, filled the second-in-command post as he had on the Endurance expedition. Frank Worsley, Endurances former captain, became captain of Quest. Other old comrades included surgeons Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy, meteorologist Leonard Hussey, engineer Alexander Kerr, seaman Tom McLeod and cook Charles Green. Shackleton had assumed that Tom Crean would sign up, and had assigned him duties "in charge of boats", but Crean had retired from the navy to start a family back home in County Kerry, and declined Shackleton's invitation.
Of the newcomers, Roderick Carr, a New Zealand-born Royal Air Force pilot, was hired to fly the expedition's aeroplane, an Avro Baby modified as a seaplane with an 80-horsepower engine. He had met Shackleton in north Russia, and had recently been serving as chief of staff to the Lithuanian Air Force. Due to some missing parts, the aeroplane was not used during the expedition and Carr assisted with the general scientific work. Scientific staff included Australian biologist Hubert Wilkins, who had Arctic experience, and Canadian geologist Vibert Douglas, who had initially signed for the aborted Beaufort Sea expedition.
The recruits who caught the most public attention were two members of The Boy Scouts Association, Norman Mooney and James Marr. As the result of publicity organised by the Daily Mail newspaper, these two had been selected to join the expedition out of around 1,700 Scouts who had applied to go. Mooney, who was from the Orkney Islands, dropped out during the voyage south, leaving the ship at Madeira after suffering chronic seasickness. Marr, an 18-year-old from Aberdeen, remained throughout, winning plaudits from Shackleton and Wild for his application to the tasks at hand. After being put to work in the ship's coal bunkers, according to Wild, Marr "came out of the trial very well, showing an amount of hardihood and endurance that was remarkable".
Expedition
Voyage south
Quest sailed from St Katharine Docks, London, on 17 September 1921, after inspection by King George V. Large crowds gathered on the banks of the river and on the bridges, to witness the event. Marr wrote in his diary that it was as though "all London had conspired together to bid us a heartening farewell".
Shackleton's original intention was to sail down to Cape Town, visiting the main South Atlantic islands on the way. From Cape Town, Quest would head for the Enderby Land coast of Antarctica where, once in the ice, it would explore the coastline towards Coats Land in the Weddell Sea. At the end of the summer season the ship would visit South Georgia before returning to Cape Town for refitting and preparation for the second year's work. The ship's performance in the early stages of the voyage disrupted this schedule. Serious problems with the engine necessitated a week's stay in Lisbon, and further stops in Madeira and the Cape Verde Islands. These delays and the slow speed of the ship led Shackleton to decide that it would be necessary to sacrifice entirely the visits to the South Atlantic islands, and instead he turned the ship towards Rio de Janeiro, where the engine could receive a thorough overhaul. Quest reached Rio on 22 November 1921.
The engine overhaul, and the replacement of a damaged topmast, delayed the party in Rio for four weeks. This meant that it was no longer practical to proceed to Cape Town and then on to the ice. Shackleton decided to sail directly to Grytviken harbour in South Georgia. Equipment and stores that had been sent on to Cape Town would have to be sacrificed, but Shackleton hoped that this shortfall could be made up in South Georgia. He was vague about the direction the expedition should take after South Georgia; Macklin wrote in his diary, "The Boss says...quite frankly that he does not know what he will do."
Death of Shackleton
On 17 December 1921, the day before Quest was due to leave Rio, Shackleton fell ill. He may have suffered a heart attack; Macklin was called, but Shackleton refused to be examined and declared himself "better" the next morning. On the ensuing voyage to South Georgia he was, from the accounts of his shipmates, unusually subdued and listless. He also began drinking champagne each morning, "to deaden the pain", contrary to his normal rule of not allowing liquor at sea.
A severe storm ruined the expedition's proposed Christmas celebrations, and a new problem with the engine's steam furnace slowed progress and caused Shackleton further stress. By 1 January 1922, the weather had abated: "Rest and calm after the storm – the year has begun kindly for us", wrote Shackleton in his diary.
On 4 January, South Georgia was sighted, and late that morning Quest anchored at Grytviken. After visiting the whaling establishment ashore, Shackleton returned to the ship apparently refreshed. He told Frank Wild that they would celebrate their deferred Christmas the next day, and retired to his cabin to write his diary. "The old smell of dead whale permeates everything", he wrote. "It is a strange and curious place ... A wonderful evening. In the darkening twilight I saw a lone star hover, gem like above the bay." Later he slept and was heard snoring by the surgeon McIlroy, who had just finished his watch-keeping duty.
Shortly after 02:00 on the morning of 5 January, Macklin, who had taken over the watch, was summoned to Shackleton's cabin. He found Shackleton complaining of back pains and severe facial neuralgia, and asking for a painkilling drug. In a brief discussion, Macklin told his leader that he had been overdoing things, and needed to lead a more regular life. Macklin records Shackleton as saying: "You're always wanting me to give up things, what is it I ought to give up?" Macklin replied, "Chiefly alcohol, Boss, I don't think it agrees with you." Immediately afterwards Shackleton "had a very severe paroxysm, during which he died".
The death certificate, signed by Macklin, gave the cause as "Atheroma of the Coronary arteries and Heart failure" – in modern terms, coronary thrombosis. Later that morning, Wild, now in command, gave the news to the shocked crew, and told them that the expedition would carry on. The body was taken ashore for embalming before its return to England. On 19 January, Leonard Hussey accompanied the body on board a steamer bound for Montevideo, but on arrival there he found a message from Emily Shackleton, requesting that the body be returned to South Georgia for burial.
Hussey took the body back to Grytviken, where Shackleton was buried on 5 March in the Norwegian cemetery. Quest had meantime sailed, so only Hussey of Shackleton's former comrades was present at the interment. A rough cross marked the burial site, until it was replaced by a tall granite column six years later.
Voyage to the ice
As leader, Wild had to arrange where the expedition should now go. Kerr reported that a longstanding problem with the ship's furnace was manageable and, after supplementing stores and equipment, Wild decided to proceed generally in accordance with Shackleton's original intentions. He would take the ship eastward towards Bouvet Island and then beyond, before turning south to enter the ice as close as possible to Enderby Land, and begin coastal survey work there. The expedition would also investigate an appearance of land in the mouth of the Weddell Sea, reported by James Clark Ross in 1842, but not seen since. Ultimately, progress would depend on weather, ice conditions, and the capabilities of the ship.
Quest left South Georgia on 18 January, heading south-east towards the South Sandwich Islands. There was a heavy swell, such that the overladen ship frequently dipped its gunwales below the waves, filling the waist with water. As they proceeded, Wild wrote that Quest rolled like a log, leaked and required regular pumping, was heavy on coal consumption, and was slow. All these factors led him to change his plan at the end of January. Bouvet Island was abandoned in favour of a more southerly course that brought them to the edge of the pack ice on 4 February.
"Now the little Quest can really try her mettle", wrote Wild, as the ship entered the loose pack. He noted that Quest was the smallest ship ever to attempt to penetrate the heavy Antarctic ice, and pondered on the fate of others. "Shall we escape, or will the Quest join the ships in Davy Jones's Locker?" During the days that followed, as they moved southward in falling temperatures, the ice thickened. On 12 February, they reached the most southerly latitude they would attain, 69°17'S, and their most easterly longitude, 17°9'E, well short of Enderby Land. Noting the state of the sea ice and fearing being frozen in, Wild retreated to the north and west.
He still hoped to tackle the heavy ice, and if possible, break through to the hidden land beyond. On 18 February, he turned the ship south again for another try, but was no more successful than before. On 24 February, after a series of further efforts had failed, Wild set a course westward across the mouth of the Weddell Sea towards Elephant Island, where Wild and 21 others had been stranded during Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition six years earlier. They would then return to South Georgia before the onset of winter.
For the most part, the long passage across the Weddell Sea proceeded uneventfully. There was a growing level of unrest among the crew, perhaps provoked by disappointment with the apparent aimlessness of the voyage; Worsley in particular was critical of Wild's leadership. Wild, in his own account, dealt with this discontent by the threat of "the most drastic treatment". On 12 March, they reached 64°11'S, 46°4'W, which was the area where Ross had recorded an appearance of land in 1842, but there was no sign of it, and a depth sounding of over indicated no likelihood of land nearby. From 15 to 21 March, Quest was frozen into the ice, and the shortage of coal became a major concern. Wild hoped that the diminished fuel supply could be supplemented by blubber from the seals at Elephant Island.
On 25 March, the island was sighted. Wild wanted if possible to revisit Cape Wild, the site of the old Endurance expedition camp, but bad weather prevented this. They viewed the site through binoculars, picking out the old landmarks, before landing on the western coast to hunt for elephant seals. They were able to obtain sufficient blubber to mix with the coal so that, aided by a favourable wind, they reached South Georgia on 6 April.
Return
Quest remained in South Georgia for a month, during which time Shackleton's old comrades erected a memorial cairn to their former leader, on a headland overlooking the entrance to Grytviken harbour. On 8 May 1922, Quest sailed for Cape Town, where Wild hoped to arrange a refit in preparation for a more productive second season in the ice. The first port of call was Tristan da Cunha, a remote inhabited island to the west and south of Cape Town. After a rough crossing of the "Roaring Forties", Quest arrived there on 20 May. Following orders from Robert Baden-Powell, Marr presented a flag to the local Scout Troop.
During the five-day stay, with the help of some of the islanders, the expedition made brief landings on the small Inaccessible Island, south-west of Tristan, and visited the even smaller Nightingale Island, collecting specimens. Wild's impressions of the stay at Tristan were not altogether favourable. He noted the appalling squalor and poverty, and said of the population: "They are ignorant, shut off almost completely from the world, horribly limited in outlook."
After the Scout parade and flag presentation, Quest sailed on to Gough Island, to the east, where members of the expedition took geological and botanical samples. They arrived at Cape Town on 18 June, to be greeted by enthusiastic crowds. South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts gave an official reception, and they were honoured at dinners and lunches by local organisations.
They were also met by Rowett's agent, with the message that they should return to England. Wild wrote: "I should have liked one more season in the Enderby Quadrant ... much might be accomplished by making Cape Town our starting point and setting out early in the season." On 19 July, they left Cape Town and sailed north. Their final visits were to Saint Helena, Ascension Island and São Vicente. On 16 September, one year after departure, they arrived at Plymouth harbour.
Aftermath
Assessment
According to Wild, the expedition ended quietly, although his biographer Leif Mills writes of enthusiastic crowds in Plymouth Sound. At the end of his account, Wild expressed the hope that the information they had brought back might "prove of value in helping to solve the great natural problems that still beset us".
These results were summarised in five brief appendices to Wild's book. The summaries reflected the efforts of the scientific staff to collect data and specimens at each port of call, and the geological and survey work carried out by Carr and Douglas on South Georgia, before the southern voyage. Eventually a few scientific papers and articles were developed from this material, but it was, in Leif Mills's words, "little enough to show for a year's work".
The lack of a clear, defined expedition objective was aggravated by the failure to call at Cape Town on the way south, which meant that important equipment was not picked up. On South Georgia, Wild found little that could make up for this loss – there were no dogs on the island, so no sledging work could be carried out, which eliminated Wild's preferred choice of a revised expedition goal, an exploration of Graham Land on the Antarctic Peninsula.
The death of Shackleton before the beginning of serious work was a heavy blow, and questions were raised about the adequacy of Wild as his replacement. Some reports imply that Wild drank heavily – "practically an alcoholic", according to Huntford. Mills suggests that even if Shackleton had lived to complete the expedition, it is arguable whether under the circumstances it could have achieved more than it did under Wild's command.
The non-use of the aeroplane was a disappointment; Shackleton had hoped to pioneer the use of air transport in Antarctic waters, and had discussed this issue with the British Air Ministry. According to Fisher's account, essential aeroplane parts had been sent on to Cape Town, but remained uncollected. The long-range, 220-volt wireless equipment did not work properly, and was abandoned early on. The smaller, 110-volt equipment worked only within a range of . During the Tristan visit, Wild attempted to install a new wireless apparatus with the help of a local missionary, but this was also unsuccessful.
End of an era
An Antarctic hiatus followed the return of Quest, with no significant expeditions to the region for seven years. The expeditions that then followed were of a different character from their predecessors, belonging to the "mechanical age" that succeeded the Heroic Age.
At the end of his narrative of the Quest expedition, Wild wrote of the Antarctic: "I think that my work there is done"; he never returned, closing a career which, like Shackleton's, had bracketed the entire Heroic Age. In 1923, he emigrated to the Union of South Africa, where, after a series of business failures and dogged by ill health, he was employed in a succession of low-paid jobs.
In March 1939, British authorities awarded him an annual pension of £170; Wild commented: "I don't want to grumble, but I think it might have been made big enough for the poor old hero and his wife to live on". Wild died on 19 August 1939, aged 66. The cause of death recorded was pneumonia and diabetes mellitus.
None of the other Endurance veterans returned to the Antarctic, although Worsley made one voyage to the Arctic in 1925. Of the other crew and staff of Quest, Australian naturalist Hubert Wilkins became a pioneer aviator in both the Arctic and Antarctic, and flew from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Spitsbergen in 1928. He also made several unsuccessful attempts during the 1930s, in collaboration with American adventurer Lincoln Ellsworth, to fly to the South Pole. James Marr also became an Antarctic regular after qualifying as a marine biologist, and joined several Australian expeditions in the late 1920s and 1930s. Roderick Carr became an Air Marshal in the Royal Air Force and deputy chief of staff to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force in 1945.
Notes and references
Sources
Further reading
Antarctic expeditions
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
Ernest Shackleton
1921 in Antarctica
1922 in Antarctica
History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
1921 in the United Kingdom
1921 in science
1922 in science |
4349389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland%20in%20the%20High%20Middle%20Ages | Scotland in the High Middle Ages | The High Middle Ages of Scotland encompass Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of King Alexander III in 1286, which was an indirect cause of the Wars of Scottish Independence.
At the close of the ninth century, various competing kingdoms occupied the territory of modern Scotland. Scandinavian influence was dominant in the northern and western islands, Brythonic culture in the southwest, the Anglo-Saxon or English Kingdom of Northumbria in the southeast and the Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba in the east, north of the River Forth. By the tenth and eleventh centuries, northern Great Britain was increasingly dominated by Gaelic culture, and by the Gaelic regal lordship of Alba, known in Latin as either Albania or Scotia, and in English as "Scotland". From its base in the east, this kingdom acquired control of the lands lying to the south and ultimately the west and much of the north. It had a flourishing culture, comprising part of the larger Gaelic-speaking world and an economy dominated by agriculture and trade.
After the twelfth-century reign of King David I, the Scottish monarchs are better described as Scoto-Norman than Gaelic, preferring French culture to native Scottish culture. A consequence was the spread of French institutions and social values including Canon law. The first towns, called burghs, appeared in the same era, and as they spread, so did the Middle English language. These developments were offset by the acquisition of the Norse-Gaelic west and the Gaelicisation of many of the noble families of French and Anglo-French origin. National cohesion was fostered with the creation of various unique religious and cultural practices. By the end of the period, Scotland experienced a "Gaelic revival", which created an integrated Scottish national identity. By 1286, these economic, institutional, cultural, religious and legal developments had brought Scotland closer to its neighbours in England and the Continent, although outsiders continued to view Scotland as a provincial, even savage place. By this date, the Kingdom of Scotland had political boundaries that closely resembled those of the modern nation.
Historiography
Scotland in the High Middle Ages is a relatively well-studied topic and Scottish medievalists have produced a wide variety of publications. Some, such as David Dumville, Thomas Owen Clancy and Dauvit Broun, are primarily interested in the native cultures of the country, and often have linguistic training in the Celtic languages. Normanists, such as G.W.S. Barrow, are concerned with the Norman and Scoto-Norman cultures introduced to Scotland after the eleventh century. For much of the twentieth century, historians tended to stress the cultural change that took place in Scotland during this time. However, scholars such as Cynthia Neville and Richard Oram, while not ignoring cultural changes, argue that continuity with the Gaelic past was just as, if not more, important.
Since the publication of Scandinavian Scotland by Barbara E. Crawford in 1987, there has been a growing volume of work dedicated to the understanding of Norse influence in this period. However, from 849 on, when Columba's relics were removed from Iona in the face of Viking incursions, written evidence from local sources in the areas under Scandinavian influence all but vanishes for three hundred years. The sources for information about the Hebrides and indeed much of northern Scotland from the eighth to the eleventh century, are thus almost exclusively Irish, English or Norse. The main Norse texts were written in the early thirteenth century and should be treated with care. The English and Irish sources are more contemporary, but according to historian Alex Woolf, may have "led to a southern bias in the story", especially as much of the Hebridean archipelago became Norse-speaking during this period.
There are various traditional clan histories dating from the nineteenth century such as the "monumental" The Clan Donald and a significant corpus of material from the Gaelic oral tradition that relates to this period, although their value is questionable.
Origins of the Kingdom of Alba
At the close of the ninth century, various polities occupied Scotland. The Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba had just been united in the east; the Scandinavian-influenced Kingdom of the Isles emerged in the west. Ragnall ua Ímair was a key figure at this time although the extent to which he ruled territory in western and northern Scotland including the Hebrides and Northern Isles is unknown as contemporary sources are silent on this matter. Dumbarton, the capital of the Kingdom of Strathclyde had been sacked by the Uí Ímair in 870. This was clearly a major assault, which may have brought the whole of mainland Scotland under temporary Uí Imair control. The south-east had been absorbed by the English Kingdom of Bernicia/Northumbria in the seventh century. Galloway in the southwest was a Lordship with some regality. In a Galwegian charter dated to the reign of Fergus, the Galwegian ruler styled himself rex Galwitensium, King of Galloway. In the northeast the ruler of Moray was called not only "king" in both Scandinavian and Irish sources, but before Máel Snechtai, "King of Alba".
However, when Domnall mac Causantín died at Dunnottar in 900, he was the first man to be recorded as rí Alban and his kingdom was the nucleus that would expand as Viking and other influences waned. In the tenth century, the Alban elite had begun to develop a conquest myth to explain their increasing Gaelicisation at the expense of Pictish culture. Known as MacAlpin's Treason, it describes how Cináed mac Ailpín is supposed to have annihilated the Picts in one fell takeover. However, modern historians are now beginning to reject this conceptualization of Scottish origins. No contemporary sources mention this conquest. Moreover, the Gaelicisation of Pictland was a long process predating Cináed, and is evidenced by Gaelic-speaking Pictish rulers, Pictish royal patronage of Gaelic poets, and Gaelic inscriptions and placenames. The change of identity can perhaps be explained by the death of the Pictish language, but also important may be Causantín II's alleged Scoticisation of the "Pictish" Church and the trauma caused by Viking invasions, most strenuously felt in the Pictish kingdom's heartland of Fortriu.
Scandinavian-influenced territories
Kingdom of the Isles
The Kingdom of the Isles comprised the Hebrides, the islands of the Firth of Clyde and the Isle of Man from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD. The islands were known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar, or "Southern Isles" as distinct from the Norðreyjar or "Northern Isles" of Orkney and Shetland, which were held by the Earls of Orkney as vassals of the Norwegian crown throughout the High Middle Ages.
After Ragnall ua Ímair, Amlaíb Cuarán, who fought at the Battle of Brunanburh in 937 and who also became King of Northumbria, is the next King of the Isles on record. In the succeeding years Norse sources also list various rulers such as Gilli, Sigurd the Stout, Håkon Eiriksson and Thorfinn Sigurdsson as rulers over the Hebrides as vassals of the Kings of Norway or Denmark.
Godred Crovan became the ruler of Dublin and Mann from 1079 and from the early years of the twelfth century the Crovan dynasty asserted themselves and ruled as "Kings of Mann and the Isles" for the next half-century. The kingdom was then sundered due to the actions of Somerled whose sons inherited the southern Hebrides while the Manx rulers held on to the "north isles" for another century.
The North
The Scandinavian influence in Scotland was probably at its height in the mid eleventh century during the time of Thorfinn Sigurdsson, who attempted to create a single political and ecclesiastical domain stretching from Shetland to Man. The permanent Scandinavian holdings in Scotland at that time must therefore have been at least a quarter of the land area of modern Scotland.
By the end of the eleventh century, the Norwegian crown had come to accept that Caithness was held by the Earls of Orkney as a fiefdom from the Kings of Scotland although its Norse character was retained throughout the thirteenth century. Raghnall mac Gofraidh was granted Caithness after assisting the Scots king in a conflict with Harald Maddadson, an earl of Orkney in the early thirteenth century.
In the ninth century, Orcadian control stretched into Moray, which was a semi-independent kingdom for much of this early period. The Moray rulers Macbeth (1040–1057) and his successor Lulach (1057–1058) became rulers of the entire Scottish kingdom for a time. However, Moray was subjugated by the Scottish kings after 1130, when the native ruler, Óengus of Moray was killed leading a rebellion. Another revolt in 1187 was equally unsuccessful.
South west Scotland
By the mid-tenth century Amlaíb Cuarán controlled The Rhinns and the region gets the modern name of Galloway from the mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement that produced the Gall-Gaidel. Magnus Barelegs is said to have "subdued the people of Galloway" in the eleventh century and Whithorn seems to have been a centre of Hiberno-Norse artisans who traded around the Irish Sea by the end of the first millennium. However, the place name, written and archaeological evidence of extensive Norse (as opposed to Norse-Gael) settlement in the area is not convincing.
The ounceland system seems to have become widespread down the west coast including much of Argyll, and most of the southwest apart from a region near the inner Solway Firth. In Dumfries and Galloway the place name evidence is complex and of mixed Gaelic, Norse and Danish influence, the last most likely stemming from contact with the extensive Danish holdings in northern England. Although the Scots obtained greater control after the death of Gilla Brigte and the accession of Lochlann in 1185, Galloway was not fully absorbed by Scotland until 1235, after the rebellion of the Galwegians was crushed.
Strathclyde
The main language of Strathclyde and elsewhere in the Hen Ogledd in the opening years of the High Middle Ages was Cumbric, a variety of the British language akin to Old Welsh. Sometime after 1018 and before 1054, the kingdom appears to have been conquered by the Scots, most probably during the reign of Máel Coluim mac Cináeda who died in 1034. At this time the territory of Strathclyde extended as far south as the River Derwent. In 1054, the English king Edward the Confessor dispatched Earl Siward of Northumbria against the Scots, then ruled by Macbeth. By the 1070s, if not earlier in the reign of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada, it appears that the Scots again controlled Strathclyde, although William Rufus annexed the southern portion in 1092. The territory was granted by Alexander I to his brother David, later King David I, in 1107.
Kingdom of Alba or Scotia
Gaelic kings: Domnall II to Alexander I
Domnall mac Causantín's nickname was dásachtach. This simply meant a madman, or, in early Irish law, a man not in control of his functions and hence without legal culpability. The following long reign (900–942/3) of his successor Causantín is more often regarded as the key to the formation of the Kingdom of Alba.
The period between the accession of Máel Coluim I and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda was marked by good relations with the Wessex rulers of England, intense internal dynastic disunity and, despite this, relatively successful expansionary policies. In 945, king Máel Coluim I received Strathclyde as part of a deal with King Edmund of England, an event offset somewhat by Máel Coluim's loss of control in Moray. Sometime in the reign of king Idulb (954–962), the Scots captured the fortress called oppidum Eden, i.e. Edinburgh. Scottish control of Lothian was strengthened with Máel Coluim II's victory over the Northumbrians at the Battle of Carham (1018). The Scots had probably some authority in Strathclyde since the later part of the ninth century, but the kingdom kept its own rulers, and it is not clear that the Scots were always strong enough to enforce their authority.
The reign of King Donnchad I from 1034 was marred by failed military adventures, and he was killed in a battle with the men of Moray, led by Macbeth who became king in 1040. Macbeth ruled for seventeen years, peaceful enough that he was able to leave to go on pilgrimage to Rome; however, he was overthrown by Máel Coluim, the son of Donnchad, who some months later defeated Macbeth's stepson and successor Lulach to become king Máel Coluim III. In subsequent medieval propaganda, Donnchad's reign was portrayed positively while Macbeth was vilified; William Shakespeare followed this distorted history with his portrayal of both the king and his queen consort, Gruoch, in his play Macbeth.
It was Máel Coluim III, not his father Donnchad, who did more to create the dynasty that ruled Scotland for the following two centuries. Part of the resource was the large number of children he had, perhaps as many as a dozen, through marriage to the widow or daughter of Thorfinn Sigurdsson and afterwards to the Anglo-Hungarian princess Margaret, granddaughter of Edmund Ironside. However, despite having a royal Anglo-Saxon wife, Máel Coluim spent much of his reign conducting slave raids against the English, adding to the woes of that people in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England and the Harrying of the North. Marianus Scotus narrates that "the Gaels and French devastated the English; and [the English] were dispersed and died of hunger; and were compelled to eat human flesh".
Máel Coluim's Queen Margaret was the sister of the native claimant to the English throne, Edgar Ætheling. This marriage, and Máel Coluim's raids on northern England, prompted interference by the Norman rulers of England in the Scottish kingdom. King William the Conqueror invaded and Máel Coluim submitted to his authority, giving his oldest son Donnchad as a hostage. From 1079 onwards there were various cross-border raids by both parties and Máel Coluim himself and Edward, his eldest son by Margaret, died in one of them in the Battle of Alnwick, in 1093.
Tradition would have made his brother Domnall Bán Máel Coluim's successor, but it seems that Edward, his eldest son by Margaret, was his chosen heir. With Máel Coluim and Edward dead in the same battle, and his other sons in Scotland still young, Domnall was made king. However, Donnchad II, Máel Coluim's eldest son by his first wife, obtained some support from William Rufus and took the throne. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle his English and French followers were massacred, and Donnchad II himself was killed later in the same year (1094) by Domnall's ally Máel Petair of Mearns. In 1097, William Rufus sent another of Máel Coluim's sons, Edgar, to take the kingship. The ensuing death of Domnall Bán secured the kingship for Edgar, and there followed a period of relative peace. The reigns of both Edgar and his successor Alexander are obscure by comparison with their successors. The former's most notable act was to send a camel (or perhaps an elephant) to his fellow Gael Muircheartach Ua Briain, High King of Ireland. When Edgar died, Alexander took the kingship, while his youngest brother David became Prince of Cumbria.
Scoto-Norman kings: David I to Alexander III
The period between the accession of David I and the death of Alexander III was marked by dependency upon and relatively good relations with the Kings of England. The period can be regarded as one of great historical transformation, part of a more general phenomenon, which has been called "Europeanisation". The period also witnessed the successful imposition of royal authority across most of the modern country. After David I, and especially in the reign of William I, Scotland's Kings became ambivalent about the culture of most of their subjects. As Walter of Coventry tells us, "The modern kings of Scotland count themselves as Frenchmen, in race, manners, language and culture; they keep only Frenchmen in their household and following, and have reduced the Gaels to utter servitude."
This situation was not without consequence. In the aftermath of William's capture at Alnwick in 1174, the Scots turned on the small number of Middle English-speakers and French-speakers among them. William of Newburgh related that the Scots first attacked the Scoto-English in their own army, and Newburgh reported a repetition of these events in Scotland itself. Walter Bower, writing a few centuries later about the same events confirms that "there took place a most wretched and widespread persecution of the English both in Scotland and Galloway".
The first instance of strong opposition to the Scottish kings was perhaps the revolt of Óengus, the Mormaer of Moray. Other important resistors to the expansionary Scottish kings were Somerled, Fergus of Galloway, Gille Brigte, Lord of Galloway and Harald Maddadsson, along with two kin-groups known today as the MacHeths and the MacWilliams. The threat from the latter was so grave that, after their defeat in 1230, the Scottish crown ordered the public execution of the infant girl who happened to be the last of the MacWilliam line. According to the Lanercost Chronicle:
Many of these resistors collaborated, and drew support not just in the peripheral Gaelic regions of Galloway, Moray, Ross and Argyll, but also from eastern "Scotland-proper", and elsewhere in the Gaelic world. However, by the end of the twelfth century, the Scottish kings had acquired the authority and ability to draw in native Gaelic lords outside their previous zone of control in order to do their work, the most famous examples being Lochlann, Lord of Galloway and Ferchar mac in tSagairt. By the reign of Alexander III, the Scots were in a strong position to annex the remainder of the western seaboard, which they did following Haakon Haakonarson's ill-fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266. The conquest of the west, the creation of the Mormaerdom of Carrick in 1186 and the absorption of the Lordship of Galloway after the Galwegian revolt of Gille Ruadh in 1235 meant that Gaelic speakers under the rule of the Scottish king formed a majority of the population during the so-called Norman period. The integration of Gaelic, Norman and Saxon cultures that began to occur may have been the platform that enabled King Robert I to emerge victorious during the Wars of Independence, which followed soon after the death of Alexander III.
Geography
At the beginning of this period, the boundaries of Alba contained only a small proportion of modern Scotland. Even when these lands were added to in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the term Scotia was applied in sources only to the region between the River Forth, the central Grampians and the River Spey and only began to be used to describe all of the lands under the authority of the Scottish crown from the second half of the twelfth century. By the late thirteenth century when the Treaty of York (1237) and Treaty of Perth (1266) had fixed the boundaries with the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively, its borders were close to the modern boundaries. After this time both Berwick and the Isle of Man were lost to England, and Orkney and Shetland were gained from Norway in the fifteenth century.
The area that became Scotland in this period is divided by geology into five major regions: the Southern Uplands, Central Lowlands, the Highlands, the North-east coastal plain and the Islands. Some of these were further divided by mountains, major rivers and marshes. Most of these regions had strong cultural and economic ties elsewhere: to England, Ireland, Scandinavian and mainland Europe. Internal communications were difficult and the country lacked an obvious geographical centre. Dunfermline emerged as a major royal centre in the reign of Malcolm III and Edinburgh began to be used to house royal records in the reign of David I, but, perhaps because of its proximity and vulnerability to England, it did not become a formal capital in this period.
The expansion of Alba into the wider Kingdom of Scotland was a gradual process combining external conquest and the suppression of occasional rebellions with the extension of seigniorial power through the placement of effective agents of the crown. Neighbouring independent kings became subject to Alba and eventually disappeared from the records. In the ninth century the term mormaer, meaning "great steward", began to appear in the records to describe the rulers of Moray, Strathearn, Buchan, Angus and Mearns, who may have acted as "marcher lords" for the kingdom to counter the Viking threat. Later the process of consolidation is associated with the feudalism introduced by David I, which, particularly in the east and south where the crown's authority was greatest, saw the placement of lordships, often based on castles, and the creation of administrative sheriffdoms, which overlay the pattern of local thegns. It also saw the English earl and Latin comes begin to replace the mormaers in the records. The result has been seen as a "hybrid kingdom, in which Gaelic, Anglo-Saxon, Flemish and Norman elements all coalesced under its 'Normanised', but nevertheless native lines of kings".
Economy and society
Economy
The Scottish economy of this period was dominated by agriculture and by short-distance, local trade. There was an increasing amount of foreign trade in the period, as well as exchange gained by means of military plunder. By the end of this period, coins were replacing barter goods, but for most of this period most exchange was done without the use of metal currency.
Most of Scotland's agricultural wealth in this period came from pastoralism, rather than arable farming. Arable farming grew significantly in the "Norman period", but with geographical differences, low-lying areas being subject to more arable farming than high-lying areas such as the Highlands, Galloway and the Southern Uplands. Galloway, in the words of G. W. S. Barrow, "already famous for its cattle, was so overwhelmingly pastoral, that there is little evidence in that region of land under any permanent cultivation, save along the Solway coast". The average amount of land used by a husbandman in Scotland might have been around 26 acres. The native Scots favoured pastoralism, in that Gaelic lords were happier to give away more land to French and Middle English-speaking settlers, while holding on tenaciously to upland regions, perhaps contributing to the Highland/Galloway-Lowland division that emerged in Scotland in the later Middle Ages. The main unit of land measurement in Scotland was the davoch (i.e. "vat"), called the arachor in Lennox and also known as the "Scottish ploughgate". In English-speaking Lothian, it was simply ploughgate. It may have measured about , divided into 4 raths. Cattle, pigs and cheeses were among the chief foodstuffs, from a wide range of produce including sheep, fish, rye, barley, bee wax and honey.
David I established the first chartered burghs in Scotland, copying the burgher charters and Leges Burgorum (rules governing virtually every aspect of life and work) almost verbatim from the English customs of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. Early burgesses were usually Flemish, English, French and German, rather than Gaelic Scots. The burgh's vocabulary was composed totally of either Germanic and French terms. The councils that ran individual burghs were individually known as lie doussane, meaning the dozen.
Demography and language
The population of Scotland in this period is unknown. The first reliable information in 1755 shows the inhabitants of Scotland as 1,265,380. Best estimates put the Scottish population for earlier periods in the High Middle Ages between 500,000 and 1,000,000 people, growing from a low point to a high point.
Linguistically, the majority of people within Scotland throughout this period spoke the Gaelic language, then simply called Scottish, or in Latin, lingua Scotica. Other languages spoken throughout this period were Old Norse and English, with the Cumbric language disappearing somewhere between 900 and 1100. Pictish may have survived into this period, but the evidence is weak. After the accession of David I, or perhaps before, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court. From his reign until the end of the period, the Scottish monarchs probably favoured the French language, as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles, literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language. English, with French and Flemish, became the main language of Scottish burghs. However, they were, in Barrow's words, "scarcely more than villages ... numbered in hundreds rather than thousands".
Society
The legal tract known as Laws of the Brets and Scots, probably compiled in the reign of David I, underlines the importance of the kin group as entitled to compensation for the killing of individual members. It also lists five grades of man: King, mormaer, toísech, ócthigern and neyfs. The highest rank below the king, the mormaer ("great officer"), were probably about a dozen provincial rulers, later replaced by the English term earl. Below them the toísech (leader), appear to have managed areas of the royal demesne, or that of a mormaer or abbot, within which they would have held substantial estates, sometimes described as shires and the title was probably equivalent to the later thane. The lowest free rank mentioned by the Laws of the Brets and Scots, the ócthigern (literally, little or young lord), is a term the text does not translate into French. There were probably relatively large numbers of free peasant farmers, called husbandmen or bondmen, in the south and north of the country, but fewer in the lands between the Forth and Sutherland until the twelfth century, when landlords began to encourage the formation of such a class through paying better wages and deliberate immigration. Below the husbandmen a class of free farmers with smaller parcels of land developed, with cottars and grazing tenants (gresemen). The non-free naviti, neyfs or serfs existed in various forms of service, with terms with their origins in Irish practice, including cumelache, cumherba and scoloc who were tied to a lord's estate and unable to leave it without permission, but who records indicate often absconded for better wages or work in other regions or in the developing burghs.
The introduction of feudalism from the time of David I, not only introduced sheriffdoms that overlay the pattern of local thanes, but also meant that new tenures were held from the king, or a superior lord, in exchange for loyalty and forms of service that were usually military. However, the imposition of feudalism continued to sit beside the existing system of landholding and tenure and it is not clear how this change impacted on the lives of the ordinary free and unfree workers. In places, feudalism may have tied workers more closely to the land, but the predominantly pastoral nature of Scottish agriculture may have made the imposition of a manorial system on the English model impracticable. Obligations appear to have been limited to occasional labour service, seasonal renders of food, hospitality and money rents.
Law and government
Early Gaelic law tracts, first written down in the ninth century, reveal a society highly concerned with kinship, status, honour and the regulation of blood feuds. Scottish common law began to take shape at the end of the period, assimilating Gaelic and Celtic law with practices from Anglo-Norman England and the Continent. In the twelfth century, and certainly in the thirteenth, strong continental legal influences began to have more effect, such as Canon law and various Anglo-Norman practices. Pre-fourteenth century law among the native Scots is not always well attested, but extensive knowledge of early Gaelic Law gives some basis for its reconstruction. In the earliest extant Scottish legal manuscript, there is a document called Leges inter Brettos et Scottos. The document survives in Old French, and is almost certainly a French translation of an earlier Gaelic document. It retained a vast number of untranslated Gaelic legal terms. Later medieval legal documents, written both in Latin and Middle English, contain more Gaelic legal terms, examples including slains (Old Irish slán or sláinte; exemption) and cumherba (Old Irish comarba; ecclesiastic heir).
A Judex (pl. judices) represents a post-Norman continuity with the ancient Gaelic orders of lawmen called in English today Brehons. Bearers of the office almost always have Gaelic names north of the Forth or in the south-west. Judices were often royal officials who supervised baronial, abbatial and other lower-ranking "courts". However, the main official of law in the post-Davidian Kingdom of the Scots was the Justiciar who held courts and reported to the king personally. Normally, there were two Justiciarships, organised by linguistic boundaries: the Justiciar of Scotia and the Justiciar of Lothian. Sometimes Galloway had its own Justiciar too.
The office of Justiciar and Judex were just two ways that Scottish society was governed. In the earlier period, the king "delegated" power to hereditary native "officers" such as the Mormaers/Earls and Toísechs/Thanes. It was a government of gift-giving and bardic lawmen. There were also popular courts, the comhdhail, testament to which are dozens of placenames throughout eastern Scotland. In the Norman period, sheriffdoms and sheriffs and, to a lesser extent, bishops (see below) became increasingly important. The former enabled the King to effectively administer royal demesne land. During David I's reign, royal sheriffs had been established in the king's core personal territories; namely, in rough chronological order, at Roxburgh, Scone, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling and Perth. By the reign of William I, there may have been about 30 royal sheriffdoms, including ones at Ayr and Dumfries, key locations on the borders of Galloway-Carrick. As the distribution and number of sheriffdoms expanded, so did royal control. By the end of the thirteenth century, sheriffdoms had been established in westerly locations as far-flung as Wigtown, Kintyre, Skye and Lorne. Through these, the thirteenth-century Scottish king exercised more control over Scotland than any of his later medieval successors. The king himself was itinerant and had no "capital" as such although Scone performed a key function. By ritual tradition, all Scottish kings in this period had to be crowned there by the Mormaers of Strathearn and Fife. Although King David I tried to build up Roxburgh as a capital, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, more charters were issued at Scone than any other location. Other popular locations were nearby Perth, Stirling, Dunfermline and Edinburgh. In the earliest part of this era, Forres and Dunkeld seem to have been the chief royal residences.
Records from the Scandinavian-held lands are much-less well documented by comparison. Udal law formed the basis of the legal system and it is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland measure. Althings were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all free men. At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints adjudicated. Examples include Tingwall and Law Ting Holm in Shetland, Dingwall in Easter Ross, and Tynwald on the Isle of Man.
Warfare
Land warfare
By the twelfth century the ability of lords and the king to call on wider bodies of men beyond their household troops for major campaigns had become the "common" (communis exertcitus) or "Scottish army" (exercitus Scoticanus), the result of a universal obligation based on the holding of variously named units of land. Later decrees indicated that the common army was a levy of all able-bodied freemen aged between 16 and 60, with 8-days warning. It produced relatively large numbers of men serving for a limited period, usually as unarmoured or poorly armoured bowmen and spearmen. In this period it continued to be mustered by the earls and they often led their men in battle, as was the case in the Battle of the Standard in 1138. It would continue to provide the vast majority of Scottish national armies, potentially producing tens of thousands of men for short periods of conflict, into the early modern era.
There also developed obligations that produced smaller numbers of feudal troops. The Davidian Revolution of the twelfth century was seen by Geoffrey Barrow as bringing "fundamental innovations in military organization". These included the knight's fee, homage and fealty, as well as castle-building and the regular use of professional cavalry, as knights held castles and estates in exchange for service, providing troops on a 40-day basis. David's Norman followers and their retinues were able to provide a force of perhaps 200 mounted and armoured knights, but the vast majority of his forces were the "common army" of poorly armed infantry, capable of performing well in raiding and guerrilla warfare. Although such troops were only infrequently able to stand up to the English in the field, nonetheless they did manage to do so critically in the wars of independence at Stirling Bridge in 1297 and Bannockburn in 1314.
Marine warfare
The Viking onslaught of the British Isles was based on superior sea-power, which enabled the creation of the thalassocracies of the north and west. In the late tenth century the naval battle of "Innisibsolian" (tentatively identified as taking place near the Slate Islands of Argyll) was won by Alban forces over Vikings, although this was an unusual setback for the Norse. In 962 Ildulb mac Causantín, King of Scots, was killed (according to the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba) fighting the Norse near Cullen, at the Battle of Bauds, and although there is no evidence of permanent Viking settlement on the east coast of Scotland south of the Moray Firth, raids and even invasions certainly occurred. Dunnottar was taken during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín and the Orkneyinga saga records an attack on the Isle of May, by Sweyn Asleifsson and Margad Grimsson.
The long-ship, the key to their success, was a graceful, long, narrow, light, wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed. This shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one metre deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages. Longships were also double-ended, the symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around. In the Gàidhealtachd they were eventually succeeded by the Birlinn, highland galley and lymphad, which, in ascending order of size, and which replaced the steering-board with a stern-rudder from the late twelfth century. Forces of ships were raised through obligations of a ship-levy through the system of ouncelands and pennylands, which have been argued to date back to the muster system of Dál Riata, but were probably introduced by Scandinavian settlers. Later evidence suggests that the supply of ships for war became linked to military feudal obligations. Viking naval power was disrupted by conflicts between the Scandinavian kingdoms, but entered a period of resurgence in the 13th century when Norwegian kings began to build some of the largest ships seen in Northern European waters, until Haakon Haakonson's ill-fated expedition in 1263 left the Scottish crown the most significant power in the region.
Christianity and the Church
By the tenth century, all of northern Britain was Christianised, except the Scandinavian north and west, which had been lost to the church in the face of Norse settlement.
Saints
Like every other Christian country, one of the main features of medieval Scottish Christianity was the Cult of Saints. Saints of Irish origin who were particularly revered included various figures called St Faelan and St. Colman, and saints Findbar and Finan. The most important missionary saint was Columba, who emerged as a national figure in the combined Scottish and Pictish kingdom, with a new centre established in the east at Dunkeld by Kenneth I for part of his relics. He remained a major figure into the fourteenth century and a new foundation was endowed by William I at Arbroath Abbey and the relics in the Monymusk Reliquary handed over to the Abbot's care. Regional saints remained important to local identities. In Strathclyde the most important saint was St Kentigern, in Lothian, St Cuthbert and after this martyrdom around 1115 a cult emerged in Orkney, Shetland and northern Scotland around Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney. The cult of St Andrew in Scotland was established on the East coast by the Pictish kings as early as the eighth century. The shrine, which from the twelfth century was said to have contained the relics of the saint, brought to Scotland by Saint Regulus, began to attract pilgrims from Scotland, but also from England and further away. By the twelfth century the site at Kilrymont, had become known simply as St. Andrews and it became increasingly associated with Scottish national identity and the royal family. It was renewed as a focus for devotion with the patronage of Queen Margaret, who also became important after her canonisation in 1250 and the ceremonial transfer of her remains to Dunfermline Abbey, as one of the most revered national saints.
Organisation
There is some evidence that Christianity made inroads into the Viking-controlled Highlands and Islands before the official conversion at the end of the tenth century. There are a relatively large number of isles called Pabbay or Papa in the Western and Northern Isles, which may indicate a "hermit's" or "priest's isle" from this period. Changes in patterns of grave goods and the use of Viking place names using -kirk also suggest that Christianity had begun to spread before the official conversion. According to the Orkneyinga Saga the Northern Isles were Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke, receiving their own bishop in the early eleventh century. Elsewhere in Scandinavian Scotland the record is less clear. There was a Bishop of Iona until the late tenth century and there is then a gap of more than a century, possibly filled by the Bishops of Orkney, before the appointment of the first Bishop of Mann in 1079.
At the beginning of the period Scottish monasticism was dominated by monks called Céli Dé (lit. "vassals of God"), anglicised as culdees. At St Andrews and elsewhere, Céli Dé abbeys are recorded and the round towers at Brechin and Abernethy are evidence of Irish influence. Gaelic monasticism was vibrant and expansionary for much of the period and dozens of monasteries, often called Schottenklöster, were founded by Gaelic monks on the continent. The introduction of the continental type of monasticism to Scotland is associated with Queen Margaret, the wife of Máel Coluim III, although her exact role is unclear. She was in communication with Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, and he provided a few monks for a new Benedictine abbey at Dunfermline (c. 1070). Subsequent foundations under Margaret's sons, the kings Edgar, Alexander I and particularly David I, tended to be of the reformed type that followed the lead set by Cluny. These stressed the original Benedictine virtues of poverty, chastity and obedience, but also contemplation and service of the Mass and were followed in various forms by large numbers of reformed Benedictine, Augustinian and Cistercian houses.
Before the twelfth century most Scottish churches had collegiate bodies of clergy who served over a wide area, often tied together by devotion to a particular missionary saint. From this period local lay landholders, perhaps following the example of David I, began to adopt the continental practice of building churches on their land for the local population and endowing them with land and a priest, beginning in the south, spreading to the north-east and then the west, being almost universal by the first survey of the Scottish Church for papal taxation in 1274. The administration of these parishes was often given over to local monastic institutions in a process known as appropriation. Scotland had little clear diocesan structure before the Norman period. There were bishoprics based on various ancient churches, but some are very obscure in the records and there appear to be long vacancies. From around 1070, in the reign of Malcolm III, there was a "Bishop of Alba" resident at St. Andrews, but it is not clear what authority he had over the other bishops. After the Norman Conquest of England, the Archbishops of both Canterbury and York each claimed superiority over the Scottish church. The church in Scotland attained independent status after the Papal Bull of Celestine III (Cum universi, 1192) by which all Scottish bishoprics except Galloway were formally independent of York and Canterbury. However, unlike Ireland, which had been granted four Archbishoprics in the same century, Scotland received no Archbishop and the whole Ecclesia Scoticana, with individual Scottish bishoprics (except Whithorn/Galloway), became the "special daughter of the see of Rome". It was in practice run by special councils made up of all its bishops, with the bishop of St Andrews emerging as the most important player.
Culture
As a predominantly Gaelic society, most Scottish cultural practices throughout this period mirrored closely those of Ireland, or at least those of Ireland with some Pictish borrowings. After David I, the French-speaking kings introduced cultural practices popular in Anglo-Norman England, France and elsewhere. As in all pre-modern societies, storytelling was popular. The English scholar D. D. R. Owen, who specialises in the literature of this era, writes that "Professional storytellers would ply their trade from court to court. Some of them would have been native Scots, no doubt offering legends from the ancient Celtic past performed ... in Gaelic when appropriate, but in French for most of the new nobility". Almost all of these stories are lost, although some have come down in the Gaelic or Scots oral tradition. One form of oral culture extremely well accounted for in this period is genealogy. There are dozens of Scottish genealogies surviving from this era, covering everyone from the Mormaers of Lennox and Moray to the Scottish king himself. Scotland's kings maintained an ollamh righe, a royal high poet who had a permanent place in all medieval Gaelic lordships, and whose purpose was to recite genealogies when needed, for occasions such as coronations.
Before the reign of David I, the Scots possessed a flourishing literary elite who regularly produced texts in both Gaelic and Latin that were frequently transmitted to Ireland and elsewhere. Dauvit Broun has shown that a Gaelic literary elite survived in the eastern Scottish lowlands, in places such as Loch Leven and Brechin into the thirteenth century, However, surviving records are predominantly written in Latin, and their authors would usually translate vernacular terms into Latin, so that historians are faced with researching a Gaelic society clothed in Latin terminology. Even names were translated into more common continental forms; for instance, Gilla Brigte became Gilbert, Áed became Hugh, etc. As far as written literature is concerned, there may be more medieval Scottish Gaelic literature than is often thought. Almost all medieval Gaelic literature has survived because it was sustained in Ireland, not in Scotland. Thomas Owen Clancy has recently all but proven that the Lebor Bretnach, the so-called "Irish Nennius", was written in Scotland, and probably at the monastery in Abernethy. Yet this text survives only from manuscripts preserved in Ireland. Other literary work that has survived include that of the prolific poet Gille Brighde Albanach. About 1218, Gille Brighde wrote a poem — Heading for Damietta — on his experiences of the Fifth Crusade. In the thirteenth century, French flourished as a literary language, and produced the Roman de Fergus, one of the earliest pieces of non-Celtic vernacular literature to survive from Scotland.
There is no extant literature in the English language in this era. There is some Norse literature from Scandinavian parts such as Darraðarljóð, which is located in Caithness, the story being a "powerful mixture of Celtic and Old Norse imagery". The famous Orkneyinga Saga, which pertains to the early history of the Earldom of Orkney, was written down in Iceland.
In the Middle Ages, Scotland was renowned for its musical skill. Gerald of Wales, a medieval clergyman and chronicler, explains the relationship between Scottish and Irish music:
Playing the harp (clarsach) was especially popular with medieval Scots – half a century after Gerald's writing, King Alexander III kept a royal harpist at his court. Of the three medieval harps that survive, two come from Scotland (Perthshire), and one from Ireland. Singers also had a royal function. For instance, when the king of Scotland passed through the territory of Strathearn, it was the custom that he be greeted by seven female singers, who would sing to him. When Edward I approached the borders of Strathearn in the summer of 1296, he was met by these seven women, "who accompanied the King on the road between Gask and Ogilvie, singing to him, as was the custom in the time of the late Alexander kings of Scots".
Outsiders' views
The Irish thought of Scotland as a provincial place. Others thought of it as an outlandish or barbaric place. "Who would deny that the Scots are barbarians?" was a rhetorical question posed in the 12th century by the Anglo-Flemish author of De expugnatione Lyxbonensi (On the Conquest of Lisbon). A century later Louis IX of France was reported to have said to his son "I would prefer that a Scot should come from Scotland and govern the people well and faithfully, than that you, my son, should be seen to govern badly."
This characterisation of the Scots was often politically motivated, and many of the most hostile writers were based in areas frequently subjected to Scottish raids. English and French accounts of the Battle of the Standard contain many accounts of Scottish atrocities. For instance, Henry of Huntingdon notes that the Scots: "cleft open pregnant women, and took out the unborn babes; they tossed children upon the spear-points, and beheaded priests on altars: they cut the head of crucifixes, and placed them on the trunks of the slain, and placed the heads of the dead upon the crucifixes. Thus wherever the Scots arrived, all was full of horror and full of savagery." A less hostile view was given by Guibert of Nogent in the First Crusade, who encountered Scots and wrote: "You might have seen a crowd of Scots, a people savage at home but unwarlike elsewhere, descend from their marshy lands, with bare legs, shaggy cloaks, their purse hanging from their shoulders; their copious arms seemed ridiculous to us, but they offered their faith and devotion as aid."
There was also a general belief that Scotland-proper was an island, or at least a peninsula, known as Scotia, Alba or Albania. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk and cartographer, drew a map in this manner in the mid-thirteenth century and called the "island" Scotia ultra marina. A later medieval Italian map applies this geographical conceptualization to all of Scotland. The Arab geographer al-Idrisi, shared this view: "Scotland adjoins the island of England and is a long peninsula to the north of the larger island. It is uninhabited and has neither town nor village. Its length is 150 miles."
National identity
In this period, the word "Scot" was not the word used by the vast majority of Scots to describe themselves, except to foreigners, among whom it was the most common word. The Scots called themselves Albanach or simply Gaidel. Both "Scot" and Gaidel were ethnic terms that connected them to the majority of the inhabitants of Ireland. As the author of De Situ Albanie notes at the beginning of the thirteenth century: "The name Arregathel [Argyll] means margin of the Scots or Irish, because all Scots and Irish are generally called 'Gattheli'."
Likewise, the inhabitants of English and Norse-speaking parts were ethnically linked with other regions of Europe. At Melrose, people could recite religious literature in the English language. In the later part of the twelfth century, the Lothian writer Adam of Dryburgh describes Lothian as "the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots". In the Northern Isles the Norse language evolved into the local Norn, which lingered until the end of the eighteenth century, when it finally died out and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the sixteenth century in the Outer Hebrides.
Scotland came to possess a unity that transcended Gaelic, English, Norman and Norse ethnic differences and by the end of the period, the Latin, Norman-French and English word "Scot" could be used for any subject of the Scottish king. Scotland's multilingual Scoto-Norman monarchs and mixed Gaelic and Scoto-Norman aristocracy all became part of the "Community of the Realm", in which ethnic differences were less divisive than in Ireland and Wales.
Notes
Citations
References
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External links
Primary sources
Annals of Tigernach
Annals of Ulster
Chronicon Scotorum
Gaelic Notes on the Book of Deer
Genelaig Albanensium in the Genealogies from Rawlinson B 502
Text of the Lebor Bretnach and the Duan Albanach
Secondary sources
MacQueen "Laws and Languages"
History of Scotland by period |
4349420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian%20Rejewski | Marian Rejewski | Marian Adam Rejewski (; 16 August 1905 – 13 February 1980) was a Polish mathematician and cryptologist who in late 1932 reconstructed the sight-unseen Nazi German military Enigma cipher machine, aided by limited documents obtained by French military intelligence. Over the next nearly seven years, Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski developed and used techniques and equipment to decrypt the German machine ciphers, even as the Germans introduced modifications to their equipment and encryption procedures. Five weeks before the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the Poles shared their technological achievements with the French and British at a conference in Warsaw, thus enabling Britain to begin reading German Enigma-encrypted messages, seven years after Rejewski's original reconstruction of the machine. The intelligence that was gained by the British from Enigma decrypts formed part of what was code-named Ultra and contributed—perhaps decisively—to the defeat of Nazi Germany.
In 1929, while studying mathematics at Poznań University, Rejewski attended a secret cryptology course conducted by the Polish General Staff's Cipher Bureau (Biuro Szyfrów), which he joined in September 1932. The Bureau had had no success in reading Enigma-enciphered messages and set Rejewski to work on the problem in late 1932; he deduced the machine's secret internal wiring after only a few weeks. Rejewski and his two colleagues then developed successive techniques for the regular decryption of Enigma messages. His own contributions included the cryptologic card catalog, derived using the cyclometer that he had invented, and the cryptologic bomb.
Five weeks before the Nazi German invasion of Poland in 1939, Rejewski and colleagues presented their achievements to French and British intelligence representatives summoned to Warsaw. Shortly after the outbreak of war, the Polish cryptologists were evacuated to France, where they continued breaking Enigma-enciphered messages. They and their support staff were again compelled to evacuate after the fall of France in June 1940, and they resumed work undercover a few months later in Vichy France. After the French "Free Zone" was occupied by Nazi Germany in November 1942, Rejewski and Zygalski fled via Spain, Portugal, and Gibraltar to Britain. There they enlisted in the Polish Armed Forces and were put to work solving low-grade German ciphers.
In the aftermath of World War II, Rejewski reunited with his family in Poland and worked as an accountant. For two decades, he remained silent about his prewar and wartime cryptologic work to avoid adverse attention from the country's Soviet-dominated government; he broke his silence in 1967 when he provided to the Polish Military Historical Institute his memoirs of his work in the Cipher Bureau. He died at age 74 of a heart attack and was interred with military honors at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery.
Early life
Marian Rejewski was born 16 August 1905 in Bromberg in the Prussian Province of Posen (now Bydgoszcz, Poland) to Józef and Matylda, née Thoms. After completing secondary school, he studied mathematics at Poznań University's Mathematics Institute, housed in Poznań Castle.
In 1929, shortly before graduating from university, Rejewski began attending a secret cryptology course which opened on 15 January, organized for select German-speaking mathematics students by the Polish General Staff's Cipher Bureau with the help of the Mathematics Institute's Professor Zdzisław Krygowski. The course was conducted off-campus at a military facility and, as Rejewski would discover in France in 1939, "was entirely and literally based" on a 1925 book by French colonel , Cours de cryptographie (Cryptography Course). Rejewski and fellow students Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Różycki were among the few who could keep up with the course while balancing the demands of their normal studies.
On 1 March 1929 Rejewski graduated with a Master of Philosophy degree in mathematics. A few weeks after graduating, and without having completed the Cipher Bureau's cryptology course, he began the first year of a two-year actuarial statistics course at Göttingen, Germany. He did not complete the statistics course, because while home for the summer of 1930, he accepted an offer, from Professor Krygowski, of a mathematics teaching assistantship at Poznań University. He also began working part-time for the Cipher Bureau, which by then had set up an outpost at Poznań to decrypt intercepted German radio messages. Rejewski worked some twelve hours a week near the Mathematics Institute in an underground vault referred to puckishly as the "Black Chamber".
The Poznań branch of the Cipher Bureau was disbanded in the summer of 1932. In Warsaw, on 1 September 1932, Rejewski, Zygalski, and Różycki joined the Cipher Bureau as civilian employees working at the General Staff building (the Saxon Palace). Their first assignment was to solve a four-letter code used by the (German Navy). Progress was initially slow, but sped up after a test exchange—consisting of a six-group signal, followed by a four-group response—was intercepted. The cryptologists guessed correctly that the first signal was the question, "When was Frederick the Great born?" followed by the response, "1712."
On 20 June 1934 Rejewski married Irena Maria Lewandowska, daughter of a prosperous dentist. The couple eventually had two children: a son, Andrzej (Andrew), born in 1936; and a daughter, Janina (Joan), born in 1939. Janina would later become a mathematician like her father.
Enigma machine
The Enigma machine was an electromechanical device, equipped with a 26-letter keyboard and 26 lamps, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. Inside was a set of wired drums (rotors and a reflector) that scrambled the input. The machine used a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, and the encipherment varied from one key press to the next. For two operators to communicate, both Enigma machines had to be set up in the same way. The large number of possibilities for setting the rotors and the plugboard combined to form an astronomical number of configurations, and the settings were changed daily, so the machine code had to be "broken" anew each day.
Before 1932, the Cipher Bureau had succeeded in solving an earlier Enigma machine that functioned without a plugboard, but had been unsuccessful with the Enigma I, a new standard German cipher machine that was coming into widespread use. In late October or early November 1932, the head of the Cipher Bureau's German section, Captain Maksymilian Ciężki, tasked Rejewski to work alone on the German Enigma I machine for a couple of hours per day; Rejewski was not to tell his colleagues what he was doing.
Solving the wiring
To decrypt Enigma messages, three pieces of information were needed: (1) a general understanding of how Enigma functioned; (2) the wiring of the rotors; and (3) the daily settings (the sequence and orientations of the rotors, and the plug connections on the plugboard). Rejewski had only the first at his disposal, based on information already acquired by the Cipher Bureau.
First Rejewski tackled the problem of discovering the wiring of the rotors. To do this, according to historian David Kahn, he pioneered the use of pure mathematics in cryptanalysis. Previous methods had largely exploited linguistic patterns and the statistics of natural-language texts—letter-frequency analysis. Rejewski applied techniques from group theory—theorems about permutations—in his attack on Enigma. These mathematical techniques, combined with material supplied by Gustave Bertrand, chief of French radio intelligence, enabled him to reconstruct the internal wirings of the machine's rotors and nonrotating reflector. "The solution", writes Kahn, "was Rejewski's own stunning achievement, one that elevates him to the pantheon of the greatest cryptanalysts of all time." Rejewski used a mathematical theorem—that two permutations are conjugate if and only if they have the same cycle structure—that mathematics professor and Cryptologia co-editor Cipher A. Deavours describes as "the theorem that won World War II".
Before receiving the French intelligence material, Rejewski had made a careful study of Enigma messages, particularly of the first six letters of messages intercepted on a single day. For security, each message was encrypted using different starting positions of the rotors, as selected by the operator. This message setting was three letters long. To convey it to the receiving operator, the sending operator began the message by sending the message setting in a disguised form—a six-letter indicator. The indicator was formed using the Enigma with its rotors set to a common global setting for that day, termed the ground setting, which was shared by all operators. The particular way that the indicator was constructed introduced a weakness into the cipher.
For example, suppose the operator chose the message setting for a message. The operator would first set the Enigma's rotors to the ground setting, which might be on that particular day, and then encrypt the message setting on the Enigma twice; that is, the operator would enter (which might come out to something like ). The operator would then reposition the rotors at , and encrypt the actual message. A receiving operator could reverse the process to recover first the message setting, then the message itself. The repetition of the message setting was apparently meant as an error check to detect garbles, but it had the unforeseen effect of greatly weakening the cipher. Due to the indicator's repetition of the message setting, Rejewski knew that, in the plaintext of the indicator, the first and fourth letters were the same, the second and fifth were the same, and the third and sixth were the same. These relations could be exploited to break into the cipher.
Rejewski studied these related pairs of letters. For example, if there were four messages that had the following indicators on the same day: , , , , then by looking at the first and fourth letters of each set, he knew that certain pairs of letters were related. was related to , was related to , was related to , and was related to : (,), (,), (,), and (,). If he had enough different messages to work with, he could build entire sequences of relationships: the letter was related to , which was related to , which was related to , which was related to (see diagram). This was a "cycle of 4", since it took four jumps until it got back to the start letter. Another cycle on the same day might be , or a "cycle of 3". If there were enough messages on a given day, all the letters of the alphabet might be covered by a number of different cycles of various sizes. The cycles would be consistent for one day, and then would change to a different set of cycles the next day. Similar analysis could be done on the 2nd and 5th letters, and the 3rd and 6th, identifying the cycles in each case and the number of steps in each cycle.
Enigma operators also had a tendency to choose predictable letter combinations as indicators, such as girlfriends' initials or a pattern of keys that they saw on the Enigma keyboard. These became known to the allies as "Cillies" ("Sillies" misspelled). Using the data thus gained from the study of cycles and the use of predictable indicators, Rejewski was able to deduce six permutations corresponding to the encipherment at six consecutive positions of the Enigma machine. These permutations could be described by six equations with various unknowns, representing the wiring within the entry drum, rotors, reflector, and plugboard.
French help
At this point, Rejewski ran into difficulties due to the large number of unknowns in the set of equations that he had developed. He would later comment in 1980 that it was still not known whether such a set of six equations was solvable without further data. But he was assisted by cryptographic documents that Section D of French military intelligence (the Deuxième Bureau), under future General Gustave Bertrand, had obtained and passed on to the Polish Cipher Bureau. The documents, procured from a spy in the German Cryptographic Service, Hans-Thilo Schmidt, included the Enigma settings for the months of September and October 1932. About 9 or 10 December 1932, the documents were given to Rejewski. They enabled him to reduce the number of unknowns and solve the wirings of the rotors and reflector.
There was another obstacle to overcome, however. The military Enigma had been modified from the commercial Enigma, of which Rejewski had had an actual example to study. In the commercial machine, the keys were connected to the entry drum in German keyboard order ("QWERTZU..."). However, in the military Enigma, the connections had instead been wired in alphabetical order: "ABCDEF..." This new wiring sequence foiled British cryptologists working on Enigma, who dismissed the "ABCDEF..." wiring as too obvious. Rejewski, perhaps guided by an intuition about a German fondness for order, simply guessed that the wiring was the normal alphabetic ordering. He later recalled that, after he had made this assumption, "from my pencil, as by magic, began to issue numbers designating the connections in rotor N. Thus the connections in one rotor, the right-hand rotor, were finally known."
The settings provided by French Intelligence covered two months that straddled a changeover period for the rotor ordering. A different rotor happened to be in the right-hand position for the second month, and so the wirings of two rotors could be recovered by the same method. Rejewski later recalled: "Finding the [wiring] in the third [rotor], and especially... in the [reflector], now presented no great difficulties. Likewise there were no difficulties with determining the correct torsion of the [rotors'] side walls with respect to each other, or the moments when the left and middle drums turned." By year's end 1932, the wirings of all three rotors and the reflector had been recovered. A sample message in an Enigma instruction manual, providing a plaintext and its corresponding ciphertext produced using a stated daily key and message key, helped clarify some remaining details.
There has been speculation as to whether the rotor wirings could have been solved without the documents supplied by French Intelligence. Rejewski recalled in 1980 that another way had been found that could have been used to solve the wirings, but that the method was "imperfect and tedious" and relied on chance. In 2005, mathematician John Lawrence claimed that it would have taken four years for this method to have had a reasonable likelihood of success. Rejewski had earlier written that "the conclusion is that the intelligence material furnished to us should be regarded as having been decisive to solution of the machine."
Solving daily settings
After Rejewski had determined the wiring in the remaining rotors, he was joined in early 1933 by Różycki and Zygalski in devising methods and equipment to break Enigma ciphers routinely. Rejewski later recalled:
Now we had the machine, but we didn't have the keys and we couldn't very well require Bertrand to keep on supplying us with the keys every month ... The situation had reversed itself: before, we'd had the keys but we hadn't had the machine—we solved the machine; now we had the machine but we didn't have the keys. We had to work out methods to find the daily keys.
Early methods
A number of methods and devices had to be invented in response to continual improvements in German operating procedure and to the Enigma machine itself. The earliest method for reconstructing daily keys was the "grill", based on the fact that the plugboard's connections exchanged only six pairs of letters, leaving fourteen letters unchanged. Next was Różycki's "clock" method, which sometimes made it possible to determine which rotor was at the right-hand side of the Enigma machine on a given day.
After 1 October 1936, German procedure changed, and the number of plugboard connections became variable, ranging between five and eight. As a result, the grill method became considerably less effective. However, a method using a card catalog had been devised around 1934 or 1935, and was independent of the number of plug connections. The catalog was constructed using Rejewski's "cyclometer", a special-purpose device for creating a catalog of permutations. Once the catalog was complete, the permutation could be looked up in the catalog, yielding the Enigma rotor settings for that day.
The cyclometer comprised two sets of Enigma rotors, and was used to determine the length and number of cycles of the permutations that could be generated by the Enigma machine. Even with the cyclometer, preparing the catalog was a long and difficult task. Each position of the Enigma machine (there were 17,576 positions) had to be examined for each possible sequence of rotors (there were 6 possible sequences); therefore, the catalog comprised 105,456 entries. Preparation of the catalog took over a year, but when it was ready about 1935, it made obtaining daily keys a matter of 12–20 minutes. However, on 1 or 2 November 1937, the Germans replaced the reflector in their Enigma machines, which meant that the entire catalog had to be recalculated from scratch. Nonetheless, by January 1938 the Cipher Bureau's German section was reading a remarkable 75% of Enigma intercepts, and according to Rejewski, with a minimal increase in personnel this could have been increased to 90%.
Bomba and sheets
In 1937 Rejewski, along with the German section of the Cipher Bureau, transferred to a secret facility near Pyry in the Kabaty Woods south of Warsaw. On 15 September 1938, the Germans introduced new rules for enciphering message keys (a new "indicator procedure"), making the Poles' earlier techniques obsolete. The Polish cryptanalysts rapidly responded with new techniques. One was Rejewski's , an electrically powered aggregate of six Enigmas, which solved the daily keys within about two hours. Six bombas were built and were ready for use by mid-November 1938. The bomba exploited the fact that the plugboard connections did not affect all the letters; therefore, when another change to German operating procedure occurred on 1 January 1939, increasing the number of plugboard connections, the usefulness of the bombas was greatly reduced. The British bombe, the main tool that would be used to break Enigma messages during World War II, would be named after, and likely inspired by, the Polish bomba, though the cryptologic methods embodied in the two machines were different.
Around the same time as Rejewski's bomba, a manual method was invented by Henryk Zygalski, that of "perforated sheets" ("Zygalski sheets"), which was independent of the number of plugboard connections. Rejewski describes the construction of the Zygalski mechanism and its manipulation:
However, application of both the bomba and Zygalski sheets was complicated by yet another change to the Enigma machine on 15 December 1938. The Germans had supplied Enigma operators with an additional two rotors to supplement the original three, and this increased the complexity of decryption tenfold. Building ten times as many bombas (60 would now be needed) was beyond the Cipher Bureau's ability—that many bombas would have cost fifteen times its entire annual equipment budget.
Two and a half weeks later, effective 1 January 1939, the Germans increased the number of plug connections to 7–10, which, writes Rejewski, "to a great degree, decreased the usefulness of the bombs." Zygalski's perforated ("Zygalski") sheets, writes Rejewski, "like the card-catalog method, was independent of the number of plug connections. But the manufacture of these sheets, [...] in our [...] circumstances, was very time-consuming, so that by 15 December 1938, only one-third of the whole job had been done. [T]he Germans' [introduction of rotors] IV and V [...] increased the labor of making the sheets tenfold [since 60, or ten times as many, sets of sheets were now needed], considerably exceeding our [...] capacities."
Allies informed
As it became clear that war was imminent and that Polish financial resources were insufficient to keep pace with the evolution of Enigma encryption (e.g., due to the prohibitive expense of an additional 54 bombas and due to the Poles' difficulty in producing in timely fashion the full 60 series of 26 "Zygalski sheets"), the Polish General Staff and government decided to initiate their Western allies into the secrets of Enigma decryption. The Polish methods were revealed to French and British intelligence representatives in a meeting at Pyry, south of Warsaw, on 25 July 1939. France was represented by Gustave Bertrand and Air Force cryptologist Captain Henri Braquenié; Britain, by Government Code and Cypher School chief Alastair Denniston, veteran cryptologist Alfred Dillwyn Knox, and Commander Humphrey Sandwith, head of the section that had developed and controlled the Royal Navy's intercept and direction-finding stations. The Polish hosts included Cipher Bureau chief Gwido Langer, the Bureau's German-Section chief Maksymilian Ciężki, the Bureau's General-Staff-Intelligence supervisor Stefan Mayer, and the three cryptologists Rejewski, Różycki and Zygalski.
The Poles' gift of Enigma decryption to their Western allies, five weeks before the outbreak of World War II, came not a moment too soon. Knowledge that the cipher was crackable was a morale boost to Allied cryptologists. The British were able to manufacture at least two complete sets of perforated sheets—they sent one to PC Bruno, outside Paris, in mid-December 1939—and began reading Enigma within months of the outbreak of war.
Without the Polish assistance, British cryptologists would, at the very least, have been considerably delayed in reading Enigma. Hugh Sebag-Montefiore concludes that substantial breaks into German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers by the British would have occurred only after November 1941 at the earliest, after an Enigma machine and key lists had been captured, and similarly into Naval Enigma only after late 1942.
Intelligence gained from solving high-level German ciphers—intelligence codenamed Ultra by the British and Americans—came chiefly from Enigma decrypts. While the exact contribution of Ultra intelligence to Allied victory is disputed, Kozaczuk and Straszak note that "it is widely believed that Ultra saved the world at least two years of war and possibly prevented Hitler from winning." The English historian Sir Harry Hinsley, who worked at Bletchley Park, similarly assessed it as having "shortened the war by not less than two years and probably by four years". The availability of Ultra was due to the earlier Polish breaking of Enigma; Gordon Welchman, head of Bletchley Park's Hut 6 (which solved German Army and Air Force Enigma ciphers), writes: "Hut 6 Ultra would never have gotten off the ground if we had not learned from the Poles, in the nick of time, the details both of the German military version of the commercial Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use."
In France and Britain
PC Bruno
On 5 September 1939 the Cipher Bureau began preparations to evacuate key personnel and equipment from Warsaw. Soon a special evacuation train, the Echelon F, transported them eastward, then south. By the time the Cipher Bureau was ordered to cross the border into allied Romania on 17 September, they had destroyed all sensitive documents and equipment and were down to a single very crowded truck. The vehicle was confiscated at the border by a Romanian officer, who separated the military from the civilian personnel. Taking advantage of the confusion, the three mathematicians ignored the Romanian's instructions. They anticipated that in an internment camp they might be identified by the Romanian security police, in which the German Abwehr and SD had informers. The mathematicians went to the nearest railroad station, exchanged money, bought tickets, and boarded the first train headed south. After a dozen or so hours, they reached Bucharest, at the other end of Romania. There they went to the British embassy. Told by the British to "come back in a few days", they next tried the French embassy, introducing themselves as "friends of Bolek" (Bertrand's Polish code name) and asking to speak with a French military officer. A French Army colonel telephoned Paris and then issued instructions for the three Poles to be assisted in evacuating to Paris.
On 20 October 1939 the three Polish cryptologists resumed work on German ciphers at a joint French–Polish–(anti-fascist) Spanish radio-intelligence unit stationed at Gretz-Armainvilliers, forty kilometers northeast of Paris, and housed in the Château de Vignolles (code-named PC Bruno).
As late as 3–7 December 1939, when Lt. Col. Langer and French Air Force Capt. Henri Braquenié visited London and Bletchley Park, the British asked that the Polish cryptologists be made available to them in Britain. Langer, however, took the position that they must remain where the Polish Army in exile was forming—on French soil.
On 17 January 1940 the Poles found the first Enigma key to be solved in France, one for 28 October 1939. The PC Bruno staff collaborated by teleprinter with counterparts at Bletchley Park in England. For their mutual communications security, the Polish, French, and British cryptologic agencies used the Enigma machine itself. Bruno closed its Enigma-encrypted messages to Britain with an ironic "Heil Hitler!"
In the first months of 1940, Alan Turing—principal designer of the British cryptological Bombe, elaborated from the Polish bomba—would visit Bruno to confer about Enigma decryption with the three Polish cryptologists.
On 24 June 1940, after Germany's victory in the Battle of France, Gustave Bertrand flew Bruno'''s international personnel—including fifteen Poles, and seven Spaniards who worked on Italian ciphers—in three planes to Algeria.
Cadix
Some three months later, in September 1940, they returned to work covertly in unoccupied southern, Vichy France. Rejewski's cover was as Pierre Ranaud, a lycée professor from Nantes. A radio-intelligence station was set up at the Château des Fouzes, code-named Cadix, near Uzès. Cadix began operations on 1 October. Rejewski and his colleagues solved German telegraph ciphers, and also the Swiss version of the Enigma machine (which had no plugboard). Rejewski may have had little or no involvement in working on German Enigma at Cadix.
In early July 1941, Rejewski and Zygalski were asked to try solving messages enciphered on the secret Polish Lacida cipher machine, which was used for secure communications between Cadix and the Polish General Staff in London. Lacida was a rotor machine based on the same cryptographic principle as Enigma, yet had never been subjected to rigorous security analysis. The two cryptologists created consternation by breaking the first message within a couple of hours; further messages were solved in a similar way.
The youngest of the three Polish mathematicians who had worked together since 1929—Jerzy Różycki—died in the sinking of a French passenger ship on 9 January 1942, as he was returning to Cadix from a stint in Algeria. By summer 1942 work at Cadix was becoming dangerous, and plans for evacuation were drawn up. Vichy France was liable to be occupied by German troops, and Cadix's radio transmissions were increasingly at risk of detection by the German Funkabwehr, a unit tasked with locating enemy radio transmitters. Indeed, on 6 November a pickup truck equipped with a circular antenna arrived at the gate of the Château des Fouzes where the cryptologists were operating. The visitors, however, did not enter, and merely investigated nearby farms, badly frightening their occupants. Nonetheless, at Bertrand's suggestion French intelligence ordered the evacuation of Cadix. The order was carried out on 9 November, the day after the Allied "Operation Torch" landings in North Africa. Three days later, on 12 November, the Germans occupied the chateau.
Escaping France
The Poles were split into groups of two and three. On 11 November 1942 Rejewski and Zygalski were sent to Nice, in the Italian-occupied zone. After coming under suspicion there, they had to flee again, moving or hiding constantly. Their trek took them to Cannes, Antibes, back to Nice, then on to Marseilles, Toulouse, Narbonne, Perpignan, and Ax-les-Thermes, near the Spanish border. On 29 January 1943, accompanied by a local guide, Rejewski, and Zygalski, bound for Spain, began a climb over the Pyrenees, avoiding German and Vichy patrols. Near midnight, close to the Spanish border, the guide pulled out a pistol and demanded that they hand over their remaining money.
After being robbed, Rejewski and Zygalski succeeded in reaching the Spanish side of the border, only to be arrested within hours by security police. They were sent first to a prison in La Seu d'Urgell, then on 24 March transferred to a prison at Lerida. On 4 May 1943, after having spent over three months in Spanish prisons, on intervention by the Polish Red Cross the pair were released and sent to Madrid. Leaving there on 21 July, they made it to Portugal; from there, aboard HMS Scottish, to Gibraltar; and then by air to RAF Hendon in north London, arriving on 3 August 1943.
Britain
Rejewski and Zygalski were inducted as privates into the Polish Armed Forces on 16 August 1943 and were posted to a Polish Army facility in Boxmoor, cracking German SS and SD hand ciphers. The ciphers were usually based on the Doppelkassettenverfahren ("double Playfair") system, which the two cryptologists had already worked on in France. British cryptologist Alan Stripp suggests that "Setting them to work on the Doppelkassetten system was like using racehorses to pull wagons." On 10 October 1943, Rejewski and Zygalski were commissioned second lieutenants; on 1 January 1945 Rejewski, and presumably also Zygalski, were promoted to lieutenant. When Gustave Bertrand fled to England in June 1944, he and his wife were provided with a house in Boxmoor, a short walk from the Polish radio station and cryptology office, where it seems likely that his collaboration with Rejewski and Zygalski continued.
Enigma decryption, however, had become an exclusively British and American domain; the Polish mathematicians who had laid the foundations for Allied Enigma decryption were now excluded from making further contributions in this area. By that time, at Bletchley Park, "very few even knew about the Polish contribution" because of the strict secrecy and the "need-to-know" principle.
Back in Poland
After the Germans suppressed the 1944 Warsaw Uprising, they sent Rejewski's wife and children west, along with other Warsaw survivors; the family eventually found refuge with her parents in Bydgoszcz. Rejewski was discharged from the Polish Army in Britain on 15 November 1946. Six days later, he returned to Poland to be reunited with his wife and family. On his return, he was urged by his old Poznań University professor, Zdzisław Krygowski, to take a university mathematics post at Poznań or Szczecin, in western Poland. Rejewski could have looked forward to rapid advancement because of personnel shortages as a result of the war. However, he was still recovering from rheumatism, which he had contracted in the Spanish prisons. Soon after his return to Poland, in the summer of 1947, his 11-year-old son Andrzej died of polio after only five days' illness. After his son's death, Rejewski did not want to part, even briefly, with his wife and daughter, so they lived in Bydgoszcz with his in-laws. He took a position in Bydgoszcz as director of the sales department at a cable-manufacturing company, Kabel Polski (Polish Cable).
Between 1949 and 1958 Rejewski was repeatedly investigated by the Polish Office of Public Security, who suspected he was a former member of the Polish Armed Forces in the West. He retired in 1967, and moved with his family back to Warsaw in 1969, to an apartment he had acquired 30 years earlier with financial help from his father-in-law.
Rejewski had written a "Report of Cryptologic Work on the German Enigma Machine Cipher" in 1942. Before his 1967 retirement, he began writing his "Memoirs of My Work in the Cipher Bureau of Section II of the [Polish] General Staff", which were purchased by the , in Warsaw. Rejewski had often wondered what use Alan Turing (who in early 1940 had visited the Polish cryptologists at PC Bruno outside Paris) and the British at Bletchley Park had ultimately made of the Polish discoveries and inventions. For nearly three decades after the war, little was publicly known due to a ban imposed in 1945 by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. In a 1967 book Władysław Kozaczuk, associated with the Military Historical Institute, disclosed Poland's breaking of the German Enigma ciphers.
Until 1974, the scant information published concerning Enigma decryption attracted little attention. Ladislas Farago's 1971 best-seller The Game of the Foxes presented a garbled account of Ultra's origins: "Commander Denniston went clandestinely to a secluded Polish castle [sic] on the eve of the war [to pick up an Enigma, 'the Wehrmacht's top system' during World War II]. Dilly Knox later solved its keying [sic]..." Still, this was marginally closer to the truth than many British and American best-seller accounts that would follow after 1974. Their authors were at a disadvantage: they did not know that the founder of Enigma decryption, Rejewski, was still alive and alert, and that it was reckless to fabricate stories out of whole cloth.
With Gustave Bertrand's 1973 publication of his Enigma, substantial information about the origins of Ultra began to seep out; and with F. W. Winterbotham's 1974 best-seller, The Ultra Secret, the dam began to burst. Still, many aspiring authors were not averse to filling gaps in their information with whole-cloth fabrications. Rejewski fought a gallant (if, into the 21st century, not entirely successful) fight to get the truth before the public. He published a number of papers on his cryptologic work and contributed generously to articles, books, and television programs. He was interviewed by scholars, journalists, and television crews from Poland, East Germany, the United States, Britain, Sweden, Belgium, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Brazil.
Rejewski maintained a lively correspondence with his wartime French host, General Gustave Bertrand, and at the General's bidding he began translating Bertrand's Enigma into Polish. In 1976, at the request of the Józef Piłsudski Institute of America, Rejewski broke enciphered correspondence of Józef Piłsudski and his fellow Polish Socialist conspirators from 1904. On 12 August 1978 he received from a grateful Polish people the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.
Rejewski, who had been suffering from heart disease, died of a heart attack on 13 February 1980, aged 74, after returning home from a shopping trip. He was buried with military honors at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery.
Recognition
On 21 July 2000, Poland's President Aleksander Kwaśniewski posthumously awarded Poland's second-highest civilian decoration, the Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta, to Marian Rejewski and Henryk Zygalski. In July 2005 Rejewski's daughter, Janina Sylwestrzak, received on his behalf the War Medal 1939–1945 from the British Chief of the Defence Staff. On 1 August 2012 Marian Rejewski posthumously received the Knowlton Award of the U.S. Military Intelligence Corps Association; his daughter Janina accepted the award at his home town, Bydgoszcz, on 4 September 2012. Rejewski had been nominated for the Award by NATO Allied Command Counterintelligence.
In 2009, the Polish Post issued a series of four commemorative stamps, one of which pictured Rejewski and fellow mathematician-cryptologists Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski.
On 5 August 2014 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) honored Rejewski, Różycki, and Zygalski with its prestigious Milestone Award, which recognizes achievements that have changed the world.
A three-sided bronze monument was dedicated in 2007 in front of the Imperial Castle in Poznań. Each side bears the name of one of the three Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher.
Rejewski and colleagues were the heroes of Sekret Enigmy (The Enigma Secret), a thriller movie about the Poles' solution of the German Enigma cipher. Late 1980 also saw a Polish TV series with a similar theme, Tajemnice Enigmy ("The Secrets of Enigma").
In 2021 the Enigma Cipher Centre, an educational and scientific institution dedicated to the Polish mathematicians who broke the Enigma cipher, including Marian Rejewski, opened in Poznań.
See also
List of cryptographers
List of Poles
Polish contribution to World War II
Timeline of Polish science and technology
Notes
References
Citations
BibliographyThe main source used for this article was .
(Kozaczuk's Polish-language book that was later elaborated into the English-language .)
. (The standard reference on the Polish part in the Enigma-decryption epic. This English-language book is substantially revised from the Polish-language , with additional documentation, including many substantive chapter notes and papers by, and interviews with, Marian Rejewski.)
, 117 pp., PRO HW 25/2
; has afterwords by I. J. Good and Cipher A. Deavours; also appears as
. Covers much the same ground as .
Rejewski, Marian, interview (transcribed by Christopher Kasparek) in Woytak, Richard (1999), Werble historii [History's Drumroll], edited by and with introduction by Stanisław Krasucki, illustrated with 36 photographs, Bydgoszcz, Poland, Związek Powstańców Warszawskich w Bydgoszczy [Association of Warsaw Insurgents in Bydgoszcz], , pp. 123–143. A more complete transcript of the interview, highlights of which earlier appeared in , and as Appendix B to Kozaczuk, Władysław, Enigma'', pp. 229–240.
Further reading
External links
The Breaking of Enigma by the Polish Mathematicians by Tony Sale
How Mathematicians Helped Win WWII – National Security Agency
Enigma documents
Marian Rejewski and the First Break into Enigma
Plaque location
1905 births
1980 deaths
20th-century Polish inventors
20th-century Polish mathematicians
Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań alumni
Cipher Bureau (Poland)
Enigma machine
Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta
People from Bydgoszcz
People from the Province of Posen
Polish cryptographers
Polish Army officers
Polish military personnel of World War II
Pre-computer cryptographers |
4349459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala | Kerala | Kerala ( ), officially Keralam (), is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Canara, and Travancore. Spread over , Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area. It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census, Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population. It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.
The Chera dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in the deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE. The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around . In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved the way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin. They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region, in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India, which later became a part of the Madras State post-independence. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district, Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip, the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District) in South Canara, and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district, and Shenkottai taluks).
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio, 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India's 'Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy'. Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India. The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English. Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity.
The economy of Kerala is the 8th-largest in India with in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of . The tertiary sector contributes around 65% to state's GSVA, while the primary sector contributes only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to the west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for , and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches, backwaters, hill stations, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions.
Etymology
The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called in Classical Tamil: and are variants of the same word. The word refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for 'lake'. may stem from the Classical Tamil 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or 'land of the Cheras'.
One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word 'coconut tree' and 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka. Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics. The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as , synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra.
Kerala was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles. Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. Until the arrival of the East India Company, the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term Kerala. From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the Malayalam word Mala ('hill'). Al-Biruni () is the first known writer to call this country Malabar. Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills. According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Malayalam word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).
History
Traditional sources
According to the Sangam classic Purananuru, the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas. Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it. According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parasurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parasurama' in Hindu mythology). Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parasurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.
Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas, driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The Matsya Purana, among the oldest of the 18 Puranas, uses the Malaya Mountains of Kerala (and Tamil Nadu) as the setting for the story of Matsya, the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu, the first man and the king of the region.
Ophir
Ophir, a port or region mentioned in the Bible, famous for its wealth, is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala. According to the account, the King Solomon received a cargo from Ophir every three years (1 Kings 10:22) which consisted of gold, silver, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, apes, and peacocks. A Dictionary of the Bible by Sir William Smith, published in 1863, notes the Hebrew word for parrot Thukki, derived from the Classical Tamil for peacock Thogkai and Cingalese Tokei, joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of Ophir's location in Tamilakam is further supported by other historians. The most likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is Poovar in Thiruvananthapuram District (though some Indian scholars also suggest Beypore as possible location). The Books of Kings and Chronicles tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the Tyrian king Hiram I from Ezion-Geber, a port on the Red Sea, that brought back large amounts of gold, precious stones and 'algum wood' and of a later failed expedition by king Jehoshaphat of Judah. The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible.
Cheraman Perumals
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings) of Kerala. The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal). According to the legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats, invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran of Eranad). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar. The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of Nediyiruppu, who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").
According to the Cheraman Juma Mosque and some other narratives, "Once a Cheraman Perumal probably named Ravi Varma was walking with his queen in the palace, when he witnessed the splitting of the moon. Shocked by this, he asked his astronomers to note down the exact time of the splitting. Then, when some Arab merchants visited his palace, he asked them about this incident. Their answers led the King to Mecca, where he met Islamic prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam. It is assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous authorship known as Qissat Shakarwati Farmad. The 16th century Arabic work Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen authored by Zainuddin Makhdoom II of Ponnani, as well as the medieval Malayalam work Keralolpathi, also mention about the departure of last Cheraman Perumal of Kerala into Mecca.
However, S. N. Sadasivan contends in A Social History of India that Kalimanja, the king of the Maldives, was the one who converted to Islam. The story of Tajuddeen in the Cochin Gazetteer may have originated because Mali, as it was known to sailors at the time, was mistaken for Malabar (Kerala).
Pre-history
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district, which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala. The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.
Ancient period
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices. The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries. They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolised by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.
The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra. Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras, the first dominant dynasty who ruled Kerala, and had its capital at Karur. These territories once shared a common language and culture, within an area known as Tamilakam. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. Along with the Ay kingdom in the south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north, the Cheras formed the ruling kingdoms of Kerala in the early years of the Common Era (CE). It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad, and controlled the port of Muziris, but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas, which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi) in Quilon. Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire. The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty). The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period. The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode. Its exact location is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.
According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrike'''s starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at 50,000,000 sesterces. According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone to raids by pirates. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of Malabar peppers.Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially Malabar pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In foreign-trade circles the region was known as Male or Malabar. Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Nelcynda, and Barace, were among the principal ports at that time. Contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala, laden with gold to exchange for Malabar pepper. One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden. In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the St. Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Mappila was an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; Israelite (Jewish), Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigration account for later names of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Muslim Mappilas, and Nasrani Mappilas. The earliest Saint Thomas Christian Churches, Cheraman Jumu'ah Masjid (traditionally dated to "629 CE" by the Mappilas)—regarded as "the first mosque of India"—and Paradesi Synagogue (1568 CE)—the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations—were built in Kerala.
Early medieval period
A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur), was established by Kulasekhara Varman, which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis. Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha. Athavanad, the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.
Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia. The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates.
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism. The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas. However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.
The rise of Kozhikode
After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into thirty small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in the far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles. The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad, which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district. The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages.K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after the seize of Tirunavaya from Valluvanad, which were under the control of the king of Perumbadappu Swaroopam (Cochin). The ruler of Perumpadappu was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from Kodungallur to Kochi. In the 15th century, the status of Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler of Kolathunadu (Kannur) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north. Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them". Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He) states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession (Marumakkathayam). Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.Gangadharan. M., The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.
Vijayanagara Conquests
The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.
Early modern period
The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon. They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The Zamorin of Kozhikode permitted the new visitors to trade with his subjects such that Portuguese trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and a fort. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and led to conflicts between them.
The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin. Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504). However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.
The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. Fort St Angelo or St. Angelo Fort was built at Kannur in 1505 and Fort St Thomas was built at Kollam (Quilon) in 1518 by the Portuguese. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala.
Books It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonise Malabar coast. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.
In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort. An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon. The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, near Kannur, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over the Lakshadweep islands. The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod, which is also largest fort in the state, was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi.
In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to Aceh promising the Dutch a fort at Kozhikode if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese. A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived at Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Kozhikode on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the Dutch East India Company made with an Indian ruler. By this time the kingdom and the port of Kozhikode was much reduced in importance. The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.
The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company, who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi, gained control of the trade. They lost to Dutch at Quilon after 1661 and later, the Portuguese left south-western coast. The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships. It was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, as British envoy. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.
The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences
The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar District), along with Fort Kochi, Tangasseri, and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent. Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.
The island of Dharmadom near Kannur, along with Thalassery, was ceded to the East India Company in 1734, which were claimed by all of the Kolattu Rajas, Kottayam Rajas, and Arakkal Bibi in the late medieval period, where the British initiated a factory and English settlement following the cession. In 1761, the British captured Mahé, and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu. The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé. In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to the French in 1785.
In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode, the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar region) including Kolathunadu, Kottayam, Kadathanadu, Kozhikode, Tanur, Valluvanad, and Palakkad were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore. His son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam; both were annexed to the Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. Later in 1800, both of the Malabar District and South Canara were separated from Bombay presidency to merge them with the neighbouring Madras Presidency. The company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.
By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty. Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support in Thalassery-Wayanad region. The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866 of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Malabar Special Police was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at Malappuram. British in Malabar also converted Thiyyar army, called as Thiyya pattalam into a special regiment centred at Thalassery called as The Thiyyar Regiment in 1904.Nagendra k.r.singh Global Encyclopedia of the South India Dalit's Ethnography (2006) page.230, Google Books There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the 20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the social struggles in Travancore. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the British Raj. The Battle of Pookkottur adorns an important role in the rebellion. Some social struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of the 20th century, leading to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation by Travancore Maharaja Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes.
As a state of the Republic of India
After India was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan, Travancore and Kochi, part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form the state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act. A Communist-led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957. It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state.
Geography
The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of and the width of the state varies between . Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.
The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to above sea level, while the highest peaks reach around . Anamudi in the Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of . The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India. It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram (Chaliyar valley at Nilambur), and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka.
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar; , Bharathapuzha; , Pamba; , Chaliyar; , Kadalundipuzha; , Chalakudipuzha; , Valapattanam; and the Achankovil River; . The average length of the rivers is . Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century.
Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon. Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.
Environment
Background radiation levels
Minerals including Ilmenite, Monazite, Thorium, and Titanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.
Flora and fauna
Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal, and 159 are threatened. Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi Lake, Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km2 of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur.
Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds, 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation, and resource extraction. In the forests, sonokeling, Dalbergia latifolia, anjili, mullumurikku, Erythrina, and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides. Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Nilgiri tahr, common palm civet, and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in the forests. Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and mugger crocodile. Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon, the great hornbill, Kerala laughingthrush, darter and southern hill myna. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu, Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi; orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis.
Subdivisions
The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages.
Since the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India, the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block panchayats, 941 Grama Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, six Municipal Corporations and one Township.
Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry, though away from it, is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.
In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866 of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal, Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962. There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur, and Kannur. The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.
Government and administration
Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is the Leader of the Opposition. According to the Constitution of India, Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to residents. The government is organised into the three branches:
Legislature: The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly popularly known as Niyamasabha, comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies. The state elects 20 and 9 members for representation in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, respectively.
Executive: The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India. Arif Mohammad Khan is the Governor of Kerala. The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the head of government and is vested with extensive executive powers; the head of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor. The Council of Ministers has its members appointed by the Governor, taking the advice of the Chief Minister. The executive administration is based in Thiruvananthapuram at State Secretariat complex. Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
Judiciary: The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.
The local government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations have existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction. With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in 1994, the state implemented reforms in local self-governance. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local government with Gram panchayat, Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming a hierarchy. The acts ensure a clear demarcation of power among these institutions. However, the Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed to par with the Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation. As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40% of the state plan outlay to the local government. Kerala was declared as the first digital state of India on 27 February 2016. The India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International declared Kerala the least-corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 released by the Public Affairs Centre, India, designated Kerala as the best governed Indian state.
Economy
After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy. From the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment. In the fiscal year 2018–19, the nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was . GSDP growth; 11.4% in 2018–2019 and 10.5% in 2017–2018 had been high compared to an average of 2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1% and 6.0% in the 1990s. The state recorded 8.9% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the national rate of 4.8%. The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector. In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA, compared to 28% by secondary sector, and 8% by primary sector. In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.
The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon Hospitality industry, Tourism, Ayurveda & Medical Services, Pilgrimage, Information technology, Transportation, Financial sector, and Education. Major initiatives under the industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard, Shipbuilding, Oil refinery, Software Industry, Coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon Cash crops. Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as Coconut, Tea, Coffee, pepper, Natural rubber, Cardamom, and Cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s. The Migrant labourers in Kerala are a significant workforce in its industrial and agricultural sectors. Being home to only 1.18% of the total land area of India and 2.75% of its population, Kerala contributes more than 4% to the Gross Domestic Product of India.
Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2008, the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million(2.5 million), who sent home annually a sum of 6.81 billion, which is the highest among Indian states and more than 15.1% of remittances to India in 2008. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over , amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about . Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.
A decline of about 300,000 in the number of emigrants from the state was recorded during the period between 2013 and 2018. The total remittances received by the emigrants stood at in the year 2018. According to a study done in 2013, was the total amount paid to migrant labourers in the state every year. The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking, insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.2% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.7%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.1%. Around 600 varieties of rice, which is Kerala's most used staple and cereal crop, are harvested from 3105.21 km2; a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990. 6,88,859 tonnes of rice are produced per year. Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production, or 57,000 tonnes, rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg.
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%, as was the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on". (On 30 April 2018, the Kerala state government issued an order to abolish Nokku Kooli, to take effect on 1 May.) By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.
The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram is the largest Shopping Mall in India.
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was . The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to in 2020–21; up from in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over . Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.
The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.
In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.
Despite of many achievements, Kerala facing many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.
Information technology
Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of Technopark, Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India. Software giants like Infosys, Oracle, Tata Consultancy Services, Capgemini, HCL, UST Global, NeST and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the Infopark centred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. , Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, Cognizant, Wipro, UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and Multinational corporations like KPMG, Ernst & Young, EXL Service, Etisalat DB Telecom, Nielsen Audio, Xerox ACS, Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project SmartCity under construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around Kozhikode known as Cyberpark. Kerala is the first Indian state to make Internet access a basic right. As of 2019, Kerala's Internet penetration rate is the second-highest in India only after to Delhi. Kerala is the first Indian state to have its own Internet service with the launch of Kerala Fiber Optic Network in 2021.
Industries
Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859–60. The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing people. The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people. A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite. Other major sectors are tourism, medical sector, educational sector, banking, ship building, oil refinery, infrastructure, manufacturing, home gardens, animal husbandry and business process outsourcing.
Agriculture
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour. Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops. Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings. Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country. Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg are the main agricultural products. Around 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam. The key cash crop is Coconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India. In 1960–61, about 70% of the Coconuts produced in India were from Kerala, which have reduced to 42% in 2011–12. Around 90% of the total Cardamom produced in India is from Kerala. India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world. About 20% of the total Coffee produced in India are from Kerala. The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields. Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related animal husbandry is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless. The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the Sunandini.
Though the contribution of the agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012–13, through the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.0% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the 2013–14 fiscal period, the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.8%. The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4.4% increase in 2012–13, over a 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal year. The agricultural sector has a share of 9.3% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors have contributed 23.9% and 66.7%, respectively.
There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Forest gardens are common and known by the name home gardens. According to the English horticulturist Robert Hart, Kerala is "from the agroforestry point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country, with an extraordinary intensivity of cultivation of some forest gardens."
Fisheries
With of coastal belt, 400,000 hectares of inland water resources and approximately 220,000 active fishermen, Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India. According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04. This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala. During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara. The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%. Around 1050,000(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
Transportation
Roads
Kerala has of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total. This translates to about of road per thousand people, compared to an average of in the country. Roads in Kerala include of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total. Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among the districts of Kerala, while Wayanad accounts for minimum. Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways. New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under KIIFB. National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road () connects Kanyakumari to Mumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady in Kasargod and passes through Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram before entering Tamil Nadu. Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, is on NH 544, in the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving. National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking. , Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937.
The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from to , using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.
The Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation. It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at Thevara.
Railways
Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram and Palakkad Railway Division headquartered at Palakkad. Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state. Kerala's major railway stations are:
The first railway line in the state was laid from Tirur to Chaliyam (Kozhikode), with the oldest Railway Station at Tirur, passing through Tanur, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and Kadalundi. The railway was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram through Tirunavaya in the same year. It was again extended from Kuttippuram to Shoranur through Pattambi in 1862, resulting in the establishment of Shoranur Junction railway station, which is also the largest railway junction in the state. Major railway transport between Chaliyam–Tirur began on 12 March 1861, from Tirur-Shoranur in 1862, from Shoranur–Cochin Harbour section in 1902, from Kollam–Sengottai on 1 July 1904, Kollam–Thiruvananthapuram on 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-Shoranur in 1927, from Ernakulam–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the Thrissur-Guruvayur Section in 1994. The Nilambur–Shoranur line is one of the shortest broad gauge railway lines in India. It was established in the British era for the transportation of Nilambur teaks and Angadipuram Laterite to United Kingdom through the port at Kozhikode. The presence of Palakkad Gap on Western Ghats makes the Shoranur Junction railway station important as it connects the southwestern coast of India (Mangalore) with the southeastern coast (Chennai).
Kochi Metro
Kochi Metro is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of . The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long Metropolis train sets built and designed by Alstom. It is the first metro system in India to use a communication-based train control (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication. In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the Urban Development Ministry, as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.
Airports
Kerala has four international airports:
Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala. Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when Tata airlines operated weekly flights between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at Goa and Kannur. Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the Airport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the Malabar region. Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy and has won the coveted Champion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations. Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.
Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
Water transport
Kerala has one major port, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports. The major port in the state is at Kochi, which has an area of 8.27 km2. The Vizhinjam International Seaport, which is currently classified as an intermediate port, is an upcoming major port under construction. Other intermediate ports include Beypore, Kollam, and Azheekal. The remaining ports are classified as minor which include Manjeshwaram, Kasaragod, Nileshwaram, Kannur, Thalassery, Vadakara, Ponnani, Munambam, Manakodam, Alappuzha, Kayamkulam, Neendakara, and Valiyathura. The Kerala Maritime Institute is headquartered at Neendakara, which has an additional subcentre at Kodungallur too. The state has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is . The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.
The long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting Kasaragod to Poovar. It is divided into five sections: long Kasaragod-Nileshwaram reach, long Nileshwaram-Kozhikode reach, Kozhikode-Kottapuram reach, long National Waterway 3 (Kottapuram-Kollam reach), and long Kollam-Vizhinjam reach. The Conolly Canal, which is a part of West-Coast Canal, connects the city of Kozhikode with Kochi through Ponnani, passing through the districts of Malappuram and Thrissur. It begins at Vadakara. It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then District collector of Malabar, H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to Kallayi Port from hinter lands of Malabar through Kuttiady and Korapuzha river systems. It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through Ponnani, for more than a century. Other important waterways in Kerala include the Alappuzha-Changanassery Canal, Alappuzha-Kottayam-Athirampuzha Canal, and Kottayam-Vaikom Canal.
Kochi water metro
Kochi Water Metro (KWM) is an integrated ferry transport system serving the Greater Kochi region in Kerala, India. It is the first water metro system in India and the first integrated water transport system of this size in Asia, which connects Kochi's 10 island communities with the mainland through a fleet of 78 battery-operated electric hybrid boats plying along 38 terminals and 16 routes spanning 76 kilometres. It is integrated with the Kochi Metro and serves as a feeder service to the suburbs along the rivers where transport accessibility is limited.
Demographics
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2. , Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala. In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%. Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated. Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India. Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali. The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.
Gender
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household. As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families. Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate, which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men. While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.
LGBT rights
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in India. Kerala is one of the first states in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free sex reassignment surgery through government hospitals. Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum. Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.
In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.
Human Development Index
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average. , Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country. It was 0.790 in 2007–08 and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries. Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education, health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI; the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research. However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state. Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%. The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India . Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India. By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively. These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare. This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway. In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60. In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.
In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000. According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in Malappuram district (2.2) and lowest in Pathanamthitta district (1.3). In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians. The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS) Transparency International (2005) and India Today (1997). Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011. In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage, complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported. The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly higher among the Muslim community. In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%. Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%, and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless. The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.
Healthcare
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care program. The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12 to 14 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6. According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses. However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively . Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations. Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers. As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas. Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities. Ayurveda, siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation. These propagate via gurukula discipleship, and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments. The Arya Vaidya Sala established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier at Kottakkal (about 10 km from Malappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state. It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham. People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers, liver and kidney diseases. In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients. As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.
Language
Malayalam is the official language of Kerala, and one of the six Classical languages of India. There is a significant Tamil population throughout Kerala mainly in Idukki district and Palakkad district which accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% of its total population. Tulu and Kannada are spoken mainly in the northern parts of Kasaragod district, each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.
Religion
Kerala is very religiously diverse with Hindus, Muslims and Christians having a significant population throughout the state, Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India. Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant Muslim and Christian minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism. According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation. Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims. Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India. As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.
The mythological legends regarding the origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature. Kerala produced several saints and movements. Adi Shankara was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of Advaita. He was instrumental in establishing four mathas at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Jyotirmath. Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri was another religious figure who composed Narayaniyam, a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God Krishna.
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977. Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam. Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (–632). According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in the Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, on the western side of Kerala, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott. A few Umayyad (661–750 CE) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.
According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 pp. 458–66 The monopoly of overseas spice trade from Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports. The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned within the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Kerala king to the Muslims of Kerala. A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque. Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion—secured by the common interest in the spice trade—helped in this development. Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow the Shāfiʿī school of religious law (Samastha Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema) while a large minority follow movements that developed within Sunni Islam. The latter section consists of majority Salafists (Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen). There is a large Keralan diaspora in the Middle East.
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ.Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956 Saint Thomas Christians include Syro-Malabar Catholic, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Syrian Anglicans of the CSI and Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians. The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century. As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of Anglo-Indians in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.
Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of King Solomon. They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India.Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.]. Katz 200/*Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998 There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them migrated to Israel. The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth. Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district.
Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka but vanished by the 12th century CE. Certain Hindu communities such as the Samantan Kshatriyas, Ambalavasis, Nairs, Thiyyas and some Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris, most of the Ambalavasi castes and the Ezhavas followed makkathayam, a patrilineal system. Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status. However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.
Education
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions. The Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics was based at Vettathunadu (Tirur region). In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the Church Mission Society missionaries to promote mass education. Following the recommendations of the Wood's despatch of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives. The efforts by leaders such as Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru, Ayyankali, and Kuriakose Elias Chavara in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Educational Society, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.
According to the first economic census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within , 98.6% had a middle school within and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within . In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%. In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India. , enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions. According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%. In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its Athulyam literacy programme.
The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as 4+3+3, which signifies the number of years for each stage. After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce, or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional undergraduate (UG) degree-college programmes. The majority of public schools are affiliated with the Kerala Board of Public Examination (KBPE). There are 15,892 schools under KBPE, of which 5,986 are government schools, 8,183 are aided schools, and the rest are either un-aided or technical schools. Other educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer instruction in English or Malayalam. Though the cost of education is generally considered low in Kerala, according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households was reported to be for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.
CMS College, Kottayam, established in 1817, is the first western-style college, and one of the oldest colleges, in India. Government Brennen College, Thalassery, founded by philanthropist Edward Brennen in 1862, and Government Victoria College, Palakkad, founded in 1866, are among the oldest educational institutions in India.
The KITE Kerala is a state owned special purpose company under education department of the Government of Kerala. It was developed to support ICT enabled education for schools in the state. The erstwhile IT@School Project was transformed into KITE for extending its scope of operations in August 2017. Kerala is the first Indian state to have ICT-enabled education with hi-tech classrooms in all public schools. Kerala topped in the School Education Quality Index published by NITI Aayog in 2019.
The Indian Naval Academy, located at Ezhimala, is Asia's largest, and the world's third-largest, naval academy.
Culture
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture. It is a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian, Arab, and European cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad. It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people. It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures. However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions. Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year. The Malayalam calendar, a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala, finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities. Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language. Over a dozen other scheduled and unscheduled languages are also spoken. Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.
Festivals
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year. A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity. Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram. "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram. Other known festivals are Makaravilakku, Chinakkathoor Pooram, Attukal Pongala and Nenmara Vallangi Vela Other than these, festivals locally known as utsavams are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it. Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam. Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like Christmas and Easter are observed by the Christians.
Onam
Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past. It is a local festival of Kerala consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day. Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September) and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King Mahabali. The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as Vallam Kali, Pulikali, Pookkalam, Thumbi Thullal and Onavillu.
Dance
Kerala is home to a number of performance arts. These include five classical dance forms: Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Koodiyattom, Thullal and Krishnanattam, which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses. Kerala natanam, Thirayattam, Kaliyattam, Theyyam, Koothu and Padayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region. Some traditional dance forms such as Oppana and Duffmuttu were popular among the Muslims of the state, while Margamkali and Parichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians and Chavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians.
Music
The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala. The development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century. Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam; including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music: it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter. Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.
Cinema
Malayalam films carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes. Directors from Kerala, like Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Mankada Ravi Varma, G. Aravindan, Bharathan, P. Padmarajan, M.T. Vasudevan Nair, K.G. George, Priyadarshan, John Abraham, Ramu Karyat, K S Sethumadhavan, A. Vincent and Shaji N Karun have made a considerable contribution to the Indian parallel cinema. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as Mohanlal, Mammootty, Satyan, Prem Nazir, Madhu, Sheela, Sharada, Miss Kumari, Jayan, Adoor Bhasi, Seema, Bharath Gopi, Thilakan, Vijaya Raghavan, Kalabhavan Mani, Indrans, Shobana, Nivin Pauly, Sreenivasan, Urvashi, Manju Warrier, Suresh Gopi, Jayaram, Murali, Shankaradi, Kavya Madhavan, Bhavana Menon, Prithviraj, Parvathy (actress), Jayasurya, Dulquer Salmaan, Oduvil Unnikrishnan, Jagathy Sreekumar, Nedumudi Venu, KPAC Lalitha, Innocent and Fahad Fazil. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies. Since the 1980s, actors Mohanlal and Mammootty have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting. Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as K.J. Yesudas, K.S. Chitra, M.G. Sreekumar, Vayalar Rama Varma, V. Madhusoodanan Nair, M.T. Vasudevan Nair and O.N.V. Kurup, the last two mentioned being recipients of Jnanpith award, the highest literary award in India. Resul Pookutty, who is from Kerala, is only the second Indian to win an academy award for sound design, for the breakthrough film Slumdog Millionaire. As of 2018, Malayalam cinema has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the National Film Awards, India.
Literature
The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam. Malayalam literature starts from the Old Malayalam period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 16th-century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry. For the first 600 years of Malayalam calendar, the literature mainly consisted of the oral Ballads such as Vadakkan Pattukal in North Malabar and Thekkan Pattukal in Southern Travancore. Designated a "Classical Language in India" in 2013, it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets Cherusseri Namboothiri, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, and Poonthanam Nambudiri, in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era.Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia Unnayi Variyar, a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and Kunchan Nambiar, a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form. The Bharathappuzha river, also known as River Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.
Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar and Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam): Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode. The poets like Moyinkutty Vaidyar and Pulikkottil Hyder have made notable contributions to the Mappila songs, which is a genre of the Arabi Malayalam literature.Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007 The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam Varthamanappusthakam, written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785. The prose literature, Malayalam journalism, and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century. Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards political radicalism. Malayalam literature has been presented with 6 Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language. In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, O. N. V. Kurup, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature. Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy, Vaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition.
Cuisine
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine. Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day. A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli, dosa, puttu, pathiri, appam, or idiyappam), tapioca preparations, or pulse-based vada. These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payar pappadam, appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry. Porotta and Biryani are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar. Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam. Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, Achappam, Unni appam and kuzhalappam. Seafood specialties include karimeen, prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.
Thalassery Cuisine is varied and is a blend of many influences.
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is popular in Kerala. Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.
Elephants
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals. These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them. In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the sahya". The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.
Media
The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI). The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the highest media exposure in India. Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages, but principally Malayalam and English. Kerala has the highest media exposure in India. The most widely circulated Malayalam-language newspapers are Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Deshabhimani, Madhyamam, Kerala Kaumudi, Mangalam, Chandrika, Deepika, Janayugam, Janmabhumi, Siraj Daily and Suprabhaatham. Major Malayalam periodicals include Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu, Vanitha, India Today Malayalam, Madhyamam Weekly, Grihalakshmi, Dhanam, Chithrabhumi and Bhashaposhini. The Hindu is the most read English language newspaper in the state, followed by The New Indian Express. Other dailies include Deccan Chronicle, The Times of India, DNA, The Economic Times and The Financial Express.
DD Malayalam is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian language and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are Asianet, Asianet News, Asianet Plus, Asianet Movies, Surya TV, Surya Movies, Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Kairali TV, Kairali News, Flowers, Media One TV, Mathrubhumi News, Kappa TV, Amrita TV, Reporter TV, Jaihind, Janam TV, Jeevan TV, Kaumudy TV and Shalom TV. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India, Digital medias including Social medias and OTT services are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008. A sizeable People's science movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common. BSNL, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, Jio are the major cell phone service providers. Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major ISPs are BSNL, Asianet Satellite Communications, Reliance Communications, Airtel, Vodafone Idea Limited, MTS, RailWire and VSNL. According to a TRAI report, as of June 2018 the total number of wireless phone subscribers in Kerala is about 43.1 million and the wireline subscriber base is at 1.9 million, accounting for the Telephone Density of 124.15. Unlike in many other states, the urban-rural divide is not visible in Kerala with respect to mobile phone penetration.
Sports
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali. However, Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport. Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.
Cricket and football became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like Tinu Yohannan, Abey Kuruvilla, Chundangapoyil Rizwan, Sreesanth, Sanju Samson and Basil Thampi found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the Kochi Tuskers, played in the Indian Premier League's fourth season. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises. Kerala has only performed well recently in the Ranji Trophy cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history. Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts Kerala Blasters FC in the Indian Super League. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most followed football club from Asia in the social media. Also, Kozhikode hosts Gokulam Kerala FC in the I-League as well as the Sait Nagjee Football Tournament. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, U. Sharaf Ali, Jo Paul Ancheri, Ashique Kuruniyan, Muhammad Rafi, Jiju Jacob, Mashoor Shereef, Pappachen Pradeep, C.K. Vineeth, Anas Edathodika, Sahal Abdul Samad, and Rino Anto. The Kerala state football team has won the Santhosh Trophy seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.
Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are P. T. Usha, Shiny Wilson and M.D. Valsamma, all three of whom are recipients of the Padma Shri as well as Arjuna Award, while K. M. Beenamol and Anju Bobby George are Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and Arjuna Award winners. T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Sinimol Paulose, Angel Mary Joseph, Mercy Kuttan, K. Saramma, K. C. Rosakutty, Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala. Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players. Other popular sports include badminton, basketball and kabaddi. The Indian Hockey team captain P. R. Shreejesh, ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include K. T. Irfan.
For the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup in India, the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi), was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in India. Greenfield International Stadium at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including 2015 SAFF Championship.
Tourism
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, National Geographic's Traveller magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime". Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century". In 2012, it overtook the Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India. CNN Travel listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'. Kerala was named by TIME magazine in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists. The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala. Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country. In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so. Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry. Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline Kerala, God's Own Country. Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world. In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department. Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities. The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, growing at the rate of 13.3%. The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.
The state's only drive-in beach, Muzhappilangad in Kannur, which stretches across five kilometres of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches in the world in 2016. Idukki Dam, the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at Idukki. The major beaches are at Kovalam, Varkala, Kozhikode, Fort Kochi, Cherai, Alappuzha, Ponnani, Kadalundi, Tanur, Chaliyam, Payyambalam, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal. Popular hill stations are at Ponmudi, Wayanad, Vagamon, Munnar, Peermade, Ramakkalmedu, Arimbra, Paithalmala of Kannur district, Kodikuthimala, and Nelliampathi. Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna. Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: Periyar Tiger Reserve, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary, Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary, Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary, Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam National Park, and Silent Valley National Park are the most popular among them. The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, Kumarakom, Ponnani, Nileshwaram, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), Pathiramanal a small island in Muhamma. Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace are two nearby heritage sites. Padmanabhaswamy Temple in the state capital of Thiruvananthapuram holds the record as the wealthiest place of worship in the world, with assets of at least .
See also
Outline of Kerala
South India
Dravidian people
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition''. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
External links
Government
The Official website of the Government of Kerala
The Official website of Kerala Tourism
General information
.
States and territories established in 1956
States and union territories of India |
4349521 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Guerrilla | Counter-Guerrilla | Counter-Guerrilla () is an alleged Turkish branch of Operation Gladio, a clandestine stay-behind anti-communist initiative backed by the United States as an expression of the Truman Doctrine. The founding goal of the operation was to erect a stay-behind guerrilla force to undermine a possible Soviet occupation. The goal was soon expanded to subverting communism in Turkey.
The Counter-Guerrilla initially operated out of the Turkish Armed Forces' Tactical Mobilization Group (, or STK). In 1967, the STK was renamed to the Special Warfare Department (, ÖHD). In 1994, the ÖHD became the Special Forces Command (, ÖKK).
In Turkey there is a popular belief that the Counter-Guerrilla are responsible for numerous unsolved acts of violence, and have exerted great influence over the country's Cold War history, most notably for engendering the military coups of 1971 and 1980.
The military accepts that the ÖKK is tasked with subverting a possible occupation, though it denies that the unit is Gladio's "Counter-Guerrilla", i.e., that it has engaged in black operations. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Counter-Guerrilla were used to fight the militant Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) (cf. Susurluk scandal), which has since its inception been regarded as a major threat by the deep state in Turkey. Mehmet Ali Agca was part of the group in the late 1970s.
Counter-Guerilla's existence was revealed in 1971 by survivors of the Ziverbey incident, and officially on 26 September 1973 by Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit. The subject has been broached by parliament at least 27 times since 1990, however no successful investigation has taken place. Deputies of the incumbent party in any given administration always voted in dissent.
Background
Anatolia's geostrategic value has long attracted players of the New Great Game. After the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences in 1945, Joseph Stalin sent naval ships and troops to the region with his sights set on the Dardanelles. In 1946, the Soviet Union sent two diplomatic notes concerning the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits, arguing that its terms were unfavorable to the Soviets. Ankara dismissed the notes, and the US also expressed its dissatisfaction with Soviet demands, stating that "Should the Straits become the object of attack or threat of attack by an aggressor, the resulting situation would constitute a threat to international security and would clearly be a matter for action on the party of the Security Council of the United Nations."
Development of US-Turkish military cooperation
After the British government declared on 21 February 1947 its inability to provide financial aid (though she would establish the Central Treaty Organization a decade later), Turkey turned towards the United States, who drew up the Truman Doctrine, pledging to "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures". $100 million was appropriated two months after the US Congress ratified the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947. This figure was raised to $233 million by 1950, after Turkey contributed a brigade of about 5000 men to the United Nations forces in the Korean War. In August 1947, the Joint American Military Mission for Aid to Turkey (JAMMAT) was established in Ankara under the authority of the US ambassador.
On 5 October 1947, a delegation of senior Turkish military officials traveled to the United States to establish the military framework of the co-operation agreement.
In December 1947, United States National Security Council (NSC) Directive 4-A "secretly authorised the CIA to conduct these officially non-existent programs and to administer them" in such a way that "removed the U.S. Congress and public from any debate over whether to undertake psychological warfare abroad". A few months later, the NSC replaced directive 4-A with directive 10/2, creating the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC, initially euphemistically called the "Office for Special Projects"), the covert action arm of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The OPC's charter unambiguously called for "propaganda, economic warfare; preventative direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance movements, guerrillas and refugee liberations groups, and support of indigenous anti-communist elements in threatened countries of the free world." In the words of career intelligence officer William Corson, "no holds were barred… all the guys on the top had said to put on the brass knuckles and go to work."
After joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on February 18, 1952, Turkey signed a Military Facilities Agreement on 23 June 1954, paving the way for a large scale US military presence. With a staff of 1200 by 1959, JAMMAT was the largest of the United States European Commands (USEUCOM), and also the world's largest military assistance and advisory group by 1951. JAMMAT was renamed to Joint United States Military Mission for Aid to Turkey (JUSMMAT) in 1958, and the Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey (ODC-T) () on 1 May 1994.
Tactical Mobilization Group (1952–1965)
With the consent of the National Defense Supreme Council (), brigadier general Daniş Karabelen founded the Tactical Mobilization Group (, or STK) on 27 September 1952. Karabelen was one of sixteen soldiers (including Turgut Sunalp, Ahmet Yıldız, Alparslan Türkeş, Suphi Karaman, and Fikret Ateşdağlı) who had been sent to the United States in 1948 for training in special warfare. These people were to form the core of the Special Warfare Department (, or ÖHD). It has been said that the training also entailed an element of CIA recruitment.
Some full generals that later ran the department were Adnan Doğu, Aydın İlter, Sabri Yirmibeşoğlu, İbrahim Türkgenci, Doğan Bayazıt, and Fevzi Türkeri. Karabelen picked Ismail Tansu as his right-hand man, and they expanded the STK in a cellular fashion. They filled the ranks, mostly with reserve officers, inducted them with an oath, and educated them before allowing them to return to civilian life. The officers were given no weapons, funding, or immediate task. The recruitment was more concentrated in the east, where an invasion was most likely to occur.
Books used to educate the officers included:
David Galula's famous Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice. Translated in Turkish as Ayaklanmaları Bastırma Harekâtı: Teori ve Pratik per orders from then chief of the ÖHD, major general M. Cihat Akyol.
U.S. Army Field Manual 31-15: Operations Against Irregular Forces . Translated into Turkish as Sahra Talimnamesi 31-15: Gayri Nizami Kuvvetlere Karşı Harekat, and put into practice on 25 May 1964 per orders from general Ali Keskiner.
Senior infantry colonel Cahit Vural's Gerillaya Giriş (1972).
Later, the generals formed the Turkish Resistance Organization to counter the Greek Cypriot EOKA. Operating under the authority of the Chief of the General Staff, the STK was quartered in the JUSMMAT () building in Bahçelievler, Ankara. Ismail Tansu says that the American headquarters were facing the old Gülhane building, and that the STK's headquarters were in a villa near Kolej, Kızılay. He also said that he used to meet soldiers from the J3 Operations Directorate a few times a week, alternating between their bases. Some of his associates were colonel Latent, captain Berger, and major Hill.
In the 1960s, Türkeş established the "civilian" Associations for Struggling with Communism () and funded the far-right National Movement Party (, MHP). These formed the core of future ultra-nationalist militants, used by the Counter-Guerrilla in destabilizing events.
The CIA employed people from the far right, such as Pan-Turkist SS-member Ruzi Nazar (father of Sylvia Nasar), to train the Grey Wolves (), the youth wing of the MHP. Nazar was an Uzbek born near Tashkent who had deserted the Red Army to join the Nazis during World War II in order to fight on the Eastern Front for the creation of a Turkistan. After Germany lost the war, some of its spies found haven in the U.S. intelligence community. Nazar was such a person, and he became the CIA's station chief to Turkey.
The STK became the Special Warfare Department (, ÖHD) in 1967.
Special Warfare Department (1965–1992)
Search for funding
During the 1970s, the Special Warfare Department () was run by General Kemal Yamak. In his memoirs he stated that the United States had set aside around $1m worth of support; part munitions, part money. This arrangement continued until 1973-4, when Yamak decided the munitions did not meet the department's needs. The Americans allegedly retorted that they were footing the bill, and had right of decision. Yamak left the meeting and expressed his concerns to the Chief of General Staff, Semih Sancar, and the agreement was subsequently annulled.
It was only when Yamak asked prime minister Bülent Ecevit for an alternative means of funding did Ecevit became aware of the operation's existence; the other members of the cabinet remained in the dark. Ecevit suggested that the organization seek support from Europe. Yamak contacted generals from the United Kingdom, followed by France. The commander of the Turkish army at the time, General Semih Sancar, informed him the U.S. had financed the unit as well as the National Intelligence Organization since the immediate post-war years.
Special Forces Command (1992–present)
Post-USSR
In the early 1990s, Turkey and America were at loggerheads over the Kurdish issue. In order to reduce U.S. influence over the Turkish military, chief of staff Doğan Güreş restructured the ÖHD and renamed it to the Special Forces Command (, or ÖKK) in 1992. The ÖKK, whose 7000+ recruits are nicknamed the "Maroon Berets" (), combats terrorism and protects the chiefs of staff and the president on trips abroad. Similarly, civilian counter-guerrillas are collectively named the White Forces ().
In 1993, the parliament formed a commission () to investigate the numerous unsolved murders believed to be perpetrated by the Counter-Guerrilla. Their report enumerated 1797 such deaths; 316 in 1992 and 314 in 1993 alone. General Güreş contacted the Speaker of Parliament, Hüsamettin Cindoruk, to stop the investigation in order to prevent the outing of his men. Meanwhile, State Security Court prosecutor Nusret Demiral ordered the police force not to co-operate with the parliamentary commission in solving the crimes.
Turkey maintains strong military ties with the U.S., through the Office of Defense Cooperation Turkey (ODC-T), whose leader is "the single point of contact with the Turkish General Staff regarding all United States military organizations and activities in Turkey". , this position is held by major general Eric J. Rosborg. Since 1993, the chiefs of the ODC-T have been U.S. Air Force generals. The offices of the ODC-T are located at Kirazlıdere Mevkii, İsmet İnönü Bulvarı No. 94, Balgat, 06100 Ankara.
Incidents
Istanbul pogrom
In 1955, members of the ÖHD participated in planning the Istanbul Pogrom, which promoted both the state's secret policy of Turkification, and the subversion of Communism.
Coups of 1971 and 1980
After the military coup in 1960, yet another plot was found by National Intelligence Organization (MİT) agent Mahir Kaynak, who in early 1971 informed both Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Memduh Tağmaç and also the fiercely anti-communist Commander of the First Army based in Istanbul, General Faik Türün, who was a veteran of Korean War and was decorated personally by General Douglas MacArthur there. The information conveyed to them was that a number of high-ranking Turkish officers, including the Army Chief of Staff and the Air Force Chief of Staff were planning to execute a military coup on 9 March 1971 with the media support of pro-Soviet leftist intellectuals in a number of Turkish newspapers.
On 10 March 1971, the CIA sent the State and Defense departments a cable stating that the Turkish high command had convened that day resolving to carry out a counter-coup.
The 1971 coup on 12 March was executed to forestall a Soviet supported left-wing coup originally planned to take place on 9 March 1971.
Immediately after the coup, Soviet leaning intellectuals, civilian and non-ranking participants in the 9 March plot were interrogated in a building allegedly belonging to the MİT (see the next section). One 9 March plotter, colonel Talat Turhan, was interrogated by the chief of the MİT, Eyüp Ozalkus. Turhan expended much effort on exposing the Counter-Guerrilla after his release.
It has been alleged that the groups of plotters were in fact two facets of the same organization.
The counter-guerrilla engaged in sporadic acts of domestic terror throughout the 1970s , serving as a pretext for yet another coup in 1980. By the time it took place, this third military coup in the short history of Turkish democracy (1950–1980) was seen as necessary by the unwitting public to restoring peace. It was also encouraged by members of Parliament, many of whom had joined the Counter-Guerrilla in their youth.
With this coup firm steps were taken to bring the country under the military's heel. A stifling constitution was drafted, a Supreme Education Council was established to bring intellectuals into line, and the National Security Council was beefed up to do the same for politicians.
After having served his role in instigating the 1980 coup, Alparslan Türkeş was jailed by the high command. In fact, General Madanoğlu intended to execute him by a firing squad, but his friend Ruzi Nazar (of the CIA) intervened.
Ziverbey villa
After the 1971 coup d'état, the Ziverbey villa in Erenköy, Istanbul was used to interrogate Turkish communists. The mastermind behind Ziverbey interrogations was brigadier general Memduh Ünlütürk, working under Lieutenant General Turgut Sunalp, who was reporting to the Commander of the First Army, General Faik Türün. The latter two generals were Korean War veterans who had served in the Operations Department (). The interrogation techniques they used in Ziverbey were inspired by what they had seen done to Korean and Chinese POWs during the Korean War. Prisoners were bound and blindfolded.
Intellectuals such as İlhan Selçuk (one of the 9 March conspirators) and Uğur Mumcu were tortured there. Several Ziverbey victims confirmed that the interrogators introduced themselves as "Counter-Guerrillas" and claimed to be above the law and entitled to kill. Under duress to write an apologetic statement, Selçuk famously revealed his plight using a modified acrostic which decrypted to "I am under torture". The key letter was the first of the penultimate word of each sentence in his statement.
Another prisoner, outspoken liberal Murat Belge, says that he was tortured there by Veli Küçük, who later founded JITEM and Hezbollah (Turkey) to counter the Kurdistan Workers' Party. Küçük says he could not be responsible since he was stationed in Şırnak and has been charged with colluding with another Ziverbey victim, İlhan Selçuk (see Ergenekon).
The activist film director Yılmaz Güney was also present. A friend of his in the MİT had tried to prevent him from being captured by telling his superiors that Güney was also a spy, but the ruse failed. A MİT officer who was present, Mehmet Eymür, said Güney was treated well in return for his co-operation.
General Yamak denied that the ÖHD was involved, and dismissed any notion of a "counter-guerrilla".
Ziverbey is notable for:
being the first time the term "Counter-Guerrilla" was mentioned to anyone who was not already a member.
revealing the fact that the counter-guerrilla co-operated with the MİT.
Kızıldere Operation
On 30 March 1972 special forces raided Kızıldere village in Niksar district, Tokat province and killed the 10 young men who had kidnapped three foreign hostages and kept them in Kızıldere. The victims included Mahir Çayan (THKP-C), Hüdai Arıkan (Dev-Genç), Cihan Alptekin (THKO), taxi driver Nihat Yılmaz, teacher Ertan Saruhan, farmer Ahmet Atasoy, Sinan Kazım Özüdoğru (Dev-Genç), student Sabahattin Kurt, Ömer Ayna (THKO) and lieutenant Saffet Alp. The three hostages (two British and one Canadian citizen) where part of GCHQ and were held in an attempt to prevent the execution of three student leaders (Deniz Gezmiş, Hüseyin İnan and Yusuf Aslan) were also killed.
Although General Yamak denied it, an active participant, hitman Metin Kaplan said that the ÖHD was responsible. He mentioned talking to general Memduh Ünlütürk (himself a Counter-Guerrilla, and infamous participant of the Ziverbey villa incident) about what to do with the Communist inmates of Maltepe prison, who were planning to escape. On the advice of two U.S. generals, they let the prisoners escape, and then take hostage three NATO officers at Ünye. This created the pretext for their assassination.
Taksim Square massacre
On 1 May 1977 the trade union confederation DİSK held a rally on Taksim Square, Istanbul with half a million participants. Unidentified people shot at the crowd and killed 36 people. The perpetrators were never caught. Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, and member of the leftist Republican People's Party, declared to then President Fahri Korutürk that he suspected the Counter-Guerrilla's involvement in the massacre.
According to Ecevit, the shooting lasted for twenty minutes, yet several thousand policemen on the scene did not intervene. This mode of operation recalls the June 20, 1973 Ezeiza massacre in Buenos Aires, when the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (a.k.a. "Triple A"), founded by José López Rega (a P2 member), opened fire on the left-wing Peronists.
Moreover, Ecevit himself barely survived an assassination attempt twenty days after he publicly mentioned the possibility of a secret organization being behind the massacre.
Ankara's Deputy State Attorney Doğan Öz then investigated on relationship between Alparslan Türkeş's Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) the Special Warfare Department and violent incidents of the 1970s. Doğan Öz's report stated that "Military and civilian security forces are behind all this work." It also stated that the National Intelligence Organization was complicit, and that "all these activities [were] guided by MHP members and cadres." The attorney Doğan Öz was assassinated on March 24, 1978. İbrahim Çiftçi, a member of the Grey Wolves, confessed to the crime, but his conviction was overturned by the military judicial system.
16 March massacre
Seven students (Hatice Özen, Cemil Sönmez, Baki Ekiz, Turan Ören, Abdullah Şimşek, Hamit Akıl and Murat Kurt) were killed and 41 were injured at Istanbul University's Faculty of Pharmacy on 16 March 1978. The assailants were members of the Grey Wolves. The lawsuit was canceled in 2008 due to the statute of limitation.
Bahçelievler massacre
A group of nationalists under the leadership of Abdullah Çatlı killed seven leftist students on 9 October 1978. Çatlı was convicted in absentia.
Kahramanmaraş massacre
On 23–24 December 1978, many Alevi people were targeted and killed in a neighbourhood. Martial law was declared afterwards, and the 1980 coup followed.
See also
CIA activities in Turkey
Deep state
Grey Wolves (organization)
Turkey–United States relations
Propaganda Due
References
Further reading
External links
Doğan Öz, Counter-Guerrilla report: I, II (State prosecutor Öz was assassinated on 24 March 1978)
Operation Gladio
Anti-communism
Military scandals
Stay-behind organizations
History of the Republic of Turkey
Turkey–United States military relations
CIA activities in Turkey
Military history of Turkey
Anti-communism in Turkey
Istanbul pogrom
fr:Stay-behind#En Turquie
Political violence in Turkey |
4349618 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Northwest%20Wrestling | Pacific Northwest Wrestling | Pacific Northwest Wrestling (PNW) (also known as Big Time Wrestling and Portland Wrestling) is the common name used to refer to several different professional wrestling companies, both past and present, based in Portland, Oregon, United States. The first such company (that would later become Portland Wrestling) was founded by Herb Owen in 1925. It was the Northwest territory of the National Wrestling Alliance from the Alliance's inception in 1948 until 1992. The area was brought to its prime by Herb's son, Don Owen, and this version of Pacific Northwest Wrestling saw many of the top names in pro wrestling come through on a regular basis. The Pacific Northwest was considered one of the main pro wrestling territories from the 1960s to the 1980s.
Portland Wrestling was forced to close its doors in July 1992. The closure came as a result of a slowdown in professional wrestling during the early 1990s, a declaration of bankruptcy by Portland Wrestling's main television sponsor, and negative fallout from a shift in regulatory emphasis by the Oregon Athletic Commission. The telecasts, which originated on Portland station KPTV, ended in December 1991 and were replaced on KPTV by syndicated WWF programming.
Portland Wrestling's referee Sandy Barr purchased the company from the Owen family in 1992 and continued the tradition of professional wrestling in the Pacific Northwest under the name "Championship Wrestling USA."
A new wrestling promotion emerged in 2000, calling itself "Portland Wrestling" and claiming to be a restart of the original Pacific Northwest/Portland Wrestling. It stressed a title lineage (through Len Denton) to the old NWA PNW Championships. Unlike the Don Owen promotion, the new incarnation of Portland Wrestling was not an NWA member. Due to legal problems the company's owner encountered, the promotion was forced to close down in 2007 and the owner sold his ownership rights to former announcer Don Coss. Coss, in conjunction with Roddy Piper, one of Owen's biggest latter-day stars and a Portland-area resident, launched a new promotion in 2012 centered on a television program entitled Portland Wrestling Uncut. This program also originated on KPTV, though it would later move to another Portland television station.
History
Beginnings
Pacific Northwest Wrestling started in the early 1920s when a former world middleweight and world light-heavyweight (Australian version) wrestling champion by the name of Ted Thye came to Portland with plans to promote both boxing and wrestling. Thye hired Herb Owen as his assistant. While Thye was on a trip home to Australia, Owen had the ownership of the company put in his name. Due to rules in effect within the state of Oregon at that time, Owen now had sole rights to sponsor all boxing and wrestling within the state.
Herb Owen started out just promoting boxing matches, but soon began promoting wrestling matches as well, focusing on lightweights. During this time, sons Don and Elton Owen began helping their father in the family business, helping set up cards and even stepping into the ring on occasion to box or wrestle.
During the early years, Herb brought in boxer Jack Dempsey. According to Barry Owen, Don's son, Dempsey even refereed some wrestling matches for Owen. An unknown to many at the time, George Wagner, worked for Owen early in his career. While in the PNW, Wagner developed the character for which he would become famous, Gorgeous George. Wagner is reported to have married his first wife in the ring before a match in Eugene, Oregon.
In 1942, following his death, Herb's son Don took over the company. In 1944, Don Owen promoted several cards with women wrestlers, until female wrestling was outlawed in Oregon (as it would be until 1975).
Don Owen Sports
1940s
The National Wrestling Alliance was formed in 1948 with Don Owen as one of the founding members. This started the beginning of what became known as NWA Pacific Northwest (Portland Wrestling).
1950s
On July 10, 1953, Don Owen started what was the first regular professional wrestling program on television. Pacific Northwest Wrestling aired a weekly 60 minute live program originally called Heidelberg Wrestling, named for its sponsor, Heidelberg Brewing Co. of Tacoma, Washington. The show was initially broadcast on KPTV, but moved to rival KOIN-TV in 1955. Along with the move came the show's new name, Portland Wrestling.
The 1950s were good to Portland Wrestling, seeing wrestlers such as Ed Francis, Gory Guerrero and Tony Borne come to the territory. During this time, John Harrison "Harry" Elliott, a former Oregon State University wrestling champion, and later the school's wrestling coach, began working for Don Owen as a referee and putting on spot shows in the territory. In 1958, Elliott obtained a contract with CBS Television to broadcast Seattle-based wrestling matches throughout all of Washington and parts of Alaska, British Columbia, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah and Wyoming. Elliott promoted these matches, as well as spot matches throughout Washington, Idaho and northeastern Oregon, while Don Owen continued to handle bookings for these matches.
1960s
After the opening of Portland Memorial Coliseum in 1961, Don Owen occasionally promoted wrestling cards at the venue, drawing good crowds. On September 17, 1966, Harry Elliott promoted and Don Owen booked one of the biggest matches ever in Seattle, packing out the Seattle Center Coliseum with 15,500 fans to see Lou Thesz wrestle a 60-minute time limit draw against Gene Kiniski.
In 1967, Portland Wrestling returned to KPTV. That year, management changed within CBS Television and PNW's regionally broadcast wrestling show was dropped which subsequently led to Harry Elliott's retirement in 1968. Frank Bonnema, an on-air personality in KPTV's sports department, took over the announcing duties at that time, serving as the voice of Portland Wrestling until shortly before his untimely death on October 5, 1982 at age 49.
Despite losing its regionally broadcast television program in 1967, Portland Wrestling was still doing well. In 1968, Owen bought and renovated a bowling alley at 8725 North Chautauqua Boulevard in North Portland, which became the Portland Sports Arena and the new home of Portland Wrestling. The Portland Sports Arena was located here: .
1970s
The 1970s continued to be good to Portland Wrestling, with the addition of such superstars as Buddy Rose, Matt Borne, Ed Wiskowski, Roddy Piper, Jesse Ventura, Lonnie Mayne, Jimmy Snuka and Stan Stasiak. In 1976, Dutch Savage bought into Don Owen Sports and began promoting PNW cards in the state of Washington. The Owens' promotion faced opposition from several "outlaw promotions" throughout the 1970s, but remained strong. Eventually Owen's reputation as a honest, well-paying promoter drew a more national level of talent to the PNW territory. As the roster grew, so did the number of shows: in addition to Sports Arena tapings and a regular weekly stop in Salem, Oregon, it was not uncommon for the territory to run spot-shows every night of the week.
For several years during the 1970s and 1980s, PNW's Portland Wrestling program was syndicated to stations throughout the Pacific Northwest in an edited 60-minute version known as Big Time Wrestling. Portland Wrestling was a rather basic television production even by 1970s standards: the program did not air in color until 1972. Even after that, it would occasionally still be produced in black and white if KPTV was airing a Portland Trail Blazers home game on a Saturday night, as the station had only one live production truck capable of broadcasting in color.
Between 1976 and 1985, "Playboy" Buddy Rose became famous for drawing more money than any other wrestler in the history of Portland Wrestling. In 1982 and 1983, Rose wrestled for the WWF, but on his days off he returned to the Northwest and worked one-night stands for Don Owen. Rose was credited with sold-out venues on both the East and West coasts. In 1978, Rose was the United States Champion for Roy Shire Promotions in the San Francisco Bay area. As a team, he and Ed Wiskoski became NWA World Tag Team Champions, defending title matches up and down the West Coast for Don Owen, Roy Shire and Los Angeles promoter Mike LeBell. Beginning in the late 1970s, Rose feuded with Rowdy Roddy Piper in a multi-year-long angle, with the highlight being Rose stealing Piper's kilt and burning it in the Sports Arena's balcony/press row in 1981. Fans watching the match on TV called 911 and firefighters were dispatched to the arena, only to find the building in fine condition when they arrived. (Shows were shot "live to tape" at that time, with little editing and commercials inserted while the program was being shot.)
1980s
Wrestling on television became a hot commodity during the 1980s. In 1982, Elton Owen, who had continued working in the family business as his brother Don's right-hand man, retired. Elton died a short time later. Don's son Barry Owen began promoting in Washington. He would then take over promoting the weekly Friday night shows in Eugene as well as spot shows, eventually promoting most of the shows which had previously been promoted by Elton.
Frank Bonnema was admitted to Emanuel Hospital on September 25, 1982 after suffering a heart attack. Bonnema would not return to his Portland Wrestling hosting duties, dying ten days later. On October 9, veteran announcer Don Coss, who had filled in as host during this time, officially took over the announcing duties. Coss had previously announced televised wrestling matches in Salem, Oregon over the defunct station KVDO.
Wrestlers such as Portland native Billy Jack Haynes appeared for the company. Others such as Roddy Piper, King Parsons, Matt Borne, "Gentleman" Chris Adams, Rip Oliver, Buddy Rose, David Schultz, and others competed regularly. Owen had a working relationship with Jack Adkisson's World Class Championship Wrestling promotion in Dallas, which produced several talent exchanges – the most famous of which was when Adams and Parsons were sent to World Class in 1983. Both men became two of the most famous non-Von Erich wrestlers in the promotion's history and became Texas mainstays throughout the rest of their careers.
On May 21, 1985, in honor of the Owen family's 60 years of promoting wrestling, a supercard called 60th Anniversary Wrestling Extravaganza was held at the Portland Memorial Coliseum. The show featured representatives from the NWA, the AWA and the WWF, including the World Champions of both the NWA and AWA and the World Tag Team Champions of the AWA all defending their titles. With this card, PNW accomplished something the WWF/WWE had yet to achieve: a sold-out Coliseum. Barry Owen claimed that this event had the highest attendance ever for a sporting event at the Coliseum. The show saw the final match in the Buddy Rose-Roddy Piper angle as its main event, just weeks after both men appeared at the first-ever WrestleMania, Rose in the opening match as the Masked Executioner and Piper in the main event against Hulk Hogan. Piper received a hero's welcome from the capacity crowd and pinned Rose to end their lengthy feud.
On January 21, 1986, Portland Wrestling held a followup to the supercard, called Superstar Extravaganza, also at the Portland Memorial Coliseum. The show was limited to NWA talent and was not as large or as successful as the first supercard.
The decline of Pacific Northwest Wrestling
PNW took a number of hits in the late 1980s. Changes to a centralized Oregon Boxing and Wrestling Commission began to affect the industry, through new rules and fines levied at wrestlers and promoters. Additionally, the expansion of the WWF and WCW into national promotions with nationwide television deals ran most local or regional wrestling concerns out of business. This left few territories for younger wrestlers to develop their skills, especially early in their careers, thus leaving very green talent for the non-national promotions. By 1987, Don Owen was the last remaining NWA charter member whose territory was still operating.
Len Denton, working for Owen, became the first booker for PNW that same year and had a hand in developing younger talent such as Art Barr, Scotty The Body (later Raven), C.W. Bergstrom, Steve Doll and Rex King. Scotty, recognized as a good talker, was eventually used as Coss's wisecracking broadcast partner. However, the territory's business continued to slide.
In 1991, Pacific Northwest Wrestling's main television sponsor (Tom Peterson's) declared bankruptcy. Though it was still the Portland television market's highest-rated locally produced show, Portland Wrestling was canceled in December 1991 after airing every week for 38 years. It was the longest-running non-news program on American television at the time of its cancellation and the third-longest-tenured U.S. program overall behind Meet the Press and the CBS Evening News.
Don Owen continued to run wrestling shows throughout Oregon and Washington until April 30, 1992, when he retired and sold the entire company, minus the Sports Arena, to Portland Wrestling's referee and future promoter Sandy Barr. The Portland Sports Arena, as well as a former supermarket building next door which was used by Barr for the flea market he ran, were eventually acquired by a local church.
Former personnel
Champions (when the company closed in 1992)
Trying to rebuild
Sandy Barr continued promoting wrestling in the Pacific Northwest under the company names of Championship Wrestling USA and IGA Wrestling. Barr created new titles for the promotion and abandoned the previous titles. As Barr faced challenges when dealing with the Oregon state athletic commission similar to what Owen faced, he decided to move the promotion across the Columbia River to Vancouver, Washington. Barr purchased late night airtime on local television station KOIN for a couple of years, but was never given a stable timeslot. Barr would continue to run weekly shows until shortly before his death on June 2, 2007.
In 1996, Matt Borne became booker of CWUSA and crowds began to rise. Sandy Barr abruptly closed Championship Wrestling USA in 1997. The remaining weeks of television that had been purchased on KOIN were filled with programs from 1993. Matt Borne joined up with Ivan Kafoury, who owned a local radio station, and created the new Portland Wrestling. They ran shows at the Aladdin Theater in Portland and later a flea market near Portland Meadows. Their biggest success came in November 1997 when former University of Oregon football player Josh Wilcox made his pro debut in front of a crowd of over 700 fans.
The physical belt that was used as the NWA Pacific Northwest title was used at various times by its owner Len Denton before being sold on eBay in 2006. The last title claimant was local wrestling historian and part-time pro wrestler Matt Farmer, who defended the title at local lucha libre shows.
The "New" Portland Wrestling
In late 2000, wrestling returned to Portland with the opening of Portland Wrestling. This new promotion claimed that its heavyweight and tag team title lineage were the same as the previous titles operated by Don Owen Sports. However, this "Portland Wrestling" was not an NWA member promotion, nor was it directly linked in any way to the original Portland Wrestling.
The new Portland Wrestling initially aired on Portland's WB TV network affiliate, KWBP-TV (now KRCW-TV). Frank Culbertson, Jr. (born ca. 1959), an advertising representative for the station, served first as ringside announcer and later as executive producer. KWBP changed hands in December 2002, and the new owners dropped virtually all local programming from its lineup, due to a decline in fan base. This development occurred at the same time Portland Wrestling was having major difficulties with the Oregon state government, in particular the athletic commission and the Attorney General's office.
On May 10, 2007, Culbertson, who was still running the operations of the promotion, was arraigned on charges of aggravated theft for allegedly embezzling US$10,000 from Portland-based Broadway Cab Company, where he had been working in the accounting department as a controller. This event came as a surprise to Don Coss who, in light of Culbertson's criminal charges, has expressed uncertainty on the future of Portland Wrestling.
Champions when the company closed
Early championships
World Heavyweight Championship (Northwest Version)
World Light Heavyweight Championship (Northwest Version)
Pacific Coast Heavyweight Championship
Pacific Coast Junior Heavyweight Championship
Pacific Coast Light Heavyweight Championship
Pacific Coast Middleweight Championship
Intermountain Junior Heavyweight Championship
NWA Regional Championships (Don Owen Sports era)
NWA Pacific Northwest Heavyweight Championship
NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship
NWA Pacific Northwest Television Championship
Championship Wrestling USA Championships
Championship Wrestling International Alliance World Heavyweight Championship
Championship Wrestling International Alliance International Heavyweight Championship
Championship Wrestling International Alliance International Tag Team Championship
Championship Wrestling USA Television Championship
Championship Wrestling USA Northwest Tag Team Championship
See also
List of National Wrestling Alliance territories
References
External links
Pacific Northwest Title Histories
Kayfabe Memories of the PNW
NWA Official Website
Portland Wrestling Online
1925 establishments in Oregon
Independent professional wrestling promotions based on the West Coast of the United States
American public access television shows
Companies based in Portland, Oregon
Entertainment companies established in 1925
National Wrestling Alliance members
Sports in Washington (state) |
4349679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical%20naturalism | Metaphysical naturalism | Metaphysical naturalism (also called ontological naturalism, philosophical naturalism and antisupernaturalism) is a philosophical worldview which holds that there is nothing but natural elements, principles, and relations of the kind studied by the natural sciences. Methodological naturalism is a philosophical basis for science, for which metaphysical naturalism provides only one possible ontological foundation. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is religious naturalism or spiritual naturalism. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects the supernatural concepts and explanations that are part of many religions.
Definition
According to Steven Schafersman, geologist and president of Texas Citizens for Science, metaphysical naturalism is a philosophy that proposes that: 1. Nature encompasses all that exists throughout space and time; 2. Nature (the universe or cosmos) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatiotemporal physical substance—mass–energy. Non-physical or quasi-physical substance, such as information, ideas, values, logic, mathematics, intellect, and other emergent phenomena, either supervene upon the physical or can be reduced to a physical account; 3. Nature operates by the laws of physics and in principle, can be explained and understood by science and philosophy; and 4. the supernatural does not exist, i.e., only nature is real. Naturalism is therefore a metaphysical philosophy opposed primarily by Biblical creationism.
In Carl Sagan’s words: "The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be."
According to Arthur C. Danto, naturalism, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical monism according to which whatever exists or happens is natural in the sense of being susceptible to explanation through methods which, although paradigmatically exemplified in the natural sciences, are continuous from domain to domain of objects and events. Hence, naturalism is polemically defined as repudiating the view that there exists or could exist any entities which lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation.
Regarding the vagueness of the general term "naturalism", David Papineau traces the current usage to philosophers in early 20th century America such as John Dewey, Ernest Nagel, Sidney Hook, and Roy Wood Sellars: "So understood, 'naturalism' is not a particularly informative term as applied to contemporary philosophers. The great majority of contemporary philosophers would happily accept naturalism as just characterized—that is, they would both reject 'supernatural' entities, and allow that science is a possible route (if not necessarily the only one) to important truths about the 'human spirit'." Papineau remarks that philosophers widely regard naturalism as a "positive" term, and "few active philosophers nowadays are happy to announce themselves as 'non-naturalists'", while noting that "philosophers concerned with religion tend to be less enthusiastic about 'naturalism'" and that despite an "inevitable" divergence due to its popularity, if more narrowly construed, (to the chagrin of John McDowell, David Chalmers and Jennifer Hornsby, for example), those not so disqualified remain nonetheless content "to set the bar for 'naturalism' higher."
Philosopher and theologian Alvin Plantinga, a well-known critic of naturalism in general, comments: "Naturalism is presumably not a religion. In one very important respect, however, it resembles religion: it can be said to perform the cognitive function of a religion. There is that range of deep human questions to which a religion typically provides an answer ... Like a typical religion, naturalism gives a set of answers to these and similar questions".
Science and naturalism
Metaphysical naturalism is the philosophical basis of science as described by Kate and Vitaly (2000). "There are certain philosophical assumptions made at the base of the scientific method – namely, 1) that reality is objective and consistent, 2) that humans have the capacity to perceive reality accurately, and that 3) rational explanations exist for elements of the real world. These assumptions are the basis of naturalism, the philosophy on which science is grounded. Philosophy is at least implicitly at the core of every decision we make or position we take, it is obvious that correct philosophy is a necessity for scientific inquiry to take place." Steven Schafersman, agrees that methodological naturalism is "the adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within scientific method with or without fully accepting or believing it ... science is not metaphysical and does not depend on the ultimate truth of any metaphysics for its success, but methodological naturalism must be adopted as a strategy or working hypothesis for science to succeed. We may therefore be agnostic about the ultimate truth of naturalism, but must nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature is all that there is."
Various associated beliefs
Contemporary naturalists possess a wide diversity of beliefs within metaphysical naturalism. Most metaphysical naturalists have adopted some form of materialism or physicalism.
Natural sciences
According to metaphysical naturalism, if nature is all there is, just as natural cosmological processes, e.g. quantum fluctuations from a multiverse, led to the Big Bang, and stellar nucleosynthesis brought upon the earliest chemical elements throughout stellar evolution, the formation of the Solar System and the processes involved in abiogenesis arose from natural causes. Naturalists reason about how, not if evolution happened. They maintain that humanity's existence is not by intelligent design but rather a natural process of emergence. With the protoplanetary disk creating planetary bodies, including the Sun and moon, conditions for life to arise billions of years ago, along with the natural formation of plate tectonics, the atmosphere, land masses, and the origin of oceans would also contribute to the kickstarting of biological evolution to occur after the arrival of the earliest organisms, as evidenced throughout both the fossil record and the geological time scale.
The mind is a natural phenomenon
Metaphysical naturalists do not believe in a soul or spirit, nor in ghosts, and when explaining what constitutes the mind they rarely appeal to substance dualism. If one's mind, or rather one's identity and existence as a person, is entirely the product of natural processes, three conclusions follow according to W. T. Stace. Cognitive sciences are able to provide accounts of how cultural and psychological phenomena, such as religion, morality, language, and more, evolved through natural processes. Consciousness itself would also be susceptible to the same evolutionary principles that select other traits.
Utility of intelligence and reason
Metaphysical naturalists hold that intelligence is the refinement and improvement of naturally evolved faculties. The certitude of deductive logic remains unexplained by this essentially probabilistic view. Nevertheless, naturalists believe anyone who wishes to have more beliefs that are true than are false should seek to perfect and consistently employ their reason in testing and forming beliefs. Empirical methods (especially those of proven use in the sciences) are unsurpassed for discovering the facts of reality, while methods of pure reason alone can securely discover logical errors.
View on the soul
According to metaphysical naturalism, immateriality being unprocedural and unembodiable, isn't differentiable from nothingness. The immaterial nothingness of the soul, being a non-ontic state, isn't compartmentalizable nor attributable to different persons and different memories, it is non-operational and it (nothingness) cannot be manifested in different states in order it represents information.
History
Ancient and medieval philosophy
Naturalism was the foundation of two (Vaisheshika, Nyaya) of the six orthodox schools and one (Carvaka) heterodox school of Hinduism. The Carvaka, Nyaya, Vaisheshika schools originated in the 7th, 6th, and 2nd century BCE, respectively.
Aristotle surveyed the thought of his predecessors and conceived of nature in a way that charted a middle course between their excesses.
With the rise and dominance of Christianity in the West and the later spread of Islam, metaphysical naturalism was generally abandoned by intellectuals. Thus, there is little evidence for it in medieval philosophy. The reintroduction of Aristotle's empirical epistemology as well as previously lost treatises by Greco-Roman natural philosophers which was begun by the medieval Scholastics without resulting in any noticeable increase in commitment to naturalism.
Modern philosophy
It was not until the early modern era of philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment that naturalists like Benedict Spinoza (who put forward a theory of psychophysical parallelism), David Hume, and the proponents of French materialism (notably Denis Diderot, Julien La Mettrie, and Baron d'Holbach) started to emerge again in the 17th and 18th centuries. In this period, some metaphysical naturalists adhered to a distinct doctrine, materialism, which became the dominant category of metaphysical naturalism widely defended until the end of the 19th century.
Immanuel Kant rejected (reductionist) materialist positions in metaphysics, but he was not hostile to naturalism. His transcendental philosophy is considered to be a form of liberal naturalism.
In late modern philosophy, Naturphilosophie, a form of natural philosophy, was developed by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel as an attempt to comprehend nature in its totality and to outline its general theoretical structure.
A version of naturalism that arose after Hegel was Ludwig Feuerbach's anthropological materialism, which influenced Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels's historical materialism, Engels's "materialist dialectic" philosophy of nature (Dialectics of Nature), and their follower Georgi Plekhanov's dialectical materialism.
Another notable school of late modern philosophy advocating naturalism was German materialism: members included Ludwig Büchner, Jacob Moleschott, and Carl Vogt.
Contemporary philosophy
In the early 20th century, matter was found to be a form of energy and therefore not fundamental as materialists had assumed. (See History of physics.) In contemporary analytic philosophy, renewed attention to the problem of universals, philosophy of mathematics, the development of mathematical logic, and the post-positivist revival of metaphysics and the philosophy of religion, initially by way of Wittgensteinian linguistic philosophy, further called the naturalistic paradigm into question. Developments such as these, along with those within science and the philosophy of science brought new advancements and revisions of naturalistic doctrines by naturalistic philosophers into metaphysics, ethics, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, epistemology, etc., the products of which include physicalism and eliminative materialism, supervenience, causal theories of reference, anomalous monism, naturalized epistemology (e.g. reliabilism), internalism and externalism, ethical naturalism, and property dualism, for example.
A politicized version of naturalism that has arisen in contemporary philosophy is Ayn Rand's Objectivism. Objectivism is an expression of capitalist ethical idealism within a naturalistic framework. In ethics, secular humanists also largely endorse the stance of metaphysical naturalism.
The current usage of the term naturalism "derives from debates in America in the first half of the last century. The self-proclaimed 'naturalists' from that period included John Dewey, Ernest Nagel, Sidney Hook and Roy Wood Sellars."
Currently, metaphysical naturalism is more widely embraced than in previous centuries, especially but not exclusively in the natural sciences and the Anglo-American, analytic philosophical communities. While the vast majority of the population of the world remains firmly committed to non-naturalistic worldviews, prominent contemporary defenders of naturalism and/or naturalistic theses and doctrines today include J. J. C. Smart, David Malet Armstrong, David Papineau, Paul Kurtz, Brian Leiter, Daniel Dennett, Michael Devitt, Fred Dretske, Paul and Patricia Churchland, Mario Bunge, Jonathan Schaffer, Hilary Kornblith, Quentin Smith, Paul Draper and Michael Martin, among many other academic philosophers.
According to David Papineau, contemporary naturalism is a consequence of the build-up of scientific evidence during the twentieth century for the "causal closure of the physical", the doctrine that all physical effects can be accounted for by physical causes.
According to Steven Schafersman, president of Texas Citizens for Science, an advocacy group opposing creationism in public schools, the progressive adoption of methodological naturalism—and later of metaphysical naturalism—followed the advances of science and the increase of its explanatory power. These advances also caused the diffusion of positions associated with metaphysical naturalism, such as existentialism.
In contemporary continental philosophy, Quentin Meillassoux proposed speculative materialism, a post-Kantian return to David Hume which can strengthen classical materialist ideas.
Arguments for metaphysical naturalism
Argument from physical minds
In the context of creation and evolution debates, Internet Infidels co-founder Jeffery Jay Lowder argues against what he calls "the argument from bias", that a priori, the supernatural is merely ruled out due to an unexamined stipulation. Lowder believes "there are good empirical reasons for believing that metaphysical naturalism is true, and therefore a denial of the supernatural need not be based upon an a priori assumption".
Several metaphysical naturalists have used the trends in scientific discoveries about minds to argue that no supernatural minds exist. Jeffery Jay Lowder says, "Since all known mental activity has a physical basis, there are probably no disembodied minds. But God is conceived of as a disembodied mind. Therefore, God probably does not exist." Lowder argues the correlation between mind and brain implies that supernatural souls do not exist because the theist position, according to Lowder, is that the mind depends upon this soul instead of the brain.
Argument from cognitive biases
In contrast with the argument from reason or evolutionary argument against naturalism, it can be argued that cognitive biases are better explained by natural causes than as the work of God.
Arguments against
Arguments against metaphysical naturalism include the following examples.
Argument from reason
Philosophers and theologians such as Victor Reppert, William Hasker, and Alvin Plantinga have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the "argument from reason". They credit C.S. Lewis with first bringing the argument to light in his book Miracles; Lewis called the argument "The Cardinal Difficulty of Naturalism", which was the title of chapter three of Miracles.
The argument postulates that if, as naturalism entails, all of our thoughts are the effect of a physical cause, then we have no reason for assuming that they are also the consequent of a reasonable ground. However, knowledge is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent. Therefore, if naturalism were true, there would be no way of knowing it (or anything else), except by a fluke.
Through this logic, the statement "I have reason to believe naturalism is valid" is inconsistent in the same manner as "I never tell the truth." That is, to conclude its truth would eliminate the grounds from which it reaches it. To summarize the argument in the book, Lewis quotes J. B. S. Haldane, who appeals to a similar line of reasoning:
In his essay "Is Theology Poetry?", Lewis himself summarises the argument in a similar fashion when he writes:
But Lewis later agreed with Elizabeth Anscombe's response to his Miracles argument. She showed that an argument could be valid and ground-consequent even if its propositions were generated via physical cause and effect by non-rational factors. Similar to Anscombe, Richard Carrier and John Beversluis have written extensive objections to the argument from reason on the untenability of its first postulate.
Evolutionary argument against naturalism
Notre Dame philosophy of religion professor and Christian apologist Alvin Plantinga argues, in his evolutionary argument against naturalism, that the probability that evolution has produced humans with reliable true beliefs, is low or inscrutable, unless their evolution was guided, for example, by God. According to David Kahan of the University of Glasgow, in order to understand how beliefs are warranted, a justification must be found in the context of supernatural theism, as in Plantinga's epistemology. (See also Supernormal stimuli.)
Plantinga argues that together, naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable "defeater for the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a skeptical argument along the lines of Descartes' evil demon or brain in a vat.
Branden Fitelson of the University of California, Berkeley and Elliott Sober of the University of Wisconsin–Madison argue that Plantinga must show that the combination of evolution and naturalism also defeats the more modest claim that "at least a non-negligible minority of our beliefs are true", and that defects such as cognitive bias are nonetheless consistent with being made in the image of a rational God. Whereas evolutionary science already acknowledges that cognitive processes are unreliable, including the fallibility of the scientific enterprise itself, Plantinga's hyperbolic doubt is no more a defeater for naturalism than it is for theistic metaphysics founded upon a non-deceiving God who designed the human mind: "[neither] can construct a non-question-begging argument that refutes global skepticism." Plantinga's argument has also been criticized by philosopher Daniel Dennett and independent scholar Richard Carrier who argue that a cognitive apparatus for truth-finding can result from natural selection.
See also
Atheism
Daoism
Dysteleology
Ethical naturalism
Hylomorphism
Liberal naturalism
Natural Supernaturalism
Naturalist computationalism
Naturalistic fallacy
Naturalistic pantheism
Platonized naturalism
Poetic naturalism
Reductive materialism
Religious naturalism
Revisionary materialism
School of Naturalists
Scientism
Scientistic materialism
Spiritual naturalism
Supernaturalism
Transcendental naturalism
Notes
References
Books
Veli-Matti Karkkainen. (2015). Creation and Humanity: A Constructive Christian Theology for the Pluralistic World, Volume 3. Pg 36. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0802868558.
Journals
Web
Further reading
Historical overview
Edward B. Davis and Robin Collins, "Scientific Naturalism". In Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction, ed. Gary B. Ferngren, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 322–34.
Pro
Gary Drescher, Good and Real, The MIT Press, 2006.
David Malet Armstrong, A World of States of Affairs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Mario Bunge, 2006, Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism, University of Toronto Press. and 2001, Scientific Realism: Selected Essays of Mario Bunge, Prometheus Books.
Richard Carrier, 2005, Sense and Goodness without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism, AuthorHouse.
Mario De Caro & David Macarthur (eds), 2004. Naturalism in Question. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Daniel Dennett, 2003, Freedom Evolves, Penguin. and 2006
Andrew Melnyk, 2003, A Physicalist Manifesto: Thoroughly Modern Materialism, Cambridge University Press.
Jeffrey Poland, 1994, Physicalism: The Philosophical Foundations, Oxford University Press.
Con
James Beilby, ed., 2002, Naturalism Defeated? Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism, Cornell University Press.
William Lane Craig and J.P. Moreland, eds., 2000, Naturalism: A Critical Analysis, Routledge.
Stewart Goetz and Charles Taliaferro, 2008, Naturalism, Eerdmans Publishing.
Phillip E. Johnson, 1998, Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education, InterVarsity Press. and 2002, The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism, InterVarsity Press.
C.S. Lewis, ed., 1996, "Miracles", Harper Collins.
Michael Rea, 2004, World without Design: The Ontological Consequences of Naturalism, Oxford University Press.
Victor Reppert, 2003, C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason, InterVarsity Press.
Mark Steiner, 2002, The Applicability of Mathematics as a Philosophical Problem, Harvard University Press.
External links
"Naturalism" in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Naturalism" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Naturalism in Legal Philosophy" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Naturalism in the Philosophy of Mathematics" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Physicalism" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
"Naturalism" in the Catholic Encyclopedia
Center for Naturalism
Naturalism entry in The Skeptic's Dictionary
Naturalism Library at the Secular Web
Naturalism as a Worldview resource page by Richard Carrier
A Defense of Naturalism by Keith Augustine (2001)
Metaphysical theories
Metaphysics of religion
Metaphysics of science
Naturalism (philosophy) |
4350617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart%20Fortwo | Smart Fortwo | The Smart Fortwo (stylized as "smart fortwo") is a two-seater city car built by the Smart division of the Mercedes-Benz Group since 1998. Now in its third generation, the Fortwo has a rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and a one-box design.
The first generation was internally designated as the W450, launched at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. The second generation W451-build series was launched at the 2006 Bologna Motor Show. The third generation Fortwo (2014–) was internally designated as the C453 build series, and debuted globally on July 16, 2014, at the Tempodrom in Berlin along with a closely related four-door version, the Smart Forfour, co-developed and sharing the same platform and engines with the third-generation Renault Twingo.
Marketed in 46 countries worldwide, Fortwo production had surpassed 1.7 million units by early 2015.
The brand name Smart supposedly derives from its early history as a cooperative venture between Swatch and Mercedes: Swatch Mercedes ART. The Fortwo nameplate derives from its two-person seating capacity. Until 2004, the Fortwo had been marketed as the smart City-Coupé.
History
Development of what ultimately became the Smart Fortwo started before 1993, originally as Swatch car'of Nicolas Hayek in co-operation with Volkswagen. With a design focused on a modern microcar with an electric or hybrid drive, VW vacillated, disputes with Hayek ensued, and Hayek turned to Mercedes.
The company MCC (Micro Compact Car AG) was founded in 1994 by Hayek in Biel as a joint subsidiary of Daimler-Benz and SMH SA (Société Suisse de Microélectronique et d'Horlogerie).
When MCC abandoned the original concept and the planned electric or hybrid drive, both Hayek and senior development team members left the project. "Today's gasoline-powered Smart is a product from Daimler-Benz and has not much in common with the plans of the former Swatch team."
Design
The Fortwo is noted for its – overall length, high H-point seating, offset passenger and driver seats (in the first and second generation, the passenger seat is 15 centimetres further rearward than the driver's), automated manual transmission (1st and 2nd generation), De Dion tube rear suspension, low CO2 emissions (119 grams per kilometre, North America, 1.0 Liter), two-part rear hatch, interchangeable plastic body panels and prominent steel hemispherical safety-cell, which is marketed as the Tridion cell and can be ordered in a contrasting color to the vehicle's body panels.
Fortwo models are manufactured at Smartville—a dedicated Daimler assembly plant in Hambach, France—in Coupé (i.e., hatchback) and Cabrio (i.e., convertible) body styles, each in a mono-box configuration.
Smartville underwent a 200 million euro upgrade beginning in mid-2013 for the third generation.
With the second generation, Smart introduced a version with automatic start-stop, marketed as the MHD, or Micro-Hybrid Drive—offered only in certain markets. A sport model, marketed as the Brabus model, has been available in both generations, and Daimler introduced the Smart electric drive, an all-electric version, in 2007. The Fortwo forms the basis for Daimler's Car2go fleet, the largest car-sharing enterprise worldwide.
In 2002, the New York Museum of Modern Art (MoMa) introduced a first generation Fortwo into its permanent collection (the only vehicle to be included into the collection while still in series production), and in 2014 the Fortwo was voted the Best Microcar for the fifth year in a row by readers of the Chinese edition of Auto, Motor und Sport. At the time of its commercial launch, the Smart Fortwo diesel-engined variant, the Cdi, had the lowest carbon dioxide emissions for an internal combustion engine, at 88 g/km rated NEDC cycle.
Auto, Motor und Sport cites a drag coefficient (Cd) of 0.35 and Alles Auto cites a Cd of 0.345 for the second generation W451 series
Transmissions
The first and second-generation Fortwo models employ an automated manual transmission, designed and manufactured by Getrag, where the clutch is computer-controlled via electrohydraulics, eliminating the need for a clutch pedal. The first generation used a six-speed version, and the second generation uses a five-speed version, model 5AMT130. Input from floor-mounted shifter or optional steering-wheel-mounted paddles controls a servo-operated clutch and an automated manual gearbox. The vehicle may be driven in automatic mode (early models had the option of fully automatic mode or standard "soft-tip" which was manual mode indicated by no button on the gearshift) or in semi-automatic (half-automatic) mode via paddle-shifters, where the operator controls the shift points but cannot feather or adjust the speed of the clutch.
From 2009, revised transmission software enabled smoother and faster gear changes. The software, available via an ECU upgrade, was also made available for 2008 second generation cars, with a new battery as required.
Third-generation models receive a five-speed manual transmission or dual-clutch automatic transmission.
Parking
With an overall length (first generation: 2.5 m (98.4 in)) approximately equal to the width of regular parking space, a Smart Fortwo can park perpendicularly in spaces typically designed for parallel parking, allowing two Smarts to park in one space—a manner of parking not permissible in many jurisdictions worldwide (e.g. Austria, New Zealand and California).
First generation (W450; 1998)
The first-generation, build series MC01 debuted in 1998 and received a facelift (W450) in 2002.
Engine
The engines are turbocharged with three cylinders. Originally the basic petrol engine was 599 cc, and came in three versions—45 hp (33 kW), 51 hp (38 kW) and 61 hp (45 kW). The engine displacement was increased to 698 cc with the facelift in 2002, in 37 kW (50 hp) and 45 kW (61 hp) variants. The turbo-diesel engine had 799 cc displacement giving 30 kW (41 hp).
Models
The Fortwo is available as a coupe or cabriolet, originally called the "city-coupe" & "City Cabrio", now the "Fortwo" & "Fortwo Cabrio", introduced in 2000 and restyled in 2002. Trim levels include the Pure, Pulse, and Passion. Pure models are fitted with the standard audio system but nothing else; Pulse models are fitted with alloy wheels, panoramic glass roof, and paddle-shifters on the steering wheel (2004+); and finally, the Passion models are fitted with air-conditioning and ability to select between fully automatic and sequential gearbox.
Limited 1: The first limited edition of which 7500 were made, all left-hand drive. It was released at the original launch in 1998. It had a black Tridion cell and white body panels. It also had alloy wheels, a Limited 1 insignia, and a blue interior with beige leather finishings. It was supplied with a certificate showing which numbers out of the 7500, and a plaque with this number below the windshield on the inside.
SE: This was the second limited edition that smart made; it was sold in mid-2001 (Mk5) and all were left-hand-drive. They were all Pulse specification with a redesigned steering wheel, soft-touch, air conditioning, CD Multi-changer, and drinks holder as standard. The engine power was upped to 61BHP from the standard 55BHP normally applied to the Pulse in the 600cc G1 cars. It was designated by a SE badge on the boot and was sold in Bay Grey with grey interior and dark blue twist fabric.
Cdi: has the world's smallest production common-rail direct injection diesel engine. With a consumption of 3.3 litres (NEDC) per 100 kilometres (71.2 mpg) and CO2 emissions of just 88 grams per kilometre, it has the lowest current production car CO2 emissions worldwide, since Audi and Volkswagen retired its 3-cylinder cars, the A2 1.2 TDI and the Lupo 1.2 TDI respectively.
Crossblade: a 2002 limited-edition variant of the City Cabrio, a roadster without a windshield, roof, or conventional doors. 2000 were produced. Its weight was still . The Brabus-tuned engine developed 52 kW (71 PS) from its 599 cc engine. After Robbie Williams purchased Crossblade number 008, Smart began a marketing association with him, using him to promote the brand and the new Forfour.
Crosstown: a convertible with a foldable windshield based on the Fortwo, was presented at IAA Frankfurt in 2005. No plans have been announced to bring this model to market.
Smart Fortwo Brabus Edition Red: - 35 Coupé and 15 Cabrio models.
Between 2006 and 2007 Brabus produced and sold 50 Smart Fortwo Edition Red cars for the UK market. All of these vehicles were originally produced with a black Tridion safety cell and black plastic panels, the car was then later repainted at Brabus in (EB6 colour code) Intense Red. The car was built with the usual Brabus additions to the exterior, these being Brabus front grill (with fog lights), Brabus front splitter, Brabus side skirts, black plastic Brabus rear exhaust panel and 16 inch Brabus Monoblock alloy wheels. These vehicles were always rumoured to be Brabus Nightrun Fortwo's that were later reworked.
The interior was bespoke to this limited run of vehicles. The interior is half leather and half alcantara with red stitching. The seats use the smaller, non sport foams. This is unusual as all other Brabus 450 Fortwo's use the wider sports style seat foams. The door card inserts are alcantara with leather door pockets with the dash board finished in alcantara with an aluminium Brabus plaque displayed in the centre. None of these vehicles had heated seats or electric wing mirrors. All Brabus Edition Red Fortwo's are equipped with a 3-spoke steering wheel, bespoke floor mats, air conditioning, CD player, Brabus clock and rev counter, Brabus speedo displaying 120 mph and all of the removable interior plastics (including door handles and steering wheel trim) repainted in Intense Red to match the exterior.
Designed on the base of the Fortwo Brabus, this limited edition example is powered by a 55 kW 3-cylinder turbo charged engine although all of the upgraded hardware is from the 60 kW motor with a different tune. Brabus upgrades over a standard 698cc Smart Fortwo include a 60 kW camshaft, 60 kW yellow Bosch injectors, 60 kW turbo charger, 60 kW turbo to intercooler pipe (TIK), Brabus branded central twin outlet exhaust with chrome tips, aluminium Brabus intake manifold name plaque and the gearbox from a Smart Roadster (different gear ratios compared with a standard Smart Fortwo).
Nightrun: includes instrument panels, steering wheel, paddles, shifter, Monoblock VI alloy wheels, leather seats, and engine upgrade from Brabus. Edition Nightrun is only available with the Fortwo coupé/Cabrio.
Truestyle: painted in metallic ruby red, available in pure trim.
i-move: a special edition run of 70 Fortwo Cabrio, based on the Passion Cabrio specs with Brabus Monobloc VI wheels, leather interior trim, Lite White panels, an iPod cradle with special edition 20Gb 3G iPod, and an aluminum nameplate on the dash confirmed its special edition status.
Forfun2 Concept: an off-road version of the Fortwo introduced at the 2005 Athens Motor Show by Greek 4x4 Rally Champion Stefan Attart. It combines the body of a Fortwo with the chassis and drivetrain of a Unimog. It sports monster truck-like wheels wrapped in diameter tires and winding keys where the Fortwo's rear wheels are supposed to be.
Brabus: In 2003 Smart and Brabus introduced the jointly developed version of the Fortwo with the 698cc engine. It had of power and 110 Nm of torque. It was available in both coupe and convertible versions. It also featured wider wheels, revised front spoiler and grille, and a revised rear exhaust.
K: launched in October 2001, exclusively for the Japanese market. It was designed to fit the Japanese kei car regulations by adopting specially developed rear fenders and narrowing the track width and tire dimensions and the width reduced to 1.47 m. The engine displacement remains unchanged at 598 cc, as specified in the standard. Safety features include ESP (Electronic Stability Program) and BAS (Brake Assist System) as standard. The Smart K also facilitates the starting procedure with the Hill Start Assist that makes a starts on slopes easier. The Smart K was discontinued in November 2004.
Fortwo Edition Limited One: Featured special metallic grey body panels; silver Tridion cell; brown leather for the seating, steering wheel, and shift lever—along with matching floor mats. The model marked the launch of the W451 build series.
Overall, due to poor sales, Daimler lost an estimated €4,470 per first-generation Fortwo produced.
Smart Crossblade
In 2002, a version of the Smart Fortwo without a roof, doors or a proper windshield was created, called the Smart Crossblade. Only 2,000 were built.
Gallery
Second generation (W451; 2007)
The second generation, build series W451 (internally: C451, Coupé – A451, Cabrio), was introduced on November 1, 2006—its length increased by 200 mm to and offering improved crash performance. The second generation retained the interchangeable plastic body panels as well as the prominent exposed, rigid steel safety cell, which is 50% high-strength steel, hot-dip galvanized and powder-coated—and marketed as Tridion.
The range received a minor interior facelift for model year 2011 with standard knee airbags, new instrument cluster, more extensive cloth trimming for the top of the instrument panel, circular rather than rectangular outboard dash vents, optional multimedia system with a 6.5" display, and optional surround-sound audio system. For model year 2013 all Fortwos received a minor exterior facelift with revised lower facias, front and rear, and a relocated brand emblem located inside rather than above the front grille.
The second generation Fortwo remained the lightest production car on sale in Europe.
Engine and fuel economy
The 999 cc I3 Mitsubishi 3B2 engine (2007 onwards) is offered in naturally aspirated and turbo versions. German tuner company Brabus, in a joint venture with Smart, has developed a high powered version of the 1.0-litre turbo, producing , originally available only in Europe, but now available elsewhere. A small 0.8-litre three-cylinder turbo diesel common rail engine made by Mercedes was available in most European markets.
EU fuel consumption testing for the combined cycle rates the 1.0-litre mhd at , the turbo at and for the diesel. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rates the 1.0-litre at combined (the EPA does not offer a rating for the diesel engine).
At the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show, Smart debuted the "micro hybrid drive" (MHD) version of the Fortwo, which was subsequently launched in the UK in 2008. The technology features an automated start-stop system, and a belt-driven starter-generator, which replaces both the starter and alternator. The system generates electricity to charge the battery when the driver is braking, and automatically cuts the engine when the speed drops below . Smart claims a fuel efficiency improvement of eight percent from to almost on the slow NEDC drive cycle—with a reduction in Carbon dioxide emissions from 112 to 103 g/km. This was further improved to 97 g/km in 2010. The mhd version of the Fortwo is not available in the United States or Canada.
Safety
At introduction, the second generation featured front airbags as well as seat-mounted combination head/thorax side airbags along with the Tridion cell, seat belt tensioners, anti-lock brakes, brake force distribution and electronic stability control. In the United States from model year 2012 onward, the Fortwo featured a total of eight dual-stage airbags in the Coupe—front, knee, side (thorax/pelvis) and window curtain—and a total of six dual-stage airbags in the Cabrio model—front, knee, side (thorax/head) dual-stage airbags. As a part of the vehicle's Tridion cell and crash management system, the front crumple zone is maximized by the rear-mounted engine location.
In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) tests, the 2008 Smart Fortwo earned the top overall rating of "Good" in both the front and side crash tests. The Fortwo received the "Good" score in 8 of 11 measured injury categories. Its seat/head restraints earned the second-highest rating of "Acceptable" for protection against whiplash in rear impacts. The IIHS did an offset crash test with a Smart Fortwo and Mercedes-Benz C-Class, which is 40% of one car's driver's side head-on with 40% of another car's driver's side, and the Smart received a "Poor" rating due to the occupants' heads slamming into the steering wheel. Also, there was too much intrusion into the footwell of the Smart Fortwo. The dummy movement was not well controlled. The Smart Fortwo spun 450 degrees in the air upon impact.
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test results for the 2008 Smart Fortwo:
Frontal Driver:
Frontal Passenger:
Side Driver: *The driver door unlatched and opened during the side impact crash which increases the likelihood of occupant ejection.
Rollover:
Euro NCAP crash results:
Adult Occupant:
Pedestrian:
Smart electric drive
An all-electric version of the Fortwo, the Smart Fortwo electric drive, began development in 2006. Field testing began in London with 100 units in 2007, and the second generation, with a total of 2,000 units, was introduced in 2009 and available in 18 markets around the world for leasing or through the Car2Go carsharing service in San Diego and Amsterdam. Production of the second-generation Smart Fortwo electric drive began in November 2009 in Hambach, France. The Smart EDs have a lithium-ion battery provided by Tesla Motors with capacity of initially, later. The range of a fully charged battery is up to under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) cycle. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's official all-electric range is and rated the Smart ED with a combined fuel economy of 87 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (2.7 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 104 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent).
The third-generation Smart electric drive was scheduled to be launched in the U.S. and Europe by the second quarter of 2013 and Daimler AG plans to mass-produce the electric car with availability in 30 markets worldwide. The third-generation Smart electric drive was unveiled at the September 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show. Key differences with the second-generation model include a more powerful electric motor, which improves acceleration and top speed, a new lithium-ion battery pack that will allow to increase the range to , and an option for quick-charge will be available.
Brabus
Brabus (styled BRABUS) is a sport package that include a sport exhaust with dual center tips, sport suspension, 16- front and 17-inch rear wheels, power steering and various Brabus visual cues. An originally planned turbocharged engine was not included. The Brabus package is available in cabriolet or coupe body styles, the latter equipped with a panoramic roof (made of glass for the first generation and polycarbonate for the second), and available in metallic silver or deep black.
Gallery
Third generation (C453/A453; 2014)
Designed under the direction of Kai Sieber with designer Michael Gebhardt, the third generation launched on July 16, 2014, having been jointly developed with Renault. The third generation is available as the 3-door 2-seater (internally designated as the C453) and 5-door 4-seater (internally designated the W453), marketed as the Fortwo and Forfour, respectively. Motor Trend reported prior to its introduction that the third generation was to share approximately 70% of its parts with the third generation Renault Twingo.
The third generation Fortwo is powered by either of two 3-cylinder engines: a 1.0-litre engine producing 76 bhp and 70 lb ft of torque, or a turbocharged 0.9-litre (898 cc) 89 bhp engine with 100 lb ft of torque. A lower-powered 59 bhp engine will follow later. All versions come with either a manual five-speed gearbox or "twinamic" dual-clutch automatic transmission instead of the previous 'Softouch' system. During development, Daimler had consulted with Ford to learn about their Ecoboost 1.0-litre turbo-charged inline 3-cylinder engine, in turn sharing information about its own Euro6 stratified lean-burn gasoline engines.
Prior to its debut, Smart CEO Annette Winkler reported the C453 would share its 2.69 metre length with the current W451 as well as its trademark hemispherical steel safety cell, marketed as the Tridion cell. The Fortwo continues to be assembled at Smartville, and the Forfour is manufactured alongside the Renault Twingo 3 in Novo Mesto, Slovenia.
Smartville, where the W450 and W451 have been manufactured, underwent a 200 million euro upgrade beginning in mid-2013, in preparation for the C453 Fortwo.
Cabriolet (A453) (2016–present)
In 2015, Smart announced a cabriolet version of the Smart Fortwo at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. The smart fortwo cabrio launched globally in 2016. Cabrio models received additional safety cell reinforcements to compensate for the roof openings, including torsional bulkheads beneath the car, a crossbar behind the passenger seats (sometimes referred to as a basket handle), and additional reinforcement of the A-pillars. Smart claims the standard power soft top will open or close in 12 seconds, and can be operated at any speed. At market launch, 5 soft top colors were offered; black, red, grey, beige and brown. Grey, beige and brown tops were marketed as BRABUS tailor made soft tops.
The smart fortwo cabrio features removable roof bars that stow into an integrated storage space in the fortwo's rear tailgate. When removed, these roof bars allow for a fully open-air driving experience. The fortwo's roof bars are not integrated into the safety structure of the car, and only house the guide rails for the soft top to close.
Smart EQ rebrand (2018–present)
Smart announced in March 2018 that electric versions of the smart fortwo would be rebranded as the smart EQ fortwo. This change was to further align with the upcoming Mercedes EQ brand in which all Mercedes-Benz produced electric vehicles would receive EQ branding. The rebranding occurred for global March 2018 production, or Model Year 2018.5 in the United States & Canada. Both the coupe and cabrio electric drive models lost the electric drive badges front and rear and received smart EQ fortwo badges in their place, and received updated graphics in the optional smart Media-System.
Facelift (2019–present)
In autumn 2019, a facelift model was announced to be available with electric drive beginning in 2020. Tech specs remained the same.
Gallery
International markets
The smart was initially available only in left-hand-drive form, as the floorpan allowed only for a left-hand-drive version. Smart subsequently designed a floorpan for right-hand-drive models. The Fortwo is now marketed in 37 countries worldwide.
Australia: The Smart Fortwo was marketed through select Mercedes-Benz dealers in Australia from 2003 to 2015 in only the middle 'Pulse' range, and with the petrol engine. In 2007, the base price for the Fortwo coupé was A$19,900, and the Fortwo cabriolet was $22,900. Mercedes-Benz stopped selling the Smart brand in Australia in 2015 due to declining sales.
Brazil
The smart fortwo was officially marketed through select Mercedes-Benz dealers in Brazil only from 2009 to 2015 (exclusively in its second generation), only with petrol engines. It was offered with the "micro-hybrid drive" natural aspirated engine (mhd) in standard configuration with a special edition named "Brazilian Edition" which was offered only in yellow (in reference to the Brazilian Flag) with a Brazilian flag sticker on both sides, and turbocharged versions named "standard" (no name), Tritop and Passion. The mhd were offered only in "coupé" configuration with no sunroof, and turbocharged versions were offered in both coupé (with sunroof) and cabrio variants.
A few units of the fortwo Brabus were also offered in Brazil in the year 2010.
In 2016, Mercedes-Benz decided to discontinue offer of the fortwo in Brazilian market, hence Brazilian customers never had the option of the 453.
There are also a few W450s in Brazil, although they weren't officially imported by Mercedes-Benz and have no official support.
China:
In April 2008, Smart premiered at the 2008 Beijing Auto Show. In October 2008, the Smart "vending machine" road show had the first stop in Shenyang and began the Fortwo's pre-order period.
Japan: The Fortwo is one of few non-Japanese cars ever to fulfil the regulations for Kei cars. There is a Japan-only variant of the first generation Smart Fortwo, called the Smart K.
Canada
The smart fortwo was introduced in Canada in September 2004 and sold through Mercedes-Benz dealers. Only the turbo-diesel powerplant was offered for the 450 coupé and 450 convertible models because the fuel vapour recovery system for the gasoline-powered car would have had to be redesigned to meet Transport Canada standards. Diesels do not require such a system because the fuel is not volatile, so the cdi was certified instead. Demand was initially heavy, with up to six-month waiting lists in major urban areas in the spring of 2005. 10,242 cdi cars were imported in model years 2005 and 2006. Two or three of these were used in Transport Canada crash testing.
Canada received three special versions of the 450 cdi: the grandstyle—only available in dark green with silver, and beige leather—of which 200 were imported in coupé and cabriolet forms, the BRABUS nightrun—equipped with BRABUS accessories at the Hambach factory, which only came as a black on black (with blue-grey leather) coupé, and 50 of those were delivered, and finally the BRABUS Tailor Made Canada 1 models, of which only four were produced, three red on red and one white on white, all with highest equipment levels and all BRABUS accessories, high-quality dyed-through leather and Alcantara interiors. The white car is a cabriolet, as are two of the red ones. The sole Canada 1 coupé has a fixed glass roof.
In 2008, Canada received only the gasoline 451 model because the diesel version did not meet 2007 Canadian emission standards. The 451 fortwo carries a 1.0-litre engine that delivers up to and a re-engineered automated-manual 5-speed transmission with a slightly larger body. This engine has been the sole powertrain for Canada since the 451 was introduced—even the BRABUS models only have 70 HP. The 451 has sold very well in Canada: over 12,600 were registered between the start of 2008 and the end of 2012. The lack of a diesel option has hindered 451 sales to some owners of the diesel 450s.
Canada received several special versions of the 451 as well: the limited 1, the limited 3, the highstyle, the greystyle, the edit10n BRABUS Tailor Made (ten coupés), one all orange "Ultimate" BRABUS Tailor Made, the sharpred, among others.
Smart Canada released ten tenth anniversary edition smart Fortwo cars in February 2009. Each car started life as a Canadian BRABUS model before being converted into tenth anniversary editions by BRABUS in Germany. All examples feature arctic grey metallic paint with brown and alcantara leather interiors and black BRABUS Monoblock 7 wheels. The cars carry a number plate on the dash to signify its production number out of ten.
Smart Canada also commissioned Busch Automodelle GmbH to produce 1:87 scale versions (with a black tridion), of which 10,000 were made.
United States
In June 2002, a Smart Fortwo was exhibited in the U.S. at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) affiliate P.S. 1 in Queens, New York.
In January 2005, DaimlerChrysler showed the Smart brand at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. Smart Forfour, Smart Roadster, Smart Fortwo Coupé and Smart Fortwo Cabrio models were shown.
In September 2006, Daimler AG announced that Smart USA, a division of Penske Auto Group would officially distribute Smart in the United States and Puerto Rico. Subsequently, the second generation Smart Fortwo (Model 451) became available in January 2008.
The 2009 model year US version of the Smart Fortwo was available in three trims: Pure (base trim), Passion, and Passion cabriolet. Pure has an MSRP of US$11,990, Passion has an MSRP of $13,990, and the Passion Cabriolet has an MSRP $16,990. A reservation program was launched by Smart USA in March 2007. This program allowed interested parties to place a $99 refundable deposit on the new Fortwo in preparation for the product's launch. After the product's launch, sales have surpassed production and the reservation program continued as a "wait list" program. The average wait used to be 12 to 18 months for delivery; although due to economic conditions at the time, many buyers couldn't purchase the vehicles when they were ready for delivery and many were available on dealer lots.
The Fortwo was rated as the most fuel efficient two-seater car in the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) 2008 Fuel Economy Guide, with fuel efficiency ratings of city and highway. The 2008 Smart Fortwo coupe was given an EPA fuel efficiency rating of combined.
On May 14, 2008, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety released crash test results for the Fortwo. The IIHS gave the Fortwo top ratings in protecting passengers in front and side crashes. However, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) cited a Safety Concern on their tests of a 2008 Fortwo, stating "during the side impact test, the driver door unlatched and opened. A door opening during a side impact crash increases the likelihood of occupant ejection."
For model years 2012 and later, the U.S. Fortwo Coupe featured eight airbags (front, knee, side and window curtain), while the Cabrio model featured six airbags (front, knee and side-mounted combination head/thorax).
In early 2006, prior to formal importation to the United States, a specialty firm—G and K Auto conversions of Santa Ana, California, received DOT, NHTSA, and EPA approval to market a modified European specification Smart Fortwo in the US. Modifications for the grey market vehicles included DOT certified headlights, front and rear side marker lights, reinforced doors for additional side impact protection, an odometer in miles rather than kilometres, and soft padding on the interior pillars and ceiling. Approximately 1,000 model year 2004, 2005, and 2006 cars were imported.
In September 2015, the third generation Smart Fortwo Coupe (C453) launched in the United States for the 2016 model year. US variants are offered in four trim levels: Pure, Passion, Prime and Proxy. Significant upgrades, including power steering, eight airbags, alarm, Bluetooth capability and crosswind assist technology were made standard. The 2016 Smart Fortwo also received a new engine, the 0.9 liter 3-cylinder turbocharged unit making 89 horsepower and 100 pound-feet of torque as standard. Both a 5-speed manual transmission and a 6-speed dual-clutch automatic transmission are offered.
In August 2016, the redesigned 2017 Smart Fortwo Cabrio (A453) joined the smart USA lineup, offered in three trim levels; Passion, Prime and Proxy. The Cabrio model makes use of the same gasoline engine and transmissions as the C453 Fortwo Coupe. A BRABUS Sport Package was also added for 2017 for Fortwo Coupe and Cabrio models, adding unique front and rear body styling, wheels, interior appointments and a retuned sport suspension.
The fourth generation Smart Fortwo Electric Drive made its debut at the 2016 Paris Motor Show. The newest generation, built on the C453 chassis, features a new 17.6 kWh lithium-ion battery and an air-cooled electric motor which produce 81 horsepower and 118 lb.-ft. of torque. A new 7.2 kW onboard charger was added, and Smart advertised a charging time of 2.5 hours at a 240 V electrical outlet. EPA estimated range was 58 miles, and the vehicle was rated at 124 MPGe City, making it the most efficient 2 seat vehicle on sale in the USA. The 2017 Smart Fortwo electric drive is offered in both Coupe and Cabrio versions in all 50 states, and qualifies for a $7,500 federal tax incentive.
In February 2017, Smart USA announced the brand would discontinue gasoline vehicle sales after the 2017 model year and focus purely on battery electric vehicles. The Smart Fortwo Electric Drive arrived as a 2017 model in the summer of 2017, and the transition to electric-only occurred for the 2018 model year.
The year 2018 marked 10 years of Smart Fortwo sales in the United States, and the brand offered a special tenth anniversary edition specific to the United States market to celebrate. The edition was available for Passion and Prime lines of the Fortwo Coupe, and consisted of:
Exclusive Sapphire Blue Metallic body panels, mirror caps, tridion cell, and grille
16-Inch BRABUS Monoblock VII Wheels in Matte Anthracite Grey
Sport Package
BRABUS-created edition exterior badging in place of the line badge
Custom-stitched '10th anniversary' BRABUS floor mats
Tenth anniversary BRABUS shift knob
In April 2019 sales were terminated in the U.S. and Canada. The vehicle never met sales goals.
South Africa
The smart fortwo was officially marketed through select Mercedes-Benz dealers in South-Africa only with petrol engines.
Chinese copy controversy
In 2007, Chinese manufacturer Shuanghuan Auto released the Shuanghuan Noble (also known as the Martin Motors Bubble), designed similarly to the Fortwo and prompting Daimler AG to sue Shuanghuan for copyright infringement. The German manufacturer persuaded the Italian court to prohibit the Noble from being exhibited at the Bologna Motor Show, but importer Martin Motors violated that injunction and put the car on display.
In May 2009, a Greek judge ruled against Daimler, allowing the Noble to be sold in Greece. The judge cited that "if a vehicle varies in its technical specification, then any external similarities are irrelevant." This was in reference to the Noble being a front-engine, front-wheel-drive car, while the Fortwo is a similar sized rear-engine and rear-wheel-drive car.
References
External links
Smart (official site)
Smart USA (official USA site)
Smart (official UK community site)
Origins of the Fortwo
Smart exhibition at the MoMA
2000s cars
2010s cars
Euro NCAP superminis
Hybrid electric cars
Microcars
Hatchbacks
Convertibles
Rear-engined vehicles
Fortwo
Cars introduced in 1998
City cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Kei cars
2020s cars |
4350664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating%20in%20fungi | Mating in fungi | Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that employ a huge variety of reproductive strategies, ranging from fully asexual to almost exclusively sexual species. Most species can reproduce both sexually and asexually, alternating between haploid and diploid forms. This contrasts with many eukaryotes such as mammals, where the adults are always diploid and produce haploid gametes which combine to form the next generation. In fungi, both haploid and diploid forms can reproduce – haploid individuals can undergo asexual reproduction while diploid forms can produce gametes that combine to give rise to the next generation.
Mating in fungi is a complex process governed by mating types. Research on fungal mating has focused on several model species with different behaviour. Not all fungi reproduce sexually and many that do are isogamous; thus, for many members of the fungal kingdom, the terms "male" and "female" do not apply. Homothallic species are able to mate with themselves, while in heterothallic species only isolates of opposite mating types can mate.
Mating between isogamous fungi may consist only of a transfer of a nucleus from one cell to another. Vegetative incompatibility within species often prevents a fungal isolate from mating with another isolate. Isolates of the same incompatibility group do not mate or mating does not lead to successful offspring. High variation has been reported including same-chemotype mating, sporophyte to gametophyte mating and biparental transfer of mitochondria.
Mating in Zygomycota
A zygomycete hypha grows towards a compatible mate and they both form a bridge, called a progametangia, by joining at the hyphal tips via plasmogamy. A pair of septa forms around the merged tips, enclosing nuclei from both isolates. A second pair of septa forms two adjacent cells, one on each side. These adjacent cells, called suspensors provide structural support. The central cell, called the zygosporangium, is destined to become a spore. The zygosporangium is a unique structure to the Zygomycota and is easily recognizable in microscopy due to its characteristic dark color and spiky shape. The nuclei join in a process called karyogamy to form a zygote, which grows into a mature diploid zygomycete. A diploid zygomycete can then undergo meiosis to create spores, which disperse and germinate. The following generations of mycelium can undergo asexual or sexual reproduction.
Mating in Ascomycota
As it approaches a mate, a haploid sac fungus develops one of two complementary organs, a "female" ascogonium or a "male" antheridium. These organs resemble gametangia except that they contain only nuclei. A bridge, the trichogyne forms, that provides a passage for nuclei to travel from the antheridium to the ascogonium. A dikaryote grows from the ascogonium, and karyogamy occurs in the fruiting body.
Neurospora crassa
Neurospora crassa is a type of red bread mold of the phylum Ascomycota. N. crassa is used as a model organism because it is easy to grow and has a haploid life cycle: this makes genetic analysis simple, since recessive traits will show up in the offspring. Analysis of genetic recombination is facilitated by the ordered arrangement of the products of meiosis within a sac-like structure called an ascus (pl. asci). In its natural environment, N. crassa lives mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It often can be found growing on dead plant matter after fires.
Neurospora was used by Edward Tatum and George Wells Beadle in the experiments for which they won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958. The results of these experiments led directly to the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis that specific genes code for specific proteins. This concept launched molecular biology. Sexual fruiting bodies (perithecia) can only be formed when two cells of different mating type come together (see Figure). Like other Ascomycetes, N. crassa has two mating types that, in this case, are symbolized by A and a. There is no evident morphological difference between the A and a mating type strains. Both can form abundant protoperithecia, the female reproductive structure (see Figure). Protoperithecia are formed most readily in the laboratory when growth occurs on solid (agar) synthetic medium with a relatively low source of nitrogen. Nitrogen starvation appears to be necessary for expression of genes involved in sexual development. The protoperithecium consists of an ascogonium, a coiled multicellular hypha that is enclosed in a knot-like aggregation of hyphae. A branched system of slender hyphae, called the trichogyne, extends from the tip of the ascogonium projecting beyond the sheathing hyphae into the air. The sexual cycle is initiated (i.e. fertilization occurs) when a cell, usually a conidium, of opposite mating type contacts a part of the trichogyne (see Figure). Such contact can be followed by cell fusion leading to one or more nuclei from the fertilizing cell migrating down the trichogyne into the ascogonium. Since both A and a strains have the same sexual structures, neither strain can be regarded as exclusively male or female. However, as a recipient, the protoperithecium of both the A and a strains can be thought of as the female structure, and the fertilizing conidium can be thought of as the male participant.
The subsequent steps following fusion of A and a haploid cells have been outlined by Fincham and Day. and Wagner and Mitchell. After fusion of the cells, the further fusion of their nuclei is delayed. Instead, a nucleus from the fertilizing cell and a nucleus from the ascogonium become associated and begin to divide synchronously. The products of these nuclear divisions (still in pairs of unlike mating type, i.e. A/a) migrate into numerous ascogenous hyphae, which then begin to grow out of the ascogonium. Each of these ascogenous hyphae bends to form a hook (or crozier) at its tip and the A and a pair of haploid nuclei within the crozier divide synchronously. Next, septa form to divide the crozier into three cells. The central cell in the curve of the hook contains one A and one a nucleus (see Figure). This binuclear cell initiates ascus formation and is called an “ascus-initial” cell. Next the two uninucleate cells on either side of the first ascus-forming cell fuse with each other to form a binucleate cell that can grow to form a further crozier that can then form its own ascus-initial cell. This process can then be repeated multiple times.
After formation of the ascus-initial cell, the A and a nuclei fuse with each other to form a diploid nucleus (see Figure). This nucleus is the only diploid nucleus in the entire life cycle of N. crassa. The diploid nucleus has 14 chromosomes formed from the two fused haploid nuclei that had 7 chromosomes each. Formation of the diploid nucleus is immediately followed by meiosis. The two sequential divisions of meiosis lead to four haploid nuclei, two of the A mating type and two of the a mating type. One further mitotic division leads to four A and four a nucleus in each ascus. Meiosis is an essential part of the life cycle of all sexually reproducing organisms, and in its main features, meiosis in N. crassa seems typical of meiosis generally.
As the above events are occurring, the mycelial sheath that had enveloped the ascogonium develops as the wall of the perithecium becomes impregnated with melanin, and blackens. The mature perithecium has a flask-shaped structure.
A mature perithecium may contain as many as 300 asci, each derived from identical fusion diploid nuclei. Ordinarily, in nature, when the perithecia mature the ascospores are ejected rather violently into the air. These ascospores are heat resistant and, in the lab, require heating at 60 °C for 30 minutes to induce germination. For normal strains, the entire sexual cycle takes 10 to 15 days. In a mature ascus containing eight ascospores, pairs of adjacent spores are identical in genetic constitution, since the last division is mitotic, and since the ascospores are contained in the ascus sac that holds them in a definite order determined by the direction of nuclear segregations during meiosis. Since the four primary products are also arranged in sequence, a first division segregation pattern of genetic markers can be distinguished from a second division segregation pattern.
Benefit of mating type in N. crassa
That mating in N. crassa can only occur between strains of different mating type suggests that some degree of outcrossing is favored by natural selection. In haploid multicellular fungi, such as N. crassa, meiosis occurring in the brief diploid stage is one of their most complex processes. The haploid multicellular vegetative stage, although physically much larger than the diploid stage, characteristically has a simple modular construction with little differentiation. In N. crassa, recessive mutations affecting the diploid stage of the life cycle are quite frequent in natural populations. These mutations, when homozygous in the diploid stage, often cause spores to have maturation defects or to produce barren fruiting bodies with few ascospores (sexual spores). The majority of these homozygous mutations cause abnormal meiosis (e.g. disturbed chromosome pairing or disturbed pachytene or diplotene). The number of genes affecting the diploid stage was estimated to be at least 435 (about 4% of the total number of 9,730 genes). Thus, outcrossing, promoted by the necessity for union of opposite mating types, likely provides the benefit of masking recessive mutations that would otherwise be deleterious to sexual spore formation (see Complementation (genetics)).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, brewer's and baker's yeast, is in the phylum Ascomycota. During vegetative growth that ordinarily occurs when nutrients are abundant, S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as either haploid or diploid cells. However, when starved, diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type, MATa and MATα, come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the tetrad of cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type with which they may mate.
Katz Ezov et al. presented evidence that in natural S. cerevisiae populations clonal reproduction and a type of “self-fertilization” (in the form of intratetrad mating) predominate. Ruderfer et al. analyzed the ancestry of natural S. cerevisiae strains and concluded that outcrossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. Thus, although S. cerevisiae is heterothallic, it appears that, in nature, mating is most often between closely related yeast cells. The relative rarity in nature of meiotic events that result from outcrossing suggests that the possible long-term benefits of outcrossing (e.g. generation of genetic diversity) are unlikely to be sufficient for generally maintaining sex from one generation to the next. Instead, a short-term benefit, such as meiotic recombinational repair of DNA damages caused by stressful conditions such as starvation, may be the key to the maintenance of sex in S. cerevisiae. Alternatively, recessive deleterious mutations accumulate during the diploid expansion phase, and are purged during selfing: this purging has been termed "genome renewal" and provides an advantage of sex that does not depend on outcrossing.
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as a yeast and as a filament. C. albicans is the most common fungal pathogen in humans. It causes both debilitating mucosal infections and potentially life-threatening systemic infections. C. albicans has maintained an elaborate, but largely hidden, mating apparatus. Johnson suggested that mating strategies may allow C. albicans to survive in the hostile environment of a mammalian host. In order to mate C. albicans needs to switch from white to opaque cells. The latter are more efficient in mating and referred to as the mating competent cells of C. albicans. Mating in C. albicans is termed a parasexual cycle since meiosis is still not observed in C. albicans.
Mating type
A picture of the mating type mechanism has begun to emerge from studies of particular fungi such as S. cerevisiae. The mating type genes are located in homeobox and encode enzymes for production of pheromones and pheromone receptors. Sexual reproduction thereby depends on pheromones produced from variant alleles of the same gene. Since sexual reproduction takes place in haploid organisms, it cannot proceed until complementary genes are provided by a suitable partner through cell or hyphal fusion. The number of mating types depends on the number of genes and the number of alleles for each.
Depending on the species, sexual reproduction takes place through gametes or hyphal fusion. When a receptor on one haploid detects a pheromone from a complementary mating type, it approaches the source through chemotropic growth or chemotactic movement if it is a gamete.
Mating in Basidiomycota
Some of the species within Basidiomycota have the most complex systems of sexual reproduction known among fungi. In general for fungi there are two main types of sexual reproduction: homothallism, when mating occurs within a single individual, or in other words each individual is self-fertile; and heterothallism, when hyphae from a single individual are self-sterile and need to interact with another compatible individual for mating to take place. Additionally, mating compatibility in the Basidiomycota is further categorized into two types of mating systems: tetrapolar and bipolar.
Tetrapolar and bipolar mating system
Heterothallism is the most common mating system in Basidiomycota and in Agaricomycotina (the mushroom-forming fungi) about 90% of the species are heterothallic. The tetrapolar type of mating system is ruled by two unlinked mating loci termed and (in Agaricomycotina) or and (in Ustilaginomycotina and Pucciniomycotina), both of which can be multiallelic. The combination of and (or and ) alleles, termed mating type, determine the "specificity" or sexual identity of the individual harboring them. Only individuals with different mating types are compatible with each other and therefore able to start the mating event.
A successful mating interaction begins with nuclear exchange and nuclear migration resulting in the formation of dikaryotic hyphae (containing separate haploid nuclei from both initial parents). Dikaryotic hyphae, under the appropriate environmental conditions will give rise to the fruiting body which contains the basidia – specialized cells in which sexual recombination via karyogamy and meiosis occurs. This dikaryotic condition in Basidiomycota is often maintained by a specialized hyphal structure called a clamp connection. The formation of clamp connections is regulated by both mating loci.
Examples of tetrapolar organisms are the smuts Ustilago maydis and U. longissima, and the mushrooms Coprinopsis cinerea, Schizophyllum commune, Pleurotus djamor and Laccaria bicolor.
It is believed that multi-allelic systems favor outcrossing in Basidiomycota. For example, in the case of U. maydis, which bears more than 25 but only 2 mating types, an individual has an approximately 50% chance to encounter a compatible mate in nature. However, species such as C. cinerea, which has more than 240 and mating types, each, and S. commune, which has more than 339 mating types and 64 mating types, approach close to 100% chance of encountering a compatible partner in nature, due to the huge number of mating types generated by these systems.
In contrast, bipolar mating systems are ruled by a single allelic mating locus, termed either or . In Agaricomycotina, bipolar organisms mostly have multiple alleles for their mating locus; however, in Ustilaginomycotina and Pucciniomycotina, the mating locus is predominantly diallelic, which reduces the occurrence of outcrossing within these species. Bipolarity likely arose via one of two potential routes:
During evolution the or locus lost functionality in determining mating type, as has occurred in the mushroom Coprinellus disseminatus.
Both mating loci have become physically linked such that they now act as a single locus; this has occurred in the smut plant pathogen U. hordei and in the human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Virulence success in these two pathogens is highly associated with mating and their mating type locus.
Other bipolar species include the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium and the edible mushroom Pholiota nameko.
The A and B or b and a mating loci
In the B or a locus there are linked genes that code for pheromones and pheromone receptors. The pheromones are short polypeptides with conserved residues and the pheromone receptors belong to the G protein-coupled family of receptors located in the cell membrane; they sense different molecules (in this case the pheromones) outside and activate a specific pathway inside of the cell. Pheromone-receptor interaction occurs in a way that the pheromone from one individual interacts with the receptor from the partner and vice versa. The functions of these genes are to regulate reciprocal nuclear exchange, nuclear migration in both mates and ultimately clamp cell fusion. The first mating pheromone-receptor genes characterized were for U. maydis.
The A or b mating locus contains genes that code for two types of homeodomain transcription factor proteins, usually tightly linked, that are homologues to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating proteins MATα2 and MATa1. In Agaricomycotina the two types of homeodomain transcription factors are termed HD1 and HD2; so the HD1 and HD2 proteins from an individual interacts with the HD2 and HD1 proteins from the other partner, respectively, generating heterodimers able to activate the A transcriptional regulated pathway, which involves formation of clamp cells, coordinated nuclear division and septation.
Homothallism
Homothallic species may likely have evolved from heterothallic ancestors (Lin and Heitman 2007). In Basidiomycota homothallism is not very common and in Agaricomycotina it is estimated that only 10% of species have homothallic mating behavior. For example, one subspecies of the ectomycorrhizal Basidiomycete Sistotrema brinkmannii is homothallic, although other subspecies have maintained their ability to outcross. Also, a variety of the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus, (A. bisporus var. eurotetrasporus) produces haploid self-fertile basidiospores. Additionally, in the human pathogen C. neoformans known to outcross under laboratory conditions, both mating types are not normally distributed in natural populations, with the α mating type much more commonly found (>99%), suggesting homothallism is the most prevalent mode of sexual reproduction in ´C. neoformans in nature. Finally, the fungus causing witches' broom in cacao, Moniliophthora perniciosa, has a primarily homothallic biology despite having A and B mating type-like genes in its genome.
Among the 250 known species of aspergilli, about 36% have an identified sexual state Among those Aspergillus species that exhibit a sexual cycle the overwhelming majority in nature are homothallic (self-fertilizing). Selfing in the homothallic fungus Aspergillus nidulans involves activation of the same mating pathways characteristic of sex in outcrossing species, i.e. self-fertilization does not bypass required pathways for outcrossing sex but instead requires activation of these pathways within a single individual. Fusion of haploid nuclei occurs within reproductive structures termed cleistothecia, in which the diploid zygote undergoes meiotic divisions to yield haploid ascospores.
See also
Mating of yeast
Mating type
Mating-type region
Neurospora crassa
References
Mating
Mycology
Sexual reproduction |
4350951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20Imperial%20Force%20Touring%20XI | Australian Imperial Force Touring XI | When the First World War ended in November 1918, thousands of Australian servicemen were in Europe as members of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and many remained until the spring of 1919. In England, a new first-class cricket season was planned, the first since 1914, and an idea that came to fruition was the formation of an Australian touring side made up of servicemen. Agreement was reached with the Australian Corps HQ in London, commanded by Field Marshal William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, and the Australian Imperial Force Touring XI was formed, initially under the captaincy of pre-war Test player Charlie Kelleway. Kelleway departed after only six matches following a dispute about the fixtures list. A players' meeting elected future Test player Herbie Collins as team captain for the remainder of the tour, despite the fact that Collins' military rank was lance corporal and there were seven officers in the party. The bulk of the team remained intact for nearly nine months from May 1919, playing 33 matches in Great Britain, ten in South Africa on their way home and then another three in Australia itself before disbanding in February 1920. Of the 46 matches, 39 are adjudged first-class and the team had only four defeats, all of these in England. The players lived on their army pay and all profits from gate money went to an AIF Sports Control Board.
The team toured Great Britain May to September 1919, playing 28 first-class matches with twelve wins, four defeats and twelve draws. Five minor matches were also played, three of these in Scotland, the Australians winning two and drawing three. The AIF team toured South Africa October to December on their way home and were undefeated in ten matches, eight of which were first-class. Two unofficial "Tests" were played at the Old Wanderers stadium in Johannesburg, Australia winning both comfortably. Jack Gregory relished the conditions in South Africa while the local newspapers acclaimed Collins as the finest player in the team. On arrival home January 1920 in Australia, the team played three first-class matches, defeating both the reigning Sheffield Shield champions New South Wales and their main challengers Victoria. A likely victory against Queensland was frustrated by torrential rain. The results in Australia demonstrated the strength of the AIF team and within a few months of the team's dissolution, five players would make their Test débuts: batsmen Collins, Johnny Taylor and Nip Pellew; wicketkeeper Bert Oldfield and fast bowling all-rounder Gregory.
Preliminaries
During 1917 and 1918, at the height of the First World War, charity matches were occasionally staged between teams of servicemen, including many players of first-class standard. On 14 July 1917, there was a one-day match at Lord's between teams representing the British Army and the First Australian Imperial Force. It was played in aid of St Dunstan's Hostel for Blinded Sailors and Soldiers. The AIF scored 130 and the Army were all out for 162 just before the match ended in a draw. The game, a great success, featured notable players, including Colin Blythe in his final match, Patsy Hendren, Pelham Warner and Percy Fender for the British Army. The Australian team included Charlie Kelleway, Charlie Macartney, Cyril Docker and Bill Stirling. It was the first match involving a team representative of the AIF. The match was later summarised in the Sydney newspaper, The Referee. In August, an Australian Services XI played against an Indian Gymkhana XI at Lord's. Later in the month, a combined Australian and South African XI played a British Army and Royal Navy team, also at Lord's, both matches to raise money for wartime charities.
There were a couple of games involving Australian XIs in 1918 but the main events were three matches played at Lord's and The Oval between an England XI and a Dominions XI which included a number of Australian players such as Kelleway, Docker, Nip Pellew, Johnny Taylor, Ed Long and Allie Lampard who were all to play for the AIF team in 1919. All three games were of one-day duration and all were drawn.
Following the cessation of hostilities on 11 November 1918, the Australian Army Corps HQ in London had to think of ways to entertain the thousands of servicemen waiting to be sent home. An AIF Sports Control Board was formed and, notice having been taken of the success of the wartime charity matches, issued 31 January 1919 an AIF Order 1539 to all ranks:
The following proposals for the formation of an AIF Board of Control to encourage sport in all units and supervise organisation and selection of representative teams. The Board to consist of a president, two representatives from units in France, one from AIF depots in the United Kingdom, one from London, and one representative of the Australian Comforts Fund.
The AIF Sports Control Board was fully supported by the Australian Board of (Cricket) Control which appointed Major Gordon Campbell, the former South Australia wicketkeeper, as its representative in meetings about a proposed AIF team and tour. The Board of Control retained control of the team and awarded first-class status to most of its matches but much of the practical organisation, especially of fixtures, was undertaken by Surrey County Cricket Club and their representative Howard Lacey became the team manager. Lacey had organised a charity match in August 1918 between his own invitation XI and an Australian XI. The Sports Board began trials in February 1919 and there was an enthusiastic response from many servicemen with first-class or grade cricket experience. Despite the fact that some of the players still carried war injuries, the Sports Board was able to form a strong team which came to be billed as the Australian Imperial Force Touring XI.
Given the large number of applicants, the AIF formed a second eleven which toured the minor cricket circuit in England, playing against league clubs, county club colts and public schools teams. The second eleven played 55 matches and lost only eleven but few of its members ever played more than first-grade club cricket when they returned to Australia.
Players
The table below lists all seventeen players who represented the AIF Touring XI in at least one first-class match. Details state the player's military rank, Sheffield Shield state team, date of birth, age on 14 May 1919 when the first match began, batting hand and bowling type:
Tour of England
14 May to 3 June
The tour opened on 14 May with, curiously, a twelve-a-side match that is nevertheless adjudged first-class. The opposition was L. G. Robinson's XII, an invitation team organised by the cricket-loving businessman Lionel Robinson. It was played 14 to 16 May at the Old Buckenham Hall Cricket Ground in Attleborough, Norfolk, and ended in a draw though all four results were possible in the closing overs. Robinson's team scored 147 and 362 for eight declared, a match total of 509. In reply, the AIF scored 227 and were 274 for nine when time ran out, a match total of 501 leaving them nine runs and Robinson's team one wicket short of victory. The Australian team included the future New South Wales and Australian Test wicketkeeper Hammy Love in this match. It was his first-class debut but his sole appearance for the AIF. Also making first-class debuts here were Jack Gregory and Bill Trenerry for the AIF and the Kent batsman Jack Bryan.
The AIF played many of its first-class matches in England over three days although the County Championship that year consisted (for the only time ever as it was a singularly unsuccessful venture) of two-day matches. AIF's first match against a county team started on 17 May at the County Ground, Leyton, against Essex and skipper Charlie Kelleway with 126 made the team's first century. Gregory with seven wickets in the match gave notice of his potential. AIF won inside two days by an innings and 114 runs against a team led by England captain Johnny Douglas who could only contribute 0 and 14.
Two of the next three matches were against the principal University teams. The AIF played Cambridge University at Fenner's 21 to 23 May and then Oxford University at The Parks 29 to 30 May. Cambridge were thrashed by an innings and 239 runs following centuries by Kelleway and Nip Pellew. Gregory took six for 65 in the first innings and Allie Lampard and Cyril Docker bowled Cambridge out in the second. The Oxford match was scheduled for two days and, like so many of the two-day County Championship fixtures that season, was drawn. Kelleway took seven for 47 in the first innings and there were centuries by Jack Murray and Johnny Taylor. The AIF team at Oxford included Harry Heath who made his first-class debut there but did not play for AIF again. Heath made two first-class appearances for South Australia in 1923–24. Also making his first-class debut at Oxford was future Australian Test keeper Bert Oldfield.
In between the university matches, the AIF made the first of three visits to Lord's Cricket Ground (Lord's) where they played Middlesex 26 to 28 May. The AIF had arguably the best of a keenly fought draw. Herbie Collins made his first century of the tour with 127 and 64. Lampard bowled well and took six for 91 in the Middlesex first innings but it included a fourth wicket partnership of 177 between Patsy Hendren and Pelham Warner who both completed centuries.
The final match starting May was against Surrey at The Oval 31 May to 3 June and it was another draw. Jack Hobbs, known as "The Master", was in brilliant form and scored 205* out of only 344 to give Surrey first innings lead. The AIF built a massive 554 for seven declared in their second innings with centuries by Lampard and Pellew and 96 by Taylor. This set Surrey 441 to win, an impossible target in the time remaining, and Surrey held on for the draw with 128 for five after Hobbs that time was out for seven.
During or immediately following the Surrey match, there was a dispute in the AIF team "about the fixtures list" and a players' meeting was held at The Oval which elected Collins as team captain in place of Kelleway, who did not play for the AIF again. The team was still a military one and cricket writer Ray Robinson expressed surprise at Collins' election as he was a lance corporal being asked to lead a team largely comprising officers including one major (Cyril Docker) and four captains. Chris Harte wrote that the team "ignored all considerations of (military) rank", Collins "giving orders to seven commissioned officers without anyone questioning his authority". According to Harte, Kelleway was "relieved of the captaincy following a decision by the Army authorities because of (his) poor behaviour", this echoing the problems of the Australian team to England in 1912, of which Kelleway was a member.
With Kelleway's departure, the AIF squad was reduced to its nucleus of fourteen principal members: Herbie Collins (captain), Eric Bull, Cyril Docker, Jack Gregory, Allie Lampard, Ed Long, Jack Murray, Bert Oldfield, Nip Pellew, Bill Stirling, Johnny Taylor, Bill Trenerry, Carl Willis and Charles Winning. Their success was being noticed outside England and in due course the AIF Sports Control Board received a telegram from the South African government in Pretoria asking if the team could tour South Africa en route to Australia. The players held a meeting and were unanimous in their refusal as they wanted to go straight home once their tour of England was completed. However, the Australian Army thought differently and the Ministry of Defence ordered them, as serving officers and other ranks, to comply. Planning began for a tour of South Africa from October to December.
5 to 28 June
Collins' first game in charge was at Lord's against Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Australians won convincingly by ten wickets inside two days on 5 and 6 June. Gregory, Lampard and Stirling shared 18 wickets in the match as MCC were dismissed for 133 and 228, the Australians replying with 297 and 66 for no wicket. Gregory with 56 top-scored and Trenerry scored 55, these two adding 80 for the eighth wicket after the Australians had struggled to 164 for seven. Charles Winning made his first-class debut in the match for the AIF.
The game against Sussex at the County Cricket Ground, Hove on 9 and 10 June was scheduled for two days only and was drawn. Sussex scored 227 and 241 with Collins taking five for 45 and three for 41. The Australians replied with 289 and 77 for eight, just holding on for the draw at the end after the second innings nearly succumbed to the Sussex seam attack. If a third day had been scheduled, this almost certainly would have been the first AIF defeat.
On 11 June, the team took the train north for matches against two of the strongest county sides, Lancashire and Yorkshire. They played Lancashire at Old Trafford in Manchester 12 to 14 June and Yorkshire at Bramall Lane in Sheffield 16 to 18 June. The Australians won both matches, comprehensively defeating Lancashire by an innings and 157 runs but only by one wicket against Yorkshire after a dramatic finale. At Old Trafford, Collins won the toss, decided to bat and led the way from the first ball with 103. Trenerry scored a career-highest 82 and the Australians batted into the second day to total a commanding 418. Lancashire collapsed twice with 125 and 136, the match ending same day. Stirling took five for 38 in the first innings and then Lampard produced the remarkable figures of nine for 42 in the second.
The match in Sheffield produced an exciting finish as the Australians, needing 170 to win, had been reduced to 116 for nine before Gregory was joined by last man Ed Long. Against the odds, they put on 54 for the tenth wicket to win the game, Gregory scoring 41* and Long 13*. Yorkshire, featuring George Hirst and Wilfred Rhodes, went on to win the County Championship in 1919 so this was an outstanding performance by Collins' team. Yorkshire won the toss and batted first. Their opening pair of Rhodes (90) and Percy Holmes (71) shared 150 for the first wicket but finally Gregory dismissed Holmes and then, with six for 91, proceeded to bowl Yorkshire out for 224. The Australians began badly and were 59 for four before the middle order rallied and eventually reached 265 on the second day. A key innings was played by one of the bit-part players Eric Bull who scored a career-highest 42 at a crucial time from the end of day one and well into the second morning. Yorkshire scored 210 in their second innings and would have had a very low score but for an outstanding effort by Hirst with 88. Yorkshire again struggled against Gregory who dismissed all the first six batsmen and finished with seven for 79, a match haul of thirteen for 170. The Australians began the fourth innings before lunch on the final day and were soon struggling after Collins was out without scoring and only Trenerry, with 39, made any contribution among the top order batsmen. The total was 71 for five when Bull came in and he played another valuable innings of 27 until he was out at 111 for eight. Gregory was joined by Winning who was out for nought at 116 for nine and this set up the remarkable climax to the game between Gregory and Long.
The Australians travelled south again on 19 June, taking the trains from Sheffield to Southampton where they played Hampshire in a two-day match 20 and 21 June on the County Ground, Southampton. This match was rain-affected and the short schedule left no time to make up for stoppages so it was an inevitable draw after Hampshire scored 191 and 67 for one, and the Australians scored 136. The Australian batsmen struggled in the conditions against the seam bowling of Alec Kennedy.
Having been unbeaten in their first eleven matches, the Australians finally tasted defeat in the twelfth at Lord's when they played the Gentlemen of England, captained by Pelham Warner, 23 to 25 June. The Gentlemen batted first after winning the toss and ran up a total of 402, batting into the second morning. Surprisingly, the Australians collapsed against the fast-medium pace of Johnny Douglas (four for 34) and Michael Falcon (six for 41) and were bowled out for only 85 in the 35th over. Asked to follow on, the Australians reached 149 for 8 at close of play but were dismissed for 184 in the third morning. Douglas took four for forty this time and the slow left armer Jack White took four for 38. The result was a comprehensive victory for the Gentlemen by an innings and 133 runs.
The Australians recovered to win the next match at the County Ground, Northampton, defeating Northamptonshire (Northants) by 196 runs in a three-day match 26 to 28 June. The AIF won the toss and batted first. Gregory opened the innings with Taylor and scored 115 in just two and a half hours, AIF totalling 297. Northants reached a creditable 109 for two at the close and were then all out for 246 next day, Gregory taking four for 71. The Australians reached 177 for six at close of play on the second day and went on to total 314, Trenerry with 58 the top score. Collins with five for 26 and Gregory with four for 74 bowled out Northants for 169. It was an outstanding all-round performance by Gregory, whose 115 was his maiden first-class century. He scored 49 in the second innings and held three catches in the match in addition to his eight wickets.
30 June to 8 July
The Australians played four second-class matches in this period, all of them scheduled for two days only. Three were in Scotland and one against Durham which was then a Minor Counties team. They defeated a West of Scotland team in Glasgow by an innings and 560 runs after scoring 733 for six declared with four centuries. Then they played two matches, one in Edinburgh and one in Glasgow, against the Scotland national team. These were both impacted by the weather and drawn. The game against Durham was played in West Hartlepool and also drawn.
11 July to 2 August
The Australians returned to first-class action on 11 July in a two-day match at Grace Road, Leicester that was drawn. The AIF opened with 551 for five declared (Pellew 187, Willis 156* and Collins 121) which was their total at the end of the first day. Leicestershire with 224 and 28 for no wicket held on through the second day. The match was another example of the folly of trying to play first-class cricket over two days only. However, the next one was also a two-day affair and Derbyshire defeated the AIF by 36 runs at the County Ground, Derby. It was a low-scoring game with Derbyshire scoring 181 and 112 while the Australians could only muster 125 and 132 in reply. Derbyshire paceman James Horsley did the damage, taking six for 55 and six for 62.
There was a two-day draw at the Racecourse Ground, Hereford against Harry Foster's XI and then the AIF defeated Foster's Worcestershire at New Road, Worcester by an innings and 203 runs. Worcestershire did not take part in the County Championship in 1919. Gregory took eleven wickets in the match including his best innings analysis to date of seven for 56. The AIF innings totalled 450 for four declared, featuring an unbroken fifth wicket stand of 300 between Pellew (195*) and Willis (129*). In another two-day affair, Warwickshire were beaten by an innings and 38 runs at Edgbaston after Collins scored 110 and took five for 73.
The Australians must have been pleased to play Nottinghamshire (Notts) over three days at Trent Bridge but the match was drawn. They batted first and made 371 featuring another fine innings by Willis with 130, but Notts and George Gunn trumped them with 391 and 131 respectively, batting into the third morning. Collins scored 118 and declared the second innings at 242 for five but this only left time for 25 overs and Notts played out to 62 for one. Collins completed his 1,000 runs for the season in this match.
Following a short break, the Australians played Surrey at The Oval 31 July to 2 August and drew. The AIF batted first and scored 436 with Collins top scorer on 95. They had Surrey on 83 for six in the second morning but the county rallied with a seventh wicket partnership of 146 between captain Cyril Wilkinson (103) and Jack Crawford (144*) to reach 322 and avoid the follow-on. The AIF made 260 for four declared and Surrey secured the draw with 121 for one (Jack Hobbs 68*).
4 to 30 August
The Australians won their first match starting in August by an innings and 54 runs. This was another two-day affair but Sussex collapsed twice at the County Ground in Hove to provide the AIF with a straightforward victory after they scored 300 against 120 and 126. Carl Willis, enjoying something of a purple patch in the summer months, scored another century with 127, opening the innings this time and Sussex needed a run out to dismiss him. The next highest Australian score was 31. In the Sussex first innings, Gregory took six for 38 and Collins four for 47. In the second innings, it was Collins with six for 27 (ten for 65 in the match) who dismissed Sussex.
Next up were Kent at the St Lawrence Ground in Canterbury and, although this was a three-day match 7 to 9 August, it was drawn. AIF won the toss and batted first to reach only 198 with Kent making 142 for six at close of play on the first day. Gregory, who opened with Collins, had the top AIF score of 67. Kent's great all-rounder Frank Woolley took four for 37. Woolley got a duck when Kent batted but the team totalled 301 to establish a first innings lead of 103. Gregory took seven for 100. At close of play on day two, the AIF had taken the lead and were 275 for four with Willis on 78 and Stirling on 50. Pellew had earlier scored 91. Willis missed out on another century when he was caught behind off Tich Freeman for 95. Stirling made 62* and Collins declared on 419 for eight, leaving Kent to make 317 with enough time for 64 overs. This time, Woolley held his side together with 76 and they were 172 for five at the close.
The AIF took a break at this point with no matches between Monday, 10 and Wednesday, 20 August inclusive. They returned to action on Thursday, 21 August at Southchurch Park in Southend, playing Essex until Saturday, 23 August. Johnny Douglas won the toss and put the AIF in to bat. It looked a good decision as he took seven for 50 himself with his fast-medium pace and the Australians were all out for only 130. Essex were 101 for six at the close and reached 151 on the second morning, Gregory and Collins again bowling in tandem and taking four apiece. The Australians started again before lunch and this time their batting excelled with Taylor scoring 146 and Murray 82. From 362 for five overnight, Collins was able to declare at 447 for eight on the Saturday morning. Douglas took four more wickets, but this time conceding 168 runs, giving him eleven wickets in the match. In the fourth innings, the early Essex batsmen were no match for Gregory who took all the first five wickets, leaving the county on 22 for five. They eventually reached 117 and the Australians were easy winners in the end by 309 runs.
On Wednesday, 27 August, the Australians were at the Clifton College Close Ground and its strong associations with W. G. Grace, who had died in the autumn of the bleak year of 1915, to play Gloucestershire. This was another two-day match and another drawn two-day match, but it was Gloucestershire, not the AIF, who were cheated of time in this one. They won the toss and batted, scoring 281 (Charlie Townsend 63, Alf Dipper 61) and then reduced the AIF to 104 for six at close of play. On the second morning, the AIF were all out for 147 and asked to follow on. Gloucestershire's great left arm spinner Charlie Parker did the damage with seven for 70. In the second innings, the Australians were struggling against the medium pace of Dipper, bowling in tandem with Parker, but thanks to a determined effort by Bill Trenerry they managed to hold on for the draw.
The AIF faced their last county opposition on Friday, 29 August in another two-day match, though they won this one. It was just down the road from Clifton at the Taunton County Ground where they defeated Somerset by 95 runs in a very low-scoring game: AIF 85 and 144 for four declared; Somerset 70 and 64. Only 363 runs in the entire game. The first day was impacted by rain and only 59 overs were bowled. The AIF were all out for 85 just before the scheduled close of play. They quickly dismissed Somerset for 70 in only 32 overs of the second morning. Seamer Charlie Winning and slow left armer Collins did all the bowling, Winning taking six for 30 and Collins four for 38. Collins followed up with 67* to give the Australians a useful lead of 159 going into the latter half of the last day. Somerset lasted only 28 overs as Collins wiped them out with a career-best eight for 31.
1 to 13 September
The AIF tour of England concluded with three first-class games against representative sides (i.e., consisting of players chosen from several counties) and finally a one-day exhibition match on what is believed to be the world's oldest cricket ground. The first-class matches were all of three-day duration starting on Monday, 1 September, against a South of England XI ("the South") at the Central Recreation Ground, Hastings; and then another game against the South on the United Services Recreation Ground in Portsmouth, starting Thursday, 4 September. Finally, to end their English programme, the AIF played C. I. Thornton's XI at the North Marine Road Ground, Scarborough, starting on Monday, 8 September and ending on Wednesday, 10 September. This game also concluded the 1919 Scarborough Festival.
At Hastings, the South were captained by Kent skipper Lionel Troughton who won the toss and batted first. He led a strong team which included Frank Woolley, Phil Mead, Jack White, Dick Young, Wally Hardinge, Arthur Gilligan and the Relf brothers. The South were bowled out for 183, Charlie Winning capturing five for 57, in 64 overs. The AIF collapsed and were 96 for six at the close before going on to total 162 in the second morning. Willis with 54 saved real embarrassment as Woolley took six for 74 and White four for 50. At close of play on day two, the South had advanced to 269 for six with Hardinge 90 not out. They were all out for 280 next morning with Hardinge stumped before he could add to his overnight score. Needing 302 to win with nearly all the final day remaining, the AIF could only make 179, Bill Trenerry topscoring with 54, and the South won by 122 runs.
The South made some changes for the match in Portsmouth, including the captaincy which was taken up by Lionel Tennyson. He won the toss and chose to bat first but soon found that conditions were to the liking of Gregory who blew the South away by taking five of the first seven wickets to fall. Gregory then held two catches off Collins before dismissing the last man to post a return of six for 42 off only 14.3 overs. Collins took three for 41 and his third wicket, one of Gregory's catches, was his hundredth of the season which meant he had completed the "Double" of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets in a season. The South totalled 104 and, at the close of a rain-affected day, the AIF were 23 for two. The Australians were all out for 206 after Murray scored 59 and Collins a steady 46. The South collapsed again and were all out for 115, Charlie Winning capturing five for 30 and Bill Stirling three for 25. The Australians had time to reach the necessary 15 to conclude matters with a day to spare, winning by ten wickets.
The Australians travelled up to Scarborough over the weekend ready for their final first-class fixture against "Buns" Thornton's team on the Monday. Thornton had selected a strong team captained by Reggie Spooner and including George Hirst, Wilfred Rhodes, Jack Hobbs, Johnny Douglas, Arthur Dolphin, Greville Stevens and Bill Hitch. It was a good toss to win and Spooner put the Australians in to face the pace of Hitch who bowled them out for 81 in just 31 overs. Hitch took five of the first six wickets, four of them bowled, and finished with six for 24. The early fire had gone out of the pitch by afternoon although Gregory still caused real problems for the English batsmen. At the close, Thornton's XI were 146 for eight and they extended this to 187, Gregory taking seven for 83. Needing a substantial recovery, the AIF started badly with Trenerry out for a duck but Collins and Willis took the score on to 93 before Collins was out. Willis, the highest runscorer for the AIF in England, made 96 before he was caught behind off Hirst. Taylor (71) and Lampard (36) combined well for the seventh wicket and the Australians were 264 for six at close of play on day two. On the final morning, Hitch again cut loose and the last four wickets went down with only 32 more runs added. AIF 296, Hitch five for 102 and eleven wickets in the match. Thornton's XI needed 191 to win with most of the final day remaining and got them with two wickets to spare but they owed it to Hobbs who held the innings together with 93. This was only the fourth defeat the AIF conceded in England, having won and drawn twelve each of the other 24 matches.
Chris Harte's conclusion of the AIF in England was that they were "generally a very sound side" and the crowds watching them were "far above expectation". Collins with 1,615 runs at 38.45 was widely considered the best Australian batsman in England although, statistically, Willis did better with 1,652 runs at 41.30. Pellew and Taylor also topped 1,000 runs while Trenerry (961) and Gregory (942) came close. Gregory held 44 catches at slip while the second best fielder was Taylor with 23 catches. Wicketkeeping duties were shared between Long and Oldfield who claimed 31 and 28 victims respectively. Gregory was easily the outstanding bowler and took 131 wickets at 18.19. Collins, who completed the "double", took 106 at 16.55. Next best was Lampard with 69 at 23.26 including the best analysis by an Australian of nine for 42 against Lancashire. Lampard also scored 821 runs and was a very useful all-rounder.
Mitcham v AIF
The AIF tour of England ended on Saturday, 13 September with a one-day single-innings "odds" match against a Mitcham XVI on Mitcham Cricket Green, which is believed to be the world's oldest extant cricket ground. The image (see right) is a 1919 poster advertising Australian Imperial Force Touring XI v Sixteen of Mitcham (Bertie Oldfield's initials and Bill Trenerry's name were misprinted). The Australian names include reserve players W. Munday and C. Smith who both played in the match for the AIF, while Bill Stirling played as a given man for Mitcham.
As advertised in the poster, Mitcham hoped to include Jack Hobbs, Andy Sandham and Herbert Strudwick but none of these took part on the day. Mitcham's sixteen was bolstered by the inclusion of three guest players, one of them Bill Stirling. The other two were Surrey wicketkeeper Dennis Sullivan, who was born in Mitcham, and amateur Burnett Bullock, who was "mine host" at the public house opposite the ground that now bears his name. Mitcham batted first and scored 200 all out, their captain Howard Lacey making the top score with 39. Trenerry and Collins shared twelve of the fifteen wickets while Gregory was bowled sparingly. The AIF included a couple of players from their second eleven but they won easily by five wickets, though Stirling took the wickets of Murray and Docker cheaply.
Tour of South Africa
The AIF team arrived in Cape Town on 13 October and Chris Harte recounted that it was on this same day that the Australian state cricket associations "started squabbling over who would host AIF matches in Australia". The South African Cricket Association had given a guarantee against any financial loss but the AIF tour of South Africa was a resounding success.
The first match in South Africa was played 18 to 21 October at the Newlands Cricket Ground in Cape Town against Western Province. The Australians conceded first innings lead but won by two wickets, largely thanks to the bowling of Lampard who had match figures of twelve for 100. The next match was 25 to 28 October on the Old Wanderers ground in Johannesburg against Transvaal and was drawn.
From 1 to 4 November, the Australians were in Durban to play Natal and won this one convincingly by 310 runs. They batted first and were bowled out for 158, Collins making 76, but then dismissed Natal for only 83 with Gregory taking nine for 32, the best analysis of his entire career. The one wicket he didn't get was a run out. The Australians did much better in their second innings and amassed 341 with Taylor's 81 the highest score. Once again, Natal were no match for Gregory who took five for 54 and bowled them out for 106. Natal should have had enough after that but they played the AIF again on 7 and 8 November in Pietermaritzburg, a three-day match completed in two with the AIF winning by an innings and 42 runs. In the first innings, Natal were routed in only 19 overs for 45, Gregory taking seven for 21. The Australians replied with 282 and were all out just before close of play, Taylor scoring 78 and Pellew 62. Natal were dismissed for 195 on the second day to end the match, this time Collins being the main bowler with six for 55.
The AIF returned to the Old Wanderers 15 to 18 November and played a second match against Transvaal, this time winning by an innings and 14 runs. Transvaal were dismissed for 165 with Stirling taking five for 29. The AIF replied with 352, Gregory scoring 73 and Pellew 61. Transvaal scored 173 in their second inning with Test batsman Billy Zulch making 95. Cyril Docker took five for 20.
The next two matches, both at the Old Wanderers, were scheduled for four days each and the AIF played against a South African national team in what may be termed "unofficial Tests". The first played 21 to 25 November was won by eight wickets and the second played 29 November to 2 December by an innings and 129 runs. In the first game, South Africa won the toss and batted first but Gregory and Collins took five apiece to dismiss them for 127. The AIF responded with 441 and Collins produced the outstanding batting performance of the entire tour with a magnificent knock of 235 in 315 minutes with 23 boundaries. South Africa scored 359 to avoid the innings defeat, Zulch this time reaching his century with 135. The AIF then scored 47 for two to win on the fourth day.
The second match was even more conclusive. South Africa again won the toss and batted first but Gregory with six for 46 and Collins with four for 28 were too much for them and they were out for only 117. The Australians piled on the agony with 456 including four half-centuries, the top score being 73 by Lampard. Reduced by injuries to nine men, the South Africans could only make 210 in their second innings, Gregory taking four for 60.
The Australians returned to Cape Town and played Western Province again at Newlands 6 to 9 December. This match was drawn after the AIF scored 269 (Willis 94) and 164 for six declared, with Western Province scoring 153 (Docker five for 37) and 141 for seven.
Tour of Australia
After a very public row, it was finally decided in Australia that the AIF would play three of the state teams: Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. The team arrived home in December and were at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) 16 to 19 January for the first match against Victoria which they won by six wickets. Collins won the toss against his future Test captain Warwick Armstrong and put Victoria in. Gregory took seven for 22 and bowled them out for only 116. The AIF batsmen had to contend with Ted McDonald, Gregory's future Test bowling partner, and he took a modest three for 76 as Willis scored 111 in a total of 311. At close of play on the second day, Victoria had reached 31 for one. They totalled 270 all out with Lampard taking seven for 99. The AIF needed 76 to win and made hard work of it, losing four wickets to McDonald and Armstrong before Gregory saw them home.
The second match was at the Gabba in Brisbane against Queensland 24 to 27 January. This was a rain-affected draw in which the AIF, batting first, scored 215 and 319 for five declared. Queensland scored 146 and held on at the end with 144 for six to frustrate the AIF. Collins with 135 in the AIF second innings was the outstanding performer.
The last match of the tour and the swansong of the AIF team was played 31 January to 3 February at the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) against New South Wales (NSW) and the AIF won by 203 runs. The AIF batted first and Gregory opened against his home state, for whom he had yet to make his debut, and scored 122. They totalled 185 for three at the end of day one and went to 265 all out. Gregory batted for 170 minutes and hit nineteen boundaries. Bill Trenerry's brother Edwin was playing for NSW. NSW managed a slender first innings lead thanks to Test players Warren Bardsley and Stork Hendry who added 121 for the second wicket. Gregory followed his century with five for 65. In the second innings, Collins scored 129 and Gregory again reached three figures with 101 in 102 minutes with sixteen boundaries. Like Gregory, Collins was opposing his home state. The AIF totalled 395 to lead by 381 with nearly all the third day still to be played. NSW had no real hope of winning and collapsed instead, scoring 178 in 200 minutes with only Tommy Andrews offering any real resistance. He scored 65 and Gregory, looking for a match double, had to be content with three for 65.
Aftermath and legacy
The New South Wales Cricket Association said in its July 1920 annual report that "(it is to be hoped) many of these players will be seen in our big matches next season". Unfortunately, many of the fourteen players had pre-war careers in other spheres, such as banking or farming or medicine, to which they soon returned. Bull, Docker, Long and Winning never played first-class cricket again after the AIF team disbanded. Trenerry played only three more first-class games. Lampard spent two more seasons with Victoria and retired in February 1922. Love, Murray and Willis continued to play in the Sheffield Shield for several seasons and Love eventually played for Australia just once in the 1932–33 Bodyline series. Even so, the AIF did bequeath a legacy to Australian Test cricket as Collins, Gregory, Oldfield, Pellew and Taylor formed the nucleus of Warwick Armstrong's team in the next two years, during which they overwhelmed England in two series.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1919 in Australian cricket
1919 in English cricket
1919 in South African cricket
1920 in Australian cricket
Australian cricket seasons from 1918–19 to 1944–45
1919
1919-20
English cricket seasons in the 20th century
International cricket competitions from 1918–19 to 1945
Military history of Australia during World War I
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4351220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20Marine%20Corps%20battalions | List of United States Marine Corps battalions | This is a list of current United States Marine Corps battalions, sorted by the mission they perform.
Active units
Ground Combat Element battalions
The ground combat element (GCE) consists of those combat and combat support units whose primary mission is to, (1) engage with and destroy the enemy by fire and/or maneuver, and/or shock effect, performed by infantry, field artillery, and tank units, (2) provide close battlefield support to other GCE units by assault amphibian, combat assault, light armored reconnaissance, reconnaissance, and combat engineer units, or (3) provide immediate command and control, and limited logistical support including consolidated Navy personnel administration and motor transport (medium truck) support to subordinate GCE battalions and regiments (infantry and artillery only) by Marine division (MARDIV) headquarters battalions. Additionally, this battalion provides communications networking and law enforcement support across the GCE. The headquarters battalion also includes the division band, whose tactical mission is to serve as a provisional rifle platoon in providing division headquarters security.
Note: Some GCE battalions and regiments are provided air liaison officers/forward air controllers (i.e., Marine Corps naval aviators — aircraft pilots, and naval flight officers — airborne weapons and sensor systems officers) with specialized skills in coordinating air support of ground units) from the Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) of the aviation combat element (ACE). These officers facilitate employment of Marine aviation in support of GCE units to perform offensive air support (e.g., close air support), assault support (e.g., troop, cargo, and casualty transport, aerial command and control, liaison, communications, and illumination, and close-in fire support by light/attack helicopters), and aerial reconnaissance (e.g., tactical reconnaissance and artillery spotting).
Infantry battalions
Infantry battalions are the heart and soul of the ground combat element. The mission of locating, closing with, and destroying the enemy with fire and maneuver and repelling the enemy's assault with fire and close combat lies with the "grunts". Marine infantry battalions often have limited organic equipment outside of small arms, infantry crew-served weapons (e.g., heavy machine guns, medium mortars, and anti-tank missiles), and a few light tactical trucks. Marine infantry primarily maneuvers by foot as light infantry, and must be supplemented with additional trucks to become motorized infantry or Amphibious Assault Vehicles to become mechanized infantry.
A Marine infantry battalion is usually organized into three rifle companies, a weapons company, and a headquarters and service company. The rifle company has a company headquarters, three rifle platoons, with three rifle squads each, and a weapons platoon with medium machineguns, mortars, and assault weapons sections. The weapons company includes a company headquarters, a heavy machinegun platoon, an 81mm mortar platoon, and an antiarmor platoon. Sometimes, the commander will mix these into Combined Anti-Armor Teams. The headquarters and service company includes all command, administration, intelligence, operations, logistics, and communication Marines and equipment, as well as the battalion's Scout Sniper platoon and Battalion Aid Station (BAS) staffed by U.S. Navy Hospital Corpsman. By 2030 three battalions will be disbanded, and some reflagged: 1/8th becoming 2/2nd, 2/8th becoming 4/6th, 8th Marine HQ and 3rd Btn disband.
Artillery battalions
Field artillery units provide indirect, long-range cannon and rocket fire support for the Marine Air-Ground Task Force.
Currently, artillery regiments contain two or three (11th Marines only) cannon battalions and are equipped with the M777 lightweight, towed, 155 mm, medium howitzer and the Expeditionary Fire Support System (EFSS) 120 mm, heavy mortar. Two regiments (11th Marines and 14th Marines) also have one rocket battalion equipped with the M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) equipped with the MGM-140 ATACMS surface-to-surface, guided missile.
Marine artillery battalions contain a Headquarters Battery and three or four firing batteries.
Firing batteries contain a headquarters platoon (including a liaison section with three forward observer teams) and one or two firing platoons (depending upon weapons systems). The firing platoon(s) contain a battery operations center, a fire direction center, and four or six artillery sections (depending upon weapon system). Counter-battery radar is usually a regimental asset, but can be detached to augment battalions or batteries. By 2030 all but five artillery batteries will be disbanded.
Armor battalions
The mission of an armor unit is to conduct and support amphibious operations and other operations as required by landing and transporting to inland objectives the surface assault elements and their equipment, and by conducting light armored reconnaissance and limited offensive and defensive operations. When task-organized with infantry, tanks, and other forces, the battalion conducts combined arms operations as a separate maneuver element in support of the Marine Division.
Currently, Assault Amphibian (AA) battalions utilize the Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAVP-7A1) and consist of a headquarters and service company and two to six AA companies. Each AA company is equipped with 42 AAVs (including personnel, command, and recovery variants) organized into three platoons of 12 AAVs each and an additional six AAVs in the company headquarters. Each AA platoon is capable of transporting an entire Marine rifle company plus any dismounted attachments (e.g., mortar forward observer teams, anti-tank missile crews, scout/sniper or reconnaissance squads) thus transforming into amphibious/mechanized infantry. (One AA company is capable of transporting the assault echelon of a Marine infantry battalion.) Although plans were in place to replace it with the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle, the cancellation of the program is going to prolong use of the AAV.
Light Armored Reconnaissance (LAR) battalions use the LAV 25 series of vehicles and consist of a headquarters and service company and four LAR companies. Each LAR company is equipped with 25 LAVs (including 14 LAV-25, two mortar, four anti-tank, one command & control, three logistics, and one recovery variant).
Combat Engineer battalions
The mission of combat engineers is to provide mobility, counter mobility, survivability, and limited general engineering support.
Mobility includes the assessment and fortification of roadways and bridges, the clearing of enemy obstacles and landmines, and assault breaching. Counter mobility includes creating obstacles and barriers for the enemy, which could include the destruction of structures and/or bridges. Survivability includes the fortification of positions and the construction of new outposts. Other jobs can include Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), construction, and utilities (such as generators and refrigeration).
Currently, combat engineers use a variety of tools for their trade. Some vehicles include the M9 Armored Combat Earthmover, D7 Bulldozer, M60A1 Armored Vehicle Launched Bridge, and various cranes and forklifts. Each combat engineer battalion consists of a headquarters and service company, three combat engineer companies, one mobility assault company, and an engineer support company.
Reconnaissance battalions
The mission of the reconnaissance battalions is to obtain information by visual observation about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or about the meteorologic, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area. They specialize in amphibious recon, including hydrography; as well as airborne recon, infiltration via surface, subsurface and airborne operations, and conducting limited scale raids and ambushes. The battalions consist of a headquarters and service company and one to four reconnaissance companies (divisional assets, individual companies usually attached to an RCT). All battalions (except 4th Recon) also have a force reconnaissance company dedicated to provide deep reconnaissance and direct action capability to a MEF HQ. (Two additional separate force reconnaissance companies exist in the Marine Forces Reserve.)
Headquarters battalions
Headquarters battalions provide the command and control, administration and logistics for a Marine division. Each MARDIV HQBN is uniquely organized to support its division. However, typically the battalion is commanded by a colonel, and consists of headquarters company (including the division band), communications company, truck company (2 in HQBN FIRSTMARDIV), and may include a military police company.
Logistics Combat Element battalions
The logistics combat element (LCE) consists of those combat service support units whose primary mission is to, (1) provide direct combat logistics (i.e., motor transport and landing support, and limited engineer support, equipment maintenance, and ground supply services) to specified GCE units or certain aviation combat element (ACE) units as provided by combat logistics battalions and separate combat logistics companies, (2) provide general combat service support across the Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF) by specialized service support battalions, including: dental, engineer support, maintenance, medical, supply and transportation support battalions, or (3) provide immediate command and control, and consolidated Navy personnel administration to subordinate LCE battalions and regiments by the Marine Logistics Group (MLG) headquarters and service battalion. Additionally, this battalion provides communications networking and law enforcement support across the LCE. The headquarters and service battalion also provides specialized services, including: military postal service, Marine Corps Exchange (MCX), and other personal services, to units of all four MAGTF elements (i.e., GCE, ACE, LCE, and CE).
Combat Logistics battalions
Combat logistics battalions (CLB) provide combat service support for the GCE and ACE beyond their organic capabilities. The battalions primarily provide motor transport and logistics control and materiel handling (i.e., landing support) services, and limited engineer, maintenance, and supply services, to dedicated Regimental Combat Teams (RCT) or Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU). CLBs that support RCTs typically consist of a headquarters and service company, and three support companies (engineer, maintenance, and transportation); those CLBs that support MEUs typically consist of several functional units (individual units may be styled as either a section, platoon, detachment, or company depending upon the size of unit, function, and the unit's parent battalion/regiment/group). In addition to a headquarters and service unit, these CLBs contain units dedicated to providing: air delivery, communications, engineer, explosive ordnance disposal, health services (medical and dental), landing support, law enforcement (military police), maintenance, motor transport, and supply support to the MEU.
Maintenance battalions
Maintenance battalions provide intermediate level (3d and 4th echelon) maintenance support for Marine Corps furnished (vice Navy, other service, or contractor provided) tactical ordnance (i.e., weapons and weapons systems), engineer, motor transport, communication-electronics, and general support (e.g., generators, refrigeration systems, water purification) equipment of the Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF). Maintenance battalions are usually organized with a headquarters and service company and five maintenance companies (electronic, engineer, general support, ordnance, and motor transport).
Engineer Support battalions
Engineer support battalions provide engineer support past the level available from organic engineers, such as combat bridging. ESBs also provide the storage and distribution of water and bulk fuels. Engineer support battalions usually consist of a headquarters and service company, three engineer companies, an engineer support company, a bridge company, a bulk fuel company, and an explosive ordnance disposal company.
Landing Support battalions
Landing support battalions support distributed maritime operations and expeditionary advanced base operations.
Supply battalions
Supply battalions provide supply support past that of organic unit supply. They provide all assets that a Marine unit might need, excepting fuels, water, and aviation repair parts provided from the Navy. Rations, repair parts, ammunition, personal equipment, and even entire end items are all provided by or through the supply battalions. Supply battalions usually consist of a headquarters and service company, an ammunition company, a medical logistics company, and a supply company.
Transportation Support battalions
Transportation Support battalions provide the MEF with motor vehicle (truck) transportation and throughput support for the distribution of supplies, personnel, and equipment. The battalions consist of a headquarters and service company and three truck companies.
Medical battalions
Medical battalions provide medical care beyond the immediate care of unit corpsmen. Often, these units act as field hospitals when on deployment. In garrison, they supplement naval hospitals at various Marine Corps installations. Medical battalions are manned by primarily by Navy Medical Corps personnel and typically consist of a headquarters and service company and three surgical companies.
Dental battalions
Dental battalions are responsible for the oral health of Marines and Sailors within the MAGTF. On deployment, they can also be used to support field hospitals per Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Instruction, when not performing dental roles. In garrison, they run dental health clinics at various Marine installations. Dental battalions are manned primarily by Navy Dental Corps personnel and usually consist of a headquarters and service company and three dental companies.
Headquarters and Support battalion
(The former H&S battalions of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd MLGs—previously designated as Combat Logistics Regiments 17, 27, and 37, respectively—are now designated as "Headquarters Regiments")
Headquarters and Service battalion provides command and control, administration, communications, security, food service and data processing support to the Marine Logistics Group (MLG) and supporting services to the Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) or two Marine Expeditionary Brigades (MEB) and MEF residual forces in expeditionary/amphibious operations and subsequent operations ashore. Support includes data processing, financial disbursing, postal, legal, Marine Corps Exchange (MCX) and consolidated Navy personnel administration to the MLG. The battalion typically consists of headquarters company, communications company, military police company, and service company.
Command Element units
The command element (CE) consists of those command and control, communications, intelligence, law enforcement, electronic warfare/signals intelligence/electronic intelligence, civil affairs, air/naval gunfire liaison, and force reconnaissance units that enable the MAGTF commander to effectively fight the GCE and ACE, with support from the LCE, to defeat the enemy and/or accomplish other assigned missions.
Note: U.S. Marine Corps organizational doctrine places communications, intelligence, and law enforcement battalions and their organic companies/detachments in the MAGTF headquarters group or CE. However, intelligence (i.e., ground intelligence) may also be considered as a GCE function (primarily located in the infantry battalion scout/sniper platoon) and communications and law enforcement may also be considered as logistics functions. Most GCE battalions and regiments, and ACE squadrons/battalions (LAAD), Marine aircraft groups (MAGs), and Marine air control groups (MACGs), contain some organic communications assets such as battalion and regimental communications platoons, MARDIV and MLG communications companies, and Marine wing communications squadrons. In addition, MARDIVs, Marine Aircraft Wings (MAWs), and MLGs also possess a limited organic law enforcement capability.
Communications battalions
Communications battalions provide communication support for the MAGTF as part of the MEF headquarters groups. They also perform networking and data services when deployed. The battalions typically consist of a headquarters and service company, three communications companies, and a support (maintenance) company.
Intelligence battalions
Intelligence battalions, attached to MEF headquarters groups, are to plan and direct, collect, process, produce and disseminate intelligence, and provide counterintelligence support. In addition to a headquarters and service company, the battalions consist of two to four military intelligence companies that perform battlefield surveillance, production and analysis, and counterintelligence/human intelligence.
Law Enforcement battalions
The LE battalions will be a force multiplier to the operating forces forward deployed by assisting in an array of missions from law enforcement, route regulation, humanitarian assistance, nonlethal weapons training, and military working dog employment. Each included "500 military police officers [sic] and dozens of dogs." (Note: As military units, each battalion contains only about 30 to 40 "officers," as the majority of the military police Marines are enlisted members and not officers. "Officers" as in any military organization, command the battalion and its organic companies and platoons and serve as staff officers in the battalion headquarters.) By 2030 all of the battalions will be disbanded following the re-organisation announcement.
3rd Law Enforcement Battalion
2nd Law Enforcement Battalion
1st Law Enforcement Battalion
Radio battalions
Radio battalions provide the MEF with tactical electronic warfare, as well as signals intelligence and electronic intelligence. The battalions consist of a headquarters and service company and three operations companies.
Network Battalions
Marine Corps network battalions are responsible for providing all aspects of security, operations, and protection for Department of Defense Information Networks from the enterprise at the service level, down to each individual warfighter.
Civil Affairs groups
Civil Affairs groups provide the capability to plan and execute civil military operations while serving as the liaison between military forces and civil authorities, the local population and non-governmental organizations. The groups conduct activities which enhance the relationship between the military and host nation personnel and organizations facilitated through application of civil affairs specialty skills in areas normally the responsibility of civil governments.
Other units
While these units are designated as companies, they are commanded by a Lt. Col. who is assisted by an executive officer and an executive staff (S-1, S-2, etc.). The company's organic platoons often operate independently and are normally commanded by a major (ANGLICO) or captain (FORECON).
Air Naval Gunfire Liaison companies (ANGLICO) provide Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) commanders a liaison capability, with foreign area expertise, to plan, coordinate, and conduct terminal control of fires in support of joint, allied, and coalition forces. ANGLICO units are separate companies (i.e., not organic to a battalion or regiment) reporting directly to one of the three MEF HQ Groups (1st, 2nd, & 5th ANGLICO) or the Forces HQ Group, Marine Forces Reserve (3rd, 4th, and 6th ANGLICO).
Fleet Marine Force Reconnaissance (FORECON) companies provide Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) commanders with deep reconnaissance and direct action capability. The FORECON companies of the three MEFs are organic to their respective divisional reconnaissance battalions and are under operational control of their parent MEF HQ Group. The 3rd and 4th FORECON companies are separate companies reporting directly to the Forces HQ Group, Marine Forces Reserve and are dedicated to supporting II MEF and I MEF, respectively, whenever a MEF's active duty FORECON company is not available.
Other battalions
With the exception of the Low Altitude Air Defense battalions, which are organic to the Marine Air Control Group (MACG) of a Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW), and are a component of the Aviation Combat Element (ACE) of a Marine Air Ground Task Force (MAGTF), the battalions in this section perform missions either within the Operating Forces of the Marine Corps but outside the MAGTF structure, or within the Supporting Establishment.
Marine Raider battalions
The Marine Raider battalions of the Marine Raider regiment provide the principal special operations combat capability of the Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command in performing direct action, special reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, information operations, foreign internal defense, and unconventional warfare missions. The battalions consist of a headquarters and service company and four special operations companies.
Special Mission battalions and battalion equivalent organizations
These battalions and organizations perform a wide range of specialized missions including: (1) CBRNE Consequence Management, (2) interior security of United States diplomatic posts to provide protection for classified information and equipment vital to U.S. national security, (3) Signals Intelligence, Information Assurance, and National-Tactical Integration activities, (4) physical security of naval nuclear vessels and weapons, (5) special operations intelligence support, and (6) special operations administrative, logistics, communications, EOD, Military Working Dog, and other operations support.
Specialized Training battalions
These battalions provide advanced training (i.e., beyond the scope of initial training provided by the Recruit Training battalions, Officer Candidates School, or other pre-commissioning programs (e.g., US Naval Academy). The scope of training provided includes: (1) Training and educating newly commissioned or appointed officers ... with particular emphasis on the duties, responsibilities and warfighting skills required of a rifle platoon commander, (2) Military Occupation Specialty (MOS) training, and (3) individual and crew-served weapons and fieldcraft training for new Marines.
Recruit Training battalions
Provide reception, processing, and recruit training for enlisted personnel following initial entry into the Marine Corps. Provide training for Drill Instructors and officers entrusted with recruit training responsibilities. Recruit training battalions consist of a headquarters and service company and four recruit training companies.
Only the Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island logos are listed below but only Recruit Training battalions Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego wikis show. The logos for Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego differ slightly; additionally, San Diego does not have a Fourth Recruit Training Battalion, as it is the only female recruit training battalion in the Marine Corps.
Disbanded units
Infantry Battalions
Marine defense battalions
1st Marine Parachute Regiment
1st Marine Raider Regiment
Tank battalions
Amphibian Tractor battalions
Armored Amphibian Tractor battalions
Other battalions
See also
Ground combat element
List of United States Marine Corps divisions
List of United States Marine Corps ground combat element regiments
List of vehicles of the United States Marine Corps
List of weapons of the U.S. Marine Corps
Logistics combat element
List of United States Marine Corps logistics groups
List of United States Marine Corps logistics regiments
List of United States Marine Corps Combat Logistics Companies
Aviation Combat Element
List of United States Marine Corps aircraft wings
List of United States Marine Corps aircraft groups
List of United States Marine Corps air control groups
List of United States Marine Corps aircraft squadrons
List of United States Marine Corps aviation support units
References
Notes
Bibliography
Web
Units of the United States Marine Corps
Battalions
Marine Corps Battalions |
4351669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassite%20dynasty | Kassite dynasty | The Kassite dynasty, also known as the third Babylonian dynasty, was a line of kings of Kassite origin who ruled from the city of Babylon in the latter half of the second millennium BC and who belonged to the same family that ran the kingdom of Babylon between 1595 and 1155 BC, following the first Babylonian dynasty (Old Babylonian Empire; 1894-1595 BC). It was the longest known dynasty of that state, which ruled throughout the period known as "Middle Babylonian" (1595-1000 BC).
The Kassites were a people from outside Mesopotamia, whose origins are unknown, although many authors theorize that they originated in the Zagros Mountains. It took their kings more than a century to consolidate their power in Babylon under conditions that remain unclear. Despite their external origin, the Kassite kings did not change Babylon's ancestral traditions and, on the contrary, brought order to the country after the turbulence that marked the end of the first dynasty. Not being great conquerors, they undertook a great deal of construction work, notably on the great temples, they contributed to the expansion of agricultural land, and under their auspices Babylonian culture flourished and expanded throughout the Middle East. The Kassite period is still very poorly known, due to the scarcity of sources relating to it, of which few are published. The economic and social aspects, in particular, are very poorly documented, with the exception of what relates to the royal donations attested by the characteristic donation stelae of the period, the kudurrus.
During the term of the dynasty, Babylon's power was definitively established over all the ancient states of Sumer and Akkad, forming the country called "Karduniash" (Karduniaš). From the Kassites on, whoever wanted to dominate Mesopotamia had to reign in Babylon. This stability is remarkable because it is the only Babylonian dynasty whose power did not derive from the inheritance of one or two brilliant founding reigns followed by progressive decline.
Historical sources
Despite its long duration, the period of the dynasty is poorly documented: sources are scarce and few of them have been published. Architectural and artistic traces of this period are also scanty; they come mainly from the site of Dur-Kurigalzu, where the only monumental complex of the Kassite period was found, consisting of a palace and several cult buildings. Other buildings were discovered at several larger Babylonian sites, such as Nippur, Ur, and Uruk. Other minor sites belonging to the Kassite kingdom have also been discovered in the Hanrim hills: Tel Mohammed, Tel Inlie and Tel Zubeidi. Further afield, at the site of Terca in the Middle Euphrates, and on the islands of Failaka (in what is now Kuwait) and Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, there are also some traces of Kassite rule. The low reliefs engraved on kudurrus and seal-cylinders are the best-known testimonies to the accomplishments of the artists of the time.
From an epigraphic standpoint, J. A. Brinkman, a leading expert on sources from the period, has estimated that approximately 12,000 texts from the period have been found, most of them belonging to the administrative archives from Nippur, of which only about 20% have been published. They were found in American excavations carried out mainly during the late 19th century and are stored in Istanbul and Philadelphia. The rest come from other sites: there are forty tablets found at Dur-Kurigalzu that have been published, others from Ur, in the city of Babylon sets of private economic tablets and religious texts have been found that have not been published. In the sites of the Hanrim hills, tablets have also been found, most of them unpublished, and there are also tablets whose provenance is unknown (the "Peiser archive"). Most of this documentation is of an administrative and economic nature, but there are also some royal inscriptions and scholarly and religious texts.
The royal inscriptions of the Kassite kings, few in number and generally brief, provide little information about the political history of their dynasty. It is necessary to turn to the later sources, which are the historical chronicles written in the early first millennium BC, the Synchronic History and the P Chronicle, which provide information mainly about the conflicts between the Kassite kings and the Assyrian kings. The royal inscriptions of the latter, which are very abundant, provide essential information about the same wars. The Elamite royal inscriptions are somewhat less reliable. To these sources are also added some letters from the diplomatic correspondence of the Kassite kings with Egypt and the Hittites. The former are part of the so-called Amarna Letters, found in Amarna, the ancient Akhetaten, capital of the pharaoh Akhenaten. The latter were found at Boğazköy, on the site of the ancient Hittite capital, Hattusa.
The type of textual source concerning the administrative and economic life of Kassite Babylon that has attracted the most attention of scholars is a form of royal inscription, found on stelae known as kudurrus (which the Babylonians called narû), commemorating royal donations. Some forty kudurrus are known from the Kassite period. Their texts usually consist of a brief description of the donation and any privileges, a long list of witnesses, and curses for those who did not respect the act.
Political history
The unfamiliar beginning
In 1595 BC, Samsi-Ditana, king of Babylon, was defeated by Mursili I, king of the Hittites, who seized the statue of Marduk kept in the Esagila, the great temple of the city of Babylon, which he took with him. This defeat marked the end of the Babylonian Amorite dynasty, already greatly weakened by the various rivals, among them the Kassites. According to the Babylonian royal list, Agum II would have taken over Babylon after the city was sacked by the Hittites. According to the same source, Agum II would have been the tenth sovereign of the dynasty of the Kassite kings (founded by a certain Gandas), who would have reigned who knows where during the second half of the 18th century BC. Possibly the Kassites were allied with the Hittites and supported their campaign to seize power.
There are no mentions of the exact origin of the kassites in ancient texts. The first mention of them dates from the 18th century BC in Babylon, but they are also mentioned in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia in the following centuries. However, most experts place their origin in the Zagros mountain range, where Kassites were still found during the first half of the first millennium BC. The first Kassite sovereign attested as king of Babylon seems to be Burna-Buriash I. This dynasty had as its rival that of the Sea Country, located south of Babylon around the cities of Uruk, Ur and Larsa, which was defeated in the early 15th century BC by the Kassite sovereigns Ulamburiash and Agum III. After this military victory, Babylon's preponderance in southern Mesopotamia was not challenged again and the Kassite sovereigns dominated the entire territories of Sumer and Akkadia, which became the country of Karduniash (Karduniaš; the term Kassite equivalent to Babylon), which was one of the great powers of the Middle East.
The only notable territorial gain made by Kassite rulers thereafter was the island of Bahrain, then called Dilmum, where a seal bearing the name of a Babylonian governor of the island was discovered, although nothing is known about the duration of this rule.
Diplomatic relations
The 14th and 13th centuries BC marked the heyday of Babylon's Kassite dynasty. Its kings equaled their contemporary great sovereigns of Egypt, Hati, Mitanni and Assyria, with whom they maintained diplomatic relations, in which they have the privilege of bearing the title of "great king" (šarru rabû), which involved abundant correspondence and exchanges of gifts (šulmānu). This system, attested mainly by the Amarna letters in Egypt and of Hatusa (the Hittite capital), was ensured by emissaries called mār šipri, involved important exchanges of luxury goods, which included much gold and other precious metals, in a scheme of gifts and contradons, more or less respected by some sovereigns, which sometimes took place with some minor tensions. These exchanges were made as gifts of friendship or homage when a king was enthroned. The diplomatic language was Babylonian Akkadian, in the so-called "Middle Babylonian" form, as was the case in the preceding period.
The courts of the regional powers of this period connected through dynastic marriages, and the Kassite kings took an active part in this process, establishing multi-generational ties with some courts, such as that of the Hittites (which possibly lay behind their seizure of power in the city of Babylon) and the Elamites. Burna-buriash II (ca. 1359-1333 BC) married one of his daughters to the pharaoh Akhenaten (3rd quarter of the 14th century BC) and another to the Hittite king Suppiluliuma II, while he himself espoused the daughter of the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I. There were also Babylonian princesses who married Elamite sovereigns. These practices were intended to strengthen the ties between the different royal houses, which in the last two cases were direct neighbors, in order to avoid political tensions. With more distant partners, such as the Hittites, they were essentially a form of prestige and influence, since the Babylonian princesses and the specialists (doctors and scribes) who were sent to the Hittite court were protagonists of Babylonian cultural influences in the Hittite kingdom.
Conflicts with Assyria and Elam
Babylon became involved in a series of conflicts with Assyria when Assyrian ruler Ashur-uballit I broke free from Mithani rule in 1365 BC, which marked the beginning of a multi-secular confrontation between northern and southern Mesopotamia. Burna-Buriash II (r. ca. 1359-1333 BC) initially took a dim view of Assyrian independence, as he considered this region one of his vassals, but eventually married the daughter of the Assyrian king, with whom he had a son, Kara-hardash. The latter ascended the throne in 1333 BC, but was assassinated shortly thereafter and was succeeded by Nazi-Bugash. Ashur-uballit reacted to his grandson's murder and invaded Babylon to put his other grandson, Kurigalzu II (r. 1332-1308 BC) on the throne. The latter kept his allegiance to his grandfather until he died, but provoked the next Assyrian king Enlil-nirari, which led to a series of conflicts that lasted for over a century and culminated in the confrontation between Kashtiliash IV (r. 1232-1225 BC) of Babylon and Tukulti-Ninurta I (r. ca. 1243-1207 BC) of Assyria. The latter invaded and devastated Babylon, sacking the capital, from where he deported thousands of people.
The situation then became increasingly confused, as the Assyrians failed to establish a lasting domination in Babylon, despite the will of Tukulti-Ninurta, who had his victory described in a long epic text (the Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta) and proclaimed himself king of Babylon. The conflicts continued and escalated when the Elamite king Kidin-Hutran (r. 1245-1215 BC) became involved, possibly in solidarity with the Kassite kings, to whom he was linked by marriage. Kidin-Hutran devastated Nippur and made the situation difficult for the Assyrian-imposed rulers in Babylon, who were deposed one after another until 1217 BC.
After the assassination of Tukulti-Ninurta in 1208 BC and the internal turmoil that followed in Assyria, the kings of Babylon were able to regain their autonomy, to the extent that it was the Babylonian king Merodach-Baladan I (r. 1171-1159 BC) who helped the Assyrian king Ninurta-apil-Ecur take power in the northern kingdom, before the latter turned against him unsuccessfully. Shortly after the end of these conflicts, the Elamite armies entered Mesopotamia, commanded by their king Shutruk-Nakhunte (r. 1185-1160 BC), at a time when Babylon and Assyria were weakened by recent warfare. The Elamite king's intervention in Babylon may have been motivated by his desire to assert his rights to the Babylonian throne resulting from his family ties to the Kassite dynasty, at a time when succession disputes had weakened the legitimacy of the Babylonian sovereigns.
Fall of the Dynasty
In 1160 BC, at a time when Merodach-Baladan had managed to stabilize power in Babylon, the Elamite monarch Shutruk-Nakhunte invaded Babylon and sacked its major cities.It was during this period that several major monuments of Mesopotamian history were taken to Susa, the Elamite capital. Among the looted pieces were several statues and stelae, such as that of the victory of Naram-Sim of Akkad or the Code of Hammurabi, as well as other stelae from various eras, including kassite kudurrus. After several years of resistance led by Kassite sovereigns, the next Elamite king, Kutir-Nacunte III, dealt the coup de grace to the Kassite dynasty in 1155 BC and took the statue of the god Marduk to Elam as a symbol of Babylon's submission.
Institutions of the kassite kingdom
Documentation about the Kassite period is scant compared to the preceding period, focusing mainly on the 14th and 13th centuries BC. It has also been little studied, so little is known about the socioeconomic aspects of Babylon at that time. The largest body of documentation is a batch of 12,000 tablets found at Nippur, of which only a small part has been published and studied. A few archives have also been found elsewhere, but in small quantity. Added to these sources are the kudurrus (see below) and some royal inscriptions.
The king
The Kassite king was designated by several titles. In addition to the more traditional "king of the four regions" or "king of totality" (šar kiššati), the new title "king of Karduniash" (šar māt karduniaš) was used, or the original "xacanacu of Enlil" used by the two kings named Kurigalzu. The first titles indicate that the king considered himself ruler of a territory that included the entire Babylonian region. The Kassite kings took up all the traditional attributes of the Mesopotamian monarchies: warrior kings, supreme judges of the kingdom, and undertakers of works, notably the maintenance and restoration of the temples of the traditional Mesopotamian deities. The entire royal family was involved in holding the high offices: there are examples of a king's brother commanding an army, or a king's son becoming the high priest of the god Enlil.
Notwithstanding their ethnic background, the Kassite influences on the political and religious usages of the court seem to have been limited. The names of the sovereigns are Kassite at the beginning of the dynasty, referring to gods of this people, such as Burias, Harbe, or Marutas, but later mix Kassite and Akkadian terms. The royal dynasty placed itself under the protection of a pair of Kassite deities, Sucamuna and Sumalia, who had a temple in the city of Babylon at which kings were crowned. Although, according to a text of the time, the official capital was later moved to Dur-Kurigalzu, the kings continued to be honored in Babylon, which preserved its status as the main capital. Dur-Kurigalzu was a new city founded by Kurigalzu II (r. 1332-1308 BC), where the Kassite kings were honored by the chiefs of the Kassite tribes. Apparently, this secondary capital seems to be more closely linked to the dynasty, without really shadowing Babylon, whose prestige remained intact.
The elites of the royal administration
In the Kassite period some new titles appeared for dignitaries close to the king, such as šakrumaš, a term of Kassite origin that apparently designated a military chief, or the kartappu, who was originally a horse driver. Although the organization of the Kassite army is very poorly known, it is known that this period saw important innovations in military techniques, with the appearance of the light car and the employment of horses, which was apparently one of the Kassite specialties. Among the high dignitaries, the sukkallu (a vague term that can be translated as "minister") were still present. The roles of all these characters are ill-defined and probably unstable. The Kassite nobility is not well known, but it is generally admitted that they held the most important positions and had large estates.
A little more is known about provincial administration. The kingdom was divided into provinces (pīhatu), headed by governors, usually called šakin māti or šaknu, to which can be added the eventual tribal territories headed by a bēl bīti, an office we talk about below. The governor of Nippur bore the particular title of šandabakku (in Sumerian: GÚ.EN.NA) and had more power than the rest. This office of governor of Nippur is only well known because of the abundance of archives found in that city about the Kassite period. Governors often succeeded each other within the same family. At the local level, villages and towns were administered by a "mayor" (hazannu), whose functions had a judicial component, although there were judges (dayyānu). The subordinate administrative posts were held by Babylonians, who were well trained for such tasks. The Kassites do not seem to have had much inclination for the profession of scribe-administrator. All subjects were obliged to pay taxes to the royal power, which in some cases could be paid with works: sometimes it happened that the administration requisitioned certain goods from private individuals. These tax contributions are known mainly because they are mentioned in the kudurrus, which record the exemption for certain lands.
In the Kassite period some innovations were made in the field of administrative organization, which are partly due to Kassite traditions. Some territories were called "houses" (in Akkadian: bītu), headed by a chief (bēl bīti, "house chief"), who usually claimed to be descended from an eponymous common ancestor of the group. This was long interpreted as a kassite mode of tribal organization, with each tribe having a territory that it administered. This view has recently been challenged, and it has been proposed that these "houses" of family property inherited from an ancestor were a form of province that complemented the administrative grid described above, in which chiefs were appointed by the king.
Royal donations
The dominant economic institutions in Babylon continued to be the "great bodies," the palaces and temples. But except for the case of the lands of the governor of Nippur, there is little documentation about these institutions. One of the rare aspects of the economic organization of the Kassidic period on which there is much documentation is that of the land grants made by the kings: there are thousands of unpublished tablets waiting to be published so that knowledge about this period can be expanded. This is a particular phenomenon that seems to have been initiated in this period, because during the previous period land was granted in a non-definitive way.
These donations are recorded in kudurrus, and 40 have been found from the Kassite dynasty. These are stelae divided into several sections: the description of the donation, with the rights and duties of the beneficiary (taxes, corvees, exemptions), the divine curses to which those who did not respect the donation were subjected, and often carved low reliefs. The kudurrus were placed in temples, under divine protection. Usually the donations involved very large properties, 80 to 1,000 hectares (250 ha on average) and the recipients were high dignitaries close to the king: high officials, members of the court, especially the royal family, generals or priests. They were a reward for people's loyalty or for acts for which they had distinguished themselves. The great temples of Babylon also received important estates: Esagila, the temple of Marduk of Babylon, received 5,000 ha during the period. The land was granted with agricultural workers, who became dependent on the temple. Sometimes the grants were accompanied by tax exemptions or corvees. In extreme cases, the beneficiaries had power over the local population, which took the place of the provincial administration, from which they were protected by special clauses.
Some scholars see some similarities of this practice with feudalism, which is flatly refuted by most recent studies, according to which these donations did not call into question the traditional Babylonian economic system, which was never feudal as such, although there may have been strong local powers on some occasions. The grants did not concern most of the land, which the sovereign could not alienate and which continued to be administered in the same ways as described above from previous periods.
Economy
Agriculture
Very little is known about the economy of Kassite Babylon. The situation in the rural world is obscure as sources are very limited apart from what is known from kudurrus and some economic tables of the period from mainly Nippur. Archaeological surveys carried out in various areas of the Lower Mesopotamian plain indicate that economic recovery was slow after the crisis at the end of the Paleobylonian period, during which the number of occupied areas declined sharply. It is clear that there was a reoccupation of habitats, but this phenomenon focused mainly on small villages and rural settlements, which then became predominant, while urban sites that were previously predominant saw their area reduce, which may indicate a process of "ruralization" that marked a rupture in the history of the region. This situation may have been accompanied by a decline in agricultural production, possibly aggravated in some regions (like Uruk, for example) by displacement of water courses.
The land grants made by the kings seem to have focused mainly on lands located in the vicinity of cultivated areas, which may reflect a desire to take back areas that had become uncultivated after the end of the previous period. It is also noted that the royal administration engaged in the exploitation of intensively cultivated areas around Nippur. However, little is even known about irrigated crops, the main economic sector of Babylon.
Handicrafts and commercial exchanges
Very little is also known about local crafts and trade. In the archives of Dur-Kurigalzu there is a record of deliveries of raw materials such as metal and stone to craftsmen working for a temple, a common situation in the organization of crafts in ancient Mesopotamia. Apparently, long-distance trade was quite developed, particularly with the Persian Gulf (Dilmun, in present-day Bahrain) and with the Mediterranean Levant. The Amarna Letters show that the king was interested in the fates of the Babylonian merchants as far as Palestine, but he cannot state whether this is an indication that these merchants (always called tamkāru) worked for the royal palace partially or completely. The exchanges of goods carried out in the framework of diplomacy between the royal courts, although they cannot be identified as trade proper, did contribute to the circulation of goods on an international scale for the elites. Thus, the cordial diplomatic relations maintained by the Kassites with Egypt seem to have provided an important influx of gold to Babylon, which would have allowed prices to be based on the gold standard rather than silver for the first time in Mesopotamian history.
Babylon exported to its western neighbors (Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia) lapis lazuli, which was imported from Afghanistan, and also horses whose breeding seems to have been a specialty of the Kassites, well attested in the Nippur texts, although these animals came from the mountainous regions of eastern and northeastern Mesopotamia.
Religion and culture
Pantheon and places of worship
The Mesopotamian pantheon of the Kassite period did not undergo profound changes from the preceding period. This can be seen in the low relief of a kudurru from Meli-Shipak II (1186-1172 B.C.) currently preserved in the Louvre Museum. The deities invoked as guarantors of the land grant that is consecrated on this stele are represented according to a functional and hierarchical organization. On the upper part are symbols of the deities that traditionally dominated the Mesopotamian pantheon: Enlil, who remained the king of the gods, Anu, Sin, Shamash, Ishtar and Enki. The Kassite sovereigns adopted Mesopotamian religious usages and traditions, but the cultural preponderance of the city of Babylon and the growing importance of the clergy of its main temple, the Esagila, tended to make the city's tutelary god, Marduk, an increasingly important deity in the Babylonian pantheon by the end of the Kassite period. His son Nabu, god of wisdom, and Gula, goddess of medicine, also enjoyed great popularity.
The original Kassite deities did not acquire an important place in the Babylonian pantheon. The main ones are known through a few mentions in the texts: the patron couple of the Sucamuna-Sumalia dynasty already mentioned, the storm god Burias, the warrior god Marutas, the sun god Surias, and Harbe, who seems to have had a sovereign function.
The various works sponsored in the temples by the Kassite monarchs are poorly known at the architectural level, but there are indications that some innovations were made. A small temple with original decoration built inside Eanna, the main religious complex of Uruk, is known to have been constructed during the reign of Caraindas (15th century BC), and of works carried out at Ebabar, the temple of the god Shamash in Larsa, during the reign of Burna-Buriash II (ca. 1359-1333 BC). However, it is mainly one of two kings named Kurigalzu (probably the first, who reigned in the early 14th century BC) who is known, among other works, for building or rebuilding several temples in the main cities of Babylon, namely in the major religious centers (Babylon, Nippur, Akkadia, Kish, Sippar, Ur and Uruk), in addition to the city he founded, Dur-Kurigalzu, where a ziggurat dedicated to the god Enlil was built. Besides these works, Kurigalzu sponsored the worship of the deities worshipped in these different temples. Resuming the traditional role of Babylonian kings as protectors and funders of the cult of the gods, the Kassite kings played a crucial role in restoring the normal functioning of many of these shrines that had ceased to function following the abandonment of several major sites in southern Babylon at the end of the Paleobylonian Period, such as Nippur, Ur, Uruk and Eridu.
Writings from the Kassite period
The school texts from the Kassite period found at Nippur show that the learning structures of the scribes and the literates remained similar to those of the Paleobylonian period. However, a major change took place: texts in Akkadian were included in the school curricula, which kept pace with the evolution of Mesopotamian literature, which increasingly became written in that language, although Sumerian continued to be used. The Kasside period also saw the development of "Standard Babylonian," a literary form of Akkadian that remained fixed in the following centuries in literary works and can therefore be considered a "classic" form of the language. From then on, new Mesopotamian literary works were written exclusively in this dialect.
During the Kassite period, several fundamental works of Mesopotamian literature were written and there was mainly the canonization and standardization of works from previous periods that until then had circulated under various variants. Akkadian versions of some Sumerian myths were also prepared. The Kassite period seems to have enjoyed prestige among the literates of the following periods, who sometimes looked for an ancestor among the literates who were supposed to have been active during this period. Important achievements of this period include the writing of canonical versions of numerous lexical lists, the writing of a "Hymn to Shamash," one of the most notable in ancient Mesopotamia, as well as another dedicated to Gluttony. The standard version of the "Epic of Gilgamesh," which according to tradition is by the exorcist Sîn-lēqi-unninni, is often attributed to this same period. However, precise dating of the literary works is often impossible: at best, these achievements can be placed in the period between 1400 and 1000 BC.
One of the most remarkable aspects of the literature of the Middle Babylonian period is the fact that several works reflect a deepening of reflections on human destiny, in particular the relations between gods and men. This is found in several major works of Mesopotamian sapiential literature, a genre that had existed for a millennium, but which then reached its full maturity and proposed deeper reflections. The Ludlul bel nemeqi ("I will praise the Lord of Wisdom"; also known as "Poem of the Just Sufferer" and "Monologue of the Just Sufferer," "Praise to the Lord of Wisdom," or "Babylonian Job") presents a just and pious man who laments over his misfortunes whose cause he does not understand, for he respects the gods. The Dialogue of Pessimism, written after the Kassite period, proposes a similar reflection in the form of a satirical dialogue. The changes leading to the standard version of the Epic of Gilgamesh would also reflect these developments: whereas the previous version accentuated mainly the heroic aspect of Gilgamexe, the new version seems to introduce a reflection on human destiny, in particular on the inevitability of death.
Architectural and artistic achievements
As with other cultural aspects, the arrival of the Kassites did not change Babylonian architectural and artistic traditions, although some developments did occur.
A few housing blocks from this period have been uncovered in the Babylonian sites at Ur, Nippur, and Dur-Kurigalzu, where no major changes from the preceding period have been noted. In contrast, the religious architecture, although poorly known, seems to witness some innovations. The small shrine built under the Caraindas of the Eanna complex at Uruk has a facade decorated with molded baked bricks representing deities protecting the waters, a type of ornamentation that is an innovation of the Kassite period. However, official architecture is mainly represented in Dur-Kurigalzu, a new city ordered built by one of the kings named Kurigalzu, where the large size of the main buildings shows that a new phase of monumentality has been entered.
In that city, a part of a vast palace complex in area, organized around eight units, was uncovered. Each of the sections of this building may have been assigned to the main Kassite tribes. According to a text of the time, the palace of Dur-Kurigalzu was the place where these tribes formally recognized the power of the new kings when they ascended the throne, which happened after the coronation had taken place in the city of Babylon, which remained the main capital. Some of the rooms were decorated with paintings, fragments of which have been found, including scenes of processions of male characters, who are identified as dignitaries of the Kassite tribes. Southeast of the palace was a religious complex dedicated to Enlil, dominated by a ziggurat whose ruins still stand over 57 meters high. Other temples were also built on this site.
The stone sculpture of the Kassite period is represented mainly by the low reliefs decorating the kudurrus already mentioned several times, whose iconography is particularly interesting. In them are symbols of the deities that guarantee the legal acts recorded on the stela, which are considerably developed by the artists of this period and replace the anthropomorphic representations of the deities, which allowed many deities to be represented in a minimum space. Nevertheless, sculptors continue to make figurative representations of characters on these stelae, as was common in previous periods. A kudurru from Meli-Shipak represents this king holding hands with his daughter, to whom he made the donation of property recorded in the stela text, and presenting her to the goddess Nanaia, guarantor of the act, who is seated on a throne. Above are depicted the symbols of the astral deities Sin (Crescent Moon), Shamash (solar disk) and Ishtar (morning star, Venus).
The use of vitreous materials developed greatly during the second half of the second millennium BC, with the enamelled glass technique in various colors (blue, yellow, orange and brown), which was used to produce glaze-covered clay vases and architectural elements, of which the tiles and bricks found at Acar Cufe are a good example. The first forms of glass also appeared in this period, and are represented in the artistic field by vases decorated with mosaics.
The glyptic themes experienced various evolutions during the second half of the second millennium BC, which experts divide into three or four types but whose chronology and geographical distribution are still poorly determined. The type of seal that predominated at the beginning took up the tradition of the preceding period; it associates a seated and a praying deity, with the text accompanying the image, very developed, consisting of a votive prayer; the engraved material is generally a hard stone. The next type of the kassite period is more original; a central character is depicted, often a kind of kthonic figure, a god on a mountain or emerging from the waters, or a hero, a demon, or trees surrounded by genies. The third kassite type is characterized by Assyrian influences and the presence of real or hybrid animals. The later style (also called "pseudo-Kassite"), developed at the end of the Kassite period or shortly thereafter, was engraved on soft stones and the images were dominated by animals associated with trees and framed with friezes of triangles.
List of kings of the Kassite Dynasty
Note: the list is uncertain until Agum II, at least. The dates are approximate.
Gandas (2nd half of the 18th century BC)
Agum I
Kashtiliash I
Usssi
Abiratash
Kashtiliash II
Urzigurumas
Harbasiu
Tipetaquezi
Agum II (took power in Babylon at the end of the 16th century BC)
Burna-Buriash I
Kashtiliash III
Ulamburiash (early 15th century BC)
Agum III
Kadashman-Harbe I
Karaindash (15th century BC)
Kurigalzu I
1374–1360 BC: Kadashman-Enlil I
1359–1333 BC: Burna-Buriash II
1333 BC: Kara-hardash
1333 BC: Nazi-Bugash
1332–1308 BC: Kurigalzu II
1307–1282 BC: Nazi-Maruttash
1281–1264 BC: Kadashman-Turgu
1263–1255 BC: Kadashman-Enlil II
1254–1246 BC: Kudur-Enlil
1246–1233 BC: Shagarakti-Shuriash
1232–1225 BC: Kashtiliash IV
1224 BC: Enlil-nadin-shumi
1223 BC: Kadashman-Harbe II
1222–1217 BC: Adad-shuma-iddina
1216–1187 BC: Adad-shuma-usur
1186–1172 BC: Meli-Shipak II
1171–1159 BC: Marduk-apla-iddina I
1158 BC: Zababa-shuma-iddin
1157–1155 BC: Enlil-nadin-ahi
References
Notes
This article was originally translated, in whole or in part, from the French Wikipedia article.
Bibliography
Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, "Karduniaš: Babylonia under the Kassites. The Proceedings of the Symposium held in Munich 30 June to 2 July 2011 / Tagungsbericht des Münchner Symposiums vom 30. Juni bis 2. Juli 2011", Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017 https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501503566
Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, "Karduniaš: Babylonia under the Kassites. The Proceedings of the Symposium held in Munich 30 June to 2 July 2011 / Tagungsbericht des Münchner Symposiums vom 30. Juni bis 2. Juli 2011", Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501504242
(1969 ed. via Internet Archive)
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Babylonian dynasties
Former monarchies of Asia
Kassites |
4351696 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Ontario%20Hockey%20League | History of the Ontario Hockey League | In 1970, the Junior A level was divided into two more levels, Tier I (Major Junior A) and Tier II (Minor Junior A). In 1974, the "Major Junior A" division of the OHA became the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League (OMJHL) and began to operate independently of the OHA. Finally in 1980, the OMJHL became the Ontario Hockey League.
Ontario Hockey Association history
Hockey started as a challenge series in the winter of 1889 when a team from Ottawa challenged teams from Lindsay and Toronto. A year later the Ontario Hockey Association was formed on November 27, 1890 in Toronto at the Queen's Hotel.
Junior hockey (1892–1933)
The first junior teams started play in 1892, without enforced age limits; the first champions Kingston Limestones over Galt. In 1896, the OHA re-organized into three divisions, senior, intermediate and junior. Junior hockey now became age-limited to players 20 years of age or younger by January 1 of the season being played. Out of its modest beginnings at the turn of the century, junior hockey quickly grew into an organized and entertaining brand of hockey. The end of World War I marked the beginning of the Memorial Cup, the symbol of junior hockey supremacy in Canada. Teams from all across the province participated in provincial playoffs in the hope of winning the George Richardson Memorial Trophy and representing Eastern Canada in the Memorial Cup finals. As each year passed, the number of communities participating in junior hockey grew and the calibre of play increased.
OHA Junior 'A' (1933–1972)
For the 1933–34 season, junior hockey was split into 'A' and 'B' divisions. Two new championship trophies were created at the same time. The 'A' level teams competing for the J. Ross Robertson Cup as OHA champions and the Memorial Cup as national champions. The 'B' level teams competed for the Sutherland Cup, which is still Ontario's Junior B championship trophy.
The 1930s gave birth to noted teams such as the Oshawa Generals, St. Michael's Majors and the Toronto Marlboros. Other notable teams of that era were the Toronto Young Rangers, Toronto Native Sons, and the Stratford Midgets.
The 1940s welcomed new communities to the limelight such as the Barrie Flyers, Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters, Stratford Kroehlers and the St. Catharines Teepees. The first version of the Windsor Spitfires also appeared in the 1940s only to fade away in the early 1950s.
The OHA awarded its first individual player trophies in 1945. The Red Tilson Trophy was awarded to the player voted "Most Outstanding" in the league. The Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy was awarded to the league's top scorer.
The 1950s saw other cities join in. The Kitchener Greenshirts entered the league only to move on to become the Peterborough Petes. Hamilton also joined as the Tiger Cubs (later the Red Wings). The 1950s also saw inter-league play with Quebec-based teams.
A divided league (1961–63)
Stafford Smythe, owner of the Toronto Maple Leafs, started the Metro Junior A League in an attempt to rival the OHA. The Toronto Marlboros, who were owned by the Leafs, were withdrawn from the OHA and placed in a league with promoted Junior B teams including the Whitby Mohawks, the Brampton 7 Ups, and the Unionville Seaforths. The other member of the league was the former St. Michael's Majors franchise, who would be later transferred to Neil McNeil High School in Scarborough, Ontario. Father David Bauer, the legendary coach and St. Michael's teacher, had decided to withdraw the private school from participation following their Memorial Cup win in 1961.
In response, the OHA managed to convince Sam Pollock's Montreal Junior Canadiens to join. The league that year consisted of the Guelph Royals, Hamilton Red Wings, St. Catharines Black Hawks, Peterborough T.P.T., Montreal Junior Canadiens and the Niagara Falls Flyers.
The rival league was a failure on and off the ice, and it effectively became a second division. Although it was independent from the OHA, the champions of the OHA and the Metro Junior A would play each other in the playoffs each year on the road to the Memorial Cup.
For its second season, the Metro League underwent sweeping changes, with the Whitby Mohawks renamed the Whitby Dunlops, the Unionville Seaforths becoming Toronto Knob Hill Farms, and the Majors became the Toronto Neil McNeil Maroons. The new sixth team in the league would be the reborn Oshawa Generals.
Re-unified league (1963–67)
However, after two seasons of the Metro Junior A League, it failed, and a new unified Junior A league emerged. Unfortunately, this meant the end of Neil McNeil, Brampton, Knob Hill and Unionville. The Marlboros and the reborn Oshawa Generals re-joined the OHA in 1964. The Guelph Royals also became the Kitchener Rangers.
Beginning of NHL Amateur Draft
The first NHL Amateur Draft was held in 1963 for any junior player who was not already sponsored by an NHL team. When the NHL expanded in 1969, the rules of the draft were changed to allow any amateur player under the age of 20 to be chosen. The OHA ceased being a direct farm system and began to compete with other junior leagues to graduate players. Réjean Houle became the first OHA player to be drafted first overall in 1969 by the Montreal Canadiens. The Canadiens took advantage of a grandfather clause that gave them first right to francophone players. In 1970 that clause was revoked, and Gilbert Perreault was drafted first overall by the Buffalo Sabres. Both Réjean Houle and Gilbert Perreault played in the OHA with the Montreal Junior Canadiens.
End of NHL sponsorship
In 1965 the London Nationals (later Knights) were added to the OHA as the last NHL-sponsored team. By 1967, direct NHL sponsorship of teams and individual players had ended. Prior to this time, all of the Original Six NHL teams had involvement in OHA teams:
In 1967 the Ottawa 67's were added to the league, named after Canada's centennial anniversary. The OHA existed with ten teams until 1972, upon the creation of a new level of junior hockey, and the folding of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League.
Feud between the OHA and the QMJHL
The competitiveness between the Ontario Hockey Association and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League had grown since 1969 when the QMJHL was born. It was further escalated by the incidents of the 1971 Richardson Cup, and the lawsuit over the Montreal Junior Canadiens.
1971 Richardson Cup
The Eastern Canadian championship of 1971 was a controversial series, and would be the last time teams played for the Richardson Cup. It would be replaced the following season in 1972, with the Memorial Cup tournament, as part of reshaping junior hockey. The 1971 series featured future NHL stars Guy Lafleur and Marcel Dionne, but never lived up to the potential on ice brilliance that could have been. Disputes off the ice and erupting violence abrupted the series before it was finished.
The St. Catharines Black Hawks and Quebec Remparts series was intense on many levels. Besides the strong rivalry between Anglophone and Francophone hockey teams, there was personal rift between Marcel Dionne and the Remparts coach Maurice Filion over Dionne playing in the OHA, which was seen as a higher-calibre level of competition. This rivalry was further fueled by the desire of Francophone nationalists to have a Canadian champion from a Quebec team in a Quebec-based league.
The Remparts won the first game 4–2 played in St. Catharines and televised by closed circuit to over 8,000 spectators in Quebec arenas. Despite the win, Filion complained about the OHA referee's bias against his players, calling it anti-Francophone. The Black Hawks won game two by a score of 8–3, to tie the series at 1 game each.
Game three was played in the Colisée de Québec to an overflow crowd, seeing the Remparts win 3–1. There were a total of 102 penalty minutes called, 77 of those were against the Black Hawks. Brian MacKenize of St. Catharines would be suspended for one game after confronting a linesman. After this game, the OHA lodged a complaint to the CAHA about QMHL appointed referees.
The next game of the series was uglier than the last game. Another overflow crowd saw the Remparts win game 4 by a score of 6–1. As the game wore on, more and more fights broke out on the ice, involving players leaving the penalty box to join the fray. The St. Catharines players were escorted off the ice by police amidst the hurling of debris from Quebec fans. After the game an angry mob surrounded the St. Catharines team bus on its way to the motel, and was given a police escort to safety. The mob circled the motel until the early hours of the morning.
After disputes between the teams and leagues, game five was played on neutral ice at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto, which the Black Hawks won 6–3 to narrow the series 3 games to 2 for Quebec. That was the last game played.
The parents of the St. Catharines players refused to send their children back to Quebec City for fear of the violence that occurred after game four. The Remparts refused to play anywhere else but their home rink, including any neutral ice in the province of Quebec. The problem was further confounded with threats surfacing from the FLQ (Front de libération du Québec) against St. Catharines players.
CAHA president Dawson declared the series to be over when no further compromise could be reached, and he had received official notice from St. Catharines that the team would not return to the Colisée. As a result, the Remparts went on to compete for the Memorial Cup by default, which they won, defeating the Edmonton Oil Kings.
Departure of the Montreal Junior Canadiens
The QMJHL threatened a lawsuit against the OHA to force the Junior Canadiens to return to the Quebec-based league, from which it departed in 1961 in favour of competing in the higher calibre OHA. The QMJHL not only wanted a team in the province's biggest city, but also felt the Junior Canadiens had violated the territorial right of the QMJHL. Ironically, the QMJHL had previously granted franchise rights to the Cornwall Royals of the Central Junior A Hockey League in 1969, when the OHA had denied the Royals bid.
To solve the problem, the OHA granted the Junior Canadiens franchise a "one-year suspension" of operations, while team ownership transferred the team and players into the QMJHL, renaming themselves the Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge in the process.
The OHA then "re-established" the suspended franchise after a one-year hiatus, under new ownership and with new players, calling the team the Kingston Canadians. The new Kingston team was essentially an expansion franchise, that had only common name to share with the departed team, but has some claim to the legacy of the Junior Canadiens.
OHA Major Junior 'A' (1970–1974)
For the 1970–71 season, Junior A hockey split again into Tier I and Tier II. The only Tier I league in the province became known as the OHA Major Jr. A. Its winner represented Ontario in a round-robin Memorial Cup with a team from the Western Hockey League and another team from the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. The Tier II teams would compete for the newly created Manitoba Centennial Trophy.
Communities such as Sudbury (transfer from Niagara Falls) and Sault Ste. Marie that had been part of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League (NOJHL) prior to the Tier I/Tier II split, joined the Major Jr. A ranks in 1972 to rejoin the Memorial Cup hunt. The 1970s also saw the Montreal Junior Canadiens moving back into the QJHL's successor, the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League. The Kingston Canadians joined the OHL in their place as the Junior Canadiens' successors, albeit with different ownership and players. The league also witnessed the rebirth of the Windsor Spitfires during this time period.
OHA timeline of teams
1937 - The OHA (Ontario Hockey Association) consists of seven teams. Six are based in Toronto and one from Oshawa. The teams are, the Oshawa Generals, Toronto Lions, Toronto Marlboros, Toronto Native Sons, Toronto St. Michael's College Majors, Toronto Young Rangers, and the University of Toronto Varsity Blues.
1938 - The Guelph Indians join the league.
1939 - The Toronto St. Michael's Majors drop out of the league. The Toronto Lions drop out of the league. The Guelph Indians become Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters. The University of Toronto Varsity Blues drop out of the league mid-year.
1940 - The Toronto Young Rangers are renamed Toronto Bowles Rangers.
1941 - The Toronto Bowles Rangers revert to being the Toronto Young Rangers. The Toronto St. Michael's Majors re-join the league. The Brantford Lions join the league. The Toronto Native Sons drop out halfway through the season, and declare all their games forfeit.
1942 - The Hamilton Whizzers join the league. The Stratford Kroehlers join the league. The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters drop out of the league. The Toronto Young Rangers drop out of the league.
1943 - The Hamilton Whizzers become the Hamilton Majors. The Galt Canadians join the league. The St. Catharines Falcons join the league. The Port Colborne Recreationists join the league. Toronto Young Rangers re-join the league.
1944 - The Galt Canadians become Galt Red Wings. The Brantford Lions drop out of league. The Port Colborne Recreationists drop out of league. The Stratford Kroehlers drop out of league. The Hamilton Majors drop out of league.
1945 - The Barrie Flyers join the league. The Hamilton Lloyds join the league.
1946 - The Hamilton Lloyds become the Hamilton Szabos. The Windsor Spitfires join the league. The Stratford Kroehlers re-join the league.
1947 - Hamilton drops out of the league. Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters join the league. The Galt Red Wings become the Galt Rockets. The St. Catharines Falcons become the St. Catharines Teepees.
1948 - Toronto Young Rangers drop out of the league.
1949 - The Galt Rockets become the Galt Black Hawks.
1950 - The Waterloo Hurricanes join the league.
1951 - The Kitchener Greenshirts join the league. The Stratford Kroehlers drop out of the league.
1952 - The Waterloo Hurricanes disband.
1953 - The Windsor Spitfires drop out of the league. The Oshawa Generals drop out of the league, after a fire destroys the Hambly Arena. The Hamilton Tiger Cubs join the league.
1954 - The Kitchener Greenshirts become the Kitchener Canucks.
1955 - The Galt Black Hawks drop out of the league.
1956 - The Kitchener Canucks become the Peterborough Petes.
1960 - The Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters become the Guelph Royals. The Barrie Flyers become the Niagara Falls Flyers. The Hamilton Tiger Cubs become the Hamilton Red Wings.
1961 - The Montreal Junior Canadiens join the OHA from the Quebec Junior Hockey League. The Metro Junior A League becomes another division of the OHA. Its teams will be the St. Michael's Majors, Toronto Marlboros, Brampton 7ups, Unionville Seaforths and Whitby Mohawks.
1962 - The Oshawa Generals join the Metro League. The St. Michael's Majors become the Toronto Neil McNeil Maroons and the Unionville Seaforths become Toronto Knob Hill Farms. The Whitby Mohawks are renamed the Whitby Dunlops. The St. Catharines Teepees become the St. Catharines Black Hawks.
1963 - The Metro Junior League disbands. The Toronto Marlboros rejoin the OHA, as do the Oshawa Generals although they play their first season in Bowmanville. The other teams in the Metro Junior League cease operations. The Guelph Royals become the Kitchener Rangers.
1965 - The London Nationals are granted a franchise.
1967 - The Ottawa 67's are granted a franchise.
1968 - The London Nationals become the London Knights.
1972 - The Montreal Junior Canadiens move to the QMJHL. Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds are granted a franchise. The Niagara Falls Flyers become the Sudbury Wolves.
1973 - The Kingston Canadians are granted a franchise.
Ontario Major Junior Hockey League history
In 1974, the "Major Jr. A" (Tier I) division of the OHA became the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League and began to operate independently of the OHA. The new league opened up administration offices and appointed its own commissioner.
The OMJHL instituted many rules changes to distinguish itself from Tier II (Minor Jr. A), including allowing one overage player on the roster. The Central Scouting Bureau was started in 1975 to provide teams with more information about players available in the upcoming draft. The same year the league divided into a two division format. Then in 1977, the OMHJL held its first All-Star game in Sudbury, Ontario.
OMJHL timeline of teams
1974 - The Ontario Hockey Association's Junior A Tier I league becomes the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League. The Hamilton Red Wings become the Hamilton Fincups.
1975 - The Windsor Spitfires are granted a franchise.
1976 - The St. Catharines Black Hawks become the Niagara Falls Flyers. The Hamilton Fincups become the St. Catharines Fincups after they are left homeless by the breakdown of ice-making equipment and subsequent demolition of their ancient arena weeks before the beginning of the season.
1977 - The St. Catharines Fincups revert to being the Hamilton Fincups.
1978 - The Hamilton Fincups become the Brantford Alexanders.
Ontario Hockey League history
In 1980, the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League sought to gain further independence and more control over its financial policies and gate receipts. The OMJHL separated itself from the Ontario Hockey Association, becoming the Ontario Hockey League.
An agreement was struck between the two sides where the OHL would pay the OHA $30,000 annually in affiliation fees and the right to compete for the Memorial Cup, and the OHL teams would have complete control over finances and ticket sales. The OHA would continue to operate hockey from Junior A Tier II, and below. David Branch has been the only Commissioner of the OHL from this time. Since 1980, the league has grown rapidly into a high-profile marketable product, with many games broadcast on television and radio.
In the 1980s, the league added the Guelph Platers and Belleville Bulls, and welcomed the Cornwall Royals from the QMJHL. North Bay took in the second version of the Niagara Falls Flyers. The former Fincups franchise was recycled through Brantford as the Brantford Alexanders and back to Hamilton, and by the end of the decade it was in Niagara Falls. The end of the decade saw the end of another storied team, the Toronto Marlboros, as they relocated to become the Hamilton Dukes. It also saw the end of the Kingston Canadians name as they were renamed the Raiders, and renamed again to the Frontenacs the following year. During the 1980s, the OHL experimented with Cooperalls as standardized league equipment, but reverted to hockey shorts.
The OHL split from the OHA in July 1982. The OHA and OHL disagreed on financial terms of affiliation, then the OHL decided to handle its own administration. The OHA and the OHL later reached an interim affiliation agreement, which allowed the OHL to compete at the Memorial Cup.
The 1990s saw the league expand into the USA. The first franchise the expansion Detroit Compuware Ambassadors (later the Detroit Junior Red Wings, Detroit Whalers and Plymouth Whalers) and the secondly the Erie Otters, who relocated from Niagara Falls. The Otters could trace their heritage back to the Hamilton Tiger Cubs of 1953. Newmarket also briefly had the Royals before moving on to become the Sarnia Sting. The Dukes became the Guelph Storm; filling the void left when the Platers relocated to Owen Sound. Barrie rejoined the league in 1995 with the Colts and the Toronto St. Michael's Majors also rejoined the league in 1997 after a 34-year absence. The league continued to expand with two new teams in 1998; Don Cherry's Mississauga IceDogs and the Brampton Battalion. In 2000 The Owen Sound Platers were renamed to the Attack after being bought by local interests. In 2002, the Centennials moved to Saginaw, Michigan to become the Saginaw Spirit.
There are currently 20 teams in the OHL; 17 are based in Ontario, 2 teams from Michigan and 1 team from Pennsylvania.
OHL timeline of teams
1980 - The Ontario Major Junior Hockey League renames itself the Ontario Hockey League, further separating from the Ontario Hockey Association.
1981 - The Cornwall Royals transfer to the OHL from the QMJHL. The Belleville Bulls are granted a franchise.
1982 - The Guelph Platers are awarded a franchise. The Niagara Falls Flyers become the North Bay Centennials.
1984 - The Brantford Alexanders become the Hamilton Steelhawks. The Windsor Spitfires become the Windsor Compuware Spitfires.
1988 - The Hamilton Steelhawks become the Niagara Falls Thunder. The Kingston Canadians become the Kingston Raiders.
1989 - The Toronto Marlboros become the Dukes of Hamilton. The Guelph Platers become the Owen Sound Platers. The Kingston Raiders become the Kingston Frontenacs. The Windsor Compuware Spitfires revert to being the Windsor Spitfires.
1990 - The Detroit Compuware Ambassadors are awarded a franchise.
1991 - The Dukes of Hamilton become the Guelph Storm.
1992 - The Cornwall Royals become the Newmarket Royals. The Detroit Compuware Ambassadors become the Detroit Junior Red Wings.
1994 - The Newmarket Royals become the Sarnia Sting.
1995 - The Barrie Colts are awarded a franchise. The Detroit Junior Red Wings become the Detroit Whalers.
1996 - The Niagara Falls Thunder become the Erie Otters.
1997 - The Toronto St. Michael's Majors team is re-activated when they are awarded a franchise. The Detroit Whalers become the Plymouth Whalers.
1998 - The Brampton Battalion and Mississauga IceDogs are awarded franchises.
2000 - The Owen Sound Platers become the Owen Sound Attack.
2002 - The North Bay Centennials become the Saginaw Spirit.
2007 - The Mississauga Ice Dogs become the Niagara IceDogs and the Toronto St. Michael's Majors become the Mississauga St. Michael's Majors.
2012 - The Mississauga St. Michael's Majors become the Mississauga Steelheads.
2013 - The Brampton Battalion become the North Bay Battalion.
2015 - The Plymouth Whalers become the Flint Firebirds and the Belleville Bulls become the Hamilton Bulldogs.
Cities represented in the OHA, OMJHL, and OHL (since 1937)
Ontario
Barrie: 1945–60, 1995–
Belleville: 1981–2015
Brampton: 1961–63, 1997–2013
Brantford: 1941–44, 1978–84
Cornwall: 1981–92
Galt (Cambridge): 1943–55
Guelph: 1937–42, 1947–63, 1982–89, 1991–
Hamilton: 1942–44, 1945–47, 1953–76, 1977–78, 1984–88, 1989–91, 2015–
Kingston: 1973–
Kitchener: 1951–56, 1963–
London: 1965–
Mississauga: 1998–
Newmarket: 1992–94
Niagara Falls: 1960–72, 1976–83, 1988–96
North Bay: 1982–2002, 2013–
Oshawa: 1937–53, 1962–
Ottawa: 1967–
Owen Sound: 1989–
Peterborough: 1956–
Port Colborne: 1943–45
Sarnia: 1994–
Sault Ste. Marie: 1972–
St. Catharines: 1943–77, 2007–
Stratford: 1942–44, 1946–51
Sudbury: 1972–
Toronto: 1937–89, 1997–2007 (six teams, 1937–39; four teams, 1939–40, 1941–42; three teams, 1940–41, 1943–48, 1962–63; two teams, 1942–43, 1948–62)
Unionville (Markham) 1961–63
Waterloo: 1950–52
Whitby: 1961–63
Windsor: 1946–53, 1975–
Quebec
Montreal 1961–72
Michigan
Detroit 1990–97 (Held first ever OHL games to be played outdoors in 2013 at Comerica Park)
Plymouth 1997–2015
Saginaw 2002–
Flint 2015–
Pennsylvania
Erie 1996–
Commissioners
OMJHL and OHL Commissioners (years in office)
Tubby Schmalz (September 23, 1974December 15, 1978)
Bill Beagan (December 15, 1978January 1979)
Sherwood Bassin (interim; JanuarySeptember 1979)
David Branch (September 17, 1979present)
Season-by-season standings
All-Star Games
The Ontario Hockey League All-Star Game was first played in 1977 in Sudbury with Emms Division vs the Leyden Division. The game's winner was awarded the OHL Chrysler Cup. This format continued through 1985.
The OHL / QMJHL All-Star Challenge Series was held from 1986 to 1991. The game's winner was awarded the Chrysler Challenge Cup. Chrysler Canada was the corporate sponsor from 1977 to 1991.
The Canadian Hockey League created the CHL All-Star Challenge in 1992. For four seasons from 1992 to 1995, it incorporated the Western Hockey League, the Ontario Hockey League and the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League into one showcase event. The host league in this case would challenge a combined team from the other two leagues. In 1996 this was replaced with the CHL Top Prospects Game. There was no OHL All-Star game held in 1996.
The OHL All-Star Game was revived in 1997. It was played for 4 consecutive seasons until 2000. Officially it was called the OHL All-Star Classic. The games during this period had different corporate sponsors.
In 2001, the three CHL leagues would play a round-robin style All-Star game named the CHL All-Star Series, the winning league being awarded the Hershey Cup. Each league made two Conference All-Star teams. One would play at home versus a Conference All-Star team from another league, and the other conference would visit another league's team. This format was played for the 2001, 2002 & 2003 seasons.
The event was rebranded as the OHL All-Star Classic from the 2003–04 season onward. The game was previously sponsored by Direct Energy, the most recent corporate sponsor is Bell Canada. The 2007 All Star game was played in Saginaw, Michigan, United States, the first time the game has been hosted outside of Canada.
The OHL discontinued the All-star game as of the 2010–11 season.
List of All-Star Game hosts
References
External links
OHL Website
History of ice hockey
Ontario Hockey Association
history |
4351958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastel%20%28manga%29 | Pastel (manga) | is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Toshihiko Kobayashi. It was first serialized in Kodansha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Magazine from July 2002 to July 2003, then moved to Magazine Special in September 2003 and finished in January 2017. Its chapters were collected in 44 tankōbon volumes. It was published in North America by Del Rey Manga; only the first 14 volumes were released.
Plot
16-year-old Mugi Tadano tries to shake off his latest heartbreak by working at his friend's aunt's beach-side inn. One day he spies on a beautiful girl, Yuu Tsukisaki, changing clothes in an alley behind the inn. Instead of getting angry, Yuu charges him the price of a soda for watching her. The next day Mugi is set up on a blind date with Yuu, and they have a great time — until Mugi walks in in the middle of her bath. Yuu decides to leave on the next ferry out, leaving Mugi heartbroken again. However, when he returns home, he is surprised to find that Yuu and her younger sister Tsukasa are going to be his housemates, as their parents were mutual friends.
The series follows Mugi's adventures with his new roommates. In the first few days, Tsukasa leaves the two of them alone. Mugi's classmate and childhood friend Manami shows interest in Mugi but later supports their relationship. Yuu attracts several boys and even visits her home town over in Tokyo, making Mugi so jealous that he follows her, and ends up meeting his ex. Other girls visit their household, including Mugi's big sister-like childhood friend Sayuri who has become a model, and classmate Kiku Murakami, who tries unsuccessfully to smear Yuu's reputation.
Mugi discovers he has a talent for cooking, and meets Tetsu Shiba, an owner of a small restaurant, and Aoi Sonobe, a young woman who likes Tetsu. Yuu and Tsukasa's mother visits and wants to take her back. Tsukasa senses that Mugi likes Yuu, so she tries to set him up as much as she can. Sayuri gets engaged. Kazumi tells Mugi that he likes Manami and wants to date her. A busty young woman, Mako Minamino, joins the household as Mugi's father's love interest. After numerous missed opportunities, Mugi finally confesses to Yuu that he likes her and they become a couple.
Later stories involve more girls and relationships, including schoolmate Urara Haruno who has a reputation for dressing sexy, her sister Moe who enjoys reading romance novels, Tooko who is a Japanese idol in love with Mugi, and Tsukasa's friend Pepper from America who joins the household. While Mugi and Yuu still try to figure out how to advance their relationship they see their friends hooking up: Sayuri gets married, Tetsu and Aoi agree to sign a marriage certificate, and even Mako and Mugi's father sign one.
Characters
In the bonus comic "The Pastel Meeting", Kobayashi sketched a meeting with his editor where they ended up talking about the appeal of Japanese actresses/models Aoi Miyazaki, Yū Aoi, and Leah Dizon, who became the inspirations for the stories in Pastel.
Main characters
Mugi is a high school boy who has lived by himself most of his life because of his mother’s death and his father’s being away for work. His friends describe him as plain, yet responsible and dependable. He falls in love with Yuu at first sight, and has sexual fantasies about her after she begins living with him. In order to not compromise their living situation, he suppresses his thoughts, and holds back from expressing his feelings for her, preferring to just protect her. Despite often stumbling into compromising situations with girls, and having to go along with their demands for his time and attention, he refuses their confessions because he likes Yuu the most. After being encouraged multiple times by his friends, he finally confesses to Yuu and has his feelings reciprocated.
The cover girl of the series and Mugi's love interest, Yuu accepts Mugi's father's offer to live with Mugi after her father dies. She is good-natured, smart and responsible (lacking only some cooking skills and handiwork), described as being very cute with a developed body. She is popular in school and has an easy time making friends. Even though she returns to live with her mother, she later returns to Mugi's place the next summer to finish high school. Although at times she has denied having romantic interest in Mugi, she gets jealous when he receives affections from girls that are not his childhood friends. As of the end of volume 14, she stops denying her own feelings, and responds to Mugi's confession. Some of the later chapters are presented from her perspective.
Supporting characters
Yuu’s younger sister, Tsukasa is a vibrant, mayhem-causing character who loves attention. She is more knowledgeable about relationships than her older sister, and often embarrasses Mugi by guessing his perverted thoughts, although she herself does not engage in such activity. She sometimes hatches elaborate plans for Yuu and Mugi to be together. She initially lives with Yuu and Mugi, but later moves to live with her mother, and lives in America. When she returns to Japan, her body has matured so that she can impersonate her sister by donning a wig. She also likes to hide in the walls to spy on Mugi and Yuu.
Mugi’s best friend since childhood. In the first chapter, Mugi remarks that he looks about 20 years old. Most girls that he flirts with flatly reject him; those who do not usually slap him because he is too forward. On his 18th birthday, he confesses to Manami, having liked her for over a decade but keeping silent beforehand because she liked Mugi. After they begin dating, he cleans up his act a little in order to feel that he is deserving of her.
She is one of Mugi’s childhood friends. She harbors a crush on Mugi, but holds back her confession because he was dating her friend Hinako. She later confesses to Mugi, but is turned down as he has fallen in love with Yuu. She is later shocked when Kazuki confesses she has liked her for ten years, but later realizes they care about each other, and agrees to date him.
Mugi’s next-door neighbor who acts like his big sister. After Mugi's mother died, Sayuri watched over him and even taught him how to cook. She is a Tokyo University student and a model. She occasionally visits Mugi where she binges on beer and plays Tekken with Tsukasa. She so values her relationship with Mugi that she introduces her fiance Takumi to him before she does to her parents. She and Takumi marry.
Kiku is a popular schoolmate that the main characters meet on a group date. She likes to tease guys and use them for her own entertainment, but is piqued when Mugi resists her advances. After seeing how popular and innocent Yuu is, she pretends to be her friend, but secretly tries to sully her reputation by taking scandalous pictures of herself dressed up like Yuu, and spreading them to their schoolmates. She returns in a later storyline at the beach-side inn. Although she no longer puts up an innocent act, she is still popular with guys and is quite flirtatious, but refuses to get into any relationships with them. She still likes Mugi, believing that his relationship with Yuu will not last, and ponders when they might break up. She later becomes friends with Urara, who has an opposite personality to her.
Mugi’s father is a photographer who is often away from home for long periods of time so that Mugi is never sure when he visits. He makes a promise with Yuu and Tsukasa's father that he would take care of his daughters. He briefly returns to check up on Mugi, Yuu and Mako; the latter tells him that she has fallen in love again, reminding him of a promise he had made to her when they first met that when she ever does, he would give her a reward. When she hints that it is him, he simply smiles and signs his half of the marriage certificate.
Tetsu is the owner of a small restaurant; he offers Mugi and Yuu refuge when they get caught in the rain. After tasting Mugi’s cooking, he offers him a part-time job and becomes his cooking mentor. He has an Imari plate collection that dwindles whenever Aoi visits and gets angry. Although Aoi likes him a lot, Tetsu tries not to return her affections because he wants her to be free. He and Aoi often argue., but eventually Tetsu accepts Aoi's feelings, and the two become a couple. When Tetsu was younger, he and Ken were rivals for Mugi's mother's affection. It is revealed that he and Aoi had filled out a marriage registration form, which they turn in to the courthouse later.
Aoi is a young traveling artist who frequents Tetsu’s restaurant. Although she likes to hug and kiss people, she has feelings for Tetsu, and gets jealous whenever he brushes her off or mentions liking older women. In the end, when Aoi finally gets tired of Tetsu after hearing from him that he was getting an omiai, she resolves to leave. Before she does, Tetsu catches up to her and asks her to come back to him, promising her that he would give her happiness. She and Tetsu fill out a marriage registration form, but she does not submit it until the end of the chapter when she thinks she is pregnant.
Mako is a busty woman who joins the Tadano household as Mugi's new mother. Ken met her in Alaska when he was taking pictures during the Aurora Borealis, where she was mourning the third anniversary of her high school sweetheart’s death. Being only five years older than Mugi, she enjoys suggesting activities with Mugi that Yuu deems inappropriate, and plays games that have a sexual twist, such as strip rock-paper-scissors, with uncanny good luck. She reveals that she and Ken have not married or planned a wedding yet, but later on reveals that she does love Ken. She becomes Mugi and Yuu's homeroom teacher, and Mugi's official stepmother after Ken signs his half of the marriage certificate.
Urara is introduced as a schoolmate in Mugi's after-school supplementary class. She has a reputation of being ero kawaii (a combination of being erotic but cute) because of her sexy dress and appearance, although she is unaware of her effects on others. Yuu is initially jealous of her when she sees her hanging around with Mugi, but she learns that Urara has a crush on a childhood friend who plays basketball and looks up to Yuu as a role model.
Urara's younger sister who wears glasses. She is described as shy and a bookworm, but well-endowed like her sister. She aspires to be a novelist and solicits Mugi's help to write a story on what it's like to live with Yuu, whom she idolizes. She is a bit airheaded and clumsy, often falling to the floor in a sexy position and losing her glasses. She is an otaku, and prefers falling in love with the guy character in the novels she reads, and has a fear of guys besides Mugi (who she thinks of more like a female friend) and his father (upon whom she gets a brief crush).
Tsukasa's schoolmate and buddy from America, Pepper is a blonde-haired girl who joins Tsukasa when she returns to Japan. She flirts with Mugi quite a bit when they initially meet. She has a black belt in karate, and also does other martial arts such as judo and aikido. She was born in Japan and adopted after birth. Her biological father proposed to her mother in Onomichi, and she was named after the seasoning when they ate at Tetsu's restaurant. Ken agrees to adopt her into the Tadano family.
Named after the Mandarin orange box she was found in, Mikan is a kitten that joins the Tadano household. She stars in a side story in Pastel as well as some of its chapters where she muses about Mugi and Yuu's slowly developing relationship.
Yuu's St. Bernard whom she got on her birthday when she was little. He was named after the snack.
Minor characters
Manami’s best friend and Mugi's former girlfriend, having broken up with Mugi prior to the start of the series when she left for Tokyo for school. She is very accident prone, and compatible with Mugi and his supportive personality. During Mugi's trip to Tokyo, it is revealed that she still has feelings for him. In a return visit, it is revealed that her relationship with Mugi had progressed so slowly, that Kazuki and Manami forged love letters to get them together, and they technically had not broken up. Although she has dated many guys, she still has feelings for Mugi and confesses to him one more time, but is turned down when Mugi replies that he likes Yuu. In the afterword of volume 14, Kobayashi noted that he brought back Hinako Kayama because of her popularity with readers, giving her a story that spanned five chapters.
She divorced her husband when her daughters were still in elementary school because she could not handle the long period of time in which he was away. When she remarried, she let Yuu and Tsukasa live with the Tadanos so as to not cause conflict with her new family. After taking Yuu and Tsukasa back, she reconciles with her second husband as her stepson has moved out of the house; she and Tsukasa relocate with her husband to the United States.
Yuu and Tsukasa's father
A former rival photographer and friend of Ken Tadano. Both were in members of the photography club in university. Because he was away for long periods of time from his family, he and his wife divorced when Yuu and Tsukasa were in elementary school. However, he later retires to take care of his daughters. His death at the start of the series places Yuu and Tsukasa under the care of the Tadanos.
A good-looking and popular schoolmate who asks Yuu out early in the series. Although Yuu agrees to go out with him, she only thinks of him as a friend. His father owns a restaurant that does French cuisine. He later helps Yuu make a cake. When Yuu refuses his confession, and he notices her with Mugi, he does not believe they are actually a couple. In a later chapter, he has a girlfriend.
A daughter of one of Tetsu’s friends who owns a restaurant. Mugi works for her for a week, after which Mugi discovers she is a year younger in his school. Yuu is jealous of her because Hana acts quite friendly with Mugi, walking with him to school and bringing him lunch.
He is introduced as Sayuri’s fiancé. He works at a small second-hand furniture shop. The first time he sees her, he proposes to her, but after dating, she eventually accepts. He likes to repair people's stuff even when not asked. Unlike Sayuri, he does not drink alcohol, and prefers tomato juice. Although he loses their wedding rings, he is able to reconcile with Sayuri and presents her with a wood-carved ring that matches his. He also presents a pair for Mugi and Yuu.
Tooko is a young actress from the agency that Sayuri works with. She introduces herself as Mugi’s younger sister, and uses a wig to disguise herself. She takes breaks from her acting duties, and likes being affectionate with Mugi, declaring Yuu her rival, and occasionally bragging to Yuu about it with text messages.
Publication
Written and illustrated by Toshihiko Kobayashi, Pastel was serialized in Kodansha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Magazine from July 24, 2002, to July 16, 2003. The series was then transferred to Magazine Special, where it ran from September 20, 2003, to January 20, 2017. Kodansha collected its chapters in 44 tankōbon volumes, released from November 13, 2002, to February 17, 2017.
In North America, the manga was licensed by Del Rey Manga. 14 volumes were released from December 27, 2005, to September 29, 2009. before the company ceased its manga publishing business in 2010.
Volume list
Volumes 1–14
Volumes 15–42
Reception
In Manga: The Complete Guide, Jason Thompson gave the series out of 4 stars. He wrote: "Pastel is less a story than a supplement to the swimsuit photos that often run in shonen manga magazines. The hero is passive and wimpy, and the girl is an inscrutable abstraction, occasionally sad or peeved, but mostly fawning over Mugi despite the fact that he's accidentally seen her naked umpteen times." He also writes that the "art is slick, with curvy bodies and detailed, photorealistic backgrounds."
Works cited
"Ch." and "Vol." is shortened form for chapter and volume and refers to a chapter or volume number of the Pastel manga, written by Toshihiko Kobayashi. Original Japanese version published by Kodansha. English version by Del Rey Manga.
Notes
References
External links
Pastel at Shōnen Magazine/Kodansha website
Del Rey Manga
Kodansha manga
Romantic comedy anime and manga
Shōnen manga |
4352098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion%20of%20Lingayen%20Gulf | Invasion of Lingayen Gulf | The Invasion of Lingayen Gulf (), 6–9 January 1945, was an Allied amphibious operation in the Philippines during World War II. In the early morning of 6 January 1945, a large Allied force commanded by Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf began approaching the shores of Lingayen from Lingayen Gulf, on the island of Luzon. U.S. Navy and Royal Australian Navy warships began bombarding suspected Japanese positions along the coast of Lingayen from their position in Lingayen Gulf for three days. On "S-Day", 9 January, the U.S. 6th Army landed on a roughly beachhead at the base of the Gulf between the towns of Lingayen and San Fabian.
Background
During World War II, Lingayen Gulf proved a strategically important theater of war between American and Japanese forces. Shown in the center of the figure left, on 22 December 1941, the Japanese 14th Army—under Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma—landed on the northeastern shores of the gulf, at Agoo, Caba, Santiago and Bauang, where they engaged in a number of relatively minor skirmishes with the defenders, a poorly equipped contingent of predominantly American and Filipino troops. Facing limited opposition, the larger Japanese forces managed to successfully invade and occupy the gulf.
On the day after the defeat, General Douglas MacArthur issued the order to retreat from Luzon and withdraw to Bataan. Following their defeat at the Battle of Bataan, U.S. and Filipino prisoners of war were forced into the Bataan Death March, with their destination Capas, Tarlac, not far from the capital city of Manila.
After attempting to establish an independent Allied government supported by American troops under the command of General McArthur on Corregidor, Japanese troops forced the surrender of the remaining American and Filipino forces there at the Battle of Corregidor on May 6, 1942. On 11 March 1942, Lieutenant John D. Bulkeley had picked up MacArthur, his family, and his immediate staff, who had been ordered to flee the Philippines. For the next three years, the gulf remained under Japanese occupation prior to the Lingayen Gulf landings.
Operations
Bombardment
From January 3–9, 1945, the ships of Admiral Oldendorf's invasion force took a lengthy circuitous route through the previously captured islands of Leyte Gulf in the Southeast of the Philippines, shown in blue as the Eastern Visayas in the map at left, and West, South of the Southern Visayas through the Suriago Strait and the Bohol Sea. Then heading north and following the Western coastlines of the Western Philippine Islands of Negros, Panay, and Mindoro (In green), shown at left in the map, the forward staged ships of Admiral Oldendorf's naval invasion force headed for the mouth of Lingayen Gulf on the Island of Luzon, shown to the immediate left of Bagaio. From the mouth of the Gulf, two vertical channels would be swept of mines by the minesweepers, one for landing areas terminating at the base of the Gulf, west on the beach of Lingayen, and one for landing areas terminating east at the town of San Fabian. The narrow base of the roughly rectangular Lingayen Gulf provided a relatively small landing area, only 25–30 miles wide, but its assault forces needed to take only a 100-mile overland route South to reach Luzon's capital city of Manila, shown clearly at left.
Commencing around noon on 6 January 1945, a heavy naval and air bombardment of suspected Japanese defenses on Lingayen began from their position inside the Gulf, the base of which is shown in the figure above. Estimates of resistance from the coastline and inland shores on the landing areas on the mouth of the Gulf proved inaccurate, as much of the bombardment proved unnecessary.
Minesweeping efforts
Demolitions near the planned landing sights on the base of the Gulf by Underwater Demolition Teams were undertaken, but they found no beach obstacles, and only one mine and encountered sparse opposing forces. Lieutenant Commander W. R. Loud, who commanded the minesweeper force, claimed to have found around ten additional mines in his sweeping efforts by end of day January 7, though intelligence estimates by Philippine resistance may have overestimated the number present. Smith writes that surprisingly, during the 7th, exploratory sweeps during the morning "turned up only two floating mines and none of the moored type." Both sources seemed to indicate a total of less than 10–12 mines, not a particularly large number for a close approach to a landing area, considering the large numbers soon to be found off the beaches of Iwo Jima. As approach channels were swept, buoys were placed to delineate the areas where ships could approach or land safe from the threat of active contact mines.
The sweepers performed with efficiency and courage considering they were the constant target of air attacks, several causing damage, or the sinking of their ships. They performed their tasks effectively during January 6–8, during frequent attack, and in difficult weather, including high waves on the Eastern base of the gulf near Lingayen during January 7, which may have affected those craft closer to the eastern side of the Gulf. Aircraft and naval artillery bombardment of the landing areas also occurred, with kamikazes attacking on the 7th, though enemy kamikazes, bombers and torpedo planes had reigned terror on the naval forces on their long route to the Gulf from the 2nd and would continue through the 13th. Smith writes that Allied planes from Allied escort carriers flew "from 250 to 300 sorties during the period from 6 through 8 January", bombing and strafing targets along the beaches. Many downed enemy planes and kamikazes, but many escaped their grasp. Ian W. Toll writes that on January 7, "in response to urgent requests from Admiral Kinkade and General MacArthur, Halsey threw his "big blue blanket" over Luzon." Airmen from the carriers, after returning to their ships, touted "claims of at least seventy-five Japanese planes destroyed on the ground." On the 8th, it was observed that in the town of Lingayen, as a response to the pre-landing bombardment, Filipinos had begun to form a parade, complete with United States and Philippine flags; fire was shifted away from that area.
Land battle
As shown at left, at 09:30 on 9 January 1945, about 68,000 GIs under General Walter Krueger of the U.S. 6th Army—following a devastating naval bombardment—landed at the coast of Lingayen Gulf meeting no opposition. A total of 203,608 soldiers were eventually landed over the next few days, establishing a beachhead, stretching from Sual, and San Fabian at the far East of the map at the base of the Bolianu Peninsula, west to the central Gulf town of Dagupan (XIV Corps), and then to the far Western town of Lingayen. The location of XIV corps is shown by the blue line at the center of the figure at left. The Lingayen Assault Force landing areas are shown at left by blue rectangles near the town of Lingayen, and the assault forces are shown as the blue lines further inland. The San Fabian Assault force (I Corps) have landing areas shown as rectangles and a blue line indicating assault forces on right of figure by the town of San Fabian. The total number of troops under the command of MacArthur was reported to have even exceeded the number that Dwight D. Eisenhower controlled in Europe.
While aboard ship, Task Force 78, the San Fabian Attack Force, a full three days behind Admiral Oldendorf's Naval convoys, was commanded by Vice Admiral Daniel E. Barbey, and Task Force 79, the Lingayen Attack Force, an equal distance behind Oldendorf, was commanded by Vice Admiral Theodore Wilkinson. Once disembarking from their ships, the two ground-based assault Task Forces would put more U.S. troops ashore on the first day at Lingayen than those arriving on the bloody beaches of Normandy on Day one of D-Day. Within a few days, the assault forces had quickly captured the coastal towns and secured the 20-mile-long (32 km) beachhead, as well as penetrating up to five miles (8 km) inland.
Heavy losses on land and sea
Despite their success in driving out the Japanese forces stationed there, the Americans and their mostly Australian allies suffered relatively heavy losses; particularly to their convoys, due to kamikaze attacks. While not the highest in U.S. casualties, the subsequent Battle for Luzon was the highest net casualty battle U.S. forces fought in World War II, with 192,000 to 217,000 Japanese combatants dead, though some sources quote losses as high as 380,000 for the entire conflict including non-combat casualties (mostly from starvation and disease). The battle saw 8,000 American combatants killed, or as many as 10,000 in the entire conflict. Total non-combat American casualty estimates have ranged as high as 93,400 among the Sixth Army when illness from disease and non-combat injuries are accounted for. However, to these staggering losses, there must also be added the over 150,000 Filipinos killed, many during the Battle of Manila, but with an overwhelming number of Filipino civilians murdered by Japanese forces, as a result of the Manila massacre of February, 1945.
Overview of ships damaged 3–13 January 1945
During the invasion by sea, which is the primary subject of this article, from December 13, 1944 – January 13, 1945, including the time Allied ships entered the Philippines through Leyte Gulf to Lingayen, as well as action taken two weeks before off the Northern Philippine Islands of Mindoro and Marinduque, a total of 24 Allied ships were sunk and another 67 were damaged by kamikazes, though this number includes naval activities off the West coast of Luzon, outside of Lingayen Gulf, off the Philippine Visaya Islands and the Island of Mindoro, which were necessary as preliminaries to secure the Island of Luzon for the invasion force. Ships damaged by kamikazes between 3–11 January on the way to Lingayen included the battleships , and (the latter was accidentally hit by friendly fire), the heavy cruiser , the light cruiser , and the Destroyer minesweepers and . Following the landings, Lingayen Gulf was turned into a vast supply depot for the rest of the war to support the Battle of Luzon.
General Douglas MacArthur was embarked on the light cruiser . On 5 January a Japanese midget submarine shot two torpedoes at Boise but the cruiser took evasive actions to avoid getting hit. On 7 January a Japanese airplane dropped a bomb and barely missed hitting Boise. Throughout the operation, Boise shot anti-aircraft artillery at the Japanese kamikazes and witnessed numerous ships close to it getting hit.
USS Ommaney Bay sunk
On 3 January 1945, the , a large escort carrier, was severely damaged by a Yokosuka P1Y kamikaze carrying two bombs. At 17:12, the Yokosuka P1Y penetrated a Destroyer screen undetected and made for Ommaney, approaching directly towards the ship's bow. Captain Young of the Ommaney later reported that the kamikaze's approach was concealed by the blinding glare of the sun. The Captain, aware of the kamikaze threat, had assigned multiple lookouts throughout the carrier's deck. But a lack of radar signals, a common and vexing problem during the battle, had led the task group to believe that the Japanese planes had withdrawn, and the kamikaze attack took the lookouts by complete surprise. was only able to respond with inaccurate anti-aircraft fire, whilst Ommaney Bay was unable to react at all.
The plane sliced across the superstructure with its wing, collapsing it onto the flight deck, and then veered into her flight deck on the forward starboard side, releasing the two bombs, with one penetrating the flight deck and setting off a series of explosions among the fully gassed planes on the hangar deck. Pressure to her water main was lost when the second bomb passed through the hangar deck, making it more difficult to fight fires. Fires and explosions, including the intense heat and dark smoke of an oil fire, continued until the decision was made to scuttle her with a torpedo later in the day. Considered sunk by Naval statistics, her kamikaze strike, though coming early in the battle, represented the greatest loss of life to a single ship with 93 killed and 65 wounded. 19 Grumman FM-2 Wildcat fighters and 10 Grumman TBM Avenger torpedo bombers went down with Ommaney Bay. None of her planes were able to take off before the attack.
USS Manila Bay struck
It is strongly speculated by Samuel Eliot Morison that the late afternoon kamikaze strikes on 5 January between 16:51 and 17:50 on the , , , , , and came from 16 kamikaze planes and 4 escorts that took off at 15:57 from the Japanese airbase at Mabalacat, formerly Clark Air Base, north of Manila. The attacks occurred West of Luzon about 100 miles off the coast of Corregidor. The air base's relative proximity to the Allied ships insured relatively full tanks, and the tactical training they had received from Commander Tadashi Nakajima in kamikaze targeting methods, maneuvering and dive strategies increased their chances of making it to their targets and dealing a more damaging strike.
Just before 17:50, on 5 January, two kamikazes dove at Manila Bay from the portside. The first plane hit the flight deck to starboard abaft the bridge, causing fires on the flight and hangar decks, destroying radar transmitting spaces, and wiping out all communications. The second plane, aimed for the bridge, missed the island close aboard to starboard and hit the sea off the fantail. 8 Grumman TBM Avenger torpedo bombers and 1 Grumman FM-2 Wildcat fighter were destroyed by the kamikaze attack.
Firefighting parties promptly brought the blazes under control, including those caused by two fueled and burning torpedo planes in the hangar deck. Within 24 hours, she resumed limited air operations. Most repairs to her damaged electrical and communication circuits were completed by 9 January, when the amphibious invasion in Lingayen Gulf got underway.
USS Manila Bay had 14 men killed and 52 wounded, but by 10 January she resumed full duty in support of the Lingayen Gulf operations. In addition to providing air cover for the task force, her planes flew 104 sorties against targets in western Luzon.
HMAS Australia struck five times
The heavy cruiser was the only invasion ship struck five times, though her considerable casualties of forty-four dead and seventy-two wounded were the result of only the first two strikes, of which only the second caused serious damage.
While roughly fifty miles northwest of Manila Bay on her approach to the mouth of the Gulf to provide fire support for the Lingayen landings at San Fabian, Australia was struck portside amidships at 17:35 on 5 January. Twenty-five were killed and thirty were wounded, though Morison put the figures at thirty killed and forty-six wounded, mostly from the gun crews of the port-side secondary and anti-aircraft guns. However, the damage to the ship was not serious enough to withdraw her from her duties, and she continued in operation. The ships reached the gulf early on 6 January, and by 11:00, Australia had commenced pre-landing bombardment.
While in the Gulf, a second kamikaze rammed the cruiser at 17:34 on 6 January between the starboard 4-inch guns, killing fourteen and wounding twenty-six. The casualties again consisted primarily of gun crews, and after this point, there were only enough trained personnel to man one 4-inch gun on each side of the cruiser. Another aircraft attempted to ram Australia at 18:28, but this was shot down by the .
On 8 January, Australia was attacked twice by kamikazes in quick succession: at 07:20, a twin-engine bomber hit the water near the cruiser and skidded to connect with the ship's port flank, then a second aircraft attacked at 07:39, again shot down just before it hit the port side at the waterline. A bomb carried by the second attacker opened a hole in the hull, causing a 5-degree list, but despite the explosion and a large quantity of debris and shrapnel, casualties were limited to a few cases of shock, and Australia was deemed capable of carrying out the bombardments assigned to her that day.
Finally at 13:11 on 9 January, the fifth and final suicide aircraft to hit Australia during the operation struck. Although the plane likely intended to take out the cruiser's bridge, it hit a mast strut and the forward exhaust funnel, and fell overboard. Although there were no casualties, the crash damaged the funnel, radar, and wireless systems, and the decision was made to withdraw the cruiser for repairs.
Loss of USS Brooks and USS Long
Departing New Guinea's Manus Island in late December, while escorting a Leyte-bound convoy, the and the ships of Mine Squadron 2 detached from their charges on January 2, 1945, and shaped a course for Lingayen Gulf, where the group was ordered to sweep the approaches to Lingayen in advance of the first American amphibious landing on Luzon. Coming under repeated massed air attack from Japanese kamikaze aircraft while engaged in their sweeps, the Hovey and her sisters spent the time period from January 2 facing frequent fire from Japanese aircraft attempting to repel the invading ships.
As her minesweeping unit swept the gulf on January 6, several kamikazes launched an attack on the Hovey and her formation, severely damaging the around 12:52, and just earlier claiming the Hovey's sister ship around 12:15. Hovey would take a number of survivors of the destroyer escort Brooks from , who had picked up part of her crew after she had been abandoned due to fires. Around 12:15, prior to the giving the order to abandon her crew, Hovey slipped her gear and stood in to assist Long. Long had been hit by a low flying kamikaze Zero on her portside below the bridge about 1 foot above the waterline. Soon the entire bridge and well deck was on fire, and fearing explosions to the forward magazine and ready ammunition, the order was given by Captain Stanley Caplan to abandon ship to those men trapped in the forecastle forward of the forward mast, though the crew aft abandoned ship. Because of the fire and continued air attacks, Hovey could not get alongside, but spent an hour picking up 149 survivors, nearly the entire ship's complement.
After a second kamikaze hit near the bridge later on January 6, with her back broken, the Long eventually sank on the morning of January 7 at 16°12'N, 120°11'E, in the Gulf about 10 miles north of the beaches of Lingayen. Completing her sweeps by end of day, the Hovey withdrew with the rest of her Division as darkness fell to open waters outside of Lingayen Gulf.
At 03:45 on the morning of January 7, Commander Loud's USS Hovey, with her load of survivors from both the USS Long and USS Brooks still crammed aboard, was positioned, along with the rest of the large minesweeper group, off the northwest corner of the Gulf, abreast of Cape Balinao. Steaming ahead were the destroyer escorts Barton, Walke, Radford, and Leutze, intending to provide support against coastal batteries, including those stationed off Cape Balinao, if necessary.
Acting as Flagship, Hovey took the lead of her formation and began sweeping operations shortly after 04:00. Less than half an hour later, radar reports flashed out that enemy aircraft were inbound, and Hovey's crew again secured her sweep gear and manned their guns. Sighting two inbound planes, at least one a torpedo bomber, flying just above the water materializing out of the predawn darkness and haze at 04:50, Hovey's gunners took both aircraft under fire. The second aircraft was set afire from the gunners aboard the as it closed on the Hovey's port side, splashing over her starboard beam. The plane may have received additional fire from Hovey's gunners. At the same instant, a torpedo released from one of the planes found its mark and slammed into the Hovey's starboard side at her aft engine room. The force of the blast buckled the Hovey's keel and killed most of the men in her after engine room, in addition to knocking out power and communications to most of the ship. Within seconds the midship was exposed to massive flooding that snapped her keel in half and caused the ship to begin breaking up.
USS Hovey sinks from aerial torpedo
Within two minutes of the torpedo impact, the Hovey's bow section was listing 90 degrees as men stationed there scrambled to abandon the sinking vessel. Moments later, a bulkhead gave way and sent the bow vertical in the water where for a few seconds it lingered before plunging to the bottom. Hovey's stern remained on an even keel as it slowly swamped, allowing most of the crew and rescued sailors there to get off before it too sank at this location at 04:55 on January 7, 1945. When the Hovey sank, she took 24 of her crew and 24 men from her sister ships USS Long, and USS Brooks with her to the bottom. Five of those lost when the Hovey sank came from the USS Brooks. She sank roughly 20 miles North of the base of the gulf at a depth of 54 fathoms, at 16°20'N 120°10'E. The , soon stood by rescuing the survivors of all three ships from the sinking Hovey, a total of 229 crew. Of the 229 men the Chandler rescued from the Hovey, roughly half were likely survivors of the Long, and had escaped from two successively abandoned and badly damaged ships.
USS New Mexico struck
At 1159 on 6 January 1945, Lieutenant General Herbert Lumsden was killed when a kamikaze struck the bridge of the battleship . He was the most senior British Army combat fatality of World War II. Lumsden was British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's personal liaison to General Douglas MacArthur. The ship sustained 30 dead and 87 wounded, when a kamikaze hit her bridge, killing Lumsden and her commanding officer, Captain Robert Fleming. Rear Admiral George Weyler, commander of the San Fabian fire support force and previously the commander of the battleship fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf a few months earlier, and British Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, commander of the British Pacific Fleet, were in the bridge also, but they were on the starboard side and unharmed. They were only a few yards from being killed or seriously wounded.
USS California struck
Shortly after 17:15 on 6 January, two kamikaze Zeros approached the USS California. Her gunners shot down one, but the other struck her at port by her mainmast. The kamikaze's fuel tanks leaked gasoline, starting a fire and a 5-inch shell from another ship accidentally hit one of her 5-inch guns, which exploded inside the turret, and started another fire. The fires were quickly suppressed, but significant casualties resulted, including 44 killed and 155 injured.
USS Louisville hit twice
Rear Admiral Theodore E. Chandler, Commander of Cruiser Division 4, died from his wounds on 7 January 1945, a day after the bridge of the heavy cruiser , where he was helping to direct operations, was struck a devastating blow by a kamikaze, having received a less damaging strike by a kamikaze on the previous day. Admiral Chandler received a posthumous Navy Cross for his direction of operations aboard the besieged cruiser. Chandler was the highest-ranking U.S. Navy flag officer killed in action in World War II. The other four admirals who died in World War II due to combat were Rear Admirals Isaac C. Kidd, Daniel J. Callaghan, Norman Scott, and Henry M. Mullinnix.
The , an older Clemson Class Destroyer/Minesweeper named after his grandfather, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler, rescued 229 survivors, from the USS Destroyer/Minesweeper Hovey after it was sunk by an aerial torpedo around 04:30 in the early morning hours of 7 January 1945. Hovey was carrying survivors from the USS Long when it was sunk. Admiral Chandler had served aboard the USS Chandler in one of his first assignments.
USS Mississippi struck
The began shelling Japanese positions on the island of Luzon on 6 January 1945. During the bombardment, a Japanese kamikaze struck the ship on 9 January at 13:02, but she remained on station, bombarding the Japanese defenses, until 10 February, when she withdrew to Pearl Harbor for repairs. At 13:03, a Japanese Val had struck her on the port side below bridge level, landing on an anti-aircraft gun and toppling over the side. Twenty-three were killed and sixty-three wounded, giving the battleship one of the heavier casualty rate of those struck.
USS Belknap struck
At 07:53, on 11 January 1945, the Clemson-Class Destroyer USS Belknap was forced to train all her guns on a Japanese kamikaze which eventually crashed her number two stack, nearly disabling her engines, and resulting in the death of 38 and wounding 49 of her crew. These included Underwater Demolition Team 9, on board when she was hit, which cost the team one officer, 7 enlisted, 3 MIA and 13 wounded. Earlier on 3–11 January 1945, she had acted as a shore bombardment and beach reconnaissance vessel at the Lingayen landings.
SS Kyle Johnson, David D. Field damaged
One of the worst losses of life was suffered by merchant marine vessel SS Kyle V. Johnson at 18:30 on January 12, when a kamikaze dive, among a group of 6 attacking enemy planes, started a large fire, killing 120 men. Two of the planes splashed just short of SS David Dudley Field, causing minor engine room damage, but Edward N. Wescott received considerable damage from flying debris, wounding six of her merchant seamen, and seven of her Naval armed guard crew. With few enemy planes remaining on Luzon, the kamikazes went after victims of opportunity, the slower, cargo ships, which certainly had poorer air defenses than battleships and cruisers, yet represented a large target, that may have had somewhat limited mobility due to their size, weight, and weather conditions in the Gulf.
Escort carrier Salamaua struck
At 08:58 on 13 January, the escort carrier was struck by an unidentified kamikaze who dove almost vertically at too great a speed to give the ship's gunners time to respond. The plane, which plunged through the flight deck, carried two 250 kilogram bombs, one under each wing. One bomb exploded causing fires on the flight deck, hangar deck, and a few additional areas. The second bomb did not explode but penetrated the ship's starboard side at the waterline. With a loss of power communication and steering, fifteen men aboard Salamaua were killed, and eighty-eight wounded. 2 Grumman FM-2 fighters and 1 Grumman TBM torpedo bomber were destroyed by the kamikaze attack. The starboard engine was lost, and the afterengine room flooded, but anti-aircraft gunners splashed two enemy planes in a period of ten minutes. After temporary repairs, she managed to leave the Gulf under her own power while under the screen of two destroyers and return to Leyte. She was the last vessel to be struck by kamikazes in the Gulf conflict, as after January 12, the Japanese had expended every aircraft they had in the Philippines. Only 47 Japanese planes escaped from the islands, and after January 15, it was believed only ten Japanese planes were left on the entire island of Luzon.
Success of kamikazes
According to several naval historians, kamikazes were likely used more successfully by the Japanese at Lingayen Gulf, and beginning in the last two weeks of December 1944 in the Western Philippine islands of the Visayas and Mindoro, than in any other Pacific conflict with the possible exception of the Battle of Okinawa. At least for the kamikaze attacks on January 6 at Lingayen Gulf and likely earlier in the battle, eminent Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote, they were "the most effective of the war in relation to the number of planes involved – 28 kamikazes and 15 fighter escorts." Though General McArthur had written that 58 kamikazes were employed on January 6, and 18 fighter escorts, a few more than Morison's estimate, Morison's conclusion as to the effectiveness of kamikazes still seems well taken considering the staggering damage done by roughly 100–200 kamikazes to around 47 ships in the ten days of the battle between January 3 – January 13, shown in the large table below. Those ten days in January 1945 on the way to and within Luzon's Lingayen Gulf resulted in the deaths of around 738 and the wounding of 1282 ship-based seamen, marines, and infantry.
Contemporary author, Ian Toll, noted at the time of the invasion, the fate of Japan's airpower on the island of Luzon was sealed. He wrote "The 201st Air Group, headquartered at Mabalacat, could muster only about 40 aircraft in flyable condition. Throughout all of the Philippines, there was probably no more than 200 remaining planes." Subtracting the estimate of 75 planes destroyed on the ground by carrier based American planes on January 7 discussed earlier, a rough estimate of only 100-150 airworthy planes may have remained on Luzon during the first two weeks of the invasion. In the last week of December (1944), the Imperial Headquarters had decreed that the Philippines would receive no further air reinforcements." Tokyo had ordered, and the 201st had complied with the decision that with the exception of a number of planes designated as escorts, "all remaining aircraft were to be launched against the American fleet in suicide attacks".
Luzon kamikazes on 6 January
Samuel Morison estimated that on 6 January, around twenty-eight kamikaze hit 15 ships, representing a hit rate of nearly 50%, vastly exceeding the 10–15% hit rate of kamikazes throughout the Pacific conflict.
Ian Toll wrote that by the morning of 6 January at Mabalacat airfield, "five derelicts were patched up to the extent that they could take off", though they were not air bound until around 16:55 that afternoon. Commander Tadashi Nakajima, head of kamikaze operations and training for the Philippines, estimated there were five kamikazes taking off from the nearby Angeles Field at 11:00 that morning, eight more at 10:40 from Echague, just Northeast of the Gulf, and an additional 9 from an airport on Luzon unnamed by Nakajima, bringing the total number to around twenty-seven on 6 January. The single Mabalacat kamikaze departing around midday on 6 January, and those from Angeles and Echague may have been responsible for strikes on any of the ten ships struck around noon that day including the battleship New Mexico or the Destroyers Leary, Sumner, Long or Brooks.
The five kamikazes taking off from Mabalacat around 1655 were directed by the Japanese pilot Lieutenant K. Nakano, as appointed by Commander Tadashi Nakajima, the head of the 201st kamikaze Special Attack Unit, and responsible for the training and operation of kamikaze forces in the Philippines. Nakano's kamikazes were well trained according to Commander Nakajima, and apparently an effective force. Mabalacat's late afternoon sortie at 16:55 would most likely have made strikes from roughly 17:20–17:34 beginning with the California, and may have been responsible for the strike on the Newcombe, and secondary strikes on the Louisville, and HMAS Australia. Those fifteen minutes represented some of the worst damage done to American vessels during the late afternoon of 6 January. Noting the destructive power in only three of the early days of the invasion, Morison further noted that between 3–6 January alone, 25 allied ships were damaged by kamikazes, of which three suffered two or more attacks. Morison described 6 January, which saw fifteen ships damaged, as the "worst blow to the United States Navy since the Battle of Tassafaronga on 30 November 1942".
30% kamikaze "hit" rate, 3–13 Jan 45
According to a U.S. Air Force webpage, despite anti-aircraft fire, radar detection, and airborne interception, roughly 14 percent of kamikazes survived to score a hit on a US ship, and nearly 8.5 percent of all ships hit by kamikazes sank. Considering that roughly 150 kamikazes survived to complete around 54 strikes on 47 ships at Lingayen from 3–13 January 1945 at Lingayen, as shown in the table below, this would indicate a "hit" rate closer to 30 percent and a sinking rate of ships struck (4 ships sunk/54 strikes) of only around 7.4 percent, though slightly higher, closer to 10%, if the Destroyer Transport Brooks, irreparably damaged and needing to be towed, is counted. The sinking rate is slightly skewed as both the Hovey and Palmer were sunk by torpedo or bomb hits, but it may be argued both ships were still struck or nearly struck by kamikazes, as the Hovey certainly was buzzed by a kamikaze, and the "Betty" bomber that sunk the Palmer, at 18:35 on 7 January after releasing its bombs, according to Morison, "turned as if to attack another ship and splashed". Smith suggests that as few as 100 kamikazes were responsible for roughly 30 strikes on Allied ships from 2–8 January, and though this is also a rough approximation, it again represents an approximate "hit" rate on allied ships approaching 30%.
"Hit" rate lower at Okinawa
Though the damaged ships from kamikazes were greater at Okinawa, roughly three times as many, there were at least seven times more aircraft deployed there, as between 6 April and 22 June 1945, the Japanese flew 1,465 kamikaze aircraft in large-scale attacks from Kyushu, and 250 individual kamikaze sorties from Formosa. Morison, an Admiral himself by 1945, and a shrewd observer of Naval tactics, theorized that the better trained Japanese pilots including those using kamikaze tactics had been expended prior to Okinawa, and those trained for the battle there lacked time to gain commensurate skills with those available at the Battle of Lingayen. He wrote, "Off Okinawa, the Navy would be faced with an even more intensive suicide effort, but by that time the cream of the Kamikaze crop had destroyed itself, and the Allied Navies had additional means of protection".
As Robert Ross Smith noted, of the very roughly one to one hundred fifty Japanese aircraft that had attacked American Admiral Oldendorf's naval forces at Lingayen Gulf between January 2 and 13, 1945, the vast majority had tried kamikaze crashes, even if they had not been successful.
Kamikaze "hit" rate, 13 Dec – 13 Jan 45
Ross further estimated that in the longer period between December 13, 1944, and January 13, 1945, at Lingayen, the island of Luzon and to a smaller extent the Philippine's Visaya Islands, the Japanese lost roughly 200 planes in successful or unsuccessful kamikaze dives on ships. During this month long period, according to Smith, who used data from Morison, kamikazes were almost exclusively responsible for sinking 24 allied ships, heavily damaging 30 and lightly damaging 37. This represents an approximate 200 kamikazes achieving damaging strikes on roughly 91 Allied ships, suggesting a very rough "hit" rate approaching 48%, though the figure is likely lower.
Evasive tactics, armor
Allied anti-aircraft guns were often ineffective against the kamikazes due to their speed, and maneuverability and because the operators of five inch guns, which used the highly effective proximity fuses, were unable to effectively sight the low angle, carefully maneuvered enemy planes that frequently dove with the sun behind them. Moreover, the projectiles of the typical 20 and 40 mm anti-aircraft guns used in allied ships, "did not have sufficient explosive power or impact to knock out heavily armored kamikazes" despite hitting the planes repeatedly with a hail of shells from an individual gun or what might at times even be combined gunfire from more than one ship.
At the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, kamikaze pilots were flying toward allied ships at extremely low angles to circumvent detection by both radar and sighting ship crews. To quote Smith, “Flight tactics included radical maneuvering designed not only to avoid antiaircraft fire and Allied planes but also to confuse observers as to which ship was the actual target”. Of equal or greater consequence, many of the kamikaze planes were heavily armored and armed to a greater extent than during their use at the Battle of Leyte Gulf, where some of the planes had been selected because they were already damaged.
Zeros outperformed US Wildcat fighters
Rear Admiral Calvin T. Durgin, who commanded many of the escort carriers partly tasked with launching the fighter aircraft that would provide cover to the advancing ships of the invasion force, noted that his widely used fighter the FM-2 Wildcat, "showed up inferior to the Japanese Zeke (Zero), not only in speed and maneuver, but in climbing ability in altitudes above 5000 feet; and we had not enough Wildcats." A significant percentage of the Japanese planes used as kamikazes were Zeros, and they could be just as effective acting as escorts to provide cover for Japanese planes that could later be used as kamikazes. As noted by Smith, "kamikazes continually slipped through the air cover, and the CVE-based (Carrier Escort) planes had knocked down less than half of all Japanese aircraft destroyed from 2 through 6 January. Interception, as a result of the Japanese flight tactics and the radar problems, became largely a matter of luck in the Lingayen Gulf area."
Limitations of radar aided the kamikazes
The terrain was mountainous in the Lingayen Gulf area, including near the mouth of the Gulf, at times limiting the ability of radar on the invasion ships, particularly near the mountainous coast of the Gulf, to detect the arrival of kamikazes and their escorts and vector in American fighters to oppose them.
Detrimental effects of weather and shoals
The argument could also be made that once within Lingayen Gulf, the current, shoals, winds, waves, and storms that the Gulf was known for made maneuvering the advancing allied ships somewhat more difficult, and more likely to break formation and become isolated, though the prevailing weather for the advancing convoy west of Luzon was far better than the weather experienced by the fast carriers of Fast Carrier Task Force 38, North and East of Luzon which significantly hampered the operation of their air defenses. According to the observations of the Commander, Carrier Task Force 38, the primary source of fighter cover provided by the Fast carriers, "At sea,... strong winds, rough seas, and heavy swells were recorded on 6 January through 9 January (1945). These conditions definitely hampered landing of planes and the work of the deck crews," at least for 1–2 days, making air support from sea-based carriers more difficult. As a more general statement of the Fast Carrier Group, TF 38, "weather conditions on S minus 6 day and S day (from the 3rd to the 9th of January or S-day)... were so poor that the success of our mission was in question much of the time."
Effects of overcast on January 6
According to the Aerology and Amphibious Warfare report, the Third Amphibious Force's Commander noted "During the initial stages of the approach to the target cloudy weather and intermittent rain" prevailed. During the invasion's forces preliminary approach, it was also noted, that "overcast conditions prevailed due to intermediate type cloudiness, and occasional areas of very light precipitation were encountered." Intermittent rain and cloudy conditions, even if slight, combined with the thick smoke caused by the bombardment groups by mid-day January 6, may have affected visibility at least on the critical days of January 6–7, which would have significantly reduced the ability of ships within the Gulf to sight kamikazes, and to a smaller extent, light to moderate winds may have hampered the maneuverability of smaller ships evading kamikaze attacks, and the wave activity on the East side of the gulf may have somewhat reduced the ability of smaller ships to effectively aim anti-aircraft guns at the enemy. Samuel Cox, Director of the Naval History and Heritage Command noted that at least on January 6, and likely intermittently during January 5–7, there was "an overcast that hampered both U.S. and Japanese operations. The U.S. ships could not see the Japanese aircraft until they broke through the overcast with very little time to react."
High seas slowed landing on January 10
As the results of a small typhoon, around January 9–11, though its full effects were felt far to the North of the base of the Gulf, "By mid-morning (in January 10, the second day of the assault) the 6 to 8 foot surf at the beaches, resulting from the increased swell, had caused landing operations to come to a halt." It was not until the third day of the assault (January 11), that "the swell diminished and conditions improved rapidly to permit continued landing operations." The slight increase in swells and wind might have partly accounted for the number of larger transport ships struck in the Gulf from January 9–11, as well as the crowding caused by so many large craft at anchor near the base of the Gulf.
Kamikaze training
Commander Tadashi Nakajima, Operations and Training Officer for the 201st Air Group, responsible for the initiation of Kamikaze tactics in the Philippines, carefully trained kamikaze pilots as to the angle of dive they chose, the targets they selected, and the methods they used to navigate to Allied ships.
Angle of dives
There were two basic angle of dives strongly preferred in kamikaze training tactics; a high altitude approach, and a low altitude approach. A high altitude approach could commence at an altitude as high as 6000–7000 meters, and might begin with an angle of 20 degrees, and then end with a dive angle of 45–55 degrees once reaching 200 meters above a sighted target. These directions were flexible, and required considerable skill to implement. A low altitude approach was ended with a brief climb to 400–500 meters followed by a quick dive. The low altitude approach had the advantage of reduced radar detection and sighting at very low altitudes above the waterline, as Nakajima suggested to his students that a kamikaze might cruise as low as 10–15 meters above the waterline, if they had adequate skill to maintain such a consistently low altitude during their approach.
Nakajima cautioned his pilots that in the very high altitude approach, "caution must be taken to insure that the final dive angle is not too steep", for "as the force of gravity increases, a plane is more difficult to pilot, and may go out of control". Once the target is sighted on a low altitude approach, the pilots were advised, "to climb sharply to 400 or 500 meters before going into a steep dive on the target", as the hit should be made on the deck of the target, particularly when the target was the frequently wooden deck of the American escort carriers. However, as noted by Nakajima, this method required skill by the pilot, and though many pilots fully trained for use in the Philippines and at Lingayen had the prerequisite level of skill, many subsequent pilots did not, and this greatly affected the outcome of their efforts. Combined fire by Allied ships also reduced the probability a diving kamikaze would reach their target, but many did at Lingayen, nonetheless due to the difficulty sighting a diving kamikaze.
Points of aim
Kamikaze pilots carried full fuel tanks to increase the odds of starting fires, and usually carried bombs that would be released at a time to maximize the likelihood they would penetrate the decks of their targets. Against Destroyers, other small warships and smaller transports, Nakajima informed his pilots, that "a hit any place between the bridge and the center of the ship is usually fatal". He continued, "small warships and transports, having no deck protection are extremely vulnerable to aerial attack. A single kamikaze plane could sink such vessels with a single hit." At the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, of the vessels sunk or irreparably damaged, 4 of 5, if the USS Brooks is counted, or 80% were the aging and smaller, Clemson or Wickes Class Destroyers. Of the Destroyers sunk, the Long was struck by two separate kamikazes, each time near the bridge, the Belknap was struck amidships near the 2nd stack, and the Brooks was struck port amidships causing fires. Each strike to these heavily damaged destroyers was close or not far from the bridge, the spot suggested by Nakajima's training of kamikaze pilots.
Five escort carriers, a considerable number, were hit at Lingayen, three with considerable damage, but only one, the Ommaney Bay, was ever sunk, despite the fact that Nakajima intended his kamikaze pilots to primarily target carriers in order to deprive the Allies of air superiority. Nonetheless, it appears likely the majority of the more damaging hits on Escort Carriers, evidenced by the table below, were done from kamikazes diving from a high altitude so as to penetrate their decks, as suggested by their training. Nakajima had earlier instructed that carriers should have their elevators damaged by kamikaze dives to reduce their chances of utilizing the planes they had on their hangar decks, but with fewer kamikazes, and with the targets more frequently smaller escort carriers, it seems more high altitude dives targeting decks were used. Around six of the 47 ships struck by kamikazes at Lingayen Gulf were Escort carriers, and though only 1 was sunk, five received serious or extensive damage, indicating they may have been targeted.
Vulnerability of minesweepers and destroyers
The winds, waves, light rain, and overcast skies would have made smaller craft such as Destroyers and Minesweepers particularly vulnerable to kamikazes as they would experience less stability in rough seas than a larger ship, affecting their maneuverability while under attack. Their smaller size may have made them a more logical target for kamikazes as well, and overcast skies would have given them less time to spot incoming kamikazes from a distance. Unique to the minesweepers, the uneven bottom and shoals of Lingayen, might have increased the time they required to perform mine sweeping duties against mines moored to the bottom, and made their separation from each other and covering ships a greater possibility. Of the 47 ships damaged by enemy aircraft or kamikazes, 16 of 47, over 30% were composed of the relatively smaller ships, Destroyers, Destroyer Escorts, and Destroyer/Minesweepers.
One might also note, that though the Destroyer/Minesweepers (DMS) and likely the smaller sweepers and a few covering ships, often Destroyer escorts, entered into the Gulf at 04:35 on the morning of January 7, when the minesweeper Hovey was sunk, the majority of the larger covering battleships and cruisers, did not form up until 06:55 at the mouth of the Gulf that day, and did not enter the Gulf, until around 7:55, "an hour later", though it should be added that Destroyer/Minesweepers were expected to provide their own cover from air attack by remaining close, if possible, during their sweeping duties. Three of the four ships listed as sunk from 3–13 January were Destroyer/Minesweepers, and a fourth irreparably damaged ship, the Belknap, was a Clemson Class Destroyer, nearly identical to the size, design and age of the three Destroyer/Minesweepers sunk.
Although a large variety of ship classes were hit, Destroyer/Minesweepers may have to a certain extent been targeted in the first week of January because they were smaller, isolated while performing their sweeping duties, less well armed than cruisers and battleships, and by necessity in the front of the convoy, as they had to sweep for mines before the larger ships of the allied force could advance into the Gulf. Of the five destroyers sunk or irreparably damaged, all were older Clemson or Wickes Class Destroyers built in 1918, and possibly more vulnerable to sinking due to their age and older, somewhat less seaworthy design. The naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted that at least on January 6, “the minecraft themselves bore the brunt of the attack this day owing to their distance from supporting ships”. He also noted that the “Japanese seemed to pick on Minecraft because they were usually isolated and had no good antiaircraft support”. According to data compiled by Tadashi Nakajima, of the 34 ships sunk by kamikazes in the Pacific, at least sixteen were Destroyers.
Japan knew invasion force's destination
Also worthy of consideration, the Japanese had determined early in the battle that the destination of most of the forces among the troop ships was the capital city of Manila, where American prisoners of war were held, making it easier to concentrate their forces on the ships heading for the base of Lingayen Gulf, just 100 miles north of the capital. According to Samuel Morison, by January 5, and certainly by mid-day on January 6, perhaps the worst for Allied losses from kamikazes, the Japanese high command were already convinced that "Lingayen was the American destination". Though allowing for the considerable cover provided by allied fighters, originally as many as 240 Japanese planes from Clark, Nichols, and other airfields on Luzon, within striking distance of Lingayen Gulf, "were committed to the (Lingayen) expeditionary force during the first week of January (1945)". Unlike the primary landing area at Lingayen on Luzon, during the Battles for Leyte Gulf, the two primary landing areas for transports on Leyte Island's Dulag and Tacloban, selected from large stretches of coastline, were far less likely to have been previously known to the Japanese.
Of interest to some, the Clemson class Destroyer/Minesweeper , which was struck by a kamikaze on 6 January 1945 in Lingayen Gulf but sustained only moderate damage to its deck after fires were extinguished, would later be caught in Typhoon Louise at Okinawa and scuttled while the author Herman Wouk was serving as a lieutenant. Though he was not aboard at the time, Wouk would make a brief reference to Southard's kamikaze strike at Lingayen as an event that occurred to a ship in his novel The Caine Mutiny, but would use his real experience aboard the Southard in the post-surrender Fall 1945 Okinawa typhoon as a basis for the mutiny that was the center of his 1951 Pulitzer prize winner, The Caine Mutiny.
Allied defense against kamikazes
Defense by Allied ships
The allied ships of the invasion force struggled to find an effective defense against diving kamikazes, but realized their options were limited. Rear Admiral Forest B. Royal, stated that "full power and evasive course, combined with rapid and accurate gunfire, proved to be an effective defense against suicide dives." But Vice Admiral Wilkinson, who generally agreed, added that when considering "the high speed of the plane as compared with the relatively slow speed of the ship, even at full power, an evasive course is inconsequential." Admiral Kinkaid summarized the best strategy for defense when he stated that a well-trained and skilled pilot who was intent on crashing his plane, "is almost certain to succeed if unopposed by anti-aircraft fire, regardless of what maneuvers the ship attempts". He then added the primary advantage of maneuvering allied ships should be "to unmask the maximum number of guns, and to present a narrow target in range since an error in judgement by the pilot is more likely to result in overshooting (the targeted allied ship) than in a deflection error"
Defense by Allied aircraft
In early 1945, U.S. Navy aviator Commander John Thach, already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, developed a defensive strategy against kamikazes called the "big blue blanket" to establish Allied air supremacy well away from the carrier force. This method recommended combat air patrols (CAP) that were larger and operated further from the carriers than before, a line of picket destroyers and destroyer escorts at least from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier radar interception and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers. This plan also called for around-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets, though the U.S. Navy had cut back training of fighter pilots so there were not enough Navy pilots available to counter the kamikaze threat. A final element included intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, and bombing of Japanese runways, using delayed-action bombs to make repairs more difficult. As effective as these methods could be, they had limitations, particularly considering the somewhat limited ability of radar to detect incoming enemy planes, the use of armor on kamikazes, the confusing tactics they used to avoid anti-aircraft fire, and the difficulty in shooting down kamikazes once their dive began.
One could speculate that two changes might have reduced the heavy losses to Naval vessels from kamikaze and traditional Japanese aircraft attacks from January 3–13. Earlier and more extensive attempts to knock out Japanese planes on Luzon prior to January 6 would have been instrumental in reducing losses by kamikazes during the critical time period from January 6–13, though this may have required Halsey's fast carriers to have operated closer to the mouth of the Gulf. Halsey and senior Naval Staff had expected that more Japanese planes were to be routed from Formosa during the invasion which is likely why they stationed well North of the Gulf, but this did not prove to be the case, so the fast carrier group might have stationed closer to the mouth of the Gulf. Another factor that might have led to less damage to American Naval vessels could have been the use of more fire support ships, such as large cruisers and battleships as screening ships, rather than have them spend much of their time bombarding the beaches, which housed very little resistance, though this was not known by January 5, or not acted upon by Naval command. The use of large battleships and cruisers as screening ships was also problematic as they may have lacked the speed of Destroyers, and their fire as screening ships may have caused too many incidents of friendly fire.
Invasion ships sunk and damaged at Lingayen
Approach and return route of invading ships
Shown at left is the approach route indicated by a solid line, and the return route, indicated by a dotted line, of the roughly 750 ships of the Allied invasion force sent to Lingayen Gulf in early January 1945. Red arrows point to the location, and associated text identifies the name of each Japanese or Allied ship as it was struck, including the date and time. A very few were damaged by attacks unrelated to kamikaze dives.
The arrow near the base of the Gulf, with associated text at the top and to the right of the Island of Luzon, indicates the large number of ships damaged within the Gulf, after January 6. Following is a table of the allied Naval vessels damaged and sunk almost exclusively by kamikaze strikes between 3–13 January 1945 at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf. Those ships highlighted in blue can be selected and their accompanying pages searched for Philippines, or Lingayen to find the exact manner in which they were attacked by enemy aircraft, most often kamikazes. At least two of the ships were not damaged by a kamikaze, the Destroyer/Minesweeper Palmer which was sunk by two bombs from an enemy dive bomber, and the Hovey which was sunk by an aerial torpedo, but was simultaneously grazed by a kamikaze which went overboard. Of the 47 ships with damage listed in the table below, nearly all could be attributed to the strikes or collateral damage of kamikaze aircraft, including friendly fire against an adjacent diving kamikaze. A few ships were damaged by kamikaze boats, but these are not listed below.
Nearly all the ships were American Naval vessels as designated by USS before their name, except those designated by HMAS for ships in the Australian navy, or SS for Liberty Ships, usually operated by America's Merchant Marines. Those ships struck more than once have a number in parentheses to the right of the name of the ship, and include the date of each strike and a figure for the number wounded or killed by each strike. An asterisk and pink background indicates a ship that was sunk, or was damaged beyond repair, which were usually towed. Not included in this tally are all of the ships damaged by suicide boats or Shinyo which included the , a transport ship that carried landing craft to move troops and four LCMs used to move heavy equipment. A number of LST's, tank transports, and LCI's, landing craft for infantry, were also damaged by Japanese kamikaze boats. Damaged in the early morning hours of 10 January 1945, around 400, in addition to the War Hawk were the tank landing ships USS LSTs 548, 610, 925, 1025, 1028, and the troop landing craft USS LCI(M)-974 and LCI(G)-365, the only one of these sunk.
Abandoned ships included the USS Ommaney Bay, USS Long, USS Brooks (partly abandoned), USS Hovey, USS Palmer, USS LCI(G)-365, and USS LCI(M)-974. Time is in Naval military time.
|-
| align="center" colspan=8|Naval vessels damaged and sunk by Japanese forces at Lingayen Gulf, almost exclusively kamikazes, 3–13 Jan 1945
|-
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Day
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Time
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Ship
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Type
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Damage
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Cause
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Killed
| align="center" style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Wounded
|-
| 3 Jan 1945
| 07:28
|
| Transport Oiler
| Minor
| kamikaze
| 2
| 1
|-
| 3 Jan 1945
| 17:12
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Escort Carrier
| Sunk (Scuttled)
| P1Y "Frances" kamikaze bomber,bombs through 2 decks
| 93
| 65
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 16:51
|
| Destroyer
| Minor
| kamikaze, aftermast, searchlight
| 0
| 6
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:06
| (1)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Moderate
| kamikaze, 8" gun
| 1
| 59
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:35
| (1)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Minor
| kamikaze, hit gun crews portside amidships
| 30
| 46
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:35
|
| Destroyer
| Minor
| Near miss kamikaze
| 2
| 4
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:39
|
| Fleet Tug
| Minor
| kamikaze, port bow, radar mast
| 0
| 3
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:40
| USS LCI-(G)-70
| Small Troop Carrier
| Moderate
| kamikaze
| 6
| 9
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:45
|
| Escort Carrier
| Moderate
| Steep kamikaze hit flightdeck near but abaft bridge, explos., fires
| 32
| 56
|-
| 5 Jan 1945
| 17:50
|
| Escort Carrier
| Negligible
| kamikaze hit radar antenna
| 0
| 0
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 11:05
|
| Destroyer
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit aft deckhouse, torpedoes
| 14
| 29
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 11:45
|
| Destroyer
| Minor
| kamikaze near miss, brushed 5" guns
| 0
| 1
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 11:59
|
| Battleship
| Minor
| kamikaze hit port bridge
| 30
| 87
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 12:01
|
| Destroyer Escort
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit port bridge
| 13
| 34
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 12:15
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Destroyer/Minesweeper
| Sunk
| 2 kamikaze hits, near bridge
| 1
| 35
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 12:52
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Destroyer Transport
| Extensive
| kamikaze midship hitfires, abandoned
| 3
| 11
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 14:24
|
| Light Cruiser
| Minor
| kamikaze splashed very close
| 0
| 1
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 14:27
|
| Destroyer
| Moderate
| kamikaze dive hit fantail
| 0
| 0
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 14:37
|
| Heavy Cruiser
| Minor
| Collateral kamikaze (?)
| 0
| 2
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 15:45
|
| Oiler Transport
| Minor
| kamikaze near miss, wreckage hit
| 0
| 4
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:20
|
| Battleship
| Minor
| low kamikaze hit deckat mainmast, friendly fire
| 45
| 151
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:20
|
| Destroyer
| Minor
| hit by friendly fire at kamikazew/40 mm, and 5" proximity shells
| 2
| 15
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:29
| (2)
| Light Cruiser
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit, bomb through 3 decks
| 13
| 44
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:30
| (2)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit starboard signal bridge
| 32
| 56
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:32
|
| Destroyer/Minesweeper
| Moderate
| kamikaze hit portside deckcausing deck hole near midship, above No.2 fireroom w/brief fire
| 0
| 6
|-
| 6 Jan 1945
| 17:34
| (2)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Serious
| kamikaze hit starboard side
| 14
| 26
|-
| 7 Jan 1945
| 04:30
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Destroyer/Minesweeper
| Sunk
| 1st kamikaze splashed, 2nd plane launchedaerial torpedo hitting aft engine room
| 46
| 3
|-
| 7 Jan 1945
| 18:35
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Destroyer/Minesweeper
| Sunk
| 2 aerial bombs to midship,near water line, then plane dove
| 28
| 38
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 05:45
|
| Tank Landing Ship
| Minor
| Val kamikaze skidded into her
| 4
| 3
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 07:20
| (3)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Minor
| kamikaze skidded into her
| 0
| 0
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 07:39
| (4)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit side, bomb blew
| 0
| 0
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 07:51
|
| Escort Carrier
| Serious
| kamikaze w/ bombs hit waterline
| 0
| 3
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 07:55
|
| Large Attack Transport
| Minor
| kamikaze starboardgrazed bridge, hit above engine room, near stack, w/fires, flaming debris
| 29
| 22
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 18:57
|
| Escort Carrier
| Extensive
| kamikaze high dive hit port partly under waterline, blew hole, flooding
| 17
| 36
|-
| 8 Jan 1945
| 19:03
|
| Large Troop Carrier
| Minor
| kamikaze hit astern
| 0
| 0
|-
| 9 Jan 1945
| 07:00
|
| Destroyer Escort
| Minor
| kamikaze near miss, foremast, antennas
| 0
| 0
|-
| 9 Jan 1945
| 07:45
| (3)
| Light Cruiser
| Serious
| kamikaze hit, bomb blew
| 24
| 68
|-
| 9 Jan 1945
| 13:02
|
| Battleship
| Minor
| kamikaze hit forward below bridge, hit gun, w/blast, and fragment damage, then went over side
| 23
| 63
|-
| 9 Jan 1945
| 13:11
| (5)
| Heavy Cruiser
| Minor
| kamikaze missed bridge, hit forwardmast strut, exhaust, radar, wireless
| 0
| 0
|-
| 10 Jan 1945
| 17:10
|
| Destroyer Escort
| Extensive
| lit low angle 2-engine kamikazehit stack and torpedoes
| 6
| 7
|-
| 10 Jan 1945
| 19:15
|
| Large Attack Transport
| Minor
| lit kamikaze struck bridge, went aft, w/gas fires
| 32
| 157
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 16:58
|
| Destroyer Escort
| Extensive
| kamikaze "Betty" bomberblew, lit torpedoes
| 12
| 13
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 17:27
|
| Destroyer Escort
| Slight
| fantail passed over wrecked kamikaze
| 0
| 11
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 07:53
| style="background:pink;"| *
| Destroyer Transport
| Extensive
| lit kamikaze hit 2nd stack, bomb blew
| 38
| 49
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 08:15
| USS LST-700 (1)
| Tank Landing Ship
| Extensive
| kamikaze skidded in, w/impact
| 0
| 6
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 12:50
| SS Otis Skinner
| Liberty Ship Cargo
| Extensive
| kamikaze through 2 decks, explosion
| 0
| 0
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 18:30
| SS Kyle V. Johnson
| Liberty Ship Cargo
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit deck, w/fire
| 129
| 0
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 18:30
| USS LST-778
| Tank Landing Ship
| None
| kamikaze splashed close
| 0
| 0
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 18:30
| SS David Dudley Field
| Liberty Ship, Cargo
| Minor
| kamikaze near miss, hit engine room
| 0
| 0
|-
| 12 Jan 1945
| 18:30
| SS Edward N. Wescott
| Liberty Ship, Cargo
| Substantial
| kamikaze near miss, debris hit
| 0
| 13
|-
| 13 Jan 1945
| 18:10
| USS LST-700 (2)
| Tank Landing Ship
| Extensive
| low kamikaze struck weather deck
| 2
| 2
|-
| 13 Jan 1945
| 18:21
|
| Large Attack Transport
| Extensive
| kamikaze hit starboard, its engine pierced deck, bulkhead, w/fires
| 8
| 32
|-
| 13 Jan 1945
| 08:58
|
| Escort Carrier
| Extensive
| steep kamikaze hit flight deck, bombs thru 2 decks, blew side
| 15
| 88
|-
| Total
|
|
|
|
|
| 746
| 1365
Commemoration
On 9 January 2008, Gov. Amado Espino, Jr. and Vice Gov. Marlyn Primicias-Agabas of Pangasinan institutionalized the commemoration to honor the war veterans. The resolution named 9 January as Pangasinan Veterans' Day. In the 63rd anniversary commemoration of the Lingayen Gulf Landing, President Fidel Ramos appealed to U.S. President George W. Bush for 24,000 surviving war veterans, to pass two legislative bills pending since 1968 at the US House of Representatives – the Filipino Veterans' Equity Act of 2006 and the Filipino Veterans' Equity of 2005 sponsored by former Senator Daniel Inouye.
See also
For a more detailed description of the land battle for Luzon, refer to Battle of Luzon
Battle of Manila (1945)
Battle of Bataan
Battle of Corregidor
Kamikaze
Bataan Death March
Manila massacre
List of Allied vessels struck by Japanese special attack weapons, includes last coordinates
References
Citations
Books, partial list
Websites
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen
History of Pangasinan
1945 in the Philippines
1945 in Japan
Lingayen Gulf
Lingaye
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen Gulf
Lingayen Gulf
January 1945 events in Asia
Lingayen Gulf |
4352468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh%20lords | Trịnh lords | The Trịnh lords (; Chữ Nôm: 主鄭; 1545–1787), formally titled as “Prince” of Trịnh (; ), also known as the House of Trịnh or the Trịnh clan (Trịnh thị; 鄭氏), were a noble and feudal clan that ruled Northern Vietnam (then called Tonkin), during the Later Lê dynasty.
The Trịnh clan and their rivals, the Nguyễn clan, were both referred to by their subjects as "Chúa" (Lord) and controlled Đại Việt, reducing the Later Lê emperors to only titular authority. The title of “Chúa” in this context is therefore comparable to the office of Shogun in Japan. The Trịnh lords traced their descent from Trịnh Khả, a friend and advisor to the 15th-century Vietnamese Emperor Lê Lợi. The Trịnh clan produced 12 lords who dominated the royal court of the Later Lê dynasty and ruled northern Vietnam for more than two centuries.
Origins
Rise of the Trịnh family
After the death of emperor Lê Hiến Tông in 1504, the Lê dynasty began to decline. In 1527, the courtier Mạc Đăng Dung seized the throne from emperor Lê Cung Hoàng, and established the Mạc dynasty ruling the kingdom of Đại Việt. In 1533, the general and Lê royalist Nguyễn Kim revolted against the Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hóa and restored the Lê dynasty. Then he tried to find the Lê dynasty's successor, a son of emperor Lê Chiêu Tông. He found one such prince, Lê Ninh, and enthroned him as Lê Trang Tông. After five years of conflict, most of the southern region of Đại Việt was recaptured by the restored Lê dynasty, but not the capital city, Thăng Long.
The founder of the clan was Trịnh Kiểm, born in Vĩnh Lộc commune, Thanh Hóa province. Trịnh Kiểm was raised in a poor family. He often stole chickens from his neighbors because chicken was his mother's favorite food. When his neighbors found out, they were extremely angry. One day, when Trịnh Kiểm left home, his neighbors abducted his mother and threw her down an abyss. Trịnh Kiểm returned home and panicked due to the disappearance of his mother. When he finally found his mother's body, it was infested with maggots. After the death of his mother, he joined the army of the revived Lê dynasty led by Nguyễn Kim. Because of Trịnh Kiểm's talent, he was given the hand of Kim's daughter Ngọc Bảo, and became his son-in-law. In 1539, Trịnh Kiểm was promoted to general and received the title of Duke of Dực (Dực quận công). In 1545, after the assassination of Nguyễn Kim, Trịnh Kiểm replaced his father-in-law as the commander of the Lê dynasty's royal court and military.
Lê–Mạc Civil War
Government exiled to Lan Xang
In 1517, Mạc Đăng Dung overthrew the Lê dynasty. The Lê royalists under Lê Ninh, a descendant of the royal family, escaped to Laos. The Marquis of An Thanh Nguyễn Kim summoned the people who were still loyal to the Lê emperor and formed a new army to begin a revolt against Mạc Đăng Dung. His daughter then married Trịnh Kiểm. Within five years, all of the region south of the Red River was under the control of the Nguyễn–Trịnh army but the two families were unable to conquer Ha Noi until the fall of Mạc dynasty in 1592.
Lê emperor as a figurehead
In 1539 the armies of Nguyễn Kim and Trịnh Kiểm returned to Đại Việt, captured Thanh Hóa province, and crowned Lê Ninh as the emperor Lê Trang Tông. War raged back and forth with the Nguyễn–Trịnh army on one side and the Mạc on the other, until an official Ming delegation determined that Mạc Đăng Dung's usurpation of power was not justified. In 1537, a very large Ming army was sent to restore the Lê family. Although Mạc Đăng Dung managed to negotiate his way out of defeat by the Ming, he had to officially recognize the Lê emperor and Nguyễn–Trịnh rule over the southern part of Vietnam. But the Nguyễn–Trịnh alliance did not accept Mạc rule over the northern half of the country and so the war continued. In 1541, Mạc Đăng Dung died.
A Chinese man shipwrecked in Vietnam in 1688, Pan Dinggui, said in his book "Annan ji you" that the Trinh restored the Lê dynasty to power after Vietnam was struck by disease, thunder and winds when the Le was dethroned, and they initially could not find Lê and Tran dynasty royals to restore to the throne. Pan also said that only the Lê king was met by official diplomats from the Qing, not the Trịnh lord.
Trịnh military dictatorship
Elimination of the Nguyễn clan
Despite the fact that the Mạc dynasty remained at large in the north, Trịnh Kiểm now turned to eliminating the Nguyễn lords' power. Although the Lê dynasty was restored in 1533 with Lê Trang Tông as emperor, Nguyễn Kim was head of government and wielded real authority in the nation. , the Mạc-appointed mandarin governing Tây Đô fortress in Thanh Hoa province, decided to surrender to Lê authorities when Nguyễn Kim recaptured the province in 1543.
After seizing Tây Đô citadel and marching onward to attack Ninh Bình, on 20/5/1545, Dương Chấp Nhất invited Kim to visit his military camp. In the hot summer temperature, Dương Chấp Nhất treated Kim to watermelon. After returning for from the party, Kim felt ill and died the same day. Dương Chấp Nhất later pledged allegiance again to the Mạc dynasty.
The government fell into chaos after Kim's death. The successor as the head of government was Kim's eldest son, . However, Uông was secretly assassinated by his brother-in-law Trịnh Kiểm, who later took control of the imperial government.
Usurpation conspiracy
In 1556, Emperor Lê Trung Tông died without an heir. Trịnh Kiểm wanted to seize the Lê dynasty throne but was still worried about public opinion. Therefore, he sought advice from the former mandarin Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm, who was living a secluded life. Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm advised that Trịnh Kiểm not to take the Lê dynasty's throne, although the Lê dynasty was just a puppet. Trịnh Kiểm decided to put on the Lê dynasty's throne Lê Duy Bang, a 6th-generation descendant of Lê Trừ , the older brother of emperor Lê Thái Tổ. Lê Duy Bang took the throne with the title Lê Anh Tông and the Trịnh lords continued to control the government with the emperor as the figurehead.
Legitimacy struggle
In 1570, Trịnh Kiểm died and there was a power struggle between his sons Trịnh Cối and Trịnh Tùng. Simultaneously, the Mạc dynasty army attacked the Lê dynasty from the north and Trịnh Cối was surrendered to the Mạc dynasty. The emperor Lê Anh Tông supported Trịnh Cối as the next Trịnh lord and co-operated with him to defeat Trịnh Tùng. Trịnh Tùng found out about this conspiracy, meaning that Emperor Lê Anh Tông and his four sons had to flee. Later, Trịnh Tùng enthroned Emperor Lê Anh Tông's youngest son, prince Đàm, as the next emperor with title Lê Thế Tông. After that, Trịnh Tùng searched for, captured, and murdered Emperor Lê Anh Tông.
Trịnh–Nguyễn alliance against the Mạc dynasty
Both Trịnh and Nguyễn declared that the Lê dynasty was the legitimate government of Đại Việt. As the years passed, Nguyễn Hoàng became increasingly secure in his rule over the southern province and increasingly independent. While he cooperated with the Trịnh against the Mạc, he ruled the frontier lands as a governor. With the final conquest of the north, the independence of the Nguyễn was less and less tolerable to the Trịnh. In 1600, with the ascension of a new emperor, Lê Kính Tông, Hoàng broke relations with the Trịnh-dominated court, although he continued to acknowledge the Lê emperor. Matters continued like this until Hoàng's death in 1613. The historical victory of the Trịnh over the Mạc was a common theme in public Vietnamese theaters.
The Trịnh–Nguyễn War
In 1620, after the enthronement of another figurehead Lê emperor (Lê Thần Tông), the new Nguyễn leader, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, refused to send tax money to the court in Đông Đô to protest the dictatorship of the Trịnh lords. In 1623, Trịnh Tung died, and he was succeeded by his oldest son, Trịnh Tráng. After five years of increasingly hostile talks, fighting broke out between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in 1627. While the Trịnh ruled over much more populous territory, the Nguyễn had several advantages. First, they initially were on the defensive and rarely launched operations into the north. Second, the Nguyễn were able to take advantage of their contacts with the Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to produce advanced cannons with the help of European engineers (for more details, see Artillery of the Nguyễn lords). Third, the geography was favorable to them, as the flat land suitable for large, organized armies is very narrow at the border between the Nguyễn lands and the Trinh territories – the mountains nearly reach to the sea. After the first offensive was beaten off after four months of battle, the Nguyễn built two massive, fortified lines that stretched a few miles from the sea to the hills. These walls were built north of Huế (between the Nhật Lệ River and the Sông Hương River). The walls were about 20 feet tall and seven miles long. The Nguyễn defended these lines against numerous Trịnh offensives that lasted (off and on) from 1631 till 1673, when Trịnh Tạc concluded a peace treaty with the Nguyễn lord, Nguyễn Phúc Tần, dividing Vietnam between the two ruling families. This division continued for the next 100 years.
The Long Peace
The Trịnh lords ruled reasonably well, maintaining the fiction that the Lê monarch was the emperor. However, they selected and replaced the emperor as they saw fit, having the hereditary right to appoint many of the top government officials. Unlike the Nguyễn lords, who engaged in frequent wars with the Khmer Empire and Siam, the Trịnh lords maintained fairly peaceable relations with neighboring states. In 1694, the Trịnh lords got involved in a war in Laos, which turned into a multi-sided war with several different Laotian factions as well as the Siamese army. A decade later, Laos had settled into an uneasy peace with three new Lao kingdoms paying tribute to both Vietnam and Siam. Trịnh Căn and Trịnh Cương made many reforms of the government, trying to make it better, but these reforms made the government more powerful and more of a burden to the people which increased their dislike of the government. During the wasteful and inept rule of Trịnh Giang, peasant revolts became more and more frequent. The key problem was a lack of land to farm, though Giang made the situation worse by his actions. The reign of his successor Trịnh Doanh was preoccupied with putting down peasant revolts and wiping out armed gangs which terrorized the countryside.
The Dutch East India Company ceased doing business with the Trịnh lords in 1700.
The Trịnh lords started employing eunuchs extensively in the Đàng Ngoài region of the northern Red river delta area of Vietnam as leaders of military units. Trịnh-ruled northern Vietnam used its eunuchs in the military and civilian bureaucracy. Many Buddhist temples had money and land donated by eunuchs who had gained wealth and influence. Field army units, secret police, customs duty taxes, finance, land deeds and military registers and tax harvesting in son Nam province (Binh phien) as well as the position of Thanh Hóa military governor were delegated to eunuchs. The supervisor services, military, civil service and court all had eunuchs appointed to work in them and they faithful followers of the Trịnh lords and a check on the power of civil and military officials. Eunuchs were employed as building project supervisors and provincial governors by Trịnh Cương.
Tây Sơn revolt and Southern Conquest
The long peace came to an end with the Tây Sơn revolt in the south against Trương Phúc Loan, the regent of the Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần (1765–1777). The Trịnh lord Trịnh Sâm saw the Tây Sơn rebellion as a chance to finally put an end to Nguyễn rule over the south of Vietnam. Inner struggle among the Nguyễn had put a 12-year-old boy in power. The real ruler was the corrupt regent Trương Phúc Loan. Using the popular rule of the regent as an excuse for intervention, in 1774, the hundred-year truce was ended and the Trịnh army led by Hoàng Ngũ Phúc attacked.
Trịnh Sâm's army did what no previous Trịnh army had done and conquered the Nguyễn capital, Phú Xuân (modern-day Huế), in early 1775. The Trịnh army advanced south, defeated the Tây Sơn and forced them to surrender. In the middle of 1775, the Trịnh army, include Hoàng Ngũ Phúc, were hit by a plague. The plagued forced them to withdraw and left the rest of the south to the Tây Sơn.
The Tây Sơn army continued to conquer the rest of the Nguyễn lands. The Nguyễn lords retreated to Saigon but even this city was captured in 1776 and the Nguyễn lords were nearly wiped out. Tây Sơn's leader Nguyễn Nhạc declared himself king in 1778.
End of the Trịnh Viceroy
Trịnh Tông, the eldest son of Trịnh Sâm, feared that the power would fall to his younger brother Trịnh Cán, who was favored by his father. In 1780, Trịnh Sâm became seriously ill, Trịnh Tông used this as a chance to stage a coup d'état. The plan was discovered, many high-ranking mandarins on Trịnh Tông's side were purged, Tông himself were imprisoned.
In 1782, Trịnh Sâm died and passed the power to Trịnh Cán. However, Cán was only five years old at the time, the real ruler was Hoàng Ngũ Phúc's adopted son Hoàng Đình Bảo, who was appointed by Sâm as Cán's assistant. A few weeks after Cán was crowned, Trịnh Tông conspired with the Three Prefectures Army (, ) to kill Hoàng Đình Bảo and overthrow Trịnh Cán. However, because Tông was indebted to the army, he could not control them. The army then released Lê Duy Kì, son of prince Lê Duy Vĩ who was killed by Trịnh Sâm in 1771, and forced Lê Hiển Tông to appoint Kì as the successor.
After Hoàng Đình Bảo's death, his subordinate in Nghệ An province Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh defected to Tây Sơn. He was welcomed by the king of Tây Sơn and became a commander in their army. In summer 1786, Nguyễn Nhạc, who wanted to reclaim the land of the Nguyễn lords taken by the Trịnh in 1775, ordered his brother Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh to attack Trịnh lords, but warned them not to advance further north. After taking Phú Xuân, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh convinced Nguyễn Huệ to overthrow Trịnh lords under the banner "Destroy the Trịnh and Aid the Lê (, ) that would help them gain support from northern people. Trịnh army and the Three Prefectures Army were quickly defeated. Trịnh Tông committed suicide. Emperor Cảnh Hưng died of old age shortly after and passed the throne to Lê Duy Kì (emperor Chiêu Thống).
Nguyễn Nhạc, after having heard of Nguyễn Huệ's insubordination, hastily marched to Thăng Long and ordered all Tây Sơn troops to withdraw. They intentionally left Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh behind. Chỉnh chased after them and then stayed in his hometown in Nghệ An.
The Tây Sơn's invasion and sudden withdrawal caused a large power vacuum in the North. Trịnh Sâm's younger brother Trịnh Lệ with the support of Dương Trọng Tế marched into Thăng Long and forced Chiêu Thống to grant him the title Viceroy, which would make him a Trịnh lord. Emperor Chiêu Thống did not want to reinstall Trịnh lords, thus he rejected Lệ's request. At the same time, Trịnh Bồng, son of Trịnh Giang, also marched into Thăng Long. Dương Trọng Tế thought Trịnh Lệ was unpopular and defected to Bồng's side, helped him defeated Trịnh Lệ. Famous generals Hoàng Phùng Cơ and Đinh Tích Nhưỡng also joined Trịnh Bồng's faction and pressured Chiêu Thống to grant him the title prince, the emperor reluctantly agreed. He then sent a request to Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, who had raised a considerable army in his hometown, to come and aid the emperor once again. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh obeyed and marched north, he defeated Trịnh army in Thanh Hoa Province. Trịnh Bồng heard of the news and withdrew to Gia Lâm District with Dương Trọng Tế, Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Hoàng Phùng Cơ withdrew to Hải Dương and Sơn Tây respectively. Chiêu Thống set Trịnh's palace on fire.
In the next months, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh carried out several campaigns against Trịnh Bồng and his followers. He captured and executed Dương Trọng Tế and Hoàng Phùng Cơ, Trịnh Bồng then took refuge at Đinh Tích Nhưỡng's camp. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh organized a large assault and completely defeated Trịnh Bồng in fall 1787. Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Trịnh Bồng ran away, officially ended over 200 of Trịnh lords rule.
Later, when the Qing army was occupying Thăng Long, Trịnh Bồng turned himself in to emperor Chiêu Thống. He was pardoned but was demoted to Duke of Huệ Địch (Huệ Địch công). After the Qing's defeat in early 1789, Bồng fled to the western region of the country, self-proclaimed to be a lord and built a resistance army against the Tây Sơn. He died in early 1791.
After Gia Long founded the Nguyễn dynasty in 1802, he pardoned the Trịnh clan and allowed their descendants to worship their ancestors.
Trịnh foreign relations
In 1620, the French Jesuit scholar Alexandre de Rhodes arrived in Trịnh-controlled Vietnam. He arrived at a mission which had been established at the court in Hanoi around 1615. The priest was a significant person regarding relations between Europe and Vietnam. He gained thousands of converts, created a script for writing Vietnamese using a modified version of the European alphabet, and built several churches. However, by 1630 the new Trịnh lord, Trịnh Tráng, decided that Father de Rhodes represented a threat to Vietnamese society and forced him to leave the country. From this point on, the Trịnh lords periodically tried to suppress Christianity in Vietnam, with moderate success. When the Nguyễn successfully used Portuguese cannon to defend their walls, the Trịnh made contact with the Dutch. The Dutch were willing to sell advanced cannons to the Trịnh. The Dutch, and later the Germans, set up trading posts in Hanoi. For a time, Dutch trade was profitable, but after the war with the Nguyễn ended in 1673, the demand for European weapons rapidly declined. By 1700, the Dutch and English trading posts had closed forever. The Trịnh were careful in their dealings with the Ming dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. Unlike the Nguyễn lords who were happy to accept large numbers of Ming refugees into their lands, the Trịnh did not. When the Qing conquered the Ming and therefore extended the Qing Empire's borders to Northern Vietnam, the Trịnh treated them just like they had treated the Ming Emperors, sending tribute and formal acknowledgements of Qing authority. The Qing intervened twice during the rule of the Trịnh lords, once in 1537, and again in 1788. Both times, the Qing sent an army south because of a formal request for help from the Lê emperors – and both times the intervention was unsuccessful.
Assessment
The Trịnh Lords were, for the most part, intelligent, able, industrious, and long-lived rulers. The unusual dual form of government they developed over two centuries was a creative response to the internal and external obstacles to their rule. They lacked, however, both the power and the moral authority to resolve the contradictions inherent in their system of ruling without reigning. (Encyclopedia of Asian History, "The Trịnh Lords").
It does seem the case that the Trịnh had lost nearly all popularity by the last half of the 18th century. While the Nguyễn lords, or at least Nguyễn Ánh, enjoyed a great deal of support – as his repeated attempts to regain power in the south show – there was no equivalent support for the Trịnh in the north after the Tây Sơn took power.
List of Trịnh lords
Traditionally, Trịnh Tùng is considered to be the first "lord", but the Trịnh family had held a great amount of power since Trịnh Kiểm.
See also
Trịnh (surname)
Trịnh Khả, progenitor of the Trịnh lords
List of Vietnamese dynasties
Nguyễn lords
Trịnh–Nguyễn War
References
External links
List of the Trịnh lords and the nominal Lê emperors
Encyclopedia of Asian History, Volumes 1–4. 1988. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. – "Trịnh Lords" Article by James M. Coyle, based on the work of Thomas Hodgkin.
The Encyclopedia of Military History by R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. Harper & Row (New York).
Coins of Vietnam – with short historical notes
Southeast Asia to 1875 – by Sanderson Beck
World Statesmen.org – Vietnam
Tay Sơn Web Site by George Dutton (has a great bibliography)
A glimpse of Vietnamese history – contains some errors
1533 establishments in Vietnam
1787 disestablishments in Vietnam
Lords
Positions of authority
Titles of national or ethnic leadership |
4353015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes%20Martinez | Mercedes Martinez | Jazmin Benitez (born November 17, 1980) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW) under the ring name Mercedes Martinez. She also appears for AEW's sister promotion, Ring of Honor (ROH), where she is a former ROH Women's World Champion. She is also known for her time in WWE, primarily on the NXT brand.
Prior to going to WWE in 2020, Martinez was a mainstay on the independent circuit, winning numerous titles - including three WSU Championships, two Shimmer Championships, one Shine Championship and one Phoenix of Rise Championship.
Early life
Jazmín Benítez was born on November 17, 1980, in Waterbury, Connecticut. She is of Puerto Rican descent. In high school, she played both basketball and softball. She then attended college at Teikyo Post University, where her major was criminal justice.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (2000–2005)
Mercedes Martinez got involved in professional wrestling after an injury sustained playing basketball in college. Martinez was a standout basketball player in high school. She later transitioned to professional wrestling due to her love for contact sports. As Martinez explained in an article for the Boston Herald in 2004, "Wrestling just came at the right time." Martinez began her training under Jason Knight in October 2000. She defeated a male wrestler by the name of "Juice" in her first match on November 12, 2000. In 2001, she gained exposure under promoter Sheldon Goldberg. Goldberg subsequently formed a women's division in New England Championship Wrestling around Martinez, including bringing in foreign talent such as Yoshimoto Ladies Pro's Sumie Sakai. The duo traded the North American Women's Championship.
Through 2003 and 2004, Martinez competed in various promotions in New England such as Connecticut Championship Wrestling, Combat Zone Wrestling, and Ian Rotten's IWA Mid South. In IWA, Martinez was brought in to face the star of the women's division, Mickie Knuckles.
Shimmer Women Athletes (2005–2019)
On November 6, 2005, Mercedes wrestled in the inaugural event of the new exclusive women wrestling promotion, Shimmer Women Athletes run by Dave Prazak, who discovered her while watching a Kiryoku Pro DVD. Martinez wrestled Sara Del Rey in a 20-minute time limit draw, and both were given a standing ovation after their match. Martinez continued to wrestle for Shimmer and various independent promotions across America through 2006.
On May 2, 2009, she took part in Shimmer's Volume 23 where she lost to Awesome Kong. Later in the night, as part of Volume 24, she defeated Madison Eagles. The next day, she lost to Serena Deeb for Volume 25, and teamed with Deeb to take on Sara Del Rey and Kong for Volume 26, but had a losing effort in that match.
She lost against the debuting Ayako Hamada on November 8, 2009, after a Hama-Chan Cutter, but was able to score a pinfall over Cat Power as part of Volume 28 after hitting her with the Fisherman Buster.
On October 2, 2011, Martinez turned heel for the first time in her Shimmer career, starting a rivalry with Athena.
On June 26, 2016, after being retired for two years, Martinez made a surprise return to Shimmer, aligning herself with Nicole Savoy and Shayna Baszler and defeating Madison Eagles in an impromptu match to win the Shimmer Championship for the first time. She lost the title to Kellie Skater on November 12, only to regain it the following day. On November 12, 2017, Martinez lost the title to Savoy.
Ring of Honor (2006–2007)
On March 25, 2006, Martinez made her Ring of Honor (ROH) debut in New York City where she competed in a Shimmer sanctioned match versus her counterparts of Allison Danger, Daizee Haze, and Lacey. On December 22, Martinez suffered an injury in an ROH match teaming with Jimmy Jacobs against Haze and B. J. Whitmer. She returned to Ring of Honor by the end of December 2007, aligning herself with The Vulture Squad. On May 27 it was announced that Martinez and ROH had amicably parted ways.
World Xtreme Wrestling (2005–2009, 2011–2017)
In 2005, Martinez joined World Xtreme Wrestling. She participated in several matches, and then started feud with Talia Madison for the WXW Women's Championship. On July 8, Martinez defeated Madison to become the new Women's Champion. However, the title was declared vacant on September 3, when she won the WXW Cruiserweight Championship from Drew Blood on February 19, 2006. On January 6, 2007, Martinez defeated Cindy Rogers to regain the Women's Championship. When she had to undergo shoulder surgery in February 2007, a "Phantom Title Change" storyline was done where Kacee Carlisle claimed she beat Mercedes in an Empty Arena Match to become the new champion was Mercedes's exit for her surgery.
She made her surprise return on February 10, 2008, to challenge Carlisle for the WXW Women's Championship but did not regain it. When WXW relocated as a result of Afa Anoa'i moving to Florida from Pennsylvania, she was a part of it from the get-go. She would win the 2008 WXW Elite 8 then on December 20, 2008, defeat Betsy Ruth for the Vacant WXW Women's Title for her 3rd reign.
After her defense against MsChif on February 7, 2009. She announced she was returning to her hometown of Waterbury Connecticut & vacated the title.
On August 27, Martinez returned to the company, starting a feud with Kimberly. On September 10, Martinez defeated her to become the first woman to hold the WXW Women's Championship four times. On February 11, 2012, Martinez defeated Kimberly in a two out of three falls match. She would lose the title to Kimberly on July 14, 2012, this marked the first time Mercedes had lost the Women's title in a 1 on 1 match.
Independent circuit (2006–2020)
Martinez also competed in ChickFight IV in April 2006. She made it to the final round before being eliminated by MsChif. Later in the night, MsChif also defeated Martinez and Cheerleader Melissa in a falls count anywhere match. On May 27, 2006, Martinez competed in the debut MXWomen (MXW)'s match, one of the Quadruple Main Events at MXW MAYhem in Bristol, Connecticut. On November 12, 2006, she defeated Nikki Roxx in a match for MXW. The following month, Martinez appeared on World Wrestling Entertainment's Heat (taped June 12) in a losing effort against Victoria. On July 19, 2009, Martinez returned to WXW C4 in Allentown and won a 20-person Battle Royal at WXW C4's Flagship show Sportsfest, earning a title shot of her choosing. On September 5, 2009, in Allentown, she opted to use the victory to create the WXW C4 Women's Championship, and she immediately won it in an Elimination Style 3-Way Dance over Jana and Nikki Roxx.
She also took part of Jimmy Hart's Wrestlicious series as a Bull Fighter character named "Maria Toro", managed by "Bandita." In the main event of the first episode she teamed up with Bandita and Felony in a winning effort against the team of Cousin Cassie, Tyler Texas and Charlotte.
Martinez debuted for NCW Femmes Fatales on February 6, 2010, taking on Portia Perez. At the end of the match Mercedes Martinez was able to hit with the Fisherman Buster to get the pin. She challenged NCW Femmes Fatales Champion Kalamity on March 10, 2012, and was unsuccessful. She promptly turned heel afterwards laying Kalamity out and LuFisto came out and they brawled to close the show.
More than a year later, Martinez would become NCW Femmes Fatales Champion on March 30, 2013, defeating Kalamity at NCW Femmes Fatales XI, ending her 538-day reign on top. She lost the title on August 16, 2014. On May 6, 2017, at Challengemania 25, Mercedes came back to defeat Stefany Sinclair and reclaim the NCW Femmes Fatales Championship. She left the event as a triple champion, already walking in the match with both the WSU World Championship and the Shimmer Championship.
On July 24, 2011, Martinez made her first appearance in Japan, wrestling for World Wonder Ring Stardom in famed Korakuen Hall against Nanae Takahashi as a part of the inaugural World of Stardom Championship tournament during the Nanae Takahashi 15 Anniversary show. However, she would lose to Takahashi in the semifinals of the tournament.
She has worked in SHINE Wrestling for a number of years and was until 2018 a Shine Tag Team Champion with Ivelisse as Las Sicarias until they were defeated by the Twisted Sisterz (Holidead and Thunder Rosa). There was one very memorable match that Mercedes Martinez had with Cindy Rogers. During this encounter, Cindy Rogers was wearing her spandex. At one point, Cindy Rogers left the ring. Martinez walked over to Rogers, grabbed her by the spandex, and dragged her back into the ring.
On June 2, 2019, Martinez appeared for WAW at Fightmare III, held at Carrow Road (the home stadium of Norwich City), in a winning effort against Sweet Saraya to become the WAWW World Champion.
Women Superstars Uncensored (2007–2018)
In Women Superstars Uncensored (WSU) in 2007, Martinez began teaming with Angel Orsini. In March 2008, they began feuding that culminated in many grueling matches throughout 2008 into 2009, including a Steel Cage on January 10, 2009; 2 months later, Martinez defeated Orsini in a Bullrope match on March 7, 2009, at the Second Anniversary Show in Boonton, New Jersey to win the WSU Championship, ending Orsini's record reign of just over nine months. They had one more match that rewrote the record books in a 60-minute Iron Woman Match on June 6, 2009, in Boonton, New Jersey, that went a total of 70 minutes including going 10 minutes into sudden death and resulted in Mercedes getting the pin after a fisherwoman's buster and retaining the title. Martinez would continue to defend the title against the likes of Nikki Roxx, Awesome Kong, Rain, and Portia Perez. Along the way, Martinez and Orsini briefly captured the WSU Tag Team Championships. Martinez continued her WSU Championship title reign by defending against more challengers including Alicia, Amber O'Neal, Mickie James, and Jazz throughout 2009–2010. In January 2011, Martinez defeated Angel Orsini again in a ladder match to unify her title with Orsini's All Guts No Glory championship. Martinez then successfully defended her championship against Serena Deeb in the main event of WSU's 4 year anniversary show and also defeated Brittney Savage at WSU's Uncensored Rumble event. In August 2011, Mercedes put her title on the line against Uncensored Rumble winner, Lexxus in a match that would become the longest women's wrestling match in history as the match continued past the 60 minute time limit until Martinez was able to get the win after 73 minutes, breaking the record of the Orsini match by three minutes. Martinez then became involved in a violent rivalry with Jessicka Havok that culminated in Havok putting an end to Martinez's unprecedented three year title reign at the WSU 5th Anniversary Show.
On February 11, 2017, Martinez defeated Cherry Bomb to win the WSU Championship, making her the first ever three-time champion. She retained the title for over a year until June 16, 2018, when she lost the title against Tessa Blanchard.
WWE (2017–2018)
On July 13, 2017, Martinez entered WWE's Mae Young Classic tournament, defeating Xia Li in her first round match. The following day, Martinez defeated Princesa Sugehit in the second round and Abbey Laith in the quarterfinals, before being eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Shayna Baszler. She made an appearance on the October 26, 2017 episode of NXT, participating in a battle royal which was won by Nikki Cross to determine one of the contenders for the vacant NXT Women's Championship at NXT TakeOver: WarGames. Martinez would also lose to Ember Moon on the November 15, 2017 edition of NXT. Martinez made her return to WWE, competing in the 2nd Mae Young Classic. She made it to the second round, defeating Ashley Rayne before being eliminated by Meiko Satomura.
All Elite Wrestling (2019)
On August 31, 2019, Martinez appeared at All Elite Wrestling's second major pay-per-view event, All Out. She appeared as the "Joker" in the second Casino Battle Royale, coming into the match as its final entrant. She was eliminated by Britt Baker without scoring a single elimination. She made her return on November 5 at AEW Dark, teaming with Big Swole in a losing effort against Allie and Sadie Gibbs.
Return to WWE (2020–2021)
In January 2020, Martinez signed a contract with WWE and reported to the Performance Center. She was again assigned to the NXT brand, with her return match being a battle royal to determine the number one contender for the NXT Women's Championship on January 15, eliminating Mia Yim before being eliminated by Shayna Baszler. She also entered her first Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble 2020 event at Number 6, before being eliminated by Mandy Rose and Sonya Deville after lasting over eight minutes. On February 5, Martinez defeated Kacy Catanzaro in her return singles match, marking her first victory on NXT. On July 22 episode of NXT, Martinez signed with the Robert Stone Brand after attacking Shotzi Blackheart, turning heel in the process. On the September 8 episode of NXT, after losing to Rhea Ripley in a steel cage match, Robert Stone announced that she is no longer part of the Robert Stone Brand.
Martinez made her Raw debut on September 21, where she was revealed as a member of the villainous faction, Retribution under the ring name of Retaliation. Shortly thereafter, Martinez requested her removal from the group, and was quietly returned to NXT. Martinez made her return to NXT on December 23, attacking NXT Women's champion Io Shirai. She was in a triple threat along with Toni Storm at NXT TakeOver: Vengeance Day but failed to capture the championship. In June 2021, Martinez entered into a feud against Xia Li over beating her in the inaugural Mae Young Classic, losing to her in a match at NXT TakeOver: In Your House. On the June 29 episode of NXT, she teamed with Jake Atlas and lost to Li and Boa in a mixed tag team match. During the match, she suffered an injury after getting knocked out with a kick, and was taken to a hospital afterwards. On August 6, Martinez was released from her WWE contract.
Impact Wrestling (2021–2022)
On the October 7, 2021 episode of Impact!, Martinez made her debut, teaming with Savannah Evans and Tasha Steelz to defeat Brandi Lauren, Kimber Lee, and Lady Frost. At Knockouts Knockdown, Martinez defeated Brandi Lauren in the quarter-finals, Rachael Ellering in the semi-finals, and Tasha Steelz in the final to win the Knockouts Knockdown tournament, thus she received a future Impact Knockouts Championship match.
Martinez received her championship match against Mickie James at Turning Point, where she was unsuccessful in capturing the title. On the January 6, 2022 episode of Impact!, Martinez lost to Deonna Purrazzo in what would be her final match in the company.
Return to AEW (2021–present)
On the December 29, 2021 episode of Dynamite, Martinez made her return, assisting Jade Cargill in defeating Thunder Rosa to advance to the finals of the TBS Womens Championship. It was then announced via social media that she had signed with AEW. Martinez faced Rosa in the February 4, 2022, episode of Rampage, where she was disqualified due to hitting Rosa with a lead pipe. Afterwards, Martinez was confronted by the AEW Women's World Champion Dr. Britt Baker, D.M.D., who she had an agreement to take out Rosa, however, Baker claimed that Martinez have not did her part in their deal. This led to a No Disqualification match between Martinez and Rosa on the February 16 episode of Dynamite, which was won by Rosa. After the match, Rosa lifted Martinez's arm in sign of respect, however, was attacked by Baker's allies, Jamie Hayter and Rebel. Baker handed the pipe to Martinez to attack Rosa, but Martinez hesitated, which led Hayter to attack her from behind, turning Martinez face in the process.
On the March 2 episode of Dynamite, Martinez teamed up with Rosa to defeat Baker and Hayter in a tag team match. On the March 11 episode of Rampage, Martinez lost to Hayter after an interference by Baker. After the match, Baker alongside Hayter and Rebel tried to attack Martinez, which was prevented by Rosa. Following that, Martinez transitioned to Ring of Honor, where she would become the ROH Women's World Champion, and woul remain the champion until losing it to Athena on December 10 at Final Battle.
On the June 9, 2023, episode of Rampage, Martinez made her first AEW appearance since November 2022, by competing in a four-way to determine the number one contender for the AEW Women's World Championship, which was won by Skye Blue.
Return to ROH (2022–present)
On March 30, 2022, AEW president Tony Khan, who had purchased Ring of Honor one month prior, announced that Martinez would face Willow Nightingale on April 1 at Supercard of Honor XV for the Interim ROH Women's World Championship, with the winner facing lineal champion Deonna Purrazzo at a later date. Martinez would go onto defeat Nightingale to claim the interim ROH Women's World Championship. On the May 4, 2022 episode of Dynamite, she defeated Purrazzo to become the undisputed ROH Women's World Champion. She has since successfully defended the ROH Women's World Championship on episodes of AEW Dark: Elevation. On the November 18 episode of Rampage, Martinez returned from an injury to stop Athena attacking Madison Rayne after their match. On December 10, at Final Battle, Martinez lost the title to Athena, ending her reign at 220 days.
After five-month of hiatus, Martinez made her return on the May 18, 2023, episode of ROH on Honor Club, where she defeated Ashley D'Amboise.
Personal life
In July 2019, Benitez announced during an interview with NowThis News that she is openly lesbian. She was married and has one child, a boy, born in 2009.
Martinez suffers from Asthma.
She has stated that Bret Hart is her favourite wrestler of all time.
Championships and accomplishments
Alternative Wrestling Show
AWS Heavyweight Championship (1 time, current)
Bellatrix Female Warriors
Bellatrix World Championship (1 time)
Defiant Pro Wrestling
DPW Women's Championship (1 time)
Green Mountain Wrestling
GMW Women's Championship (2 times)
Impact Wrestling
Knockouts Knockdown Tournament (2021)
Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South
IWA Mid-South Women's Championship (1 time)
IndyGurlz Championship Wrestling
IndyGurlz Australia Championship (2 time)
New England Championship Wrestling
NECW World Women's Championship (1 time) (1 time)
New Horizon Pro Wrestling
Global Conflict Shield Tournament (2014, 2016)
Femmes Fatales
Femmes Fatales Championship (3 times)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 2 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2011
Pennsylvania Premiere Wrestling
PPW Women's Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Unplugged
PWU Unified Women's Championship (1 time)
Ring of Honor
ROH Women's World Championship (1 time)
Interim ROH Women's World Championship (1 time)
Rise Wrestling
Phoenix of Rise Championship (1 time)
RISE Year-End Awards (4 times)
Match of the Year (2018) vs. Tessa Blanchard in a 75-minute iron woman match on RISE 10: Insanity
Moment of The Year (2018) – Martinez and Blanchard set a new world record at RISE 10, the longest one on one women's wrestling match in history at 75 Minutes
Wrestler of The Year (2018)
Match of the Year (2019)
Shimmer Women Athletes
Shimmer Championship (2 time)
Shimmer Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Cheerleader Melissa
Shine Wrestling
Shine Championship (1 time)
Shine Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ivelisse
Sports Illustrated
Ranked No. 10 of the top 10 women's wrestlers in 2019
Women Superstars Uncensored
All Guts, No Glory Championship (1 time)
WSU Championship (3 time)
WSU Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Angel Orsini
J-Cup (2008)
WSU/NWS King and Queen of the Ring (2011) – with Julio Dinero
WSU Hall of Fame (Class of 2017)
World Xtreme Wrestling
WXW C4 Women's Championship (1 time)
WXW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time)
WXW Women's Championship (5 times)
Elite 8 Tournament (2006, 2008)
WXW Hall of Fame (Class of 2014)
WrestleCrap
Gooker Award (2020) –
Luchas de Apuestas record
References
External links
Online World of Wrestling profile
1980 births
21st-century female professional wrestlers
Living people
All Elite Wrestling personnel
American female professional wrestlers
American sportspeople of Puerto Rican descent
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LGBT people from Connecticut
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4353272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banksia%20integrifolia | Banksia integrifolia | Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as the coast banksia, is a species of tree that grows along the east coast of Australia. One of the most widely distributed Banksia species, it occurs between Victoria and Central Queensland in a broad range of habitats, from coastal dunes to mountains. It is highly variable in form, but is most often encountered as a tree up to in height. Its leaves have dark green upper surfaces and white undersides, a contrast that can be striking on windy days.
It is one of the four original Banksia species collected by Sir Joseph Banks in 1770, and one of four species published in 1782 as part of Carolus Linnaeus the Younger's original description of the genus. It has had a complicated taxonomic history, with numerous species and varieties ascribed to it, only to be rejected or promoted to separate species. Modern taxonomy recognises three subspecies: B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, B. integrifolia subsp. compar and B. integrifolia subsp. monticola.
A hardy and versatile garden plant, B. integrifolia is widely planted in Australian gardens. It is a popular choice for parks and streetscapes, and has been used for bush revegetation and stabilisation of dunes. Its hardiness has prompted research into its suitability for use as a rootstock in the cut flower trade, but has also caused concerns about its potential to become a weed outside its natural habitat.
Names
Now widely known as the coast banksia or coastal banksia, B. integrifolia was previously known by a range of common names. The Checklist of Australian Trees lists four other common names: honeysuckle, white banksia, white bottlebrush and white honeysuckle; and some older sources refer to it as honeysuckle oak.
It was known to Indigenous Australians before its discovery and naming by Europeans; for example, the Gunai people of Gippsland called it . Because of its wide range it would have a name in a number of other indigenous languages, but these are now lost. In 2001, a search of historical archives for recorded indigenous names of Victorian flora and fauna failed to find a single name for the species.
Description
B. integrifolia is a highly variable species. It is most often encountered as a tree up to in height, but in sheltered locations it can reach . In more exposed areas it may grow as a small, gnarled tree, reaching to no more than about , and in highly exposed positions, such as on exposed coastal headlands, it may even be reduced to a small shrub.
The tree usually has a single stout trunk, which is often twisted and gnarled, with the rough grey bark characteristic of Banksia. The leaves are dark green with a white underside, and occur in whorls of three to five. Adult leaves have entire margins; George specifies their dimensions as long and wide, but The Banksia Atlas warns that "Atlas contributors found great variability in these measurements with specimens often falling outside the varietal limits specified by George (1981) or being intermediate between two varieties." Juvenile leaves have dentate margins with a few short teeth, and are generally larger than adult leaves.
Flowers occur in Banksias characteristic "flower spike", an inflorescence made up of several hundred flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis. This is roughly cylindrical, high and wide. Flowers are usually pale yellow to yellow, but may be greenish or pinkish in bud. Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals, and one long wiry style. Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed, the styles are straight rather than hooked. The style ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but break free at anthesis. This process starts with the flowers at the bottom of the inflorescence, sweeping up the spike at an unusually high rate of between 96 and 390 flowers per 24 hours.
The flower spikes are not as prominent as in some other Banksia species, as they arise from two- to three-year-old nodes nested within the foliage. After flowering, old flower parts wither and fall away over a period of several months, revealing the "cone", a woody axis embedded with many small follicles. The follicles are initially greenish and downy, but gradually fade to dark grey. Each follicle contains one or sometimes two seeds, separated by a thin wooden separator. The seed itself is black, long with a feathery black 'wing' long.
Taxonomy
B. integrifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770, by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander, naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant (later Captain) James Cook's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean. Solander coined the (unpublished) binomial name Leucadendrum integrifolium in Banks' Florilegium. However, the species was not published until April 1782, when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum. Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes, and named them accordingly. Thus the species with entire leaf margins was given the specific name integrifolia, from the Latin , meaning "entire", and , meaning "leaf". The full name for the species is therefore Banksia integrifolia L.f.
Then followed around 200 years of confusion over the taxonomic limits of the species, caused by the species' great variability, similarities with closely related species, and early attempts to classify the species based on dried specimen material alone. A stable Banksia taxonomy did not begin to emerge until 1981 with the publication of Alex George's landmark monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Over the next 18 years, George's arrangement was gradually refined in the light of new research and the discovery of new material, and there were several changes to B. integrifolias infraspecific taxa. These changes culminated in George's 1999 arrangement, which had broad acceptance until 2005, when Austin Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published a phylogeny that did not accord with George's arrangement. A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. integrifolia is placed in B. subg. Spathulatae; it is the type species for the subgenus.
Placement within Banksia
The current taxonomic arrangement of the genus Banksia is based on George's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series. In this arrangement, B. integrifolia is placed in Banksia subg. Banksia, because its inflorescences take the form of Banksias characteristic flower spikes; Banksia sect. Banksia because of its straight styles; and Banksia ser. Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical. Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae, but this was not supported by George.
B. integrifolias placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows:Genus BanksiaSubgenus IsostylisSubgenus BanksiaSection Oncostylis
Section CoccineaSection BanksiaSeries Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series QuercinaeSeries SalicinaeB. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia''' – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa – B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola Subspecies
The names of three subspecies are accepted at the Australian Plant Census as at May 2020:
B. integrifolia subsp. compar (R.Br.) K.R.Thiele;
B. integrifolia R.Br.subsp. integrifolia;
B. integrifolia subsp. monticola K.R.Thiele.
Although some of the great variability of B. integrifolia can be attributed to environmental factors, much is genetic: George writes that it "gives the impression that it is actively speciating to fill the many ecological niches through its range". Genetic variation across its range has been mapped in some detail with microsatellite markers, facilitating further analysis of intraspecific relationships. Fractal analysis of the shape and spectrum (colour) of the leaves has been used to determine to which subspecies plants of unknown provenance belong.Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifoliaThe nominate subspecies occurs near the coast over most of the species' range except the far north. It varies little except in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, where some populations appear to be intermediate with B. integrifolia subsp. compar.Banksia integrifolia subsp. comparThis subspecies grows in coastal Queensland as far north as Proserpine. For most of its range it is the only subspecies, but near its southern limit it co-occurs with B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. The two subspecies are distinguishable by their leaves, which are larger and glossy with wavy margins on B. integrifolia subsp. compar.Banksia integrifolia subsp. monticolaCommonly known as white mountain banksia, it is the only subspecies with a montane distribution; it occurs in the Blue Mountains of northern New South Wales. It is similar in form to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, but differs in having longer, narrower leaves, and follicles that are more deeply embedded in the old flower spike.
Hybrids
Presumed natural hybrids have been reported between B. integrifolia and other members of Banksia ser. Salicinae, although no hybrid names have been formally published to date. Presumed hybrids are identified by their intermediate features; for example those with B. paludosa (swamp banksia), known from Jervis Bay and Green Cape on the coast of southern New South Wales, have a smaller habit, longer, thinner flower spikes, and persistent old flowers on old "cones", which are otherwise bare on pure B. integrifolia.Salkin, Abraham Isaac (Alf) (1979). "Variation in Banksia in Eastern Australia". (MSc thesis). Clayton, Victoria: Monash University.
Presumed hybrids with B. marginata (silver banksia) occur on Wilsons Promontory in Victoria; these are found in localities where both species co-occur, and have features intermediate between the two. Another purported hybrid with B. marginata, thought to be from Cape Paterson on Victoria's south coast, was first described by Alf Salkin and is commercially available in small quantities. It forms an attractive hardy low-growing plant to .
Distribution and habitat B. integrifolia is widely distributed, in both geographical and ecological terms. According to Alex George, "it spans a wider geographical and climatic range than any other species." Thiele and Ladiges make a similar claim: that its distribution "is a broader latitudinal, altitudinal and ecological amplitude than any other species, with the possible exception of B. spinulosa." No other species of tree occurs closer to the coast at Cape Byron, making B. integrifolia the most easterly tree on the Australian mainland.
It occurs along almost the entire eastern coast of Australia, from Geelong, Victoria to Proserpine, Queensland. There was an isolated population on Long Island, Tasmania in 1999, and an 1876 record allegedly from King Island, although there has been speculation that that specimen was actually collected in the Furneaux Group. The species no longer occurs at any of these Tasmania locations, and has been declared extinct in Tasmania under that state's Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. The range of latitude is thus about 20° to 38°S.
For most of its distribution, B. integrifolia occurs only within about of the coast, where it typically occurs on poor quality sandy soils derived from sandstone. It grows near coastal cliffs and headlands, alongside river estuaries, and even on stabilised sand dunes. The temperature range for this area is around , with almost no frosts. The species can occur in pure stands, but is usually associated with other species such as Melaleuca quinquenervia (broad-leaved paperbark), Angophora costata (smooth-barked apple), Corymbia gummifera (red bloodwood), Eucalyptus botryoides (bangalay), Monotoca elliptica (wedding bush) and Leptospermum laevigatum (coast tea tree).
Between Sydney and Brisbane, B. integrifolia is found up to inland, with B. integrifolia subsp. monticola occurring in the Blue Mountains at altitudes up to . There it grows on better quality volcanic or rocky soils derived from granites and basalts, and would experience up to 100 frosts per year. In this montane habitat, it occurs in association with Eucalyptus species such as E. viminalis (manna gum) and E. pauciflora (snow gum), and also rainforest species such as Nothofagus moorei (Antarctic beech) and Orites excelsa (prickly ash).
Ecology
Like most other Proteaceae, B. integrifolia has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, thus allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia. Studies on B. integrifolia suggest that its proteoid root mat achieves this by chemically modifying its soil environment.B. integrifolia flowers have an unusually short life span for Banksia species, producing nectar for only about four to twelve days after anthesis. Most nectar is produced during the night and early in the morning, with only small amounts produced during the day. Flowers are produced all through the year, but there is a strong peak in autumn. Little else flowers within its range at this time, so it is a seasonally important source of food for nectariferous animals. Surveys have observed a range of animals feeding on the species, including a wide range of insects; many species of bird including Phylidonyris novaehollandiae (New Holland honeyeater), Anthochaera carunculata (red wattlebird), Anthochaera chrysoptera (little wattlebird), Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris (eastern spinebill) and Trichoglossus haematodus (rainbow lorikeet); and mammals such as Petaurus norfolcensis (squirrel glider), Petaurus breviceps (sugar glider), Acrobates pygmaeus (feathertail glider), Pteropus poliocephalus (grey-headed flying fox), and Syconycteris australis common blossom bat. In some areas such as at Bungawalbin National Park in northern New South Wales, B. integrifolia is the only source of nectar and pollen in the autumn (March–April) and late winter (July). The importance of non-flying mammals to pollination of B. integrifolia was demonstrated in 1989, with a study in Wilsons Promontory National Park showing a reduction of fruit set when measures were taken to exclude them. Banksia integrifolia is the host plant of the lichen species Arthonia banksiae.
Microscopic Eriophyid mites (Eriophyidae) cause galls on young infructescences of B. integrifoliaUnlike most Banksia species, B. integrifolia does not require bushfire to trigger the release of its seed. Rather, seed is released spontaneously on reaching maturity in late summer. The species' non-reliance on fire for seed dispersal suggests that the exclusion of fire would not affect plant populations, but a number of studies have found the opposite to be true: in areas where fire has been excluded for many years, populations have declined substantially. An investigation into the defoliation and premature death of trees on the Yanakie Isthmus in south Victoria reached the tentative conclusion that the absence of fire had created unhealthy surface soil conditions. On the Mornington Peninsula, surveys of an area that had not been burnt since the 1890s found that B. integrifolia densities fell by 77% between 1977 and 2000. A subsequent study found the decline to have been caused by extremely high seedling mortality rates, due to grazing by herbivores and intense competition for soil moisture during summer. Despite acknowledging that "the role of fire in these systems remains unclear", it concluded that "developing fire and/or grazing management regimes will be necessary to conserve the structural integrity of these coastal ecosystems."
These concerns aside, B. integrifolia does not appear to be under threat. It is highly resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, which poses a major threat to many other Banksia species; and its wide distribution protects against the threat of habitat loss due to land clearing. As a result, it does not appear on the list of threatened flora of Australia under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Cultivation
Hardy and versatile, B. integrifolia will grow in clay, sand, acid and even alkaline soils, and it shows good resistance to wind and salt, making it suitable for seaside planting. It is therefore highly regarded as a low-maintenance garden tree, although its large size makes it unsuitable for smaller gardens. Its hardiness may however forewarn weed potential, as some evidence of weediness has been seen in South Africa, Western Australia and New Zealand. When growing near bushland within its native habitat, it is recommended to obtain local provenance seed or plants if available.
The most common form available in commercial nurseries is unimproved Banksia integrifolia subsp. integrifolia. It prefers a sunny aspect without exposure to frosts, and tolerates fairly heavy pruning. Seeds do not require any treatment, and take 5 to 6 weeks to germinate. Flowering begins at around four to six years from seed. The other subspecies are less well known in cultivation, but are obtainable. Cultivation is presumably similar to B. integrifolia subsp. integrifolia, except that B. integrifolia subsp. monticola may be assumed frost-tolerant. Dwarf forms of B. integrifolia are sometimes sold, and a registered prostrate cultivar, Banksia 'Roller Coaster', is available. The latter is a vigorous ground-hugging plant that can spread to across yet remains only high.
Because of its high resistance to P. cinnamomi dieback, the feasibility of using B. integrifolia as a rootstock for susceptible Banksia species in the cut flower trade is under investigation. Presently, the success rate for grafting is only 30–40%, and even with successful grafts there is a tendency for the union to fail under stress. More research is needed before the technique will be ready for commercial use.
Other uses
The wood of B. integrifolia is pink to red, with inconspicuous rings and conspicuous rays. It is spongy and porous, with a density of around . It is considered highly decorative, but it warps badly on drying, has poor load-bearing qualities, and is susceptible to termite attack; it is therefore unsuitable for most construction purposes. It is sometimes used for cabinet panelling and in ornamental turnery, and natural bends were once sought after for making boat knees. It is a useful firewood.B. integrifolia produces a dark amber-coloured honey of middling quality and therefore low commercial value. Despite this, the species is highly valued by beekeepers because it produces large amounts of pollen and nectar during autumn and winter, thus helping support hives at a time when little else is flowering.
Historically, indigenous Australians obtained nectar from B. integrifolia by stroking the flower spikes then licking their hands, or by steeping flower spikes in a coolamon overnight. They also used the flower spikes as hairbrushes. Early settlers used the nectar as a syrup for sore throats and colds; and bushmen would impregnate barren "cones" with fat to make a slow-burning candle.
More recently, B. integrifolia has been used in the art of bonsai. Its rangy habit and long internodes are challenging to overcome, but the leaves do reduce with pruning, and unlike the gnarlier B. serrata'' (saw banksia) its trunk can become textured with age.
It is used as a floral emblem by two local government areas of Queensland: the City of Redcliffe and the City of Logan. In 2000 it was featured on an Australian postage stamp.
References
External links
integrifolia
Garden plants of Australia
Trees of Australia
Flora of Victoria (state)
Flora of Tasmania
Trees of mild maritime climate
Ornamental trees
Plants described in 1782 |
4353534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20Irish%20War%20of%20Independence | Timeline of the Irish War of Independence | This is a timeline of the Irish War of Independence (or the Anglo-Irish War) of 1919–21. The Irish War of Independence was a guerrilla conflict and most of the fighting was conducted on a small scale by the standards of conventional warfare.
Although there were some large-scale encounters between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the state forces of the United Kingdom (Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC)/Auxiliary Division and Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP) paramilitary units—the Black and Tans, the Ulster Special Constabulary (USC) and the regular British Army), most of the casualties were inflicted in assassinations and reprisals on either side. The war began with an unauthorised ambush by IRA volunteers Dan Breen and Seán Treacy at Soloheadbeg in 1919 and officially ended with a truce agreed in July 1921. However, violence continued, particularly in the disputed territory of Northern Ireland, until mid-1922 (see The Troubles in Northern Ireland (1920–1922)). In the rest of Ireland, the war was followed by the Irish Civil War between supporters and opponents of the Anglo-Irish Treaty.
1919
January 1919
21 January:
Sinn Féin TDs assembled in Dublin, forming the First Dáil and issuing the Irish Declaration of Independence.
Soloheadbeg ambush: IRA volunteers of the 3rd Tipperary Brigade, acting on their own initiative, ambushed and killed RIC officers Patrick O'Connell and James McDonnell at Soloheadbeg, County Tipperary. The volunteers had planned to seize the gelignite explosives the officers were escorting, and said that the officers aimed their rifles when asked to surrender. The two officers were accompanied by two council workers who were unharmed.
31 January: following a meeting of the Executive of the Irish Volunteers, the editorial of An t-Óglach (the official publication of the Irish Volunteers) stated that the formation of Dáil Éireann "justifies Irish Volunteers in treating the armed forces of the enemy – whether soldiers or policemen – exactly as a National Army would treat the members of an invading army".
February 1919
3 February 1919: Éamon de Valera (president of Sinn Féin) escaped from Lincoln Gaol, along with Seán McGarry and Seán Milroy. The escape was masterminded by Harry Boland and Michael Collins. All were members of Sinn Féin.
23 February 1919: at a Brigade meeting in Nodstown Tipperary, officers of the Third Tipperary Brigade drafted a proclamation (signed by Seumus Robinson as O/C) ordering all British military and police forces out of South Tipperary and, if they stayed they would be held to have "forfeited their lives". The leadership of the Irish Volunteers in Dublin refused to sanction the proclamation and demanded it not be publicly displayed. Despite this it was still posted in several places in Tipperary.
March 1919
19 March 1919: IRA volunteers raided Collinstown Airfield, now Dublin Airport. They captured 75 rifles and 4,000 rounds of ammunition. (Henderson says the raid occurred on 20 March and that 6,000 rounds of ammunition were captured.)
29 March 1919: Resident Magistrate John Charles Milling was assassinated in Westport, County Mayo for sending IRA volunteers to prison for unlawful assembly and drilling.
April 1919
1 April 1919: Second meeting of Dáil Éireann – Éamon de Valera was elected President of Dáil Éireann (or Príomh Aire) and appointed the government of the 1st Dáil. De Valera issued a statement that "There is in Ireland at this moment only one lawful authority, and that authority is the elected Government of the Irish Republic".
6 April 1919:
Limerick City IRA volunteers attempted to free a prisoner from Limerick Prison. RIC officer Martin O'Brien (aged 35) was killed, and another wounded. The prisoner, Robert Byrne, was also wounded and died later that day.
An RIC patrol was ambushed at Eyeries, County Cork. Three officers were shot and wounded.
10 April 1919: Third meeting of Dáil Éireann – the Dáil passed a motion calling on Irish people to ostracise the RIC. De Valera stated, "The Minister of National Defense is, of course, in close association with the voluntary military forces which are the foundation of the National Army". The British authorities declared counties Limerick, Tipperary, Cork, Kerry and Roscommon to be in a state of disturbance.
15–27 April 1919: The Limerick Soviet – the British declared Limerick to be a "Special Military Area" under the Defence of the Realm Act. Special permits were to be issued by the RIC, and would have been required to enter the city. In protest, the Limerick Trades & Labour Council called a general strike and boycott of British troops. A strike committee was set up to print money, control food prices and publish newspapers.
May 1919
13 May 1919: Rescue at Knocklong, County Limerick – captured IRA volunteer Seán Hogan was rescued from a train by his comrades while being guarded by four armed RIC officers. Two of the RIC officers were killed—Sergeant Peter Wallace (aged 47) and Constable Michael Enright (aged 35)—and several IRA volunteers were wounded.
17 May 1919:
First of the Dáil Courts was set up at Ballinrobe, County Mayo.
Dáil Éireann sent a letter to the head of the Paris Peace Conference, repudiating Britain's claim to speak for Ireland. Soon after, it sent a statement concerning "Ireland's Case for Independence" to the Conference.
June 1919
1 June 1919: De Valera departed for the United States. He sought to gain official recognition of the Irish Republic from the US government, to secure the support of the American people, and to raise money for Dáil Éireann and the IRA.
6 June 1919: The United States Senate passed a resolution asking for the delegation appointed by Dáil Éireann to be given a hearing at the Paris Peace Conference, and expressing sympathy with the "aspirations of the Irish people for a government of their own choice".
16 June 1919: IRA volunteers ambushed a six-man British Army-RIC patrol at Rathclarin, County Cork and seized their rifles. A soldier and a volunteer were injured.
18 June 1919: The Dáil officially established the Dáil Courts. The next day it approved the First Dáil Loan.
23 June 1919: IRA volunteers assassinated RIC District Inspector Michael Hunt in Thurles, County Tipperary.
24 June 1919: Two RIC officers were attacked and disarmed near Meenascarthy, County Kerry. Ten IRA volunteers were later arrested and five of them sentenced to prison terms.
July 1919
4 July 1919: Sinn Féin, the Irish Volunteers, Cumann na mBan and the Gaelic League were declared illegal in County Tipperary.
12 July 1919: Ulster Unionist Party leader Edward Carson warned that if any moves were made to separate Ulster from the United Kingdom he would call out the Ulster Volunteers.
30 July 1919: RIC Detective Sergeant Smith was shot and fatally wounded outside his home in Drumcondra, Dublin. It was the first assassination authorised by Michael Collins and carried out by The Squad.
August 1919
4 August 1919: Two RIC officers were fatally shot by the IRA while on patrol near Ennistymon, County Clare. An IRA volunteer was wounded in the action.
20 August 1919: Motion passed by Dáil that an Oath of Allegiance (to the Republic) should be taken by all members and officials of Dáil Éireann, and all Irish Volunteers. Volunteers began taking the oath on 25 August. O'Malley (new ed. 1990) says that with this oath the Irish Volunteers became the Irish Republican Army (IRA).
23 August 1919: Francis Murphy (15), a member of Fianna Éireann, was shot dead by British soldiers who fired into his home near Ennistymon, County Clare. It was allegedly retaliation for the recent IRA ambush nearby. Although the British Army denied responsibility, an inquest found them responsible.
September 1919
2 September 1919: An RIC Sergeant was killed and another wounded when their bicycle patrol was ambushed by IRA volunteers from the 1st Tipperary Brigade in Lorrha. Authorisation for the attack was given by Treacy and Breen, who were on the run in the area after the Soloheadbeg and Knocklong attacks earlier in the year.
7 September 1919: Fermoy ambush: The IRA ambushed British soldiers on their way to a church service outside the Methodist church in Fermoy, County Cork, where the service was being held. The IRA aim was to seize weapons. It was the first such action against the British Army. The ambush involved twenty-three Cork IRA volunteers, under the leadership of Liam Lynch, augmented by Mick Mansfield and George Lennon of Waterford. One soldier, Private William Jones, 2nd Battalion King's Shropshire Light Infantry, was killed. Lynch himself was wounded but survived. Fifteen rifles were captured by the IRA. Following the ambush, approximately 200 British soldiers attacked and looted businesses in the town.
10 September 1919: The Dáil was outlawed by the British government.
12 September 1919: Detective Constable Daniel Hoey of G Division (Dublin Metropolitan Police) was assassinated by the IRA in Dublin.
19 September 1919: Official founding of "the Squad", an IRA counter-intelligence and assassination squad.
October 1919
19 October 1919: Constable Michael Downing of G Division (Dublin Metropolitan Police) was assassinated by the IRA in Dublin.
31 October 1919: The IRA attacked Ballivor RIC barracks in County Meath, killing an RIC officer and seizing weaponry.
November 1919
4 November 1919: The British government's Irish Committee settled on a policy of creating two Home Rule parliaments—one in Dublin and one in Belfast—with a Council of Ireland to provide a framework for possible unity.
11 November 1919: First edition of the Irish Bulletin was produced by Dáil Éireann's Department of Publicity. It was to be produced every few days from this date onward and became very important in getting the Irish side of events known to a wide audience.
17 November 1919: Men of the 3rd Cork Brigade raided a British sloop whilst it was docked at a pier in Bantry, County Cork. The IRA men succeeded in capturing a number of arms and ammunition from the ship, greatly increasing the brigade's military capabilities in West Cork.
29 November 1919: Detective John Barton of G Division (Dublin Metropolitan Police) was assassinated by the IRA in Dublin.
December 1919
12 December 1919: In response to the arrest of three volunteers, the IRA shot and wounded a group of four RIC officers outside Dungloe, County Donegal. It was the first IRA action in the county during the conflict.
14 December 1919: An RIC officer was killed by the IRA in Kilbrittain, County Cork.
19 December 1919: The IRA attempted to assassinate the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, British Field Marshal Viscount French, in his car at Phoenix Park, Dublin. French was unhurt, but one IRA volunteer, Martin Savage, was killed. Dan Breen and two Dublin Metropolitan Policemen and a driver were wounded. An RIC Sergeant was knocked unconscious.
22 December 1919: Better Government of Ireland Bill was introduced into the House of Commons. It proposed two parliaments; one for the six counties of north-east Ulster and one for the other twenty-six counties of Ireland.
1920
January 1920
In elections to urban councils, republicans won control of Dublin, Cork and Limerick, among others. Unionists lost control of Derry city to Irish nationalists/republicans for the first time, heightening political tensions in Derry.
2 January 1920: IRA volunteers under Mick Leahy of the 1st Cork Brigade captured Carrigtwohill RIC barracks. This is reported as the first "officially-sanctioned" attack on an RIC barracks.
6 January 1920: Drumlish RIC barracks in County Longford was attacked by IRA volunteers led by Sean Connolly.
17 January 1920: the IRA West Waterford Brigade, commanded by George Lennon, attacked Ardmore RIC barracks.
19 January 1920: The IRA ambushed an RIC truck and its cycle escort outside Cooraclare, County Clare. The RIC returned fire and an IRA member (Michael Darcy) drowned crossing the Doonbeg River.
20 January 1920: RIC Constable Luke Finnegan was fatally shot in Thurles, County Tipperary in an ambush by three IRA volunteers. Afterward, policemen attacked property belonging to local republicans as well as some public property. This is the first reported instance of police reprisals.
21 January 1920: County Armagh-born RIC District Inspector William Redmond, Assistant Commissioner of G Division (Dublin Metropolitan Police), was shot dead by "the Squad" in Dublin.
February 1920
11 February 1920: Séamus O'Brien, commander of the IRA's Wicklow Brigade, was shot dead during an attack on an RIC patrol in Rathdrum, County Wicklow.
12 February 1920: An IRA unit led by Seán Hales attacked Allihies RIC barracks, County Cork, killing RIC officer Michael Neenan. Afterwards, the RIC abandoned several small barracks in the area.
14 February 1920: An IRA unit led by Diarmuid Hurley captured Castlemartyr RIC barracks, County Cork.
15 February 1920: Thirty IRA volunteers—led by Ernie O'Malley and Eoin O'Duffy—attacked and captured Shantonagh RIC barracks, near Castleblaney, County Monaghan. Following a firefight, the IRA blew a hole in the wall, wounding four RIC officers, and seized their weaponry.
18 February 1920: Timothy Quinlisk ex-POW/German Irish Brigade member and informer is executed by the IRA at Ballyphehane, County Cork for trying to betray Michael Collins.
20 February 1920:
Counties Dublin, Wicklow, Louth, Longford, Westmeath, Sligo and Waterford were proclaimed as being in a state of disturbance.
DMP officer John Walsh was shot dead and another officer (Dunleavy) was wounded in the stomach on Grafton Street, Dublin.
24 February 1920: IRA Vice Commandant Martin Devitt is killed in action during an ambush of an RIC patrol to take their rifles and ammunition. The ambush took place on the road between Fermoyle and Inagh, County Clare.
29 February 1920: A group of British soldiers from the Sherwood Foresters transporting explosives were stopped and disarmed by the IRA outside Cobh, County Cork. One of the soldiers ran and was shot dead.
March 1920
2 March 1920: British intelligence operative of Irish descent, John Charles Byrnes (alias "Jack Jameson"), was killed by "the Squad" in Dublin.
3 March 1920: Frank Shawe-Taylor, land agent, was shot dead near Athenry, County Galway.
5 March 1920: An RIC officer (John Martin Heanue) was shot dead as he called at a village grocers shop in Bouladuff, County Tipperary.
9 March 1920: An RIC officer (Thomas Ryan) was fatally wounded during an IRA bomb attack on Hugginstown RIC barracks, County Kilkenny.
10 March 1920: the IRA shot two RIC officers in a hotel in Rathkeale, County Limerick, killing Sergeant George Neazer.
11–12 March 1920: An RIC officer (Timothy Scully) was shot dead when his patrol was ambushed returning to barracks in Glanmire, County Cork. In reprisal, RIC officers attacked homes in Cork City.
16 March 1920: Two RIC officers were shot dead outside a church in Toomevara, County Tipperary.
19 March 1920: An RIC officer (Joseph Murtagh) was shot dead in an IRA ambush in Cork city while returning from a colleague's funeral.
20 March 1920: Tomás Mac Curtain, the Lord Mayor of Cork and commander of the IRA's 1st Cork Brigade, was assassinated in front of his wife at his home, by men with blackened faces later reportedly seen entering the local police barracks.
22 March 1920: British soldiers singing "God Save the King" drew a hostile crowd at Portobello Bridge, Dublin. Troops from the nearby barracks arrived and opened fire, killing two civilians.
24 March 1920: British intelligence operative of Irish descent, Frederick McNutley (alias British Army RASC clerk Brian Fergus Malloy) was killed by "the Squad" in Dublin after he had tried to lead the IRA into a trap.
25 March 1920: The Black and Tans arrived in Ireland.
26 March 1920: Resident Magistrate Alan Bell, from Banagher, County Offaly was killed. He was pulled from a tram in south Dublin and shot at point blank range. His death was instantaneous. He was tasked by the British to track down Sinn Féin funds; he had successfully confiscated over £71,000 from Sinn Féin's HQ and, by investigating banks throughout the country, was set to seize much more.
29 March 1920: Better Government of Ireland Bill was passed by 348 votes to 94 in Westminster.
March 1920:
West Limerick IRA volunteers killed a man for spying. This was the first such killing in the conflict.
County Kerry; Upon being told of a shoot-to-kill order on members of the IRA and burning of their homes, 4 RIC Constables resigned in protest. Two members of the IRA, Morris Welch and William Connell, were killed and their homes burned. In the town of Clohohim two Irish girls were beaten with gun butts by soldiers until stopped by EX-RIC officer Daniel F. Crowley
April 1920
3–4 April 1920: The IRA burned over 300 abandoned RIC barracks in rural areas and almost 100 income tax offices. A further 150 barracks were destroyed on the night of 5–6 April. While raiding the Excise Office in Ballyhaunis, County Mayo, the IRA shot and wounded two RIC officers of a three-man patrol which approached an IRA sentry post.
5 April 1920: IRA prisoners began a hunger strike in Mountjoy Prison, demanding prisoner of war status.
14 April 1920:
After large demonstrations and a general strike in support of the prisoners on hunger strike, all 90 were released. In Milltown Malbay a group of RIC and British Army shot into a crowd celebrating the prisoners' release, killing three people and wounding nine others. In Balbriggan, an RIC officer was shot dead following a demonstration in support of the hunger strikers.
Detective Constable Harry Kells of Dublin Metropolitan Police (DMP) "G" Division was assassinated in Dublin by "the Squad".
15 & 17 April 1920: Clashes erupted in Derry when republican prisoners were brought to Derry Gaol. British soldiers fired on a Catholic crowd (which included women and children) to disperse them. Later, an assault on patrolling British soldiers in Derry sparked clashes between Irish nationalists and unionists in the city. This culminated in an attack on an RIC barracks, apparently by the IRA, during which the RIC shot six people.
18 April 1920: The IRA attacked a group of RIC officers leaving a church in Kilmihil, County Clare. An RIC officer and an IRA volunteer were killed and several wounded.
21 April 1920: IRA prisoners began a hunger strike in Wormwood Scrubs Prison, London.
24 April 1920: the IRA assassinated a DMP sergeant in Clonakilty, County Cork.
25 April 1920: the IRA ambushed and killed two RIC officers (Sgt Cornelius Crean and Constable Patrick McGoldrick) near Ballinspittle, County Cork.
27 April 1920:
The IRA captured and destroyed the RIC barracks at Ballylanders, County Limerick, seizing arms and ammunition. In reprisal, Black and Tans went on a rampage in Limerick City.
A British soldier of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers was shot dead by the IRA during clashes between a group of civilians and British soldiers on Wolfe Tone Street, Limerick.
29 April 1920: The IRA attacked Rush RIC barracks, County Dublin, fatally wounding an RIC sergeant John Brady.
May 1920
3 May 1920: An RIC sergeant was killed and two wounded when IRA volunteers attempted to disarm them at Gale Bridge, near Listowel, County Kerry.
8 May 1920: The IRA 1st Cork Brigade, led by Mick Leahy, captured Cloyne RIC barracks, County Cork.
9 May 1920: Some 200 IRA volunteers under Frank Aiken attacked the RIC barracks in Newtownhamilton, County Armagh. After a two-hour firefight, the IRA breached the barracks wall with explosives and stormed the building. The RIC refused to surrender until the building was set alight with petrol from a potato-spraying machine.
10 May 1920: Three RIC officers were killed in an IRA ambush at Ahawadda Cross, near Timoleague, County Cork.
11 May 1920: IRA volunteers destroyed the RIC barracks at Hollyford, County Tipperary.
12 May 1920:
Destruction of vacated RIC barracks at Kill O'the Grange, Dublin, by members of 6th Battalion Dublin Brigade IRA. During this operation two IRA volunteers (Lt. Tom Dunne and Q/M Pat Meaney) were badly burned, and died on the 14th and 20th, respectively.
The surrendered RIC barracks at Rockbrook, Dublin was destroyed.
13 May 1920: W.J. McCabe, an employee of Laurence Ambrose Waldron (MP for County Dublin), was shot dead in Killiney.
14–15 May 1920: Every member of the Dáil (not already in prison) received a note through the post that said "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Therefore, a life for a life".
15–16 May 1920: Loyalists attacked a Catholic district of Derry, sparking a four-hour gun battle between armed republicans, loyalists and the RIC. A Detective Sergeant from RIC Special Branch was shot dead, the first RIC officer to be killed in Ulster. A Catholic man was also killed. Armed UVF members took over Carlisle Bridge and assaulted Catholics attempting to cross, despite the presence of British troops and police.
19 May 1920: The IRA assassinated two RIC sergeants on Upper Mallow Street, Limerick. RIC officers then ran amok in Limerick, firing indiscriminately and destroying several buildings. A civilian was shot dead and others wounded.
20 May 1920: Dublin dock workers refused to handle British military supplies, and were soon joined by members of the Irish Transport and General Workers Union; especially railway workers, who refused to drive trains carrying British troops. Despite hundreds of sackings, the strike continued until December.
28 May 1920: The IRA attacked Kilmallock RIC barracks, County Limerick, held by 18 to 28 RIC men. They fired on it, broke a hole in the roof and threw petrol bombs inside. Two RIC men were killed, two were wounded, and ten more surrendered. An IRA volunteer (Capt Liam Scully) was killed.
29 May 1920: IRA volunteer Thomas Sheridan was shot dead while attempting to disarm two RIC men in Crossdoney, County Cavan. An RIC officer and another volunteer were wounded. Sheridan was one of only three IRA volunteers to be killed in County Cavan during the war.
June 1920
1 June 1920:
At least 200 IRA volunteers led by Roger McCorley attacked the RIC barracks in Crossgar, County Down. They opened fire on the building, wounding two officers, and attempted to breach the walls with explosives before withdrawing.
IRA volunteers destroyed Blarney and Carrigadrohid RIC barracks in County Cork.
2 June 1920: The IRA attacked and burned down Fenit RIC barracks and pier in County Kerry
3/4 June 1920: IRA volunteers destroyed Drangan RIC barracks in County Tipperary and captured weapons.
6 June 1920: The IRA opened fire on RIC officers in Cullyhanna, County Armagh. Three officers were wounded, one fatally. The RIC returned fire, killing a civilian.
11 June 1920: An RIC detective was shot dead in the Railway Hotel on Parnell Street, Limerick.
12 June 1920:
In county council elections, Sinn Féin won control of all but four county councils (Antrim, Armagh, Londonderry and Down). Republicans also won control of 172 out of 206 rural district councils. The republican-controlled councils gave allegiance to the Irish Republic.
An RIC officer was shot dead outside Glengarriff barracks, County Cork.
15 June 1920: Percival Lea-Wilson (or Lee-Wilson), an RIC District Inspector in Gorey, was shot dead by the IRA outside his home on the orders of Michael Collins. Lea-Wilson had ordered Seán Mac Diarmada's execution as one of the leaders of the Easter Rising.
Constable Pierce Doogue (aged 42) was killed by a stone while on leave aiding colleagues at a disturbance at Belmullet, County Mayo.
16 June 1920: The IRA raided the RIC barracks in Cookstown, County Tyrone, with help from four sympathetic RIC officers. In a brief firefight, IRA volunteer Patrick Loughran was killed. He was the first IRA volunteer killed on active service in what became Northern Ireland.
18–19 June 1920: Sectarian clashes erupted in Derry. Catholic homes were attacked and burned in the mainly-Protestant Waterside. The Derry Journal wrote that the streets looked "as if an avenging army had passed through them". The Catholics fled by boat across the River Foyle but the UVF fired on them from the bridge. Later, loyalists fired into the Catholic Long Tower and Bogside districts, and republicans returned fire. Much of the loyalist shooting came from the city walls and Fountain neighbourhood. Two Catholic civilians were killed on Long Tower Street by a loyalist sniper on 19 June.
21–24 June 1920: The UVF occupied the centre of Derry and UVF snipers fired on Catholic districts from rooftops and the city walls. The IRA returned fire and engaged the UVF in the Diamond. There was fierce fighting around St Columb's College. Armed with rifles and machine-guns, the IRA occupied the college and dislodged the loyalist snipers, inflicting an estimated twenty casualties. Shortly after, 1,500 British Army reinforcements arrived in Derry and imposed a curfew. An IRA commander, seven Catholic civilians and three Protestant civilians were killed throughout the city between 21 and 24 June.
26 June 1920:
About 200 IRA volunteers attacked an RIC barracks at Borrisokane, County Tipperary. The attack was unsuccessful, but the building was so badly damaged that it was evacuated the next day.
British General Cuthbert Lucas was captured near Fermoy, County Cork, and held as prisoner of war by the IRA East Clare Brigade. He was commander of the British 17th Infantry Brigade and was the highest ranking British officer captured by the IRA during the conflict. He was held until 30 July, during which time he came to admire the discipline and efficiency of the volunteers he met. The IRA arranged for Lucas to exchange letters with his wife in England. Lucas kept his word to the volunteers not to reveal their names or where he had been held prisoner.
June 1920: British courts of assize failed across the south and west, and trials by jury could not be held because potential jurors refused to participate. The Chief Secretary for Ireland at the time, Hamar Greenwood, told the British government that "the administrative machinery of the courts has been brought to a standstill". The collapse of the court system demoralized the RIC; many officers left the force.
July 1920
2 July 1920: The IRA ambushed a four-man RIC patrol near the village of Dualla, County Tipperary. An RIC sergeant was killed and a constable was wounded. A man was arrested on 9 August to await trial by court martial for the incident.
4 July 1920: An IRA volunteer was killed during an ambush of an RIC truck at Shevry, County Tipperary.
11 July 1920: A Black and Tan was killed by a bomb during an IRA attack on Rathmore RIC barracks, County Kerry.
13 July 1920: Two RIC officers were killed when their mobile patrol was ambushed by the IRA in Dingle, County Kerry.
17 July 1920:
British Colonel Gerald Smyth was assassinated by the IRA in a Cork City country club. Smyth had told RIC officers to shoot civilians who disobeyed orders. Railway workers refused to carry Smyth's body back to his native Banbridge, County Down. The assassination provoked retaliation by loyalists against Catholics in Banbridge and Belfast.
Two British soldiers of the Border Regiment were severely wounded in an ambush at Swinford, County Mayo.
19/20 July 1920: IRA volunteers ambushed an RIC patrol on the Tuam–Dunmore road, County Galway. Two officers were killed while the other two surrendered, and were released unharmed. After searching unsuccessfully for the ambushers, RIC reinforcements rioted in Tuam, firing and throwing grenades in the streets, burning down the town hall, a Sinn Féin Hall, and a warehouse, and threatening to kill republican suspects. Townspeople who tried to douse the flames were shot at. The riot inspired copycat reprisals across Ireland in the summer and autumn of 1920.
21 July 1920:
Thirty IRA volunteers ambushed a British Army truck at Coolavokig, County Cork. Four soldiers were wounded, two fatally.
British troops killed two IRA volunteers who had allegedly ambushed their truck outside Mitchelstown, County Cork.
An RIC officer was killed and another wounded by IRA volunteers attempting to disarm them in Ballina, County Mayo.
A civilian was fatally wounded when British forces blew up the house of an IRA volunteer on Davis Street, Limerick, in reprisal for the assassination of Colonel Smyth.
21–23 July 1920:
In Belfast, Loyalists forced more than 7,000 Catholics and Irish nationalists from their jobs at Harland and Wolff shipyards (see The Troubles in Northern Ireland (1920–1922)). This sparked a wave of sectarian clashes in the city. At the Falls-Shankill interface, seven Catholics and two Protestants were killed, mostly by British soldiers firing machine-guns to disperse rioters. One was a Catholic priest, killed in Clonard Monastery by British Army gunfire. Another Catholic civilian was shot dead by soldiers during clashes in the Markets. Loyalists attempted to burn down a Catholic convent on Newtownards Road. British soldiers guarding the building opened fire, wounding 15 Protestants, three of them fatally.
After Smyth's funeral (see 17 July 1920), about 3,000 Loyalists took to the streets in Banbridge. Many Catholic homes and businesses were attacked, burned and looted, despite police being present. A member of the Orange Order was shot dead, it was determined that the bullet had been fired by the police. A Protestant was killed when a republican fired on loyalists who were besieging his home.
On 23 July 1920, in Dromore, County Down sectarian motivated riots occurred. An estimated crowd of 500 attacked Catholic homes, businesses and the Catholic parochial house. A Protestant was killed when police fired to disperse loyalists who were attacking Catholic homes. At the end of these two days of violence, virtually the entire Catholic populations of Banbridge and Dromore were forced to flee their homes.
23 July 1920: A critical meeting of the British government was held in London. The cabinet was divided on how to proceed. Some Liberal ministers and Dublin Castle officials were in favour of offering dominion status to Ireland. Unionist ministers argued that the Government must crush the insurgency and proceed with the Government of Ireland Bill. Debate continued after the meeting: Walter Long warned of "the gravest consequences in Ulster" if the Government changed course; by 2 August, the hawks prevailed.
25 July 1920: The chief RIC intelligence officer for west Cork, D/Sgt William Mulherin, was assassinated by the IRA outside a church in Bandon, County Cork.
26 July 1920: IRA volunteers attacked an RIC cycle patrol at Ballyrush, County Sligo.
27 July 1920: An RIC constable was shot dead by IRA volunteers in Clonakilty, County Cork.
28 July 1920: Two British soldiers were killed and two wounded in an IRA ambush at Oola, County Limerick.
29 July 1920: A party of about twenty British Military Police on guard outside the old House of Parliament on College Green, Dublin were surprised and disarmed by IRA volunteers.
30 July 1920:
In County Limerick, two British soldiers were killed in an ambush of a lorry at Oola, and another British soldier is killed in an ambush of a cycle patrol at Tankardstown.
Members of the IRA assassination unit (known as The "Squad") led by Paddy Daly, shot and killed Frank Brooke, director of Great Southern and Eastern Railway in his office in Dublin. Brooke was a member of the British military's Advisory Council. The killing was characterised by historian Peter Hart as "the only outright political assassination of the War of Independence".
British Brigadier-General Cuthbert Lucas escapes from the IRA, and later both praised the IRA and refused to reveal to the British the names of volunteers he met or where he was held (see Timeline entry for 26 June 1920).
August 1920
2 August 1920: Holywell Ambush: There was a battle between British soldiers and the IRA at Holywell on the Ballyhaunis–Claremorris Road, County Mayo. Five British soldiers and an IRA commander were wounded.
7 August 1920: Kildorrery Ambush: The IRA's East Limerick Flying Column under Donnacha O'Hannigan and George Lennon, joined forces with a Cork column under Tom Barry. Numbering twenty-five men, they ambushed an eight-man RIC foot patrol near Kildorrery, County Cork. All the Black and Tans/RIC men were wounded, one fatally. Six revolvers and 250 rounds of ammunition were seized.
9 August 1920: The Restoration of Order in Ireland Act received royal assent. The Act gave the British administration the power to govern by regulation; to replace criminal courts with courts martial; to replace coroners' inquests with military courts of inquiry; and to punish disaffected local governments by withholding their grants of money.
12 August 1920: Terence McSwiney, Lord Mayor of Cork, was arrested. McSwiney began a hunger strike (died 25 October 1920) in protest and was joined by ten other prisoners. IRA officers Liam Lynch and Seán Hegarty were also arrested, but mistakenly released by the British.
14 August 1920:
The IRA fired on a group of British soldiers guarding an RAF plane which had been forced to land at Drominagh, County Cork. One British soldier was killed and others wounded.
British soldiers shot dead a civilian after searching his home in Hospital, County Limerick. It is suggested he was mistaken for an IRA volunteer.
John Coughlan is kidnapped by the IRA on a charge of allowing his daughters to be prostitutes for the British; he commits suicide in IRA custody
15 August 1920: An RIC officer was killed in an ambush on Edward Street, Limerick. Disturbances followed, during which an ex-serviceman was severely beaten by police. He died the next day.
16 August 1920:
Two IRA volunteers were shot dead during a police and military raid on a house near Kanturk, County Cork.
The IRA assassinated an RIC District Inspector in Templemore, County Tipperary. Police and military burned several businesses and the town hall in reprisal. Two officers of the Northamptonshire Regiment were mistakenly killed in the fires.
17–18 August 1920: The IRA ambushed two RIC patrols in Ardara, County Donegal, wounding six officers.
18 August 1920: IRA volunteers led by Seán Mac Eoin raided the British Army barracks in Longford and Ballymahon for weaponry.
21 August 1920:
The IRA ambushed an RIC patrol in Kill, County Kildare. One officer was killed and another fatally wounded. It was the first such attack in the county.
Another RIC officer was killed when a patrol was ambushed near Merlin Park in Galway City.
A third RIC patrol was ambushed in Dundalk, County Louth, killing one officer and wounding four. In revenge, loyalists attacked and looted businesses belonging to prominent Irish nationalists.
22 August 1920:
RIC District Inspector Oswald Swanzy was assassinated by Cork IRA volunteers while leaving a church in Lisburn, County Antrim. Swanzy had been among those blamed by an inquest jury in the killing of Cork Mayor Tomás Mac Curtain. In revenge, the UVF burned hundreds of Catholic homes and businesses in Lisburn, causing many Catholics to flee the town. Several Special Constables later had their charges in relation to the arson dropped. Violence soon spread to Belfast.
An RIC sergeant was shot dead while off duty after leaving a club in Athlone.
The IRA ambushed an RIC truck at Kilmurry, County Cork. Several officers were wounded and an IRA volunteer was killed in the exchange of fire.
IRA forces from East Mayo, led by Seán Corcoran and Seán Walsh, captured Ballavarry RIC barracks in County Mayo and seized weaponry.
24 August 1920: An RIC officer was shot dead and another wounded at pub in Glengarriff, County Cork.
25 August 1920: An RIC officer was killed in ambush in Bantry, County Cork.
26 August 1920:
The IRA raided Drumquin RIC barracks, County Tyrone. One RIC officer was shot dead, others wounded, and the weaponry in the barracks was seized.
An RIC officer was killed in ambush at Knockcroghery, County Roscommon.
The IRA forced two RIC officers out of Shanagolden, County Limerick. In response, a large RIC group arrived in the village, burned several buildings and shot dead a local civilian.
27 August 1920:
A British soldier was killed and two others wounded in attack on a British Army vehicle at Churchtown, near Midleton, County Cork. British troops arrested two Sinn Féin members in Midleton. One was shot dead and the other wounded, allegedly when they tried to escape.
An RIC officer was killed in an ambush on an RIC vehicle in Drumlish, County Longford.
29 August 1920: Sectarian clashes erupted in Belfast in response to the burning of Catholic homes in Lisburn. British troops fired a Hotchkiss machine gun to disperse the rioters. Six Catholics and a Protestant were killed in the violence.
31 August 1920: Volunteers of the IRA's Monaghan Brigade carried out raids for weapons at the homes of several unionist families with UVF links. Although some weaponry was seized, four IRA volunteers were fatally shot by the unionists.
On various dates in August, IRA volunteers swore allegiance to Dáil Éireann. They had previously sworn to obey their Executive Councils.
In late August and during most of September, there was a truce between the IRA and British forces in Templemore, as Marian apparitions had supposedly occurred in town, resulting in thousands of pilgrims coming to the area daily (see Templemore apparitions).
September 1920
1 September 1920: The IRA ambushed an RIC cycle patrol at Ratra Crossroads, County Roscommon. Two RIC officers and IRA volunteer Thomas McDonagh were killed before the IRA withdrew. The RIC then dragged McDonagh's body through the streets of Ballaghaderreen and destroyed several buildings in the town.
5 September 1920: British soldiers, hidden in a lorry which appeared to have broken down, shot dead an IRA volunteer and a civilian who approached it in Ballymakeera, County Cork.
8 September 1920: Two RIC officers were killed in an ambush outside Tullow barracks, County Carlow.
9 September 1920: IRA volunteer Seán Mulvoy was shot dead while disarming lone Black and Tan Edward Krumm at Galway railway station. Krumm was also killed during the struggle. The RIC retaliated by killing local IRA volunteer Seamus Quirke and wrecking the offices of the Galway Express, a republican newspaper.
10 September 1920: IRA volunteer Patrick Gill was shot dead by Black and Tans in Drumsna, County Leitrim.
14 September 1920:
Civilian James Connolly was shot dead by Black and Tans at his home in Kinlough, County Leitrim. They came to arrest his son, and being deaf he did not hear an order to put up his hands.
Three IRA volunteers (Pat Glynn, Michael Keane, and Michael Glavey) were killed in an ambush by British troops at Ballinlough, County Roscommon.
20 September 1920:
The IRA ambushed a lorry of British soldiers on Church Street, Dublin. Three soldiers were killed and others wounded the first in the city since the Easter Rising of 1916. IRA volunteer Kevin Barry, aged 18, was arrested at the scene and charged with murder.
RIC Head Constable Peter Burke and Sergeant Michael Burke were shot by IRA volunteers at a pub in Balbriggan, County Dublin. In retaliation, Black and Tans burned and looted many homes and businesses in Balbriggan and killed two suspected IRA volunteers (Séamus Lawless and Seán Gibbons). The incident, known as "the Sack of Balbriggan", gained widespread publicity in the local and international press.
The IRA ambushed an RIC patrol outside Abbeyfeale, County Limerick. Two RIC officers were killed and the rest took cover in a nearby presbytery. The following night, a Black and Tan killed two civilians in the town.
21 September 1920: An RIC officer was shot dead while part of a police/army patrol searching houses in Ferbane, County Offaly.
22 September 1920: Rineen ambush – Six RIC officers were killed when the IRA ambushed their truck near Rineen, County Clare. The IRA volunteers were then attacked by ten truck-loads of British soldiers sent as reinforcements. However, they held off this attack long enough to withdraw, with only two wounded. At nearby Caherfenick, a resident magistrate Alan Lendrum was shot dead by the IRA in an attempt to commandeer his car. In reprisal for the ambush, the RIC and British Army raided three nearby villages, burning many buildings and killing five civilians.
23 September 1920: Sinn Féin County Councillor John Aloysius Lynch of Kilmallock, County Limerick was assassinated at the Exchange Hotel in Dublin by a British agent (Captain John Fitzgerald, a native of Cappawhite, County Tipperary, who was later assassinated himself on Bloody Sunday).
26 September 1920: Black and Tans burned the village of Kilkee, County Clare.
27 September 1920: Black and Tans burned the town centre of Trim, County Meath.
28 September 1920: IRA volunteers, led by Liam Lynch and Ernie O'Malley, raided Mallow British Army barracks in County Cork. They seized weaponry, freed prisoners and killed British sergeant W.G. Gibbs of the 17th Lancers/"Duke of Cambridge's Own". It was the only British Army barracks to be captured during the war. British troops burned many buildings in the town in reprisal.
29 September 1920:
Two RIC officers were killed in an ambush of patrol outside Borrisoleigh, County Tipperary.
Two RIC officers were shot dead in a pub in O'Brien's Bridge, County Clare.
Four Catholic civilians were killed by British soldiers firing from a military truck during disturbances on Falls Road, Belfast.
30 September 1920: An IRA ambush of an RIC lorry near Tobercurry, County Sligo, killed District Inspector James Brady and wounded several others. In reprisal, a group of RIC and Black and Tans burned homes and businesses in the town. The IRA engaged them but were forced to withdraw.
In late August and during most of September, there was a truce between the IRA and Crown forces in Templemore, as Marian apparitions had supposedly occurred in town, resulting in thousands of pilgrims coming to the area daily (see Templemore apparitions).
October 1920
2 October 1920: RIC officers shot dead a Sinn Féin member while searching his house at Lackagh, County Galway.
7 October 1920: Two RIC officers were killed in an ambush at Feakle post office, County Clare. The RIC burned several buildings that had been used by the ambushers.
8 October 1920: A British soldier was killed and others wounded when their truck was attacked with grenades and gunfire on Barrack Street, Cork.
9 October 1920: A Royal Air Force lieutenant was killed and a British Army lieutenant fatally wounded in an ambush on military trucks at Newcestown, County Cork.
11 October 1920: One civilian was killed and IRA volunteer Dan Breen badly wounded in a shoot-out at an IRA safe house in Drumcondra, Dublin. Two British officers died of their wounds the next day, Major E. Smyth and Captain A.P. White. Major Smyth was a brother of Colonel Gerard Smyth, who had been killed by the IRA in July.
12 October 1920:
Four RIC officers were killed in an ambush at Ballinderry, County Roscommon.
In County Wexford, five IRA volunteers were killed and nine injured (five severely), when explosives being prepared for an attack on Foulksmills RIC barracks accidentally detonated in an old unoccupied house at St Kearns, Saltmills.
14 October 1920:
British soldiers raided an IRA safe house on Talbot Street, Dublin. IRA volunteer Seán Treacy was killed by British undercover agents, but managed to kill one of the agents, a Lieutenant Price, before being shot. Two civilian bystanders were also killed by British machine-gun fire.
An IRA volunteer was killed in an attack on British armoured car in Phibsborough, Dublin.
15 October 1920: Auxiliaries rounded up every man in the village of Ballyvourney, County Cork. They fired indiscriminately and killed a civilian.
16 October 1920: Peter O'Carroll, a prominent republican with two IRA volunteer sons, was shot dead by British forces at his home in Manor Street, Dublin. David Neligan identified the organiser as Major Jocelyn Lee Hardy (DSO).
17 October 1920: An RIC sergeant was assassinated by members of the Squad on Little Strand Street, Dublin.
18 October 1920: Two IRA volunteers (brothers Ned and Frank O'Dwyer) were killed by British forces in Bansha, County Tipperary.
19 October 1920: In Galway, Sinn Féin councillor and local businessman Michael Walsh was murdered. He was confronted at his pub, the Old Malt, by an armed group of "English secret service men". He was subsequently taken to the docks, where he was shot, and his body dumped in the river.
22 October 1920:
Tooreen Ambush – the IRA's 3rd Cork Brigade attacked a lorry carrying British troops from the Essex Regiment on the road between Bandon and Cork. Two soldiers were killed outright. Five were wounded, including one who died the next day. Those alive were disarmed (fourteen rifles, bayonets, equipment, several Mills bombs, around 1,400 rounds of ammunition and a couple of revolvers were taken from them) and then released.
A Black and Tan was killed in an ambush of RIC trucks near Moate, Westmeath. When the trucks arrived in Athlone, there was another exchange of fire, and a civilian was killed by RIC gunfire.
25 October 1920:
Terence MacSwiney died on hunger strike in Brixton Prison, London. Two other Cork IRA volunteers, Michael Fitzgerald and Joe Murphy, died during the hunger strike. Both men, along with eight others, had been arrested along with MacSwiney. They were known as the Cork Ten because all ten went on the hunger strike together. After this, Arthur Griffith called off the hunger strike and the other eight recovered. See 1920 Cork hunger strike.
Three RIC officers were killed and three wounded in an ambush at Moneygold, County Sligo. Three IRA volunteers and their female driver were later arrested and imprisoned.
IRA volunteers raided the home of an RIC officer in Kill, County Waterford. The officer threw a grenade, fatally wounding an IRA volunteer.
IRA volunteers raided the RIC barracks in Tempo, County Fermanagh, fatally wounding an RIC sergeant. The IRA were driven off by armed UVF members. A Catholic civilian, believed to have republican sympathies, was then shot in the doorway of his family's pub in the village and later died of his wounds.
28 October 1920:
Private G. Robertson of the Royal Scots Regiment was killed by the IRA near Connolly, County Clare.
The IRA's 3rd Tipperary Brigade ambushed a British Army lorry at Thomastown, near Golden, County Tipperary. Three soldiers were killed (two from the Northamptonshire Regiment and one from the Royal Engineers) and six were wounded.
31 October 1920:
RIC Detective Philip Kelleher was shot dead by IRA volunteers at The Greville Arms, Granard, County Longford.
Ten people were killed in County Kerry. Two RIC constables were shot dead in Abbeydorney by IRA volunteers. Two other constables were killed and two more wounded in nearby Ballyduff. Black and Tans burned the creamery in Ballyduff in reprisal, and shot and bayoneted a local man, James Houlahan. That night, two Black and Tans were shot dead by IRA volunteers in Killorglin and two more were wounded in Dingle. Black and Tans burned the Sinn Féin hall, the Temperance Hall, a garage, and the home of a Sinn Féin activist in Killorglin. A local civilian was shot and seriously wounded; he later died of his injuries. One RIC Constable Waters and one RIC/Black and Tan Auxiliary Constable Ernest Bright were kidnapped by IRA volunteers in Tralee. It is thought that they were shot and killed. This provoked a week of police violence in Tralee (called in several international newspapers "the Siege of Tralee") as RIC personnel tried to recover the bodies. Reportedly, the remains of one of the two missing men was found later.
November 1920
1 November 1920:
Siege of Tralee – In reprisal for IRA attacks in the area, Black and Tans attacked Tralee, County Kerry. They destroyed the town hall and several shops, and fired indiscriminately in the streets. Civilian John Conway was shot dead as he left his home on Rock Street. Tommy Wall, an ex-serviceman, was beaten and shot in the Mall, dying of his wounds on 3 November.
IRA volunteer Kevin Barry was hanged in Dublin for his part in an ambush in which three British soldiers were killed on 20 September 1920.
An RIC detective was shot dead at Breaghy Crossroads near Ballinalee, County Longford. Another RIC sergeant was shot dead near the barracks in Tullamore, County Offaly.
Black and Tans fatally shot civilian Eileen Quinn at Kiltartan, near Gort, County Galway. Quinn was pregnant and sitting outside her house holding a young child, when Black and Tans shot her from a passing lorry. They were apparently drunk and had been firing randomly as they drove through the district. At the military court of inquiry, police claimed no shots were fired, though the court returned a verdict of "death by misadventure" and the opinion that Quinn was shot by a member of the police.
IRA fighters from West Waterford, led by George Lennon, ambushed a RIC/British army patrol from the 2nd Hampshires under Lieutenant Griffin at Piltown, Kinsalebeg, County Waterford. One soldier was killed, 2 wounded and seventeen captured (who were later released). Some 18 rifles, carbines and revolvers plus grenades and ammunition were captured. See Piltown Cross ambush.
2 November 1920:
Battle of Ballinalee – Seán Mac Eoin's North Longford IRA column defended the village of Ballinalee from an assault by the Black and Tans, launched in response to the shooting of a RIC constable (Peter Cooney) there the previous day (1 November). Cooney was suspected of being a spy and his execution was allegedly ordered by Michael Collins. At the time of his killing, Cooney allegedly was carrying coded dispatches with the names of Longford IRA men. British forces, consisting of eleven lorries of troops, retreated after a two and a half-hour gunfight. The IRA column remained in the village for a week.
The IRA ambushed two RIC trucks near Athlone, Westmeath. A Black and Tan and an IRA member were killed.
An RIC officer was shot dead at a hotel bar in Cloghjordan, County Tipperary.
3 November 1920:
An RIC sergeant was shot dead at the fair in Ballymote, County Sligo. Lorries of British soldiers later arrived and burnt down a creamery, a bakery and several houses.
The RIC shot dead an IRA volunteer in a raid on his home at Rathconnor, County Roscommon.
4 November 1920: A British Intelligence Officer was ambushed and killed outside Nenagh, Country Tipperary. Two IRA volunteers were arrested nearby and bayoneted to death.
5 November 1920: An IRA unit waiting in ambush positions in Causeway, County Kerry, were surrounded by the RIC. The IRA fought their way out of the village, but an IRA scout was killed. Later, there was an exchange of fire between the IRA and British forces in nearby Ardfert. A young civilian girl was shot dead by Black and Tans, while an IRA volunteer was captured and shot dead.
6 November 1920: Two Auxiliaries were captured at Emmet Place in Cork and shot dead.
8 November 1920: An IRA column ambushed a British Army lorry at Grange, County Limerick. Three British soldiers were wounded. The IRA column under Tomás Malone retreated when seven more British troop lorries arrived. Two IRA were wounded and two alleged IRA were taken prisoner.
9 November 1920: IRA volunteers commanded by Tom McEllistrim halted a train at Ballybrack station, County Kerry. Two Black and Tans were taken off the train and shot dead.
10 November 1920:
An IRA volunteer was killed in an exchange of fire with Auxiliaries searching houses in Tooreenduff, County Cork.
A Protestant IRA member was shot dead after being stopped and searched by the RIC at Farmers Bridge, near Tralee, County Kerry.
12 November 1920: Two IRA volunteers were killed when an RIC convoy fired on an IRA unit at Ballydwyer, near Tralee, County Kerry.
13 November 1920:
Four RIC officers were killed when their truck was ambushed at Lisvernane, County Tipperary.
British troops fired on a group of civilians who fled from them on Charlemont Street, Dublin. An 8-year-old girl was killed and another wounded.
14 November 1920: A pro-republican Roman Catholic priest, Father Michael Griffin, disappeared after leaving his residence at St Joseph's Church in Galway. It emerged afterwards that he had been abducted and killed by loyalist forces (most likely Auxiliaries) at Barna. Griffin had given the last rites to Seamus Quirke, and took part in the funeral mass for Michael Walsh.
15 November 1920: Three British Army officers were captured and killed by the IRA at Waterfall, County Cork.
16 November 1920:
Three IRA volunteers and a civilian were arrested by Auxiliaries near Killaloe, County Clare. They were beaten, interrogated and then shot dead.
The IRA captured and killed two Auxiliaries and secretly buried them in the Macroom area, County Cork.
17–18 November 1920: The IRA assassinated an RIC sergeant on White Street, Cork. Hours later, disguised RIC officers shot three people dead at their homes. One was a member of Fianna Éireann and another the brother of an IRA volunteer.
18 November 1920: An RAF plane crashed near Cratloe, County Clare, and a platoon of British soldiers was sent to guard it. The IRA opened fire on the soldiers, killing one and fatally wounding another.
19 November 1920: Four IRA officers were captured by Auxiliaries in Durris, County Cork. Only the intervention of a colonel of the King's Liverpool Regiment prevented the men from being summarily killed.
21 November 1920: Bloody Sunday:
Morning: The IRA carried out an assassination operation targeting British intelligence agents in Dublin (most of whom were part of the "Cairo Gang"). Eight addresses were raided and fifteen men were killed or fatally wounded. Most were believed to have been British agents, although some were ordinary British Army officers and civilians. Two were Auxiliaries responding to the attacks.
Afternoon: British RIC, Auxiliaries, and soldiers raided Croke Park during a Gaelic football match between Dublin and Tipperary in response to the IRA shootings that morning. For some unknown reason, police opened fire on the crowd. Fourteen spectators and players were killed. That evening, Dublin Castle claimed that the raiding party came under fire; this claim was contradicted by the press, and, later, by the findings of military courts of inquiry, which were suppressed by the British government. The shootings were generally considered to be a reprisal.
Evening: Two IRA operatives (Dick McKee and Peadar Clancy) who had helped compile the intelligence used in the assassinations, along with Conor Clune (who had been arrested with them), were "shot while trying to escape" in Dublin Castle.
Attacks on RIC barracks at Bray, Cabinteely, Enniskerry, and Dundrum were carried out by the 6th Battalion, under specific order of the Dublin Brigade IRA in an effort to draw reinforcements from the city and relieve pressure on the Dublin city battalions. The attacks continued until the early hours of Monday 22nd. A British armoured car was attacked at Temple Hill, Blackrock, Dublin.
22 November 1920:
IRA lieutenant Jack McCann was taken from his home by unidentified British forces and shot dead in Rush, County Dublin.
Another IRA lieutenant was killed when the RIC surprised an IRA unit in Ballylongford, County Kerry.
RIC Head Constable John Kearney was assassinated outside a church in Newry.
23 November 1920:
Three IRA volunteers were killed and others wounded in a grenade attack on Patrick's Street, Cork, after leaving a meeting. It had been thrown by a Black in Tan in civilian clothes.
An RIC officer in Strokestown, County Roscommon was captured by the IRA and believed to have been killed.
25 November 1920: Sinn Féin leaders Arthur Griffith and Eoin Mac Neill were arrested by British troops in Dublin.
26 November 1920:
Two British soldiers were killed when a military lorry was ambushed by IRA volunteers under Tom Barry outside Glanworth, County Cork.
IRA volunteer brothers Patrick and Harry Loughnane were captured, interrogated and killed by Auxiliaries at Drumharsna Castle, County Galway. They were beaten, tortured, set on fire and then their bodies were dumped in a pond where they were found more than a week later.
27 November 1920: An IRA volunteer and RIC officer were killed in an exchange of fire in Castlemartyr, County Cork.
28 November 1920: Kilmichael ambush. The West Cork Brigade of the IRA, under Tom Barry, ambushed a patrol of 18 Auxiliaries at Kilmichael, killing 17. Three IRA volunteers were killed in the action.
29 November 1920: An RIC officer was shot dead outside a hotel in Cappoquin, County Waterford.
30 November 1920: Two IRA volunteers were taken from their homes and killed by unidentified British forces in Ardee, County Louth.
November 1920: Attack on a military lorry on the Bray Road at Crinken, Shankill, County Dublin, by IRA volunteers from the Shankill/Bray Coy 6th Battalion Dublin Brigade. One soldier was killed and three others wounded.
December 1920
2 December 1920: Three IRA volunteers were shot dead by British soldiers in Bandon, County Cork. They had been on their way to meet a British soldier supposedly willing to give information.
3 December 1920: An RIC officer was killed when his patrol came under fire in Youghal, County Cork.
6 December 1920: British forces raided a Republican Court at Craggaknock, County Clare. They fired on people fleeing the building, killing a civilian.
8 December 1920: An IRA volunteer was killed in an ambush of an RIC truck at Gaggin, County Cork.
10 December 1920:
The British authorities proclaimed martial law in counties Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Tipperary.
The IRA ambushed a British Army truck at Castlelyons, County Cork. A British soldier was killed while eight were captured, disarmed and released.
An IRA volunteer was fatally wounded in an exchange of fire with British forces near Knocklong, County Limerick.
IRA volunteer William Owens was shot dead by a Major Shore of the British military during a raid on the Sinn Féin hall in Shankill, County Dublin. Several unsuccessful attempts were later made by the Shankill IRA to kill Shore.
British troops captured an IRA bomb making factory in Dublin. Ernie O'Malley was captured by British troops in Kilkenny, in possession of a pistol and incriminating documents.
11 December 1920: The Burning of Cork. A lorry of Auxiliaries was ambushed by the IRA near Dillons Cross: several Auxiliaries were wounded, one fatally. Shortly after, British forces killed two IRA volunteers (the Delaney brothers) at their home nearby, set fire to the commercial centre of Cork city, and burned down City Hall and the Carnegie Library. The next day, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Cork, Daniel Colahan, issued a decree saying that "anyone within the diocese of Cork who organises or takes part in ambushes or murder or attempted murder shall be excommunicated". The edict went unheeded.
12 December 1920: About 200 IRA volunteers, led by Frank Aiken, attacked Camlough RIC barracks, County Armagh. They exchanged fire with the RIC, threw grenades and set fire to the building. British troops sent from Newry were ambushed by the IRA who opened fire and threw grenades from a bridge overhead. Three volunteers were fatally wounded at the bridge. The next day, British forces set fire to several homes and businesses in Camlough in reprisal.
13 December 1920:
Two IRA officers, Michael McNamara and William Shanahan, were abducted and shot by British forces in Clare. Their bodies were found near Kilkee on 19 December.
The IRA attacked Ballinalee RIC barracks, County Longford. A Black and Tan was killed when the IRA blew a hole in the barracks wall. In reprisal, British forces set half of the village on fire.
14 December 1920:
An IRA volunteer was shot dead by non-uniformed police at a house near Thurles, County Tipperary.
Passenger services were suspended on the Cavan and Leitrim Railway, until 1921, due to the refusal of drivers and enginemen to carry the Black and Tans on trains at Mohill and Ballinamore, leading to the arrest and internment of railway employees.
15 December 1920:
An Auxiliary officer, Vernon Anwyl Hart, shot dead a Catholic priest (Thomas Magner) and a young man (Tadgh O'Crowley) on the roadside near Dunmanway, County Cork. Hart was in charge of two trucks of Auxiliaries on their way to Cork for the funeral of an Auxiliary killed by the IRA. He was discharged and declared insane by the British authorities.
An IRA volunteer was shot dead by masked men, believed to be non-uniformed Auxiliaries, at a house near Frenchpark, County Roscommon.
16 December 1920: The IRA ambushed an RIC truck at Kilcommon, County Tipperary. Four RIC officers were killed and three wounded.
17 December 1920:
The IRA ambushed two trucks of British soldiers (Lincolnshire Regiment) at Glenacurrane, County Limerick. Two soldiers were killed and four wounded, while the others surrendered and had their weapons seized.
The Roman Catholic Bishop of Kilmore, Patrick Finnegan, stated that "Any war... To be just and lawful must be backed by a well-grounded hope of success... What hope of success have you against the mighty forces of the British Empire? None, none whatever... and if it unlawful as it is, every life taken in pursuance of it is murder".
18 December 1920: The British Army and RIC carried out a sweep of Inishmore, off the coast of County Galway. Thirteen islanders were detained and one was fatally shot for failing to halt.
20 December 1920: The IRA ambushed an RIC/military patrol at Nine Mile House, County Kilkenny; eight soldiers and one constable killed.
22 December 1920:
Two IRA volunteers were arrested by Auxiliaires at a safe house near Doonbeg, County Clare. One was shot dead on the road to Ennis and the other killed in Ennis allegedly while trying to escape.
An RIC officer was shot dead in Newtownbarry (Bunclody), County Wexford.
23 December 1920:
The British Government of Ireland Act 1920 received royal assent. It was to come into force in May 1921 and partition Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, each with its own parliament.
A civilian was shot dead by Auxiliaries near Tralee, County Kerry, allegedly while trying to escape their custody.
24 December 1920: Auxiliaries killed two IRA volunteers when they raided a house in Ballydwyer, County Kerry, before setting the house on fire.
27 December 1920: Republicans took over the unoccupied mansion at Caherguillamore, County Limerick, for a secret fundraising dance attended by 200 people. However, British troops and police surrounded the mansion. Five IRA volunteers and a Black and Tan were killed in the exchange of fire. More than 100 men were arrested and most tried by court-martial and imprisoned in England.
29 December 1920: Three RIC officers were killed and several wounded in an ambush in Midleton, County Cork. In reprisal, the British Army destroyed several buildings in the town.
30 December 1920:
The British authorities extended martial law to counties Clare, Kilkenny, Waterford and Wexford. British generals attended a meeting of the Cabinet and predicted victory in Ireland by the spring. Archbishop Clune, who had been mediating between the British and Irish Republic's governments, was informed that all prospect of a truce had been closed.
British soldiers shot dead an IRA volunteer they had arrested near Caherconlish, County Limerick. They claimed he had tried to escape, but were charged with murder and one was removed from the army.
1921
January 1921
1 January 1921:
The IRA ambushed an RIC patrol in Ballybay, County Monaghan, killing one officer and wounding others. A civilian was also killed when he ran to fetch reinforcements. The RIC attacked several homes in reprisal, and twelve volunteers were later arrested.
Seven houses were burnt in Midleton, County Cork as a reprisal for the killing of three RIC officers.
2 January 1921:
Two RIC men were shot dead by the IRA in a Belfast hotel.
West Waterford Column under George Lennon ambush a British patrol at the intersection outside Cappoquin on the Cappoquin-Mt Mellary road.
5 January 1921: Martial law was extended to Clare and Waterford.
7 January 1921:
The RIC raided a cottage near Ballinalee, County Longford, looking for Seán Mac Eoin, who fired from the cottage, killing District Inspector Thomas McGrath and wounding a constable, then escaping.
8 January 1921: Thomas Kirby was abducted near Golden, County Tipperary and shot dead by the IRA as an alleged spy and informer. His body was never recovered until 1990, some four miles from where he disappeared.
A British Army patrol was ambushed by a combined Waterford force at Pickardstown following a feint attack on the Tramore RIC barracks. Present were W. Waterford O/C Pax Whelan, E. Waterford O/C Paddy Paul and Flying Column O/C George Lennon. Two IRA volunteers (Thomas O'Brien and Michael McGrath) were reportedly taken away and shot dead by members of the Devon Regiment. McGrath was the first Waterford City Volunteer killed in the War.
12 January 1921: The IRA ambushed a British troop train carrying 150 soldiers at the Barnesmore Gap, County Donegal. A number of soldiers were wounded. They returned fire with a Lewis machine gun mounted on the train. The IRA also fired on another troop train sent to recover the first.
13 January 1921:
British troops manning a checkpoint at O'Connell Bridge, Dublin, opened fire on a crowd of civilians, killing two - Martha Nowlan & James Brennan (aged 10) and wounding six.
Hunston House, Birr, County Offaly One British soldier of K.S.L.I. killed.
14 January 1921: An RIC sergeant was fatally wounded in an IRA grenade attack in Armagh town.
15–17 January 1921: British soldiers imposed a curfew in an area bounded by Capel, Church, and North King streets and the quays in Dublin's inner city, sealing them off, allowing no-one in or out. They then conducted a house-to-house search, but no significant arrests or arms finds were made.
20 January 1921: The IRA in Clare, under Michael Brennan, ambush an RIC lorry at Glenwood, between Sixmilebridge and Broadford. Six constables were killed and two others wounded but escaped. The IRA took their weapons and over 1,000 rounds of ammunition before burning the lorry. Among the dead was RIC District Inspector William Clarke. In reprisals, British forces burned homes and business premises in the vicinity and arrested 22 people.
21 January 1921: An abortive IRA ambush took place at Drumcondra. One IRA volunteer, Michael Francis Magee, was wounded and died the next day at King George V Hospital. Five men were captured: Patrick Doyle, Francis X Flood, Thomas Bryan and Bernard Ryan, all of whom were hanged at Mountjoy Prison on 14 March 1921. A fifth, Dermot O'Sullivan, was imprisoned. The last, Séan Burke, successfully escaped.
22 January 1921: The IRA shot dead three RIC officers near Stranoodan RIC barracks, County Monaghan.
23 January 1921: A USC officer was killed and another wounded after their 15-strong group fired on an RIC patrol which interrupted their looting of a pub in Clones, County Monaghan.
24 January 1921: The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, Thomas Gilmartin, issued a letter saying that IRA volunteers who took part in ambushes "have broken the truce of God, they have incurred the guilt of murder".
January 1921:
IRA volunteer John Doran abducted from his home in Camlough, South Armagh and killed by unknown gunmen.
An IRA ambush was mounted at Freeduff, County Armagh. Two RIC men killed and others injured.
K Coy, 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade ambushed a number of lorries of British soldiers at the junction of Merrion Square/Mount Street. IRA men were posted at various points along the route of the convoy (at Holles Street, midway along Merrion Square and from Merrion Street). Clare St. was barricaded and a standing fight developed. The British withdrew after some time. British casualties were believed to be high. No IRA casualties (this was the only operation carried out in Dublin where all of the IRA involved were from a single company)
IRA members from E Coy, 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade attacked government forces at Mespil Road.
End of January 1921: The British army in Dublin started carrying republican prisoners in their trucks when on patrol to stop grenade attacks on them, with signs saying "Bomb us now". This was discontinued when foreign journalists in the city reported it. They later covered the trucks with a mesh to prevent grenades from entering the vehicles, to which the IRA responded by attaching hooks to what were then referred to as "Mills bombs", which would catch in the mesh.
February 1921
1 February 1921:
The first execution under martial law of an IRA man took place. Cornelius Murphy of Millstreet, County Cork, was shot by firing squad in Cork city.
2 February 1921:
Led by Seán Mac Eoin, the North Longford IRA attacked two lorries of Auxiliaries at the Clonfin Ambush. A landmine was exploded under the lorries, followed by a two-hour firefight. Four Auxiliaries and a driver were killed and eight wounded. The IRA volunteers captured 18 rifles, 20 revolvers and a Lewis gun.
Volunteers under the command of Tom Barry occupied Burgatia House, a small country house owned by a loyalist family, and intended to use it as a staging point for an attack on the RIC barracks in Rosscarbery. However, later that day, their position was given away after a postman had stumbled on them, leading to a contingent of Black and Tans being sent out to arrest them. The column managed to beat them back and successfully withdraw.
3 February 1921:
The Limerick IRA ambushes an RIC patrol at Dromkeen, County Limerick, killing 11 constables.
An IRA volunteer is shot dead when British troops raided his safe house in west Cork.
5 February 1921:
British Intelligence officer Lance Corporal MPC/MFP John Ryan is assassinated by IRA volunteers in a pub on Corporation Street in Dublin.
James (Shanker) Ryan, the one who betrayed Peadar Clancy and Dick McKee, was killed [..in Hyne's pub..]
6 February: There were two attacks on British soldiers at Merrion Square and Camden Street, Dublin by the 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade.
7 February 1921:
The IRA ambushed a USC patrol in Warrenpoint, County Down. A USC officer was killed and two wounded by gunfire and grenades.
British army kills 14-year-old boy and wounds two other boys in Knocknagree, County Cork.
9 February 1921: Irish republicans James Murphy and Patrick Kennedy were arrested by Auxiliaries in Dublin. Two hours later, Dublin Metropolitan Police found the two men shot in Drumcondra: Kennedy was dead, and Murphy was dying when they were discovered. Murphy died two days later in Mater Hospital, Dublin. Before the end, he declared that he and Kennedy were shot by their Auxiliary captors. A court of inquiry was held, and Captain H L King, commanding officer of F Company ADRIC and two Cadets were tried for Murphy's murder but acquitted on 15 April 1921.
11 February 1921:
3rd Cork Brigade volunteers made an attack on a troop train at Drishabeg, near Millstreet, County Cork. One British soldier is killed, five wounded, and fifteen captured but later released. The IRA seized arms and ammunition.
13 February 1921: Attack on Crown forces at Merrion Square, Dublin, by 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade volunteers.
14 February 1921:
IRA prisoners Ernie O'Malley, Frank Teeling and Simon Donnelly escape from Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin.
Two IRA volunteers, the Coffey brothers, were assassinated in their beds by unknown gunmen in Enniskeane, Cork.
Pvt A. Mason of the Manchester Regiment went missing near Ballincollig.
15 February 1921:
Upton Train Ambush: an IRA column from the 3rd Cork Brigade, led by Charlie Hurley mounts a disastrous attack on a train containing British soldiers at Upton, Cork. Three volunteers are killed and three captured. Six civilian passengers are killed and ten wounded in crossfire. Six British soldiers are wounded, three seriously.
An IRA ambush position at Mourne Abbey, County Cork, is allegedly betrayed by an informer, William Shields. Five IRA volunteers were killed by British troops, four more were wounded and captured. Two of the captured volunteers - Thomas Mulcahy and Patrick Ronayne were sentenced to death by court martial and shot by firing squad on 28 April 1921.
16 February 1921:
Four unarmed IRA volunteers, who had been digging a trench at Kilbrittain, County Cork, were arrested by troops of the Essex Regiment, and then shot dead.
British soldiers attacked at Lower Mount Street Dublin by 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade volunteers.
19 February 1921: Three British soldiers (privates) of the Oxford Regiment were found by IRA men, unarmed and wearing civilian clothes near Feakle, County Clare. The soldiers said they were deserters but the IRA suspected they were spies, shot them and dumped their bodies near Woodford, County Galway.
20 February 1921:
The Clonmult Ambush – A dozen IRA volunteers were killed at Clonmult, County Cork, near Midleton, after being surrounded in a house. The British alleged a false IRA surrender and killed all the IRA volunteers in the house. Four other IRA volunteers were wounded and another four were captured unscathed. Only one escaped. The IRA claimed an informer was to blame and a spate of shootings of six alleged informers ensued during the following week.
Pvt B. Tinehes of the Manchester Regiment went missing near Ballincollig.
21 February 1921:
In reprisal for the shooting of a USC officer, USC and UVF men burned ten nationalist-owned homes and a priest's house in Roslea, County Fermanagh. A UVF member mistakenly shot and killed himself.
Two IRA volunteers were killed and two wounded in a shoot-out in Friary Street in Kilkenny.
22 February 1921:
The IRA ambushed a British Army/RIC group outside Mountcharles, County Donegal, killing an RIC officer and wounding others. In reprisal, the RIC and Auxiliaries attacked and looted buildings in Mountcharles and Donegal. In Mountcharles, they shot dead a civilian woman, and a drunken Auxiliary mistakenly shot dead an RIC sergeant.
The bodies of three British soldiers (Privates Williams, Walker and Morgan of the Oxford and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry) were discovered by a farmer on the Woodford–Cahir road near Lough Atorick by the Clare–Galway border. The three, who had said that they were deserting, were shot dead by the IRA's East Clare Brigade, which believed the three were spies not deserters. One of the victims had a label hung around his neck which read, "Spies. Tried by courtmartial and found guilty. All others beware".
23 February 1921:
IRA volunteers from The Squad, attacked RIC men returning from lunch to Dublin Castle on Parliament street. The policemen were in Dublin to help identify suspects. Two policemen were killed, another was badly wounded and died later that night.
One RIC officer was killed, another wounded and two British soldiers of the Essex Regiment were killed in an IRA attack led by Tom Barry in Bandon, County Cork.
25 February 1921:
The IRA Cork Number One Brigade led by Dan "Sandow" O'Donovan attacked a large convoy of mixed military and police at Coolavokig, County Cork (see Coolavokig Ambush). Major James Grant, a British officer was killed. Several Auxiliaries and soldiers were wounded.
A British review stated that two British soldiers (excluding RIC personnel) had been killed in the preceding week, the lowest total so far for a week in 1921. The review listed ten ambushes in the preceding seven days. Seven people had been killed as spies by the IRA during the week.
28 February 1921:
Sean (John) Allen, a 24 year old IRA man from Tipperary town was executed after a military court found him guilty of possession of a revolver. Allen was buried in Cork Prison yard.
An IRA column led by Seán Moylan ambushed an RIC patrol at Tureengariff, County Cork. Two RIC constables were killed and two rifles were taken.
Six IRA prisoners executed by Crown forces at Cork County Gaol.
Attack on British soldiers at Camden Street, Dublin, by the 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade.
28 February 1921: In retaliation for the previous day's executions, the IRA shot and killed seven off-duty British soldiers and wounded five more in separate incidents in Cork. The British soldiers killed were John Beattie, Private Thomas Wise, Albert Whitear, G. Bowden, Corporal Corporal Hodnett and Private William Gill, L.D. Hodnett.
February 1921:
British soldiers impose a curfew on the Mountjoy Square area of North Dublin and conduct a house-to-house search. Shortly afterwards another similar curfew was imposed on the Nassau Street/Kildare Street area. Few arrests were made but some arms were seized.
There were attacks on British soldiers at Nassau Street and Merrion Square Dublin by the 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade
British soldiers were ambushed at the junction of Aungier Street/Bishop Street by C Company, 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade.
March 1921
1 March 1921:
IRA North Longford commander Seán Mac Eoin was captured at Mullingar and charged with the murder of an RIC detective.
Two IRA volunteers are killed in a skirmish with British forces at Ballynamrossagh, County Tipperary.
Attack on Crown forces at College Green Dublin by IRA volunteers from the 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade.
2 March 1921:
IRA fighters from the 2nd Cork Brigade and 2nd Kerry Brigade lay landmines near Millstreet. Thirteen British soldiers are killed and fifteen wounded when the mines explode under their lorry.
Attack on Crown forces at South Richmond Street Dublin by Volunteers from the 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade.
3 March 1921: A plan to hold up a train of jurors bound for the spring assizes in Waterford (and ambush the expected convoy of troops) by the West Waterford Column under George Lennon, at Durrow/Ballyvoile. The resulting engagement at Durrow railway tunnel lasted most of the day and the IRA withdrew under the cover of darkness. One British soldier was seriously wounded and two others suffered minor wounds.
4 March 1921: The South Leitrim Brigade of the IRA ambush a Black and Tan Convoy, at the Sheemore ambush, near Carrick on Shannon. Several casualties result, including the death of a captain in the Bedfordshire Regiment. Black and Tans later ran amok in Carrick, burning and looting, and burned both the premises of the Leitrim Observer newspaper and the local rowing club to the ground.
5 March 1921:
An IRA column mounted an ambush at Clonbanin, County Cork. A British general, Cumming, and three other soldiers were killed when their armoured car broke down and they were exposed to IRA fire.
Two ambushes took place in Dublin, one near present-day Parnell Square, and the other in Clontarf, both in the north of the city. In both incidents, IRA volunteers threw hand grenades and exchanged fire with British troops. One civilian was killed and four wounded. No combatant casualties were reported.
6 March 1921: The Limerick Curfew Murders. The Mayor of Limerick, George Clancy, former mayor Michael O'Callaghan, and IRA volunteer Joseph O'Donoghue, were all shot dead in their homes at night after curfew by a British intelligence agent, George Nathan, assisted by an Auxiliary from G Company ADRIC.
7 March 1921: The South Mayo IRA flying column under Tom Maguire surrounded a British army patrol at Kilfaul, near Partry between Ballinrobe and Castlebar, forcing it to surrender and give up its arms. Corporal Bell of The Border Regiment died the following day as a result of wounds. An innocent civilian, Thomas Horan (57 years) of Srah, Tourmakeady, was killed in reprisal when three men in police uniforms entered his home and shot him in the head.
9 March 1921: A party of masked policemen entered the home of the Loughnane family in Mitchel St., Thurles. William Loughnane (23 years old) was shot dead in his bed. William, his father and 3 brothers were active members of local IRA company. The same night, Laurence Hickey (a well known Republican) was also shot in his home in Main St., Thurles. A third man, Denis Regan, a prominent Thurles IRA man, was shot several times the same night, by masked Auxiliary men, in a separate incident but survived the attempted killing. It is thought that the 3 attacks were reprisals for the IRA's execution of 2 informants in Thurles who were close friends of local RIC and Black and Tans on March, 1st, 1921. (For extra details see records from Commandant Leahy, No. 2 Mid-Tipp-Brigade. His details are present in the Irish Bureau of Military History statements: (See File No S.790. Document No. w.s. 1454. pp. 66–69.))
10 March 1921: A large British force carried out a large scale sweep at Nad, County Cork (in the Boggeragh Mountains). A house was raided with six members of the Mallow IRA column asleep in it. Two made their escape (Joe Morgan and John Moloney) but the other four volunteers are shot dead.
11 March 1921:
British troops in county Cork were tipped off by Mrs Mary (or Maria) Lindsay, a local Protestant, about an impending IRA ambush at Dripsey, on 28 January 1921 to which she had somehow become privy. She first told the local Catholic priest who tried unsuccessfully to dissuade the IRA from the ambush. At the ambush eight Volunteers were captured, two IRA volunteers were killed and five IRA prisoners were later executed under martial law. On 11 March 1921 the IRA killed Mrs Lindsay and her chauffeur, James Clarke, and burned down her home, Leemount House, in reprisal.
Dáil Éireann debated, resolved and finally on 11 March declared war on the British administration.
The North Longford IRA officer Seán Connolly and five other IRA volunteers were killed by British troops at the Selton Hill ambush, near Mohill, County Leitrim when their ambush position was allegedly betrayed by a local Orangeman.
Three RIC men attacked and killed by the IRA near the corner of Victoria Square and Church Street in Belfast. Two civilians injured in the attack, one of whom later died in the hospital.
12 March 1921: A firefight took place between the Kilkenny IRA unit and British forces at Garryricken House on the Clonmel-Kilkenny road. One RIC constable was killed.
13 March 1921: A Moyasta farmer and Sinn Féin magistrate named Tom Shannon was murdered in his home by unknown assailants-suspected to be British Forces.
14 March 1921:
Six IRA prisoners were hanged by the British in Mountjoy Prison.
The Battle of Brunswick Street. An Auxiliary patrol of two lorries and an armoured car, which was on its way to raid St Andrews Club, 144 Brunswick Street, Dublin, was attacked on Brunswick Street (now Pearse Street) near the corner of Erne Street. In the gun battle that followed, three IRA volunteers and two policemen as well as two civilians were killed. A number of IRA volunteers were captured. One, Thomas Traynor, was hanged on 25 April.
16 March 1921:
The IRA in Galway attacked the RIC barracks in Clifden, killing two constables. The Auxiliaries and Black and Tans burned and looted 16 buildings in Clifden in reprisal for the attacks. One civilian was shot dead during the reprisals. The IRA column retreated to the Maam valley, where they ambushed British reinforcements at Munterowan and Screebe.
Dublin: A troop lorry from Wellington Barracks, carrying British soldiers from the South Lancashire Regiment, was hit by two grenades hurled from overlooking buildings on Wexford Street, killing two soldiers (Lance Corporal Jarvis and Private G. Thomas) and wounding six others, one of whom, Private Whiting, died from his wounds two days later.
18–19 March 1921:
Burgery ambush - West Waterford IRA under Pax Whelan, George Lennon (Commander of the local Flying column) and George Plunkett from Dublin HQ, ambushed a convoy of Black and Tans returning to Dungarvan via the Burgery. One Black and Tan was killed along with two IRA volunteers (Pat Keating and Seán Fitzgerald).
An IRA firing squad killed a Dungarvan constable, Michael Hickey. Affixed to his tunic was the notation "police spy". He was later interred, upon the intercession of the parish priest, in an unmarked grave belonging to his fiancée's family at St Mary's Roman Catholic Church, Dungarvan.
19 March 1921:
Crossbarry Ambush - The IRA Cork no. 3 Brigade under Tom Barry fought an action against 1,200 British troops at Crossbarry, County Cork. The IRA column, comprising roughly 100 men, escaped encirclement. One RIC constable and six soldiers killed. The British claimed six IRA volunteers were killed; however, the IRA claimed only three were killed and the other three were wounded.
An RIC Constable and a RIC Sergeant killed in IRA ambushes.
21 March 1921:
The Kerry IRA attacked a train carrying military personnel at Headford Junction near Killarney. The IRA claimed twenty British soldiers were killed, as well as two IRA volunteers and three civilians. The British reported only 8 soldiers killed and 12 wounded.
In an ambush at Lispole, County Kerry, three IRA volunteers were killed
The IRA attacked the homes of up to sixteen USC officers in the Roslea district of Fermanagh, killing three and wounding others. IRA volunteers were also wounded and one captured.
Attack on RIC patrol at Rosemount, Dundrum, County Dublin. Two RIC constables wounded.
22 March 1921:
Three members of the West Mayo IRA flying column under the command of Michael Kilroy attacked a four-man RIC patrol at Clady, County Tyrone. Three policemen were wounded and one was killed.
Attack on Auxiliaries at the Royal Marine Hotel, Dún Laoghaire. 3 Auxiliaries killed and at least 1 wounded. One IRA volunteer (Lt. Jim McIntosh) was killed.
23 March 1921:
An IRA ambush on the Strokestown-Longford road by the IRA's South Roscommon Brigade claims the lives of one British soldier and two constables. Two Black and Tan constables {Agnew and Buchanan} surrender and are "missing" (i.e. killed by the IRA). Arms and ammunition including a Hotchkiss machine gun were captured by the IRA. One volunteer was killed in the Scramogue Ambush.
The Press reports that 28 people were killed and 33 wounded in various ambushes on this day, bringing the total for the previous five days to 65 killed and 67 wounded.
Six IRA volunteers of the Cork number 1 Brigade were captured Cork by British forces at Clogheen, County Cork and summarily shot. It was alleged that an ex-British soldier/informer Patrick Joseph "Cruxy" O'Conner from within the IRA provided the location of the IRA unit and then fled the country to New York. Over a year later on April 13, 1922 he was shot four times and seriously wounded on a New York City street by an IRA ASU squad but survived the murder/revenge attempt. O'Conner died in Canada in the 1950s.
24 March 1921: IRA Volunteer Louis Darcy was murdered (while being held prisoner) by Black and Tans. His body was dragged for several miles behind a lorry and dumped at Merlin Park, County Galway.
24 March 1921: A bomb was thrown at a group of soldiers at Westport, County Mayo. British reprisals took place that night throughout West Mayo.
28 March 1921: Attack on mixed patrol of Auxiliaries and military on Marine Road, Dún Laoghaire. One lorry was hit by a grenade, and sped away to George's Street, where it ran into a burst of fire from an IRA patrol. This convoy then proceeded to the Blackrock area where it was ambushed at Temple Hill. Tender disabled by bomb. Several auxiliaries and one IRA volunteer were wounded
29 March 1921: A Black and Tan, Const. William Stephens, was shot and mortally wounded in Ballyhaunis, County Mayo.
30 March 1921: Two RIC men were killed and one wounded in an ambush in Ballyfermot, County Dublin.
March 1921:
The West Cork IRA column under Tom Barry attacked the RIC barracks at Rosscarbery.
A County Donegal IRA column under Peadar O'Donnell attacks the RIC station at Falcarragh; one constable is killed.
An informer (identified as Dan Shields) reportedly betrayed the position of an IRA column in Nad, County Cork. Three IRA volunteers were killed in the subsequent British ambush.
April 1921
1 April 1921:
The IRA's East Mayo Brigade commander, Seán Corcoran, was killed by British troops at Crossard near Ballyhaunis, County Mayo. Vice Cmdt. Maurice Mullins also captured and almost beaten to death. Later that day, Michael Coen an IRA volunteer from Lecarrow, Ballyhaunis was captured, tortured, murdered and his body mutilated in retaliation for the killing of William Stephens in Ballyhaunis on 29 March.
In Derry, the IRA attacked the RIC barracks on Lecky Road and a British Army post on Strand Road with gunfire and grenades. Two RIC officers were killed.
2 April 1921: An IRA informer, Vincent Fovargue (aged 20) from Dublin, was shot dead at a golf course near London, England. A note was left saying, "let spies and traitors beware, IRA". The shooting was reported carried out by IRA Officer Reginald Dunne, who would later be executed for the killing of British Field Marshall Sir Henry Wilson, 1st Baronet.
3 April 1921: The South Leitrim Brigade of the IRA hold up the Cavan and Leitrim Railway and intercept the Mail Car. A letter implicates a local farmer, John Harrison, as an informer; he is later killed.
6–7 April 1921: An RIC officer was killed and four wounded in an IRA ambush in Dromore, County Tyrone. The next day, an RIC sergeant shot a Catholic girl on the main street in a sectarian attack. He was then shot dead by an IRA volunteer, the girl's brother. In reprisal, the USC kidnapped and killed three local IRA volunteers.
9 April 1921: An abortive IRA ambush took place in Mullinglown, County Carlow - no casualties resulted but several IRA volunteers are arrested.
10 April 1921:
The IRA ambushed USC officers outside a church in Creggan, County Armagh, killing one and wounding others with gunfire and grenades. The IRA had evacuated civilians from the area. In reprisal, the USC attacked nationalists and burned their homes in Killylea, where the officers came from.
Privates George Motley and John Steer, both of the East Lancashire Regiment, were captured by the IRA at Barraduff, County Kerry. Moved around the countryside for about six months before being shot, their bodies were dumped in Anablaha bog and not recovered until January 1927 when Motley was buried in Nab Wood Cemetery near his home town of Shipley, West Yorkshire, and Steer in Immanuel Church, Accrington, Lancashire, both with full military honours.
13–15 April 1921: Captain W.L. King, commanding officer of F Company Auxiliary Division, RIC, was tried by court-martial for the murder of James Murphy on 9 February 1921. Murphy's dying declaration was ruled inadmissible. Two Auxiliaries provided alibis for Captain King at the time of the murder. King was acquitted.
14 April 1921: Sir Arthur Vicars is assassinated in Kilmorna County Kerry by IRA. It was thought that Vickers had British forces at his home and he was accused of being a spy. Vickers home (KIlmorna House) and its contents were also destroyed.
15 April 1921: Major McKinnon, an Auxiliary officer, is shot dead by the IRA at Tralee golf course, County Kerry.
18 April 1921: Attack on Cabinteely RIC barracks in County Dublin.
A mixed patrol of British army and RIC came upon armed men drilling in a field in Mullannagaun, Ballymurphy, Borris, County Carlow. Four IRA Volunteers were killed and six were wounded. One civilian was also killed by a stray bullet.
19 April 1921:
After a shootout near Loughglynn, County Roscommon, Black and Tans killed two IRA volunteers, Sean Bergin (23) and Stephen McDermott (19), and injured two others, Joe Satchwell and Thomas Scally. One soldier was seriously injured during the gun battle.
Two RIC officers were taken from a train at Ballysadare, County Sligo, and summarily killed by the IRA.
23 April 1921:
In central Belfast, two IRA officers Seamus Woods and Roger McCorley shot dead two Black and Tans. They exchanged fire with other RIC men as they made their escape and two civilians were injured in the crossfire. Loyalist gunmen killed two Catholic civilians in reprisal. Uniformed RIC men assassinated two republicans, the Duffin brothers, in revenge.
The Third Tipperary Brigade, IRA ambushed a small party of British soldiers accompanying two horse-drawn carts approached from Clogheen, near Curraghcloney, close to the village of Ballylooby. The IRA volunteers withdrew southwards towards the Knockmealdown Mountains leaving one British soldier dead and two others wounded, one fatally. By chance, RIC District Inspector Gilbert Potter was returning by car from police duties at Ballyporeen, drove into a section of the withdrawing Column. Potter was held as a hostage for the safe release of Thomas Traynor, an IRA Volunteer under sentence of death. Following Traynor's hanging, Potter was shot dead by the IRA.
26 April 1921: The IRA ambushed a USC patrol in Newry, killing one and wounding others. Some of the IRA unit were captured shortly after.
28 April 1921:
IRA volunteers Patrick Ronayne of Greenhill, Mourneabbey, Mallow, County Cork and Thomas Mulcahy were executed at Cork Military Detention Barracks for their involvement in the failed Mourneabbey Ambush. Both men were buried in Cork Prison yard. The number of volunteers killed/wounded in this action is unclear.
29 April 1921: West Waterford Flying Column under George Lennon ambushed a train carrying British troops at the Ballylinch level crossing. The exchange of gunfire continued for half an hour, one volunteer was wounded and two British military were killed in a fire-fight.
30 April 1921: Major Geoffrey Lee Compton-Smith (DSO), of the 2nd Battalion Royal Welch Fusiliers, shot dead by the IRA (captured 18 April in Blarney, County Cork, the IRA promised the Majors release in return for the release of IRA prisoners being held under the sentence of death. The request was refused and 6 prisoners were executed, in reprisal the IRA Volunteers killed the Major near Donoughmore, County Cork on 28 April 1921).
April 1921:
A group of Auxiliaries mistook a group of off-duty RIC constables drinking in a hotel in Castleconnell, County Clare for IRA volunteers and opened fire on them. Two RIC men, one Auxiliary and the hotel landlord were killed in the gunfight until the mistake was realised.
The IRA in Belfast shot two Auxiliaries dead in Donegall Place, in the city centre. The same night, two Catholics were killed in reprisal on the Falls Road.
The Dublin IRA carried out 67 attacks on British forces in the city in the course of the month.
Road trenching by IRA party on Churchtown Road, Churchtown Park, County Dublin surprised by two parties of RIC and B&T's coming from two different directions. Running battle ensued for more than two hours and was eventually broken at Milltown.
Large quantities of clothing belonging to the Auxiliaries and military officers in Dublin Castle and other barracks in the city seized in Milltown and Dundrum laundries and destroyed. These operations were repeated weekly until the enemy stopped sending its soiled clothes to the laundries.
A party of IRA engaged in destroying Classons bridge, Milltown, Dublin, were attacked by a large force of military and Auxiliaries who had penetrated a ring of outposts owing to the defection of one of the outposts. They advanced to within 50 yards of the bridge and then opened fire with machine guns. Ensuing engagement lasted over an hour. One IRA volunteer was wounded and three members of the Crown forces were wounded; one of whom later died of his injuries.
Telephone and telegraph equipment seized in all post offices and telephone exchanges in south County Dublin.
General attack on RIC, B&T and Military posts in Barracks, Courthouse, Royal Hotel and Coastguard station in Bray. Shooting lasted for 2 hours. Several B&T's and civilians wounded.
Attack on mixed patrol of Auxiliaries and B&T near Bray RIC barracks. 1 B&T and Auxie wounded.
Attack on residence of Mr Cross (an Orangeman) in Ballycorus, County Dublin. The attack continued until a shortage of ammunition forced the IRA to retire. One IRA volunteer (Peter Little) was wounded. It was later reported that one occupant of the house had been killed and another wounded.
Attack on RIC barracks, Dundrum, County Dublin. IRA party advanced to positions behind a wall at the railway accommodation and attacked the courthouse and barracks machine gun post which was put out of action and gunner wounded.
British soldiers held up at the Dodder banks, South Dublin while they were rendezvousing with girlfriends. They were ordered to return to the city minus all clothing except trousers and shirt.
Attack on Dundrum RIC barracks, County Dublin by seven IRA riflemen who shot only one round each at delayed intervals. The RIC continued firing for many hours after the attackers had withdrawn.
Attack on military lorry at Jamestown, Sandyford, County Dublin. Lorry raced away with the occupants shooting wildly. Casualties unknown.
Attack on military and B&T's in lorries at William Park near Booterstown, County Dublin. British casualties unknown.
Attack on private car carrying British Colonel McCabe and escort lorry at Kilgobbin, County Dublin. Two vehicles speed up and race away. One member of the escort party wounded.
May 1921
1 May 1921:
An abortive IRA ambush at Islandeady, County Mayo led to the death of two IRA volunteers.
The IRA shot dead two Black and Tans outside Arvagh, County Cavan.
2 May 1921: An IRA column ambushed British troops near Lackelly, County Limerick, but took heavy casualties in the ensuing fire fight. The IRA columns was itself ambushed another three times as it retreated during a five and a half-hour running fight. Between five and fourteen IRA volunteers were killed and up to thirty wounded.
3 May 1921: The South Mayo IRA flying column under Tom Maguire ambush British troops at Tourmakeady, killing four RIC policemen (Sgt John Regan, Constable William Power, Constable Christopher O'Regan, Constable Herbert Oates). The IRA volunteers were then pursued across the Partry Mountains. They managed to escape despite Maguire being badly wounded. Two IRA volunteers were killed in this engagement (Michael O'Brien and Patrick Feeney) and another died later in 1922 as a result of an infection picked up from lying in a ditch while on the run.
4 May 1921: The Kerry IRA ambushed an RIC patrol. Eight out of nine constables were killed or died of their wounds. Five houses and a creamery were burned in reprisal. The IRA had left the body of an 80-year-old informer, Thomas Sullivan, whom they had killed, at the side of the road near Rathmore, to lure the police into the ambush.
8 May 1921:
An IRA training camp was surrounded by British troops and Auxiliaries in the Lappanduff Hills, County Cavan, sparking a two-hour firefight. An IRA volunteer was killed and eleven captured, all of them from the Belfast Brigade.
British forces in Carrigtouhil, Cork, shot dead an IRA volunteer.
RIC Constable Frederick Sterland killed while leaving a hotel off duty by four men he befriended
RIC Head Constable William K. Storey Shot dead from behind while returning from church with his wife.
RIC Sgt Constable Thomas McCormack Fatally shot when the patrol he was part of was ambushed by a large IRA unit.
9 May 1921:
In Kerry, near Castleisland, two RIC men were shot by IRA volunteers on their way home from Mass. One (RIC Constable Alexander Thomas Clark) was killed, the other saved when his wife covered him with her body.
Attack on Dundrum RIC barracks, County Dublin. When the IRA attacking party had withdrawn the RIC and B&T's came out of the Barracks presumably to search for the attackers. Some IRA men had remained hidden near to the barracks and threw two grenades into the middle of the assembled RIC and B&T's. One IRA volunteer was wounded. Number of constables and B&Ts killed unclear.
Two Black and Tans/RIC Constables, Thomas Clarke and Charles Murdock, were shot dead by the IRA near Clonmany, County Donegal. The body of Clarke was washed up on the shore the next day, the other was reportedly buried in a bog.
RIC Constables James Cullen and Martin Fallon killed when shop was fired on and Bombed. Each Posthumously awarded Constabulary Medal for Gallantry.
10 May 1921
There was an attack on Cabinteely RIC barracks, County Dublin with grenades from a motor car at the front entrance and with rifles from the rear by IRA men from the 6th Battalion Dublin Brigade. Casualties were admitted by RIC but no number was given.
11 May 1921: A party of Black and Tans shot dead Christopher Folan, Woodquay, Galway, and injure Joseph Folan, while searching the family home for James Folan, Battalion-Quartermaster of the Galway Brigade, who had just been released from prison for republican activities. They then went to another house and shot dead Hubert Tully, a republican suspect and contact of Seán Broderick, a Galway republican leader.
12 May 1921:
A group of Black and Tans travelling from Listowel towards Athea arrested three young men in Gortaglanna. Prior to this the barracks in Listowel had been burnt out and the troops decided to execute the young men in revenge. One of the men, Dalton, attempted to free himself from captivity and escaped, though injured by a bullet. Both of the other two men are shot on the spot.
Attack on Cabinteely RIC barracks, County Dublin. One IRA volunteer was wounded and later died on 28 May.
13 May 1921: Attack on Cabinteely RIC barracks. 1 B&T (Constable Skeates) shot dead by IRA sniper.
13–15 May 1921: "Black Whitsun": a general election for the parliament of Southern Ireland was held on 13 May. Sinn Féin won 124 of the new parliament's 128 seats unopposed, and its elected members refused to take their seats. Over the next two days (14–15 May) the IRA killed fifteen policemen.
14 May 1921:
IRA volunteers, led by Paddy Daly and Emmet Dalton seized an armoured car on the North Circular Road in Dublin, killing two British soldiers. The car was then used to gain entrance to Mountjoy Prison in an effort to free Seán Mac Eoin. However, the plot was discovered and the IRA volunteers in the car had to shoot their way out of the prison. The car was later abandoned in Clontarf.
IRA in Castletownbere, led by Michael Óg O'Sullivan, kill four soldiers of the King's Own Scottish Borderers and wound two others at Furious Pier.
RIC Head Constable Francis Benson Shot and killed by an IRA gang as he left his home in Tralee.
RIC Constable Peter Coghlan fatally wounded by the explosion of an IRA bomb thrown at the patrol he was part of.
RIC Constables Harold Thompson and Thomas Cornyn both Shot dead going to summon a priest after a colleague was shot by the IRA.
RIC Sgt Joseph E. Coleman Shot dead in a public house by the IRA.
RIC Constable Robert Redmond Fatally shot while off duty on leave.
RIc Constable John McKenna Shot dead in a field near his barracks by four IRA gunmen.
RIC Constable Thomas Bridges Attacked by IRA gunmen and shot dead as he went for provisions.
IRA volunteers in Tipperary assassinated an RIC Detective Inspector, Harry Biggs, and a local Protestant woman, Miss Barrington, sitting beside him in a police car.
IRA Volunteer Edward McCusker shot dead during an attack on RIC in Dromore, County Tyrone.
RIC Constable Peter Carolan Fatally wounded together with two constables who died on 15 and 24 May, by the explosion of an IRA bomb thrown at their patrol.
15 May 1921:
Ballyturin House Ambush: An IRA unit in County Galway ambushed a motor car as it left Ballyturin House near Gort. Two Army officers were shot dead, along with an RIC District Inspector Cecil Arthur Maurice Blake and his wife. Margaret Gregory, daughter-in-law of Lady Gregory, was unharmed. The RIC came under fire when they arrived at the scene; one constable was wounded and died six days later.
British forces in Carrigtouhil, Cork, shot three civilians dead.
Execution of Peter Grey (or Graham), a purported spy, at Killiney, County Dublin golf links by IRA Volunteers from the 6th Battalion Dublin Brigade.
Sgt S Goldsmith of Royal Fusiliers thrown off bicycle and seriously wounded by two men at Kenmaore County Kerry; dies of injuries 25 May 1921
16 May 1921: Two IRA volunteers are killed in an attempted ambush of an RIC patrol at Barrowhouse, county Kildare.
17 May 1921: Pvt of 8th Royal Marine Battalion RMLI was kidnapped and killed.
18 May 1921:
An RIC officer was killed and another wounded in an IRA ambush in Letterkenny, County Donegal. In reprisal, Black and Tans attacked several businesses and civilians in the town.
A British sergeant was taken from his home in Inchicore by members of the 4th Battalion Dublin Brigade IRA and killed near Crumlin.
19 May 1921:
Kilmeena ambush, British troops surprised an IRA ambush party at Kilmeena, County Mayo; 6 IRA volunteers were killed and seven wounded. The remainder of the column fled over the mountains to Skerdagh. One RIC man and one Black and Tan were killed in the action. British forces threw the dead and wounded IRA volunteers into the street outside the Police barracks in Westport, causing widespread revulsion. The Marquess of Sligo visited the Police station to complain.
Two RIC men were killed by IRA members in Kinnitty, County Offaly.
Farmer Joseph Hayden shot to death in apparent reprisal for the earlier wounding of a RIC member. Haydens brother was wounded in the back with a bayonet.
21 May 1921: IRA ambush at Ballyvaughan of ten members of the British 8th Royal Marine Battalion RMLI (RMBs). At least two RMBs were killed and another two wounded.
21 May 1921: RIC Constable Peter McDonagh shot to death in ambush in Mountfield, County Tyrone.
22 May 1921: Attack on military lorry at Foxrock, County Dublin. One soldier is wounded.
23 May 1921:
The IRA in Clare ambushed an RIC patrol at Glenwood, between Sixmilebridge and Broadfoot. Six RIC constables were killed including a District Inspector and two were wounded. The IRA volunteers captured ten rifles.
A British Army Officer disappears, presumed killed, in County Cork.
Two British soldiers of the 1st Battalion Machine Gun Corps [names unknown] [PVts Cagney and Musgrave[?] claim to be deserters to the IRA near Charleville, County Cork; however they are both killed as being suspected Intelligence operatives
24 May 1921: Members of K Coy, 3rd Battalion Dublin Brigade IRA attacked Black and Tans on Merrion Row. Heavy Tan casualties. No IRA casualties.
25 May 1921:
Dublin IRA units occupied and burned the Custom House, centre of local government in Ireland in Dublin city centre. The building and the IRA units were quickly surrounded by first two companies of Auxiliaries and then several hundred more British Army troops. Five IRA volunteers and three civilians were killed and about eighty volunteers were captured. Four Auxiliaries were wounded in the firing. The operation was a publicity coup but a military disaster for the Dublin IRA.
Attacks on Dundrum RIC barracks, Cabinteely RIC barracks (twice), Enniskerry RIC barracks, Military patrol on the Bray road at Stillorgan, Naval base and wireless station Dún Laoghaire, Military lorry, Alma Road, Monkstown. These attacks were carried out by IRA Volunteers from the 6th Battalion on orders from Dublin Brigade HQ to relieve pressure on the city Battalions as a result of the Customs House attack.
26 May 1921:
There was an IRA attack on the Naval base and wireless station at Dún Laoghaire. While the attack was in progress, an armoured car leading a party of troops from the naval base advanced up Marine Road. Another party from the wireless station proceeded from Clarence Street. Both patrols were attacked on the way and shortly after capturing Georges Street. They (the British patrols) clashed and opened fire on each other. They suffered some killed and 5 wounded before they realised their mistake.
Pvt E. Budd of Machine Gun Corps [attached to the Royal Irish Constabulary] was killed.
27 May 1921: Cpt. Paddy Boland O/C Crossard Coy, Ballyhaunis IRA killed by Crown forces.
29 May 1921: The IRA ambushed a USC patrol at Mullaghfad, County Fermanagh, killing two officers and wounding others.
30 May 1921:
Volunteer Tommy Murphy was shot dead in his home in Foxrock, County Dublin, by British forces. Before leaving his house the raiders attached a label to Murphy's body "Executed by the IRA". This allegation was refuted in a subsequent issue of An tÓglach.
After an attack on RIC patrol at Kill O'The Grange, IRA volunteers from the Deansgrange Coy, 6th Battalion, Dublin Brigade encountered another party of RIC at Monaloe under Sergeant Cullen. An engagement ensued but both sides retired safely.
31 May 1921: IRA volunteers explode a remotely detonated mine under a British Military band at Youghal, County Cork. Seven British soldiers (military bandsmen from Hampshire regiment) are killed. 20 others are wounded in the explosion.
May 1921:
Pope Benedict XV issued a letter that encouraged the "English as well as Irish to calmly consider ... some means of agreement".
Ulster Special Constable George Lynas is shot dead in County Armagh; the B-Specials shot dead two local Catholics in reprisal.
Lt. Breeze of the Warwickshire Regiment is shot dead by IRA at Foxrock, County Dublin.
Attack on military lorry at Castle Street, Dalkey, by IRA volunteers from the 6th Battalion Dublin Brigade. The driver was shot dead. The lorry crashed and was later destroyed. An undisclosed amount of ammunition was seized by the IRA.
Destruction of Jamestown Bridge near Sandyford.
Second attack on the home of a member of the Orange Order, Mr Cross, Ballycorous, County Dublin. One occupant wounded and two killed. 6th Battalion Cmdt. Andy McDonnell (IRA) is wounded and taken to hospital.
June 1921
1 June 1921: IRA volunteers ambushed a police bicycle patrol near Castlemaine, County Kerry. An RIC District Inspector and three constables were killed outright; a sergeant was wounded and died later.
2 June 1921: Carrowkennedy ambush, County Mayo. Michael Kilroy and the IRA's West Mayo Flying Column ambushed a convoy of RIC and Black and Tans. The fighting lasted three and a half hours in which seven policemen were killed and six were wounded, two mortally. The surviving seventeen police surrendered and the IRA seized a large quantity of arms. Many of the locals went into hiding to avoid retribution from the Black and Tans. Volunteers went on the run throughout the region sheltering in safe houses.
3 June 1921: IRA volunteers ambushed British troops at Kylebeg near Modreeny in County Tipperary. Members of the IRA's Northern Tipperary Flying Column led by Sean Gaynor attacked a mixed group of 25 British soldiers, RIC policemen and Black & Tans, travelling from Borrisokane to Cloughjordan killing four RIC men and wounding 14.
4–14 June 1921: Around 800 British troops swept the Macroom area, of County Cork.
5 June 1921:
Three members of Manchester Regiment were killed at Kilcrea, Ovens, Cork.
The IRA ambushed USC officers outside their barracks in Swatragh, County Londonderry, killing one. Shortly after, a Sinn Féin supporter was shot dead at Ballintemple, near Garvagh.
6 June 1921: The British government called off the policy of house burnings as official reprisals.
7 June 1921:
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland appoints James Craig as the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland. Several other members of the new Northern government are also appointed.
Two republicans Patrick Maher and Edmond Foley are hanged at MountyJoy Prison after being found guilty of a killing of a Policeman during attempted rescue of an IrA prisoner by a military tribunal [Both men had been previously twice acquitted by Civilian Courts]. Also hanged is a Black and Tan Temporary Constable William Mitchell on a charge of being an accessory in the robbery-murder of Dunlavin magistrate Robert Dixon in February 1921-although the prime suspect had committed suicide and apparently Mitchell's "guilt" was determined before his trial despite no evidence of his guilt in the original crime.
8 June 1921: The IRA ambushed a USC patrol at Carrogs, near Newry, County Down. In reprisal, USC officers went to the nearest Catholic home and fatally shot two civilian men. The IRA fired on the USC from a nearby hill, killing one and forcing them to withdraw.
10 June 1921:
Seven Waterford IRA men were captured when a party of Marines, having crossed from Youghal by boat to Ferrypoint by night, surprised them near Piltown, County Waterford.
Two Auxiliary Cadets were surprised by the IRA near Woodstock, County Kilkenny; one escaped. The Other Cadet Leonard French was missing but apparently killed.
11 June 1921: Royal Scots Private George Duff Chalmers captured in West Clare while serving a summons and killed by IRA
12 June 1921: Three RIC men were shot by the IRA on the Falls Road in Belfast. Two were wounded and one died. Uniformed RIC/Black & Tans including DI Nixon arrested and murdered three Catholic male civilians in north Belfast. Over the following two days, loyalist gunmen killed six more Catholics and the IRA assassinated three Protestants in the city.
15 June 1921:
Members of the East Clare Brigade IRA were ambushed by British soldiers at Woodcock Hill, Meelick, while attempting to raid the Limerick to Ennis train. Captain Christopher McCarthy of the IRA was wounded during the ambush and Captain Michael Gleeson returned under fire to rescue McCarthy. Both men were subsequently captured by British soldiers and killed.
16 June 1921: An IRA ambush was mounted at Rathcoole, County Cork. Landmines were exploded under three lorries, killing two auxiliaries and wounding four others.
17 June 1921:
Two brothers with republican links were taken from their home in Dundalk, County Louth and summarily killed by Black and Tans. In reprisal, the IRA killed an RIC officer in the town.
Ballyhaunis RIC barracks in County Mayo was attacked.
18 June 1921:
36 IRA volunteers in Kilkenny try to ambush a British Army convoy between Castlecomer and Athy, travelling with a mine. However the British were tipped off by a local woman informer, Florrie Draper. British troops crept up on the would-be ambushers and opened fire, killing two volunteers (Seán Hartley and Nicholas Mullins), and injuring another. Draper's house was burned in reprisal.
The 9th Battalion of the Kilkenny IRA ambushed a patrol of Black and Tans from Fiddown Barracks at Sinnotts Cross, near Clogga, Mooncoin, County Kilkenny. One Black and Tan was killed and another injured. No volunteers captured or lost.
Three British officers, dressed in civilian clothes but carrying pistols, were captured near Fethard, County Tipperary, by IRA volunteers under Ernie O'Malley. The three were shot by firing squad at dawn the next day in reprisal for the execution of captured IRA men by the British.
19 June 1921: While escorting a coffin of a slain R.I.C. man by Devonshire Regiment, New Bridge, Carrick-on-Suir County Tipperary, ambushed by IRA; one British Soldier Pvt W. Smith killed
20 June 1921: Group Returning from a tennis party at Benown House, Glasson about six miles from Athlone, County Westmeath ambushed by IRA. Colonel Commandant Thomas Stanton Lambert [General Staff] dies of shotgun wounds
22 June 1921: King George V addressed the first session of the parliament of Northern Ireland, calling on "all Irishmen to pause, to stretch out the hand of forbearance and conciliation, to forgive and to forget, and to join in making for the land they love a new era of peace, contentment, and good will".
Over 1000 British troops mounted a sweep of Millstreet, County Cork and environs.
An IRA column was encircled by British forces in Ballycastle, County Mayo; one IRA volunteer was killed and seven volunteers were captured.
The IRA derailed a British troop train with a bomb at Adavoyle, County Armagh. It carried the king's armed escort, the 10th Royal Hussars, back from the opening of the Northern Ireland Parliament. Five soldiers and a civilian train guard were killed or fatally wounded, as were fifty horses. Some soldiers fired at civilians in surrounding fields, killing one.
24 June 1921:
The British Coalition Government's Cabinet decided to propose talks with the leaders of Sinn Féin. Coalition Liberals and Unionists agreed that an offer to negotiate would strengthen the Government's position if the revolutionaries refused. Austen Chamberlain, the new leader of the Unionist Party, said that "the King's Speech ought to be followed up as a last attempt at peace before we go to full martial law".
The IRA mounted an attack on Grafton Street, central Dublin, killing two Auxiliaries.
26 June 1921: IRA volunteers in Dublin killed RIC Auxiliary Division William F. H. Hunt (35) in the dining-room of the Mayfair Hotel on Baggot Street. Hunt was from Watford, England and had also been a British Army officer.
30 June 1921: In Coolacrease, County Offaly (near Cadamstown), Richard Pearson (aged 24) and his brother Abraham (aged 19) were shot in their genitals and buttocks in front of their mother and sisters. It took 14 hours for the two brothers to slowly bleed to death from their groin injuries. The family home was later burned. There are conflicting versions of the incident. Some contend that the two were killed for sectarian reasons and to steal the family's property. Others claim the family were British informers and had fired at an IRA party some days before.
June 1921:
The Dublin IRA attacked a cricket match involving British soldiers in Trinity College Dublin. One woman spectator was killed in the crossfire.
The Dublin IRA carried out 93 attacks on British forces in the city in the course of the month.
A reported deserter, Lt John Watts, is captured and killed by the IRA near Rivertown, County Sligo.
July 1921
1 July 1921: Seven-man RIC patrol was ambushed by the IRA; the RIC had 4 casualties-2 wounded and two captured and later shot dead by the IRA in County Sligo.
4 July 1921: Local IRA Volunteers joined West Waterford Column under George Lennon in an attack on a Waterford-bound military train. After a fire fight of some fifteen minutes the train smashed through the crossing gates. This was the last engagement between British forces and the Waterford Brigade Flying Column.
6 July 1921: Disguised USC officers raided homes at Altnaveigh (near Newry), County Armagh and summarily killed four Catholic civilian men.
8 July 1921: IRA volunteer Dennis Spriggs taken from his home in Cork and killed by British forces.
9 July 1921:
Truce terms were signed in Dublin, to be effective on 11 July.
Filling in a trenched area at Kilgobnet, just north of Dungarvan, six civilians were killed when a secretly buried British mine exploded.
4 British soldiers (Alfred Cannim, Albert Powell, Harold Daker, and Henry Morris) were captured and shot dead at Ellis Quarry, Cork City by the IRA.
The IRA mistakenly killed Draper Holmes, a Protestant railway worker, during a reprisal attack in Newry, County Down. The reprisal attack was in response to the four killings at Altnaveigh (see 6 July 1921).
IRA Volunteer James McSorley shot to death in an attack by USC near Dunteague, County Tyrone.
10 July 1921:
Belfast's Bloody Sunday The IRA mounted an ambush in Raglan Street in Belfast, killing two policemen. This sparked an outbreak of ferocious fighting between Catholics and Protestants in west Belfast in which 16 civilians (11 Catholics and 5 Protestants) lost their lives and 161 houses were destroyed. Of the houses destroyed, 150 belonged to Catholics. Four more civilians died in the shooting over the next two days.
The IRAs Kerry No. 2 Brigade attacked a British Army patrol in Castleisland, County Kerry; three IRA volunteers and four British soldiers were killed. Three British troops were wounded in the action.
11 July 1921: The Truce: Actions commanded by IRA HQ ended outside Northern Ireland at midday under the Truce. Violence in Northern Ireland and unofficial violence in the south and west continue.
Mary McGowan, aged 12 was shot and killed as she and her mother crossed the street in front of there home on Derby Street, Belfast. Shots were fired from a USC armoured car, her mother was also wounded. An inquest jury specified that USC members were responsible for her death.
12 July 1921: The IRA shot dead Special Constable Thomas Sturdy at the junction of Dock and North Thomas streets in Belfast. Later that night, the USC took Patrick Milligan and Thomas Millar from their homes (on Dock Lane and New Dock Lane respectively), and shot them dead in the street.
July 1921: In County Kildare, an RIC constable was wounded and died of his wounds on 14 September 1922.
August 1921
26 August 1921: Workers in Bruree, Limerick seized the Mill they worked in and hoisted the Red flag over the building & hung a banner over the building proclaiming "Bruree Workers Soviet Mills – We Make Bread Not Profits". The Soviet lasted until 3 September 1921.
27 August 1921: A house in Belfast was bombed by loyalists. Over the next two days, two Protestants are killed by republican snipers.
30–31 August 1921: Eighteen people were killed during street battles in Belfast; nine Protestants and nine Catholics.
September 1921
7 September 1921: In a letter to de Valera regarding counties Fermanagh and Tyrone, Lloyd George acknowledged that his government had a very weak case on the issue of "forcing these two counties against their will" to be part of Northern Ireland.
11 September 1921: De Valera received nationalist delegations from counties Down, Londonderry, Antrim and the city of Belfast who expressed anxiety at partition. Referring to the unionists, one Protestant member of the Belfast delegation (Councillor James Baird - trade unionist and expelled workers’ representative) said that "partition would place power in the hands of those responsible for the pogroms".
15–18 September 1921: There was further riots in Belfast and two Protestants were killed by a sniper.
24 September 1921:
Speaking in Dundee, Winston Churchill threatened war if the Dáil refused to accept the British offer.
During rioting in Belfast, a grenade was thrown at a loyalist mob advancing towards a nationalist area. Two were killed and more than twenty injured.
25 September 1921:
In Belfast, an IRA volunteer was killed by a loyalist mob; one civilian was killed by a stray RUC bullet; and another civilian was killed by a grenade thrown into his home.
Galway Town hall, A dispute between Crown forces and republican Stewards at a dance for relief for republican Prisoners relief result in shots being fired; an accidental stray bullet kills Lt G.H. Souchen of the 17th Lancers who is passing by with several others on his way back to camp
October 1921
9 October 1921: The delegation from Dáil Éireann arrived in London.
11 October 1921: The first meeting of the British-Irish conference was held. Over the next two months there would be seven plenary sessions, 24 sub-conferences and 9 meetings of special committees.
From July–October 1921, membership of the IRA's Belfast Brigade had gone from 998 to 1,506. In addition it was bringing in a considerable number of weapons.
November 1921
15 November 1921: Tadhg Barry was shot and killed while interned at Ballykinlar Internment Camp in County Down. Barry was a long time Irish Republican, leading trade unionist, and Alderman on Cork City Council. Barry was shot while waving good bye to departing prisoners.
21–25 November 1921: Thirty people (all civilians) were killed during violence in Belfast.
28 November 1921: After Westminster decided to hand over responsibility for local government to Stormont, Tyrone County Council pledged its allegiance to Dáil Éireann. Eight smaller public bodies followed. That same day a bill was introduced in Stormont which allowed it to dissolve any local authority. Offices of Tyrone County Council were subsequently raided by the police and their records seized on 2 December 1921.
30 November 1921:
Speaking to the IRA's Mid Clare Brigade, de Valera said "We know the terrorism, we know the savagery that can be used against us, and we defy it". He and Cathal Brugha had spent a week reviewing IRA brigades in counties Galway, Clare and Limerick. Preparations were being made in case the negotiations broke down.
In the NI Parliament, James Craig blamed Sinn Féin for the recent violence and stated that 700 A-Specials and 5,000 B-Specials would be enrolled immediately. Around this time, Divisional Commissioner of the RIC in the North ordered his men to regard the truce as non-existent.
December 1921
2 December 1921: Two RIC men were killed during a failed escape attempt from Derry Gaol.
6 December 1921: Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed between the British Government and the Irish delegation. It was signed in London.
9 December 1921: IRA prisoners begin to be released.
As internees reach Thurles railway station, a bomb is thrown at the train. Vol. Declan Hurton is injured and later dies of his wounds.
10 December 1921:
At a meeting of the Supreme Council of the IRB, 11 supported the Treaty and 4 opposed it.
In Belfast, nationalist areas came under sustained attack from loyalist gunmen.
14 December 1921: Both the British Parliament and Dáil Éireann began to debate the Treaty.
15 December 1921: Fermanagh County Council pledged allegiance to Dáil Éireann. After the meeting the RIC took over the council chamber.
16 December 1921: Anglo-Irish Treaty is passed in the British House of Commons (401 support, 58 oppose) and House of Lords (166 support, 47 oppose).
17 December 1921: In Belfast, four people were shot dead. Meanwhile, six IRA volunteers were captured in an attempted raid at Balmoral military base, also in Belfast.
27 December 1921: In Belfast there was a shootout between an RIC patrol and an IRA unit, one RIC constable and one IRA volunteer were killed.
1922
January 1922
1–2 January 1922: In Belfast, five people were shot dead by snipers.
7 January 1922:
The Anglo-Irish Treaty was approved by Dáil Éireann (64 support, 57 oppose, 3 do not vote).
In Ireland, 328 statutory public bodies endorsed the Treaty; 5 declared against. Curran says 369 elected and other bodies endorsed the Treaty by this date; 14 had declared against.
10 January 1922: Arthur Griffith was elected President of Dáil Éireann.
12 January 1922: In Belfast, loyalists threw five grenades at groups of Catholic civilians.
14 January 1922:
In County Tyrone (Northern Ireland) members of the Monaghan Gaelic football team were arrested on their way to a match in Derry. Among them were IRA volunteers, who carried plans to free IRA prisoners from Derry prison.
Sixty Pro-Treaty TDs and four Unionist MPs met as the "Southern Parliament" and set up a Provisional Government. Michael Collins was elected chairman.
16 January 1922: Dublin Castle was surrendered to the Provisional Government under the terms of the Treaty.
31 January 1922: The first regiment of the Irish National Army was set up in Dublin.
February 1922
1 February 1922: An RIC officer was shot dead in battle with the IRA in Killarney, County Kerry.
3 February 1922: Two RIC officers were shot dead after leaving a pub in Lisdoonvarna, County Clare.
7–8 February 1922: IRA units crossed the border into Northern Ireland and took 43 USC officers and prominent loyalists captive in counties Fermanagh and Tyrone. They were to be held as hostages for the Monaghan Gaelic footballers and IRA volunteers who had been arrested in January. Most were taken from their homes. Two trucks of USC officers were also ambushed near Newtownbutler and they were captured after a firefight in which seven of them were wounded. A number of IRA volunteers were also captured during the raids. This operation had been approved by Michael Collins, Richard Mulcahy, Frank Aiken and Eoin O'Duffy. In response, many cross-border roads were sealed-off by the Northern Ireland authorities.
9–10 February 1922: A USC platoon was forced to withdraw from Clady, County Tyrone two nights in a row after coming under fire from the IRA. One USC officer was killed.
11 February 1922: IRA volunteers stopped a group of armed USC officers on a train in Clones, County Monaghan. Unbeknownst to the Irish Provisional Government, the USC unit had boarded a train which crossed the border on its way from Belfast to Enniskillen (Northern Ireland). The IRA called on the USC men to surrender for questioning, but one of them shot dead an IRA sergeant. This sparked a firefight in which four USC officers were killed and several wounded. Five others were captured. The incident threatened to spark off a major confrontation between North and South, and the British government temporarily suspended the withdrawal of British troops from the South.
12–15 February 1922: In Belfast, violence erupted in response to the Clones shootings. Between 37 and 39 people were killed. This included six children who were killed when loyalists threw a grenade into their school yard. Forty other children were injured in this attack.
20 February 1922: 2 British soldiers killed outside village of Bluebell County Dublin; a passing Army Lorry is then attacked by Co A 4th battalion, Dublin IRA. Two additional soldiers in Lorry also killed.
22 February 1922: Michael Collins secretly authorised the formation of a specially-paid unit of 70 IRA volunteers (Parkinson says 72, including 12 officers), known as the Belfast City Guard, to protect districts from loyalist attacks. It operated until August 1922, the same month that Collins was killed.
26 February 1922:
The Anti-Treaty IRA under Ernie O'Malley captured an RIC barracks in Clonmel, County Tipperary, and seized a large number of weapons.
It was reported that there had been 80 attacks on the RIC in Southern Ireland since the previous December, resulting in the deaths of 12 officers.
March 1922
2 March 1922: The Anti-Treaty IRA smuggled weapons from Germany to Helvic Head, County Waterford.
3 March 1922: IRA volunteers ambushed RIC vehicles in Tipperary town, killing two officers.
4 March 1922: IRA volunteers under Mick Mansfield seized the RIC barracks in Dungarvan, County Waterford.
6 March 1922: In Belfast, four people were shot dead (three civilians and one IRA volunteer).
7 March 1922: In Belfast, four people were shot dead.
9 March 1922: In Belfast, three people were shot dead.
10 March 1922: In Belfast, six people were shot dead (three civilians, two RIC constables, one British soldier).
15 March 1922: IRA volunteers shot dead two RIC constables and wounded another at St Brigid's Hospital, Galway.
16 March 1922:
In the Northern Ireland Parliament, Dawson Bates declared "we are at war" with the IRA.
In Belfast, four people were killed and numerous others injured by grenades.
18 March 1922: In Belfast, the RIC and USC raided IRA headquarters, seizing weapons and the names of IRA volunteers. The Irish Provisional Government condemned this as a breach of the truce. Meanwhile, four people were killed in the city.
19 March 1922: IRA volunteers raided two RIC barracks in the North, in Pomeroy and Maghera, seizing rifles and ammunition.
20 March 1922: IRA volunteers crossed into the North and attacked the USC barracks at Aughnacloy, County Tyrone.
21–22 March 1922: IRA volunteers shot dead two RIC men in Trillick, County Tyrone (Northern Ireland); in reprisal, local loyalists shot dead three Catholic civilians.
23 March 1922: McMahon Murders – In Belfast, members of the RIC/USC shot dead six members of the Catholic McMahon family at their home. Prior to this incident, six people had been shot dead in Belfast (including two USC constables).
24 March 1922: The IRA shot dead an off-duty USC officer while carrying out a bomb attack on the Moyola Bridge at Castledawson, County Londonderry (Northern Ireland).
28 March 1922: A column of fifty IRA volunteers crossed into the North and seized the RIC barracks in Belcoo, County Fermanagh (Northern Ireland) after a three-hour battle. Fifteen officers were captured and marched across the border and held until 18 July.
29 March 1922:
IRA volunteers shot dead two RIC officers in Cullaville, County Armagh (Northern Ireland).
IRA volunteers under Seán O'Hegarty seized the British ship Upnor off the coast of Ballycotton, County Cork, taking a large cache of weapons.
31 March 1922:
In Newry, the IRA ambushed a USC patrol, killing one and wounding another.
In Belfast, the IRA killed a USC officer and wounded another. In retaliation, the USC killed four Catholic civilians in the area.
April 1922
1 April 1922: Arnon Street Massacre – USC officers killed six Catholic civilians in their homes in the Arnon Street area of Belfast as revenge for the IRA having killed a fellow officer.
2 April 1922: A force of 500 USC officers carried out a major sweep to arrest suspected IRA members in the Sperrin Mountains between Cookstown, Draperstown and Greencastle (Northern Ireland). Many homes were raided and 300 men were arrested but only four were believed to be IRA members.
6 April 1922:
Six ex-RIC men were shot dead in counties Mayo, Clare and Kerry.
The IRA ambushed two USC patrols in Northern Ireland. A foot-patrol was ambushed near Garrison, County Fermanagh. One USC officer was killed and three wounded by machine gun fire. Another was ambushed at Roughan's Cross, County Armagh, resulting in the death of a USC Head Constable.
12 April 1922: Dún Laoghaire; Two British Privates are loading furniture in a car; one armed with a rifle is ordered by a man to put up his hands; he is then shot and mortally wounded
13 April 1922:
In Belfast, IRA volunteers shot dead two RIC men.
In New York, IRA volunteers from Cork shot and wounded a suspected informer.
The Anti-Treaty IRA under Rory O'Connor took over the Four Courts building in Dublin.
19 April 1922: In Belfast, four people were shot dead and many others injured.
21 April 1922:
In Belfast, six people were killed. Fr Bernard Laverty (chair of the Belfast Catholic Protection Committee) sent a telegram to Winston Churchill saying that Catholics were "being gradually but certainly exterminated".
The Ulster Council of the IRA met in Clones and agreed that every division with territory inside Northern Ireland would carry out operations in two weeks. McDermott says Collins sanctioned this policy. He goes on to say that "The aim of the new campaign was to make the government of the six counties as difficult as possible, rather than the overthrow of the state".
24 April 1922: A general strike took place, called by the Labour Party (and supported by 75,000 workers) against the prospect of civil war.
26 April 1922: The Provisional Government's Northern Advisory Committee met and urged Collins to restart IRA operations in Northern Ireland by 2 May if Craig did not accede to his three demands. At this time, Collins was preparing for a major Northern offensive (without the knowledge of his cabinet colleagues). Northern IRA staff were paid as part of the pro-Treaty army and supplied with arms from anti-Treaty divisions after Collins negotiated this with Liam Lynch.
26–28 April 1922: Dunmanway Massacre: After the fatal shooting of a local anti-Treaty IRA officer, Michael O'Neill, in a dispute over a car which the IRA wanted to commandeer, elements of the local IRA shot 14 local Protestant men in and around Dunmanway, County Cork, killing all but one, in revenge.
28 April 1922: 3 British officers, their army driver and a Newfoundland dog on a hunting trip are captured at Dick William Hotel at Macroom, County Cork by the IRA. The next day all four men and the dog are shot at Kilgobnet.
May 1922
2 May 1922: The IRA launched a series of attacks on RIC barracks in counties Londonderry and Tyrone, Northern Ireland. One RIC officer was killed and three wounded in an attack on Bellaghy barracks. An IRA volunteer was also killed and three captured. Draperstown and Coalisland barracks were also attacked.
3 May 1922:
Two Catholic civilian men were shot dead on a road outside Coalisland, allegedly by USC officers.
Three USC officers were shot dead by the IRA in Ballyronan, County Londonderry. Another was killed in an ambush of a mobile patrol at Corvanaghan, County Tyrone.
The IRA ambushed a USC patrol at Annaghmore, County Armagh, killing one officer. The IRA had attacked the home of a USC officer to draw the patrol into the ambush.
6 May 1922:
The IRA ambushed a USC group at Trew and Moy railway station, County Tyrone. No casualties were reported.
Two Catholic civilian men were shot dead at a house at Cluntygeeragh, near Dungiven, County Londonderry. It is believed the USC were responsible.
8 May 1922: The IRA attacked the homes of three unionists in Castlecaulfield, County Tyrone. The owners returned fire but a USC officer and another man were killed.
10 May 1922: USC officers shot three Catholic civilian men at their home in Ballyronan, killing one.
12 May 1922: Dublin: Two unarmed gunners of the Royal Garrison artillery are held up by two men armed with a pistol; one demands a bandolier. When one gunner asks for a receipt for stolen item he is given it but then shot and mortally wounded
18 May 1922:
The IRA's new Northern offensive began. Twenty Belfast IRA volunteers, under Roger McCorley, attacked Musgrave Street RIC barracks and seized weaponry. Two RIC officers were shot, one fatally. A number of IRA volunteers were also wounded. The IRA attacked other RIC barracks, commercial buildings, railway stations and stately homes.
Loyalists boarded a tram in central Belfast and killed three workers whom they identified as Catholics. The next day, IRA volunteers entered Garret's cooperage on Little Patrick Street in Belfast and shot four Protestant workers in retaliation, killing three.
19 May 1922:
In revenge for the burning of a unionist-owned mill, a mob of USC officers and loyalists attacked and burned many Catholic homes and businesses in Desertmartin, County Londonderry. USC officers took four Catholic men from their homes outside the village and summarily killed them.
The IRA attacked Martinstown RIC barracks in County Antrim with gunfire and grenades. They also ambushed a group of USC reinforcements, killing one. Three weeks later, a Catholic civilian was shot dead by USC officers at his home in nearby Cloughmills, apparently in revenge.
22 May 1922: Unionist MP William Twaddell was assassinated by the IRA in Belfast city centre. The Unionist government of Northern Ireland introduced internment in response and arrested up to 350 republican suspects. A total of 724 people were interned in Northern Ireland up to the end of 1924.
24 May 1922:
There were lengthy gun battles between loyalists and republicans on the Falls Road in Belfast. Three people were killed and 20 wounded.
Two IRA volunteers were killed in a firefight with USC officers in Glenariff, County Antrim.
26 May 1922: The IRA planted seven bombs at the Protestant Model School on Divis Street in Belfast, destroying the school, but causing no casualties.
26–27 May 1922: The IRA carried out several attacks in south County Armagh, killing a USC officer in the Jonesborough/Forkhill area.
28 May 1922: An IRA unit of 100 men occupied Pettigo, just on the Northern side of the border, sparking a firefight with a group of 100 USC officers, in which one USC man was killed. A battalion of British troops and an artillery battery of six field guns was then mobilised to dislodge the IRA party.
31 May 1922: IRA volunteers shot dead a USC officer in central Belfast and wounded another. That night, nine Catholics were killed by loyalists and USC men in the city. At least one Protestant civilian was also killed.
May 1922: A total of 75 people were killed in Belfast during the month. Many refugees from Belfast go South.
June 1922
1 June 1922:
The new Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) took over policing in Northern Ireland.
Fighting between the IRA and USC took place around Pettigo. Two civilians were killed in the crossfire.
4 June 1922: The IRA shot dead a magistrate at Newry Cathedral.
6 June 1922: A USC officer was killed by a sniper near Caledon, County Tyrone.
7 June 1922: British troops re-took Pettigo and Belleek with the help of artillery. Seven IRA volunteers were killed, six wounded and four captured. Another 50 IRA volunteers were later captured. The remainder made it back across the border. One USC officer died in the engagement.
13 June 1922: USC officers took two Catholic civilian men from their homes in south County Armagh and shot them dead near Lislea.
17 June 1922: IRA volunteers under Frank Aiken retaliated for the killing of the two Catholic men and the sexual assault of a Catholic woman in south County Armagh. A group of fifty IRA volunteers ambushed a USC patrol at Drumintee, killing two. Another IRA group attacked nine Protestant homes and shot dead six Protestant civilians at Altnaveigh.
20 June 1922: Two USC officers were killed in an ambush at Derrynoose, County Armagh.
22 June 1922: British General Sir Henry Wilson, who had been a military adviser to the Northern Ireland government, was shot dead at his home in London by IRA volunteers Reginald Dunne and Joseph O'Sullivan, purportedly in reprisal for attacks against Catholics in Ulster; two policeman and a passerby were also wounded. The two IRA volunteers were captured and hanged on 10 August 1922.
23 June 1922: A group of USC officers and British soldiers opened fire on civilians in the mainly-Catholic village of Cushendall, County Antrim. USC officers summarily killed three young Catholic men. They claimed they were ambushed by the IRA and returned fire, but a British government inquiry concluded that this was not true. The report was not made public for almost a century.
28 June 1922: Fighting broke out in Dublin between pro- and anti-Treaty units of the IRA. This marked the start of the Irish Civil War, which effectively ended serious violence in Northern Ireland as it distracted attention from the continued British presence there.
30 June 1922: A British army truck is fired upon in Dublin; One RAF Private mortally wounded.
August 1922
30 August 1922: A British Lt found dead in Dublin Shot by person or persons unknown; 2 additional British soldiers killed.
See also
Timeline of the Irish Civil War
References
Tom Barry, Guerilla Days in Ireland, Anvil, Cork 1981.
Richard Abbott, Police Casualties in Ireland, 1919-1922, Mercier Press, Dublin 2000.
M.E. Collins, Ireland 1866-1966, Educational Company of Ireland, Dublin 1993.
T. Ryle Dwyer, The Squad and the Intelligence Operations of Michael Collins, Mercier Press, Dublin 2005.
Michael Hopkinson, The Irish War of Independence, Gill & MacMillan, Dublin 2004.
Toby Harnden, Bandit country, The IRA and South Armagh, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1999.
David Leeson, "Death in the Afternoon: The Croke Park Massacre, 21 November 1920", Canadian Journal of History, vol 38, no. 1 (April 2003).
Eunan O'Halpin & Daithí Ó Corráin, The Dead of the Irish Revolution. Yale University Press, London, 2020.
Ernie O'Malley, Raid and Rallies, Anvil Books, Dublin 1982.
Alan F Parkinson, Belfast's Unholy War, Four Courts Press, Dublin 2004. hbk
Robert Lynch, The Northern IRA and the Early Years of Partition, Irish Academic Press, Portland Oregon, 2006.
Footnotes
External links
War of Independence: Clare and Galway
Chronology of Irish History, 1919-1923
RIC Memorial Roll 1837-1922
Cork's War of Independence
Killdare and the War of Independence
Irish War of Independence
1919 in Ireland
1920 in Ireland
1921 in Ireland
Irish military history timelines |
4353657 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant%20Irish%20nationalists | Protestant Irish nationalists | Protestant Irish Nationalists are adherents of Protestantism in Ireland who also support Irish nationalism. Protestants have played a large role in the development of Irish nationalism since the eighteenth century, despite most Irish nationalists historically being from the Irish Catholic majority, as well as most Irish Protestants usually tending toward unionism in Ireland. Protestant nationalists (or patriots, particularly before the mid-19th century) have consistently been influential supporters and leaders of various movements for the political independence of Ireland from Great Britain. Historically, these movements ranged from supporting the legislative independence of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, to a form of home rule within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to complete independence in an Irish Republic and (since the partition of Ireland) a United Ireland.
Despite their relatively small numbers, individual Protestants have made important contributions to key events in Irish nationalist history, such as Wolfe Tone during the 1798 rebellion, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Home Rule movement, and Erskine Childers and the 1916 Easter Rising.
In Northern Ireland, the vast majority of Ulster Protestants are unionist and vote for unionist parties. In 2008, only 4% of Protestants in Northern Ireland thought the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be unification with the Republic of Ireland, whereas 89% said it should be to remain in the United Kingdom.
All the various denominations of Protestantism in Ireland have had members involved in nationalism. The Anglican Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church of Ireland are the largest Protestant churches, and this remains the situation across the island of Ireland. The largest Protestant denomination is the Church of Ireland (having roughly 365,000 members, making up around 3% of the population of the Republic of Ireland, 15% of Northern Ireland, and 6.3% of the whole of Ireland), followed by the Presbyterian Church, with a membership of around 300,000, accounting for 0.6% of people in the Republic and 20% in Northern Ireland (6.1% of Ireland's population).
Pre-Union background
In the eighteenth century the first attempt towards a form of greater Irish home rule under the British Crown was led by the Irish Patriot Party in the 1770s and 1780s, inspired by Henry Grattan.
The Age of Revolution inspired Protestants such as Wolfe Tone, Thomas Russell, Henry Joy McCracken, William Orr, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the brothers Sheares, Archibald Hamilton Rowan, Valentine Lawless, and others who led the United Irishmen movement. At its first meeting on 14 October 1791, almost all attendees were Presbyterians, apart from Tone and Russell who were both Anglicans. Presbyterians, led by McCracken, James Napper Tandy, and Neilson would later go on to lead Ulster Protestant and Catholic Irish rebels in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Tone did manage to unite if only for a short time, at least, some Anglicans, Catholics and Dissenters into the "common name of Irishmen", and would later go on to try to get French support for a rising, first manifested in the failed French Bantry Bay landing of 1796.
At that time, the French republicans were opposed to all churches. Such people were inspired by Thomas Paine of the American Revolution, who disapproved of organised religions in The Age of Reason (1794–1795) and preferred a deist belief. Although the United Irish movement was supported by individual priests, the Roman Catholic hierarchy was opposed to it, because of a growing rapprochement between Rome and London (one example of which was the funding of the new seminary in Maynooth by the British government in 1795).
During the 1798 rebellion the military leaders were also largely Anglicans. After the initial battles in County Kildare the rebels holding out in the Bog of Allen were led by William Aylmer. In Antrim and Down the rebels were almost all Presbyterians, and at the Battle of Ballynahinch the local Catholic Defenders decided not to take part. In County Wexford, which remained out of British control for a month, the main planners were Bagenal Harvey and Anthony Perry. Joseph Holt led the rebels in County Wicklow, and Sir Edward Crosbie was hanged, having been wrongfully accused of leading a rebel force in County Carlow. Only in County Mayo, where there were few Protestants, was the rebellion led entirely by Catholics, and it only developed there because of the landing by a French force under General Humbert, who was assisted by Captain Bartholomew Teeling. The disarming of Ulster saw several hundred Protestants tortured, executed and imprisoned for their United Irish sympathies. The rebellion became the main reason for the Acts of Union, which passed in 1800.
From Emmet to the Fenians
In 1803 Robert Emmet, brother of Thomas Addis Emmet, attempted an insurrection in Dublin. Jemmy Hope tried to raise the districts of the north where the Presbyterian spirit of republican resistance had run strongest in the 1790s, but found no response.
The democratic and non-violent Repeal Association led by Daniel O'Connell in the 1830s and 1840s was supported by a number of Protestants; the most eminent being John Gray, who later supported Butt and Parnell (see below), and others such as James Haughton. Several younger Protestant Repealers, grouped around Charles Gavan Duffy's paper, the Nation, were disaffected: wary of O'Connell's ready identification of Catholicism with the nation, and of the broader clericalism of the national movement. Referred to contemptuously by O'Connell as "Young Irelanders"--a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy which in 1849 had briefly imposed a republic on the Pope in Rome--they included Thomas Davis, John Mitchel and leader of the abortive 1848 rebellion William Smith O'Brien.
In 1845 Davis famously clashed with O'Connell over "the Liberator's" denunciation of the "Queens Colleges", a "mixed" or non-denominational scheme for advanced education in Ireland. When Davis pleaded that "reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life", O'Connell accused him of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic". "I am", he declared, "for Old Ireland, and I have some slight notion that Old Ireland will stand by me".
In the election of 1852 John Gray, then editor of the Freeman's Journal, at the urging of the Reverend David Bell stood on the platform of Tenant Right League in Monaghan. Bell found his appeals for unity in support of Gray could not prevail against calls of the Union in danger, and "No Popery". Of the 100 of his fellow Presbyterians who had signed the requisition asking Gray to stand, only 11 had the courage to vote for him. Despairing of constitutional means, in 1864 Bell was inducted into the Irish Republican ["Fenian"] Brotherhood by Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa. Escaping arrest, from 1865 he was in exile in the United States where, in contrast to John Mitchel who, already in Ireland, had defended American slavery against the abolitionism of Daniel O'Connell, Bell tried to associate physical-force Irish republicanism with the Radical [U.S.] Republican agenda of black enfranchisement and Reconstruction.
Home Rule era (1870–1914)
Politicians
The new Home Government Association was founded by Isaac Butt in 1870, who died in 1879. William Shaw presided over the convention held to found its successor, the Home Rule League, of which he was chairman. He was followed by Charles Stewart Parnell, the founder of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). H. H. Asquith called Parnell one of the most important men of the nineteenth century and Lord Haldane called him the most powerful man that the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland had seen in 150 years. Parnell led the Gladstonian constitutionalist Home Rule movement and for a time dominated Irish and British affairs. However, at the height of his power he was to be dethroned by the O'Shea divorce affair and died soon afterwards.
Other Protestant Nationalist members of parliament were: Sir John Gray, Stephen Gwynn, Henry Harrison, Jeremiah Jordan, William McDonald, J. G. Swift MacNeill, James Maguire, Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony, Isaac Nelson, John Pinkerton, Horace Plunkett and Samuel Young.
In 1903, with Thomas Sloan, Independent MP for South Belfast, R.Lindsay Crawford co-founded the Independent Orange Order. For Crawford, who became the new order's Grand Master, this, in the first instance, was a protest against co-optation of the established Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers. But he also saw it as an opportunity for Irish Protestants to "reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen". His commitment in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) to an "extended form of self-government" for Ireland proved too much for Sloan and his supporters, and Crawford was expelled. As a journalist in Canada and the United States Crawford was committed to the cause of Irish self-determination, and in the 1920s served as the Irish trade representative in New York.
Several Protestant figures in the early Northern Ireland Labour Party were nationalists. These included MPs Jack Beattie, Sam Kyle and William McMullen and labour leaders James Baird and John Hanna. Meanwhile, trade unionist Victor Halley was a member of the Socialist Republican Party.
Artists
While not active nationalist supporters, authors who wrote about Irish life and history, such as William Wilde, Whitley Stokes, Standish James O'Grady and Samuel Ferguson helped to develop nationalist sentiment.
From 1897 the artist and mystic George Russell (also known as "Æ") helped Horace Plunkett to run the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society. The IAOS rapidly grew into the main Irish rural co-operative body through which Irish farmers could buy and sell goods at the best price. Plunkett was also a cousin of George Noble Plunkett, father of Joseph Mary Plunkett. Horace Plunkett's home in County Dublin was later burned down in 1922 by anti-treaty Irish republicans during the Irish Civil War, as he had been appointed a Senator in the first Irish Free State Senate.
Russell was also involved in the "Irish Literary Revival" (or Celtic Twilight) artistic movement, that provided an intellectual and artistic aspect supportive of Irish nationalism. This was also largely started and run by Protestants such as WB Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán O'Casey, Alice Milligan, and JM Synge, who also founded the influential but controversial Abbey Theatre that opened in 1904. "An Túr Gloine" (The Glass Tower) had a similar membership.
The archetypal work of art that commemorated the 1916 Rising, though sculpted five years before the rising, is the statue of the dying mythical warrior Cuchullain, sculpted by Oliver Sheppard, a Protestant art lecturer in Dublin who had been a moderate nationalist for decades. Cast in bronze, it was unveiled at the GPO in 1935.
Independence era (1916–1922)
Sam Maguire inducted Michael Collins into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) in 1909. From 1928 the main prize for Irish football awarded by the Gaelic Athletic Association has been the Sam Maguire Cup.
In 1908 Bulmer Hobson and Constance Markievicz founded the Fianna Éireann, intended as a nationalist Boy Scout movement. The Irish Volunteers were a paramilitary organisation established in 1913 by Irish Nationalists and separatists including Roger Casement, Bulmer Hobson and Erskine Childers, all Protestant Irish nationalists (although Casement, who had been secretly baptised a Catholic by his mother, officially converted to Catholicism just before he was hanged in 1916). The Irish Volunteers were formed in response to the formation of the Ulster Volunteers by Edward Carson and James Craig. The Ulster Volunteers were a Unionist paramilitary movement who feared a Dublin-centric, anti-Protestant Home Rule parliament in Dublin.
The Irish Citizen Army existed from 1913–1947 and one of its creators was Jack White from Ulster, son of General George White. On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, 220 of the group (including 28 women) took part in the Easter Rising. Most of the rifles and ammunition used in the Rising had been imported from Germany in July 1914 by Erskine Childers on his yacht Asgard along with Conor O'Brien, Alice Stopford Green, Mary Spring Rice, Darrell Figgis and the former Quaker Bulmer Hobson. The rest of the rifles were shipped by Sir Thomas Myles, at the suggestion of the barrister James Meredith, and were landed at Kilcoole. In 1913 Hobson had sworn Patrick Pearse into the IRB; Pearse was one of leaders of the Rising. A prominent signatory to the Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921 that followed the Anglo-Irish war was Robert Barton, a cousin of Childers.
A cousin of both, David Lubbock Robinson, was in the IRA and interned. He later became a Fianna Fáil Senator.
In the subsequent Irish Free State governments Ernest Blythe, a former member of the Irish Volunteers, held various ministerial posts. Seán Lester was a League of Nations diplomat. The founder of the Gaelic League and first President of Ireland was Douglas Hyde. Dorothy Macardle opposed the 1921 Treaty and was a lifelong supporter of Éamon de Valera, writing his view of history in The Irish Republic (1937), but also refusing his suggestion to convert to Catholicism on her deathbed in 1958. Some like the Revd. Robert Hilliard fought in the Spanish Civil War in 1936–1939.
Following independence, southern Protestant unionists accepted the new reality and worked with the new Free State from its difficult start in 1922–23. These included judges such as Lord Glenavy, whose suggestions for a new law courts system was enacted as the Courts Act 1924, and twenty accepted nominations to the new Senate, such as Lord Mayo.
1940s
In 1941, writer Denis Ireland, son of a wealthy manufacturer and steeped in Unionist tradition, described himself as "a son of the Ulster Protestant industrial ascendancy". He founded the Ulster Union Club in Belfast to purportedly "recapture, for Ulster Protestants, their true tradition as Irishmen", it advertised a range of activities including weekly discussions and lectures on current affairs, economics, history and the Irish language, as well as dancing and music classes. A number of pamphlets were published and under its auspices Ireland contributed to various magazines, newspapers and radio programmes in Belfast and Dublin.
The Club was mainly frequented by Protestants but, as the authorities soon discovered, it was a source of recruits to the IRA. UUC meetings were being attended by John Graham, a devout member of the Church of Ireland, who, at the time of his arrest in 1942, was leading a "Protestant squad", an intelligence unit, that was preparing the armed organisation for a new "northern campaign." In 1944, under Northern Ireland Special Powers Act, the UUC was suppressed. The club's premises, and the homes of Ireland and other prominent members (among them Presbyterian clergymen, teachers and university lecturers) were raided by RUC Special Branch.
Along with George Gilmore, and George Plant, Graham had been amongst a handful of Protestants who had come to the IRA through the minority Republican Congress. Plant was executed in 1942 by the Irish government for the murder of a suspected informer.
In 1948 Denis Ireland entered the Seanad Éireann, the Irish Senate, for the republican and social-democratic Clann na Poblachta. As a senator, Ireland was the first member of the Oireachtas, the Irish Parliament, to be resident in Northern Ireland.
During the Troubles
In the North, Protestants participated in the early years of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Ivan Cooper was among its co-founders in 1970.
Billy Leonard, a former Seventh-day Adventist lay-preacher and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist, whose wife and children are Catholics, was elected in 2001 to Coleraine Borough Council as an SDLP representative for the Skerries area. Citing lack of emphasis on Irish unity he joined Sinn Féin in 2004. The party nominated him to succeed Francie Brolly as an MLA for East Londonderry in 2010. But citing disagreements "over support arrangements for MLAs' wages and expenses", and complaining that "the tentacles of the [IRA] Army Council still run throughout" the republican party he soon resigned.
Ronnie Bunting, son of Ronald Bunting, a close associate of Ian Paisley, became a member of the Official IRA in the early 1970s and was a founder-member of the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) in 1974. He was assassinated by the Ulster Defence Association in 1980.
Jim Kerr, born into a middle-class Protestant family in Enniscorthy, County Wexford, joined the IRA in the late 1930s and was interned at the Curragh Camp during World War II. Kerr, a socialist and member of the Connolly Study Group at the Camp, like other left-wing IRA members, signed himself out to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Kerr was active in the Border Campaign of the late 1950s and became a close ally of young IRA member Seamus Costello. Kerr was employed as a blasting engineer at the Mogul Mines at Silvermines, near Nenagh, County Tipperary and was a shop steward with the Irish Transport and General Workers Union (ITGWU), involved in several industrial disputes in the early 1970s. Kerr, then a member of the Ard Comhairle of Official Sinn Féin, left with others in late 1974 to help found the Irish Republican Socialist Party (IRSP) and INLA. In 1975 Kerr was arrested for stealing gelignite explosive from Mogul Mines for the INLA and went on the run in continental Europe, building ties with left-wing militant groups and allegedly helping to transport weapons supplied by the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) to the INLA.
Also assassinated by the UDA in 1980, John Turnley, scion of a wealthy Protestant family and a former British Army officer, joined in SDLP in 1972. At the time he was killed, Turnley was chairman of the Irish Independence Party, co-founded with Frank McManus (former Unity MP for Fermanagh & South Tyrone) and Fergus McAteer (son of the former Nationalist Party leader Eddie McAteer)., and a leading member of the National H-Blocks Committee supporting the IRA blanket protest.
David Russell was a Protestant Provisional IRA volunteer originally from Ramelton in Donegal and a Presbyterian. He was killed due to a premature bomb explosion in 1974 at a supermarket in Derry. Tom Berry was an Official IRA volunteer with Protestant background. He was killed by the Provisional IRA in east Belfast during the intra-republican feud in 1975. Harry Murray was a Provisional IRA volunteer from Tiger's Bay who had served in the Royal Air Force (RAF). Ronald Spence, nephew of Ulster Volunteer Force leader Gusty Spence, joined an auxiliary unit of the Official IRA and was later charged with involvement in a punishment shooting carried out in 1977. Spence had married a girl from the predominantly Catholic Short Strand area of Belfast when he was seventeen and joined a republican social club.
Republic of Ireland
Martin Mansergh, a member of the Church of Ireland, has been influential in formulating Fianna Fáil's policy on Northern Ireland since the peace process began in the 1990s. Sinn Féin TD for Clare Violet-Anne Wynne is Protestant. Fine Gael TD Heather Humphreys has referred to herself as a republican and nationalist on several occasions.
Protestant nationalist converts to Roman Catholicism
A number of Protestant nationalists also converted to Catholicism, for a variety of reasons:
Lord Ashbourne
Ada Beesley, the second wife of John Redmond
Thomas Bennett
Charles Bewley
Joseph Biggar MP
Aodh de Blácam (né Harold Blackham)
Roger Casement
Lillie Connolly, widow of James Connolly
Charlotte Despard, sister of Viscount French (Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1918–21)
Victor Fagg, prominent Irish republican (converted to Catholicism in 1943 to marry Una Daly, a member of the women's IRA group, Cumann na mBan)
Father Patrick Fell, a Roman Catholic convert accused and later convicted in the 1970s of being a commander of an Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) active service unit; later became a priest.
Mabel McConnell FitzGerald, wife of Desmond FitzGerald and mother of Garret FitzGerald
Grace Gifford, sister of Muriel, wife of Joseph Plunkett
Katherine Anna ("Katie") Gifford, Mrs Wilson (1875–1957), Irish republican, civil servant, and teacher; sister of Grace and Muriel Gifford
Muriel Gifford, sister of Grace, wife of Thomas MacDonagh
Maud Gonne, wife of John MacBride, mother of Seán MacBride, and mother-in-law of Francis Stuart
Edmund Dwyer Gray, son of the Protestant nationalist, Sir John Gray
Hugh Law MP and TD
Shane Leslie
Seán Mac Stíofáin, born John Edward Drayton Stephenson in England to an English Protestant father and a mother of Ulster Protestant and Unionist.
Constance Markievicz MP (abstentionist) and TD, first female elected as both
Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony MP
Gertrude Bannister Parry (cousin of Roger Casement)
James Pearse, father of Patrick and Willie Pearse; converted to Catholicism (and, at least nominally, Home Rule) before marrying Margaret Brady (who, with her daughters, shared her sons' political beliefs and all became political activists)
William Stockley
Francis Stuart, son-in-law of Maud Gonne
See also
Alliance Party of Northern Ireland
Catholic Unionist
Unionism in Ireland
Irish Unionist Party
References
Sources
O'Broin, Leon; Protestant Nationalists in Revolutionary Ireland, Barnes & Noble 1985,
Celtic nationalism
Irish nationalism
Politics of Northern Ireland |
4353898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20rock | Indian rock | Indian rock is a music genre in India that may incorporate elements of Indian music with rock music, and is often topically India-centric. While India is more often known for its (northern and southern) classical music, filmi, Bollywood music, Indi-pop, and Bhangra, the Indian rock scene has also produced numerous bands and artists.
Early history
India, in the 1950s and 1960s, had a record industry in the Gramophone Company of India (an RCA/HMV/EMI subsidiary), and LPs, EPs, and 45rpm records were freely available, including those of rock and roll acts from the US and Britain, but also of contemporary pioneering Indian rock bands. The president of the firm, Bhaskar Menon (who later became the President of Capitol Records in the United States) was the leading promoter of Western pop music in India. Later in 1970, Polydor, the German Label, began an India-based branch that distributed rock music locally.
Of these mid-1960s to early 70s beat groups, as they were then termed, some of the most notable were the Mystiks from Bombay, the Beat-X from Madras, and The Cavaliers, Calcutta-16, and The Flintstones from Calcutta, who composed and played both early British Invasion influenced songs, and post-Sgt. Pepper hard rock. During this period from Delhi there were The Thunderbirds (featuring singer Ashwani Bali, Bass Guitarist Percy Singh), and WAFWOT (also with Ashwani on vocals, with organist Mark Spevak, from the U.S. and Bass Guitarist Percy Singh) These bands played regularly on the Indian university and college music circuits, and some had successful EP and LP releases. Also notable from this period (1964–1970) was the female R&B singer, Usha Iyer, now Usha Uthup, who had successful covers of "Jambalaya" and The Kingston Trio song, "Greenback Dollar". A notable compilation LP titled "Simla Beat '70" was released during this period, from a contest of the same name. The winning bands recorded their versions of Western hard rock of the time. This tradition of covering Western rock would continue until the 1980s when it was more common to compose original songs.
The rock n' roll scene was also closely followed by Junior Statesman (or JS), a magazine started in 1965 contemporaneously with Rolling Stone magazine in the US and NME in the UK.
Like Western rock bands at the time, Indian bands also began fusing rock with traditional Indian music from the mid-1960s onwards. A notable example of this is in the Cavaliers' 1967 hit "Love is A Mango," which incorporates sitar accompaniment alongside Beatlesque songwriting. However, filmi songs, those produced specifically for popular Bollywood films, often overshadowed the country's budding rock scene, which otherwise contrasted from that within the film industry. Some of the more well known filmi songs (including styles such as funk rock, pop rock, psychedelic rock, raga rock, and soft rock) from Bollywood films include Mohammed Rafi's "Jaan Pehechan Ho" in Gumnaam (1965), Kishore Kumar's "O Saathi Re" in Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (1978), and Asha Bhosle songs such as "Dum Maro Dum" in Hare Rama Hare Krishna (1971), "Ae Naujawan Hai Sab" in Apradh (1972), and "Yeh Mera Dil Pyar Ka Diwana" in Don (1978).
Indian influence on Western music
In the 1960s, renowned Western acts such as The Yardbirds, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Doors and The Byrds were notably influenced by Indian classical music as a way of reinforcing the psychedelia in their music. While jazz musicians, notably John Coltrane, had ventured into Indian music and spiritualism (see Indo jazz, Sitar in jazz, and Jazz in India), the influence of Indian classical music on 1960s rock began in earnest with George Harrison's Ravi Shankar inspired raga rock song "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" in 1965 and The Beatles' very public sojourn with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at his ashram in Rishikesh in 1968, following the release of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967. Raga rock led to the development of psychedelic rock, which in turn laid the foundations for heavy metal music.
The Indian rock scene would later give rise to one of the world's most famous rock stars, Freddie Mercury, born Farrokh Bulsara. One of his formative musical influences was the Bollywood singer Lata Mangeshkar. He began his music career as a teenager in Bombay with the rock band, The Hectics, which was founded in 1958 and often performed cover versions of Western rock and roll artists such as Little Richard and Cliff Richard. After leaving the band in 1962, he moved to England, where he later led the rock band Queen (formed in 1971), which went on to become one of the world's most famous rock bands.
The Indian rock scene also gave rise to one of the pioneers of disco music, Biddu, who originally began his career in an Indian rock band called The Trojans. It was India's first English-speaking band, and found success producing cover versions of The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Trini Lopez, and other Western hits of the day, in the clubs of Bangalore, Calcutta, and Bombay. After the band broke up, he moved in 1967 to England, where he later found breakthrough success after producing "Kung Fu Fighting" for Carl Douglas.
1980s and 1990s
While the orientalist trend of the 60s and 70s was by the 80s and 90s largely over, India itself continued to produce bands in various styles of rock music, from soft rock and roll and pop rock, to hard rock and metal. In the early 1980s, however, rock was largely overshadowed by disco, which dominated Indian pop music up until the mid-1980s.
With the arrival of MTV, tastes rapidly changed, encouraging bands to harden their style and focus more on underground styles such as death metal, alternative metal, and progressive rock. The 1990s saw the rise of a much larger following of various harder styles for this reason. Bands that had formed in the 80s, such as Rock Machine (who would later be known as Indus Creed) - (including Mahesh Tinnaikar, Uday Benegal, etc.)...altered their style with the influx of newer techniques and influences from the west. Notable suburban metal-blues bands with 1960s and 1970s metal influences included IIT Powaii based Axecalibre, fronted by Oliver Pinto, Prashant Nair and covered flamboyant guitar-based blues and hardcore metal including ballads. Contemporaries of the time were Easy Meat from Pune and Bands such as Holocaust, Morgue (fronted by vocalist Mrinal Das, Drummer Neeraj Kakoty, Ambar Das and Raju Seal on Twin Attack Guitars, Manas Chowdhury on Bass), Dorian Platonic from Guwahati, Assam, Grassroots Revival, Postmark, The Cannibals, Phoenix,Phynyx and Drixian Empire/Dark Crusader from Manipur.
Others formed in the 1990s with harder styles influenced by the growing split between popular rock, such as Britpop, alternative styles, such as punk, and metal styles, such as thrash. The Indian subgenre of fusion, which encourages a similar blend of ancient Indian musical traditions with rock music to raga rock, was also carried forward, and is perhaps the most unusual Indian style of rock. It was during this time that Palash Sen's Euphoria surfaced in the Indian scene as a straight ahead English rock band. The band later started writing in Hindi, and gave birth to what is now known as "Hindi Rock". Euphoria went on to become India's most popular, successful and commercially accepted Independent act. Other fusion bands like Indian Ocean and Mrigya also grew in popularity. As in decades before, university campuses and campus rock shows continued to be the driving force behind determining what kind of band would succeed and what kind of music young people liked.
2000s
The current Indian rock scene has a larger following than ever (although it is still marginalized compared to Indian film music, particularly the filmi soundtracks of Bollywood) and may soon become recognized in the international arena, as various South American and Japanese bands have become. Recent entries into the rock music scene are increasingly becoming comparable in their production quality to Western bands, and have been compared favorably to other internationally recognized acts. Now digital technology is making it easier than ever for these bands to distribute and sell their music. Some British bands of South Asian origin, such as Swami have, like their hip-hop counterparts, tried to enter the Indian market in addition to maintaining the traditional fanbase of non-resident Indians in United Kingdom, Canada and the United States. Others, such as Rudra, have emerged from Indian communities in other Asian countries. Progress is certain for the Indian rock scene with the advent of entities that support this genre. Rock Street Journal and Rolling Stone India are the two major publications that have been promoting Indian rock bands. The scene has also been transformed by the online medium, and the subsequent rise of a number of online portals promoting Indian rock, most notably the indie music website NH7, Headbangers India, IndianMusicMug, Unholy Maunder, IndianMusicRevolution, Metalbase India, Indian Metal Scene, and Metal Spree.
Sub-genres
Raga rock
In the West, some groups, such as The Beatles, traveled to India and incorporated aspects of Indian music, especially classical instruments such as the sitar, into their music, often as a way of conjuring psychedelic 'Eastern' feelings. The term for this was raga rock, and examples of it are The Beatles "Love You To", "The Inner Light","Across the Universe","Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", "Tomorrow Never Knows", "Strawberry Fields Forever" and "Within You Without You"; The Rolling Stones' "Paint it, Black"; The Kinks' "Fancy"; The Doors' "The End" and The Byrds' "Eight Miles High". A number of prolific Indian classical musicians such as Ravi Shankar aligned themselves with this trend, collaborating with Western artists. Indian bands themselves mainly covered early rock songs by pioneers of rock and roll in the United Kingdom and America, and only achieved recognition in popular culture by supporting film scores and Indian pop.
Indian fusion
An Indian subgenre of rock exists that focuses on blending traditional Indian styles of music with rock music. The term for non-Indian bands using Indian instrumentals and vocal in rock is raga rock. However, Indian fusion also encompasses attempts by Indian pop musicians and film composers to incorporate rock music into their work, starting in the 1970s with film scores like those of the Amitabh Bachchan classics. The Brown Indian Band features accomplished Indian classical musicians in concert with jazz virtuosos. More recently the multi-cultural British band Botown have taken elements of Bollywood and fused them with soul and funk to great success. The New Delhi Based Band 'Ojapali' is also doing many experiments with Electronica Fusion music and Folk music of the Assam Region.
The Kochi-based band Motherjane typifies bands producing this genre of music. Motherjane guitarist Baiju Dharmajan is a pioneer of introducing the guitar music style known as carnatic shredding. Bangalore based carnatic rock band Agam and fusion rock outfit Divine Raaga, Kaav, Veenar are other examples of mature songmakers in the country.
Karnatriix is another band which has defined a new genre of fusion music labelled 'New-age World music'. Their ever-evolving sound today registers as ideally in sync with the 21st century's pan-cultural landscape. The name 'KARNATRIIX' which is a word play, meaning 'Aural Trickery', openly defines their music. Mellifluous melodies and sophisticated phrases deep-rooted in Blues music with an Indian Classical touch, combined with raw percussion and electronically produced subtle beats, voices and effects, form the core essence of the Karnatriix's musical nature. Indian Guitarist Kapil Srivastava composed Rock and Raga Fusion music in his Indian Guitaroo Volume 1.
Indian funk
Indian funk is a loose term describing the style of rock and roll which is sometimes blurred into the realms of pop and other genres. Whereas Indian fusion may only incorporate Indian styles into rock, or rock into Indian forms of music, Indian funk can be broadly defined as what rap-metal is to heavy metal - an infusion of elements from rap, reggae, pop and dance genres that some might consider to not be 'true' rock. Groups originating in South Asian communities in Western countries like Britain are noted for this style, with bands such as Swami and Asian Dub Foundation using elements of UK garage, UK bhangra and hip-hop, such as synthesizers, rap vocals and turntables. Also based in the UK, Botown take an approach inspired by Funkadelic with a large lineup of live musicians to blend Bollywood music with soul and funk. Few rock bands such as Silent Echo (Delhi) and Psycho Frequency (Delhi) use a wide range of samples and mechanically evolved sounds.
Rock and roll
India has produced many rock bands, some of whom have made it into mainstream Indian music and achieved some international recognition.
RLC66 one of the upcoming acts from Mumbai trying to combine various genres from western music. Their main influences are Porcupine Tree, Tool, Dream Theater. The song "Abrupt" is earning some good number of fans in Mumbai underground scene. Indian Guitar Player Kapil Srivastava has composed Rock and Roll fusion in his Indian Guitaroo Volume 2.
In September 2015, Mumbai based Rock & Roll Bassist Vivek Date released his Rock & Roll Album "Wrapping Paper" The album received a warm response from the audience and a good critique from the reviewers with some tipping it as a gift to the Rock & Roll scene of 2015 in India
Hard rock and heavy metal
Vedic Metal
A new brand of metal has arisen in India called "Vedic metal", or "Hindu metal", which traces its origins to the heavy metal band M.A.I.D.S (Metal Aliens in Devil's Soul), which laid the foundation of heavy metal and rock in southern India in the early 1990s. The Singaporean band Rudra initially got their worldwide push from major heavy metal label Sonic Wave International. With their style of 'Vedic metal' based around Hindu themes, the band have gained some fame in South East Asia, fusing heavy metal with Indian traditional music, in the vein of Brazil's Sepultura, although they do not use avant-garde instruments such as them. Many international critics from the United States, Germany, and other countries have given the band's albums rave reviews.
Since the genre was pioneered by Rudra in the late 1990s, it has grown in popularity. Bands like Wingz of Vayraag (India), Aryadeva (Ukraine), Symmetry (Indonesia), Warriors of Peace (India), Asura (India), Advaita (India), The Aryan March (India), Bhairav (India), Madhavas Rock Band (India), Narasimha (Singapore), Kaliyuga (Singapore), Azrael (Australia), Dying Out Flame (Nepal), Blue River (Sri Lanka), Punarjanma (India), and Kartikeya (Russia) have done pioneering work in the subgenre. Often, along with Vedic lyrics, the music has shades of Indian classical music. With the introduction of new subgenre of heavy metal, the Vedic-core bands like, Antim-Yuddha, Roktobeej are contributing to the rising Indian underground rock culture. The definitive album of this genre Rudra's The Aryan Crusade (2001). In addition, India has produced many heavy metal bands that combine ethnic-folk music with various forms of heavy metal to create other folk metal bands. Indian rock has been influenced by some notable cultural trends, and has in turn produced influences of its own. Indian musicians have also collaborated with other musicians from across the globe.
Heavy metal
Millennium was formed in 1988 as one of the first Indian metal bands, and it laid the foundation for the Indian heavy metal scene. Demonic Resurrection laid the foundation for Indian extreme metal early in 2000 when extreme metal in India was a scarce minority, since then it has garnered popularity especially in the underground scene and spawned many bands such as Corroded Dreams, Escher's Knot, Crypted, Bestial Murder, and some bands have adapted to black metal driven sound with a rawer sound and satanic lyrics. Bands such as Dark Desolation from Bengaluru and Fortified Destruction from Chennai have gone down that path. Many prolific extreme metal bands have spawned from the Chennai local scenes like Siva from Crypted, Abhijit Rao from Escher's Knot, Vyas "Hex" Manalan from Fortified Destruction who are all frontmen of their respective bands and all known for their extreme vocal capabilities and the addition of guitar in the case of Hex. With many extreme metal bands from other countries, such as Behemoth, Gojira, and Cradle of Filth are setting foot on the India. Some of the most popular heavy metal bands in India are Undying INC, Zygnema, Bhayanak Maut, Albatros, Noiseware, Abraxas, Devoid, Sceptre, Kryptos, The Down Troddence, Crypted, Halakuah, Inner Sanctum, Scribe, and Cosmic Infusion. New emerging bands from India are now focused on spreading heavy metal and extreme metal music to the masses; there are frequent heavy metal gigs across India; though it is a niche in the genre, more and more people are becoming aware of the genre and bands like Orcus, Carnage INC, Primitiv, Eternal Returns, Killchain to name a few. From Central India, Nicotine, a band based in Indore, is widely credited of being one of the pioneers of heavy metal music in the region. In recent years, the a wave of Indian extreme metal bands are growing in popularity with bands like Brazen Molok, being the flag bearer of this new wave.
Regional music scenes
Many cities and regions have produced collections of bands large enough to be classified as a scene within Indian rock.
Shillong, Chennai, Mumbai and Bangalore have long been one of the principal founts of Indian rock and continues to produce bands regularly.
Bangalore scene
The dominant music genres in urban Bangalore are rock and metal music. All subgenres of rock, varying from classic rock n' roll to extreme metal can be heard in Bangalore. The underground scenario in Bangalore is highly acclaimed, and though Shillong is called the Rock/Metal capital of India but that day is not far when Bangalore can take the fame away from Shillong. Notable bands from Bangalore include ManojGeorge4Strings, Raghu Dixit Project, Girish and The Chronicles (GATC), Kryptos, The Down troddence(TDT) (originally from Kannur, Kerala), Inner Sanctum, Agam, All the Fat Children, The Usual Suspects, Final Surrender and Swarathma.
Rock 'n India, Great Indian Rock and more recently Deccan Rock are the primitive rock festivals in India. Bangalore was also the first city in India where internationally popular rock groups Opeth, Iron Maiden, The Rolling Stones, Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Sting, Aerosmith, Elton John, Deep Purple, Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, among various other heavy metal groups performed live for the first time in India.
Recent restrictions on live music in Bangalore's bars has affected the rock music culture of the city but is slowly recovering with pubs like Kyra, B Flat and Legends of Rock hosting more live bands. Festivals like Rock 'n India, Rock Ethos, Great Indian Rock and more recently Wrath Fest at Raipur and Deccan Rock continue to take place in Bangalore, a popular destination for international acts like Iron Maiden, Lamb of God, Bryan Adams, Scorpions, Sting, Aerosmith, Megadeth, Elton John, Metallica and Deep Purple.
Chennai scene
Another major Indian rock festival is the June Rock Out, organised by the Unwind Centre in Adyar, Chennai.
There are also other smaller rock/metal festivals happening regularly in Bangalore and Chennai, like "Euphony", the "September Underground", "Last Band Standing", and the weekly "Live 101." The Bands Association of Chennai (BAC) is an organisation which actively promotes the cause of original music by Chennai bands such as Requiem Injustice, Grasshopper Green and Namma Ooru Boy Band (NOBB).
Delhi scene
Delhi's music circuit has seen its share of ups and downs, but has held on largely due to the local presence of Rock Street Journal. Delhi being the operational home of the Allahabad-based magazine, local bands have benefited by the proximity to India's first dedicated to stories and features based around rock and metal. The Great Indian Rock festival was mostly held in Delhi, now foraying into Kolkata, Mumbai and Bangalore, North-East India and Pune has exposed the upcoming musicians of India to a wider variety of musicians. Notable bands from Delhi include Indian Ocean, Them Clones, Menwhopause, Bandish, Advaita, Midival Punditz, Mrigya, Guillotine.
Hyderabad scene
In Hyderabad bands like Sledge, Wreckage, Native Tongue has paved for upcoming bands by taking it to the nationals. They have won major rock and metal competitions such as campus rock idols 2004, 2005 and 2006 and headlining gigs across all major IT festivals in India taking charge of the Indian rock scene.
Indore scene
The Indore scene (in Central India) initially ignored by the mainstream Rock/Metal fraternity has been emerging as the 'Dark Horse' of Indian Rock and Metal Scene since the mid-2000s. Though Metal dominates the scene, the city has produced bands from all kinds of the genre (Classic Rock, Alternative, Hard Rock, Death Metal).
Nicotine which was formed in December 2006, is widely credited for being the pioneers of Metal music, not just in the Indore but in Central India.
Zero Gravity, another Metal band from the city, released their full-length album called 'Holocaust Awaits' in 2014.
Nicotine, Grim Reapers and Bliss are the only 3 bands to have qualified from the Central Zone of the 'Campus Rock Idols' Competition.
Ceaseless Juncture and Perception as Reality are some of the existing active bands. There were bands like Avalanche, Auxiliary Triangle, Assault, Overdrive, Blindfolds which are now disbanded but won competitions outside the city.
Though it is an independent scene, major bands from outside the city like BLAKC, Zygnema, Demonic Resurrection, Undying Inc, Albatross, etc. have performed in Indore.
Digvijay Bhonsale, a rock and metal vocalist, guitarist and songwriter from Indore has played several gigs in the United Kingdom and Zimbabwe.
Kerala scene
The state of Kerala gave India one of the first and successful rock bands ever - 13 A.D.
Kerala has produced some of the finest bands and musicians : Motherjane, Avial, The Down Troddence, Thaikkudam Bridge, Evergreen, ManojGeorge4Strings, Baiju Dharmajan and Rex Vijayan
Kolkata Scene
Bands from Kolkata that pioneered original music in English include Krosswindz, Cassini's Division, Skinny Alley, The Supersonics, Five Little Indians, and Span. There is also a massive regional rock scene and also some bands formed locally with international views in Kolkata that includes bands like Fossils, Cactus, Chandrabindoo, Krosswindz, Bhoomi, and Lakkhichhara.
In Kolkata, the underground Metal Bands organise an Event called The Pit at Tapan Theatre in Kalighat. In 2009, three editions of The Pit were successfully organised. It is being seen now that more events are being organised, like the metal events held by KOSMA (Kolkata Old School Metal Association). Other fests include 'Abomination', 'Order of the Heretical Trident Festival', 'Kolkata Open Air'. Bengali metal gigs attract huge crowds and are sponsored by various organisations. Kolkata also hosts an annual musical festival, The NH7 Weekender since 2013.
Moheener Ghoraguli, a Bengali independent music group from Kolkata, is arguably India and Bengal's first popular rock band.
Mumbai scene
Some of the most notable contemporary rock bands from Mumbai are Pentagram, Tough on Tobacco, Bhayanak Maut, Demonic Resurrection, Split, Sridhar/Thayil, Scribe, and Goddess Gagged. The recent reunion of Indian rock pioneers Indus Creed was received with great enthusiasm, especially with regard to their plans to produce a new album in 2011.
Mumbai's longest-running festival has been the Independence Rock Festival. 2010 saw I-Rock, as it is popularly known, celebrate its 25th year. Independence Rock XXV paid tribute to the city that has hosted the festival by featuring a spate of local bands. The recently reunited Indus Creed headlined the festival, which included other local favourites like Bhayanak Maut, Scribe, Demonic Resurrection and Pralay, as well as stalwart musicians like Dhruv Ghanekar, Warren Mendonsa, Loy Mendonsa, Ehsaan Noorani, Farhad Wadia (the festival's founder and promoter), Ravi Iyer, Chandresh Kudwa, Shazneen Arethna and Sidd Coutto.
Pune scene
A relatively recent entry into the Indian Rock circuit is the city of Pune has been the home of bands over the years and off late there has been a new surge with notable genre-defining acts like Silver, Strange Brew, Jazz Mates, Nothing as Now and more. The live music scene of the twin cities Mumbai and Pune has been on a steep rise since 2005 with major International acts like Meshuggah, Tesseract, Satyricon, Freak Kitchen, Sahg. Pune plays host to an annual musical festival, The NH7 Weekender, which takes place in the month of November and showcases international (mostly British) acts like Imogen Heap, The Magic Numbers, Asian Dub Foundation and Reverend Soundsystem to name a few.
Ranchi scene
Hailing from a small place quite unknown to the rest of the country, the bands of Ranchi from Jharkhand state had to face discrimination and hardships. Over the years, this city has produced some of the finest rock and metal music bands but they have always gone unnoticed because of being from a small town. In the 1990s, bands like Genesis, Kaalmantra and Sparsh have been considered as the pioneers to rock and metal music in Jharkhand. The city has had various music festivals being organized since the 2000s and a few of them are still organized today with the biggest one being Thunderstrock Festival and other notable festivals are like Rock Jatra and Rhapsody. The band Sparsh was aired live on CNN-IBN cheering up for the India national cricket team during the 2011 Cricket World Cup. The band 4 Degrees of Freedom were the finalists of Hornbill International Rock Contest 2013, followed by Highway 69 being twice the finalists at Hornbill International Rock Contest for 2017, 2018 along with their drummer winning the best drummer award in 2017 and Vikrit and Existence also being the finalists in 2018. The bands of Ranchi have been touring and performing across the country with currently Highway 69 being the most notable one as it has performed extensively all over the country and has evolved with a huge fan base, followed by other bands like Iris 13, Reciprocal, Existence, Vikrit etc. Other active and notable bands from the 2010s were Genesis, Kaalmantra, Sparsh, 4 Degrees of Freedom, Conflicting Resonance etc.
Independent record labels
Mainstream record labels in India often ignore rock, with a few exceptions. Album sales range between a few hundred copies to a few thousand. They are rarely, if at all, affiliated to the Indian music industry, and sales are not usually monitored. Songs of Bollywood usually gain more popularity as compared to the songs of bands. This is a huge set back. Bands also fail to sell their songs throughout the country even after making it available to major music stores, this is only due to lack of interest of people in rock bands. There are only a few bands that have become successful in selling their songs throughout the country. People who enjoy rock get the songs of their favorite bands, just by a click from any music website (sometimes their songs are uploaded by website administrators just after the day of release, this is illegal as per copyright law, but even then no action is taken). Hence, overall sales become less than expected. Bands in India mostly perform live shows with low priced tickets (as low as Rs. 100 or even less). Probably, the growing and the upcoming generation will have interest in Indian Rock and Metal. But care has to be taken to retain the copyright of the music.
The future looks encouraging thanks to entities such as Green Ozone, DogmaTone Records, Cochym and Eastern Fare Music Foundation, Infestdead Records that are dedicated to promoting and supporting Indian rock.
Documentary on Indian rock
In 2004, filmmaker qaushiq mukherji, popular as Q, directed a rockumentary named 'le pocha'. In 2008, music journalist Abhimanyu Kukreja directed Rockumentary - Becoming of Indian rock that was produced by NewsX and had a national TV release. The documentary is arguably the first of its kind on Indian rock that showcases the evolution of rock music in India starting from the 1960s. The documentary features popular and classic Indian bands like The Great Bear, High, The Great Society, Shiva, Indus Creed, Millennium and Parikrama. The documentary is available for free viewing on YouTube.
Leaving Home – the Life & Music of Indian Ocean (2010) directed by Jaideep Varma was about fusion rock band, Indian Ocean. Thus it became the first band ever in India to be subject of a documentary. At the 58th National Film Awards, the documentary went on to win the Award for Best Arts/Cultural Film.
In 2014, documentary filmmaker Raghav B directed a documentary on The Big Bangalore Metal Project'' - contributing to the Indian Metal Music Scene features popular Indian Metal Bands like Kryptos, Dying Embrace, BevarSea, Eccentric Pendulum, Inner Sanctum, Shepherd. The documentary was to show the Metal culture and the evolution of its music in Bangalore. The documentary is on YouTube.
Issues faced
An all-girl rock band Pragash Band from Srinagar, Kashmir decided to call it quits after constant hate mails and death threats on the Internet, apart from the severe criticism and opposition from the religious leaders of Kashmir and other hardliner political parties.
See also
Demonic Resurrection
Kryptos
Nicotine
Inner Sanctum
Rusty Moe
Bhayanak Maut
Asian Underground
Rock music of West Bengal popularly known as Bangla rock
Psychedelic music
Psychedelic rock
Raga rock
The Vinyl Records
Life in a... Metro
Rock On!!
Highway 69
Atomic Forest
References
External links
.
লে পচা , le pocha |
4354194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delirium%20Books | Delirium Books | Delirium Books, launched in the summer of 1999 by Shane Ryan Staley, is a horror publisher in the collector's market, producing low print-run limited editions intended for both collectors and readers alike. Delirium Books first published The Rising, the first book in a series of zombie-themed horror novels written by author Brian Keene, winning the Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel in 2003 and helping to usher in the new era of zombie popularity in the mid-2000s.
In 2005, Delirium Books won the prestigious Bram Stoker Award for Excellence in Specialty Press Publishing, presented by the HWA (Horror Writer's Association). The same year, Delirium took home the first annual Shocker Award for Small Press of the Year, presented by Shocklines.com, one of the biggest independent horror booksellers in the U.S.
Magazines
Some of the first offerings from Delirium Books were magazines, all digest-sized with color covers. The print run for these magazines is unknown.
Delirium #1 (Winter 1999)
Delirium #2 (Summer 2000)
Delirium #3 (Fall 2000)
Delirium #4 (Winter 2001)
Chapbooks
Burnt Offerings by Shane Ryan Staley (1999): Published as a 150-copy limited soft cover.
Human Oddities by Barbara Malenky (Winter 2000): Published as a soft cover with an unknown print run.
Chocolate Jesus and Other Weird Perversions by Shane Ryan Staley (Spring 2000): Published as a soft cover with an unknown print run.
Shuggoth Cacciatore and Other Eldritch Entrees by Mark McLaughlin (Spring 2000): Published as a soft cover with an unknown print run.
Smoke Signals by Octavio Ramos Jr. (Winter 2001): Published as a soft cover with an unknown print run.
Tales of Love and Death by W. H. Pugmire (Spring 2001): Published as a soft cover with an unknown print run.
The Rising: Necrophobia by Brian Keene, Brett McBean, Michael Oliveri, and John Urbancik (May 2004): Published as a 26-copy limited hardcover and 500-copy soft cover.
Hardcover Line
Delirium's Hardcover Line features first-edition titles produced in limited editions with full-color dust jackets. Delirium produces true limited-edition hardcovers, as the runs in this line are signed and numbered from less than 50 to 500 copies. The first five Hardcover Line books were released without dust jackets. Beginning in September 2008, the Hardcover Line is published as a subscription of 150 copies.
1999
The House Spider and Other Strange Visitors by Kurt Newton (August 1999): Published as a 50-copy limited hardcover. Approximately 40 copies were actually printed.
Demons, Freaks, and Other Abnormalities by Michael Laimo (October 1999): Published in as a 150-copy limited hardcover. Approximately 100 copies were actually printed.
2000
I Love You and There is Nothing You Can Do About It by Gerard Houarner (January 2000): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover. Approximately 125 copies were actually printed.
Terror Incognita by Jeffrey Thomas (March 2000): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover. Approximately 125 copies were actually printed.
Up, Out of Cities that Blow Hot and Cold by Charlee Jacob (May 2000): Published as a 20-copy leather-bound hardcover (Delirium's first leather-bound) and a 300-copy limited hardcover. Approximately 200 copies of the limited hardcover were actually printed.
Cage of Bones and Other Deadly Obsessions by John Everson (October 2000): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
2001
Cobwebs and Whispers by Scott Thomas (June 2001): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Heretics by Greg F. Gifune (August 2001): Published as a 50-copy limited hardcover.
4 x 4 by Brian Keene, Geoff Cooper, Michael Oliveri and Michael T. Huyck Jr. (October 2001): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover. Initially, the printer balked at including the signature sheets, because the authors scrawled obscene messages on many of them.
2002
Dark Testament edited by Shane Ryan Staley (January 2002): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover and a 100-copy trade hardcover.
Dark Demons by Kurt Newton (March 2002): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Maternal Instinct by J. F. Gonzalez (April 2002): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Guises by Charlee Jacob (June 2002): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Atmosphere by Michael Laimo (July 2002): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover. Delirium's first full-length novel.
Visions Through A Shattered Lens by Gerard Houarner (September 2002): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
2003
Mean Sheep by Tom Piccirilli (January 2003): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 400-copy limited hardcover.
The Rising by Brian Keene (April 2003): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover, and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Sesqua Valley and Other Haunts by W. H. Pugmire (July 2003): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
No Rest At All by Brian Keene (August 2003): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
The Bleeding Season by Greg F. Gifune (October 2003): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
All the Lonely People by David B. Silva (December 2003): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
2004
Dreadful Delineations by John Maclay (January 2004): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
The Attraction by Douglas Clegg (March 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 500-copy limited hardcover.
Fear of Gravity by Brian Keene (March 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 400-copy limited hardcover.
Nether: Improper Bedtime Stories by Scott Thomas and Jeffrey Thomas (June 2004): Deluxe edition of Honey is Sweeter Than Blood and Shadows of Flesh. Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Honey Is Sweeter Than Blood by Jeffrey Thomas (June 2004): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Shadows of Flesh by Scott Thomas (June 2004): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
New Dark Voices by Michael Oliveri, Gene O'Neill and John Urbancik (August 2004): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Deathrealms edited by Stephen Mark Rainey (September 2004): Published as a 350-copy limited hardcover.
Covenant by John Everson (November 2004): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Sleepwalker by Michael Laimo (November 2004): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Sympathy For The Devil: The Best of Hail Saten Vol. 1 by Brian Keene (December 2004): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
2005
City of the Dead by Brian Keene (January 2005): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Scarecrow Gods by Weston Ochse (March 2005): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Broken Angel by Brian Knight (May 2005): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
My Eyes are Nailed, but I Still See by David Niall Wilson and Brett Alexander Savory (July 2005): Published as a 220-copy limited hardcover. David Niall Wilson did a chapbook in late August 2005 to accompany this book, but it is not a Delirium publication.
Vestal by Charlee Jacob (September 2005): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Earthworm Gods by Brian Keene (September 2005): Published as a 400-copy limited hardcover.
Earthworm Gods by Brian Keene (October 2005): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Deep Night by Greg F. Gifune (November 2005): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Night of the Daemon: Night Trilogy Part 3 by Harry Shannon (December 2005): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 174-copy limited hardcover.
2006
Thirteen Specimens by Jeffrey Thomas (January 2006): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover. The leather-bound hardcover was packaged with an exclusive 30-copy hardcover chapbook entitled Thirteen More Specimens.
Running With The Devil: The Best of Hail Saten Vol. 2 by Brian Keene (January 2006): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
In Delirium edited by Brian Keene (January 2006): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound and a hardcover 274-copy limited hardcover.
The Pines by Robert Dunbar (May 2006): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 240-copy limited hardcover.
Blindsided by Barry Hoffman (May 2006): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (June 2006 and a 185-copy limited hardcover.
Scary Rednecks and Other Inbred Horrors by Weston Ochse and David Whitman (June 2006): Published as a 220-copy limited hardcover.
Hacks by Brian Knight (July 2006): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (September 2006) and a 250-copy limited hardcover.
His Pain by Wrath James White (November 2006): Published as a 245-copy limited hardcover.
Demon! by William F. Nolan (November 2006): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover. Reprint.
Collected Tales of the Baja Express by Gene O'Neill (November 2006): Published as a 237-copy limited hardcover. Limited to preorders.
Clickers by J. F. Gonzalez (December 2006): Published as a 344-copy limited hardcover. Limited to preorders.
2007
The Rising: Death in Four Colors by Brian Keene (February 2007): Published as a 500-copy limited hardcover.
Recalled to Life: The Cycle of the Aegis Trilogy Book 1 by Weston Ochse (September 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 500-copy limited hardcover.
The Sinister Mr. Corpse by Jeff Strand (February 2007): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (March 2007) and as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Ghoul by Brian Keene (March 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 400-copy limited hardcover.
Sacrifice by John Everson (March 2007): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover. Sequel to Covenant.
Clickers II: The Next Wave by J. F. Gonzalez and Brian Keene (April 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 500-copy limited hardcover.
The Shore by Robert Dunbar (May 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover (June 2007) and a 500-copy limited hardcover.
Demogorgon by Brian Lumley (May 2007): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (June 2007) and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Dominion by Greg F. Gifune (June 2007): Published as a 275-copy limited hardcover.
God's End by Michael McBride (June 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover (July 2007) and a 500-copy limited hardcover.
The New Fear: The Best of Hail Saten Vol. 3 by Brian Keene (July 2007): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Dead Sea by Brian Keene (September 2007): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover (October 2007) and a 250-copy limited hardcover.
In Delirium II edited by John Everson (December 2007): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 274-copy limited hardcover.
2008
The Infected by Michael McBride (February 2008): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (April 2008) and a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Blood in Electric Blue by Greg F. Gifune (March 2008): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover (May 2008) and as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Gleefully Macabre Tales by Jeff Strand (March 2008): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Saying Uncle by Greg F. Gifune (June 2008): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover. Reprint of December Girl Press trade paperback.
Dead and Gone by Harry Shannon (August 2008): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover and as a trade paperback in the Paperback Book Club.
The Golden Thread: The Cycle of the Aegis Trilogy Book 2 by Weston Ochse (September 2008): Published as a 250-copy limited hardcover.
Passenger by Ronald Damien Malfi (September 2008): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover and as a trade paperback in the Paperback Book Club.
Ghost Walk by Brian Keene (September 2008): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Manhattan Grimoire by Sandy DeLuca (October 2008): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
2009
New Dark Voices 2 edited by Brian Keene (February 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Children of Chaos by Greg F. Gifune (February 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Bloodletting by Michael McBride (March 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Unhappy Endings by Brian Keene (April 2009): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Benjamin's Parasite by Jeff Strand (May 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Reservoir Gods by Brian Knight (June 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Primitive by J. F. Gonzalez (July 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
The Girl In The Woods by David Jack Bell (August 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
From Ashes by Sandy DeLuca (September 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Long After Dark by Greg F. Gifune (October 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Devil-Tree by Steve Vernon (November 2009): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Trade Paperbacks
The Dead Inn edited by Shane Ryan Staley (January 2001): Published as a 500-copy trade hardcover. Delirium's first anthology.
Heretics by Greg F. Gifune (August 2001): Published as a 250-copy limited trade paperback.
"I'll Be Damned" by Shane Ryan Staley (September 2001): Published in September 2001 as a 250-copy limited trade paperback and a 500-copy trade paperback.
4 x 4 by Brian Keene, Geoff Cooper, Michael Oliveri and Michael T. Huyck Jr. (October 2001): Published as a 400-copy limited trade paperback. Initially, the printer balked at including the signature sheets, because the authors scrawled obscene messages on many of them.
The House Spider and Other Strange Visitors by Kurt Newton (2002): Unknown print run.
Demons, Freaks, and Other Abnormalities by Michael Laimo (2002): Unknown print run.
I Love You and There is Nothing You Can Do About It by Gerard Houarner (2002): Unknown print run.
Terror Incognita by Jeffrey Thomas (2003): Unknown print run.
Up, Out of Cities that Blow Hot and Cold by Charlee Jacob (2003): Unknown print run.
Dark Demons by Kurt Newton (March 2002): Published as a 500-copy trade paperback.
Maternal Instinct by J. F. Gonzalez (April 2002): Published as a 500-copy trade paperback.
Guises by Charlee Jacob (June 2002): Published as a 500-copy trade paperback.
Host by Bryan Eytcheson (August 2005): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. First book in the Trade Paperback series.
Fear of Gravity by Brian Keene (November 2005): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Second book in the Trade Paperback series.
Sympathy For The Devil: The Best of Hail Saten Vol. 1 by Brian Keene (January 2006): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Third book in the Trade Paperback series.
Slime After Slime: A Short Story Collection by Mark McLaughlin (May 2006): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Fourth book in the Trade Paperback series.
Deep Night by Greg F. Gifune (May 2006): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Fifth book in the Trade Paperback series.
Running With The Devil: The Best of Hail Saten Vol. 2 by Brian Keene (July 2007): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Sixth book in the Trade Paperback series.
No Further Messages by Brett Alexander Savory (November 2007): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Seventh book in the Trade Paperback series.
Oogie Boogie Central by M. Stephen Lukac (February 2008): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Eighth book in the Trade Paperback series.
The Rising: Selected Scenes from the End of the World by Brian Keene (July 2008): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Ninth book in the Trade Paperback series.
Clickers by J. F. Gonzalez and Mark Williams (July 2008): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Tenth book in the Trade Paperback series.
Saying Uncle by Greg F. Gifune (August 2008): Published as a 1500-copy trade paperback. Eleventh book in the Trade Paperback series.
Paperback Book Club
The Bleeding Season by Greg F. Gifune (October 2007): First book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Dreadful Delineations by John Maclay (November 2007): Second book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Broken Angel by Brian Knight (December 2007): Third book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
The Condemned by David Jack Bell (January 2008): Fourth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Oogie Boogie Bounce by M. Stephen Lukac (February 2008): Fifth book in the Paperback Book Club. Original.
Dominion by Greg F. Gifune (March 2008): Sixth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Daemon by Harry Shannon (April 2008): Seventh book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Scarecrow Gods by Weston Ochse (May 2008): Eighth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Thirteen Specimens by Jeffrey Thomas (June 2008): Ninth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Clickers II: The Next Wave by J. F. Gonzalez and Brian Keene (July 2008): Tenth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Dead and Gone by Harry Shannon (August 2008): Eleventh book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Passenger by Ronald Damien Malfi (September 2008): Twelfth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Manhattan Grimoire by Sandy DeLuca (October 2008): Thirteenth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
New Dark Voices 2 edited by Brian Keene (February 2009): Fourteenth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Children of Chaos by Greg F. Gifune (February 2009): Fifteenth book in the Paperback Book Club. Reprints hardcover.
Ultra Editions
Delirium publishes the Ultra Series, genuine leather books housed in a leather hinged box. Buyers have the option to personalize their copies by getting their names on a special "thanks" page from the author, as well as having their book personally inscribed. Only 26-36 copies are produced of each title.
Mean Sheep by Tom Piccirilli (January 2003): Published as a 6-copy ultra hardcover, an early prototype for the Ultra Collector's series.
The Rising by Brian Keene (April 2003): Published as a 6-copy ultra hardcover, an early prototype for the Ultra Collector's series.
Book #1: Punktown by Jeffrey Thomas (May 2003): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover. Delirium's first official release in the Ultra Collector's series.
Book #2: Broken On The Wheel Of Sex by Jack Ketchum (July 2003): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover.
Book #3: The Logan Chronicles by William F. Nolan (October 2003): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover. Included a signed drawing by Nolan.
Book #4: Sixteen Sucking Stories by Brian Lumley (January 2004): Published as a 35-copy ultra hardcover. Included an audio CD of Lumley reading "The Mirror of Nitocris".
Book #5: Crota by Owl Goingback (May 2004): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover.
Book #6: The Parasite by Ramsey Campbell (October 2004): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover.
Book #7: Far Out: The Incredible Adventures of Sam Space by William F. Nolan (January 2005): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover.
Book #8: My Soul to Keep by Tananarive Due (December 2006): Published as a 26-copy ultra hardcover.
Dark Homage Series
Volume One: Lovecraft
Book #1: Epiphany: A Flying Tiger's Story by Stephen Mark Rainey (September 2003): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: The Seventh Victim by Charlee Jacob (November 2003): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #3: The Man Who Killed Kew Gardens by Brain Lumley (January 2004): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #4: The Arms of the Sun by Jeffrey Thomas (March 2004): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #5: The God of Foulness by Matt Cardin (June 2004): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #6: An Outsider by John Pelan (September 2004): Published as a 100-copy limited hardcover.
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This series focuses on titles that have never before seen print in hardcover. In each limited-edition hardcover, Delirium includes special original bonus material not found in the original paperbacks. Each book is signed by the author and limited to no more than 200 copies.
At the end of each year, Delirium offers custom-made slipcases to house the entire volume of books. This slipcase features the Dark Essentials logo as well as the volume lineup.
Volume One
Book #1: Dragonfly by Brian Knight (October 2003): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 100-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: Hexes by Tom Piccirilli (December 2003): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover and 100-copy limited hardcover.
Volume Two
Book #1: Soma by Charlee Jacob (February 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: Grave Markings by Michael Arnzen (April 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Book #3: Ravenous Ghosts by Kealan Patrick Burke (July 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and 150-copy limited hardcover.
Book #4: The Many by David B. Silva (August 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited
hardcover.
Book #5: The Deceased by Tom Piccirilli (October 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy
limited hardcover.
Book #6: AAAIIIEEE!!! by Jeffrey Thomas (December 2004): Published as a 15-copy leather-bound hardcover and a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Volume Three
Book #1: Hush by Tim Lebbon and Gavin Williams (April 2005): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: Deathgrip by Brian Hodge (June 2005): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Book #3: A Lower Deep by Tom Piccirilli (August 2005): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Book #4: Prodigal by Melanie Tem (December 2005): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Bonus Book: The Wishnik by Kurt Newton (October 2006): Offered free with subscription to the Dark Essentials, Vol. 3 series. Published as a 115-copy limited hardcover.
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Book #1: Excavation by Steve Rasnic Tem (August 2006): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: Untigahunk: Stories and Myths of the Little Brothers by Rick Hautala (February 2007): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
Book #3: Prototype by Brian Hodge (September 2007): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover
Book #4: Demonologist by Michael Laimo (December 2007): Published as a 200-copy limited hardcover.
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Book #1: Host by Bryan Eytcheson (January 2004): Published as a 50-copy limited hardcover.
Book #2: Down To Sleep by Greg F. Gifune (May 2004): Published as a 77-copy limited hardcover.
Book #3: Motivational Shrieker by Mark McLaughlin (September 2004): Published as an 82-copy limited hardcover.
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Book #1: A Puppet Show For No One by Jeffrey Thomas (March 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover. Included a puppet by Jesse Wroblewski and Florence Ivy
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Book #5: Earthworm Gods: Selected Scenes from the End of the World by Brian Keene (July 2008): Published as a 32-copy leather-bound hardcover with two addition copies produced (one for the publisher and one for the author). Also the same month published as a 500-copy limited hardcover. A trade paperback was scheduled but cancelled before release.
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Book #1: Failure by John Everson (January 2006): Published as a 500-copy limited hardcover.
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Book #3: Pickman's Motel by Mark McLaughlin (April 2007): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
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Book #5: Divagations by John Maclay (May 2008): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Book #6: Suckers: An Andrew Mayhem/ Harry McGlade Thriller by J. A. Konrath and Jeff Strand (May 2008): Published as a 300-copy limited hardcover.
Subsidiary Presses
Corrosion Press
Luster by Shane Ryan Staley (February 2002): Published as a trade paperback.
Confessions of an Archivist by Patrick Lestewka (March 2003): Published as a trade paperback.
Dead Santa by Shane Ryan Staley (December 2005): Published as a softcover chapbook.
Corrosion: Volume 1 by Shane Ryan Staley (April 2006): Published as a trade paperback.
Corrosion: Volume 1 by Shane Ryan Staley (June 2006): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Where's Bin Laden? by Shane Ryan Staley (March 2007): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover and as a trade paperback.
Ugly Heaven, Beautiful Hell by Carlton Mellick III and Jeffrey Thomas (November 2007): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
Ugly Heaven, Beautiful Hell by Carlton Mellick III and Jeffrey Thomas (December 2007): Published as a trade paperback.
Monster Behind the Wheel by Michael McCarty and Mark McLaughlin (author) (September 2008): Published as a 150-copy limited hardcover.
December Girl Press
Saying Uncle by Greg F. Gifune (February 2003): Published in as a trade paperback.
Settling in Nazareth by Sandy DeLuca (August 2003): Published as a trade paperback.
Dimension House
The Godhead Trilogy
Book #1: Towing Jehovah by James Morrow (March 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #2: Blameless in Abaddon by James Morrow (May 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #3: The Eternal Footman by James Morrow (July 2004): Published as a 26-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Supplemental Volume: Reflections and Refractions by James Morrow (2004): Published as a 26-copy limited hardcover chapbook.
The Dreamlands Series
Book #1: Hero of Dreams by Brian Lumley (October 2004): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #2: Ship of Dreams by Brian Lumley (February 2005): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #3: Mad Moon of Dreams by Brian Lumley (June 2005): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #4: Iced on Aran by Brian Lumley (December 2005): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
Book #5: Questers for Kuranes: Two Tales of Hero and Eldin by Brian Lumley (April 2006): Published as a 52-copy leather-bound hardcover.
American speculative fiction publishers
Delirium Books
Horror book publishing companies
Publishing companies established in 1999
American companies established in 1999 |
4354196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20banking | Mobile banking | Mobile banking is a service provided by a bank or other financial institution that allows its customers to conduct financial transactions remotely using a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. Unlike the related internet banking it uses software, usually called an app, provided by the financial institution for the purpose. Mobile banking is usually available on a 24-hour basis. Some financial institutions have restrictions on which accounts may be accessed through mobile banking, as well as a limit on the amount that can be transacted. Mobile banking is dependent on the availability of an internet or data connection to the mobile device.
Transactions through mobile banking depend on the features of the mobile banking app provided and typically includes obtaining account balances and lists of latest transactions, electronic bill payments, remote check deposits, P2P payments, and funds transfers between a customer's or another's accounts. Some apps also enable copies of statements to be downloaded and sometimes printed at the customer's premises. Using a mobile banking app increases ease of use, speed, flexibility and also improves security because it integrates with the user built-in mobile device security mechanisms.
From the bank's point of view, mobile banking reduces the cost of handling transactions by reducing the need for customers to visit a bank branch for non-cash withdrawal and deposit transactions. Mobile banking does not handle transactions involving cash, and a customer needs to visit an ATM or bank branch for cash withdrawals or deposits. Many apps now have a remote deposit option; using the device's camera to digitally transmit cheques to their financial institution.
Mobile banking differs from mobile payments, which involves the use of a mobile device to pay for goods or services either at the point of sale or remotely, analogously to the use of a debit or credit card to effect an EFTPOS payment.
History
The earliest mobile banking services used SMS, a service known as SMS banking. With the introduction of smart phones with WAP support enabling the use of the mobile web in 1999, the first European banks started to offer mobile banking on this platform to their customers.
Mobile banking before 2010 was most often performed via SMS or the mobile web. Apple's initial success with iPhone and the rapid growth of phones based on Google's Android (operating system) have led to increasing use of special mobile apps, downloaded to the mobile device. With that said, advancements in web technologies such as HTML5, CSS3 and JavaScript have seen more banks launching mobile web based services to complement native applications. These applications are consisted of a web application module in JSP such as J2EE and functions of another module J2ME.
A recent study (May 2012) by Mapa Research suggests that over a third of banks have mobile device detection upon visiting the banks' main website. A number of things can happen on mobile detection such as redirecting to an app store, redirection to a mobile banking specific website or providing a menu of mobile banking options for the user to choose from.
A mobile banking conceptual
In one academic model, mobile banking is defined as:
Mobile Banking refers to provision and availment of banking- and financial services with the help of mobile telecommunication devices.The scope of offered services may include facilities to conduct bank and stock market transactions, to administer accounts and to access customised information."
According to this model mobile banking can be said to consist of three inter-related concepts:
Mobile accounting
Mobile financial information services
Most services in the categories designated accounting and brokerage are transaction-based. The non-transaction-based services of an informational nature are however essential for conducting transactions – for instance, balance inquiries might be needed before committing a money remittance. The accounting and brokerage services are therefore offered invariably in combination with information services. Information services, on the other hand, may be offered as an independent module.
Mobile banking may also be used to help in business situations as well as for financial situation
Mobile banking services
Typical mobile banking services may include:
Account information
Mini-statements and checking of account history
Alerts on account activity or passing of set thresholds
Monitoring of term deposits
Access to loan statements
Access to card statements
Mutual funds / equity statements
Insurance policy management
Transaction
Funds transfers between the customer's linked accounts
Paying third parties, including bill payments and third party fund transfers(see, e.g., FAST)
Check Remote Deposit
Investments
Portfolio management services
Real-time stock
Support
Status of requests for credit, including mortgage approval, and insurance coverage
Check (cheque) book and card requests
Exchange of data messages and email, including complaint submission and tracking
ATM Location
Loan Application
Content services
General information such as finance related news
Loyalty-related offers
A report by the US Federal Reserve (March 2012) found that 21 percent of mobile phone owners had used mobile banking in the past 12 months. Based on a survey conducted by Forrester, mobile banking will be attractive mainly to the younger, more "tech-savvy" customer segment. A third of mobile phone users say that they may consider performing some kind of financial transaction through their mobile phone. But most of the users are interested in performing basic transactions such as querying for account balance and making bill.
Challenges
Key challenges in developing a sophisticated mobile banking application are :
Handset accessibility
There are a large number of different mobile phone devices and it is a big challenge for banks to offer a mobile banking solution on any type of device. Some of these devices support Java ME and others support SIM Application Toolkit, a WAP browser, or only SMS.
Initial interoperability issues however have been localized, with countries like India using portals like "R-World" to enable the limitations of low end java based phones, while focus on areas such as South Africa have defaulted to the USSD as a basis of communication achievable with any phone.
The desire for interoperability is largely dependent on the banks themselves, where installed applications(Java based or native) provide better security, are easier to use and allow development of more complex capabilities similar to those of internet banking while SMS can provide the basics but becomes difficult to operate with more complex transactions.
There is a myth that there is a challenge of interoperability between mobile banking applications due to perceived lack of common technology standards for mobile banking. In practice it is too early in the service lifecycle for interoperability to be addressed within an individual country, as very few countries have more than one mobile banking service provider. In practice, banking interfaces are well defined and money movements between banks follow the IS0-8583 standard. As mobile banking matures, money movements between service providers will naturally adopt the same standards as in the banking world.
In January 2009, Mobile Marketing Association (MMA) Banking Sub-Committee, chaired by CellTrust and VeriSign Inc., published the Mobile Banking Overview for financial institutions in which it discussed the advantages and disadvantages of Mobile Channel Platforms such as Short Message Services (SMS), Mobile Web, Mobile Client Applications, SMS with Mobile Web and Secure SMS.
Security
As with most internet-connected devices, as well as mobile-telephony devices, cybercrime rates are escalating year-on-year. The types of cybercrimes which may affect mobile-banking might range from unauthorized use while the owner is using the mobile banking, to remote-hacking, or even jamming or interference via the internet or telephone network data streams. This is demonstrated by the malware called SMSZombie.A, which infected Chinese Android devices. It was embedded in wallpaper apps and installed itself so it can exploit the weaknesses of China Mobile SMS Payment system, stealing banks credit card numbers and information linked to financial transactions. One of the most advanced malwares discovered recently was the Trojan called Bankbot. It went past Google's protections in its Android app marketplace and targeted Wells Fargo, Chase, and Citibank customers on Android devices worldwide before its removal by Google in September 2017. This malicious app was activated when users opened a banking app, overlaying it so it can steal banking credentials.
In the banking world, currency rates may change by the millisecond.
Security of financial transactions, being executed from some remote location and transmission of financial information over the air, are the most complicated challenges that need to be addressed jointly by mobile application developers, wireless network service providers and the banks' IT departments.
One-time passwords (OTPs) are one tool used by financial and banking service providers in the fight against cyber fraud. Instead of relying on traditional memorized passwords, OTPs are requested by consumers each time they want to perform transactions using the online or mobile banking interface. When the request is received the password is sent to the consumer's phone via SMS. The password is expired once it has been used or once its scheduled life-cycle has expired.
Scalability and reliability
Another challenge for the CIOs and CTOs of the banks is to scale-up the mobile banking infrastructure to handle exponential growth of the customer base. With mobile banking, the customer may be sitting in any part of the world (true anytime, anywhere banking) and hence banks need to ensure that the systems are up and running in a true 24 × 7 fashion. As customers will find mobile banking more and more useful, their expectations from the solution will increase. Banks unable to meet the performance and reliability expectations may lose customer confidence. There are systems such as Mobile Transaction Platform which allow quick and secure mobile enabling of various banking services. Recently in India there has been a phenomenal growth in the use of Mobile Banking applications, with leading banks adopting Mobile Transaction Platform and the Central Bank publishing guidelines for mobile banking operations.
Application distribution
Due to the nature of the connectivity between bank and its customers, it would be impractical to expect customers to regularly visit banks or connect to a web site for regular upgrade of their mobile banking application. It will be expected that the mobile application itself check the upgrades and updates and download necessary patches (so called "Over The Air" updates). However, there could be many issues to implement this approach such as upgrade / synchronization of other dependent components.
Studies have shown that a huge concerning factor of having mobile banking more widely used, is a banking customer's unwillingness to adapt. Many consumers, whether they are misinformed or not, do not want to begin using mobile banking for several reasons. These can include the learning curve associated with new technology, having fears about possible security compromises, just simply not wanting to start using technology, etc.
Personalization
It would be expected from the mobile application to support personalization such as:
Preferred Language
Date / Time format
Amount format
Default transactions
Standard Beneficiary list
Alerts
Mobile banking in the world
This is a list of countries by mobile banking usage as measured by the percentage of people who had non-SMS mobile banking transactions in the previous three months. The data is sourced from Bain, Research Now and Bain along with GMI NPS surveys in 2012.
African nations such as Kenya would rank highly if SMS mobile banking were included in the above list. Kenya has 38% of the population as subscribers to M-Pesa as of 2011.
Though as of 2016 mobile banking applications have seen a tremendous growth in Kenyan banking sector who have capitalised on android play store and apple store to put their applications. Kenyan banks like Equity Bank Kenya Limited Eazzy banking application and The Co-operative Bank Mco-op cash application have proved to be a success mobile banking applications.
Mobile banking is used in many parts of the world with little or no infrastructure, especially remote and rural areas. This aspect of mobile commerce is also popular in countries where most of their population is unbanked. In most of these places, banks can only be found in big cities, and customers have to travel hundreds of miles to the nearest bank.
In Iran, banks such as Parsian, Tejarat, Pasargad Bank, Mellat, Saderat, Sepah, Edbi, and Bankmelli offer the service. Banco Industrial provides the service in Guatemala. Citizens of Mexico can access mobile banking with Omnilife, Bancomer and MPower Venture.
Kenya's Safaricom (part of the Vodafone Group) has the M-Pesa Service, which is mainly used to transfer limited amounts of money, but increasingly used to pay utility bills as well. In 2009, Zain launched their own mobile money transfer business, known as ZAP, in Kenya and other African countries. Several other players in Kenya such as Tangerine, MobiKash and Funtrench Limited also have network-independent mobile money transfer. In Somalia, the many telecom companies provide mobile banking, the most prominent being Hormuud Telecom and its ZAAD service.
Telenor Pakistan has also launched a mobile banking solution, in coordination with Taameer Bank, under the label Easy Paisa, which was begun in Q4 2009. Eko India Financial Services, the business correspondent of State Bank of India (SBI) and ICICI Bank, provides bank accounts, deposit, withdrawal and remittance services, micro-insurance, and micro-finance facilities to its customers (nearly 80% of whom are migrants or the unbanked section of the population) through mobile banking.
In a year of 2010, mobile banking users soared over 100 percent in Kenya, China, Brazil and United States with 200 percent, 150 percent, 110 percent and 100 percent respectively.
Dutch Bangla Bank launched the first mobile banking service in Bangladesh on 31 March 2011. This service is launched with 'Agent' and 'Network' support from mobile operators, Banglalink and Citycell. Sybase 365, a subsidiary of Sybase, Inc. has provided software solution with their local partner Neurosoft Technologies Ltd. There are around 160 million people in Bangladesh, of which, only 13 per cent have bank accounts. With this solution, Dutch-Bangla Bank can now reach out to the rural and unbanked population, of which, 45 per cent are mobile phone users. Under the service, any mobile handset with subscription to any of the six existing mobile operators of Bangladesh would be able to utilize the service. Under the mobile banking services, bank-nominated Banking agent performs banking activities on its behalf, like opening mobile banking accounts, providing cash services (receipts and payments) and dealing with small credits. Cash withdrawal from a mobile account can also be done from an ATM validating each transaction by 'mobile phone & PIN' instead of 'card & PIN'. Other services that are being delivered through mobile banking system are person-to-person (e.g. fund transfer), person-to-business (e.g. merchant payment, utility bill payment), business-to-person (e.g. salary/commission disbursement), government-to-person (disbursement of government allowance) transactions.
One of the most recent mobile technological wonders (Shaikh and Karjaluoto, 2015) and one of the most recent financial services sector innovations which has added a pure mobility element to service consumption (Mishra and Bisht, 2013; Oliveira et al., 2014) that in return enabled customers to have a convenient access to different value-added banking services is mobile banking (MB) or m-banking (Anderson, 2010). M-banking is defined as “a feed where the consumer communicates with a bank using a mobile device, such as a mobile phone or personal digital assistant. In that sense, it can be seen as a subset of electronic banking and an extension of internet banking with its own unique characteristics (Laukkanen & Pasanen, 2008). It is one of the newest approaches to the concern of financial services through information computer technology (ICT), made possible by the extensive adoption of mobile phones even in low income countries (Anderson, 2010).
In May 2012, Laxmi Bank Limited launched the very first mobile banking in Nepal with its product Mobile Khata. Mobile Khata currently runs on a third-party platform called Hello Paisa that is interoperable with all the telecoms in Nepal viz. Nepal Telecom, NCell, Smart Tel and UTL, and is also interoperable with various banks in the country. The initial joining members to the platform after Laxmi Bank Limited were Siddartha Bank, Bank of Kathmandu, Commerz and Trust Bank Nepal and International Leasing and Finance Company. In country with roughly 30 million population, over 5 million have subscribed to mobile banking in Nepal as per the recent data from Nepal Rastra Bank, the central bank of Nepal.
Barclays offers a service called Barclays Pingit, and Hello Money offering services in Africa, allowing transfer of money from the United Kingdom to many parts of the world with a mobile phone. Pingit is owned by a consortium of banks. In April 2014, the UK Payments Council launched the Paym mobile payment system, allowing mobile payments between customers of several banks and building societies using the recipient's mobile phone number. in past some US research proved that in the United States, people focusing in on adaptable banking (m-banking), this work contemplates responses from three undeniable buyer parcels, including – 1) customers living in Egypt, 2) purchasers from Egypt who are living in the U.S. in addition, 3) U.S. customers. The conceptual model was developed by the technology acceptance model (TAM), task-technology fit model (TTF), theory of planned behavior model (TPB), the diffusion of innovation model (DOI).
In November 2017, the State Bank of India launched an integrated banking platform in India called YONO offering conventional banking functions but also payment services for things such as online shopping, travel planning, taxi booking or online education.
In January 2019, the German direct bank N26 overtook Revolut as the most valuable mobile bank in Europe with a valuation of $2.7 billion and 1.5 million users.
Following is a list showing the share of people using mobile banking apps during the last three months in selected countries worldwide in 2014. The list is based on a survey conducted by statista.com including 82,914 respondents.
See also
Contactless payment
Direct bank
Digital currency
List of countries by mobile banking usage
Mobile content
Mobile Marketing
Mobile payments
Online banking
Digital Wallet
SMS Banking
Telephone banking
Notes
References
Vaidya (2011): "Emerging Trends on Functional Utilization of Mobile Banking in Developed Markets in Next 3–4 Years"
Tiwari, Rajnish and Buse, Stephan(2007): The Mobile Commerce Prospects: A Strategic Analysis of Opportunities in the Banking Sector, Hamburg University Press (E-Book as PDF to be downloaded)
Tiwari, Rajnish; Buse, Stephan and Herstatt, Cornelius (2007): Mobile Services in Banking Sector: The Role of Innovative Business Solutions in Generating Competitive Advantage, in: Proceedings of the International Research Conference on Quality, Innovation and Knowledge Management, New Delhi, pp. 886–894.
Tiwari, Rajnish; Buse, Stephan and Herstatt, Cornelius (2006): Customer on the Move: Strategic Implications of Mobile Banking for Banks and Financial Enterprises, in: CEC/EEE 2006, Proceedings of the 8th IEEE International Conference on E-Commerce Technology and The 3rd IEEE International Conference on Enterprise Computing, E-Commerce, and E-Services (CEC/EEE'06), San Francisco, pp. 522–529.
Tiwari, Rajnish; Buse, Stephan and Herstatt, Cornelius (2006): Mobile Banking as Business Strategy: Impact of Mobile Technologies on Customer Behaviour and its Implications for Banks, in: Technology Management for the Global Future – Proceedings of PICMET '06.
Owens, John and Anna Bantug-Herrera (2006): Catching the Technology Wave: Mobile Phone Banking and Text-A-Payment in the Philippines
Ovum Analyst Research, European Retail Banking Investment Strategies (2013):
The Himalayan Times: http://www.thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Dollar+at+historic+high&NewsID=381744
Banking technology
Mobile payments
Mobile Banking |
4354218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20commerce | Mobile commerce | The term mobile commerce was originally coined in 1997 by Kevin Duffey at the launch of the Global Mobile Commerce Forum, to mean "the delivery of electronic commerce capabilities directly into the consumer’s hand, anywhere, via wireless technology." Many choose to think of Mobile Commerce as meaning "a retail outlet in your customer’s pocket."
Mobile commerce is worth US$800 billion, with Asia representing almost half of the market.
History
The Global Mobile Commerce Forum, which came to include over 100 organisations, had its fully minuted launch in London on 10 November 1997. Kevin Duffey was elected as the Executive Chairman at the first meeting in November 1997. The meeting was opened by Dr Mike Short, former chairman of the GSM Association, with the very first forecasts for mobile commerce from Kevin Duffey (Group Telecoms Director of Logica) and Tom Alexander (later CEO of Virgin Mobile and then of Orange). Over 100 companies joined the Forum within a year, many forming mobile commerce teams of their own, e.g. MasterCard and Motorola. Of these one hundred companies, the first two were Logica and Cellnet (which later became O2). Member organisations such as Nokia, Apple, Alcatel, and Vodafone began a series of trials and collaborations.
Mobile commerce services were first delivered in 1997, when the first two mobile-phone-enabled Coca-Cola vending machines were installed in the Helsinki area in Finland. The machines accepted payment via SMS text messages. This work evolved into several new mobile applications such as the first mobile phone-based banking service launched in 1997 by Merita Bank of Finland, also using SMS. Finnair mobile check-in was also a major milestone, first introduced in 2001.
The m-Commerce(tm) server developed in late 1997 by Kevin Duffey and Andrew Tobin at Logica won the 1998 Financial Times award for "most innovative mobile product," in a solution implemented with De La Rue, Motorola and Logica. The Financial Times commended the solution for "turning mobile commerce into a reality." The trademark for m-Commerce was filed on 7 April 2008.
In 1998, the first sales of digital content as downloads to mobile phones were made possible when the first commercial downloadable ringtones were launched in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj).
Two major national commercial platforms for mobile commerce were launched in 1999: Smart Money in the Philippines, and NTT DoCoMo's i-Mode Internet service in Japan. i-Mode offered a revenue-sharing plan where NTT DoCoMo kept 9 per cent of the fee users paid for content, and returned 91 percent to the content owner.
Mobile-commerce-related services spread rapidly in early 2000. Norway launched mobile parking payments. Austria offered train ticketing via mobile devices. Japan offered mobile purchases of airline tickets.
In April 2002, building on the work of the Global Mobile Commerce Forum (GMCF), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) appointed Joachim Hoffmann of Motorola to develop official standards for mobile commerce. In appointing Mr Hoffman, ETSI quoted industry analysts as predicting "that m-commerce is poised for such an exponential growth over the next few years that could reach US$200 billion by 2004".
As of 2008, UCL Computer Science and Peter J. Bentley demonstrated the potential for medical applications on mobile devices.
PDAs and cellular phones have become so popular that many businesses are beginning to use mobile commerce as a more efficient way to communicate with their customers.
In order to exploit the potential mobile commerce market, mobile phone manufacturers such as Nokia, Ericsson, Motorola, and Qualcomm are working with carriers such as AT&T Wireless and Sprint to develop WAP-enabled smartphones. Smartphones offer fax, e-mail, and phone capabilities.
"Profitability for device vendors and carriers hinges on high-end mobile devices and the accompanying killer applications," said Burchett. Perennial early adopters, such as the youth market, which are the least price sensitive, as well as more open to premium mobile content and applications, must also be a key target for device vendors.
Since the launch of the iPhone in 2007, mobile commerce has moved away from SMS systems and into actual applications. SMS has significant security vulnerabilities and congestion problems, even though it is widely available and accessible. In addition, improvements in the capabilities of modern mobile devices make it prudent to place more of the resource burden on the mobile device.
Unlike online banking using bank websites, mobile banking allows a smaller number of operations based on short messages or applications installed on mobile devices. At present, it is estimated that by 2022, the number of customers adopting mobile banking will increase to 2 billion, and banks are investing more and more in improving mobile applications to improve security and customer satisfaction.
More recently, brick and mortar business owners, and big-box retailers in particular, have made an effort to take advantage of mobile commerce by utilizing a number of mobile capabilities such as location-based services, barcode scanning, and push notifications to improve the customer experience of shopping in physical stores. By creating what is referred to as a 'bricks & clicks' environment, physical retailers can allow customers to access the common benefits of shopping online (such as product reviews, information, and coupons) while still shopping in the physical store. This is seen as a bridge between the gap created by e-commerce and in-store shopping, and is being utilized by physical retailers as a way to compete with the lower prices typically seen through online retailers. By mid summer 2013, "omnichannel" retailers (those with significant e-commerce and in-store sales) were seeing between 25% and 30% of traffic to their online properties originating from mobile devices. Some other pure play/online-only retail sites (especially those in the travel category) as well as flash sales sites and deal sites were seeing between 40% and 50% of traffic (and sometimes significantly more) originate from mobile devices.
The Google Wallet Mobile App launched in September 2011 and the m-Commerce joint venture formed in June 2011 between Vodafone, O2, Orange and T-Mobile are recent developments of note. Reflecting the importance of m-Commerce, in April 2012 the Competition Commissioner of the European Commission ordered an in-depth investigation of the m-Commerce joint venture between Vodafone, O2, Orange and T-Mobile. A recent survey states that 2012, 41% of smartphone customers have purchased retail products with their mobile devices.
Products and services available
Mobile money transfer
In Kenya money transfer is mainly done through the use of mobile phones. This was an initiative of a multimillion-shillings company in Kenya named Safaricom. Currently, the companies involved are Safaricom and Airtel. Mobile money transfer services in Kenya are now provided by the two companies under the names M-PESA and Airtel Money respectively.
A similar system called MobilePay has been operated by Danske Bank in Denmark since 2013. It gained considerable popularity with about 1.6 million users by mid-2015. Another similar system called Vipps was introduced in Norway in 2015.
Mobile automated teller machine (ATM) is a special type of ATM. Most ATMs are meant to be stationary, and they're often found attached to the side of financial institutions, in stores, and in malls. A mobile ATM, on the other hand, is meant to be moved from location to location. This type of ATM is often found at special events for which ATM service is only needed temporarily. For example, they may be found at carnivals, fairs, and parades. They may also be used at seminars and workshops where no regular ATM is nearby.
Mobile ATMs are usually self-contained units that don't need a building or enclosure. Usually, a mobile ATM can be placed in just about any location and can transmit transaction information wirelessly, so there's no need to have a phone line handy. Mobile ATMs may, however, require access to an electrical source, though there are some capable of running on alternative sources of power. Often, these units are constructed of weather-resistant materials, so they can be used in practically any type of weather conditions. Additionally, these machines typically have internal heating and air conditioning units that help keep them functional despite the temperature of the environment.ion of mobile money services for the unbanked, operators are now looking for efficient ways to roll out and manage distribution networks that can support cash-in and cash-out. Unlike traditional ATMs, sicap Mobile ATMs have been specially engineered to connect to mobile money platforms and provide bank-grade ATM quality.
In Hungary, Vodafone allows cash or bank card payments for monthly phone bills. The Hungarian market is one where direct debits are not standard practice, so the facility eases the burden of queuing for the postpaid half of Vodafone's subscriber base in Hungary.
Mobile ticketing
Tickets can be sent to mobile phones using a variety of technologies. Users are then able to use their tickets immediately, by presenting their mobile phone at the ticket check as a digital boarding pass. Most numbers of users are now moving towards this technology. The best example would be IRCTC where the ticket comes as an SMS to users. New technology such as RFID can now be used to directly provide a single association digital ticket via the mobile device hardware associated with relevant software.
Mobile vouchers, coupons and loyalty cards
Mobile ticketing technology can also be used for the distribution of vouchers, coupons, and loyalty cards. These items are represented by a virtual token that is sent to the mobile phone. A customer presenting a mobile phone with one of these tokens at the point of sale receives the same benefits as if they had the traditional token. Stores may send coupons to customers using location-based services to determine when the customer is nearby. Using a connected device and the networking effect can also allow for gamification within the shopping experience.
Content purchase and delivery
Currently, mobile content purchase and delivery mainly consist of the sale of ring-tones, wallpapers, apps, and games for mobile phones. The convergence of mobile phones, portable audio players, and video players into a single device is increasing the purchase and delivery of full-length music tracks and videos. The download speeds available with 4G networks make it possible to buy a movie on a mobile device in a couple of seconds.
Location-based services
The location of the mobile phone user is an important piece of information used during mobile commerce or m-commerce transactions. Knowing the location of the user allows for location-based services such as:
Local discount offers
Local weather
Tracking and monitoring of people
Data-driven mashups targeting at a hyper-local level
Information services
A wide variety of information services can be delivered to mobile phone users in much the same way as it is delivered to PCs. These services include:
News
Stock quotes
Sports scores
Financial records
Traffic reporting
Emergency Alerts
Location Based Notifications
Customized traffic information, based on a user's actual travel patterns, can be sent to a mobile device. This customized data is more useful than a generic traffic-report broadcast but was impractical before the invention of modern mobile devices due to the bandwidth requirements.
Mobile banking
Banks and other financial institutions use mobile commerce to allow their customers to access account information and make transactions, such as purchasing stocks, and remitting money. This service is often referred to as mobile banking, or m-banking.
Mobile brokerage
Stock market services offered via mobile devices have also become more popular and are known as Mobile Brokerage. They allow the subscriber to react to market developments in a timely fashion and irrespective of their physical location.
Auctions
Over the past three years mobile reverse auction solutions have grown in popularity. Unlike traditional auctions, the reverse auction (or low-bid auction) bills the consumer's phone each time they place a bid. Many mobiles SMS commerce solutions rely on a one-time purchase or one-time subscription; however, reverse auctions offer a high return for the mobile vendor as they require the consumer to make multiple transactions over a long period of time.
Mobile browsing
Using a mobile browser—a World Wide Web browser on a mobile device—customers can shop online without having to be at their personal computer. Many mobile marketing apps with geo-location capability are now delivering user-specific marketing messages to the right person at the right time.
Mobile purchase
Catalog merchants can accept orders from customers electronically, via the customer's mobile device. In some cases, the merchant may even deliver the catalog electronically, rather than mailing a paper catalog to the customer. Consumers making mobile purchases can also receive value-add upselling services and offers. Some merchants provide mobile web sites that are customized for the smaller screen and limited user interface of a mobile device.
In-application mobile phone payments
Payments can be made directly inside an application running on a popular smartphone operating system, such as Google Android. Analyst firm Gartner expects in-application purchases to drive 41 percent of app store (also referred to as mobile software distribution platforms) revenue in 2016. In-app purchases can be used to buy virtual goods, new and other mobile content and is ultimately billed by mobile carriers rather than the app stores themselves. Ericsson's IPX mobile commerce system is used by 120 mobile carriers to offer payment options such as try-before-you-buy, rentals and subscriptions.
Mobile marketing and advertising
In the context of mobile commerce, mobile marketing refers to marketing sent to mobile devices. Companies have reported that they see better responses from mobile marketing campaigns than from traditional campaigns. The primary reason for this is the instant nature of customer decision-making that mobile apps and websites enable. The consumer can receive a marketing message or discount coupon and, within a few seconds, make a decision to buy and go on to complete the sale - without disrupting their current real-world activity.
For example, a busy mom tending to her household chores with a baby in her arm could receive a marketing message on her mobile about baby products from a local store. She can and within a few clicks, place an order for her supplies without having to plan ahead for it. No more need to reach for her purse and hunt for credit cards, no need to log into her laptop and try to recall the web address of the store she visited last week, and surely no need to find a babysitter to cover for her while she runs to the local store.
Research demonstrates that consumers of mobile and wireline markets represent two distinct groups who are driven by different values and behaviors, and who exhibit dissimilar psychographic and demographic profiles. What aspects truly distinguish between a traditional online shopper from home and a mobile on-the-go shopper? Research shows that how individuals relate to four situational dimensions- place, time, social context and control determine to what extent they are ubiquitous or situated as consumers. These factors are important in triggering m-commerce from e-commerce. As a result, successful mobile commerce requires the development of marketing campaigns targeted to these particular dimensions and according to user segments.
Influence on youth markets
Mobile media is a rapidly changing field. New technologies, such as WiMax, act to accelerate innovation in mobile commerce. Early pioneers in mobile advertising include Vodafone, Orange, and SK Telecom. An empirical study shows that over 70% of mobile commerce users are under the age of 25, as of 2019.
Mobile devices are heavily used in South Korea to conduct mobile commerce. Mobile companies in South Korea believed that mobile technology would become synonymous with the youth lifestyle, based on their experience with previous generations of South Koreans. "Profitability for device vendors and carriers hinges on high-end mobile devices and the accompanying killer applications," said Daniel Longfield.
Payment methods
Consumers can use many forms of payment in mobile commerce, including:
Contactless payment for in-person transactions through a mobile phone (such as Apple Pay or Google Pay). In a system like EMV, these are interoperable with contactless credit and debit cards.
Premium-rate telephone numbers, which apply charges to the consumer's long-distance bill
Mobile-Operator Billing allows charges to be added to the consumer's mobile telephone bill, including deductions to pre-paid calling plans
Credit cards and debit cards
Some providers allow credit cards to be stored in a phone's SIM card or secure element
Some providers are starting to use host card emulation, or HCE (e.g. Google Wallet and Softcard)
Some providers store credit card or debit card information in the cloud; usually in tokenized. With tokenization, payment verification, authentication, and authorization are still required, but payment card numbers don't need to be stored, entered, or transmitted from the mobile device
Micropayment services
Stored-value cards, often used with mobile-device application stores or music stores (e.g. iTunes)
App design
Interaction design and UX design has been at the core of the m-commerce experience from its conception, producing apps and mobile web pages that create highly usable interactions for users. However, much debate has occurred as to the focus that should be given to the apps. In recent research, Parker and Wang demonstrated that within fashion m-Commerce apps, the degree that the app helps the user shop (increasing convenience) was the most prominent function. Such use examples might be through design cues that help the user find their products with minimal search.
Additionally, shopping for others was a motivator for engaging in m-commerce apps with a great preference for close integration with social media. Research shows that culture makes a significant difference in people's motivation to engage in shopping, where Western consumers - for example - have significantly different motivations to Chinese consumers.
App commerce
The popularity of apps has given rise to the latest iteration of mobile commerce: app commerce. This refers to retail transactions that take place on a native mobile app. App commerce is said to perform better than both desktop and mobile web when it comes to browsing duration and interactions. Average order value is reportedly greater with retail apps than traditional ecommerce, and conversion rates on apps are twice that of mobile websites.
Mobile Device Shopping Trends
Mobile applications serve as a means to ensure positive user experience, seamless interaction, and increased revenues for e-commerce. According to DesignRush report, mobile applications are expected to generate $189 billion by 2020. Moreover, a study by Forrester shows that mobile devices will be leveraged to facilitate over $1 trillion in sales in 2018.
See also
E-commerce
Mobile banking
Mobile commerce service provider
Mobile dial code
Mobile marketing
Mobile payment
Mobile ticketing
Mobile app
References
Further reading
E-commerce
Mobile technology |
4354310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rex%20Trailer | Rex Trailer | Rex Trailer (September 16, 1928 – January 9, 2013) was a Boston-based regional television personality, broadcast pioneer, cowboy and Country and Western recording artist. He is best known as the host of the children's television show Boomtown which initially ran from 1956 through 1974.
Early life
Rex Trailer grew up just outside Fort Worth, Texas. He spent his summers on his grandfather’s fifty-acre quarter horse ranch in nearby Thurber, Texas. There at age four or five Trailer rode his first horse, which was named "Bamboo".
The hired hands on the ranch were rodeo cowboys. One of these men taught him trick roping, one taught him how to handle a bull whip, and another taught him how to play the guitar. Trailer recalls, "All those cowboys were good at what they taught me, but after I learned each (skill), I was the only one of the bunch who could do all three!" By age 11, the student had begun performing with his mentors in Texas rodeos. Trailer's grandfather only warned the cowboys that they shouldn't let him ride "rough stock", meaning the broncos and bulls.
As a young man in Texas, Trailer found other opportunities to employ his skills. At age 16 he started his own band, "The Ramblin' Rustlers", which performed locally. "I was always a ham who loved to perform", he said. "I could always play guitar, sing and tell stories." Trailer also began calling square dances.
At 18 years old, Trailer left Texas for the national rodeo circuit. "I traveled the country a little bit", Trailer reminisced. "The audiences got a kick out of a teenager being out there and trick riding and roping and bull whips and singing."
In 1948, Trailer was working in the traveling rodeo when he met Western movie star Gabby Hayes backstage at Madison Square Garden. That meeting proved to be life-changing. An impressed Hayes hired him to work at his Catskills summer ranch for kids as entertainment director. Trailer was the oldest child in a large family, and so was already practiced at engaging the young ones. Hayes, recognizing Trailer's rare natural talent over the course of that summer, encouraged him to break into the fledgling world of children's television as an on-air personality.
Television pioneer
Around 1947 Trailer, not yet out of his teens, had gone to work for the DuMont Television Network in New York City. He started out as a scenery painter, but quickly rose to the position of production coordinator, and soon after to assistant director. Then in 1949, acting on Hayes' advice to seek on-air work, he responded to a casting call for a cowboy who could do stunts; Trailer overwhelmed the competition and became the host of the network's Oky Doky Ranch (formerly The Adventures of Oky Doky). The show featured Trailer as a cowboy and Oky Doky, a cowboy puppet, operated by Dayton Allen.
The Oky Doky series was successful, but it ended when its production company went bankrupt. Dayton Allen went to NBC and soon joined the cast of the nascent Howdy Doody show. Meanwhile, Trailer heard that the Westinghouse TV station in Philadelphia (WPTZ) needed a host for a Western-style children's show. Trailer and his horse "Gold Rush" moved to Philadelphia and hosted a number of television shows from 1950 until 1956. "Ridin’ the Trail with Rex Trailer" featured him as the host for movie Westerns on Saturday mornings, with some live action segments featuring Trailer spliced in. "They sort of built me into the movie," Trailer explained. "The kids loved it because they never knew where or when I was going to show up in the action." He also had a daily 15-minute program featuring songs, games, dances, lore and lessons. This was the only one of the shows that was just Trailer and the kids; called "Hi-Noon with Rex Trailer," it ran from 1950 to 1955, achieving high ratings as it entertained the kids who came home from school for lunch. "Rex Trailer's Ranch House" was a half-hour variety show on Saturday nights. With its self-explanatory title, "Saddlebag O' Songs" was yet another show he hosted in that era.
Recording artist
While his television career was continuing to advance, Trailer concurrently found success in recording Country and Western Music for ABC-Paramount Records, among other labels. At one time, around 1950, he recorded with Bill Haley and his Saddlemen, who gained fame later as Bill Haley and His Comets. In 1955, "Cowboys Don't Cry" and a song later used regularly on the Boomtown show, "Hoofbeats", were released together in the 78 rpm and 45 rpm vinyl record formats. Trailer released at least two 33 rpm 12" vinyl albums, as "Rex Trailer and the Playboys", one titled Country and Western in 1960 and one titled Good Old Country Music, released by Crown records (CLP 5484 monaural), date unknown. Another album with some overlap in playlists also exists, by "Rex Trailer and his Cow Hands", titled Western Favorites, which was released in 1961 on Spin-O-Rama records.
In his later years, Trailer offered a CD through his website, called All the Best. "Boomtown", "Hoofbeats", "Cowboys Don't Cry", "Pow Wow the Pony" and other songs from the 1950s and 1960s were included, along with some more recently recorded songs. Trailer recorded introductions for each track.
Trailer was a featured guest on the 2002 eponymous Nate Gibson and the Gashouse Gang album. He played and sang on two songs written by Gibson, "The Remote to the T.V." and "Immaculate Confection," the latter being a tribute to Necco Wafers candy.
The Boomtown/Boston years
The Philadelphia station that employed Trailer was sold to NBC. The young star, with short time remaining on his contract to Westinghouse Broadcasting, was presented a choice of two Westinghouse station cities as his next stop: Cleveland or Boston. In 1956, with a wealth of broadcasting experience and not yet out of his twenties, Rex Trailer chose the move to Boston to host a new weekend-morning children's show Boomtown on WBZ-TV. Trailer was familiar with Boston from his performing as an intermission act singing western songs and calling square dances years earlier when he travelled with big bands who played the Copley Plaza Hotel.
The show, named by Rex after the title of a Clark Gable film he saw on TV at the time, had a format which combined elements of the other shows he had done. Though the original commitment was only for a few months, this series proved to be his greatest success, airing on WBZ through 1974. Boomtown established Trailer as a major (and enduring) local celebrity within the signal of Boston's TV Channel 4. Trailer performed songs while playing guitar, and showed off his authentic cowboy skills with horse-riding tricks, rope tricks, skilled use of the bull-whip, and shooting (though he banished weapons from the show after RFK’s assassination in 1968). He led the studio audience of children in sing-alongs and contests of skill, and introduced cartoons and other children's programming segments. The young viewers "adored him for his consistent kindness and competence." Trailer was aided by many guests, such as John MacFarland (for "Critter Corner"), and by his various sidekicks over the years, including "Pablo" from 1956 to 1967 (played by actor Richard Kilbride), then "Cactus Pete" from 1967 to 1969 (played by Terrance Currier), and "Sgt. Billy" (played by actor Bill O'Brien).
Rex Trailer's fame, good name, and crowd-pleasing talents made him a dependable draw at his many personal appearances in the area. He was also able to team with a local travel agency in chaperoning children on an annual series of large-scale school-vacation trips to California tourist attractions.
Trailer was recognized as a strong advocate for children with disabilities. In 1961, Trailer (and Gold Rush) led an actual wagon train across the state of Massachusetts ending at the State House in Boston, to call public attention to the needs of the mentally retarded, and the organization The Arc (then called the Association for Retarded Citizens). Trailer insisted on including children with disabilities in his show, and is said to have been one of the first to do so. In addition, Trailer also encouraged his young fans to hold neighborhood charity fund-raisers called "Backyard Carnivals Against Dystrophy", offering how-to kits on air. As a result of such efforts, Trailer came to be perceived as the "cowboy with a conscience" on and off the air.
Shooting live three-hour shows in the Brighton studio every Saturday and Sunday morning left Trailer little opportunity at that time to contemplate his place in television history. "We just did it. It was a blast," he said, adding that the show was the most enjoyable thing he'd ever done, because its genuineness made the fun contagious. "We were doing educational TV before there was educational TV," Trailer asserted. "Children need role models. I wanted them to understand their obligation to take care of each other."
When Boomtown ended on WBZ-TV, Trailer briefly put his Western costume aside and hosted Earth Lab, a syndicated science series that aired across the country until 1979. A second, short-lived run of Boomtown aired on WXNE-TV, Boston on Saturdays and Sundays for a year in the late 1970s. In addition to Rex Trailer himself, the WXNE-TV version of the show also brought back his sidekick Sgt. Billy, Uncle Sam Donato and the Boomtown Band, and added magician "Denver Dave," played by David Rich. Rich had been a one-time audience member of the show in the early 1960s. This iteration of the show was complemented by weekday afternoon "Good Time Gang" inserts, during which Trailer and other featured players of Boomtown introduced episodes of pre-produced children's programming and gave away prizes.
Rex Trailer was part of the successful "I Love New York" tourism campaign, playing a New Hampshire fisherman in a 1982 TV commercial. Trailer had a minor but memorable role as a doctor in the 1990 Cher/Winona Ryder movie Mermaids, saying to Ryder's character, "Then why did you think you were pregnant? You're still a virgin!" Later, he co-hosted Boomtown Revisited on Continental Cablevision in the early 1990s.
Besides his cowboy, musical and broadcasting skills, Trailer had other talents. He was a licensed pilot, having flown fixed wing craft including the Boeing 747 as well as helicopters and gliders, the latter at the (now defunct) Northeast Gliderport in Salem NH. He would often arrive at personal appearances at the controls of a helicopter, sometimes seasonally accompanied by Santa Claus. Once, Trailer was flying with Bozo the Clown (Frank Avruch) in his helicopter; engine trouble forced them down in a Western Massachusetts field, where they were greeted by incredulous children who had followed their descent. Trailer co-owned a helicopter shuttle company in the 1960s and 1970s that at its peak transported 500-600 passengers a day. He was an accomplished sky diver, scuba diver and water skier. Trailer also worked as a travel agent and was a certified hypnotherapist.
Later career
In his later years, Trailer continued to work in the television industry. He owned a video production company in Waltham, Massachusetts, and taught on-air performance at Emerson College in Boston, both until his death. Among his past students are WHDH-TV Channel 7 news anchor Jonathan Hall, Fox 25 morning news host Gene Lavanchy, NESN sportscaster Bob Rodgers and Entertainment Tonight correspondent Maria Menounos. He made regular personal appearances, and performed on occasion, including sets at Boston rock clubs in his later years as a special guest. Trailer was also a perennial participant in Natick's annual July 4 parade, in which he rode Goldrush. Trailer’s initial association with the parade ran from 1955 into the early 1980s; Trailer revived the tradition beginning in the early 1990s, continuing it each year until 2012. In 2013, he was named “grand marshal in memoriam” by Natick Friends of the 4th.
On December 10, 2006, Trailer performed several songs (including the Boomtown theme and some of his own Christmas songs) and signed free autographs for hundreds of fans at That's Entertainment in Worcester, Massachusetts. The event was part of Trailer's official "50th Anniversary of Boomtown" celebration tour. Then Worcester Mayor Tim Murray officially proclaimed it "Rex Trailer's Boomtown Day" throughout the city to mark the occasion, and Worcester City Councilor Frederick C. Rushton read the proclamation to the crowd.
In 2011, Trailer donated his three .45-caliber revolvers with staghorn handles to the Massachusetts State Police Museum in Grafton, Massachusetts. Just prior, the gun shop where Trailer was storing them had gone out of business. The guns very nearly went on the auction block before Trailer and Michael Bavaro learned of the situation and retook possession.
On September 11, 2011, Trailer appeared at That's Entertainment in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, to meet fans, sing songs and sign free autographs as he marked the 55th anniversary of Boomtown. The appearance coincided with the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, and Trailer sang a song he had written to honor the victims of 9/11, "I Appreciate You". He had first performed this song on 2002/09/10 at the Comedy Connection in Faneuil Hall. He explained the song's significance before that earlier event: "Ever since 9-11, the world has changed for all of us. We have to stick together, protect each other, and let those you love, respect, and admire know how much you appreciate them."
On December 18, 2011, Trailer wrapped up his 55th Anniversary Tour in Waltham, Massachusetts, at Café on the Common. Trailer debuted a long-lost Boomtown segment called “Pablo’s Used Cars,” which featured the physical comedy of Trailer’s beloved sidekick, Pablo (actor Richard Kilbride).
In 2012, Trailer continued to appear at events in towns all around Massachusetts. On September 15, 2012, Trailer was at the Ayer Town Hall, where a gathering of fans joined him for his 84th birthday celebration.
Family
Trailer's family remained largely out of the public spotlight throughout his career. Trailer was married to Karoline "Cindy" Trailer (maiden name: Waldron), a two-time beauty pageant winner, from 1956 until her death on May 30, 2011. They had one child, Jillian. Between raising her daughter and attending charity events, Mrs. Trailer had dedicated her time to helping people in need through volunteer work with hospitals and various organizations. She also gave her time to Friends of Animals as well as to animal shelters, and opened their Sudbury, Massachusetts home to many lost or abandoned pets.
His daughter Jillian Trailer said, “One of the most important lessons I learned from my father was to appreciate both big and small opportunities. Learn from the tough experiences and most of all appreciate every day of life.” She recalled that her father was much the same person in public and private life, and that he had a talent for making everyone feel special.
Recognition and legacy
The retrospective book Rex Trailer: The Boomtown Years by Shirley Kawa-Jump was published in 1997.
Trailer was inducted into the Massachusetts Country Music Hall of Fame in 2000. He received the 2005 Governor's Award from the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, Boston/New England chapter and inducted into the Academy's Gold Circle in 2008 for 50 years of service to the broadcast industry in New England. He was included in the first group of honorees inducted into the Massachusetts Broadcasters Hall of Fame in Brockton, Massachusetts, on May 5, 2007.
A documentary film titled, Rex Trailer's Boomtown was produced by Milford, Massachusetts native Michael Bavaro. The film was broadcast on WBZ-TV on June 18, 2005 as a special and was nominated for a New England Emmy award for best historical documentary. Jay Leno, Jimmy Tingle, Mayor Tom Menino, Steven Wright and more than 100 grown-up kids share their Boomtown memories, and attest to the enduring stature of its host. The broadcast version of the film and archive material were presented to and are now part of the permanent collection at the Museum of Television & Radio in New York City. The film enjoyed an encore presentation on WGBH Boston on August 26, 2010.
Trailer was honored for his lifetime of contributions to people with mental and intellectual disabilities at the 50th anniversary Gala for The Arc of Massachusetts on September 10, 2005. In 2011, The Arc chapters in Massachusetts launched a state wide event called "All Aboard the Arc!" This bus caravan event was modeled after the wagon train led 50 years before by Rex Trailer. Trailer was honored at the 2011 event. The organizers note, "Sadly, his horse was not invited."
In March 2012, the Massachusetts tourism and cultural development committee endorsed Trailer's proposed designation as the state’s "official cowboy." The bill, officially called S 1704, is sponsored by Senator Susan Fargo (D-Lincoln). Sen. Eileen Donoghue (D-Lowell), co-chair of the committee, said during the executive session, “His history and connection to Massachusetts is very strong. Not only is he a cowboy from Massachusetts, but he is a wonderful role model who gave a lot back.” On April 7, 2014 the bill, now sponsored by Fargo's successor, State Senator Michael Barrett, passed the Senate. “Long before PBS he was engaging kids in valuable ways. And long before The Americans with Disabilities Act he was determined to make his youthful audience inclusive,” stated Barrett. Barrett chairs the Senate committee on children, families and persons with disabilities.
Rex Trailer died in 2013, when he was visiting family in Florida for the holidays. He fell ill with pneumonia, and died on January 9 at the age of 84. Trailer's life was celebrated at a memorial service held at Cutler Majestic Theatre at Emerson College on March 12, 2013. The Rex Trailer Memorial Fund was established to support the causes the man championed.
Comedian Jay Leno eulogized his boyhood hero: “I’ve met a lot of people, a lot of important people, but no bigger star than Rex.”
References
External links
Rex Trailer Official site
- Massachusetts Broadcasters Hall of Fame
- Numerous appearances at Pleasure Island, Wakefield, Massachusetts
a clip of Trailer's scene from the film Mermaids
Wagon Train Rex Trailer footage of 1959 Wagon ride for The Arc.
David Niles' video of Rex Trailer at That's Entertainment (comic shop), published by the Worcester Telegram on 2006-12-10.
. A video of Rex singing with Dave Shaheen at Rex's studio in Waltham, Massachusetts.
1928 births
2013 deaths
Emerson College faculty
People from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Erath County, Texas
American children's television presenters
Television personalities from Texas |
4354424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20Vietnam | Catholic Church in Vietnam | The Catholic Church in Vietnam is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of bishops in Vietnam who are in communion with the pope in Rome. Vietnam has the fifth largest Catholic population in Asia, after the Philippines, India, China and Indonesia. There are about 7 million Catholics in Vietnam, representing 7.0% of the total population. There are 27 dioceses (including three archdioceses) with 2,228 parishes and 2,668 priests. The main liturgical rites employed in Vietnam are those of the Latin Church.
History
Early periods
The first Catholic missionaries visited Vietnam from Portugal and Spain in the 16th century. The earliest missions did not bring impressive results. Only after the arrival of Jesuits in the first decades of the 17th century did Christianity begin to establish its positions within the local populations in both domains of Đàng Ngoài (Tonkin) and Đàng Trong (Cochinchina). These missionaries were mainly Italians, Portuguese, and Japanese. Two priests, Francesco Buzomi and Diogo Carvalho, established the first Catholic community in Hội An in 1615. Between 1627 and 1630, Avignonese Alexandre de Rhodes and Portuguese Pero Marques converted more than 6,000 people in Tonkin.
In the 17th century, Jesuit missionaries including Francisco de Pina, Gaspar do Amaral, Antonio Barbosa, and de Rhodes developed an alphabet for the Vietnamese language, using the Latin script with added diacritic marks. This writing system continues to be used today, and is called chữ Quốc ngữ (literally "national language script"). Meanwhile, the traditional chữ Nôm, in which Girolamo Maiorica was an expert, was the main script conveying Catholic faith to Vietnamese until the late 19th century.
Since the late 17th century, French missionaries of the Foreign Missions Society and Spanish missionaries of the Dominican Order were gradually taking the role of evangelization in Vietnam. Other missionaries active in pre-modern Vietnam were Franciscans (in Cochinchina), Italian Dominicans & Discalced Augustinians (in Eastern Tonkin), and those sent by the Propaganda Fide.
Missionaries and the Nguyễn
The French missionary priest and Bishop of Adraa Pigneau de Behaine played a key role in Vietnamese history towards the end of the 18th century. He had come to southern Vietnam to evangelize. In 1777, the Tây Sơn brothers killed the ruling Nguyễn lords. Nguyễn Ánh was the most senior member of the family to have survived, and he fled into the Mekong Delta region in the far south, where he met Pigneau. Pigneau became Nguyễn Ánh's confidant. Pigneau reportedly hoped that by playing a substantial role in helping Ánh attain victory, he would be in position to gain important concessions for the Catholic Church in Vietnam and helping its expansion throughout Southeast Asia. From then on he became a politician and military strategist.
At one stage during the civil war, the Nguyễn were in trouble, so Pigneau was dispatched to seek French aid. He was able to recruit a band of French volunteers. Pigneau and other missionaries acted as business agents for Nguyễn Ánh, purchasing munitions and other military supplies. Pigneau also served as a military advisor and de facto foreign minister until his death in 1799. From 1794, Pigneau took part in all campaigns. He organized the defense of Diên Khánh when it was besieged by a numerically vastly superior Tây Sơn army in 1794. Upon Pigneau's death, Gia Long's funeral oration described the Frenchman as "the most illustrious foreigner ever to appear at the court of Cochinchina".
By 1802, when Nguyễn Ánh conquered all of Vietnam and declared himself Emperor Gia Long, the Catholic Church in Vietnam had three dioceses as follows:
Diocese of Eastern Tonkin: 140,000 members, 41 Vietnamese priests, 4 missionary priests and 1 bishop.
Diocese of Western Tonkin: 120,000 members, 65 Vietnamese priests, 46 missionary priests and 1 bishop.
Diocese of Central and Southern Cochinchina: 60,000 members, 15 Vietnamese priests, 5 missionary priests and 1 bishop.
Gia Long tolerated the Catholic faith of his French allies and permitted unimpeded missionary activities out of respect to his benefactors. The missionary activities were dominated by the Spanish in Tonkin and the French in the central and southern regions. At the time of his death, there were six European bishops in Vietnam. The population of Christians was estimated at 300,000 in Tonkin and 60,000 in Cochinchina.
Later Nguyễn dynasty
The peaceful coexistence of Catholicism alongside the classical Confucian system of Vietnam was not to last. Gia Long himself was Confucian in outlook. As Crown Prince Nguyễn Phúc Cảnh had already died, it was assumed that Cảnh's son would succeed Gia Long as emperor, but, in 1816, Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, the son of Gia Long's second wife, was appointed instead. Gia Long chose him for his strong character and his deeply conservative aversion to Westerners, whereas Cảnh's lineage had converted to Catholicism and were reluctant to maintain their Confucian traditions such as ancestor worship.
Lê Văn Duyệt, the Vietnamese general who helped Nguyễn Ánh—the future Emperor Gia Long—put down the Tây Sơn rebellion, unify Vietnam and establish the Nguyễn dynasty, and many of the high-ranking mandarins opposed Gia Long's succession plan. Duyệt and many of his southern associates tended to be favourable to Christianity, and supported the installation of Nguyễn Cảnh's descendants on the throne. As a result, Duyệt was held in high regard by the Catholic community. According to the historian Mark McLeod, Duyệt was more concerned with military rather than social needs, and was thus more interested in maintaining strong relations with Europeans so that he could acquire weapons from them, rather than worrying about the social implications of westernization. Gia Long was aware that Catholic clergy were opposed to the installation of Minh Mạng because they favored a Catholic monarch (Cảnh's son) who would grant them favors.
Minh Mạng began to place restrictions on Catholicism. He enacted "edicts of interdiction of the Catholic religion" and condemned Christianity as a "heterodox doctrine". He saw the Catholics as a possible source of division, especially as the missionaries were arriving in Vietnam in ever-increasing numbers. Duyệt protected Vietnamese Catholic converts and westerners from Minh Mạng's policies by disobeying the emperor's orders.
Minh Mạng issued an imperial edict, that ordered missionaries to leave their areas and move to the imperial city, ostensibly because the palace needed translators, but in order to stop the Catholics from evangelizing. Whereas the government officials in central and northern Vietnam complied, Duyệt disobeyed the order and Minh Mạng was forced to bide his time. The emperor began to slowly wind back the military powers of Duyệt, and increased this after his death. Minh Mạng ordered the posthumous humiliation of Duyệt, which resulted in the desecration of his tomb, the execution of sixteen relatives, and the arrests of his colleagues. Duyệt's son, Lê Văn Khôi, along with the southerners who had seen their and Duyệt's power curtailed, revolted against Minh Mạng.
Khôi declared himself in favour of the restoration of the line of Prince Cảnh. This choice was designed to obtain the support of Catholic missionaries and Vietnamese Catholics, who had been supporting the Catholic line of Prince Cảnh. Lê Văn Khôi further promised to protect Catholicism. In 1833, the rebels took over southern Vietnam, with Catholics playing a large role. 2,000 Vietnamese Catholic troops fought under the command of Father Nguyễn Văn Tâm.
The rebellion was suppressed after three years of fighting. The French missionary Father Joseph Marchand, of the Paris Foreign Missions Society was captured in the siege, and had been supporting Khôi, and asked for the help of the Siamese army, through communications to his counterpart in Siam, Father Jean-Louis Taberd. This showed the strong Catholic involvement in the revolt and Father Marchand was executed.
The failure of the revolt had a disastrous effect on the Christians of Vietnam. New restrictions against Christians followed, and demands were made to find and execute remaining missionaries. Anti-Catholic edicts to this effect were issued by Minh Mạng in 1836 and 1838. In 1836–37 six missionaries were executed: Ignacio Delgado, Dominico Henares, José Fernández, François Jaccard, Jean-Charles Cornay, and Bishop Pierre Borie. The villages of Christians were destroyed and their possessions confiscated. Families were broken apart. Christians were branded on the forehead with tà đạo, “false religion.” It is believed that between 130,000 and 300,000 Christians died in the various persecutions. The 117 proclaimed saints represent the many unknown martyrs.
Catholicism in South Vietnam (1954–1975)
From 1954 to 1975, Vietnam was split into North and South Vietnam. During a 300-day period where the border between the two sides was temporarily open, many North Vietnamese Catholics fled southward out of fear that they would be persecuted by the Viet Minh.
In a country where Buddhists were the majority, President Ngô Đình Diệm's policies generated claims of religious bias even though he sponsored and supported many Buddhist organizations, and Buddhism flourished under his regime. As a member of the Catholic minority, he pursued policies which antagonized the Buddhist majority. The government was biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions, and the allocation of land, business favors and tax concessions. Diệm once told a high-ranking officer, forgetting the man was from a Buddhist background, "Put your Catholic officers in sensitive places. They can be trusted." Many officers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam converted to Catholicism to better their prospects. The distribution of firearms to village self-defense militias intended to repel Việt Cộng guerrillas saw weapons only given to Catholics. Some Catholic priests ran their own private armies, and in some areas forced conversions, looting, shelling and demolition of pagodas occurred.
Some villages converted en masse in order to receive aid or avoid being forcibly resettled by Diệm's regime. The Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country, and its holdings were exempt from reform and given extra property acquisition rights, while restrictions against Buddhism remained in force. Catholics were also de facto exempt from the corvée labor that the government obliged all citizens to perform; U.S. aid was disproportionately distributed to Catholic majority villages. In 1959, Diem dedicated his country to the Virgin Mary.
The white and gold "Vatican flag" was regularly flown at all major public events in South Vietnam. The newly constructed Huế and Đà Lạt universities were placed under Catholic authority to foster a Catholic-influenced academic environment.
In May 1963, in the central city of Huế, where Diệm's elder brother Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục was archbishop, Buddhists were prohibited from displaying the Buddhist flag during the sacred Buddhist Vesak celebrations. A few days earlier, Catholics were encouraged to fly religious—that is, papal—flags at the celebration in honour of Thục's anniversary as bishop. Both actions technically violated a rarely enforced law which prohibited the flying of any flag other than the national one, but only the Buddhist flags were prohibited in practice. This prompted a protest against the government, which was violently suppressed by Diệm's forces, resulting in the killing of nine civilians. This in turn led to a mass campaign against Diệm's government during what became known as the Buddhist crisis. Diệm was later deposed and assassinated on 2 November 1963. Recent scholarships reveal significant understandings about Diệm's own independent agenda and political philosophy. The Personalist Revolution under his regime promoted religious freedom and diversity to oppose communism's atheism. However, this policy itself ultimately enabled religious activists to threaten the state that supported their religious liberty.
Present time
The first Vietnamese bishop, Jean-Baptiste Nguyễn Bá Tòng, was consecrated in 1933 at St. Peter's Basilica by Pope Pius XI. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of Vietnam was founded in 1980. In 1976, the Holy See made Archbishop Joseph-Marie Trịnh Như Khuê the first Vietnamese cardinal. Joseph-Marie Cardinal Trịnh Văn Căn in 1979, and Paul-Joseph Cardinal Phạm Đình Tụng in 1994, were his successors. The well known Vietnamese Cardinal Francis Xavier Nguyễn Văn Thuận, who was imprisoned by the Communist regime from 1975 to 1988 and spent nine years in solitary confinement, was nominated secretary of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, and made its president in 1998. On 21 February 2001, he was elevated to the College of Cardinals by Pope John Paul II. Vietnamese Catholics who died for their faith from 1533 to the present day were canonized in 1988 by John Paul II as "Vietnamese Martyrs". On 26 March 1997, the beatification process for the Redemptorist brother Marcel Nguyễn Tân Văn was opened by Cardinal Nguyễn Văn Thuận in the diocese of Belley-Ars, France.
There have been meetings between leaders of Vietnam and the Vatican, including a visit by Vietnam's Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng to the Vatican to meet Pope Benedict XVI on 25 January 2007. Official Vatican delegations have been traveling to Vietnam almost every year since 1990 for meetings with its government authorities and to visit Catholic dioceses. In March 2007, a Vatican delegation visited Vietnam and met with local officials. In October 2014, Pope Francis met with Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng in Rome. The sides continued discussions about the possibility of establishing normal diplomatic relations, but have not provided a specific schedule for the exchange of ambassadors. The Pope would again meet Vietnamese leader Trần Đại Quang and his associates in Vatican in 2016.
Vietnam remains as the only Asian communist country to have an unofficial representative of the Vatican in the country and has held official to unofficial meetings with the Vatican's representatives both in Vietnam and the Holy See—which does not exist in China, North Korea and Laos—due to long and historical relations between Vietnam and the Catholic Church dating to before the period of French colonization in Southeast Asia. These relations have improved in recent years, as the Holy See announced they will have a permanent representative in Vietnam in 2018.
Restrictions on Catholic life in Vietnam and the government's desired involvement in the nomination of bishops remain obstacles in bilateral dialogues. In March 2007, Thaddeus Nguyễn Văn Lý (b. 1946), a dissident Catholic priest, was sentenced by Vietnamese court in Huế to eight years in prison on grounds of "anti-government activities". Nguyen, who had already spent 14 of the past 24 years in prison, was accused of being a founder of a pro-democracy movement Bloc 8406 and a member of the Progression Party of Vietnam.
On 16 September 2007, the fifth anniversary of the Cardinal Nguyễn Văn Thuận's death, the Catholic Church began the beatification process for him. Benedict XVI expressed "profound joy" at the news of the official opening of the beatification cause. Vietnamese Catholics reacted positively to the news of the beatification. In December 2007, thousands of Vietnamese Catholics marched in procession to the former apostolic nunciature in Hanoi and prayed there twice aiming to return the property to the local church. The building was located at a historic Buddhist site until it was confiscated by the French authorities and given to Catholics, before the communist North Vietnamese government confiscated it from the Catholic Church in 1959. This was the first mass civil action by Vietnamese Catholics since the 1970s. Later the protests were supported by Catholics in Hồ Chí Minh City and Hà Đông, who made the same demands for their respective territories. In February 2008, the governments promised to return the building to the Catholic Church. However, in September 2008, the authorities changed their position and decided to demolish the building to create a public park.
Dioceses
There are 27 dioceses, including three archdioceses, in a total of three ecclesiastical provinces. The archdioceses are:
Archdiocese (Metropolitan) of Hanoi
Archdiocese (Metropolitan) of Huế
Archdiocese (Metropolitan) of Ho Chi Minh City (former Saigon)
See also
Religion in Vietnam
Christianity in Vietnam
Vietnamese Martyrs
Our Lady of La Vang
Đọc kinh (Vietnamese cantillation)
Ngắm Mùa Chay (Vietnamese Lenten meditation)
Holy See-Vietnam relations
Citations
Bibliography
Specialized sources
Monographs
Doctoral theses:
Book chapters
Online resource.
Journal articles
Supplementary sources
Viện Nghiên cứu Tôn giáo, Viện Hàn lâm Khoa học Xã hội Việt Nam.
Institute for Religious Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences.
External links
Catholic Church in Vietnam on GCatholic
Catholic Church in Vietnam on Catholic-Hierarchy
"Catholic processions in Vietnam" photo collection
Vietnam
Vietnam |
4354646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergent%20virus | Emergent virus | An emergent virus (or emerging virus) is a virus that is either newly appeared, notably increasing in incidence/geographic range or has the potential to increase in the near future. Emergent viruses are a leading cause of emerging infectious diseases and raise public health challenges globally, given their potential to cause outbreaks of disease which can lead to epidemics and pandemics. As well as causing disease, emergent viruses can also have severe economic implications. Recent examples include the SARS-related coronaviruses, which have caused the 2002-2004 outbreak of SARS (SARS-CoV-1) and the 2019–21 pandemic of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2). Other examples include the human immunodeficiency virus which causes HIV/AIDS; the viruses responsible for Ebola; the H5N1 influenza virus responsible for avian flu; and H1N1/09, which caused the 2009 swine flu pandemic (an earlier emergent strain of H1N1 caused the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic). Viral emergence in humans is often a consequence of zoonosis, which involves a cross-species jump of a viral disease into humans from other animals. As zoonotic viruses exist in animal reservoirs, they are much more difficult to eradicate and can therefore establish persistent infections in human populations.
Emergent viruses should not be confused with re-emerging viruses or newly detected viruses. A re-emerging virus is generally considered to be a previously appeared virus that is experiencing a resurgence, for example measles. A newly detected virus is a previously unrecognized virus that had been circulating in the species as endemic or epidemic infections. Newly detected viruses may have escaped classification because they left no distinctive clues, and/or could not be isolated or propagated in cell culture. Examples include human rhinovirus (a leading cause of common colds which was first identified in 1956), hepatitis C (eventually identified in 1989), and human metapneumovirus (first described in 2001, but thought to have been circulating since the 19th century). As the detection of such viruses is technology driven, the number reported is likely to expand.
Zoonosis
Given the rarity of spontaneous development of new virus species, the most frequent cause of emergent viruses in humans is zoonosis. This phenomenon is estimated to account for 73% of all emerging or re-emerging pathogens, with viruses playing a disproportionately large role. RNA viruses are particularly frequent, accounting for 37% of emerging and re-emerging pathogens. A broad range of animals - including wild birds, rodents and bats - are associated with zoonotic viruses. It is not possible to predict specific zoonotic events that may be associated with a particular animal reservoir at any given time.
Zoonotic spillover can either result in self-limited 'dead-end' infections, in which no further human-human transmission occurs (as with the rabies virus), or in infectious cases, in which the zoonotic pathogen is able to sustain human-human transmission (as with the Ebola virus). If the zoonotic virus is able to maintain successful human-human transmission, an outbreak may occur. Some spillover events can also result in the virus adapting exclusively for human infection (as occurred with the HIV virus), in which case humans become a new reservoir for the pathogen.
A successful zoonotic 'jump' depends on human contact with an animal harbouring a virus variant that is able to infect humans. In order to overcome host-range restrictions and sustain efficient human-human transmission, viruses originating from an animal reservoir will normally undergo mutation, genetic recombination and reassortment. Due to their rapid replication and high mutation rates, RNA viruses are more likely to successfully adapt for invasion of a new host population.
Examples of animal sources
Bats
While bats are essential members of many ecosystems, they are also frequently implicated as frequent sources of emerging virus infections. Their immune systems have evolved in such a way as to suppress any inflammatory response to viral infections, thereby allowing them to become tolerant hosts for evolving viruses, and consequently provide major reservoirs of zoonotic viruses. They are associated with more zoonotic viruses per host species than any other mammal, and molecular studies have demonstrated that they are the natural hosts for several high-profile zoonotic viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronaviruses and Ebola/Marburg hemorrhagic fever filoviruses. In terms of their potential for spillover events, bats have taken over the leading role previously assigned to rodents. Viruses can be transmitted from bats via several mechanisms, including bites, aerosolization of saliva (e.g. during echolocation), and faeces/urine.
Due to their distinct ecology/behaviour, bats are naturally more susceptible to viral infection and transmission. Several bat species (e.g. brown bats) aggregate in crowded roosts, which promotes intra- and interspecies viral transmission. Moreover, as bats are widespread in urban areas, humans occasionally encroach on their habitats which are contaminated with guano and urine. Their ability to fly and migration patterns also means that bats are able to spread disease over a large geographic area, while also acquiring new viruses. Additionally, bats experience persistent viral infections which, together with their extreme longevity (some bat species have lifespans of 35 years), helps to maintain viruses and transmit them to other species. Other bat characteristics which contribute to their potency as viral hosts include: their food choices, torpor/hibernation habits, and susceptibility to reinfection.
Drivers of viral emergence
Viral emergence is often a consequence of both nature and human activity. In particular, ecological changes can greatly facilitate the emergence and re-emergence of zoonotic viruses. Factors such as deforestation, reforestation, habitat fragmentation and irrigation can all impact the ways in which humans come into contact with wild animal species, and consequently promote virus emergence. In particular, habitat loss of reservoir host species plays a significant role in emerging zoonoses. Additionally, climate change can affect ecosystems and vector distribution, which in turn can affect the emergence of vector-borne viruses. Other ecological changes - for example, species introduction and predator loss - can also affect virus emergence and prevalence. Some agricultural practices, for example livestock intensification and inappropriate management/disposal of farm animal faeces, are also associated with an increased risk of zoonosis.
Viruses may also emerge due to the establishment of human populations that are vulnerable to infection. For example, a virus may emerge following loss of cross-protective immunity, which may occur due to loss of a wild virus or termination of vaccination programmes. Well-developed countries also have higher proportions of aging citizens and obesity-related disease, thus meaning that their populations may be more immunosuppressed and therefore at risk of infection. Contrastingly, poorer nations may have immunocompromised populations due to malnutrition or chronic infection; these countries are also unlikely to have stable vaccination programmes. Additionally, changes in human demographics – for example, the birth and/or migration of immunologically naïve individuals – can lead to the development of a susceptible population that enables large-scale virus infection.
Other factors which can promote viral emergence include globalisation; in particular, international trade and human travel/migration can result in the introduction of viruses into new areas. Moreover, as densely populated cities promote rapid pathogen transmission, uncontrolled urbanization (i.e. the increased movement and settling of individuals in urban areas) can promote viral emergence. Animal migration can also lead to the emergence of viruses, as was the case for the West Nile virus which was spread by migrating bird populations. Additionally, human practices regarding food production and consumption can also contribute to the risk of viral emergence. In particular, wet markets (i.e. live animal markets) are an ideal environment for virus transfer, due to the high density of people and wild/farmed animals present. Consumption of bushmeat is also associated with pathogen emergence.
Prevention
Control and prevention of zoonotic diseases depends on appropriate global surveillance at various levels, including identification of novel pathogens, public health surveillance (including serological surveys), and analysis of the risks of transmission. The complexity of zoonotic events around the world predicates a multidisciplinary approach to prevention. The One Health Model has been proposed as a global strategy to help prevent the emergence of zoonotic diseases in humans, including novel viral diseases. The One Health concept aims to promote the health of animals, humans, and the environment, both locally and globally, by fostering understanding and collaboration between practitioners of different interrelated disciplines, including wildlife biology, veterinary science, medicine, agriculture, ecology, microbiology, epidemiology, and biomedical engineering.
Virulence of emergent viruses
As hosts are immunologically naïve to pathogens they have not encountered before, emergent viruses are often extremely virulent in terms of their capacity to cause disease. Their high virulence is also due to a lack of adaptation to the new host; viruses normally exert strong selection pressure on the immune systems of their natural hosts, which in turn exerts a strong selection pressure on viruses. This coevolution means that the natural host is able to manage infection. However, when the virus jumps to a new host (e.g. humans), the new host is unable to deal with infection due to a lack of coevolution, which results in mismatch between host immunoeffectors and virus immunomodulators.
Additionally, in order to maximise transmission, viruses often naturally undergo attenuation (i.e. virulence is reduced) so that infected animals can survive long enough to infect other animals more efficiently. However, as attenuation takes time to achieve, new host populations will not initially benefit from this phenomenon. Moreover, as zoonotic viruses also naturally exist in animal reservoirs, their survival is not dependent on transmission between new hosts; this means that emergent viruses are even more unlikely to attenuate for the purpose of maximal transmission, and they remain virulent.
Although emergent viruses are frequently highly virulent, they are limited by several host factors including: innate immunity, natural antibodies and receptor specificity. If the host has previously been infected by a pathogen that is similar to the emergent virus, the host may also benefit from cross-protective immunity.
Examples of emergent viruses
Influenza A
Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory infection, which affects approximately 9% of the global population and causes 300,000 to 500,000 deaths annually. Based on their core proteins, influenza viruses are classified into types A, B, C and D. While both influenza A and B can cause epidemics in humans, influenza A also has pandemic potential and a higher mutation rate, therefore is most significant to public health.
Influenza A viruses are further classified into subtypes, based on the combinations of the surface glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The primary natural reservoir for most influenza A subtypes are wild aquatic birds; however, through a series of mutations, a small subset of these viruses have adapted for infection of humans (and other animals). A key determinant of whether a particular influenza A subtype can infect humans is its binding specificity. Avian influenza A preferentially binds to cell surface receptors with a terminal α2,3‐linked sialic acid, while human influenza A preferentially binds to cell surface receptors with a terminal α2,6‐linked sialic acid. Via mutation, some avian influenza A viruses have successfully altered their binding specificity from α2,3‐ to α2,6‐linked sialic acid. However, in order to emerge in humans, avian influenza A viruses must also adapt their RNA polymerases for function in mammalian cells, as well as mutating for stability in the acidic respiratory tract of humans.
Following adaptation and host switch, influenza A viruses have the potential to cause epidemics and pandemics in humans. Minor changes in HA and NA structure (antigenic drift) occur frequently, which enables the virus to cause repetitive outbreaks (i.e. seasonal influenza) by evading immune recognition. Major changes in HA and NA structure (antigenic shift), which are caused by genetic reassortment between different influenza A subtypes (e.g. between human and animal subtypes), can instead cause large regional/global pandemics. Due to the emergence of antigenically different influenza A strains in humans, four pandemics occurred in the 20th century alone.
Additionally, although animal influenza A viruses (e.g. swine influenza) are distinct from human influenza viruses, they can still cause zoonotic infection in humans. These infections are largely acquired following direct contact with infected animals or contaminated environments, but do not result in efficient human-human transmission; examples of this include H5N1 influenza and H7N9 influenza.
SARS-CoV
In 2002, a highly pathogenic SARS-CoV (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus) strain emerged from a zoonotic reservoir; approximately 8000 people were infected worldwide, and mortality rates approached 50% or more in the elderly. As SARS-CoV is most contagious post-symptoms, the introduction of strict public health measures effectively halted the pandemic. The natural reservoir host for SARS-CoV is thought to be horseshoe bats, although the virus has also been identified in several small carnivores (e.g. palm civets and racoon dogs). The emergence of SARS-CoV is believed to have been facilitated by Chinese wet markets, in which civets positive for the virus acted as intermediate hosts and passed SARS-CoV onto humans (and other species). However, more recent analysis suggests that SARS-CoV may have directly jumped from bats to humans, with subsequent cross-transmission between humans and civets.
In order to infect cells, SARS-CoV uses the spike surface glycoprotein to recognise and bind to host ACE-2, which it uses as a cellular entry receptor; the development of this characteristic was crucial in enabling SARS-CoV to ‘jump’ from bats to other species.
MERS-CoV
First reported in 2012, MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus) marks the second known introduction of a highly pathogenic coronavirus from a zoonotic reservoir into humans. The case mortality rate of this emergent virus is approximately 35%, with 80% of all cases reported by Saudi Arabia. Although MERS-CoV is likely to have originated in bats, dromedary camels have been implicated as probable intermediate hosts. MERS-CoV is believed to have been circulating in these mammals for over 20 years, and it is thought that novel camel farming practices drove the spillover of MERS-CoV into humans. Studies have shown that humans can be infected with MERS-CoV via direct or indirect contact within infected dromedary camels, while human-human transmission is limited.
MERS-CoV gains cellular entry by using a spike surface protein to bind to the host DPP4 surface receptor; the core subdomain of this spike surface protein shares similarities with that of SARS-CoV, but its receptor binding subdomain (RBSD) significantly differs.
Bluetongue disease
Bluetongue disease is a non-contagious vector-borne disease caused by bluetongue virus, which affects species of ruminants (particularly sheep). Climate change has been implicated in the emergence and global spread of this disease, due to its impact on vector distribution. The natural vector of the bluetongue virus is the African midge C. imicola, which is normally limited to Africa and subtropical Asia. However, global warming has extended the geographic range of C. imicola, so that it now overlaps with a different vector (C. pulcaris or C. obsoletus) with a much more northward geographic range. This change enabled the bluetongue virus to jump vector, thus causing the northward spread of bluetongue disease into Europe.
See also
Biosecurity
Emerging infectious disease
History of emerging infectious diseases
Laboratory biosafety
Viral quasispecies
References
Further reading
External links
Epidemiology
Viruses
Zoonoses
Virology |
4354871 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20FC%20Bayern%20Munich%20records%20and%20statistics | List of FC Bayern Munich records and statistics | This list has details on FC Bayern Munich records and statistics.
Coaches
Until 1963
Information on the club's coaches before the Bundesliga era is hard to come by. The information as given in the following table is from the club's website.
Since 1963
In contrast to the pre-Bundesliga era, a list of coaches since the inception of the national league (Bundesliga) in 1963 is readily available on the club's website. Felix Magath (in 2005), Ottmar Hitzfeld (in 2008), Louis van Gaal (in 2010), Jupp Heynckes (in 2013 and 2018) and Hansi Flick (in 2020) were all awarded Germany's Football Manager of the Year title for their work at Bayern. Both Hitzfeld (in 2001) and Flick (in 2020) were also awarded the UEFA Coach of the Year and the IFFHS World's Best Club Coach, while Heynckes won both the FIFA World Coach of the Year and the IFFHS World's Best Club Coach title in 2013.
Presidents
At the club's founding Franz John was appointed as the first president. The current president, Herbert Hainer, is Bayern's 38th president with several presidents having multiple spells in office (counted separately.)
Honorary presidents
The club has six honorary presidents, Franz John, Siegfried Herrmann, Kurt Landauer, Wilhelm Neudecker, Franz Beckenbauer, and Uli Hoeneß, the only living ones being Beckenbauer and Hoeneß. Bayern has also designated honorary vice presidents: Hans Schiefele, Karl Pfab, Bernd Rauch, and Fritz Scherer.
Honours
Bayern have won 83 major trophies: 69 national titles and 14 international titles.
National titles
Official
German Champions/Bundesliga
Champions: (33) 1932, 1968–69, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1984–85, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23 (record)
Runners-up: (10) 1969–70, 1970–71, 1987–88, 1990–91, 1992–93, 1995–96, 1997–98, 2003–04, 2008–09, 2011–12 (record)
DFB-Pokal
Champions: (20) 1956–57, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1981–82, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2015–16, 2018–19, 2019–20 (record)
Runners-up: 1984–85, 1998–99, 2011–12, 2017–18
Semi-finals: 1967–68, 1973–74, 1975–76, 2001–02, 2010–11, 2014–15, 2016–17
Quarter-finals: 1969–70, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1987–88, 1996–97, 2003–04, 2008–09, 2022–23
Round of 16: 1986–87, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1993–94, 2006–07
Round 3: 1974–75, 1977–78, 1979–80, 1980–81
Round 2: 1938–39, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1995–96, 2000–01, 2020–21, 2021–22
Round 1: 1935–36, 1936–37, 1940–41, 1943–44, 1990–91, 1994–95
Did not enter: (16) 1937–38, 1939–40, 1941–42, 1942–43, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1957–58, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1960–61, 1961–62, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65
DFB/DFL-Supercup (1987–present; inactive 1997–2009)
Champions: (10) 1983, 1987, 1990, 2010, 2012, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2020, 2021 (record)
Runners-up: 1989, 1994, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2019, 2023 (record)
DFB-Ligapokal (1997–2007)
Champions: (6) 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2007 (record)
Runners-up: 2006
Semi-finals: 2001, 2003, 2005
Group stage: 1972–73
Preliminary round: 2002
Unofficial
Fuji-Cup (1986–1996; The competition competed with the DFB-Supercup, although ultimately the two competitions were replaced by the DFB-Ligapokal in 1997. Nowadays there is a similar competition named Telekom Cup.)
Champions: 1986, 1987, 1988, 1994, 1995
Runners-up: 1993, 1996
Third-place: 1989, 1990, 1991*
Telekom Cup (formerly known as T-Home Cup and LIGA total! Cup; since 2009)
Champions: 2013, 2014, 2017 (winter), 2017 (summer)
Runners-up: 2010
Third-place: 2009, 2011, 2012
Fourth-place: 2015
International titles
Bayern is one of only five clubs to have won all three major European competitions played until 2021. Bayern are also one of three clubs to have won the European Cup three times in a row, entitling them to wear a multiple-winner badge during Champions League matches.
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Champions: 1973–74, 1974–75, 1975–76, 2000–01, 2012–13, 2019–20 (German record)
Runners-up: 1981–82, 1986–87, 1998–99, 2009–10, 2011–12
Semi-finals: 1980–81, 1989–90, 1990–91, 1994–95, 1999–2000, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18
Quarter-finals: 1972–73, 1976–77, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2008–09, 2016–17, 2020–21, 2021–22, 2022–23
Round of 16: 2003–04, 2005–06, 2010–11, 2018–19
UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League
Champions: 1995–96
Semi-finals: 1979–80, 1988–89, 2007–08
Inter-Cities Fairs Cup
Quarter-finals: 1962–63, 1970–71
European / UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
Champions: 1966–67 (Shared German record)
Semi-finals: 1967–68, 1971–72, 1984–85
Quarter-finals: 1982–83
European / UEFA Super Cup
Champions: 2013, 2020 (German record)
Finalist: 1974 (did not play) (Competition was abandoned because Bayern Munich and 1. FC Magdeburg could not find a mutually convenient date for the match)
Runners-up: 1975, 1976, 2001 (German record)
Intercontinental Cup
Champions: 1976, 2001 (German record)
Finalist: 1974, 1975 (did not play) (Bayern refused to participate in the tournament these years; they were replaced by Atletico Madrid in 1974 and the Intercontinental Cup was not played at all in 1975)
FIFA Club World Cup
Champions: 2013, 2020 (German record)
Regional competitions
Regionale Meisterschaft Bayern (Oberbayern) (I), Münchner Stadtmeisterschaft
Champions: 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1908
Kreisliga Bayern - Level 1 (1909–1923)
Champions: 1910, 1911, 1920, 1923;
Runners-up: 1912, 1913, 1917, 1918 (record)
Bezirksliga Bayern - Level 1 (1923–1933)
Champions: 1925–26, 1927–28, 1928–29, 1929–30, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33 (record)
Gauliga Bayern - Level 1 (1933–1945)
Champions: 1943–44
Southern German football championship - Level 1
Champions: 1925–26, 1927–28
Runners-up: 1909–10, 1910–11, 1928–29, 1931–32
Regionalliga Süd - Level 2 (1963–74)
Champions: 1964–65
Runners-up: 1963–64
International friendly competitions
Singapore Trophy
Champions: 2023 Audi CupChampions: 2009, 2013, 2015 (record)Runners-up: 2011, 2019
International Champions CupRunners-up: 2017Franz Beckenbauer CupRunners-up: 2007, 2008, 2010Opel Master CupChampions: 1996, 2000 (shared record)Runners-up: 1997Uli Hoeneß CupChampions: 2013Saitama City CupChampions: 2008Runners-up: 2006Trofeo Santiago BernabéuChampions: 1979, 1980, 2002Runners-up: 1985Teresa Herrera TrophyChampions: 1989Orange TrophyChampions: 1972Yingli CupChampions: 2012Audi Football SummitChampions: 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015Wiener StadthallenturnierChampions: 1971Trofeo Ciudad de Las PalmasChampions: 1972Trofeo 75 Aniversario del Athletic de BilbaoChampions: 1973Trofeo Internacional Ciudad de TerrassaChampions: 1973Toulouse TournamentChampions: 1979Mohammed V TrophyChampions: 1972Runners-up: 1969Tournoi de ParisRunners-up: 1973
Honours and awardsFIFA Club of the Century3rd place (20th century) German Sportsteam of the YearWinner: 1967, 2001, 2013, 2020IFFHS World Club Team of the YearWinner: 2013, 2020IFFHS World Club Team of the MonthWinner: February 2000, October 2001, August 2002, February 2008, April 2008, April 2010, September 2011, September 2012, February 2013FIFA Club World Cup Fair Play TrophyWinner: 2013France Football European Team of the YearWinner: 1974World Soccer Team of the YearWinner: 2013, 2020Globe Soccer Awards Best Club of the YearWinner: 2013, 2020Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the YearWinner: 2014, 2021Silver Bay LeafWinner: 1967
FC Bayern Munich II
Regionalliga Süd (III)
Champions: 2004
3. Liga (III)
Champions: 2020
2nd Amateurliga Oberbayern A (IV)
Champions: 1956
Landesliga Bayern-Süd (IV)
Champions: 1967, 1973
Regionalliga Bayern (IV)
Champions: 2014, 2019
Runners-up: 2013, 2015
Bavarian Cup
Winners: 2002
Oberbayern Cup
Winners: 1995, 2001, 2002
IFA Shield Winners: 2005
Premier League International Cup Winners: 2019
German amateur football championship
Runners-up: 1983, 1987
Amateurliga Südbayern (III)
Runners-up: 1958, 1961
Amateur Oberliga Bayern (III)
Runners-up: 1983, 1984, 1987
FC Bayern Munich junior team
Under 19 BundesligaWinners: 2001, 2002, 2004
Runners-up: 1998, 2006, 2007, 2012, 2017
Under 17 BundesligaWinners: 1989, 1997, 2001, 2007, 2017
Runners-up: 2000, 2009
South/Southwest German Under 19 championshipWinners: 2004, 2007, 2012, 2013
South/Southwest German Under 17 championshipWinners: 2009
Southern German Under 19 championshipWinners: 1950, 1954
Southern German Under 15 championshipWinners: 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991
Under 19 BayernligaWinners: 1950, 1954, 1966, 1972, 1973, 1981, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996Runners-up: 1946, 1960, 1964, 1980, 1999‡
Under 17 BayernligaWinners: 1976, 1978, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2010‡, 2014‡Runners-up: 1982, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1996, 2012‡, 2015‡
Under 15 BayernligaWinners: 1975, 1978, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1995, 2007, 2009Runners-up: 1976, 1977, 1988, 1992, 2008
‡ Reserve team
Honours for players
Top Scorers
World Cup winning players
The following FIFA World Cup winning players played for Bayern Munich at some point during their careers. Highlighted players were playing for Bayern Munich when they won the World Cup.
Hans Bauer (Switzerland 1954) Karl Mai (Switzerland 1954)
Franz Beckenbauer (West Germany 1974)*
Paul Breitner (West Germany 1974) Jupp Heynckes (West Germany 1974)**
Uli Hoeneß (West Germany 1974) Jupp Kapellmann (West Germany 1974) Sepp Maier (West Germany 1974) Gerd Müller (West Germany 1974) Georg Schwarzenbeck (West Germany 1974) Raimond Aumann (Italy 1990) Klaus Augenthaler (Italy 1990) Thomas Berthold (Italy 1990)
Andreas Brehme (Italy 1990)
Jürgen Klinsmann (Italy 1990)
Jürgen Kohler (Italy 1990) Lothar Matthäus (Italy 1990)
Hans Pflügler (Italy 1990) Stefan Reuter (Italy 1990) Olaf Thon (Italy 1990) Jorginho (United States 1994) Paulo Sérgio (United States 1994)
Bixente Lizarazu (France 1998) Lúcio (South Korea–Japan 2002)
Massimo Oddo (Germany 2006)
Luca Toni (Germany 2006)
Xabi Alonso (South Africa 2010)
Javi Martínez (South Africa 2010)
Pepe Reina (South Africa 2010)
Jérôme Boateng (Brazil 2014) Mario Götze (Brazil 2014) Mats Hummels (Brazil 2014)
Miroslav Klose (Brazil 2014)
Toni Kroos (Brazil 2014) Philipp Lahm (Brazil 2014) Thomas Müller (Brazil 2014) Manuel Neuer (Brazil 2014) Lukas Podolski (Brazil 2014)
Bastian Schweinsteiger (Brazil 2014) Corentin Tolisso (Russia 2018)' Benjamin Pavard (Russia 2018)
Lucas Hernandez (Russia 2018)
* Franz Beckenbauer won the World Cup in 1974 as player and in 1990 as a coach. He was also a player and later a coach for Bayern Munich.
** Jupp Heynckes won the World Cup as a player in 1974 and later became the coach of Bayern Munich.
All-time
BundesligaStatistics are accurate as of the end of 2022–23 Bundesliga season.Seasons
Most seasons in Bundesliga: 58 (shared with Werder Bremen)
Most consecutive seasons in Bundesliga: 58 (1965–66 to 2022–23) (ongoing)
Titles
Most Bundesliga titles won: 32
Most consecutive Bundesliga titles won: 11 (2013 to 2023) (ongoing)
Champions
Highest number of games left when becoming champions: 7 (2013–14)
Earliest point of time in a year for a team to be crowned champions: 25 March (2013–14)
Highest number of matchdays being league leaders in a season: 34 (1968–69, 1972–73, 1984–85, 2007–08 and 2012–13)
Most match-days at the first place of the Bundesliga table: 767
Points
Most Bundesliga points: 3,924
Most points in a season: 91 (2012–13)
Most points in a season opening half: 47 (2013–14)
Most points in a season closing half: 49 (2012–13 and 2019–20)
Most points in a season away: 47 (2012–13)
Highest percentage of total possible points in a season: 89.22 (2012–13) (91 points out of a possible 102)
Highest percentage of total possible points in a season opening half: 92.16 (2013–14) (47 points out of a possible 51)
Highest percentage of total possible points in a season closing half: 96.08 (2012–13 and 2019–20) (49 points out of a possible 51)
Biggest lead in points after a season opening half: 11 (45) upon VfL Wolfsburg (34) (2014–15)
Highest points per game average in a season: 2.68 (2012–13)
Most average points per game in the Bundesliga: 2.02 (3,924 points in 1,942 games)
Highest number of points in a calendar year: 93 (2013)
Championship with fewest points under the 3-point rule: 63 (2000–01)
Wins and losses
Most Bundesliga wins: 1,168
Most consecutive wins in the Bundesliga: 19 (matchday 9 to 27 of 2013–14)
Most wins in a single season: 29 (2012–13 and 2013–14)
Most consecutive wins to start a season: 10 (2015–16)
Highest number of wins in a calendar year: 30 (2013)
Highest number of wins in a season opening half: 15 (2013–14 and 2015–16)
Highest number of wins in a season closing half: 16 (2012–13 and 2019–20)
Highest winning percentage: 60.14 (1,168 wins in 1,942 games)
Highest percentage of wins in a season opening half: 88.24 (2013–14 and 2015–16) (15 wins in 17 games)
Highest percentage of wins in a season closing half: 94.12 (2012–13 and 2019–20) (16 wins in 17 games)
Most games won in a club's first Bundesliga season : 20 (1965–66) (shared with RB Leipzig)
Record Bundesliga victory: 11–1 v. Borussia Dortmund (27 November 1971)
Fewest losses in a single season: 1 (1986–87 and 2012–13)
Lowest number of losses in a calendar year: 0 (2013)
Championship with the most losses in a season: 9 (2000–01)
Record Bundesliga defeat: 0–7 v. Schalke 04 (9 October 1976)
Goals
Most Bundesliga goals scored: 4,329
Most goals scored in a single season: 101 (1971–72)
Most goals scored in a single season at home: 69 (1971–72)
Most goals scored in a single season away: 49 (2021–22)
Most goals scored in a season opening half: 56 (2021–22)
Most goals scored in a season closing half: 54 (1971–72, 2012–13 and 2019–20)
Most goals scored in a calendar year: 116 (2021)
Most consecutive games with at least one goal scored: 81 (matchday 22 of 2019–20 to matchday 34 of 2021–22) (ongoing)
Lowest number of conceded goals in a season opening half: 4 (2014–15)
Lowest number of conceded goals in a season closing half: 9 (2015–16)
Fewest goals conceded in a single season: 17 (2015–16)
Best goal difference: +2,215
Best goal difference in a season opening half: +40 (2021–22)
Best goal difference in a season closing half: +44 (2019–20)
Scoring in every game of the season (34 games): (2012–13, 2020–21 and 2021–22)
Highest number of clean sheets in a season: 21 (2012–13)
Runs
Highest number of consecutive seasons in the Bundesliga: 58
Highest number of consecutive titles: 11 (ongoing'')
Highest number of consecutive wins: 19 (matchday 9 to 27 of 2013–14)
Highest number of consecutive wins from start of the season: 10 (2015–16)
Highest number of consecutive wins from start of the season closing half: 14 (2012–13)
Highest number of consecutive wins away: 11 (matchday 12 to 34 of 2019–20)
Highest number of consecutive wins at home: 26 (matchday 16 of 1971–72 to matchday 32 of 1972–73)
Highest number of consecutive wins at home in a season: 16 (matchday 2 to 32 of 1972–73)
Highest number of consecutive games unbeaten from start of the season: 28 (2013–14)
Highest number of consecutive games unbeaten away: 33 (matchday 32 of 2011–12 to matchday 27 of 2013–14)
Highest number of consecutive games unbeaten at home: 73 (matchday 31 of 1969–70 to matchday 4 of 1974–75)
Most consecutive games unbeaten in the Bundesliga: 53 (matchday 10 of 2012–13 season to matchday 28 of 2013–14)
Most consecutive games with at least one goal scored: 86 (matchday 22 of 2019–20 to matchday 6 of 2022–23)
Highest number of consecutive games scoring at least one goal away: 54 (matchday 2 of 2019–20 to matchday 5 of 2022–23)
Highest number of consecutive games scoring at least one goal in a season: 34 (2012–13, 2020–21 and 2021–22)
Per match
As an infamous record, Bayern's match in Dortmund in the 2000–01 season was the most "unfair" match in Bundesliga history with 15 cards shown (10 yellow, 1 yellow-red, 2 red), of those 12 (8, 1, 1) were shown to Bayern players which is also a record in Bundesliga history.
Other national records
Most championships won: 33
Most cups won: 20
Most Supercups won: 10
Most league cups won: 6
Most doubles won: 13
Most Bundesliga matches played: 1,976 (as of the end of the 2022–23 season)
Only club to win a seasonal treble (UEFA Champions League, Bundesliga and DFB-Pokal), in 2012–13 and 2019–20.
Only club to win a domestic double (Bundesliga and DFB-Pokal) twice in a row, three times; in 2004–05 and 2005–06, in 2012–13 and 2013–14, and in 2018–19 and 2019–20.
Only club to win a championship and a cup with both the men's and women's football department.
Record victory: 16–1 vs. DJK Waldberg (15 August 1997; DFB-Pokal)
Bayern Munich's biggest win in a friendly was a 27–0 victory against FC Rottach Egern on 18 July 2023.
Record margin defeat (7 goal)
9:2 vs Stuttgarter Kickers on March 17, 1957
8:1 vs SpVgg Fürth on March 30, 1952
7:0 vs FC Schalke 04 on October 9, 1976
Managerial
Longest-serving manager by time: Udo Lattek, from 14 March 1970 to 2 January 1975 and 1 July 1983 to 30 June 1987 (8 years, 295 days)
Longest-serving manager by matches: Udo Lattek managed the club for 420 matches over a period of eight years and nine months, from 14 March 1970 to 2 January 1975 and 1 July 1983 to 30 June 1987 (8 years, 295 days)
Manager with most trophies: Ottmar Hitzfeld 14 (5x Bundesliga, 3x DFB Cup, 4x League Cup, UEFA Champions League, Intercontinental Cup)
International record
Fastest goal in UEFA Champions League history: After 10.12 seconds by Roy Makaay against Real Madrid on 7 March 2007.
Managed to score at least two goals in each match of the UEFA Champions League group stage on three occasions: 2010–11 group stage (after beating Basel 3–0 in the final game), and 2019–20 group stage (after beating Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 in the final game), and 2021–22 group stage (after beating Barcelona 3–0 in the final game).
Only German club to win all six games in a group stage of the UEFA Champions League: 2019–20, 2021–22 and 2022–23.
Largest aggregate win in the UEFA Champions League knockout phase: 12–1 against Sporting CP (5–0 first leg, 7–1 second leg) in 2008–09.
Largest margin of victory in a single match of the knockout phase in the current UEFA Champions League format: 7–0 (second leg) against Basel in 2011–12, and 7–0 (second leg) against Shakhtar Donetsk in 2014–15.
Largest margin of victory in a quarter-final tie in the UEFA Champions League era: 6–0 (2–0 first leg, 4–0 second leg) against 1. FC Kaiserslautern in 1998–99, and 8–2 (single leg) against Barcelona in 2019–20.
Largest margin of victory in a semi-final tie in the UEFA Champions League era: 7–0 (4–0 first leg, 3–0 second leg) against Barcelona in 2012–13.
Largest margin of victory in a single match of semi-final in the UEFA Champions League era: 4–0 against Barcelona in 2012–13.
Largest margin of victory in a UEFA Champions League final: 4–0 (replay) against Atlético Madrid in 1974.
Most consecutive wins in the UEFA Champions League: 15 (18 September 2019 – 25 November 2020).
Most consecutive home wins in the UEFA Champions League: 16 (17 September 2014 – 15 February 2017).
Most consecutive away wins in the UEFA Champions League: 7 (19 February 2013 – 19 February 2014).
Longest home undefeated run in the UEFA Champions League: 43 matches (17 September 1969 – 6 March 1991).
Longest away undefeated run in the UEFA Champions League: 22 matches (31 October 2017 – 16 February 2022).
Only team to claim any European competition with a 100% winning record.
By individual players
Appearances
Since 1945 (Entrance to Oberliga Süd)
Most appearances in all competitions: Sepp Maier, 700
Most League appearances: Sepp Maier, 537
Most Bundesliga appearances: Sepp Maier, 473
Most Oberliga Süd appearances: Hans Bauer, 259
Most Regionalliga Süd appearances: Rainer Ohlhauser, 71
Most German Cup appearances: Thomas Müller, 64
Most intercontinental appearances: Oliver Kahn, 132
Most European Cup/UEFA Champions League appearances: Thomas Müller, 144 (includes 2 appearances in qualifying)
Most UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League + Inter-Cities Fairs Cup appearances: Klaus Augenthaler, 29
Most UEFA Cup Winners' Cup appearances: Sepp Maier and Gerd Müller, 25 each
Most UEFA Super Cup appearances: Franz Beckenbauer, Bernd Dürnberger, Udo Horsmann, Jupp Kapellmann, Sepp Maier, Karl-Heinz Rummenigge and Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck, 4 each
Most Intercontinental Cup appearances: Björn Andersson, Franz Beckenbauer, Uli Hoeneß, Udo Horsmann, Jupp Kapellmann, Sepp Maier, Gerd Müller, Karl-Heinz Rummenigge, Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck and Conny Torstensson, 2 each
Most FIFA Club World Cup appearances: David Alaba and Manuel Neuer, 4 each
Most German Supercup appearances: Thomas Müller, 12
Youngest first-team player: Jamal Musiala ()
Most consecutive appearances in the Bundesliga: Sepp Maier, 442 (from 1966 to 1979)
Goalscorers
Since 1945 (Entrance to Oberliga Süd)
Most goals in all competitions: Gerd Müller, 563
Most League goals: Gerd Müller, 398
Most Bundesliga goals: Gerd Müller, 365
Most Oberliga Süd goals: Peter Grosser, 65
Most Regionalliga Süd goals: Rainer Ohlhauser, 75
Most German Cup goals: Gerd Müller, 78
Most intercontinental goals: Gerd Müller, 69
Most European Cup/UEFA Champions League goals: Robert Lewandowski, 69
Most European Cup/UEFA Champions League goals in a season: Robert Lewandowski, 15 (during the 2019–20 season)
Most UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League + Inter-Cities Fairs Cup goals: Jürgen Klinsmann, 15
Most UEFA Cup Winners' Cup goals: Gerd Müller, 20
Most UEFA Super Cup goals: Gerd Müller, 3
Most Intercontinental Cup goals: Jupp Kapellmann, Samuel Kuffour and Gerd Müller, 1 each
Most FIFA Club World Cup goals: Robert Lewandowski, 2
Most German Supercup goals: Robert Lewandowski, 6
Most goals in a season: Gerd Müller, 66 (during the 1972–73 season)
Most Bundesliga goals in a season: Robert Lewandowski, 41 (during the 2020–21 season)
Most Bundesliga goals in a calendar year: Robert Lewandowski, 43 (2021)
Most times Bundesliga top scorer: Gerd Müller, 7
Most times German Cup top scorer: Robert Lewandowski, 4
Assists
Most Bundesliga assists: Thomas Müller, 160
Most assists in a Bundesliga season: Thomas Müller, 21 (2019–20)
Highest number of assists in the opening half of a season by a player: Thomas Müller, 13 (2021–22)
Other club statistics
Source:
Notes
: The represent are the AG's earnings and revenues.
: The number represents the club's members.
References
Statistics
Munich |
4354969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan%20Quest | Titan Quest | Titan Quest is a 2006 action role-playing game developed by Iron Lore Entertainment and published by THQ for Windows, first physically and then in 2007 through Steam. A mobile port was developed by DotEmu and published in 2016, and versions for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch were released in 2018. All these versions were published by THQ Nordic. The story follows a player-created protagonist as they navigate Ancient Greece, Egypt and China on a quest to defeat the Titans after they escape from their ancient prison. The gameplay is similar to the Diablo series, with player navigation being handled with a mouse-driven tile-based interface, and gameplay revolving around role-playing mechanics and real-time combat. Four expansions have been created for the game; Titan Quest: Immortal Throne in 2007, and three others between 2017 and 2021.
Titan Quest was envisioned by game designer Brian Sullivan as a role-playing game set in Ancient Greece similar to Age of Mythology. Production began in 2004 after a successful pitch to THQ. The script was written by Randall Wallace, while Sullivan acted as the designer. Despite being in a mythical setting, the team wanted to make the environments and towns feel as realistic as possible, leading to a large amount of research into ancient cultures. Enemies were inspired by the game's regional mythologies, with designs inspired by the stop-motion work of Ray Harryhausen. The music, composed by Scott Morton and Michael Verrette, was created to avoid the looping tracks of other games.
First announced in 2005, Titan Quest received generally positive reviews when released, being both praised as a good example of the genre while at the same time being criticized for its traditional gameplay. Sales of the main game and its expansion have been estimated as approaching one million units. The mobile port was tricky for its developers due to adapting the game for touchscreen controls: like the console version, it received positive reviews upon release. The engine and gameplay of Titan Quest later became the foundation for Grim Dawn, a video game developed by team members from Iron Lore following the studio's closure.
A sequel, titled Titan Quest II, was announced on August 11, 2023.
Gameplay
Titan Quest is an action role-playing game set in the pre-Roman Ancient World: these include Ancient Greece, Egypt, and the Silk Road leading through Asia. Players take control of an avatar: players are able to choose gender, name and tunic color. The three-dimensional world is navigated through an overhead third-person view, with the player character being controlled with the mouse through a point-and-click interface, while abilities are mapped to keyboard buttons. The environment is obscured by a "Fog of War" effect which blacks out unexplored environments on the minimap. Optional text tutorials for gameplay elements are unlocked progressively throughout the game and can be viewed at any time.
As they progress, players gain experience points through defeating enemies and completing quests for non-player characters (NPCs) scattered around environments: these raise a character's experience level, which grant access to fresh skills and points that can be used to upgrade character attributes such as health and energy levels, dexterity, intelligence, or strength. If the player dies, they respawn at rebirth fountains scattered through the world, although they lose some accumulated experience points. Quests are divided into Main Quests related to the central narrative, and side quests unique to particular areas of the world. Other NPCs can be found in towns and cities that act as Merchants selling equipment and items: these can be both bought and sold. Player characters have multiple equipment slots, which can take armor for limbs and torso, weapons or shields, and accessories that grant passive boons.
Fighting takes the form of real-time hack and slash combat, with players attacking randomly-generated enemies highlighted by the mouse. Available weapon types for characters include swords, clubs, axes, and staves. In addition to the standard attack with an assigned weapon, offensive skills can be deployed. Using active skills triggers a cooldown meter, rendering that skill unusable until the meter depletes. Items and equipment can also be looted from fallen enemies and chests scattered through environments: these range in quality, with grey standing for low-quality gear while purple stands for a "Legendary" item, and orange denotes a Relic or Charm which can be equipped to the player to increase an attribute such as elemental damage resistance. The majority of items and equipment are randomly generated, and are associated with particular types of enemies. The world's currency, Gold, can be gained through quest completion, opening chests and defeating certain enemies. Gold is used with the various shop NPCs in exchange for their services.
After leveling up for the first time, the player can access Masteries, skill tree-based upgrade systems where skill points unlocked upon leveling up can be used to access and boost different skills. Mastery abilities expend energy, which is replenished over time when skills are not in use or by using energy drinks. There are eight available Masteries to choose from (Defence, Warfare, Hunting, Rogue, Earth, Storm, Nature and Spirit). Players can access two Masteries at any one time, mixing skills from both trees. The combination of different Masteries create different character classes: for instance, combining Nature and Earth Masteries grants players the "Summoner" class, while Defense and Warfare Masteries create the "Conqueror". There are 36 possible Classes, which include pure disciplines within one Mastery and hybrids between different Masteries. After a certain point in the game, the player has access to Mystics, NPCs which can reallocate skill points for a fee.
In addition to single-player, the title features cooperative multiplayer, where players can accept invitation from up to six other players to join their game session through either LAN or online connection. Alongside being able to fight enemies together, players can swap messages and exchange loot. There is also a Level Editor available, where players can access developer tools and create their own levels which can be shared with other players. The editor features a large number of options for environment customization, including adjusting the shade of environmental elements like roads.
Synopsis
Titan Quest begins with a narration, detailing how the Titans once ruled the primordial darkness before the light of the Olympian Gods appeared: after a great war, the Titans were exiled and imprisoned, and the Olympians ushered in a golden age. An unknown time later, a trio of lesser Titans known as Telkines broke the conduit linking Olympus with the mortal world, and summoned armies of monsters to prepare for the release of the Titans. The player character begins their quest at the village of Helos, where beasts are destroying the local crops. Fighting their way through Greece, they learn of Telkines from a group called the Order of Prometheus. After defeating the first Telkine beneath the palace of Knossos, the player travels to Egypt and attempts to restore the connection between Earth and Olympus. The ritual fails, and they must defeat a second Telkine. The player then pursues the final Telkine along the Silk Road to China. Pursuing the Telkine to the Wusou Mountains, the player is too late to prevent the release of the Titan Typhon, who travels to Olympus to destroy the gods. After the player defeats Typhon, Zeus declares that humanity has proven itself able to live without the protection of Olympus.
Multiple expansion packs detail further adventures undertaken by the player character. In Immortal Throne, the player descends into the Underworld to confront the source of an outbreak of monster attacks. In Ragnarök, the player travels to the Norse realms, allying with the inhabitants of Asgard against an invasion by the Jotunn and the schemes of the treacherous Loki. In Atlantis, the player is called by Poseidon to help against attacks coming from the corrupted city of Atlantis. In Eternal Embers, the player travels to China and must deal with the ten sun spirits, who seek to avert their prophesied destruction and begin attacking mortals.
Development
Titan Quest was the brainchild of game designer Brian Sullivan: while he was working on Age of Empires, which sported a Grecian setting, he came up with the concept of creating a similar game while including the region's mythology. The concept work for Titan Quest began in 2000, when its developer Iron Lore Entertainment was formed by Sullivan and Paul Chieffo. The two brought together a skeleton team to create a demo with which to find a publisher. During this time, the game was described by producer Jeff Goodsill as being "on the drawing board". The creative leads on the project were Sullivan, Chieffo, programmer Max McGuire, and artists Rich Sullivan and Josh McHugh. According to Sullivan, the pre-production process lasted over a year. Iron Lore's January 2004 pitch to THQ was successful, and development began once they had secured a contract in 2004. The initial staff up to that time was just nine people working in a small office area: when production started and further staff were hired, the team size grew to 38, which included temporary and late development additions. Sullivan was involved in multiple areas of the development, but his main responsibility was game design and overseeing content creation. Titan Quest was aimed at both casual and hardcore gamers, as the necessary prices for games necessitated reaching out to a wide audience to get a profit. For this reason, the team chose the action role-playing genre. Developing the game was made more difficult by the necessity to create Iron Lore around it, recruiting and training new staff. Other studios were also involved with development. Towards the end of development, Demiurge Studios was brought in to help with the final stages during the alpha-beta-ship stages. Demiurge first helped with memory optimization; then worked on the level editor and modification functions so they worked as an independent function; and finally created installers for both the demo and the main game. Demiurge's involvement gave Iron Lore more time and energy to devote to fixing bugs and polishing gameplay. The CGI opening cinematic was created by Blur Studio.
According to designer Ben Schneider, the basic story was built around the recurring motif in multiple mythologies where a younger generation of deities defeat older primal beings, with the main premise being that victory being overturned. They stayed within their mythological subject matter rather than straying into historical events: this was due to an incident during the release of Age of Empires where the developers needed to cut a scenario showing Korean people coming under attack from invading Japanese due to potential political and popular backlash in both countries. The game's story and script were written by Randall Wallace, a screenwriter who had written recent successful films Braveheart and Pearl Harbor. Titan Quest was his first time writing for a video game. Together with Iron Lore staff, Wallace created a story where humans and the Olympians faced both the Titans and the mythical beasts allied with them that had retreated to the forgotten parts of the world. According to Wallace, Iron Lore wanted story to be a priority in contrast to most other video games, with the player experience focusing on growing their character and learning the world's lore from NPCs. Speaking about his experience writing for the game compared to his work on films, he needed to work within more rigid guidelines and the need to make the story fit in with the gameplay and content. This meant that some scenarios needed to be cut either due to budget limitations or some sequences working so well that they were extended. A major change from his writing for films was that it was the side characters rather than the main character that drove the story forward, so he needed to make them entertaining and important to furthering the plot. The team wanted a world with a scope beyond the main story, with material covering all of its locations. They also included NPC storytellers that would relate local legends and myths to the player in a similar way to storytellers of the time. Later, lead gameplay designer Arthur Bruno faulted the presentation as unappealing compared to the version of Greek mythology portrayed by God of War series, saying that the original atmosphere "was seriously lacking a sense of dread and mystery".
Design
The game's art director was Michael Sheidow, who had done concept work for Dungeons & Dragons Online before joining Iron Lore. Initially hired as lead artist, Sheidow was at the time feeling "burnt out" by the design approaches used for Dungeons & Dragons Online. He became art director after the then-current art director proved inadequate for the job, and after the initial shock, set to work managing the general artwork for the title. He was in charge of a 12-strong artistic team, and they needed to create a cohesive experience without a clear narrative to guide them. They also needed to account for the four months "wasted" time under the previous art director. A large amount of research went into what environments, architecture and other elements could be put into each environment so it fit in with the game's setting. Sheidow personally did several helmet designs for the game, all based on surviving examples of early-Bronze Age helmets, along with added elements from other ancient helmet types. He created a broad range of helmet shapes which could be then adjusted with different materials to create high variation. The majority of weapon design was handled by Joe Mirabello, who claimed to have created nearly 1000 different weapons split between six types.
Enemy creatures were taken from the various mythologies the team drew from, and their designs inspired by the stop-motion work of Ray Harryhausen. Sheidow valued the chance of working with mystical creatures, as his previous work had been limited to stock fantasy monsters from the Dungeons & Dragons universe. According to him, the process started when the chosen enemy monsters were given initial designs by lead concept artist Rich Sullivan. Each design was reviewed, and the most suitable was chosen. Creature designs needed to incorporate design choices from the game, such as the monsters' environments and individual fighting styles. They also needed to consider how much detail to put into character models depending on their relative position to the camera at any given time. When it reached the modelling stage, the monster designs were further refined to work within the restrictions of the game, then it was sent to the art time again for final adjustments and mapping of unique animations. The particle effects were handled by Travis Doggett: one of the more prominent pieces of his work were the mastery skills, which had particular themes related to their abilities. According to animator Brian Labore, model animation proved a taxing task, as there were over eighty different monsters which ranged from typical mythical beings to more exotic and unique enemies from each region. The player character also had "hundreds" of animations to incorporate.
The game used a specially-developed proprietary engine developed by Iron Lore staff. This was done as, when development started, no third-party engines existed that could support the team's vision for the game: in Sullivan's words, there were "plenty of technology solutions for someone creating a shooter, but not as much for a role-playing game". One of the key parts of the new engine was an environmental creation tool dubbed "the editor" by staff. This tool combined a tile-based horizontal plain with a height-based map, and allowed for subtle adjustments to environments and terrain with easy-to-use developer tools. Level and plain boundaries were set using cliffs and plateaus within the environment. Objects such as chests and enemies could be then "dropped" into environments using a point-and-click system, some of which could be directly integrated using special "tile" elements which stitched into the wider environment for objects such as bridges and crags. All of this necessitated a large amount of research on multiple subjects, including the flora of Egypt and the appearance of Ancient Greek roads and paths. This development tool was the version released with the retail version so players could create and share their own levels. Level and map creation was handled by a three-person team, with each one needing to agree upon a specific layout and design before it went into full production. While early builds used a high amount of detail along level boundaries, the team switched to simple boundary designs as they "read better" for players and allowed better technical performance. The challenge the content creation team set themselves was creating these areas while making boundaries seem natural. This combination of height and grid-based navigation and environments had not been done when the system was being designed in 2002: most of the map was shaped using the height map, while specialist features and horizontal navigation used the grid. In a preview about the game, the developers said the game was built around "database driven modular proxies", a system where different elements within environments were seamlessly interacted and could interact freely. The artificial intelligence (AI) was designed so individual units would behave differently depending on situation and combat ability. The pathfinding for AI units such as NPCs and enemy units was handled using the PathEngine, a licensed middleware engine dedicated to this task. Titan Quest was one of the first major Western titles to use PathEngine.
Gameplay was compared frequently to Blizzard's Diablo series. According to Sullivan, the comparison was inevitable as Diablo helped define the genre, and was emphasized by the lack of action RPGs at the time. While the core gameplay remained traditional, they attempted to innovate in other areas. Character creation was simplified to simply choosing a name and gender rather than character types being tied to classes or chosen proficiency. They also effectively removed tutorials so players could get straight into gameplay, using games like Neverwinter Nights as an example of tutorials impeding players during early stages. When creating the skill system, the team looked at earlier successful RPGs and considered how they could improve on them. They also wanted to avoid creating characters who had "a little of everything" while offering replayability. The result was the creation of the themed masteries, with the added element of skill acquisition not being tied to level progression, allowing for players to bank skill points for different purposes. This system was built to encourage player freedom and represent logical character progression rather than tying one character to one class. Spawn points for enemies were governed by a random generation system, of what monsters are spawned depending on both environment and player level. Loot was controlled by a database system which mixed and matched characteristics to produce "over 100,000" item combinations. Loot drops were also made to fit the types of creatures killed, in contrast to other games such as World of Warcraft which had animals dropping currency and weapons regardless. Loot types were also designed to be clearly visible on enemies so players could pick and choose which enemies to engage and which defeated enemy to loot. According to Bruno, the team were limited with the amount of impact and realism they could put into combat by the necessity of keeping the game within its prescribed ESRB age ratings of "E for Everyone" and "T for Teens": this meant that blood was non-existent and hit reactions were minimal, negatively affecting player impressions of the game. Multiplayer was part of the game plan from its beginnings, with the main goal being to foster a community around the game. Bruno later faulted the lack of secure multiplayer as one of the major faults with the game: THQ apparently was unwilling to invest in this.
Audio
The music and sound design for Titan Quest was handled by Scott Morton and Mike Verrette. In his role as sound designer, Morton worked from specifications sent by other parts of the Titan Quest development team. This enabled the free modification of sound elements, but also meant that unexpected and large work loads with short deadlines were a constant possibility. The sound design process for each object and character that needed sound effects was the same: based on their appearance, a new sound effect would be created. In the case of monsters, different sound effects were created for different scenarios, such as them seeing the player for the first time or when in battle. The sounds within environments were designed to be "real" and "visceral". The game's audio engine enabled these sound effects to be dynamically shifted depending on their setting.
The music was challenging due to drawing from multiple cultures, then being brought together into a cohesive score while keeping each region distinct from the other. To get the right feeling, the team did research into the historical musical instruments used in each of the game's regions. Rather than a linear progression of looping musical tracks, the norm for most games at the time, the score was broken up into stingers that were brought into the environment when needed. This cuing of themed musical pieces was coupled with a second system tied to environmental progression: musical pieces were arranged in the playlist, then could be cued in depending on the circumstances and environment on-screen. For vocal tracks, the lyrics were written in Ancient Greek: the main vocal piece, "When Gods Fall", was infused into the other vocal tracks and acted as a "cornerstone" for the score. The vocals were provided by Taunia Soderquist.
Release
Titan Quest was first announced in May 2005, with its first public exhibition being at that year's Electronic Entertainment Expo. The game released for Windows on June 26, 2006 in North America, and June 30, 2006 in Europe. According to Bruno, when originally shipped, the ESRB raised the game's rating to "M for Mature" due to the scantily-clad Nymph familiar, although the rating was later amended to its current one. In Japan, the game released on September 1, 2006: it released in English with the manual translated into Japanese. The game was released on Steam on July 17, 2007 alongside its expansion by THQ. An updated version, subtitled Gold Edition, was released on October 22, 2007 in the West and April 25, 2008 in Japan. It contained both the main game and its first expansion.
Titan Quest would be one of only three projects Iron Lore worked on in its lifetime, and the only original project alongside Immortal Throne: after completing work on Soulstorm, an expansion to Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War, the studio was forced to close in February 2008 due to difficulties in securing any funding for future projects. Some of team founded a new studio called Crate Entertainment and licensed the Titan Quest engine to develop Grim Dawn, dubbed by staff as a spiritual successor to Titan Quest. The Titan Quest intellectual property was purchased by Nordic Games (later THQ Nordic) after THQ began selling off its shares in the wake of its 2013 bankruptcy. Beginning in 2016, Nordic Games began supporting the game's Steam version with patches to fix gameplay and multiplayer issues, along with glitches and bugs. An overhauled version of the game, subtitled Anniversary Edition, was released on August 31, 2016. Compiling all updates and expansions up to that point, it was offered as a free upgrade for players who already owned Steam versions of the game.
Later versions
A port of Titan Quest for mobile devices was developed under license from Nordic Games by DotEmu, a French developer who had previously developed a successful mobile port of Ys Chronicles I. The controls and interface were redesigned from the ground up to work for touchscreen controls, something the team spent months on. Despite the changes, the team worked to make the gameplay as close as possible to the original experience. They also put in additional options for actions such as targeting enemies with mastery abilities and searching for loot It released on May 19, 2016 for iOS. The Android version was released on July 7. Following the game's release, Dotemu handled the project to THQ Nordic, who re-published the game in 2018. It was released a third time that same year under new developer HandyGames as Titan Quest HD. An updated version subtitled Legendary Edition releasing on January 12, 2021, which included all DLC and expansion packs up to that point. Titan Quest was later ported onto PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch in 2018. The PS4 and Xbox One version were released on March 20, while the Switch version was released on July 31. These console versions were created by Black Forest Games.
Expansions
Development on an expansion pack began shortly after the release of Titan Quest, with preparatory work happening during the final stages of the main game's development. The expansion, Titan Quest: Immortal Throne, was first announced in late 2006 and eventually released in March 2007. Over eleven years later, a second expansion was released. Titled Titan Quest: Ragnarök, it was released on November 17, 2017 exclusively for the Anniversary Edition. A third expansion subtitled Atlantis was released in May 2019. It included new challenge modes and an in-game casino. PS4 and Xbox One versions of both expansions were released in March 2020. Both Ragnarök and Atlantis were developed by Pieces Interactive. A fourth expansion, Eternal Embers, released in December 2021. Eternal Embers was developed by Digital Arrow.
Reception
On its release in the US, Titan Quest debuted at #3 in the dedicated PC game charts. In the UK, the game debuted at #25 in the multi-platform charts. In a later interview, Bruno stated that the title had sold "surprisingly well" despite a slow start, with combined sales for Titan Quest and Immortal Throne reaching over one million units by late 2008. It also continued to sell well on Steam, though exact figures were not given.
Titan Quest received positive reviews upon release: aggregate site Metacritic recorded a score of 77/100 based on 51 critic reviews. Eric Neigher of 1UP.com enjoyed Titan Quest while noting that it stayed within genre traditions: he rounded off his review by saying "While it may not break, or even dent, any new ground, Titan Quest features a beautifully realized game world based on a tried-and-true core mechanic, with tons of replayability". Jim Rossignol of Eurogamer said that, while it stood high among its contemporary peers, Titan Quest did not evolve the genre enough for him to really enjoy it. GameSpy's Miguel Lopez praised the visuals, gameplay, character customization and editing tools. His main criticisms were performance difficulties and the large potential for cheating in multiplayer. GameSpot's Ryan Davis called it "the next-best thing" to a new Diablo title, praising its single-player campaign and multiplayer while faulting its familiar feel, inventory system and recurring technical issues.
IGN's Tom McNamara generally praised the gameplay despite some awkward elements, called the sound design "well done", and positively noted its graphics despite some technical troubles. He also cited the multiplayer as the main part of the game's replay value, as it was otherwise fairly linear in design. PALGN reviewer Mark Marrow called Titan Quest "one of the best PC games on the market for the year", saying it revitalized its genre despite some minor issues with gameplay and presentation. PC Zones Sam Kieldsen praised the gameplay and leveling system, along with its graphics and soundtrack. His main criticisms were its low difficulty, repetitive structure and weak storyline. VideoGamer.com's Tom Orry said the game "doesn't really do anything new", but praised its presentation and noted that it was more accessible than others within the genre. In his review of the mobile port, Shaun Musgrave of Touch Arcade shared many points of praise with earlier reviewers, along with calling it a good port despite some minor issues such as framerate drops. Gamezebo's Rob Rich praised the gameplay elements carried over from the original, and positively noted its graphical detail despite persistent framerate drops. His main complaints were the inventory system, and problems with contextual commands such as picking up items.
Sequel
On August 11, 2023, it was announced that a sequel, titled Titan Quest II, was in development.
References
Notes
External links
Titan Quest website (archived 2007)
2006 video games
Action role-playing video games
Black Forest games
Cooperative video games
Hack and slash role-playing games
Video games with expansion packs
Windows games
IOS games
THQ games
THQ Nordic games
Android (operating system) games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 4 games
Xbox One games
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Video games set in antiquity
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games set in ancient China
Video games set in ancient Greece
Video games set in Egypt
Video games set in Europe
Video games set in India
Video games set in Iraq
Video games based on Buddhist mythology
Video games based on Chinese mythology
Video games based on Egyptian mythology
Video games based on Greek mythology
Video games based on Norse mythology
Video games based on multiple mythologies
Video games developed in the United States
HandyGames games
Demiurge Studios games
Dotemu games |
4355398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etsy | Etsy | Etsy, Inc. is an American e-commerce company focused on handmade or vintage items and craft supplies. These items fall under a wide range of categories, including jewelry, bags, clothing, home décor and furniture, toys, art, as well as craft supplies and tools. Items described as vintage must be at least 20 years old. The site follows in the tradition of open craft fairs, giving sellers personal storefronts where they list their goods for a fee of US$0.20 per item. Beginning in 2013, Etsy allowed sellers to sell mass-manufactured items.
, Etsy had over 100 million items in its marketplace, and the online marketplace for handmade and vintage goods connected 7.5 million sellers with 95.1 million buyers. At the end of 2022, Etsy had 2,790 employees. In 2022, Etsy had total sales, or gross merchandise sales (GMS), of US$13.3 billion on the platform. In 2022, Etsy garnered a revenue of US$2.6 billion and registered a net loss of US$694 million. The platform generates revenue primarily from three streams: its Marketplace revenue, which includes a fee of 6.5% of the final sale value, a listing fee of 20 cents per item, and Seller Services, which includes fees for services such as "Promoted Listings", payment processing, and purchases of shipping labels through the platform. Other revenue includes fees received from third-party payment processors.
General
Selling
Creating a shop on Etsy requires creating and posting at least one listing in the shop, which costs $0.20. Each listing will remain on the shop's page for a maximum of 4 months, or until someone buys the product. The prices of products are set by the shop owner, but Etsy claims 6.5% of the final sale price of the listing and 6.5% of the postal fee. Shop owners are sent a bill at the end of every month detailing the fees Etsy has charged them, and they have until the 15th of the following month to pay the fees. Sellers can choose which payment options to offer buyers, including credit cards, debit cards, and PayPal, among others.
Buying
On the Etsy homepage, potential buyers can type a "product description" into the search bar, or they can "browse" through a list of options, which includes Art, Home & Living, Jewelry, Women, Men, Kids, Vintage, Weddings, Craft Supplies, Trending Items, Gift Ideas, Mobile Accessories, and more. Furthermore, buyers may choose from a list of categories by clicking on the "categories" link under "More Ways to Shop". This will bring the user to a page of over 30 categories, each containing subcategories.
When a buyer views a product, they can choose to view the positive feedback of each seller to determine the reliability of the shop. Once a buyer finds a product they would like to buy, they click "Add to Cart", and that product is added to their virtual "Shopping Cart". The buyer may then either continue shopping or purchase the selected item. In order to purchase items, buyers do not have to have an account with Etsy and can instead register with Facebook, Google account, Apple ID, or email.
Etsy has received criticism for its handling of customer data and privacy. , the "Privacy Policy" section on the website reads: "By using Etsy, you authorise Etsy to use your information in the United States, Ireland and any other country where Etsy operates".
Operations
Etsy is popular as a side-business, as well as a place to buy goods made from recycled and upcycled materials, along with less expensive or more unusual versions of mass-produced items. The unique nature of many of the items for sale is part of their appeal to some shoppers. Product photos on Etsy tend to be editorial or artistic instead of commercial catalog style. Sellers can add 13 tags to their products to help buyers find them, and buyers can choose to search for items available locally. Etsy staffers publish lists of featured items.
Most sellers are women, who tend to be college-educated and in their twenties and thirties. Individual Etsy sellers decide which payment options to offer buyers; these options may include credit card, cheque, money order, PayPal, bank transfer, and Etsy gift card.
Etsy sellers range from hobbyists to professional artists who use the site to make a living. According to artists who have developed their Etsy stores into their primary jobs, scaling up production of handmade items can require more than full-time work, especially during the holiday shopping season.
Etsy's main office is in Dumbo, Brooklyn, and it has hosted open crafting classes in the "Etsy Labs". The site's technology, customer support, marketing, PR, business, and communications teams operate out of this office. Etsy Labs has a workspace that provides equipment and donated materials, where members gather to make items, take and teach workshops, and attend special events. Etsy also has an office in Berlin. In April 2012 Etsy announced that it was taking steps to hire more women engineers to improve the gender balance of its team, as a website with majority women users but few women engineers. By 2019, 30 percent of Etsy's engineers identified as "women or non-binary", and over 30 percent were people of color.
Etsy was one of the main members of the Handmade Consortium, a 2007 effort to encourage buying handmade holiday gifts. Etsy has partnered with the retail chain West Elm to sell some Etsy products in its stores. In December 2012, Etsy opened a temporary holiday storefront in SoHo, New York City. In 2019 the UK's first Etsy store was opened in Didcot, Oxfordshire. The store features over 50 local makers & small businesses and an eco refill station, selling packaging free groceries including dry foods, toiletries, and cleaning products.
History
2005–2014
The site was launched in 2005 by iospace, a small company composed of Robert Kalin, Chris Maguire, and Haim Schoppik. The initial version had taken two and a half months to build. Later Jared Tarbell joined the team. Former NPR executive Maria Thomas joined as COO in 2008, was promoted to CEO and left Etsy in December 2009. Robert Kalin resumed his role as CEO from December 2009 until July 2011. Investors include Sean Meenan, Albert Wenger, Spencer and Judson Ain, Union Square Ventures, and founders of Flickr and Delicious.
Kalin explained why he named the site Etsy in a 2010 interview with Reader's Digest, saying, "I wanted a nonsense word because I wanted to build the brand from scratch. I was watching Fellini's 8 ½ and writing down what I was hearing. In Italian, you say etsi a lot. It means 'oh, yes' (actually it's "eh, si"). And in Latin and French, it means 'what if'." In Greek, Etsy means "just because".
In Etsy's first year, it attracted attention for frequently adding new tools and functionality to the site to help sellers gain exposure and traffic, including Adobe Flash-based visualizations and a taxonomy of categories with tags. Etsy passed $1.7 million in sales in May 2007. On July 29, Etsy had its one-millionth sale and anticipated its two-millionth sale would occur mid-December 2007. In November 2007, buyers spent $4.3 million purchasing 300,000 items for sale on Etsy, an increase of 43 percent from October 2007. In June 2007, it expected to be profitable by the fall, but in December 2007 it was not a profitable company. In January 2008, Etsy received an additional $27 million in funding from Union Square Ventures, Hubert Burda Media, and Jim Breyer.
In February 2008, trouble at eBay, including a strike by some dissatisfied sellers, brought speculation that Etsy could be an increasing competitor. At the same time, however, some Etsy sellers expressed discontentment with how Etsy was handling complaints about stores. At the time, a comparison of the two websites included complaints that on Etsy, items are difficult to find, the interface "feels slow", and the buying and selling process is United States-centric. Other reviewers enjoyed using Etsy's specialized search options, including the "Shop Local" tool.
In July 2008, Rob Kalin ceded the position of CEO to Maria Thomas. Some longtime Etsy employees left the company in August 2008, including founders Haim Schoppik and Chris Maguire. In September 2008, Etsy hired Chad Dickerson, who formerly worked at Yahoo!, as Chief Technology Officer. The company acknowledged concerns about vendors selling other people's work as their own.
In April 2009, users organized an "etsyday" promotion on Twitter that brought extra attention to the site. As of May 2009, it had approximately 60 employees and sales of $10 to 13 million per month, possibly boosted by consumer interest in cheaper and more personalized goods due to the United States recession.
In March 2010, Kalin said that the company is profitable and "plans to go public, though not until at least next year". Financial statements required to be filed by Etsy in order to go public show that due to reinvestment of annually increasing gross profits in marketing, product development, and management, the company has not reported a net profit as of 2015.
In December 2010, Etsy said it had seven million registered users, and that it would continue to focus on a personal community feel as it grows larger, as that is part of what distinguishes it from eBay.
In March 2011, Etsy "introduced a Facebook-style social networking system called People Search...to help buyers and sellers connect with each other and become friends". By doing so, Etsy made any past purchase with feedback easily searchable, which caused many complaints. Etsy then made changes to the site to better guard information regarding users' purchases.
In July 2011, Chad Dickerson, CTO since September 2008, became CEO, upon the firing of Rob Kalin. Later CTOs were Kellan Elliot-McCrea and John Allspaw.
In April 2012, a newspaper article about Etsy covered its fraud detection efforts; Etsy had been criticized in the past for inconsistently applying its rules about items having to be handmade. Later in April 2012, the writer of Regretsy, a popular blog, did independent research into a specific featured vendor, Ecologica Malibu, and found evidence to accuse the vendor of being a reseller, which would be against the Etsy Terms of Service. The vendor asserted that it was in line with the Terms of Service, stating that the shop had simply failed to identify itself as a "collective" that included the work of several individuals, and many Etsy community members posted on the Etsy forum expressing unhappiness with the action (or lack of action) taken by Etsy. As of June 2012, the vendor's account is no longer active on Etsy.
In May 2012, Etsy raised $40 million in Series F funding, and announced the company had become a B Corp. This B Lab certification lapsed in 2017. Etsy's 2012 funds went towards expanding Etsy in international markets, including France, Germany, and Australia.
On October 1, 2013, Dickerson held an online Town Hall Meeting to announce that Etsy would now permit factory-made goods and drop shipping, provided the seller either designed or hired designers of the items, disclosed to Etsy their factory, disclosed that they used factories and took "ownership" of the process. In that meeting and afterward, Etsy claimed the meaning of the word "handmade" should be redefined to encompass factory made.
In June 2014, Etsy purchased A Little Market, a French e-commerce site for handmade goods, foods, and wine, for a mix of cash and stock valued at less than $100 million. At the time the acquisition was the company's largest.
2015: IPO and investor lawsuit
On March 3, 2015, Etsy announced that it had filed for a $100 million IPO. As of 2015, Etsy generated transactions worth US$1.93 billion on its platform, which has 54 million members. Etsy went public on April 16, 2015, selling 13.3 million shares, while other stockholders including venture capital firms such as Accel and Acton Capital Partners were selling the rest. The company's valuation was $1.8 billion and raised $237 million in IPO proceeds. Less than a month later, Etsy stock dropped more than 8%. The stock closed at $30 on its first day of trading on April 16 and dropped down to $20.32 as of May 11.
Shortly after the IPO in 2015, a group of investors filed a class action lawsuit against Etsy claiming fraud. The suit claimed that Etsy's CEO and officers failed to disclose numerous problems with the site which could affect the stock price, among them that "more than 5 percent of all merchandise for sale on Etsy’s website may be either counterfeit or constitute trademark or copyright infringement" and that "brands are increasingly pursuing sellers on Etsy for trademark or copyright infringement, jeopardizing listing fees and commissions". The suit also claimed that Etsy management knew of the rampant trademark and copyright infringement but did little to stop it, and in fact worked to hide this information from potential investors.
2016–present
In November 2016, Etsy disclosed that it paid US$32.5 million to purchase Blackbird Technologies, a startup that developed AI software used for shopping context/search applications. After experiencing a first-quarter loss in May 2017, Etsy replaced its chief executive and cut 8% of its workforce. In May 2017, Board member Josh Silverman was appointed CEO over Chad Dickerson, citing pressure from shareholders and poor profits.
In July 2019, Etsy acquired the music based marketplace Reverb for $275 million.
In April 2020, Etsy issues a call to all sellers on the site to start making cloth face masks to combat COVID-19. Masks accounted for around 11% of gross-merchandise sales in the third quarter, selling roughly 24 million. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, shares in Etsy more than quadrupled, with the company's forward multiple going up around 90 times what analysts had expected from forward earning. Equity analyst at D.A. Davidson Tom Forte stated the pandemic gave customers incentive to return to the website multiple times, rather than the usual occasional purchase of a unique product.
On June 2, 2021, Etsy announced that it had agreed to acquire shopping app Depop, the global fashion resell marketplace for $1.63 billion.
In most locations where Etsy Payments is not available, new shops are unable to on board to Etsy. As of April 26, 2021, most sellers opening new shops on Etsy are required to on board with Etsy Payments, which brings limitations on creating new shops in some countries.
In June 2022, Etsy announced the August launch of a purchase protection program for buyers and sellers. The company stated that an item that arrives damaged, does not arrive or does not match a description, will be refunded in full for the buyer. Etsy also reported it would invest $25 million to cover the refunds for cases where the seller is not at fault for item damage or loss.
In July 2023, Etsy began actioning what it calls its "reserve system" which puts 75% of sellers earnings on hold for 45 days.
Ethos
In an interview in August 2013, CEO Chad Dickerson emphasized the importance of human interaction. Dickerson described the website as "a platform that provides meaning to people, and an opportunity to validate their art, their craft", and after spending time with Etsy users, Dickerson learned that "all commerce is about real human interaction". Dickerson also provided a summation of Etsy that is a further reflection of the company's relationship- and meaning-based ethos: "At the end of every transaction, you get something real from a real person. There is an existential satisfaction to that."
Climate Impact
In 2008, Etsy received a B Corporation certification but later lost it in 2017. This certification was a recognition of the company abiding by transparent and accountable practices, which includes environmental practices. The environmental impact from depends greatly on the individual seller usage of wholesale retailer and large manufacturers. In Etsy's Supplier Code of Conduct, it states that sellers are obligated to follow environmental laws and regulations and that sellers must conduct business in a sustainable and responsible manner. Etsy's 2020 Climate Change Response outlines the company's annual plan for climate related issues and how it achieves the motto of "keep commerce human". In 2019, the board that oversees climate change at Etsy made a goal of becoming a carbon neutral company in 2020. To achieve this, Etsy is offering eco-friendly packaging to its sellers through a partnership with EcoEnclose. This provides sellers with the option to use certified 100% recycled packaging. Buyers are also given a carbon offsetting option when selecting shipping. Etsy, partnered with multiple companies including Apple, pledged to purchase 165 Megawatts of solar energy through Spotsylvania. By 2025, Etsy's goal is to reduce energy intensity by 25%.
Competitors
As of March 2016, Etsy's top three competitors according to Hoovers Online are Amazon Handmade, Craigslist, and eBay. Etsy has been compared to "a crafty cross between Amazon and eBay", and to "your grandma's basement". Etsy also has a number of direct competitors. DaWanda, based in Germany, closed in August 2018, Druzza is a global competitor, Bonanza (formerly Bonanzle and 1000 Markets) is based in the United States and focuses on clothing and fashion, Zibbet and Made It which are based in Australia, iCraft is based in Canada, Artfire is based in the United States, and Moksi is an online craft marketplace targeted at South Africans, and offers unique African-made handcrafted goods and art. Tindie is based in Portland, Oregon, and focuses on technology and electronics. Apple Creek Lane, a Canadian-based online marketplace that focuses on health, fitness & wellness products. ArtYah, based in California, United States brought together sellers and consumers of handmade items, vintage and some craft supplies prior to closing in December, 2019.
Asked about competitors, Etsy's European CEO said, "As far as I am concerned, the more people highlighting the value of supporting micro-producers and buying handmade and vintage directly from them, the better."
Seller issues
Privacy
In 2011, in an effort to add social networking features to Etsy, the company implemented features that allowed users to search other users' buying histories and to trace their purchasing transactions. Etsy thought this feature would allow Etsy users to connect to individuals with similar buying and/or selling histories and an automatic opt-in was applied to all users without the attainment of prior permission. Users of the service raised concerns over the feature's violation of privacy rights, but an official response was not released by the company.
Production outsourcing
On October 1, 2013, Etsy changed its policy to allow sellers to outsource production to third parties and factories and to use shipping or fulfillment services. The new rules allow products to be labeled "handmade" as long as the original idea for that item—or its "authorship", as the then CEO, Dickerson, said—comes from its respective seller. Further, the policy changes allow Etsy businesses to hire as many employees as they deem necessary (including workers in different locations) and allow sellers to ship orders via third-party couriers rather than the post office.
The move has prompted at least one Etsy competitor to distinguish itself by committing never to sell manufactured items.
In September 2015, Etsy made further changes to its manufacturing policy with the launch of Etsy Manufacturing, a marketplace allowing sellers to connect with outside manufacturers to fabricate their products. Manufacturers must be reviewed and approved by Etsy to ensure they adhere to certain criteria, although Etsy will not conduct visits or in-person inspections. Sellers must apply and be approved to work with any partners listed on Etsy Manufacturing and are required to disclose their use of outside manufacturers on their pages.
Advertising requirements
In February 2020, Etsy announced a new "risk free" product advertising program, replacing an existing system allowing sellers to purchase ads on platforms such as Google Shopping from within Etsy. The company will automatically purchase advertising for products on "high-traffic" websites, with sales generated by these leads subject to a 15% cut of revenue from the total of the order. Etsy expected at least "1 in 10" leads to come from these ads. All sellers will be automatically opted into this program, but sellers with an annual revenue of $10,000 or higher (which will be subject to a 12% cut instead) are required to participate and may not opt out. The system has faced criticism from sellers, who have characterized the new system as a means for the company to further siphon revenue from its sellers.
Permanence of reviews
Etsy reviews are permanent, and Etsy does not fact-check reviews. Many sellers have complained about false or misleading statements in reviews.
Effects of banking sanctions
On 10 March 2022, due to banking sanctions, Etsy blocked accounts of all Russian customers including those living abroad and delisted all their goods, with the message of "Expanding business restrictions in the sellers' region".
Fake ‘handmade’ products
In April 2023 the UK Consumers' Association found that some items for sale on Etsy were also for sale at large retailers, including Amazon, Asda and the discount chain B&M, for much lower prices. In a sample of 192 products 23 were found to be available on other online platforms or retailers. Rocio Concha, director of policy and advocacy said, "Our research shows some Etsy sellers are brazenly ripping off customers by making misleading claims about their products".
Etsy treatment of sellers
In 2022, Etsy faced protests from sellers after raising transaction fees from 5% to 6.5%. The following year, Etsy placed reservations on seller accounts taking 75% of their takings on hold for 45 days without prior notice or explanation; the UK's Small Business Commissioner, Liz Barclay, said that "we hear that many sellers are women or minority groups and they need this money to pay the bills".
See also
Vintage (design)
Vintage clothing
Tech companies in the New York City metropolitan region
References
External links
2005 establishments in New York City
2015 initial public offerings
Companies based in Brooklyn
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
American companies established in 2005
Internet properties established in 2005
Online marketplaces of the United States
Publicly traded companies based in New York City
Retail companies established in 2005 |
4355677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asturian%20language | Asturian language | Asturian (; , formerly also known as the now derogatory ) is a West Iberian Romance language spoken in the Principality of Asturias, Spain. Asturian is part of a wider linguistic group, the Asturleonese languages. The number of speakers is estimated at 100,000 (native) and 450,000 (second language). The dialects of the Astur-Leonese language family are traditionally classified in three groups: Western, Central, and Eastern. For historical and demographic reasons, the standard is based on Central Asturian. Asturian has a distinct grammar, dictionary, and orthography. It is regulated by the Academy of the Asturian Language. Although it is not an official language of Spain it is protected under the Statute of Autonomy of Asturias and is an elective language in schools. For much of its history, the language has been ignored or "subjected to repeated challenges to its status as a language variety" due to its lack of official status.
History
Asturian is the historical language of Asturias, portions of the Spanish provinces of León and Zamora and the area surrounding Miranda do Douro in northeastern Portugal. Like the other Romance languages of the Iberian peninsula, it evolved from Vulgar Latin during the early Middle Ages. Asturian was closely linked with the Kingdom of Asturias (718–910) and the ensuing Leonese kingdom. The language had contributions from pre-Roman languages spoken by the Astures, an Iberian Celtic tribe, and the post-Roman Germanic languages of the Visigoths and Suevi.
The transition from Latin to Asturian was slow and gradual; for a long time they co-existed in a diglossic relationship, first in the Kingdom of Asturias and later in that of Asturias and Leon. During the 12th, 13th and part of the 14th centuries Astur-Leonese was used in the kingdom's official documents, with many examples of agreements, donations, wills and commercial contracts from that period onwards. Although there are no extant literary works written in Asturian from this period, some books (such as the and the 1155 ) had Asturian sources.
Castilian Spanish arrived in the area during the 14th century, when the central administration sent emissaries and functionaries to political and ecclesiastical offices. Asturian codification of the Astur-Leonese spoken in the Asturian Autonomous Community became a modern language with the founding of the Academy of the Asturian Language () in 1980. The Leonese dialects and Mirandese are linguistically close to Asturian.
Status and legislation
Efforts have been made since the end of the Francoist period in 1975 to protect and promote Asturian. In 1994 there were 100,000 native speakers and 450,000 second-language speakers able to speak (or understand) Asturian. However, the language is endangered: there has been a steep decline in the number of speakers over the last century. Law 1/93 of 23 March 1993 on the Use and Promotion of the Asturian Language addressed the issue, and according to article four of the Asturias Statute of Autonomy: "The Asturian language will enjoy protection. Its use, teaching and diffusion in the media will be furthered, whilst its local dialects and voluntary apprenticeship will always be respected."
However, Asturian is in a legally hazy position. The Spanish Constitution has not been fully applied regarding the official recognition of languages in the autonomous communities. The ambiguity of the Statute of Autonomy, which recognises the existence of Asturian but does not give it the same status as Spanish, leaves the door open to benign neglect. However, since 1 August 2001 Asturian has been covered under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages' "safeguard and promote" clause.
A 1983 survey indicated 100,000 native Asturian speakers (12 percent of the Asturian population) and 250,000 who could speak or understand Asturian as a second language. A similar survey in 1991 found that 44 percent of the population (about 450,000 people) could speak Asturian, with from 60,000 to 80,000 able to read and write it. An additional 24 percent of the Asturian population said that they understood the language, making a total of about 68 percent of the Asturian population.
At the end of the 20th century the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana (Academy of the Asturian Language) attempted to provide the language with tools needed to promote its survival: a grammar, a dictionary and periodicals. In addition a new generation of Asturian writers has championed the language. In 2021 the first complete translation of the Bible into Asturian was published.
Historical, social and cultural aspects
Literary history
Although some 10th-century documents have the linguistic features of Asturian, numerous examples (such as writings by notaries, contracts and wills) begin in the 13th century. Early examples are the 1085 Fuero de Avilés (the oldest parchment preserved in Asturias) and the 13th-century Fuero de Oviedo and the Leonese version of the Fueru Xulgu.
The 13th-century documents were the laws for towns, cities and the general population. By the second half of the 16th century, documents were written in Castilian, backed by the Trastámara dynasty and making the civil and ecclesiastical arms of the principality Castilian. Although the Asturian language disappeared from written texts during the sieglos escuros (dark centuries), it survived orally. The only written mention during this time is from a 1555 work by Hernán Núñez about proverbs and adages: " ... in a large copy of rare languages, as Portuguese, Galician, Asturian, Catalan, Valencian, French, Tuscan ... ".
Modern Asturian literature began in 1605 with the clergyman Antón González Reguera and continued until the 18th century (when it produced, according to Ruiz de la Peña in 1981, a literature comparable to that in Asturias in Castilian). In 1744, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos wrote about the historic and cultural value of Asturian, urging the compilation of a dictionary and a grammar and the creation of a language academy. Notable writers included Francisco Bernaldo de Quirós Benavides (1675), Xosefa Xovellanos (1745), Xuan González Villar y Fuertes (1746), Xosé Caveda y Nava (1796), Xuan María Acebal (1815), Teodoro Cuesta (1829), Xosé Benigno García González, Marcos del Torniello (1853), Bernardo Acevedo y Huelves (1849), Pin de Pría (1864), Galo Fernández and Fernán Coronas (1884).
In 1974, a movement for the language's acceptance and use began in Asturias. Based on ideas of the Asturian association Conceyu Bable about Asturian language and culture, a plan was developed for the acceptance and modernization of the language that led to the 1980 creation of the Academy of the Asturian Language with the approval of the Asturias regional council.
El Surdimientu (the Awakening) authors such as Manuel Asur (Cancios y poemes pa un riscar), Xuan Bello (El llibru vieyu), Adolfo Camilo Díaz (Añada pa un güeyu muertu), Pablo Antón Marín Estrada (Les hores), Xandru Fernández (Les ruines), Lourdes Álvarez, Martín López-Vega, Miguel Rojo and Lluis Antón González broke from the Asturian-Leonese tradition of rural themes, moral messages and dialogue-style writing. Currently, the Asturian language has about 150 annual publications. The Bible into the Asturian language was completed in 2021 after over 30 years of translation work, beginning in September 1988.
Use and distribution
Astur-Leonese's geographic area exceeds Asturias, and that the language known as Leonese in the autonomous community of Castile and León is basically the same as the Asturian spoken in Asturias. The Asturian-Leonese linguistic domain covers most of the principality of Asturias, the northern and western province of León, the northeastern province of Zamora (both in Castile and León), western Cantabria and the Miranda do Douro region in the eastern Bragança District of Portugal.
Toponymy
Traditional, popular place names of the principality's towns are supported by the law on usage of Asturian, the principality's 2003–07 plan for establishing the language and the work of the Xunta Asesora de Toponimia, which researches and confirms the Asturian names of requesting villages, towns, conceyos and cities (50 of 78 conceyos as of 2012).
Dialects
Asturian has several dialects. They are regulated by the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana and mainly spoken in Asturias (except in the west, where Galician-Asturian is spoken). The dialect spoken in the adjoining area of Castile and León is known as Leonese. Asturian is traditionally divided into three dialectal areas, sharing traits with the dialect spoken in León: western, central and eastern. The dialects are mutually intelligible. Central Asturian, with the most speakers (more than 80 percent), is the basis for standard Asturian. The first Asturian grammar was published in 1998 and the first dictionary in 2000.
Western Asturian is spoken between the rivers Navia and Nalón, in the west of the province of León (where it is known as Leonese) and in the provinces of Zamora and Salamanca. Feminine plurals end in -as
and the falling diphthongs and are maintained.
Central Asturian is spoken between the Sella River and the mouth of the River Nalón in Asturias and north of León. The model for the written language, it is characterized by feminine plurals ending in -es, the monophthongization of and into and and the neuter gender in adjectives modifying uncountable nouns (lleche frío, carne tienro).
Eastern Asturian is spoken between the River Sella, Llanes and Cabrales. The dialect is characterized by the debuccalization of word-initial to , written (ḥoguera, ḥacer, ḥigos and ḥornu instead of foguera, facer, figos and fornu; feminine plurals ending in -as (ḥabas, ḥormigas, ḥiyas, except in eastern towns, where -es is kept: ḥabes, ḥormigues, ḥiyes); the shifting of word-final -e to -i (xenti, tardi, ḥuenti); retention of the neuter gender in some areas, with the ending -u instead of -o (agua friu, xenti güenu, ropa tendíu, carne guisáu), and a distinction between direct and indirect objects in first- and second-person singular pronouns (direct me and te v. indirect mi and ti) in some municipalities bordering the Sella: busquéte (a ti) y alcontréte/busquéti les llaves y alcontrétiles, llévame (a mi) la fesoria en carru.
Asturian forms a dialect continuum with Cantabrian in the east and Eonavian in the west. While this dialect continuum is for the most part smooth, a number of isoglosses cluster together parallel to the River Purón, linking the dialects of eastern Llanes, Ribadedeva, Peñamellera Alta, and Peñamellera Baja with those of Cantabria and separating them from the rest of Asturias. Cantabrian was listed in the 2009 UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. The inclusion of Eonavian (spoken in western Asturias, bordering Galicia) in the Galician language is controversial, since it has traits in common with western Asturian.
Linguistic description
Asturian is one of the Astur-Leonese languages which form part of the Iberian Romance languages, close to Galician-Portuguese and Castilian and further removed from Navarro-Aragonese. It is an inflecting, fusional, head-initial and dependent-marking language. Its word order is subject–verb–object (in declarative sentences without topicalization).
Phonology
Vowels
Asturian distinguishes five vowel phonemes (these same ones are found in Spanish, Aragonese, Sardinian and Basque), according to three degrees of vowel openness (close, mid and open) and backness (front, central and back). Many Asturian dialects have a system of metaphony.
When occurring as unstressed, close vowels can become glides as in the pre-nuclear position. In the post-nuclear syllable margin, they are traditionally heard and transcribed as non-syllabic vowels .
Consonants
may be lenited or sonorised as in certain environments, or word-initially.
is pronounced in coda position.
can have different pronunciations, as a voiced plosive , affricate , or as a voiced fricative .
Writing
Asturian has always been written in the Latin alphabet. Although the Academia de la Llingua Asturiana published orthographic rules in 1981, different spelling rules are used in Terra de Miranda (Portugal).
Asturian orthography is based on a five-vowel system (), with three aperture degrees. It has the following consonants: . The phenomenon of -u metaphony is uncommon, as are decrescent diphthongs (, usually in the west). Although they can be written, ḷḷ (che vaqueira, formerly represented as "ts") and the eastern ḥ aspiration (also represented as "h." and corresponding to ll and f) are absent from this model. Asturian has triple gender distinction in the adjective, feminine plurals with -es, verb endings with -es, -en, -íes, íen and lacks compound tenses (or periphrasis constructed with "tener").
Alphabet
(*) also zeda, ceda
Digraphs
Asturian has several digraphs, some of which have their own names.
Dialectal spellings
The letter h and the digraph ll can have their sound changed to represent dialectal pronunciation by under-dotting the letters, resulting in ḥ and digraph ḷḷ
The "ḥ" is common in eastern Asturian place names and in words beginning with f; workarounds such as h. and l.l were used in the past for printing.
Besides dialectal words, the "ḥ" is also used in some loanwords: ḥoquei (hockey).
Grammar
Asturian grammar is similar to that of other Romance languages. Nouns have three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), two numbers (singular and plural) and no cases. Adjectives may have a third, neuter gender, a phenomenon known as matter-neutrality. Verbs agree with their subjects in person (first, second, or third) and number, and are conjugated to indicate mood (indicative, subjunctive, conditional or imperative; some others include "potential" in place of future and conditional), tense (often present or past; different moods allow different tenses), and aspect (perfective or imperfective).
Morphology
Gender
Asturian is the only western Romance language with three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.
Masculine nouns usually end in -u, sometimes in -e or a consonant: el tiempu (time, weather), l’home (man), el pantalón (trousers), el xeitu (way, mode).
Feminine nouns usually end in -a, sometimes -e: la casa (house), la xente (people), la nueche (night).
Neuter nouns may have any ending. Asturian has three types of neuters:
Masculine neuters have a masculine form and take a masculine article: el fierro vieyo (old iron).
Feminine neuters have a feminine form and take a feminine article: la lleche frío (cold milk).
Pure neuters are nominal groups with an adjective and neuter pronoun: lo guapo d’esti asuntu ye... (the interesting [thing] about this issue is ...).
Adjectives are modified by gender. Most adjectives have three endings: -u (masculine), -a (feminine) and -o (neuter): El vasu ta fríu (the glass is cold), tengo la mano fría (my hand is cold), l’agua ta frío (the water is cold)
Neuter nouns are abstract, collective and uncountable nouns. They have no plural, except when they are used metaphorically or concretised and lose this gender: les agües tán fríes (Waters are cold). Tien el pelo roxo (He has red hair) is neuter, but Tien un pelu roxu (He has a red hair) is masculine; note the noun's change in ending.
Number
Plural formation is complex:
Masculine nouns ending in -u → -os: texu (yew) → texos.
Feminine nouns ending in -a → -es: vaca (cow) → vaques.
Masculine or feminine nouns ending in a consonant take -es: animal (animal) → animales; xabón (soap) → xabones.
Words ending in -z may take a masculine -os to distinguish them from the feminine plural: rapaz (boy) → rapazos; rapaza (girl) → rapaces.
Masculine nouns ending in -ín → -inos: camín (way, path) → caminos, re-establishing the etymological vowel.
Feminine nouns ending in -á, -ada, -ú → -aes or -úes, also re-establishing the etymological vowel: ciudá (city) → ciudaes; cansada (tired [feminine]) → cansaes; virtú (virtue) → virtúes.
Determiners
Their forms are:
*Only before words beginning with a-: l’aigla (the eagle), l’alma (the soul). Compare la entrada (the entry) and la islla (the island).
Resources
The Academy of the Asturian Language has published a grammar describing the Asturian language. It is a comprehensive manual that can be used in schools to facilitate learning.
Additionally, a translator that can translate English, French, Portuguese and Italian, among a few other languages, into Asturian and vice versa is offered online. This software is funded and maintained by members of the University of Oviedo.
Vocabulary
As with other Romance languages, most Asturian words come from Latin: ablana, agua, falar, güeyu, home, llibru, muyer, pesllar, pexe, prau, suañar. In addition to this Latin basis are words which entered Asturian from languages spoken before the arrival of Latin (its substratum), afterwards (its superstratum) and loanwords from other languages.
Substratum
Although little is known about the language of the ancient Astures, it may have been related to two Indo-European languages: Celtic and Lusitanian. Words from this language and the pre–Indo-European languages spoken in the region are known as the prelatinian substratum; examples include bedul, boroña, brincar, bruxa, cándanu, cantu, carrascu, comba, cuetu, güelga, llamuerga, llastra, llócara, matu, peñera, riega, tapín and zucar. Many Celtic words (such as bragues, camisa, carru, cerveza and sayu) were integrated into Latin and, later, into Asturian.
Superstratum
Asturian's superstratum consists primarily of Germanisms and Arabisms. The Germanic peoples in the Iberian Peninsula, especially the Visigoths and the Suevi, added words such as blancu, esquila, estaca, mofu, serón, espetar, gadañu and tosquilar. Arabisms could reach Asturian directly, through contacts with Arabs or al-Andalus, or through the Castilian language. Examples include acebache, alfaya, altafarra, bañal, ferre, galbana, mandil, safase, xabalín, zuna and zucre.
Loanwords
Asturian has also received much of its lexicon from other languages, such as Spanish, French, Occitan and Galician. In number of loanwords, Spanish leads the list. However, due to the close relationship between Castilian and Asturian, it is often unclear if a word is borrowed from Castilian, common to both languages from Latin, or a loanword from Asturian to Castilian. Some Castilian forms in Asturian are:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Loans
|-
!Spanish
|echar, antoxu, guerrilla, xamón, siesta, rexa, vainilla, xaréu
|-
!Galician
|cachelos, chombada, quimada
|-
!French
|arranchar, chalana, xofer, espáis, foina, galipote, malvís, pote, sable, somier, tolete, vagamar, xarré
|-
!Occitan
|hostal, parrocha, tolla
|}
Lexical comparison
Lord's Prayer
Education
Primary and secondary
Although Spanish is the official language of all schools in Asturias, in many schools children are allowed to take Asturian-language classes from age 6 to 16. Elective classes are also offered from 16 to 19. Central Asturias (Nalón and Caudal comarcas) has the largest percentage of Asturian-language students, with almost 80 percent of primary-school students and 30 percent of secondary-school students in Asturian classes. Xixón, Uviéu, Eo-Navia and Oriente also have an increased number of students.
University
According to article six of the University of Oviedo charter, "The Asturian language will be the object of study, teaching and research in the corresponding fields. Likewise, its use will have the treatment established by the Statute of Autonomy and complementary legislation, guaranteeing non-discrimination of those who use it."
Asturian can be used at the university in accordance with the Use of Asturian Act.
University records indicate an increased number of courses and amount of scientific work using Asturian, with courses in the Department of Philology and Educational Sciences. In accordance with the Bologna Process, Asturian philology will be available for study and teachers will be able to specialise in the Asturian language at the University of Oviedo.
Internet
Asturian government websites, council webpages, blogs, and entertainment webpages exist. Free software is offered in Asturian, and Ubuntu offers Asturian as an operating-system language. Free software in the language is available from Debian, Fedora, Firefox, Thunderbird, LibreOffice, VLC, GNOME, Chromium and KDE. Minecraft also has an Asturian translation.
Wikipedia offers an Asturian version of itself, with 100,000+ pages as of December 2018.
See also
Leonese language
Mirandese language
List of Asturian language authors
Extremaduran language
Ramón Menéndez Pidal
Category:Asturian-language software in the Asturian Wikipedia
References
Bibliography
Wurm, Stephen A. (ed) (2001) Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger of Disappearing. Unesco .
M.Teresa Turell (2001). Multilingualism in Spain: Sociolinguistic and Psycholinguistic Aspects of Linguistic Minority Groups.
Mercator-Education (2002): European Network for Regional or Minority Languages and Education. "The Asturian language in education in Spain" ISSN 1570-1239
External links
Academia de la Llingua Asturiana – the official Asturian language academy
Dirección Xeneral de Política Llingüística del Gobiernu del Principáu d'Asturies – Bureau of Asturian Linguistic Policy (Government of the Principality of Asturias)
Asturian grammar in English
Asturian–English dictionary
Xunta pola Defensa de la Llingua Asturiana
Real Instituto de Estudios Asturianos – Royal Institute of Asturian Studies (RIDEA or IDEA), founded 1945.
A short Asturian–English–Japanese phrasebook incl. sound file
Aconceyamientu de Xuristes pol Asturianu The Advisory Council of Lawyers for Asturian
II Estudiu Sociollingüísticu d'Asturies (2002)
Diccionariu de la Academia de la Llingua Asturiana / Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Asturian Language
Diccionario General de la lengua asturiana (Asturian — Spanish)
Eslema, Asturian online translator
«Asturiano» en PROEL
Dirección Xeneral de Política Llingüística del Gobiernu del Principáu d'Asturies.
Proyecto Eslema, "Eslema" Project for the creation of corpus Asturian language domain
Conferencia sobre socioligüística asturiana impartida por el profesor de la Universidad de Oviedo Ramón d'Andrés en el Instituto Cervantes (Madrid. 2010)
Dictionaries and translators
Diccionariu de la Academia de la Llingua Asturiana / Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Asturian Language
Diccionario General de la lengua asturiana (Asturian — Spanish)
Eslema, Asturian online translator |
4356017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20immigration%20and%20refugee%20law | Canadian immigration and refugee law | Canadian immigration and refugee law concerns the area of law related to the admission of foreign nationals into Canada, their rights and responsibilities once admitted, and the conditions of their removal. The primary law on these matters is in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, whose goals include economic growth, family reunification, and compliance with humanitarian treaties.
As a result of the 1991 Canada-Quebec Accord, Quebec gained full selection process for economic migrants within the province's borders. As of 2023, between 50 to 60 percent of permanent residents born abroad are chosen by Quebec authorities, with the national government selecting the rest.
Former legislation and policy
Canada has had laws and regulations governing the admission of immigrants since 1869, two years following Confederation.
The following is a timeline of the former Canadian legal system, both federal and provincial, as it relates to immigration:
An Act to Regulate the Carrying of Passengers in Merchant Vessels (1828) — the first legislative recognition of the Canadas' responsibility over the safety and well-being of migrants leaving the British Isles. It regulated the number of passengers that could be carried on a ship, determined the amount of space allocated to them, and required the provision of food and water for the voyage.
Immigration Act, 1869 — Canada’s first immigration policy following Confederation. It contained few restrictions on immigration, mainly focusing on ensuring the safety of immigrants enroute to Canada and protecting them from exploitation upon their arrival.
Dominion Lands Act (1872) — legislation that aimed to encourage the settlement of the Canadian Prairies and to help prevent the area being claimed by the United States. The Act was closely based on the U.S. Homestead Act of 1862, setting conditions in which the western lands could be settled and their natural resources developed.
Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885) — a royal commission appointed by the government in hopes to prove the need for the regulation of Chinese immigration to Canada. The Commission recommended imposing a $10 duty on each Chinese person seeking entry into Canada.
Chinese Immigration Act, 1885 (amendments in 1887, 1892, 1900, 1903) — Canada's first piece of legislation to prevent immigrants based on their ethnic origin, following a large influx of Chinese labourers to Canada in the 1880s. The Act imposed the now-infamous Chinese head tax: a duty on every Chinese person seeking entry into Canada, beginning at $50 per person, increasing to $100 per person in 1900, and to $500 in 1903.
Royal Commission on Italian Immigration (1904-1905) — a royal commission appointed in 1904 to investigate the exploitation of Italian labourers by employment brokers known as padroni. The padroni recruited Italian workers for companies in Canada and oversaw their transport and employment upon arriving in Canada. The Commission focused its investigation on Antonio Cordasco, who chiefly recruited labourers for the Canadian Pacific Railway.
Immigration Act, 1906 — a more restrictive immigration policy, expanding the categories of prohibited immigrants, formalizing a deportation process, and assigning the government enhanced powers to make arbitrary judgements on admission.
Newfoundland Chinese Immigration Act (1906) — legislation in Newfoundland, still a British colony at the time, that introduced a $300 head tax on Chinese immigrants. The head tax remained in effect until Newfoundland and Labrador joined Confederation in 1949.
Gentlemen’s Agreement (Hayashi–Lemieux Agreement; 1908) — an agreement between Canadian Minister of Labour Rodolphe Lemieux and Japanese Foreign Minister Tadasu Hayashi to restrict Japanese immigration to Canada. Under the agreement, the Japanese government voluntarily limited the number of Japanese immigrants yearly arriving in Canada to 400. Such restrictions were considered necessary following a recent influx of Japanese labourers in British Columbia and a rise in anti-Asian sentiment in the province, particularly the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907.
Continuous journey regulation (1908) — a regulation requiring prospective immigrants to travel to Canada by "continuous journey" from the country of origin. This effectively blocked Indian immigration as there was no direct ship route between India and Canada at this time.
Immigration Act, 1910 — legislation expanding the list of prohibited immigrants and providing the government with greater discretionary authority in regard to the admissibility and deportation of immigrants. It allowed for the prohibiting of immigrants determined to be "unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada"
Order-in-Council P.C. 1911-1324 (1911) — an Order in Council banning "any immigrants belonging to the Negro race, which is deemed unsuitable to the climate and requirements of Canada." (The ban was not written into the Immigration Act.)
Naturalization Act, 1914 — legislation introducing more stringent requirements for naturalization in Canada, wherein approval for a certificate of naturalization required immigrants to live in Canada for 5 years, possess adequate knowledge of French or English, and exhibit good moral character.
Immigration Act, 1919 — an amendment to the 1910 Immigration Act, providing more restrictive regulations in response to the postwar economic downturn, labour unrest, and increasing anti-foreign sentiment. Immigrants from enemy alien countries were denied entry and the restricted categories of political dissidents were expanded. The federal cabinet was also allowed to prohibit immigrants of any nationality, race, occupation and class because of their "peculiar customs, habits, modes of life and methods of holding property."
Empire Settlement Act, 1922 — an agreement between the British government and several commonwealth countries designed to facilitate the resettlement of agriculturalists, farmworkers, and juvenile immigrants throughout the Empire.
Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 — legislation virtually restricting all Chinese immigration to Canada.
Railway Agreement, 1925 — an agreement by the Government of Canada with the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Canadian National Railway permitting the companies to control the recruitment and settlement of European agriculturalists. The agreement was cancelled in 1930.
Order-in-Council P.C. 1931-695 (1931) — an order-in-council passed on 21 March 1931 allowing for the implementation of the tightest immigration admissions policy in Canadian history.
Canadian Citizenship Act (1947) — legislation creating the category Canadian citizenship and allowing for residents of Canada to obtain citizenship regardless of their country of origin. (Previously, individuals born in Canada and naturalized immigrants were classified as British subjects rather than Canadian citizens.)
Immigration Act, 1952 — the first new Canadian immigration act since 1910, reinforcing the powers of the federal cabinet and investing the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration with broad discretionary powers over admissibility and deportation.
Immigration Regulations, Order-in-Council PC 1962-86 (1962) — regulations eliminating overt racial discrimination from Canadian immigration policy.
White Paper on Immigration (1966) — a policy document commissioned by the federal government to review immigration legislation and make recommendations on its restructuring. The White Paper suggested that Canada ought to focus on recruiting qualified immigrants and tighten the controls on sponsored immigration to avoid an influx of unskilled labourers. The report would lay the groundwork for new immigration regulations the following year.
Immigration Regulations, Order-in Council PC 1967-1616 (1967) — regulations establishing new standards for evaluating potential immigrants, through a point-based system.
Immigration Act, 1976 — the first immigration legislation to clearly outline the objectives of Canadian immigration policy, define refugees as a distinct class of immigrants, and mandate the Canadian government to consult with other levels of government in the planning and management of immigration.
Immigration Act, 1976
The Immigration Act, 1976, insured by the Parliament of Canada, was the first immigration legislation to clearly outline the objectives of Canadian immigration policy, define refugees as a distinct class of immigrants, and mandate the Canadian government to consult with other levels of government in the planning and management of immigration.
It focused on who should be allowed income a burden on social welfare or health services would now be refused entry, rather than specific categories of people, e.g., those who identified themselves as homosexual, disabled, and so on.
Further, it created four new classes of immigrants who could come to Canada: refugees, families, assisted relatives, and independent immigrants. While independent immigrants had to take part in the points system, other classes did not have to take part in this test so long as they passed basic criminal, security, and health checks. The Act also created alternatives to deportation for less serious criminal or medical offences, since deportation meant the immigrant was barred from entering Canada for life. After 1978, the government could issue 12-month exclusion orders and a departure notice, if the cause for a person's removal was not serious, but in some cases, it could be severe.
The enforcement team with the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada was responsible for enforcing the Act at border crossings with the United States as well as checkpoints at international airports in Canada.
The 1976 Immigration Act was replaced by the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) in 2002.
Current enabling laws
Immigration and Refugee Protection Act
The primary statute regarding immigration and refugee law in Canada is the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA), accompanied by the Immigration and Refugee Protection Regulations and Protection of Passenger Information Regulations. First introduced in 2002 to replace the former Immigration Act of 1976, the many changes brought on by IRPA included broader discretion for immigration officers when evaluating applications.
Other relevant legislation include the Citizenship Act, and certain immigration and refugee-related provisions of the Criminal Code.
Immigration detainees in Canada are held in Immigration Holding Centres (IHCs; French: ), under the auspices of the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). Immigration detainees may also be kept in provincial jails, either because the IHCs are full, there is no centres in their region, or the detainee's file has a link to criminality. Detainees can include: asylum seekers without sufficient amount of necessary identification papers; foreign workers whose visas had expired; and individuals awaiting deportation.
Protecting Canada's Immigration System Act
The Protecting Canada's Immigration System Act (Bill C-31) was established in hopes of amending Canadian immigration and refugee law by addressing the number of "bogus refugees" and claimants from European Union democracies.
Safe Third Country Agreement
Under the Canada–United States Safe Third Country Agreement (STCA), people from a country that is not Canada or the United States who attempt to enter Canada at a legal border crossing seeking refugee status will be turned back.
There are 4 types of exceptions to the STCA: refugee claimants who have a family member in Canada; unaccompanied minors under the age of 18; individuals holding a valid Canadian visa; and those who have been charged with or convicted of an offence that could subject them to the death penalty in the United States or in a third country. The STCA also does not apply to claimants who entered Canada at a "location that is not a port of entry."
International laws
The Government of Canada is held to comply with the following international laws in relation to migration and refuge/asylum:
United Nations Convention against Torture (CAT), signed in New York on December 1984.
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed in Geneva on 28 July 1951
Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, signed in New York on 1 January 1967.
Vienna Convention on Consular Relations — Article 36 requires that foreign nationals who are arrested or detained be given notice, "without delay," of their right to have their embassy or consulate notified of that arrest.
Hague Adoption Convention, signed 29 May 1993
Current laws regarding administration
Department of Citizenship and Immigration
The Department of Citizenship and Immigration Act established Canada's Department of Citizenship and Immigration (now known as Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada), to be presided by the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration.
The Revolving Funds Act authorized the establishment of certain revolving funds, including for the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration. Under the Act, the Minister is able to make expenditures out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of Canada "for the purpose of passport and other travel document services in Canada and at posts abroad," as well as revenue received regarding that purpose.
Canada Border Services Agency
The Canada Border Services Agency Act established the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA), which was created by Order in Council on 12 December 2003. The Act renders the CBSA responsible for providing integrated border services that support Canada's national security priorities and that facilitate the free flow of persons and goods (including plants and animals) that meet all requirements under the program legislation.
The Act also set out the responsibilities, mandate, powers, duties, and functions of the CBSA's President and of the Minister responsible for the Agency (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness).
Immigration and Refugee Board
Sections 151 through 186 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) dictate the functions and composition of the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRB).
The Immigration Division Rules (SOR/2002-229), pursuant to subsection 161(1) of IRPA, outlines the responsibilities of the IRB's Immigration Division, including those of admissibility hearings and detention reviews.
The Immigration Appeal Division Rules (SOR/2002-230), sets out the rules for appealing immigration- related decisions (such as removal orders, inadmissibility, etc.) to IRB's Immigration Appeal Division. Likewise, the Refugee Appeal Division Rules (SOR/2012-257) sets out the rules for appealing refugee-related decisions to the Refugee Appeal Division.
International Boundary Commission
The International Boundary Commission Act provides the International Boundary Commission (including its members, officers, employees, and agents) with certain powers for the purpose of maintaining an effective boundary line between Canada and the United States. This authority includes the Commission's ability to:
"enter on and pass over the land of any person in order to gain access to the boundary or to survey the boundary;"
"erect and maintain boundary monuments on the land of any person;" and
"clear from the land of any person such trees and underbrush as the Commission deems necessary to maintain a vista ten feet in width from the boundary."
Case law
1865. Re Burley
1985. Singh v Canada
1991. Kindler v Canada (Minister of Justice)
1991. Reference Re Ng Extradition
1992. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) v Chiarelli
1992. Canadian Council of Churches v Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)
1993. Canada (AG) v Ward
1998. Pushpanathan v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
1999. Baker v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
2001. Law Society of British Columbia v Mangat
2001. United States v Burns
2002. Ahani v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
2002. Suresh v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
2007. Charkaoui v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
2005. Mugesera v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
2006. Hinzman v Canada, 2006 FC 420 — the case of Jeremy Hinzman
2009. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) v Khosa
2010. Jose Figueroa deportation case
Terminology
Most terminology relevant to immigration and refugee law in Canada are defined under the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) and its accompanying regulations; such terms include:
Foreign national (French: étranger) — "a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person."
Designated foreign national (étranger désigné) — a foreign national who belongs to a group of persons who arrive in Canada together and are designated by the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness to be an "irregular arrival" (i.e., have illegally entered Canada). s. 20.1. This can occur, for instance, if the Minister suspects that the persons were brought to Canada through human smuggling or trafficking with the help of a criminal or terrorist organization.
Permanent resident (résident permanent) — "a person who has acquired permanent resident status and has not subsequently lost that status under section 46." A permanent resident has the right to live permanently in Canada, but can be ordered to leave Canada for reasons under IRPA.
Convention refugees (United Nations definition) — "people who have a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, political opinion, nationality, or membership in a particular social group." (The UN's definition of a 'Convention refugee' has been adopted into Canadian law.)
Protected person — "a person on whom refugee protection is conferred ... and whose claim or application has not subsequently been deemed to be rejected under subsection 108(3), 109(3) or 114(4)" of IRPA. s. 95(2).
Person in need of protection — "a person in Canada who would be subjected personally to a danger of torture, a risk to their life, or a risk of cruel and unusual treatment or punishment if they were returned to their home country." s. 97.
Removal order — an official order for a person to leave Canada. There are 3 types of removal orders:
Exclusion order — a type of removal order in which the subject may not return to Canada for one year. If the reason for the exclusion order was "misrepresentation," then the subject cannot return for 5 years. "Misrepresentation" refers to the providing of information that is not true or accurate, or the omission of required information.
Departure order — a type of removal order in which the subject must leave Canada within 30 days, and must inform the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) when they leave.
Deportation order — a type of removal order in which the subject may not return to Canada unless they have an received an "Authorization to Return to Canada," i.e., permission in writing from Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada.
Admission classes
Under Canadian policy, (legal) permanent immigrants are categorized by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) as either of the following:
Family: persons closely related to one or more Canadian residents who live in Canada. The Family class allows permanent residents or citizens to sponsor a family member's or spouse's entrance into the country. In the case of a same-sex couple, if they are immigrating from a country where they cannot marry, proof of a long-term relationship is required.
Economic: skilled workers, caregivers, or business persons. The Economic class provides admission to applicants (and their immediate families) who are supposed to be likely to find employment and contribute to the Canadian economy. This is determined by ranking candidates against one another, and the weighing of factors such as education, language skills, and work experience. Some 60,000 come to Canada each year under the International Experience Canada initiative, which provides Working Holiday, internship, and study visas.
Protected person or Refugee: persons who are escaping persecution, torture, and/or cruel and unusual punishment. Any migrant can claim to be a refugee and it will be investigated. Claims for refugee status and for admissibility as well as appeals of the decisions of the immigration officers are directed to the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRB). The IRB is the largest tribunal in Canada and hears over 25,000 claims a year. Decision of the IRB can be appealed to the Federal Court, which hears about 2,500 appeals on immigration and refugee matters a year.
Humanitarian or other: persons accepted as immigrants for humanitarian or compassionate reasons. This category includes broadly-defined humanitarian and compassionate grounds such as specific hardships that applicants would face if they were to return to their home countries. Individuals must receive permission to apply.
Other relevant laws and systems
Canadian Passport Order (1981) — superseded the Canadian Passport Regulations and established the Passport Office (later Passport Canada). As of 2 July 2013, primary responsibility for Passport Canada and the administration of the Canadian Passport Order moved from the Department of Foreign Affairs to IRCC.
Canadian Citizenship Act (1946)
Citizenship Act (1981)
Private Sponsorship of Refugees Program
Issues
The Parliament of Canada has previously debated whether to allow former U.S. war resisters, such as soldiers avoiding re-deployment to Iraq, to stay in Canada. In mid-2010, the Federal Court of Appeal ruled that Jeremy Hinzman, an American soldier seeking asylum, should be allowed to remain in Canada based on his pacifist religious beliefs. A Private Member's Bill on the issue of war resisters, by former Member of Parliament Gerard Kennedy, was defeated in late September.
In June 2012, the Canadian government introduced a series of changes affecting the Interim Federal Health Program which covers refugee health care. Some have taken issue with the Canada–United States Safe Third Country Agreement (STCA), which prevents people from a country that is not Canada or the US who attempt to enter Canada at a legal border crossing seeking refugee status will be turned back, but processes the claims of those who arrive illegally. Moreover, some refugee advocates have argued for rescinding the STCA.
See also
Immigration to Canada
Visa policy of Canada
Canadian nationality law
Provincial Nomination Program
Temporary foreign worker program
Canada permanent resident card
Vietnam War resisters in Canada
Iraq War resisters in Canada
References
Further reading
Challinor, A. E. 2011 September 15. "Canada's Immigration Policy: a Focus on Human Capital." Migration Information Source. US: Migration Policy Institute. |
4356125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20history%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Venice | Military history of the Republic of Venice | The military history of the Republic of Venice started shortly after its founding, spanning a period from the 9th century until the Republic's fall in the 18th century.
Military conflict between Venice and Italy began in the early 9th century with the intervention of Charlemagne's son King Pepin of Italy into Venice, which resulted in a failed six-month siege.
Venice first became a major military power in the 13th century during the Fourth Crusade, where Venetian troops participated in the successful siege and conquest of Constantinople, gaining vast territories and other war spoils. Later in the century, Venice commenced a series of wars with the Republic of Genoa and a number of its allies for dominance in the Mediterranean Sea. With the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the Republic lost its territories in the east as Cyprus and Venetian strongholds in Morea were occupied; at the same time, the rise of the Visconti of Milan drew Venice into the condottiere warfare of Italy.
The 14th century saw Venice successfully siege the northern Dalmatian town of Zadar with some 20,000 troops, as part of the Croatian-Venetian wars.
Bereft of her Mediterranean possessions, Venice turned to conquest on the Italian mainland, which brought it into conflict with Milan and the Papacy. Venetian participation in the Italian Wars eventually resulted in the War of the League of Cambrai, where Venice was nearly reduced. Following the War of the League of Cognac, Venice played little further role in mainland warfare. She continued to fight naval wars against the Ottomans, however, culminating in the victory at the Battle of Lepanto.
The beginning of the 17th century saw a war against Austria and others over Uskok pirates. In the latter half of the 17th century, further Ottoman aspirations to capture Crete caused another protracted period of warfare, known as the Cretan War. The twenty-year Siege of Candia was followed by her involvement in the Great Turkish War, where the Republic briefly regained the Morea, only to return it some years later. The Republic of Venice was finally drawn into European warfare with Napoleon's invasion of Italy; unable to resist his armies, she was forced to surrender and become a French tributary state.
9th century
Pepin's siege of Venice (810)
In 804, an agreement to cede sovereignty of parts of Venice was made between the exiled Patriarch of Grado, Fortunatus, and Doge Obelerio Degli Antenori. By 810, with the Doge's political power weakening, Charlemagne's son King Pepin of Italy had militarily intervened in the Republic in response, seeking to occupy the city. Pepin's army, which set out from Ravenna in 810, succeeded in putting down opposing forces in Chioggia and Pellestrina, but faced heavy resistance near the Malamocco channel, particularly around the presently named Lido di Venezia island. Constantine VII, the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, described in his historical treatise De Administrando Imperio (written in the 10th century) the failed attempts of Pippin to siege Malamocco on Lido:The Venetians would man their ships and take up position behind the spars they had laid down, and king Pippin would take up position with his army along the shore. The Venetians assailed them with arrows and javelins, and stopped them from crossing over to the island. So then king Pippin, at a loss, said to the Venetians: "You are beneath my hand and my providence, since you are of my country and domain." But the Venetians answered him: "We want to be servants of the emperor of the Romans, and not of you." When, however, they had for long been straitened by the trouble that had come upon them, the Venetians made a treaty of peace with king Pippin, agreeing to pay him a very considerable tribute.The siege lasted 6 months and resulted in heavy losses to Pepin's army due to local diseases, and an overall failure to take Venice, with King Pepin dying on 8 July 810. It also resulted in Doge Obelerio's exile from Venice, which lasted two decades until his doomed return in 832.
13th century
Sack of Constantinople (1204)
On 9 April 1204, as part of the Fourth Crusade, Venetian ships combined with numerous Crusader forces started their assault on the Byzantine capital Constantinople, after Byzantine Emperor Alexios I of Trebizond refused to provide the Crusader army with money to assist the Crusade. Venice contributed 110 to 150 horse-transport galleys, 50 to 60 war galleys and around 50 troop transport ships.
By 12 April, forces from Venetian assault ships, blown ashore by strong winds, had taken control of a Byzantine tower near the Golden Horn. These ships carried scaling ladders and were resistant to enemy incendiary weapons, being covered with vine-cuttings. Only four or five of these ships were able to reach the towers, but were nonetheless successful in assisting Crusader forces in breaking the siege. According to an account of the siege by the Picardy knight Robert de Clari, this first contact, combined with a second tower breach by the Venetians, allowed Crusader forces on the ground to breach a postern gate, breaking the siege and commencing the main ground assault.
Following heavy looting and vandalism by Crusader forces following the retreat of Byzantine forces, the Byzantine Empire was divided between the Crusade's participants following the signing of a treaty. Venice nominally gained vast territories, including the island of Crete, Corfu, and a number of cities in Eastern Thrace, but only received a portion of these territories in actuality (such as Crete, which became the Kingdom of Candia), owing to instability and the failure of Venice's numerous attempts to assert power.
War of Saint Sabas (1256–1270)
As part of the beginning of the Venetian–Genoese Wars, in 1256 Venice commenced warfare with the Republic of Genoa. The conflict started with the siege of Acre following a dispute over land claimed by both Genoa and Venice, with the siege comprising most of the war's subsequent combat. Early Genoese gains were erased by the entry of the Republic of Pisa into the war on Venice's side, with Venice's forces breaking chains in Acre's harbour and attacking with as many as 60 siege engines in 1257.
The ensuing year-long blockade was partially broken by a later Genoese naval counter-attack in June 1258, with Philip of Montfort assisting Genoa with his forces. However, the Venetian ships were able to eventually overwhelm these attacking forces. Despite the blockade, the siege defenders were not deprived of food, owing to assistance and supplies from Philip of Montfort and the nearby Hospitallers. By 1261, conflict had subsided and largely consisted of naval skirmishes for the rest of the conflict.
The first half of 1263 saw a 32-ship strong Venetian naval force defeat a fleet of 48 Genoese ships near the Greek island Spetses, in what is known as the Battle of Settepozzi. The next major naval battle took place on 14 August 1264, with much of the Venetian fleet being captured or sunk by a larger Genoese fleet, in what is known as the Battle of Saseno. The final naval engagement occurred on 23 June 1266, and resulted in a clear Venetian victory, with 24 Genoese galleys being captured by Venetian forces.
The Peace of Cremona in 1270 concluded the war, with France and the Kingdom of Sicily organising the peace treaty between Venice and Genoa.
14th century
Siege of Zadar (1345–1346)
In 1345, as part of the Croatian-Venetian wars, some 20,000 or more Venetian troops were sent to capture Zadar, a Croatian city in northern Dalmatia. According to the 14th century Croatian manuscript (Latin, the English title is Siege of Zadar), these forces were joined by twelve ships arriving in Zadar on August 12, 1345, led by Commander-in-Chief Peter da Canale. A 16-month long siege ensued, with Venetian land and naval forces attempting a number of military operations to break the siege. The manuscript describes da Canale unsuccessfully attempting to break chains in Zadar's port at the beginning of the siege, on September 6, 1345.
However, the harbour chain was eventually broken in January 1346, allowing greater Venetian control of the harbour. The Venetian army's first major offensive on the city started on May 16 but failed, leading to a large counterattack by combined Croatian-Hungarian forces (the Croatians were joined by King Louis' forces following the first offensive) on July 1. According to the , this counterattack was later defeated with the help of the Venetian fleet. Later in the year, on 21 December, Venetian forces led by land commander Marko Giustinian entered Zadar, breaking the siege.
15th century
Until the beginning of the 15th century the Venetian power had been exclusively maritime, so that the entire military organization of the State had been focused on the fleet and the military corps linked to it: Arsenalotti, Schiavoni and Fanti da Mar. To this main nucleus were then added the cavalry corps provided by the maritime domains: Stradioti, Cimarioti and Sfaxioti.
It was only the conquest of the Stato de tera, rapidly developed at the beginning of the century, that generated the need for the Venetian State to equip itself with a land army. The solution, was the massive recourse to mercenary companies, which guaranteed a lesser weight on public finances, linked only to the war periods, and a certain reliability, if compared to the scarce experience of Venice in the country war. The recourse to mercenary troops, however, posed at the same time a problem linked to their possible unstable loyalty to the State. If, on the one hand, maritime power and complete control of the lagoons guaranteed security against possible coups d'état, on the other hand, entrusting the control of a mercenary army to the members of the Venetian patriciate, as well as not giving guarantees of ability in land warfare, could have created concentrations of power extremely dangerous for the political equilibrium of the Republic. For this reason, in times of war, when there was a massive recruitment of mercenaries, it was customary to assign the same title of Captain General of the Mainland to the same captains of fortune, assigning to the Venetian nobles tasks of support and control over the military operation.
Pandolfo Malatesta, Savelli and Galeazzo (1404-1405)
In 1404 Venice entered the war against the Carraresi of Padua, who threatened the territories of the Dogado and the trade routes to and from the hinterland. The command was given to Pandolfo Malatesta, appointed Captain General. In 1405 the command was transferred to Paolo Savelli, who soon died trying to take Padua. He then succeeded him as Captain General Galeazzo Cattaneo de Grumello, under whose leadership the city of Padua was finally conquered, putting an end to the lordship of the Carraresi.
Carmagnola (1425-1432)
In 1425 the Republic appointed Captain General Francesco Bussone, called the Carmagnola, in the war against the Visconti, which ended with victory at the Battle of Maclodio and the peace of 1428. Hostilities resumed in 1431, when the leader Bartolomeo Colleoni was also called to the service of Venice. The serious military upheavals suffered by the Venetian armies during this conflict, however, cost Carmagnola first the arrest on 8 April 1432, and finally the execution on 5 May of the same year.
Gattamelata (1434-1441)
A new Captain General was appointed in 1434, in the person of Erasmus of Narni called Il Gattamelata, leading the war against Milan until 1441.
Attendolo (1441-1448)
The Gattamelata was succeeded by the leader Michele Attendolo, already in the service of the Republic of Florence against Milan. During his command also operated under the Venetian insignia the mercenary captain Scaramuccia da Forlì, who distinguished himself in 1436 in the liberation of Brescia from the Visconti siege and in the liberation of Cremona in 1446. After the brief peace stipulated in 1447 with the Visconti, the rekindling of the conflict with the Ambrosian Republic led to the serious defeat in the battle of Caravaggio on 5 September 1448, against the forces led by his cousin Francesco Sforza: this defeat cost the Attendolo the deposition and confinement in the fortress of Conegliano. Venice, for its part, rose from the defeat first supporting Sforza himself in an attempt to gain control of Milan, then abandoning him abruptly to sign peace with the Ambrosian Republic.
Malatesta (1449-1453)
Soon the Republic was forced to take up arms again, entrusting the command to Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, Lord of Rimini, to support Milan, threatened by the Sforza, who nevertheless managed, in 1450, to overthrow the Ambrosian Republic and be proclaimed Duke of Milan. The conflict dragged on until 1453, when a treaty with the new Duke of Milan restored the borders to the pre-conflict conditions.
Colleoni (1453-1475)
From 1448 to 1451, Venice still availed itself of the service of the Colleoni, who, after several times having served the Republic and now the Sforza, in 1453 was appointed head of the armies of the Serenissima. The peace of Lodi signed the following year, however, forced the leader to a long inactivity, while remaining in the service of Venice until his death in 1475.
Sanseverino (1482-1485 and 1487)
In 1482 the Republic entered into conflict with Ferrara in the Salt War, declaring war on 2 May 1482 and at the same time entrusting the command of operations to Roberto di San Severino, appointed for the occasion Lieutenant General and patrician from Veneto, flanked by provveditore Antonio Loredan and Damiano Moro, captain of the fleet. Occupied Rovigo and the Polesine, on November 6 the battle of Argenta was won and the Po River was crossed. On 16 May 1483, faced with the defection of the papal allies, Venice also hired the Duke Renato di Lorena, while appointing Antonio Giustinian Captain General in Po, soon captured, however, by the Ferraresi. The conflict ended with the peace of Bagnolo on 7 August 1484, which recognised the occupation of Polesine and Rovigo. The Sanseverino then abandoned the arms of Venice in 1485 to pass under the papal insignia.
Remaining until that moment neutral in the Italian conflicts, in April 1487 the arrest of all Venetian merchants in the lands of the Archduchy of Austria pushed the Republic to the conflict. The commander Julius Caesar of Camerino was appointed Captain General, flanked by the provveditori Pietro Diedo and Girolamo Marcello. The fall of Rovereto pushed Venice to dismiss da Camerino, calling Roberto Sanseverino, accompanied by his son Antonio, back into service. Despite the reconquest of Rovereto, the defeat on 10 August at the castle of Petra caused a retreat that cost the life of the Captain General himself during the crossing of the Adige River. However, the serious losses also suffered by the Germans led to the signing of the peace treaty on 13 November of the same year.
Gonzaga (1489-1498)
In 1489 the command was entrusted to Francesco Gonzaga, with whom the First Italian War against France was victoriously conducted. Gonzaga left the service of Venice at the end of the conflict, in 1498, when, after being accused of not capturing the King of France Charles VIII during the battle of Fornovo, he passed into the service of the enemies of Venice.
17th century
Uskok War (1615-1618)
In response to escalating attacks on Venetian ships by Uskok pirates, who were hired by Austria, the Doge Giovanni Bembo declared war on Austria. Austria was assisted by Spanish and Croatian forces, while Venice sought assistance in the latter part of the war from the Dutch and the English.
Clashes along the Soča river began the war in the early summer of 1615, but remained minor until 1616, when Venetian forces began their siege of the fortress San Servolo, located twenty miles from the Gulf of Trieste. Major warfare continued later in the year, with the Venetian siege of Gradisca (which lasted until September 1617) and various other battles beginning around this time.
Cretan War (1645–1669)
After formally gaining control of Crete in 1204 following the success of the Fourth Crusade, Venice administered the island from 1212 onwards as the Kingdom of Candia, with resistance by the local population occurring frequently in subsequent decades. Direct conflict with the Ottoman Empire over control of the island began in 1645. The war began following Ottoman accusations of Venetian collusion with the Knights of Malta in their large attack on an Ottoman convoy in 1644; the Knights had later sailed their gains to southern Crete, landing there for safe harbour. After the breakdown of negotiations, which included the accusation that the Venetians on Crete had bought stolen goods from the Knights, a Turkish armada of around 416 ships arrived and disembarked in the north-west of Crete, near Chania, beginning the war. A fleet of vessels donated by Tuscany, the Papal States (sent by Pope Innocent X), Naples and Malta was sent following this invasion, combining with the Venetian fleet to finally launch a doomed counterattack on 1 October 1645.
Distracted and weakened by the ongoing Thirty Years War, European states rejected Venetian pleas for assistance as Ottoman advances on cities such as Rethymno quickened in October 1646. By 1648, most of the island was controlled by the Ottomans, though sieges such as the siege of Candia and of other minor Venetian strongholds were ongoing. Candia's siege, an Ottoman attempt to capture the island's capital, lasted another 22 years, constituting a major part of the remaining land warfare of the conflict.
Naval warfare
Seeking to counter the early Ottoman land advances through naval warfare, Venice attempted to blockade the Dardanelles strait in 1646, hoping to block the delivery of new supplies and troops intended for the Ottoman land assault. These efforts largely failed and the war did not see major naval warfare until a fleet commanded by Alvise Mocenigo successfully defeated a larger Ottoman fleet near the Greek island of Naxos.
Major naval battles of this next period of the war include the four battles of the Dardanelles, which took place from 1654 to 1657:
The first battle commenced on 16 May 1654, and consisted of 115 Ottoman vessels fighting only 17 Venetian vessels. It resulted in heavy losses on both sides, with a manuscript describing the Turks even considering the battle a loss.
The second battle took place on 21 June 1655, near the island of Milos - the Ottomans faced 22 galleys, 33 sailing ships and 6 galleasses, but lost the battle despite having a greater number of forces.
The third battle took place on 26 June 1656, inside the Dardanelles. 67 Venetian ships, including 31 galleys, engaged in combat with 98 Ottoman ships, including 61 galleys. Venice won this battle easily, incurring heavy losses on the Ottomans and occupying Tenedos and Lemnos - this allowed a short blockade of the Strait that lasted until the start of the summer.
Countering the blockade, the 4th and final battle of the Dardanelles took place on 17 July 1657. 47 Ottoman vessels were able to overwhelm 67 Venetian vessels, breaking the blockade on 19 July, although not without a greater number of Ottoman losses.
Following the collapse of the Venetian blockade on 19 July 1657, no major naval warfare was seen until 8 March 1668, when Venice successfully fought off 12 Ottoman galleys and 2,000 Ottoman troops attempting to seize Venetian galleys. The battle lasted five hours, with a number of Ottoman galleys captured by the Venetians.
Land warfare
No major land warfare was seen until the winter of 1666/1667, when on 22 May some 15,000 Ottoman troops started to break the siege of Candia. After another 28 months of warfare, the Ottomans forced a peace treaty upon Doge Francesco Morosini on 6 September 1669, ending the siege.
References
Guicciardini, Francesco. The History of Italy. Translated by Sydney Alexander. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984. .
Norwich, John Julius. A History of Venice. New York: Vintage Books, 1989. .
Phillips, Charles and Alan Axelrod. Encyclopedia of Wars. 3 vols. New York: Facts on File, 2005. .
Taylor, Frederick Lewis. The Art of War in Italy, 1494-1529. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973. .
Warfare of the Middle Ages
Warfare of the early modern period
Venice |
4356148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20portmanteaus | List of portmanteaus | This is a selection of portmanteau words.
Animals
Hybrids
cattalo, from cattle and buffalo
donkra, from donkey and zebra (progeny of donkey stallion and zebra mare) cf. zedonk below
llamanaco, from llama and guanaco
wholphin, from whale and dolphin
zorse, from zebra and horse (progeny of zebra stallion and horse mare) cf. hebra above
Cats
leopon, from leopard and lion
liger, from lion and tiger (progeny of male lion and tigress) cf. tiglon/tigon below
tigon, from tiger and lion (progeny of male tiger and lioness) cf. liger above
Mixed breeds
Dogs
cockapoo, from cocker spaniel and poodle (with influence from cockatoo)
goldendoodle, from golden retriever and poodle ("doodle" in reference to the Labradoodle)
Labradoodle, from Labrador retriever and poodle
Other
beefalo, from beef and buffalo
Brangus, from Brahman and Angus breeds of cattle
Wangus, from Wagyu and Angus breeds of cattle
Characteristics
camelopard, from camel and leopard
Beelzebufo, from Beelzebub and Bufo
sploot, from splay and scoot
squitten, from squirrel and kitten
Fictional
Aristocats, from aristocrats and cats
buggalo, from bug and buffalo
crocoduck, from crocodile and duck
jackalope, from jackrabbit and antelope
mammophant, from mammoth and elephant
pegacorn, from Pegasus and unicorn
Pigasus, from pig and Pegasus
Predalien, from Predator and Alien
Squirtle, from squirt and turtle
Art, literature and entertainment
animatronics, from animation and electronics
Barbenheimer, from Barbie and Oppenheimer
batarang, from bat and boomerang
Bennifer, from Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez
blaxploitation, from black and exploitation
Bollywood, from Bombay and Hollywood
Bootylicious, from booty and delicious
Brangelina, from Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie
bromance, from bro (brother) and romance
Brony, from bro and pony
Californication, from California and fornication
Chamillionaire, from chameleon and millionaire
Death 'n' roll, from death metal and rock 'n' roll
disasterpiece, from disaster and masterpiece
disemvoweling, from disemboweling and vowel
Dhallywood, from Dhaka and Hollywood
docudrama, from documentary and drama
docuseries, from documentary and series
docusoap, from documentary and soap opera (serialised drama)
Dollywood, from Dolly Parton and Hollywood
Draculaura, from Dracula and name Laura, character from Monster High
dramedy, from drama and comedy
edutainment, from education and entertainment
Electrocutioner, from electrocution and executioner
faction, from fact and fiction
fanac, from fan and activity
fanslation, from fan and translation
fanzine, from fan and magazine
fauxligraphy, from faux and calligraphy
fauxlography, from faux and holography
fauxtography, from faux and photography
FUNimation, from fun and animation
Funkadelic, from funk and psychedelic
Galentine's Day, from gals and Valentine's Day
Gleeks, from Glee and geeks
glitterati, from glitter and literati
Governator, from governor and Terminator
Gojira (Godzilla), from ゴリラ (gorira, "gorilla") and 鯨 (kujira, "whale")
Görliwood, from Görlitz and Hollywood, a nickname for the Görlitz and Zgorzelec metropolitan area as a filming location
greige, from grey and beige
grue, from green and blue (see bleen, above)
Hamburglar, from hamburger and burglar
Hatchimals, from hatch and animals
ignorati, from ignorant and literati
infomercial, from information and commercial
infotainment, from information and entertainment
Jamiroquai, from Jam (session) and Iroquois
Japandroids, from Japanese Scream and Pleasure Droids (two band name ideas)
Japanoise, from Japanese and noise
Jedward, John and Edward Grimes
Jollywood, from Jyoti Chitraban Film Studio and Hollywood
Kollywood, from Kodambakkam and Hollywood
Kripkenstein, from Saul Kripke and Ludwig Wittgenstein
latensification, from latent and intensification
literotica, from literature and erotica
Lollywood, from Lahore and Hollywood
machinima, from machine and cinema
Mandroid, from man and android
Megxit, from Meghan, Duchess of Sussex and exit
Metroidvania, from Metroid and Castlevania
Mephiskapheles, from Mephistopheles and ska
militainment, from military and entertainment
mockbuster, from mock and blockbuster
mockumentary, from mock and documentary
Mollywood, from the combination of any of the following terms with Hollywood:
Malayalam, when referring to Malayalam cinema
Marathi, when referring to Marathi cinema
The LDS Church term Molly Mormon, when referring to Mormon cinema
Monokuma, from monochrome and Japanese kuma ("bear")
Mouseketeer, from Mickey Mouse and musketeer
Muppet, from marionette and puppet
newscast, from news and broadcast
Nedna, from Ned Flanders and Edna Krabappel, from The Simpsons
Ninjago, from ninja and Lego
Nollywood, from Nigeria and Hollywood
nonebrity, from nonentity and celebrity
Odditorium, from odd and auditorium
Ollywood, from Odia and Hollywood
Pallywood, from Palestinian and Hollywood
Parcheesi, from Parker Brothers and pachisi
Pensieve, from pensive and sieve
presstitutes, from press and prostitutes
prequiem, from preemptive and requiem
psychobilly, from psycho and rockabilly
rainscaping, from rain and landscaping
reprography, from reproduce and photography
rockabilly, from rock and hillbilly
rockumentary, from rock and documentary
scanlation, from scan and translation, used for unofficial internet-distributed translations of manga
schlockumentary, from schlock and documentary
seascape, from sea and landscape
sextra, from sex and extra (acting)
shockumentary, from shock and documentary
showmance, from show business and romance
sidequel, from side and sequel
Siliwood, from Silicon Valley and Hollywood
skinema, from skin and cinema
Skinemax, from skin and Cinemax
Slingo, from slots and bingo
smark, from smart and mark
soundscape, from sound and landscape
Spraycation, from vacation and spraypainting coined by the anonymous English Street artist Banksy for the title of his summer 2021 series of works "A Great British Spraycation"
Stucky, from Steve Rogers and Bucky Barnes
Tamagotchi, from tamago (Japanese for "egg") and uotchi (from English "watch")
telegenic, from television and photogenic
teleidoscope, from telescope and kaleidoscope
televangelist, from television and evangelist
Tollywood, from Tollygunge (when referring to West Bengal cinema) or Telugu (when referring to Telugu cinema) and Hollywood
TomKat, from Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes
tragicomedy, from tragedy and comedy
Treknology, from Star Trek and technology
Truckasaurus, from truck and Tyrannosaurus
Unwindulax, from unwind and relax
Valleywood, from Wye Valley and Hollywood
Wagatha Christie, popular name of a 2022 English defamation court case; derived from the football term "WAGs" and Agatha Christie
Waluigi, from Japanese warui ("bad") and the name Luigi
Wario, from Japanese warui and the name Mario
Wellywood, from Wellington and Hollywood
Fashion and apparel
anklet, from ankle and bracelet
armlet, from arm and bracelet
bandkini, from bandeau and bikini
burkini, from burka and bikini
camikini, from camisole and bikini
cosplay, from costume and roleplay
crossplay, from crossdressing and cosplay
dayjamas, from daytime and pajamas
draids, from dreadlocks and braids
facekini, from face and bikini
fauxhawk, from faux and mohawk
femullet, from female and mullet
flagkini, from flag and bikini
floordrobe, from floor and wardrobe
glamazon, from glamorous and Amazon
groutfit, from gray and outfit
halterkini, from halter top and bikini
jeggings, from jeans and leggings
Jewfro, from Jew and afro
jorts, from jeans and shorts
mankini, from man and bikini
manscaping, from man and landscaping
manssiere, from man and brassiere
manzilian, from man and Brazilian wax
meggings, from man and leggings
metrosexual, from metropolitan and heterosexual
murse, from man and purse, or alternatively, male and nurse
Nair, from no and hair
pleather, from plastic and leather
pubikini, from pubic and bikini
seekini, from see-through and bikini
shaxing, from shaving and waxing
skirtini, from skirt and bikini
skort, from skirt and short (as in short pants)
skullet, from skull and mullet
slingkini, from slingshot and bikini
starburns, from star and sideburns
stringkini, from string and bikini
tactleneck, from tactical and turtleneck
tankini, from tank top and bikini
tanorexia, from tan and anorexia
tantoo, from tan and tattoo
tapekini, from tape and bikini
treggings, from trousers and leggings
trikini, from triple and bikini
vabbing, from vagina and dabbing
vajazzle, from vagina and bedazzle
vajungle, from vagina and jungle
vattoo, from vagina and tattoo
Velcro, from velvet and crochet
Instruments
banjitar, a combination musical instrument of a banjo and a guitar
banjolele, a combination musical instrument of a banjo and a ukulele
banjolin, a combination musical instrument of a banjo and a mandolin
escopetarra, from Spanish escopeta (shotgun/rifle) and guitarra (guitar); a guitar made from an AK-47
flumpet, from flugelhorn and trumpet
guitalele, from guitar and ukulele
guitalin, from guitar and mandolin
keytar, from keyboard and guitar
sympitar, from sympathetic string and guitar
tromboon, from trombone and bassoon
ukelin, from ukulele and violin
Titles
Alphabear, from alphabet and bear
Animaniacs, from animated and maniacs
Animatrix, from anime and The Matrix
Animorphs, from animal morphers
Banjo-Tooie, from Banjo-Kazooie and two (sequel)
BASEketball, from baseball and basketball
The Beverly Hillbillies, from Beverly Hills and hillbillies
Blacula, from black and Dracula
Bunnicula, from bunny and Dracula
Castlevania, from castle and Transylvania
Crooklyn, from crook and Brooklyn
Disturbia, from disturbed and suburbia
Ennuigi, from ennui and Luigi
ElimiDate, from eliminate and date
Evilution, from evil and evolution
Fergalicious, from Fergie and delicious
Floribama Shore, from Florida and Alabama
Frankenfish, from Frankenstein and fish
Funderdome, from funding and Thunderdome
Incognegro, from incognito and negro
Instrumedley, from instrument and medley
Lamprophrenia, from lampron (bright) and phrenia (mind)
Lavalantula, from lava and tarantula
Manimal, from man and animal
Manster, from man and monster
MANswers, from man and answers
Menergy, from men and energy
Morroblivion, from Morrowind and Oblivion
Mutanimals, from mutant and animals
Nintendogs, from Nintendo and dogs
Notzilla, from not and Godzilla
Piranhaconda, from piranha and anaconda
Plandemic, from plan and pandemic
Policenauts, from police and astronaut
Polygondwanaland, from polygon and Gondwanaland
Pornograffitti, from pornography and graffiti
Puppetoons, from puppets and cartoons
Quantumania, from quantum and mania
Religulous, from religion and ridiculous
Returnal, from return and eternal
Revolusongs, from revolution and songs
Roblox, from robot and blocks
Scribblenauts, from scribble and astronauts
Seaspiracy, from sea and conspiracy
Seussical, from Dr. Seuss and musical
Sharknado, from shark and tornado
Sharktopus, from shark and octopus
Sidetalk, from sidewalk and talk
Simpsorama, from The Simpsons and Futurama
Skyblivion, from The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion
Skywind, from The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim and Morrowind
Somari, from Sonic the Hedgehog and Mario
Spamalot, from Spam and Camelot
SPAMasterpiece Theater, from SPAM and Masterpiece Theater
Splatoon, from splat and platoon
Spontaneanation, from spontaneous and nation
Talkartoons, from talk and cartoons
ThanksKilling, from Thanksgiving and killing
Threatmantics, from threatening and romantics
Undertale, from underground and Fairy tale
Vandread, from vanguard and dreadnought
VelociPastor, from Velociraptor and pastor
Workaholics, from work and alcoholics
Zombeavers, from zombie and beavers
Zoombies, from zoo and zombies
Zootopia (or Zootropolis), from zoo and utopia (or metropolis)
Cuisine
bananacue, from banana and barbecue
banilla, from banana and vanilla
banoffee, from banana and toffee
banoodles, from bananas and noodles
barcade, from bar and arcade
beefaroni, from beef and macaroni
beerage, from beer and peerage
Bisquick, from biscuit and quick
broast, from broil and roast
brunch, from breakfast and lunch
Buffaranch, from Buffalo sauce and ranch dressing
camotecue, from Spanish camote (sweet potato) and barbecue
cannabutter, from cannabis and butter
Canola, from Canadian oil, low acid, the trademarked name of a specific cultivar of rapeseed developed in Canada to have a naturally low erucic acid content
chookie, from cheesecake and cookie
chork, from chopsticks and fork
Cinnabon, from cinnamon and bun
crabocado, from crab and avocado
Craisin, from cranberry and raisin
CremeSavers, from creme and Lifesavers
Croissan'wich, from croissant and sandwich
cronut, from croissant and doughnut
Dijonnaise, from Dijon and mayonnaise
dunch, from dinner and lunch
Dunkaroos, from dunk and kangaroos
enchalupa, from enchilada and chalupa
Enchirito, from enchilada and burrito
Fabanaise, from aquafaba and mayonnaise
facon, from fake and bacon
fawaffle, from falafel and waffle
flavorite, from flavor and favorite
flexitarian, from flexible and vegetarian (meaning in principle, vegetarian, but can be flexible if necessary)
freeganism, from free and veganism
froyo, from frozen and yogurt
Funfetti, from fun and confetti
Funyuns, from fun and onions
gastropub, from gastronomy and public house
glutose, from glucose and fructose
Gogurt, from go and yogurt
Hanch, from hot sauce and ranch dressing
Honeyracha, from honey and sriracha
hufu, from human and tofu
insinkerator, from sink and incinerator
jizzcuit, from jizz and biscuit
Ketchili, from ketchup and sweet chili sauce
knork, from knife and fork
Kranch, from ketchup and ranch dressing
linner, from lunch and dinner, coined in an AM/PM commercial
Lymon, from lime and lemon
Manwich, from man and sandwich
Mayochup, from mayonnaise and ketchup
Mayocue, from mayonnaise and barbecue
Mayomust, from mayonnaise and mustard
Mayoracha, from mayonnaise and sriracha
menma, from ramen (拉麺) and machiku (麻竹)
pizzone, from pizza and calzone, popularized by Pizza Hut as the P'Zone
popsicle, from pop and icicle
quesalupa, from quesadilla and chalupa
quesarito, from quesadilla and burrito
Rice-A-Roni, from rice and macaroni
salsamole, from alsa and guacamole
scromlette, from scrambled eggs and omelette
snaccident, from snack and accident
soylent, from soy and lentil
soysage, from soy and sausage
spatchcock, from dispatch and cock
spife, from spoon and knife
spoodle, from spoon and ladle
sporf, from spoon, fork and knife
spork, from spoon and fork
sujeo, from Korean (, "spoon") and (, "chopsticks")
Tarchup, from tartar sauce and ketchup
tofurkey, from tofu and turkey
totchos, from tater tots and nachos
turducken, from turkey, duck, and chicken
Vegenaise, from vegan and mayonnaise
Wasabioli, from wasabi and aioli
zoodles, from zucchini and noodles
Beverages
alcopop, from alcohol and pop
appletini, from apple and martini
beergarita, from beer and margarita
bluberrita, from blueberry and margarita
Clamato, from clam and tomato juice
Coco Rico, from coconut and Puerto Rico
coffeetini, from coffee and martini
cranberrita, from cranberry and margarita
crantini, from cranberry and martini
dollaritas, from dollar and margaritas
flirtini, from flirt and martini
frappuccino, from frappé and cappuccino
gelatini, from gelatin and martini
kegerator, from keg and refrigerator
mangorita, from mango and margarita
Meritage, from merit and heritage
mocktail, from mock and cocktail
Nespresso, from Nestlé and espresso
Palcohol, from powder and alcohol
raspberrita, from raspberry and margarita
rumchata, from spiced rum and horchata
saketini, from sake and martini
scotchka, from scotch and vodka
seltzerita, from hard seltzer and margarita
Silk, from soy and milk
strawberrita, from strawberry and margarita
vodkatini, from vodka and martini
Hybrids
broccoflower, from broccoli and cauliflower
Brusselkale, from Brussels sprouts and kale
caulini, from cauliflower and broccolini
celtuce, from celery and lettuce
citrange, from citron and orange
citrangequat, from citrange and kumquat
citrumelo, from citrus and pommelo
garlion, from garlic and onion
Grāpple, from grape and apple
Kinnow, from 'King' (Citrus nobilis) and 'Willow Leaf' (Citrus × deliciosa)
lemonquat, from lemon and kumquat
limequat, from Key lime and kumquat
mandelo, from mandarin orange and pommelo
orangequat, from orange and kumquat
parsnip, from Pastinaca and turnip (though often confused with parsley root leftover after the leaves and stems have been snipped)
peacherine, from peach and nectarine
peacotum, from peach, apricot and plum
pineberry, from pineapple and strawberry
pluot, from plum and apricot
pomato, from potato and tomato
procimequat, from primitive Hong Kong kumquat and limequat
sunchoke, from sunflower and artichoke
tangelo, from tangerine and pomelo
tomacco, from tomato and tobacco, coined on The Simpsons, "E-i-e-i-(Annoyed Grunt)"
topepo, from tomato and sweet pepper
triticale, from Triticum (wheat) and Secale (rye)
yuzuquat, from yuzu and kumquat
General
Aberzombie, from zombie and Abercrombie & Fitch
absotively, from absolutely and positively
acupressure, from acupuncture and pressure
affluenza, from affluence and influenza
airgasm, from air and orgasm
Amerind peoples, from American and Indian
Amerithrax, from American and anthrax attacks
ametrine, a gemstone composed of amethyst and citrine
ampersand, from and per se and
Amshack, from Amtrak and shack
anacronym, from anachronism and acronym (not to be confused with anachronym)
analrapist, from analyst and therapist
anecdata, from anecdote and data
anticipointment, from anticipation and disappointment
apronym, from apropos and acronym
aquamation, from aquatic and cremation
architourist, from architecture and tourist
arcology, from architecture and ecology
ascared, from afraid and scared
automagical, from automatic and magical
automobilia, from automobile and memorabilia
avionics, from aviation and electronics
backronym, from backwards and acronym
bacne, from back and acne
baffound, from baffle and confound
balloonacy, from balloon and lunacy
bankster, from banker and gangster
barbell, from bar and dumbbell
Barcalounger, from Edward J. Barcalo and lounger
bedaffled, from bedazzled and baffled
begpacking, from begging and backpacking
beneffectance, from beneficence and effectance
bicurious, from bisexual and curious
Bionicle, from biological and chronicle
blaccent, from black and accent – used by non-blacks who try to sound black
Blackanese, from black and Chinese or Japanese
blandiose, from bland and grandiose
Blasian, from black and Asian
blizzaster, from blizzard and disaster
blizzicane, from blizzard and hurricane
blumpkin, from blowjob and pumpkin (slang for anus)
blurse, from blessing and curse
bodacious, from bold and audacious
boldacious, from bold and audacious
booboisie, from boob and bourgeosie
boregasm, from boring and orgasm
bossnapping, from boss and kidnapping
botel, from boat and hotel (i.e. Boat Hotel in SEA)
brainiac, from brain and maniac
brandwagon, from brand and bandwagon
breathalyzer, from breath and analyzer
bromance, from brother and romance
brony, from "bro" and pony – the fanbase for My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic
broseph, from bro and Joseph
brosephine, from bro and Josephine
budtender, from bud and bartender
bullycide, from bullying and suicide
burble, from bubble and gurgle
bussy, from boy and pussy
cablegram, from cable and telegram
camcorder, from camera and recorder
cankles, from calf and ankles
carbage, from car and garbage
cardening, from car and gardening
carjack, from car and hijack
castrophony, from catastrophe and cacophony
catio, from cat and patio
Caucasity, from Caucasian and audacity
celesbian, from celebrity and lesbian
celebutante, from celebrity and debutante
cellophane, from cellulose and diaphane
chavtastic, from chav and fantastic (meaning, 'having many characteristics of a chav', rather than a 'fantastic chav')
chillax, from chill and relax
Chinarello, from China and Pinarello (used to describe a counterfeit Pinarello racing bike)
Chindian, meaning someone with both Chinese and Indian ethnic heritage.
Chinglish, English and Chinese mixed up to humorous effect (cf. Spanglish, Franglais, Japanglish)
chokebreaker, from chokeslam and backbreaker
chortle, from chuckle and snort (coined by Lewis Carroll)
Chrismukkah, from Christmas and Hanukkah (popularized by The O.C.)
chuggers, from charity and muggers
clussy, from clown and pussy
complisult, from compliment and insult
coopetition, from cooperation and competition
copium, from cope and opium
Count Chocula, from Count Dracula and chocolate
covidiot, from COVID-19 and idiot
cremains, from cremate and remains
crisitunity, from crisis and opportunity
cryptanalysis, from cryptogram and analysis
cryptex, from cryptology and codex
cyberdelic, from prefix cyber- and psychedelic
dadvice, from dad and advice
disastrophe, from disaster and catastrophe
Doxbridge, from Durham, Oxford, and Cambridge
dramastic, from dramatic and drastic
drilldo, from drill and dildo
dumbfound, from dumb and confound
Ebonics, from ebony and phonics
ecoteur, from ecological and saboteur
electrocute, from electric and execute
factual, from fact and actual
fakelore, from fake and folklore
fantabulous, from fantastic and fabulous
Farmageddon, from farm and Armageddon
fatberg, from fat and iceberg
fauxmance, from faux and romance
fertigation, from fertilize and irrigation
filmanthropy, from film and philanthropy
finickity, from finicky and persnickety
firenado, from fire and tornado
flatterfied, from flattered and terrified
Fleshlight, from flashlight and flesh
flexicurity, from flexibility and security
flimmer, from flicker and glimmer
floof, from fluff and poof
flotel, from float and hotel
flounder, from flounce and founder or founder and blunder
flubber, from flying rubber
fluff, from flue and puff
flustrated, from flustered and frustrated
fogbow, from fog and rainbow
folksonomy, from folk and taxonomy
folktronica, from folk and electronica
foodlegger, from food and bootlegger
fooligan, from fool and hooligan
foolosophy, from fool and philosophy
Franglais, French and English mixed up to humorous effect (cf. Chinglish, Spanglish, Japanglish)
fratire, from fraternity and satire
freeter, from free (or perhaps freelance) and the German Arbeiter ("labourer")
frenemy, from friend and enemy
friendiversary, from friend and anniversary
Friendsgiving, from friends and Thanksgiving
frumious, from fuming and furious (coined by Lewis Carroll)
funemployed, from fun and unemployed
funishment, from fun and punishment
funtastic, from fun and fantastic
fursona, from furry and persona
gamestorming, from games and brainstorming
galumphing, from galloping and triumphant (coined by Lewis Carroll)
gayby, from gay and baby
gaydar, from gay and radar
gaymer, from gay and gamer
ginormous, from gigantic and enormous
glamping, from glamour and camping
glasphalt, from glass and asphalt
globesity, from global and obesity
Globish, from global and English
glocalization, from global and localization
glasstic, from glass and plastic
golliwog, from golly and polliwog
grandiloquent, from grandiose and eloquent
grasscycling, from grass and recycling
greenwash, from green and whitewash
grillbilly, from grill and hillbilly
guesstimate, from guess and estimate
guyliner, from guy and eyeliner, eyeliner for men
Halloweekend, from Halloween and weekend
handicapable, from handicapped and capable
hangry, from hungry and angry
hangxiety, from hangover and anxiety
happenstance, from happening and circumstance
harasshole, from harassment and asshole
hasbian, from has been and lesbian
hempcrete, from hemp and concrete
herstory, from her and history
himbo, from him and bimbo
Hinglish, from Hindi and English
Hinjew, from Hinduism and Jew
hubot, from human and robot
huggle, from hug and snuggle
humanure, from human and manure
hunty, from honey and cunt
hurriquake, from hurricane and earthquake
imagineering, from imagination and engineering
indietronica, from indie (independent) and electronica
insinuendo, from insinuate and innuendo
interrobang, from interrogative and bang
intertwingle, from intertwine and intermingle
irregardless, from irrespective and regardless
Japanglish, Japanese and English mixed up to humorous effect (cf. Chinglish, Spanglish, Franglais)
jasta, from jäger and staffel, German for hunter squadron (WWI air group)
Jatimatic, from and automatic
Juneteenth, from June and nineteenth. A holiday celebrating emancipation from slavery in the United States.
kidult, from kid and adult
legiterally, from legitimately and literally
linoleum, from linseed oil and petroleum
mangina, from man and vagina
manny, from man and nanny
manosphere, from man and atmosphere
Masshole, from Massachusetts and asshole
mathlete, from math and athlete
mechatronics, from mechanical and electronics
meld, from melt and weld
mimsy, from miserable and flimsy (coined by Lewis Carroll)
mizzle, from mist and drizzle
mockney, from mock and Cockney
momager, from mom and manager
moobs, from man and boobs
motel, from motor and hotel
Movember, from moustache and November
moxibustion, from moxa and combustion
murdercide, from murder and suicide
napalm, from naphthene and palmitate
needcessity, from need and necessity
neuticles, from neutered and testicles
Nintendonitis, from Nintendo and tendonitis
Nuyorican, from New York and Puerto Rican
Oxbridge, from Oxford and Cambridge
palimony, from pal and alimony
paratrooper, from parachute and trooper
parkade, from parking and arcade
Pastafarian, from pasta and Rastafarian; from Pastafarianism or The Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
pegacorn, from pegasus and unicorn
pegasister, from pegasus and sister
permafrost, from permanent and frost
Pictionary, from picture and dictionary
pigloo, from pig and igloo
Poglish, from Polish and English
Portuñol, from Portuguese and Español (Spanish)
prissy, from prim and fussy (or sissy)
promposal, from prom and proposal
proplifting, from propagating and shoplifting
prostitot, from prostitute and tot
protoflight, from prototype and flight (hardware)
prebuttal, from preemptive and rebuttal
precap, from preemptive and recap
preply, from preemptive and reply
preport, from preemptive and report
punny, from pun and funny
pykrete, from Geoffrey Pyke and concrete
rebar, from reinforced and bar
religiose, from religious and grandiose
Runglish, from Russian and English
Quebexican, from Quebecois and Mexican
sadgasm, from sad and orgasm
satisficing, from satisfy and suffice
Scattergories, from scattered and categories
scribacious, from scribe and loquacious
scuzzy, from scummy and fuzzy
sexcapade, from sex and escapade
sexcellent, from sex and excellent
sexercise, from sex and exercise
sexhibition, from sex and exhibition
sexpedition, from sex and expedition
sexperience, from sex and experience
sexperiment, from sex and experiment
sexpert, from sex and expert (refers mainly to people who give advice about sex and sexual matters)
sexpionage (or sexspionage), from sex and espionage
sexploitation, from sex and exploitation
sexploration, from sex and exploration
sexpo, from sex and expo
sexterity, from sex and dexterity
sexting, from sex and texting
sextortion, from sex and extortion
sextravaganza, from sex and extravaganza
shamateur, from sham and amateur
shamboo, from sham and bamboo
shart, from shit and fart
sheanderthal, from she and Neanderthal
sheeple, from sheep and people
shero, from she and hero
shewee, from she and weewee
shotcrete, from shot and concrete
simulcasting, from simultaneous broadcasting
situationship, from situational and relationship
skeezy, from sketchy and sleazy
skinship, from skin and kinship
skitching, from skating and hitching
skyjack, from sky and hijack
slacktivism, from slacker and activism
slanguage, from slang and language
sleepiphany, from sleep and epiphany
slimsy, from slim and flimsy
slithy, from slimy and lithe (coined by Lewis Carroll)
sliving, from slaying and living
slofie, from slow motion and selfie
slore, from slut and whore
slunt, from slut and cunt
smackaroons, from smackers and doubloons (with influence from macaroons)
smaste, from smell and taste
smaze, from smoke and haze
smexy, from smart and sexy
smirting, from smoking and flirting
smize, from smile and eyes
smog, from smoke and fog
smothercate, from smother and suffocate
snarf, from snort and scarf
snark, from snide and remark
snart, from sneeze and fart
snatiation, from sneeze and satiation
snazzy, from snappy and jazzy
snice, from snow and ice
snoregasm, from snore and orgasm
snough, from sneeze and cough
snowclone, from snowcone and clone
Snowmageddon, from snow and Armageddon
snowpocalypse, from snow and apocalypse
solemncholy, from solemn and melancholy
sorostitute, from sorority and prostitute
spange, from spare change
Spanglish, Spanish and English mixed up to humorous effect (cf. Chinglish, Franglais, Japanglish)
Spermageddon, from sperm and Armageddon
spermjacking, from sperm and hijacking
splatter, from splash and spatter
spottle, from spots (cannabis) and bottle
sprelve, from sprite and elve
splendiloquent, from splendid and eloquent
spunion, from spun out and onion
spunk, from spark and funk
squander, from scatter and wander
squarson, from squire and parson
squelch, from squash, quell, and quench
squiggle, from squirm and wiggle
squircle, from square and circle
squirl, from squiggle and twirl or whirl
squizz, from squint and quiz
starchitect, from star and architect
stash, from store or stow and cache
statite, from static and satellite
staycation, from stay and vacation
stealthie, from stealth and selfie
steez, from style and ease
stupidstitious, from stupid and superstitious
superveillance, supervision and surveillance
swapportunity, from swap and opportunity, an opportunity to swap
swaption, from swap and option
Taglish, from Tagalog and English
tarmac, from tar and macadam
telethon, from television and marathon
tensegrity, from tensional and integrity
testilying, from testifying and lying
Thanksgivukkah, from Thanksgiving Day and Hanukkah
thembo, from them and bimbo
threepeat, from three and repeat
throuple, a committed personal partnered relationship between three people as a connected unit (in some instances also known as a "Ménage à trois")
thrussy, from throat and pussy
tiparillo, from tip and cigarillo
toonie, from two and loonie
transbian, from transgender and lesbian
transceiver, from transmitter and receiver
transistor, from transfer and resistor
transmogrify, from transfigure and modify
transponder, from transmitter and responder
transvestigation, from transgender and investigation
triggernometry, from trigger and trigonometry
trilemma, from triple and dilemma
trill, from true and real
trimmigrant, from (cannabis) trimming and immigrant
trustafarian, from trust fund and Rastafarian
tween, from teen and between
twincest, from twins and incest
twirl, from twist and whirl
twunk, from twink and hunk
twunt, from twat and cunt
unvitation, from uninvited and invitation
utilidor, from utilities and corridor
vacationship, from vacation and relationship
vagenda, from vagina and agenda
vagrant, from vagabond and migrant
voluntourist, from volunteer and tourist
vurp, from vomit and burp
waithood, from wait and adulthood
wasband, from was and husband
weediquette, from weed and etiquette
weedsplain, from weed and explain
Wenglish, from Welsh and English
wikiquette, from wiki and etiquette
Wiktionary, from wiki and dictionary
wordnik, from word and beatnik
workaholic, from work and alcoholic
workiversary, from work and anniversary
wuss, from wimp and puss
yestergay, from yesterday and gay
zombocalypse, from zombie and apocalypse
HMS Zubian, Royal Navy destroyer built from parts of damaged HMS Zulu and HMS Nubian
Internet and computing
alphanumeric, from alphabetic and numeric
ASCIIbetical, from ASCII and alphabetical
balun, from balanced and unbalanced
bitmoji, from bit and emoji
blogosphere, from blog and logosphere
blorph, from blend and morph
brogrammer, from bro and programmer
brouter, from bridge and router
bullshot, from bullshit and screenshot
Chaturbate, from chat and masturbate
codec, from coder and decoder
companding, from compressing and expanding
concolic, from concrete and symbolic
cryptography. from κεκρυμμένος (hidden) and Γραφή (writing)
cryptocurrency, from cryptography and currency
cybrarian, from cyber and librarian
Darwine, from Darwin and WINE
debconf, from Debian and configuration
datacasting, from data and broadcasting
dataveillance, from data and surveillance
deepfake, from deep learning and fake
desknote, from desktop and notebook
digerati, from digital and literati
emoticon, from emotion and icon
favicon, from favourite and icon
Fediverse, from federation and universe
Finsta, from fake and Instagram
folksonomy, from folk and taxonomy
frecency, from frequency and recency
freemium, from free and premium
Hackintosh, from hack and Macintosh
hacktivism, from hack and activism
Hatreon, from hate and Patreon
incel, from involuntary and celibate
Intellivision, from intelligent and television
Joy-Con, from joystick and controller
Jython, from Java and Python
Kinect, from kinetic and connection
knowledgebase, from knowledge and database
Linux, from Linus and Unix
listicle, from list and article
Mactel, from Macintosh and Intel
Markiplier, from the name Mark and multiplier
memex, from memory and index
Mii, from Wii and me
Mobilegeddon, from mobile and Armageddon
modem, from modulator and demodulator
modmin, from moderator and admin
Mozilla, from "mosaic killer" and Godzilla
netiquette, from Internet and etiquette
netizen, from (Inter)net and citizen
phablet, from phone and tablet
pharming, from phishing and farming
phubbing, from phone and snubbing
pixel, from picture and element
podcast, from iPod and broadcast
Privoxy, from privacy and proxy
Project Chanology, from chan (a common suffix for the titles of imageboards) and Scientology
QAnonsense, from QAnon and nonsense
Raspbian, from Raspberry Pi and Debian
reddiquette, from Reddit and etiquette
resel, from resolution and element
screenager, from screen and teenager
screenshot, from screen and snapshot
SerDes, from serialize and deserialize
Skype, from sky and peer-to-peer
spamdexing, from spam and indexing
spamouflage, from spam and camouflage
spaxel, from spatial and pixel
sporgery, from spam and forgery
texel, from texture and element
textonym, from text and synonym
Throwbot, from throw and robot
treap, from tree and heap
trixel, from triangle and pixel
Twitterverse, from Twitter and universe
upsert, from update and insert
vlog, from video and blog
vortal, from vertical and portal
voxel, from volume and pixel
wardriving, from wardialing and driving
webcast, from World Wide Web and broadcast
webinar, from World Wide Web and seminar
webisode, from World Wide Web and episode
webtoon, from World Wide Web and cartoon
widget, from window and gadget
Wikipedia, from wiki and encyclopedia
Wintel, from Windows and Intel
Marketing
advertainment, from advertising and entertainment
advertorial, from advertising and editorial
entreporneur, from entrepreneur and porn
innoventing, from innovating and inventing
marchitecture, from marketing and architecture
cineplex, from cinema and complex (building)
manufactroversy, from manufacture and controversy
masstige, from mass market and prestige
multiplex, from multiple and complex – this word has a different meaning in telecommunications
petrodollar, from petroleum and dollar
prosumer, from either producer or professional and consumer
subvertising, from subverting and advertising
telemarketing, from telephone and marketing
tenderpreneur, from tendering and entrepreneur
wantrepreneur, from want and entrepreneur
Organizations and companies
Accenture, from accent and future (accent on the future)
Alitalia, from Ali (Italian translation for wings) and Italia (Italy)
Alstom, from Alsace and Thompson-Houston. Originally spelled "Alsthom", the "h" was removed in 2008 (the company was named GEC-Alsthom at the time).
Amtrak, from American and track
Austar, from Australia and star
Bapes, from bathing and ape
Binance, from binary and finance
Calutron, from California University Cyclotron
Carvana, from car and nirvāṇa
Citigroup, from Citicorp and Travelers Group
Citizendium, from Citizens' Compendium
Comcast, from communication and broadcast
Compaq, from compatibility and quality
Conservapedia, from conservative and Wikipedia
Creamsicle, from cream and popsicle
Danimals, from Dannon and animals
Dash (cryptocurrency), from Digital and Cash
Ecosia, from ecology and Acacia
Edexcel, from educational and excellence
Emergen-C, from emergency and vitamin C
Extell, from excellence and intelligence
Froogle, from frugal and Google
Fruitopia, from fruit and utopia
Fudgsicle, from fudge and popsicle
Funimation, from fun and animation
Garmin, from Gary Burrell and Min Kao
Googleplex, from Google and complex (meaning a complex of buildings) (with influence from googolplex)
Groupon, from group and coupon
Ideanomics, from idea and economics
Imagineering, from Imagine (or Imagination) and Engineering
LATAM, from Lan Airlines and TAM Airlines
Lenovo, from Legend and "novo" (Latin ablative for "new")
Medi-Cal, California's name for their Medicaid program, from medical and California
Medicaid, from medicine/medical and aid
Medicare, from medicine/medical and care
Netflix, from internet and flicks (slang for movie)
Nikon, from Nippon Kōgaku and Ikon
Pinterest, from pin and interest
Poo-Pourri, from poo and potpourri
Popsicle, from (soda) pop or lollipop and Epsicle (Epsicle itself a portmanteau of Epperson (“the surname of the inventor”) and icicle)
Qualcomm, from Quality and Communications
RuPay, from rupee and payment
Rustoleum, from rust and linoleum
Spotify, from spot and identify
Teletoon, from television and cartoon
Toonami, from cartoon and tsunami
Toshiba, from Shibaura Seisaku-sho and Tokyo Denki through the merger of Tokyo Shibaura Electric K.K.
Travelocity, from travel and velocity
Triscuit, from electricity and biscuit
Venezuelanalysis, from Venezuela and analysis
Verizon, from veritas (Latin for truth) and horizon
Victorinox, from Victoria (the company founder's mother) and inox (stainless steel)
Unilever, from Margarine Unie and Lever Brothers
Wikimedia, from Wikipedia and media
Wikipedia, from wiki and encyclopedia
Yelp, from yellow pages and help
Yosicle, from yogurt and popsicle
Places
AfPak, from Afghanistan and Pakistan
Afrabia, from Africa and Arabia
Afro-Eurasia, from Africa, Europe, and Asia
Arlandria, from Arlington, VA and Alexandria, VA
Australasia, from Australia and Asia
Autopia, attraction in Disneyland, from automobile and utopia
Benelux, from Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
Birome, from Bickham and Jerome Cartwright, landowners
BosWash, from Boston and Washington, D.C.
Brockton, from Brant, Greenock and Walkerton
Calexico, from California and Mexico
Calistoga, from California and Saratoga
Canwood, from Canadian woodlands
Chambana, from Champaign and Urbana
Chiberia, from Chicago and Siberia
Chindia, from China and India
Chiraq, from Chicago and Iraq
Chimerica, from China and America
Clerval, from claire vallée, French for "clear valley"
Cotai, from Coloane and Taipa
Czechoslovakia, from Czechia and Slovakia
Dalworthington Gardens, a city in north Texas, from Dallas, Fort Worth, and Arlington
Delmarva, from Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia
Delran Township, from the Delaware River and Rancocas Creek
Donbas, from Donets coal basin
Eurabia, from Europe and Arabia
Eurasia, from Europe and Asia
Fairborn, from Fairfield and Osborn
Glenbard, from Glen Ellyn and Lombard
Harvey Cedars, from harvest and cedars
Hillcrest, from Country Club Hills and Hazel Crest
Hollansburg, from Hollaman and Harland, landowners
Hotlanta, from hot and Atlanta
Illiana, from Illinois and Indiana
Indialantic, from Indian River Lagoon and the Atlantic Ocean
Irrigon, from irrigation and Oregon
Jardee, from Jardanup and Deeside
Kanorado, from Kansas And Colorado
Kanwaka Township and Kanwaka, from the Kansas and Wakarusa Rivers
Kentuckiana, from Kentucky and Indiana
Kormak, from Charles Korpela and Oscar Maki, settlers
Manchattan, from Manchester and Manhattan
Mexicali, from Mexico and California
Michiana, from Michigan and Indiana
Navelencia, from navel and Valencia oranges
NyLon (the concept, not the plastic), from New York City and London
Nylonkong, from New York City, London, and Hong Kong
Ohaton, from the Osler, Hammond and Nanton company
Pennsyltucky, from Pennsylvania and Kentucky
Poictesme, from the two French towns Poitiers and Angoulême, used in a number of novels by James Branch Cabell
Sauk Prairie, from Sauk City and Prairie du Sac
Scarberia, from Scarborough and Siberia
SeaTac and Sea-Tac Airport, from Seattle and Tacoma
Stravenue, from street and avenue
Tamiami, from Tampa and Miami
Tanzania, from Tanganyika and Zanzibar
Taxachusetts, from taxation and Massachusetts
Texarkana, from Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana
Texoma, from Texas and Oklahoma
The Tridge, from Tri-Cities and bridge
Valsetz, from the Valley and Siletz Railroad, now a ghost town
Vansterdam, from Vancouver and Amsterdam
WaKeeney, from Warren, Keeney, & Co.
Willowick, from Willoughby and Wickliffe, OH
Woolaroc, from woods, lakes and rocks
Politics
agitprop, from agitation and propaganda
beurgeois, from beur and bourgeois
Cocacolonization, from Coca-Cola and colonization
copaganda, from cop and propaganda
Demoncrat, from demon and Democrat
Eracism, from erase and racism
feminazi, from feminist and Nazi
Gerrymander, from Elbridge Gerry and salamander
kayaktivism, from kayaks and activism
Merkozy, from Angela Merkel and Nicolas Sarkozy
Obamacare, from Barack Obama and healthcare
Obamney, from Barack Obama and Mitt Romney
precariat, from precarious and proletariat
Putler, from Vladimir Putin and Adolf Hitler
Rashism, from Russia and fascism
Republicant, from Republican and can't
Ruthanasia, from Ruth Richardson and euthanasia
squirearchy, from squire and hierarchy
Trumponomics, from Donald Trump and economics (see Reaganomics)
Trumpster diving, from Donald Trump and dumpster diving
Trumpster fire, from Donald Trump and dumpster fire
warphans from war and orphans
wikiality, from Wikipedia and reality
Zupta, from Jacob Zuma and Gupta
Economics
Abenomics, from Shinzō Abe and economics
Bidenomics, from Joe Biden and economics
Clintonomics, from Bill Clinton and economics
Freakonomics, from freak and economics
Moneygeddon, from money and Armageddon (permanent scare of financial crises)
precariat, from precarious and proletariat
Reaganomics, from Ronald Reagan and economics
Rogernomics, from Roger Douglas and economics
Rubinomics, from Robert Rubin and economics
shrinkflation, from shrink and inflation
stagflation, from stagnation and inflation
tipflation, from tipping and inflation
tokenomics, from token and economics
Trussonomics, from Liz Truss and economics
Volfefe index, from volatility and covfefe
Orbanomics, from Viktor Orbán and economics
Movements
agrihood, from agriculture and neighborhood
Berniecrat, from Bernie Sanders and Democrat
Blexit, from black and exit
Brexit, from Britain and exit (with regards to leaving the EU)
Chrislam, from Christianity and Islam
Czexit, from Czech Republic and exit
Danexit, from Dane and exit
Dixiecrat, from Dixie and Democrat
Fixit, from Finland and exit (with regards to leaving the EU)
Frexit, from France and exit
Grexit, from Greece and exit
Huxit, from Hungary and exit
Lexit, from left and Brexit
Nexit, from Netherlands and exit
Qultists, from QAnon and cultists
regrexit, from regret and Brexit
Roexit, from Romania and exit
Texit, from Texas and exit
thinspiration, from thin and inspiration
Trumpanzees, from Donald Trump and chimpanzees
Sciences
abzyme, from antibody and enzyme
alkyd, from alkyl (alcohol) and id (acid or anhydride)
ampacity, from ampere and capacity
aquaponics, from aquaculture and hydroponics
atomaniac, from atom and maniac
biomarker, from biological and marker
bionics, from biology and electronics
botox, from botulism and toxin
brinicle, from brine and icicle
caplet, from capsule and tablet
carborundum, from carbon and corundum
cermet, from ceramic and metal
chemokine, from chemotactic and cytokine
clopen set, from closed-open set
contrail, from condensation and trail
cryptochrome, from cryptogam and chromatic
cultivar, from cultivated and variety
cyborg, from cybernetic and organism
diabesity, from diabetes and obesity
digipeater, from digital and repeater
electret, from electricity and magnet
endorphin, from endogenous and morphine
fogponics, from fog and aeroponics
genome, from gene and chromosome
geofact, from geological and artifact
gleeking, from sublingual gland and leaking
glocalization, from globalization and local
glymphatic system, from glial and lymphatic
grism, from grating and prism
guesstimate, from guess and estimate
Henipavirus, from Hendra virus and Nipah virus
hermaphrodite, from Hermes and Aphrodite
lavacicle, from lava and icicle
lidar, from light and radar
mafic, from magnesium and ferric
melatonin, from melanin and serotonin
memristor, from memory and transistor
mesohigh, from mesoscale and high-pressure area
mesolow, from mesoscale and low-pressure area
mesonet, from mesoscale and network
Nastronaut, from NASA and astronaut
nutraceutical, from nutrition and pharmaceutical
parsec, from parallax and arcsecond
pellistor, from pellet and resistor
permaculture, from permanent and agriculture or culture
petrochemical, from petroleum and chemical
posistor, from positive and thermistor
positron, from positive and electron
prion, from protein and infection
proteome, from proteins and genome
pulsar, from pulsating and quasar
purine, from pure and urine
quoats, from quality and oats
radome, from radar and dome
redox, from reduction and oxidation
resorcin, from resin and orcin
rusticle, from rust and icicle
sedge, from saw-like and edge
Snuppy, from SNU and puppy
spintronic, from spin and electronics
sporabola, from spore and parabola
stiction, from static and friction
surfactant, from surface active agent
synzyme, from synthetic and enzyme
telematics, from telecommunications and informatics
thermistor, from thermal and resistor
tripledemic, from triple and pandemic
trivection, from triple and convection
twindemic, from twin and pandemic
urinalysis, from urine and analysis
vitamer, from vitamin and isomer
vitamin, from vita and amine
warfarin, from WARF (Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation) and coumarin
wavicle, from wave and particle
Sports and fitness
athleisure, from athletic and leisure
boxercise, from boxing and exercise
dancercise, from dancing and exercise
Deaflympics, from deaf and Olympics
exercycle, from exercise and bicycle
flymph, from fly (fishing) and nymph
gun fu, from gun and kung fu
gymcel, from gym and incel
Gymkata, from gymnastics and karate
Gymkhana, from gymnasium and Jama'at Khana
heelies, from heel and wheelie
heliskiing, from helicopter and skiing
Jazzercise, from jazz and exercise
Mobot, from Mo (Farah) and robot
Motocross, from motorcycle and cross country
Monzanapolis, from Monza and Indianapolis
Paralympics, from parallel (originally paraplegic) and Olympics
parasailing, from parachute and sailing
plogging, from “plocka” (Swedish “pick up”) and jogging
Prancercise, from prance and exercise
scorigami, from score and origami
SerAndy, from Serena Williams and Sir Andy Murray
slurve, from slider and curve (baseball pitches)
snuba, from snorkel and scuba
squipper, from survival, equipment, and fitter
TaeBo, from Taekwondo and boxing
twi-night, from twilight and night
wallyball, from wall and volleyball
Transport
Bakerloo line, from Baker Street and Waterloo Railway
boatercycle, from boat and motorcycle
Borismaster, from Boris Johnson and AEC Routemaster
boxster, from boxer engine and roadster
Chunnel, from (English) Channel and tunnel
flaperon, from flap and aileron
frunk, from front and trunk
Ioniq, from ion and unique
Jeepster, from Jeep and roadster
jetiquette, from jet and etiquette
moped, from motor and pedal
motorcade, from motor and cavalcade
motorcycle, from motorized and bicycle
Onevia; from 180SX (front) and Silvia (rear), opposite of Sileighty
Proudia, from proud and diamond
Sileighty; from Silvia (front) and 180SX (rear) two Nissan sport coupes (that share parts that can be easily transferred from one to the other)
stroad, from street and road
Sunfire, from Pontiac Sunbird and Pontiac Firebird
taxicab, from taximeter and cabriolet
Toppo, from top (roof) and the Japanese word noppo (lanky)
trimaran, from triple and catamaran
tritoon, from triple and pontoon
truggy, from pick-up truck and dune buggy
vanbulance, from van and ambulance
Venza, from venture and Monza
See also
List of acronyms
List of lishes
Syllabic abbreviation
References
Lists of English words |
4356224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet%20Valley%20Senior%20Year | Sweet Valley Senior Year | Sweet Valley High Senior Year is part of the Sweet Valley High franchise and the last spin-off series to be published. A double edition of the final book, Sweet 18, included the first book from the SVH series, Double Love, and a letter from creator Francine Pascal. The series is considered the most contemporary and realistic of the franchise .
The Senior Year series continued the earthquake plot that took place in the final Sweet Valley High books, notably that the earthquake destroyed nearby El Carro High. As a result, El Carro students were forced to transfer to Sweet Valley High and several new characters are introduced. Like the Sweet Valley Junior High series, the chapters are interspersed with "handwritten" diary pages, e-mail entries and similar that explore the characters thoughts "off screen".
The series ends when the twins graduate from high school and their story is continued in the Sweet Valley University series, where they go to university.
Characters
Returning characters
Elizabeth Wakefield
Elizabeth became more outgoing as the series progressed out her desire to take risks, believing that her studious attitude has prevented her from trying things she may never have to chance to experience again, especially in aftermath of the earthquake. Though still a member of The Oracle, she experimented with drinking and moved out of her parents' home for a while. After meeting Conner McDermott in her creative writing class, they quickly develop a strong attraction to one another, despite their initial scorn for one another. Elizabeth's life becomes increasingly tumultuous as she and Conner fall in love with one another. She dated Evan Plummer briefly after her breakup with Conner, and then Jeff French. After she breaks up with Jeff on Prom Night, Elizabeth and Conner reconcile, but ultimately decide they should not be together. She would later reconcile with Todd during their coffee date and remain together prior to the Sweet Valley University.
Jessica Wakefield
An intense antagonism developed between Jessica and Melissa Fox after Jessica unknowingly kissed Melissa's boyfriend, Will Simmons, in the first book of the series. Jessica was devastated when her friends Lila and Amy sided with Melissa, and became the target of vicious rumors spread by Melissa and her clique throughout the school. However, she had a few friends who stayed by her side: notably in Annie Whitman and Jade Wu. She was able to bounce back from the gossip and became good friends with Tia Ramirez, another member of the cheerleading squad. Jessica dated Will briefly before entering a serious relationship with Jeremy Aames. They broke up once after Jessica decided to date Will again, but soon got back together. Jessica and Lila would later reconcile when she admits that she only sided with Melissa because she was jealous of the popularity Jessica has. She felt like a nobody and Melissa offered Lila a chance to get even with Jessica by joining her clique. However, her friendship with Amy remains over and that she is happy to follow Melissa's Anti-Jessica campaign. She would later gain more friends in the form of Cherie Reese and Gina Cho who felt guilty over how they treated her.
Maria Slater
Studious, hard-working Maria was also a member of The Oracle and Elizabeth's best friend. She placed a lot of pressure on herself to receive a scholarship at a good university and saw herself as slightly nerdy. She had a brief fling with Conner McDermott before starting a steady relationship with Ken Matthews. Maria was named valedictorian at the series conclusion.
Ken Matthews
Still in mourning over Olivia, a depressed Ken quit the football team, a decision he later regretted. After his new relationship with Maria slowly brought him out of his shell, Ken rejoined the team but he was made to ride the bench, as Will Simmons was the team's quarterback. Ken became quarterback again after Will was seriously injured during a game. Throughout the series, he struggles with his father's expectations for Ken to become a professional athlete after high school.
Jade Wu
Jade appeared in an early edition of Sweet Valley High as a sophomore, a timid Chinese girl who was terrified of defying her traditional father. In Senior Year she was significantly changed, and was depicted as a senior. She has become an extroverted, flirtatious cheerleader turned basketball player who lived with her single mother. Her affluent father and stepmother lived in Oregon; at one stage, Mr Wu attempted to make Jade move to Oregon with him, and even attend the University of Oregon to take up business administration. However, with encouragement from her friends, Jade is able to stand up to her father in letting her decide her own future. She dated Jeremy Aames briefly before beginning a relationship with Evan Plummer. Along with Annie Whitman, she does not side with Melissa Fox in the conflict against Jessica. Jade later becomes close friends with Elizabeth and Jessica and doesn't like Melissa and her friends. Jade's mother was a budding novelist who eventually began a series about Jade's friends, Elizabeth and Jessica, hinting that she is writing a version of Sweet Valley High.
Other
The following characters from the original series appear in minor capacity.
Lila Fowler took Melissa's side during the Jessica/Melissa war and later admitted that she felt like she was always in Jessica's shadow. The two slowly repaired their friendship over the series. At the beginning of the series, the Wakefields (save Elizabeth, who is staying with Conner McDermott and Megan Sandborn) stay at the Fowlers' mansion while the former's house is being rebuilt after the earthquake.
Aaron Dallas was part of the football team's clique and dated Cherie Reese. Melissa Fox tried to seduce Aaron in revenge for Cherie's perceived disloyalty. When Will confronts him for supposedly coming onto Melissa, Aaron is able to expose to Will and Cherie that it had been Melissa trying to seduce him, not vice versa.
Annie Whitman was on the cheerleading squad with Jessica. She does not take Melissa's side in the Jessica/Melissa conflict. Annie was the only one aside Jade whom Jessica remained friends with. Annie had often come to her defense by calling Melissa, Lila and Amy out for being selfish around her. In turn, Jessica realizes how loyal of a friend she is to her. Annie became Melissa's enemy and attempted to ruin her reputation. However, Tia defends her and Jessica and threatens to have Melissa kicked out of the cheerleading squad if she doesn't behave herself.
Amy Sutton also took Melissa's side. Unlike Lila, she and Jessica's friendship remained over. She tried to reconcile with Amy, but she rejected the efforts. She went as far as telling Jessica off that she felt like she was too much in her shadow and believed Melissa was the better friend to her. Amy was basically the only one who remained friends with Melissa after Gina and Cherie abandons her and Lila reconciled with Jessica.
Jeffrey French, formerly a soccer star from Sweet Valley High became funky DJ Jeff in Senior Year. After revealing himself as the writer of Elizabeth's secret Valentine's Day letters, the two began dating. They broke up after Jeff lied about his university plans and maintain an awkward friendship.
Enid Rollins is mentioned as attending the same creative writing class as Elizabeth, Conner, and Andy. She and Elizabeth drifted apart; Elizabeth later remarked that she has turned goth.
Winston Egbert was mentioned and appears briefly in the final book in the series.
Bruce Patman was mentioned briefly and did not appear.
Todd Wilkins joined the football team and was respected by both El Carro and Sweet Valley students. At the end of the series, he invited Liz out for coffee to catch up. They were together when Sweet Valley University began. He dated Megan, Conner's half sister.
New characters
Conner McDermott
One of many El Carro students who transferred to Sweet Valley High, Conner was an attractive but brooding musician. He lived with his mother and younger sister Megan, of whom he was very protective. Tia Ramirez, his best friend since second grade, lived behind him, and his other close friends included Andy Marsden and Evan Plummer. When he and Elizabeth Wakefield first meet in their creative writing class, Conner's cynical expectations of who she appears to be are quickly overturned and they develop an attraction to one another despite their initial antagonism. At the beginning of the series, Conner's friends constantly remarked that he never stayed with a girl for long. After a brief fling with Maria, Conner fell for Elizabeth. They initially struggled with their feelings for each other, since Elizabeth felt guilty about pursuing Conner when her best friend was still interested in him. After they began dating, he cheated on her once by kissing Tia in Backstabber. Conner and Elizabeth's serious on-off relationship is an ongoing theme in the series. Conner developed a drinking problem and eventually agreed to go into rehab, where he met Alanna Feldman. While he intended to resume his relationship with Elizabeth, he broke up with her after learning she and Evan were a brief relationship while he was in rehab. He dates Alanna instead, but broke up because of the strain the relationship had on his friendship with Tia, and the fact that Alanna kept lying to Conner. Conner and Elizabeth reconciled briefly on Prom Night but decided not to get back together. After the series, he is mentioned as planning to attend Belmont University after being accepted into the institution's music department.
Melissa Fox
Melissa was Will's manipulative, insecure and possessive girlfriend. She was cheerleading captain for the El Carro squad, but lost captaincy of the Sweet Valley squad to Tia Ramirez and of whom she developed a bitter rivalry with When Melissa discovered that Will had been cheating on her with Jessica Wakefield, she led a vendetta against Jessica, which included spreading vicious rumours and attempting to sabotage her cheerleading try-outs. Melissa was able to turn Lila Fowler and Amy Sutton against Jessica. However, Annie and Jade weren't swayed and called her out for hurting Jessica. Melissa was devastated when Will broke up with her for Jessica and attempted suicide. During her breakup from Will, following his football injury, she dated Ken Matthews. She and Will maintain an on-and-off relationship through the series, though they are together at the end of the series. Melissa's antagonism towards Jessica came back to haunt her when Tia and Annie informed the school about her behavior and she was kicked out of the cheerleading squad. Her close friends were Cherie Reese and Gina Cho until they abandoned Melissa after feeling guilty for how they treated Jessica. The only friend who remains at Melissa's side is Amy as Lila reconciled her friendship with Jessica. However, when forced to plan a high school dance, Melissa shows Jessica respect after seeing that she refuses a date with Will since she cares about Jeremy.
Will Simmons
Will was one of many El Carro High students who transferred to Sweet Valley High. Despite being involved in a serious relationship with Melissa Fox, he pursued Jessica Wakefield. His relationship with Melissa remained on/off throughout the series, and he remained attracted to Jessica, though she repeatedly turned him down after briefly dating him. A talented quarterback, Will was offered a football scholarship to University of Michigan. Unfortunately, after receiving a serious injury on the field, Will was informed that he would never be able to play football again. Although initially bitter, he later decided to become a sports reporter instead.
Tia Ramirez
Easy going, tomboyish Tia was a cheerleader at El Carro and became captain of the Sweet Valley High squad. Tia was also briefly featured in Party Weekend, the 143rd book in the originl series. She is known to be popular, but not in a snobby way, and has many female and male friends. Upon entering Sweet Valley High, Tia adapts quickly and becomes friends with the Wakefield sisters, Jade, Annie and Maria Slater. One student doesn't like her, Melissa Fox, and it developed into a seeded rivalry. Tia has also warned her to behave herself if she wants to avoid being kicked out of the cheerleading squad. She lived with her parents and had many brothers. She, Conner, and Andy have been best friends since they were children and Tia and Conner are neighbors. She began the series as the long-time girlfriend of Angel Desmond. However, when he left for college, she cheated on him with Trent Maynor. She and Trent later had a steady relationship.
Jeremy Aames
Jeremy Aames was a student from Big Mesa High and captain of the football team. His best friend was teammate Trent Maynor. Jeremy was mature for his age and helped to look after his two younger sisters, especially during his family's struggles after Mr. Aames lost his job and had a heart attack. Jeremy worked with Elizabeth at the House of Java, but he meets Jessica when Elizabeth arranges for Jessica to cover her shift. He quickly fell in love with her and they begin a short-lived relationship, which ended when he caught her out with Will. A brief fling with Jade, another co-worker, followed. He and Jessica eventually reunited and remained together until the end of the series. When Mrs. Aames decided to move the family to Arizona so that her husband will be able to recover from his heart attack more fully, Jeremy decided to remain in Sweet Valley to finish his senior year.
Andy Marsden
Class clown Andy was a close friend of Conner and Tia. He has little interest in academic pursuits, so he does not seriously consider what he will do after graduating until halfway through senior year. His very brief relationship with a sophomore, Six, led him to realize that he was gay. After struggling with the realization, he came out to his friends and family, who were very accepting. Towards the end of the series he had a steady boyfriend, Dave. After graduating, he plans to become a stand-up comedian in New York to be near Dave.
Evan Plummer
Evan, a laid back environmentalist, was a good friend of Conner, Tia and Andy. He was on the SVH swim team and was dedicated to his causes. He shows an interest in Elizabeth early in the series, but pursues Jessica instead when he realized that Conner and Elizabeth were in love. His relationships with Jessica, and later Elizabeth, occur when they are on rebound and do not last. As a result, he is hesitant to accept a relationship with Jade when she expresses an interest in him after breaking up with Jeremy, though they settle down together for the rest of the series. Late in the series, his parents divorce, a sudden change which upsets Evan because he believed that his family had always been happy and stable. He plans to attend Berkeley.
Trent Maynor
Jeremy's best friend and a member of Big Mesa's football team. He first appears at a Big Mesa party, where Conner and Elizabeth catch Tia alone with him. Tia begins a brief relationship with Trent, though is guilt-ridden throughout and tries to deny dating Trent because she is in a long-distance relationship with Angel. However, when Angel surprises Tia with a sudden visit from Stanford, she is forced to admit that she has been seeing Trent and they break up after deciding long-distance isn't working for them. When Jeremy chooses to remain in Sweet Valley until the end of his senior year rather than joining his family in Arizona, he stays with Trent's family. After being accepted into college, Trent begins to lose interest in keeping up in school with the end of the year coming and becomes increasingly wild with his partying. He is forced to re-evaluate his responsibilities after getting into a car accident. Trent eventually gets together with Tia, though the relationship is strained when he expresses an interest in Jessica, which upsets both Tia and Jeremy. However, they remain together until the end of the series.
Alanna Feldman
Alanna was a girl Conner met when they are both in rehab. She came from an affluent family, but turned to drinking because she disliked the social expectations her parents placed on her. She and Conner began dating, even when counselors at the rehab clinic disapproved of their relationship. After they were released from rehab, however, Alanna and Conner's relationship did not last. When Conner learned that Elizabeth had briefly dated Evan during his time at rehab, he chose to be with Alanna instead of Liz. However, he gradually became tired of the lies she told about her life, how she strained his relationship with Tia, and Conner's lingering feelings for Elizabeth. She is continues to drink, unsuccessfully hiding the fact from Conner, and is resistant to her rehab counselor's attempts to help her. She and Conner break up after he learned that she lied about being accepted into Tufts in order to accompany him to Boston after graduation and how she did not mention wanting to attend UCLA.
Others
Megan Sandborn was Conner's younger half sister, a sophomore at Sweet Valley, and she and Conner share a good relationship. She was a member of the school newspaper The Oracle, where she met Elizabeth and offered to let Liz stay at her house. She looks up to Liz as an older sister figure. Megan dated Todd, much to Conner's disgust.
Cherie Reese was Melissa's best friend. Like Jade, she left the cheerleading squad to join the basketball team. She dates Aaron Dallas, despite Melissa's attempt to use Aaron to get back at Will and Cherie for perceived betrayals. Her friendship with Melissa eventually ends upon realizing her manipulation and betrayal. Cherie becomes close friends with Jade and the Wakefield twins.
Gina Cho was another of Melissa's clique, frequently seen with Cherie and antagonizing Jessica. She is a member of the cheerleading squad. Like Cherie, Gina would later feel guilty for hurting Jessica and also end her friendship with Melissa upon seeing her for who she truly is.
Josh Radinsky and Matt Wells were close friends and teammates of Will Simmons. Josh briefly hooked up with Jade Wu and at some point, dated Lila Fowler. Early in the year, Melissa started a rumour that Jessica slept with Matt. Matt is later mentioned as dating Six Hanson. The pair hated Ken until Will reunited the football team.
Angel Desmond was Tia's longtime boyfriend and a good friend to Conner, Andy, and Evan. As a former member of El Carro's football team, he is also acquainted with Will Simmons. Though he had been accepted into Stanford, Angel began college a semester late, as he gambled away his tuition and had to come up with more money. He broke up with Tia after catching her with Trent and later dated a girl at his college.
Six Hanson was a sophomore girl that Andy met in an outdoor adventuring club, when he was trying to become more involved in extracurricular activities. She expressed a romantic interest in Andy and they date briefly until Andy realizes that he is gay. They remain friends and she is supportive of Andy when he struggled with telling his friends about his sexual orientation.
Dave Niles was Andy's boyfriend, after Andy comes out. In contrast to Andy's parents, Dave has trouble informing his parents that he is gay; while his mother is very supportive, his father has more trouble accepting Dave's coming out. His father also dates Evan's mother after Evan's parents divorce. After graduating, he plans to attend Columbia University, which Andy accompanying him to New York.
List of novels
References
Novels set in California
Sweet Valley (franchise) |
4357171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Old%20Stonyhursts | List of Old Stonyhursts | This article lists notable former pupils of Stonyhurst College in Lancashire, England, and its lineal antecedents at St Omer, Bruges and Liège. Former pupils are referred to in school contexts as O.S. (Old Stonyhurst). Inter alia the school counts among its most distinguished former pupils: three Saints, twelve Beati, twenty-two martyrs, seven archbishops, and seven Victoria Cross winners.
Alumni of the College at St Omer, Bruges, & Liège (1593–1794)
Saints, beati and martyrs
St Philip Evans SJ, executed at Cardiff in 1679.
St Thomas Garnet SJ, protomartyr of St Omer, one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales, executed at Tyburn in 1608.
St John Plessington, executed at Chester in 1679.
Bl. Edward Bamber, executed at Lancaster in 1646.
Bl. William Barrow SJ (aka Fr Harcourt), executed at Tyburn in 1679.
Bl. Arthur Bell OSF, executed at Tyburn in 1643.
Bl. Ralph Corbie, executed at Tyburn in 1644.
Bl. John Fenwick SJ, executed at Tyburn in 1679.
Bl. John Gavan SJ, executed at Tyburn in 1679.
Bl. Thomas Holland SJ, executed at Tyburn in 1642.
Bl. William Ireland SJ, executed at Tyburn in 1679.
Bl. Thomas Thwing, executed at York in 1680.
Bl. Thomas Whitaker, executed at Lancaster in 1646.
Bl. Thomas Whitbread SJ, executed at Tyburn in 1679.
Bl. John Woodcock OSF, executed at Lancaster in 1646.
Others
Prince Louis Aloy de Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Bartenstein, General, Marshal of France.
Francis Baines, English Jesuit educated at Colleges of St Omer
Henry Blundell, art collector; owner of the largest private art collection in England.
Hon. Aedanus Burke, soldier, judge and United States Representative from South Carolina. Served in the militia forces of South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War. Appointed judge of the State circuit court; member of the South Carolina House of Representatives; served in the Revolutionary Army. Appointed one of three commissioners to prepare a digest of the State laws; member of the convention in 1788 called to consider ratification of the Constitution of the United States, which he opposed. Elected as an Anti-Administration candidate to the First United States Congress; elected a chancellor of the courts of equity; senior member of the South Carolina appellate courts; Chief Justice of South Carolina.
Philip Calvert, Keeper of the Conscience of Maryland; Governor of Maryland.
Charles Carroll of Carrollton, last surviving and only Catholic signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, delegate to the Continental Congress and later US Senator for Maryland.
Daniel Carroll, American Roman Catholic who helped draft the United States Constitution.
Rt. Rev. John Carroll, first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States of America; first Archbishop of Baltimore, founder of Georgetown University and the Georgetown Preparatory School; John Carroll University is named in his honour.
John Caryll, 1st Baron Caryll of Durford, in the Jacobite Peerage, poet, dramatist, and diplomat. Translated Ovid's Epistle of Briseïs to Achilles and Virgil's first Eclogue. During the "Popish Plot" was committed to the Tower of London, but was soon let out on bail. When James II of England succeeded to the throne, he sent him as his agent to the court of Pope Innocent XI. Secretary to Queen Mary of Modena, after the Glorious Revolution, he followed the exiled royal family to Saint-Germain. Implicated in a plots to overthrow William of Orange (William III), whilst in exile he was created by the dethroned James II Baron Caryll of Durford (or Dunford) in West Sussex and appointed his Joint Secretary of State. His son, the so-called Old Pretender, James Francis Edward Stuart, recognised by Jacobites as "King James III and VIII", re-appointed him one of his Secretaries of State.
Christopher G. Champlin, United States Representative and Senator from Rhode Island; elected as a Federalist to the Fifth and Sixth Congresses; president of the Rhode Island Bank.
Fr Ambrose Corbie, Jesuit teacher and author; appointed confessor at the English College, Rome.
Sir Henry Gage, Royalist Governor of Oxford during the Civil War.
Fr Thomas Gage, recusant Catholic, clergyman, ordained Dominican priest; later publicly abandoned the Catholic Church; testified against Thomas Holland, Francis Bell, Ralph Corby and Peter Wright (qvv), all of whom were executed on his evidence. During the English Civil War, he aligned himself with Oliver Cromwell.
William Habington, poet, works include Castara (1634), The Queen of Arragon (1640) and Observations upon History (1641).
Fr Francis Hawkins, Jesuit, child prodigy and translator; translated (at age 10) An Alarum for Ladyes and (at age 13) from de La Serre's Youths Behaviour, or, Decency in Conversation amongst Men (1641).
Fr. Emmanuel Lobb, SJ, received King James II into the Catholic Church.
William Kilty (1757–1821), Federal Judicial Service: Chief Judge, Circuit Court of the District of Columbia USCC. Received a recess appointment from Thomas Jefferson on 23 March 1801, to a new seat created by 2 Stat. 103; nominated on 6 January 1802. Confirmed by the Senate on 26 January 1802, and received commission on 26 January 1802. Service terminated on 27 January 1806, due to resignation. Compiler, Laws of Maryland, State of Maryland, 1798–1800; State Governor, Maryland, 1806–21
Thomas Lloyd, stenographer; known as the "Father of American Shorthand", published the most complete and official record of the First Continental Congress from the notes taken in his shorthand; worked for the United States Treasurer; reported the first Inaugural Address given by George Washington.
William Matthews, President of Georgetown College and Vicar General of the Diocese of Philadelphia; the first person born in British America to be ordained a Catholic priest.
Fr Henry More, Jesuit provincial and church historian; great-grandson St Thomas More; sent on the English Mission where he was twice arrested and imprisoned, whilst chaplain to Lord Petre; as provincial negotiationed with Panzani, Conn and Rossetti (the papal agents at the court of Queen Henrietta Maria); Rector of St Omer.
Arthur Murphy, author, biographer and barrister, also known by the pseudonym Charles Ranger; friend of Henry Thrale and Samuel Johnson; introduced Thale to Johnson; Commissioner of Bankruptcy; coined the legal term "wilful misconstruction".
Rt. Rev. Leonard Neale, the first Roman Catholic bishop ordained in the United States, second Archbishop of Baltimore, President of Georgetown University.
Fr Edward Petre SJ, Jesuit, Privy Councillor during the reign of James II.
Ambrose Rookwood, Gunpowder Plotter; executed in 1606 at Westminster with Guy Fawkes.
Fr Marmaduke Stone, Jesuit Provincial (England, Ireland and Maryland), first President of Stonyhurst.
Fr Louis de Sabran, French Jesuit, associated with the court of James II, engaged in vigorous theological debates with both Church of England and Puritan spokesmen; royal chaplain to James II; chaplain to the infant Prince of Wales; visitator of the Neapolitan Jesuits; provincial superior; rector of St Omer; spiritual father of the English College in Rome.
Sir Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury (1660–1718); a signatory to the letter of invitation to William of Orange 1688; Secretary of State for the Southern Department; Lord Chamberlain; Ambassador to France; Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; Lord Treasurer; Knight of the Garter and Privy Counsellor (Reference St Omers, Bruge and Liege Lists. Published by Catholic Record Society)
Fr Anthony Terill, Jesuit theologian, academic, educator at Florence, Parma, and at the English College, Liège.
James White, American physician, lawyer and politician; early settler Tennessee and Louisiana; delegate for North Carolina in the Continental Congress and a non-voting member of the U.S. House for the Southwest Territory.
Alumni of the College at Stonyhurst (1794–present)
Alumni
Victoria Cross Holders
Seven Stonyhurst Alumni have won the Victoria Cross.
Victoria Cross
Malakand Frontier War, India 1897
Lieutenant Edmond William Costello V.C.
Sudan Campaign 1898
Captain Paul Aloysius Kenna V.C.
World War I
Lieutenant Maurice James Dease V.C. (first VC of the Great War)
Captain John Aiden Liddell V.C.
Second Lieutenant Gabriel George Coury V.C.
World War II
Captain Harold Marcus Ervine-Andrews V.C.
Captain James Joseph Bernard Jackman V.C.
Others
Joe Ansbro, Scottish rugby international
George Archer-Shee, cause célèbre; his case was the inspiration for the play The Winslow Boy.
James Arundell, 10th Baron Arundell of Wardour, admitted to the House of Lords with the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829.
Alfred Austin, Poet Laureate.
Brittany Ashworth, British film and theatre actress, best known for her roles in Mrs Ratcliffe's Revolution and The Crucifixion.
Patrick Baladi, British actor.
Iain Balshaw, English Rugby International, British and Irish Lion and World Cup Winner.
Marmaduke Constable-Maxwell, 11th Lord Herries of Terregles Lord Lieutenant of East Riding of Yorkshire and of Kirkcudbrightshire
Joseph Cyril Bamford, British entrepreneur (founded J. C. Bamford Excavators Ltd.).
Philip Bell, Member of Parliament (Conservative).
Count Michael de la Bédoyère, author and journalist, editor of the Catholic Herald.
John Desmond Bernal, FRS, scientist known for pioneering X-ray crystallography, Master of Birkbeck, University of London, Professor of Physics and Crystallography, Fellow of the Royal Society, Communist, awarded the Lenin Peace Prize, joint inventor of the Mulberry Harbour.
George Powys, 7th Baron Lilford landowner and member of the House of Lords
Fr Charles Boarman, S.J., sub-editor of Jesuit publication, The Month; founding rector of the mission of St Wilfred, Longridge.
Sir Wilfrid Scawen Blunt (1840–1922), diplomat, poet, traveler; opposed British rule in Egypt and British policy in the Sudan; Muslim sympathiser; championed Irish Home Rule; founder of Crabbet Arabian Stud.
HRH Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma, consort of Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg.
Kyran Bracken, English Rugby International, British and Irish Lion and World Cup Winner. Captained England briefly.
Fr Charles Brigham, S.J., author of The Enormities of the Confessional Examined.
Sir Edward Bulfin KCB CVO, general during World War I, established a reputation as an excellent commander; noted for his actions during the First Battle of Ypres, when he organized impromptu forces to slow down the German assault.
Mullah John Butt, Broadcaster and Cambridge University Islamic chaplain.
Fr Brendan Callaghan, SJ, Master of Campion Hall, Oxford.
William Cash, Member of Parliament (Conservative), Shadow Attorney General.
Pratap Chitnis, Baron Chitnis, Life Peer; Chief Executive/Director of the Liberal Party.
Sir Charles Clifford, New Zealand politician, first Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Hugh Clifford, 7th Baron Clifford of Chudleigh, Whig politician, leading advocate of Catholic Emancipation; accompanied Cardinal Consalvi to the Congress of Vienna.
Colin Clive, actor (Frankenstein; Journey's End)
Sir Cecil Clothier, Judge of Appeal of the Isle of Man; Parliamentary Ombudsman.
Charles Allston Collins, artist and author, proposed for membership of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood but was rejected.
Bernard Dobson, first-class cricketer.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, writer, novelist; creator of Sherlock Holmes.
John Coope, MBE (1929–2006), physician; founder of the Bollington Arts Centre and the Bollington Festival.
John D. Cronin, M.P. (Labour).
Edward Micklethwaite Curr, Australian pastoralist and squatter.
John da Cunha, barrister and judge, member of the British delegation to the Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal.
Baron Devlin of West Wick, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary; High Steward of the University of Cambridge; Privy Counsellor; legal writer and moral philosopher.
Fr William Doyle, S.J., chaplain to the 8th Royal Irish Fusiliers 16th (Irish) Division during the First World War, awarded the Military Cross, subject of a canonisation petition.
Charles Gavan Duffy (1855–1932), Australian public servant, Assisted drafting the Commonwealth of Australia's Constitution; Clerk of the House of Representatives; Clerk of the Senate.
Sir Frank Gavan Duffy, Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia.
John Gavan Duffy (1844–1917), Australian solicitor and politician, Member of the Legislative Assembly; President of the Board of Land and Works, Commissioner of Crown Lands and Survey and Minister of Agriculture; Postmaster-General; Attorney-General.
Archibald Matthias Dunn, Catholic ecclesiastical architect.
Manuel Escandón y Barrón, Marqués de Villavieja, Mexican entrepreneur and sportsman, introduced polo to Spain and Latin America.
Pablo Escandón y Barrón, Governor of Morelos (Mexico) and aide-de-camp of President Porfirio Díaz.
Frank Foley, British soldier and secret agent during World War II. He was hailed as the "British Schindler". As an undercover passport control officer he helped thousands of Jews escape from Nazi Germany. In October 1999 he was accorded the status of a Righteous Among the Nations by Israel's Yad Vashem.
Gerald Gallagher, Colonial Administrator Service, noted as the first officer-in-charge of the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme, the last colonial expansion of the British Empire.
Eulogio Gillow y Zavala, Archbishop of Antequera (Oaxaca, Mexico).
Peter Glenville, film and theatre director and producer and script writer; winner BAFTA (Best British Film – "Becket"); nominated for 4 Tony Awards, 2 Golden Globe Awards, 1 Academy Award "Oscar" (Best Director) and 1 Golden Lion.
Oliver St John Gogarty, Irish poet, writer and wit; Irish Free State Senator.
Maurice Gorham, journalist and broadcaster; Controller of BBC Television Service.
Michael Gough, archaeologist.
Morgan Grace, Member of the Legislative Council (New Zealand), Member of Parliament
Matt Greenhalgh, screenwriter and BAFTA winner
Richard Gwyn, Canadian civil servant, journalist and author, awarded the Order of Canada
Archduke Franz Karl Habsburg, Austrian noble
Sir William Hackett, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka)
John Harbison, first State Pathologist of Ireland
Macdonald Hastings, British journalist; World War II war correspondent
Tim Hetherington, British photojournalist and documentary maker,
Sir Michael Joseph Hogan, Chief Justice of Hong Kong
William Horton, English cricketer; represented Middlesex and the Europeans in India
Sir John Hughes (1857–1912), Australian solicitor and politician; Knight Commander of the Order of St Gregory; Member of the Legislative Council; Vice-President of the Executive Council; Minister of Justice
Sir Thomas Hughes, first Lord Mayor of Sydney. Edward VII conferred the title of Lord Mayor on the position of Mayor; the first Lord Mayoralty created outside the British Isles
Michael D. Hurley, academic at Cambridge who works on literature, philosophy and theology
Giles Hussey, artist, painted a number of portraits, specializing in drawings in profile. Examples of his portraiture in oils include a portrait of Sir John Swinburne and a portrait of William Meredith
Leonard Ingrams, founder of the Garsington Opera Festival
Albert Isola, Gibraltarian politician; Minister for Financial Services and Gaming
Peter Isola, Gibraltarian politician; member of the House of Assembly; leader of the Democratic Party of British Gibraltar; Minister for Education; Leader of the Opposition; Deputy Chief Minister; appeared before the UN to resist demand to integrate Gibraltar into Spain
Valentine Irwin, introduced polo to the British Isles
Dom Bede Jarrett, Provincial of the Dominican Order
Paul Johnson, journalist, editor of the New Statesman
Richard 'Rick' Jolly, Royal Navy surgeon and South Atlantic war veteran
Bruce Kent, British peace campaigner; chairman of the CND; laicised priest
Miles Gerard Keon, journalist, novelist, Colonial secretary and lecturer
Thomas Kenny, Canadian Member of Parliament (Conservative Party)
The Hon. Charles Langdale, one of the foremost leaders of Catholic Emancipation Days, Member of Parliament (Whig), wrote the memoirs of Maria Fitzherbert
Charles Laughton, actor, director; nominee for Oscar, Golden Globe and Grammy awards
Professor Gabriel Leung, GBS, JP, former Director of the Chief Executive's Office in Hong Kong, former Under-secretary for Food and Health of Hong Kong
James Lomax, Lord of the Manor of Great Harwood, benefactor of Stonyhurst College
Eduardo López de Romaña, President of Peru (brother of Alejandro López de Romaña, see above)
Giuseppe Lorenzo 6th Marquis de Piro, Chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII, Knight of Malta
Robert Loughnan, Member of the Legislative Council (New Zealand), Member of Parliament, journalist, critic and inventor.
Enoch Louis Lowe, Governor of the state of Maryland (USA) (1851–1854)
Dermot MacDermot, Prince of Coolavin
Henry McGee, British actor
Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish nationalist politician; Member of Parliament (Repeal Party); reportedly first introduced the tricolour to Ireland from France; General in the American Civil War, later Governor of the state of Montana
James Monahan, Director of the Royal Ballet School
Joseph Sheridan Moore (1828–1891), Australian teacher, publicist
Anthony Moorhouse, abducted and murdered by Egyptians during the Crisis.
Chris Morris, satirist and comedian; creator of "Brass Eye" (brother of Tom Morris; see below)
Tom Morris, Artistic Director of Bristol Old Vic; Associate Director of popular stage play War Horse (brother of Chris Morris; see above)
Bryan Mullanphy, U.S. philanthropist who established a collection of Native American artefacts (now held in the British Museum); alderman, judge and one-time mayor of St. Louis, Missouri
Gonzalo de Aguilera Munro, Falangist politician and military leader, war criminal and responsible for Massacre of Badajoz
Francis Neale, (d. 1837) President of Georgetown University (1806-7)
John Nolan, Irish Nationalist politician; Member of Parliament (Irish Parliamentary Party)
Michael O'Donnell, British physician, journalist and broadcaster
Barry O'Driscoll, Irish Rugby international (elder brother of John O'Driscoll, see below)
John O'Driscoll, Irish Rugby international, British and Irish Lion (younger brother of Barry O'Driscoll, see above)
Rt Hon Richard More O'Ferrall, Member of Parliament (Whig) and Privy Counsellor, he and the Archbishop of Dublin were the only Catholics to sit on the Royal Commission to report into the condition of the poor in Ireland; adviser to the Catholic University. In 1835, under Lord Melbourne he was appointed Lord of the Treasury, First Secretary of the Admiralty; Secretary to the Treasury; he was the first civilian to hold the post of Governor of Malta.
Brendan O'Friel, Governing Governor of HM Prison Service, Governor of HM Prison Strangeways (renamed Manchester) during the "Strangeways riots"
Henry O'Hara (1853–1921), Australian surgeon
Valentine O'Hara (1875–1941), noted author and authority on Russia and The Baltic States
Dr. George Oliver, antiquary and Church annalist
Sir Bernard Partridge, Punch cartoonist
Hubert Patch, Air Chief-Marshal, Chief of Fighter Command
John Pinasco, President of the University of San Francisco
Fr Charles Plowden, Jesuit, Rector of Stonyhurst, writer and orator
Francis Plowden, barrister, writer, academic; Professor at the Scots College, Paris
Jonathan Plowright, concert pianist, Gold Medalist at the Royal Academy of Music and a Fulbright Scholar; winner of the European Piano Competition
Joseph Mary Plunkett, Irish rebel; helped compose the Proclamation of Independence, to which he was a signatory; executed for his role in the 1916 Easter Rising
George Oliver Plunkett, younger brother of Joseph Plunkett (see above), Irish republican (during 1916–1940).
George Porter, Archbishop of Bombay
Patrick Power, MP for the Eastern Division of Waterford
Anthony Rickards, British cardiologist who devised a revolutionary pacemaker that responded to the demands of the body during exercise and foreshadowed the technology used in nearly all pacemakers; also created the first computerised cardiac database in Britain; helped establish the Central Cardiac Audit Database
John Rogers (1842–1908), Australian educationist and politician; Member of the Legislative Assembly<ref>Australian Dictionary of National Biography</ref>
John Gage Rokewode, antiquarian, Fellow of the Royal Society; Fellow, and later Director, Society of Antiquaries
Ted Russell, Irish senator, businessman and five times Mayor of Limerick City
Victor Santa Cruz, Chilean law professor, member of the Chilean Congress (1945-1949), Chilean Ambassador to the United Kingdom (1958-1970)
Sir Edward Strickland, CB, Army officer, author, vice-president of the Geographical Society of Australasia, a founder and president of the society's New South Wales branch, president of the Australian Geographical Conference in 1884 and vice-president of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science; Promoted to Commissary-General (ranking with Major-General); served in Ireland as senior commissariat officer. The Strickland River in New Guinea is named after him
Charles Sturridge, British film/television director (best known for the television adaptation of Brideshead Revisited)
Francis L. Sullivan, British-American actor, known for his portrayals of Dickensian characters such as Jaggers in Great Expectations and Bumble in David Lean's Oliver Twist (1948).
Major Francis Suttill, British special agent who worked for the Special Operations Executive (SOE) inside France; organized and coordinated the Physician network, better known by his own code name "Prosper"; captured and killed by the Nazis
John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury
Mark Thompson, Director-General of the BBC
William Tobin (1859–1904), Australian Cricket International player
Sir Colman Treacy, British jurist, Birmingham Crown Court
Arthur Turcotte, Quebec lawyer, journalist and politician; Mayor of Trois-Rivières; member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec (independent Conservative; later Liberal); Speaker of the Assembly; helped found La Concorde, becoming its editor; minister without portfolio and attorney general under Honoré Mercier; appointed protonotary for the Superior Court in Montreal district
Sir Edgar Unsworth, KC, QC, CMG, KBE, British lawyer and judge; Chief Justice of Gibraltar and Attorney-General for Northern Rhodesia
Fr Bernard Vaughan, Jesuit social reformer who worked among the poor of Westminster and in the East End. His sermons on "The Sins of Society" attracted large audiences. He preached at Montreal in 1910, traveled in Canada, the United States, and Alaska, and lectured in China, Japan, Italy and France. In 1915 he became chaplain to Catholic troops of the British expeditionary army on the Continent (brother of Herbert Cardinal Vaughan, see below)
Herbert Cardinal Vaughan, Archbishop of Westminster (brother of Fr Bernard Vaughan, see above)
Sir George Wakeman, physician to Queen Catherine of Braganza, accused by Titus Oates of trying to poison her husband Charles II, subsequently acquitted
George Herbert Walker, banker and businessman; President of the United States Golf Association–the Walker Cup (the famous biennial golf match) acquired Walker's namesake for his role in the event's creation; descendants include grandson George H. W. Bush and great-grandson George W. Bush, both of whom served as President of the United States
General Vernon A. Walters, General, United States Army; Deputy Director of the CIA; U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
Sir Christopher Waterlow, Camera Supervisor at QVC UK; Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Videography
Edmund Waterton, antiquary, formed a collection of rings, awarded the Order of Christ (the highest Papal decoration)
Charles Waterton, Naturalist and creator of the world's first national park
Fr James Waterworth, missionary priest who published "Faith of Catholics", a translation of the canons and decrees of the Council of Trent and of Veron's "Rule of Faith"; his last book, England and Rome was on the relations of the Popes to post-Reformation England. He was made canon and later provost of Nottingham.
Sir Frederick Weld, New Zealand politician; elected to the first House of Representatives; member of the Stafford Executive; Native Affairs Minister; Prime Minister; Governor of West Australia; Governor of Tasmania; Governor of the Straits Settlements; Knight of the Order of St Pius.
Christopher Wenner, journalist and television presenter for the BBC's Blue Peter programme and an overseas correspondent for ITN's Channel 4 News; under the nom-de-guerre "Max Stahl",Graphic images flood out of Syria. Why no world uproar?, The Christian Science Monitor, 1 February 2012 Wenner has become a war correspondent, whose footage brought the plight of the East Timorese to world attention; winner of the Rory Peck Award for his journalism.
George J. Wigley, architect, journalist, co-founder of the Society of St Vincent de Paul, co-founder of the Peterspence Association, awarded the Cross of St Gregory the Great by Pius IX.
Douglas Wilmer, British actor (primarily associated with the role of Sherlock Holmes)
Paul Woodroffe, stained glass artist and book illustrator, produced the 15 windows for the Lady Chapel of St. Patrick's Cathedral (NYC)
Hugh Wooldridge, theatre and television director and producer
Sir Thomas Wyse, Member of Parliament (Liberal and second Irish Roman Catholic), advocate of Catholic Emancipation; Junior Lord of the Treasury; Secretary to the Board of Control; British Ambassador to the Kingdom of Greece
Miscellaneous accolades
The following were awarded to former Stonyhurst pupils:
1914-1918 war:
30 Distinguished Service Orders
77 Military Crosses
4 Distinguished Flying Crosses
2 Air Force Crosses
Second World War:
12 Distinguished Service Orders
8 Distinguished Service Crosses, one with Bar
30 Military Crosses
9 Distinguished Flying Crosses
4 Croix de Guerre, one with Palm
1 Air Force Cross
Six O.S. were killed serving in the Second Boer War.
Fictional alumnus
Lord Brideshead, the Earl of Brideshead, heir to the Marquess of Marchmain; "Bridey" – fictional character from Evelyn Waugh's Brideshead Revisited''.
See also
College of St Omer
Stonyhurst College
Stonyhurst Saint Mary's Hall
List of alumni of Jesuit educational institutions
Society of Jesus
St Ignatius, founder of the Jesuits
References
Stonyhurst College
Stonyhurst College
People Educated at Stonyhurst College |
4357603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate%2080%20in%20California | Interstate 80 in California | Interstate 80 (I-80) is a transcontinental Interstate Highway in the United States, stretching from San Francisco, California, to Teaneck, New Jersey. The segment of I-80 in California runs east from San Francisco across the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge to Oakland, where it turns north and crosses the Carquinez Bridge before turning back northeast through the Sacramento Valley. I-80 then traverses the Sierra Nevada, cresting at Donner Summit, before crossing into the state of Nevada within the Truckee River Canyon. The speed limit is at most along the entire route instead of the state's maximum of as most of the route is in either urban areas or mountainous terrain. I-80 has portions designated as the Eastshore Freeway and Alan S. Hart Freeway.
Throughout California, I-80 was built along the corridor of US Route 40 (US 40), eventually replacing this designation entirely. The prior US 40 corridor itself was built along several historic corridors in California, notably the California Trail and Lincoln Highway. The route has changed from the original plans in San Francisco due to freeway revolts canceling segments of the originally planned alignment. Similarly in Sacramento, the freeway was rerouted around the city after plans to upgrade the original grandfathered route through the city to Interstate Highway standards were canceled.
Route description
I-80 is recognized as the Dwight D. Eisenhower Highway in the Western United States and a Blue Star Memorial Highway for its entire length. In California, it follows the original corridor of the Lincoln Highway from Sacramento to Reno (with minor deviations near Donner Summit). I-80 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). I-80 is also known as the Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road from Emigrant Gap to Donner Lake. The segment of I-80 from Emigrant Gap to Truckee also forms part of the Yuba–Donner Scenic Byway, a National Forest Scenic Byway.
San Francisco Bay Area
According to the California Streets and Highways Code, most maps, and local signs, I-80 begins at the interchange with US 101 in San Francisco. However, federal records place the western terminus of I-80 at the western approach to the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, at the location of the Fremont Street offramp (previously known as the Terminal Separator Structure that once connected it to the Embarcadero Freeway). The federal and state governments disagree as to whether this westernmost segment of the signed Interstate, known as the San Francisco Skyway or Bayshore Viaduct, is actually part of the Interstate Highway System, although it is consistently shown as I-80 on most maps of San Francisco.
Eastshore Freeway
The Eastshore Freeway is a segment of I-80 and I-580 along the northeast shoreline of San Francisco Bay. It runs from the MacArthur Maze interchange just east of the eastern end of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge to the Carquinez Bridge. I-580 splits from the Eastshore Freeway at an interchange known locally as the "Hoffman Split" in Albany. The section of the Eastshore Freeway between the MacArthur Maze and I-580 (Hoffman) split between Albany is a wrong-way concurrency where the northbound direction is signed as I-80 east and I-580 west, while the southbound direction is signed as westbound I-80 and eastbound I-580. This segment suffers from severe traffic congestion during rush hour due to the merger of three freeways (I-80, I-580, and I-880) at the MacArthur Maze.
The Eastshore Freeway was created in the mid-1950s (construction commenced in 1954, last segment completed May 10, 1960) by reengineering the Eastshore Highway, a thoroughfare constructed in the 1930s (1934–1937) as one of the approaches to the Bay Bridge and designated as part of US 40. The Eastshore Highway began in El Cerrito at an intersection with San Pablo Avenue at Hill Street between Potrero Avenue and Cutting Boulevard, adjacent to the location today of the El Cerrito del Norte station of Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART). It was not a freeway in that access was at intersections with adjoining streets rather than by ramps. The Eastshore Highway ran from El Cerrito to the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge along the same routing as today's freeway, although it was much narrower. A causeway was constructed for this purpose by filling in part of the mudflats along the bayshore. In the stretch from University to Ashby avenues in Berkeley, this resulted in the creation of an artificial lagoon which was developed by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in the late 1930s as Aquatic Park.
The frontage road along the east side of today's Eastshore Freeway between Buchanan Street in Albany and Hearst Avenue in Berkeley retains the name "Eastshore Highway". The terminal segment of the old Eastshore Highway in El Cerrito between Potrero and San Pablo avenues is today named "Eastshore Boulevard".
Originally, the name "Eastshore Freeway" was also applied to what is today known as the "Nimitz Freeway" (I-880) from the beginning of its construction in 1947. This freeway was dedicated in 1958 to Chester W. Nimitz, and so, for a few years in the 1950s prior, the Eastshore Freeway stretched the entire length of the east shore of San Francisco Bay. Until the late 1960s, the Eastshore Freeway was also designated as part of State Route 17 (SR 17) together with the Nimitz Freeway.
Central Valley
This section of I-80 has a top speed of , unlike California's top speed limit of , common in rural freeways. I-80 is a six- to eight-lane freeway with carpool lanes in Fairfield between exit 39A (Red Top Road) and exit 47 (Air Base Parkway).
I-80 has changed routing in the Sacramento area. Currently, the freeway runs on a northern bypass of the city, the Beltline Freeway, that was originally designated I-880. The I-80 routing alignment was moved from a route through Sacramento, now US 50 and I-80 Business (I-80 Bus), after the proposed I-80 replacement of the North Sacramento Freeway was canceled. The Beltline Freeway runs northeast from the junction of I-80 and US 50 in West Sacramento across I-5 to its junction northeast of Sacramento with I-80 Bus (which is SR 51). SR 244 heads east as a short freeway spur from that interchange.
Sierra Nevada
Crossing the Sierra Nevada, I-80 regularly gets snow at higher elevations from fall to spring. The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) sometimes requires vehicles to use snow tires, snow chains, or other traction devices in the mountains during and after snowstorms. Checkpoints are often set up to enforce chain restrictions on vehicles bound for icy or snowy areas. When chain restrictions are in effect, vehicles must have chains on the driving wheels, except 4WD vehicles with snow tires. Additionally, during the winter season, trucks are required to carry chains whether or not controls are in force.
I-80 crosses the Sierra Nevada crest at Donner Summit (also known as Euer Saddle) at an elevation of westbound and eastbound. The Donner Summit Rest Area is located at this point. The summit is located in Nevada County, California. The pass is generally open year-round; it is plowed in winter but may temporarily close during the worst snowstorms. The older, original US 40/Lincoln Highway route over Donner Pass is about to the south. This highway was replaced as the official trans-Sierra route by I-80 in 1964. Although the current Donner Pass is lower, Euer Saddle was chosen for the Interstate because of more gradual approaches that aided construction to Interstate Highway standards, which do not allow the sharp curves used by the Donner Pass Road. The grade is three to six percent for .
History
Historic routing
In California I-80 was built along the line of, and eventually replaced, US 40. The US 40 designation was eliminated in the state as part of the 1964 state highway renumbering. US 40 was one of the original California routes designed in 1926, although its west end was in Oakland with US 101E (then SR 17, then I-5W, now I-580/I-880) prior to the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opening in 1936. An auto ferry ran from Berkeley to San Francisco, signed at the ferry landings for US 40. After the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge's construction, US 40, along with US 50, were extended along the bridge to connect with US 101. The auto ferry service was then discontinued.
US 40 and US 50 both followed the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and the routes split on what is the present day MacArthur Maze in Oakland. US 50 continued southeast on present-day I-580 to Stockton and US 40 closely followed the route of present-day I-80. When reaching Sacramento, US 40 and US 50 rejoined, US 50 running concurrently with former US 99 from Stockton to Sacramento. US 40 then again split with US 50 in Downtown Sacramento and closely followed the route of present-day I-80 Bus, which was I-80 from 1957 to 1981, when I-80 was realigned along former I-880, routing along what was then the outskirts of Sacramento. US 40 then closely followed I-80 through the Sierra Nevada into Nevada.
A portion of old US 40 near Donner Lake is still intact and is an alternate route of I-80. It begins near Soda Springs and ends at Truckee. At one point, it travels right by Donner Lake, unlike I-80, which ascends higher in the Sierra Nevada north of historic US 40.
Construction
Original routing in San Francisco
When I-80 was first approved, it was to begin at planned I-280 (SR 1) in Golden Gate Park, head east on the never-built Panhandle Freeway, then run south and southeast on the Central Freeway (US 101) to the San Francisco Skyway. The Panhandle Freeway was to be routed through Hayes Valley, passing through Golden Gate Park and terminating at proposed I-280, now SR 1. In 1964, community oppositions forced Caltrans to abandon the Panhandle Freeway project. A January 1968 amendment moved I-280 to its present alignment, degraded I-480 to a state highway, and truncated the origin point of I-80 to the Embarcadero Freeway (then I-280, formerly I-480). Prior to that truncation, I-80 had been defined as from "Route 280 in San Francisco to the Nevada state line near Verdi, Nevada, passing near Division Street in San Francisco, passing near Oakland, via Albany, via Sacramento, passing near North Sacramento, passing near Roseville, via Auburn, via Emigrant Gap, via Truckee and via the Truckee River Canyon", and certain maps had been shown of I-80 running concurrently with US 101 to Fell Street. These changes were made on the state level later that year, but Route 80 was only truncated to US 101. (The Central Freeway remained part of US 101, and the Panhandle Freeway became SR 241. The Panhandle Freeway was later canceled in the wake of freeway revolts, and the SR 241 designation has since been reassigned to an unrelated stretch of highway in Orange County.) The San Francisco Skyway, which had already been signed as part of I-80, has remained a de facto section of I-80 to the present day and remains listed as part of the Interstate in California.
In 2000, the San Francisco Chronicle published an article about the proposed construction of a new freeway through San Francisco. According to the article, the suggested 19th Avenue tunnel would run , from Junipero Serra Boulevard through Golden Gate Park and up to Lake Street, with exits at Brotherhood Avenue, Ocean Avenue, Quintara Street, Lincoln Way, and Geary Boulevard. The Van Ness tunnel would run almost , from about Fell Street to Lombard Street, with exits at Broadway and Geary Boulevard. Along Oak and Fell, the planners suggested an underground road running more than from Laguna to Divisadero streets. However, the roads would violate the long-standing general plan for San Francisco, which calls for no new highway capacity. In March 2015, this proposed route was adopted by the California Transportation Commission (CTC).
Legacy
Prior to the construction of I-80, the US 40 corridor suffered from frequent car accidents. Reasons included the many traffic signals, yield signs, and stop signs that seemed to appear out of nowhere. Caltrans listed five intersections with high accident rates and claimed construction of I-80 would reduce such accidents. According to a study done on I-80 in Vallejo from 1955 and 1956, prior to the freeway construction, and 1957 and 1958, after the freeway was constructed, the accident rate dropped 73 percent and there were 245 fewer accidents on the then-new I-80 freeway.
The new route also made traveling across the Sierra Nevada far easier. Before construction, US 40 was a two-lane undivided highway with winding turns. This route was often closed in the winter because of the high elevation of the Donner Pass (), and drivers had to use a much longer route to the north, US 40 Alternate (US 40 Alt), now SR 70, using the Beckwourth Pass, at an elevation of . Driving across the Sierra Nevada became far easier with the construction of I-80 across Donner Summit since that pass is closed only for intense snowstorms.
Truncation of US 40
In 1964, Caltrans desired to reduce the number of designated routes in the California state highways system. The Interstate Highway System, designed and built starting in 1956, was adding on to the already increased number of US Routes and state highways. In result, the 1964 renumbering truncated US 50 to West Sacramento. The entire route of US 40 was deleted in the Western United States due to the completion of I-80. Also, the number "40" was duplicated along I-40, at that time, a newly built route in Southern California. I-40 was to be numbered I-30, but the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) rejected the numbering.
The state law authorizing the renumbering was passed on September 20, 1963. Signage changes took place by July 1, 1964, and US 40 was decommissioned. US 40 was one of the first US Routes to be decommissioned completely in California.
Former alignments in Sacramento
In the Sacramento area, I-80 has been realigned to many routes. In 1964, I-80 used the old US 40/US 99E freeway, the current I-80 Bus, while, a year later, I-80 was proposed to be realigned along a new freeway that would run south of the former I-80/I-880 northeast of Sacramento, run to south of the American River, and rejoin I-80. This was necessary because the 1964 I-80 failed to meet Interstate standards.
In 1972, I-880 was completed, while a part of the new alignment of I-80 was completed but not open to traffic, where there was a long bridge to nowhere. From 1972 to 1980, I-880 began in West Sacramento as a fork from the original I-80, continues northeast over the Sacramento River to its interchange with I-5, continues east through the communities of North Sacramento and Del Paso Heights, and ends at an interchange with the Roseville Freeway (I-80). The now-designated Capital City Freeway was then the original I-80 routing, continuing southwest directly into downtown Sacramento. I-80 was then rerouted along the Beltline Freeway in 1983, while the Capital City Freeway became I-80 Bus, also I-305 and SR 51. I-880 would have intersected SR 244 and then US 50, but, in 1979, the Sacramento City Council voted to delete the proposed I-80 alignment for rail transit. The constructed I-80/SR 51/SR 244 split is now used for three railroad stations. In 1980, the new I-80 alignment was deleted from the Interstate System. SR 244 was then truncated from its proposed alignment to the only freeway section of the abandoned project in 1994, which is about long. In 1982–1984, I-880 was reassigned to SR 17 running from Oakland to San Jose, after two to four years of inactivity.
Bay Bridge replacement
On October 17, 1989, the Loma Prieta earthquake was responsible for 63 deaths and 3,757 injuries. The San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, which is part of I-80, suffered severe damage, as a section of the upper deck on the eastern cantilever side fell onto the deck below. The quake caused the Oakland side of the bridge to shift to the east and caused the bolts of one section to shear off, sending the section of roadbed crashing down like a trapdoor. Caltrans removed and replaced the collapsed section and reopened the bridge on November 18.
In 2002, due to the risk of a future large earthquake, Caltrans started building a new eastern span. The department advertised that the new span of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge used a new earthquake-resisting technique that would not collapse in an earthquake similar to the Loma Prieta earthquake. The new eastern span opened on September 2, 2013, at an estimated cost of $6.4 billion (equivalent to $ in ).
Express lanes
In May 2022, Caltrans began construction on high-occupancy toll (HOT) lanes along I-80 between Red Top Road in Fairfield and Leisure Town Road in Vacaville. The project includes converting the existing carpool lanes between Red Top Road and Air Base Parkway. Scheduled to open in 2025, the HOT lanes will use an open road tolling system, and therefore no toll booths to receive cash, with each vehicle required to carry a FasTrak transponder.
Exit list
Related routes
The following auxiliary Interstate Highways are associated with I-80 in California, all in the San Francisco Bay Area:
I-280 runs from US 101 in San Jose north to San Francisco, running just to the west of the larger cities of San Francisco Peninsula for most of its route.
I-380 connects I-280 in San Bruno with US 101 near San Francisco International Airport.
I-580 runs from US 101 in San Rafael east to I-5 at a point south of Tracy in the Central Valley.
I-680 runs from US 101 in San Jose north to I-80 in Fairfield, curving around the inland areas of the East Bay.
I-780 connects I-80 in Vallejo with I-680 in Benicia.
I-880 connects I-280 in San Jose with I-80 and I-580 in Oakland, running parallel to the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay for most of its route.
I-980 connects I-880 with I-580 in Oakland.
In addition, I-238 may be considered associated with I-80 even though it does not follow established rules for numbering Interstates as there is no I-38. As it connects I-580 in Castro Valley with I-880 in San Leandro, it would normally also use a three-digit number ending in 80. But, of the nine possible numbers, two (180 and 480) were in use by State Routes (the latter an Interstate until 1968 though SR 480 was deleted in 1991), and the remainder were already in use by the other aforementioned auxiliary routes. (I-880 was designated at the same time as I-238.)
One business loop of I-80 exists in California, running along a former alignment through Sacramento.
Three former auxiliary Interstate Highway routes exist:
I-180 was the designation for the segment along the Richmond–San Rafael Bridge between 1978 and 1983 before it became a northern extension on I-580.
I-480 was planned to run in San Francisco between I-80 near the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and US 101 near the Golden Gate Bridge. Only the elevated double-decker Embarcadero Freeway and the partly elevated Doyle Drive approach to the Golden Gate Bridge were completed before freeway revolts halted any construction of the middle section. The Interstate designation only lasted from 1955 to 1965, and the Embarcadero Freeway was demolished after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
I-880 was the original route designation of the northern bypass freeway in Sacramento before I-80 was rerouted along it in 1983.
See also
References
External links
Bay Area FasTrak – includes toll information on the Bay Bridge, Carquinez Bridge, and the other Bay Area toll facilities
Caltrans District 4: Current major projects on Route 80
California @ AARoads.com - Interstate 80
California Highways: I-80
80
080
California
Roads in Alameda County, California
Roads in Contra Costa County, California
Roads in Napa County, California
Roads in Nevada County, California
Roads in Placer County, California
Roads in Sacramento County, California
Roads in San Francisco
Roads in Sierra County, California
Roads in Solano County, California
Roads in Yolo County, California
U.S. Route 40
U.S. Route 99 |
4358082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20defender | Human rights defender | A human rights defender or human rights activist is a person who, individually or with others, acts to promote or protect human rights. They can be journalists, environmentalists, whistleblowers, trade unionists, lawyers, teachers, housing campaigners, participants in direct action, or just individuals acting alone. They can defend rights as part of their jobs or in a voluntary capacity. As a result of their activities, human rights defenders (HRDs) are often subjected to reprisals including smears, surveillance, harassment, false charges, arbitrary detention, restrictions on the right to freedom of association, physical attack, and even murder. In 2020, at least 331 HRDs were murdered in 25 countries. The international community and some national governments have attempted to respond to this violence through various protections, but violence against HRDs continues to rise. Women human rights defenders and environmental human rights defenders (who are very often indigenous) face greater repression and risks than human rights defenders working on other issues.
In 1998, the United Nations issued their Declaration on Human Rights Defenders to legitimise the work of human rights defenders and extend protection for human rights activity. Following this Declaration, increasing numbers of activists have adopted the HRD label; this is especially true for professional human rights workers.
Definition
The term human rights defender (HRD) became commonly used within the international human rights community after the UN General Assembly issued the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognised Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (A/RES/53/144, 1998), commonly known as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. Prior to this Declaration, activist, worker, or monitor were more common terms for people working to defend human rights. The Declaration on Human Rights Defenders created a very broad definition of human rights defenders to include anyone who promotes or defends human rights. This broad definition presents both challenges and benefits to stakeholders and donors seeking to support HRD protection programs, as more precise definitions exclude some categories of HRDs, but such broad definition also leaves much room for interpretation and can make it difficult to establish HRD status for some at-risk individuals.
In 2004, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights issued Fact Sheet 29 to further define and support human rights defenders. This document states that, "no 'qualification' is required to be a human rights defender," but that the minimum standards for HRDs are acceptance of the universality of human rights and non-violent action.
Some researchers have attempted to demarcate categories of human rights defenders for the purpose of better understanding patterns of HRD risks. Such categorisation may discern professional vs. non-professional activity, or differentiate based on the specific rights that are being defended such as the rights of women, or indigenous land rights.
Self identification
Self-identification as a human rights defender is more common among professional human rights advocates who work within established institutions, governments, or NGOs. Individuals who work outside of these systems commonly self-identify as 'activists', 'leaders', or by a broad range of other terms instead of human rights defenders, even when their activity falls clearly within the scope outlined by the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. Use of the HRD identity could benefit human rights activists by legitimising their work and facilitating access to protective measures. Use of the HRD identity can also be counterproductive by directing attention to particular individuals rather than focusing on the collective nature of their work, which may also have the effect of further endangering these individuals.
Threats to human rights defenders
Human rights defenders (HRDs) face severe repression and retaliation from government and private actors including the police, military, local elites, private security forces, right-wing groups, and multi-national corporations. Abuses include threats, arbitrary arrest and detainment, harassment, defamation, dismissal from jobs, eviction, disappearance, and murder. HRDs who work on women's rights (WHRDs) or who challenge cultural gender norms run increased risks compared to other HRDs, as do less prominent workers in remote areas. Environmental human rights defenders (EHRDs) who work on environmental rights, land rights, and indigenous rights issues also face greater threats than other HRDs; in 2020 69% of the HRDs killed globally were working on these issues.
A report published by Front Line Defenders in 2020 found that at least 331 HRDs were murdered that year in 25 countries. Although indigenous people only account for about 6% of the global population, approximately 1/3 of these murdered HRDs were indigenous. In 2019, 304 HRDs were murdered in 31 countries. Global Witness reported that 1,922 EHRDs were killed in 52 countries between 2002 and 2019. 80% of these deaths were in Latin America. Approximately 1/3 of the EHRDs reported killed between 2015 and 2019 were indigenous. Documentation of this violence is incomplete, and for every death there may be as many as a hundred cases of severe repression such as detainment, eviction, defamation, etc.
Research conducted by the Business and Human Rights Resource Center documented a 34 percent increase worldwide in attacks against human rights activists in 2017. The figures included 120 suspected murders and hundreds of incidents that involved assault, bullying, and threats. There were 388 attacks in 2017 compared to only 290 in 2016. The same study identified human rights defenders connected to agribusiness, mining, and renewable energy sectors (EHRDs) as those in greatest danger. Lawyers and members of environmental groups were also at risk.
UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders
The United Nations Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (A/RES/53/144) on December 9, 1998, commonly known as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, is the first UN instrument to legitimise and define human rights defenders, as well as the right and responsibility for everyone to protect human rights.
The Declaration is not legally binding, but it articulates rights established by existing human rights treaties and applies them to human rights defenders in order to legitimise their work and extend protection of HRDs. Under the Declaration, a human rights defender is anyone who works to promote or protect human rights: whether professionally or non-professionally; alone or as part of group or institution.
The Declaration articulates existing rights in a way that makes it easier to apply them to human rights defenders. The rights protected under the Declaration include, among others, the right to develop and discuss new human rights ideas and to advocate their acceptance; the right to criticise government bodies and agencies and to make proposals to improve their functioning; the right to provide legal assistance or other advice and assistance in defence of human rights; the right to observe fair trials; the right to unhindered access to and communication with non-governmental and intergovernmental organisations; the right to access resources for the purpose of protecting human rights, including the receipt of funds from abroad; and the rights of free expression, association and assembly.
The Declaration indicates that states have a responsibility to implement and respect the provisions of the Declaration and emphasises the duty of the state to protect HRDs from violence, retaliation and intimidation as a consequence of their human rights work. The Declaration also places responsibility to protect human rights at the individual level and especially upon individuals in professions that may affect human rights such as law enforcement, judges, etc.
Women human rights defenders
In 2017, female activists who were killed because of their advocacies and activities in defending human rights were honored during the International Women Human Rights Defenders' Day. Those murdered criticized corruption and other forms of injustice, protect their lands from governments and multinational corporations, and upheld the rights of lesbians, gays and transgender individuals.
Environmental human rights defenders
Environmental human rights defenders or simply environmental defenders, have been defined by the UN Environment Programme as, "defenders carrying out a vast range of activities related to land and environmental rights, including those working on issues related to extractive industries, and construction and development projects." They also state that environmental defenders are, "defending environmental rights, including constitutional rights to a clean and healthy environment, when the exercise of those rights is being threatened whether or not they self-identify as human rights defenders. Many environmental defenders engage in their activities through sheer necessity."
The use of the term Environmental defender (or Environmental human rights defender) by human rights organizations, the media, and academia is recent and associated with the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders. However, the approach and role of environmental defenders is closely related to earlier concepts developed as early as the 1980s such as environmental justice and environmentalism of the poor. Although these different terms have different origins, they converge around the re-establishment of land-based cultures, re-making of place for marginalized people, and protection of land and livelihood from activities such as resource extraction, dumping of toxic waste, and land appropriation. Since the 1998 UN Declaration, the term environmental defenders is increasingly used by global organizations and media to refer to this convergence of goals and analysis.
Protection instruments
Following the adoption of the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders in 1998, a number of initiatives were taken, both at the international and regional level, to increase the protection of defenders and contribute to the implementation of the Declaration. In this context, the following mechanisms and guidelines were established:
The mandate of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders (2000)
The mandate of the Special Rapporteur of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights on human rights defenders (2004)
The Human Rights Defenders Unit of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2001)
The European Union Guidelines on human rights defenders (2004)
The Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on Council of Europe action to improve the protection of human rights defenders and promote their activities (2008)
The European Union Human Rights Defenders mechanism, which is implemented by civil society organizations, ProtectDefenders.eu (2015)
In 2008, the Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, a joint programme of the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) and the World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT), took the initiative to gather all the human rights defenders' institutional mandate-holders (created within the United Nations, the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Council of Europe, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the European Union) to find ways to enhance coordination and complementarities among themselves and with NGOs. In 2010, a single inter-mechanisms website was created, gathering all relevant public information on the activities of the different human rights defenders' protection mandate-holders. It aims to increase the visibility of the documentation produced by the mechanisms (press releases, studies, reports, statements), as well as of their actions (country visits, institutional events, trials observed).
In 2016, the International Service for Human Rights published the 'Model National Law on the Recognition and Protection of Human Rights Defenders'. This document provides authoritative guidance to states on how to implement the UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders at the national level. It was developed in collaboration with hundreds of defenders and endorsed by leading human rights experts and jurists.
Several countries have introduced national legislation or policies to protect human rights defenders including Colombia, Brazil, Mexico, and Guatemala; however, key challenges in implementation remain.
Awards for human rights defenders
The United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1998.
The Martin Ennals Award, a collaboration of several human rights NGOs. Martin Ennals was a renowned human rights defender and secretary general of Amnesty International. Its secretariat is located at the OMCT office in Geneva. The award carries a grant of at least 20,000 Swiss Francs (about 20,000 US dollars) to be used for further work in the field of human rights.
The Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award, established in 1984.
The Sakharov Prize, established in 1988 by the European Parliament. Laureates include: Nelson Mandela, Malala Yousafzai, the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Raif Badawi.
The Human Rights Defenders Tulip, established by the Netherlands government in 2008.
Several human rights defenders have received the Nobel Peace Prize, such as imprisoned Chinese human rights activist Liu Xiaobo who won the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize for his "long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China".
The Front Line Defenders Award for Human Rights Defenders at Risk, established in 2005 to 'honour the work of a human rights defender who, through non-violent work, is courageously making an outstanding contribution to the promotion and protection of the human rights of others.'
The Ginetta Sagan award for Women Human Rights Defenders, established in 1997 "to help women throughout the world in their struggle to overcome oppression, to let them know that they are not alone". Awardees include Hina Jilani, Sonia Pierre, Lydia Cacho, Julienne Lusenge.
The Nuremberg International Human Rights Award, established by the city of Nuremberg; the inaugural award was made in 1995.
The Cao Shunli Memorial Award for Human Rights Defenders, first awarded in 2015, named after Chinese lawyer and activist Cao Shunli. The award is given by Chinese Human Rights Defenders.
Electronic mapping
Electronic mapping is a newly developed tool using electronic networks and satellite imagery and tracking. Examples include tactical mapping, crisis mapping and geo-mapping. Tactical mapping has been primarily used in tracking human rights abuses by providing visualization of the tracking and implementation monitoring.
Examples of HRDs
In 2017, Human rights lawyer Emil Kurbedinov, a Crimean Tatar, won the 2017 Award for Frontline Human Rights Defenders at Risk. Kurbedinov has been an avid defender of civil society militants, mistreated Crimean Tatars, and members of the media. He documents violations of human rights during searches of activists' residences as well as emergency responses. In January 2017, the Crimean Center for Counteracting Extremism arrested and detained the lawyer. He was taken to a local facility of the Russian Federal Security Service for questioning. A district tribunal ruled that Kurbedinov was guilty of doing propaganda work for terrorist groups and organizations. He was sentenced to 10 days of imprisonment.
See also
Land defender
List of human rights organisations
Global justice
Global Human Rights Defence
Human Rights Logo
International human rights instruments
National human rights institutions
Networked advocacy
Protection International
Youth for Human Rights International
References
External links
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner
UN Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
Who is a defender (OHCHR)
International Service for Human Rights: Working to support Human Rights Defenders
Amnesty International: Protecting Human Rights Defenders
Front Line: The International Foundation for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders at Risk
International Federation for Human Rights – Human rights defenders programme of FIDH
The Human rights defenders programme of the OMCT
Martin Ennals Award
Human Rights Defenders Tulip
Civil rights and liberties |
4358254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Twelve%20Caesars | The Twelve Caesars | De vita Caesarum (Latin; "About the Life of the Caesars"), commonly known as The Twelve Caesars, is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire written by Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The group are: Julius Caesar (d. 44 BC), Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian (d. 96 AD).
The work, written in AD 121 during the reign of the emperor Hadrian, was the most popular work of Suetonius, at that time Hadrian's personal secretary, and is the largest among his surviving writings. It was dedicated to a friend, the Praetorian prefect Gaius Septicius Clarus.
The Twelve Caesars was considered very significant in antiquity and remains a primary source on Roman history. The book discusses the significant and critical period of the Principate from the end of the Republic to the reign of Domitian; comparisons are often made with Tacitus, whose surviving works document a similar period.
The Twelve Caesars, using the same group, were a popular subject in art in many different media from the Renaissance onwards.
Reliability
The book can be described as racy, overly sensationalist, packed with gossip, drama, and sometimes humor. The book heavily relies on hearsay and rumor, and at times the author subjectively expresses his opinion and knowledge. Several important events are omitted.
Although he was never a senator himself, Suetonius took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the princeps, as well as the senators' views of the emperor. That resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on secondhand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of the letters of Augustus, which had been gathered earlier) and does not quote the emperor.
The book still provides valuable information on the heritage, personal habits, physical appearance, lives, and political careers of the first Roman emperors. It mentions details which other sources do not. For example, Suetonius is the main source on the lives of Caligula, his uncle Claudius, and the heritage of Vespasian (the relevant sections of the Annals by his contemporary Tacitus having been lost). Suetonius made a reference in this work to "Chrestus", which could refer to Christ, and in the book on Nero he mentions Christians (see Historicity of Jesus).
Constituent works
Julius Caesar
Suetonius begins this section with Caesar's father's death when he himself was aged sixteen. Suetonius then narrates that period describing Caesar's disengagement with a wealthy girl called Cossutia, engagement with Cornelia during the civic strife. He also narrated Caesar's conquests, especially in Gaul, and his Civil War against Pompey the Great. Several times Suetonius quotes Caesar. Suetonius includes Caesar's famous decree, "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). In discussing Caesar's war against Pompey the Great, Suetonius quotes Caesar during a battle that he nearly lost, "That man [Pompey] does not know how to win a war."
Suetonius describes an incident that would become one of the most memorable of the entire book. As a young man, Caesar was captured by pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. Amused at the lowness of the initial ransom they sought to ask for him, Caesar insisted that they raise his price to 50 talents, and promised that one day he would find them and crucify them (this was the standard punishment for piracy during this time). He spent the remainder of his time in captivity addressing them as subordinates, participating in their games and exercises, and forcing them to listen to his speeches and poetry. After being released a little more than a month later, following the payment of the ransom of 50 talents, Caesar shortly raised an army entirely on his own (despite holding no command or public office), captured the pirates, and crucified them, recovering the 50 talents.
It is from Suetonius that we first learn of another incident during the life of Julius Caesar. While serving as quaestor in Hispania, Caesar once visited a statue of Alexander the Great. Upon viewing this statue, Suetonius reports that Caesar fell to his knees, weeping. When asked what was wrong, Caesar sighed, and said that by the time Alexander was his (Caesar's) age, he had conquered the whole world.
Suetonius describes Caesar's gift at winning the loyalty and admiration of his soldiers. Suetonius mentions that Caesar commonly referred to them as "comrades" instead of "soldiers." When one of Caesar's legions took heavy losses in a battle, Caesar vowed not to trim his beard or hair until he had avenged the deaths of his soldiers. Suetonius describes an incident during a naval battle. One of Caesar's soldiers had his hand cut off. Despite the injury, this soldier still managed to board an enemy ship and subdue its crew. Suetonius mentions Caesar's famous crossing of the Rubicon (the border between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul), on his way to Rome to start a Civil War against Pompey and ultimately seize power.
Suetonius later describes Caesar's major reforms upon defeating Pompey and seizing power. One such reform was the modification of the Roman calendar. The calendar at the time had already used the same system of solar years and lunar months that our current calendar uses. Caesar updated the calendar so as to minimize the number of lost days due to the prior calendar’s imprecision regarding the exact amount of time in a solar year. Caesar also renamed the fifth month (also the month of his birth) in the Roman calendar July, in his honor (Roman years started in March, not January as they do under the current calendar). Suetonius says that Caesar had planned on invading and conquering the Parthian Empire. These plans were not carried out due to Caesar's assassination.
Suetonius then includes a description of Caesar's appearance and personality. Suetonius says that Caesar was semi-bald. Due to embarrassment regarding his premature baldness, Caesar combed his hair over and forward so as to hide this baldness. Caesar wore a senator's tunic with an orange belt. Caesar is described as routinely wearing loose clothes. Suetonius quotes the Roman dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla as saying, "Beware the boy with the loose clothes, for one day he will mean the ruin of the Republic." This quote referred to Caesar, as he had been a young man during Sulla's Social War and subsequent dictatorship. Suetonius describes Caesar as taking steps so that others would not refer to him as king. Political enemies at the time had claimed that Caesar wanted to bring back the much reviled monarchy.
Finally, Suetonius describes Caesar's assassination. Shortly before his assassination, Caesar told a friend that he wanted to die a sudden and spectacular death. Suetonius believes that several omens predicted the assassination. One such omen was a vivid dream Caesar had the night before his assassination.
The day of the assassination, Suetonius claims that Caesar was given a document describing the entire plot. Caesar took the document, but did not have a chance to read it before he was assassinated.
Suetonius says that others have claimed that Caesar reproached the conspirator Brutus, saying "You too, my child?" (). This specific wording varies slightly from the more famous quote, "Even you, Brutus?" (et tu, Brute) from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.
However, Suetonius himself asserts that Caesar said nothing, apart from a single groan, as he was being stabbed. Instead Suetonius reports that Caesar exclaimed, "Why, this is violence!" as the attack began.
Augustus
Before he died, Julius Caesar had designated his great-nephew, Gaius Octavius (who would be named Augustus by the Roman Senate after becoming emperor), as his adopted son and heir. Octavius' mother, Atia, was the daughter of Caesar's sister, Julia Minor.
Octavian (not yet renamed Augustus) finished the civil wars started by his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. One by one, Octavian defeated the legions of the other generals who wanted to succeed Julius Caesar as the master of the Roman world. Suetonius includes descriptions of these civil wars, including the final one against Mark Antony that ended with the Battle of Actium. Antony had been Octavian's last surviving rival, but committed suicide after his defeat at Actium. It was after this victory in 31 BC that Octavian became master of the Roman world and imperator (emperor). His declaration of the end of the Civil Wars that had started under Julius Caesar marked the historic beginning of the Roman Empire, and the Pax Romana. Octavian at this point was given the title ("the venerable") by the Roman Senate.
After describing the military campaigns of Augustus, Suetonius describes his personal life. A large section of the entire book is devoted to this. This is partly because after Actium, the reign of Augustus was mostly peaceful. It has also been noted by several sources that the entire work of The Twelve Caesars delves more deeply into personal details and gossip relative to other contemporary Roman histories.
Suetonius describes a strained relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia. Augustus had originally wanted Julia, his only child, to provide for him a male heir. Due to difficulties regarding an heir, and Julia's promiscuity, Augustus banished Julia to the island of Pandateria and considered having her executed. Suetonius quotes Augustus as repeatedly cursing his enemies by saying that they should have "a wife and children like mine."
According to Suetonius, Augustus lived a modest life, with few luxuries. Augustus lived in an ordinary Roman house, ate ordinary Roman meals, and slept in an ordinary
Roman bed.
Suetonius describes certain omens and dreams that predicted the birth of Augustus. One dream described in the book suggested that his mother, Atia, was a virgin impregnated by a Roman god. In 63 BC, during the consulship of Cicero, several Roman senators dreamt that a king would be born, and would rescue the republic. 63 BC was also the year Augustus was born. One other omen described by Suetonius suggests that Julius Caesar decided to make Augustus his heir after seeing an omen while serving as the Roman governor of Hispania Ulterior.
Suetonius includes a section regarding the only two military defeats Rome suffered under Augustus. Both of these defeats occurred in Germany. The first defeat was inconsequential. During the second, the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, three Roman legions (Legio XVII, Legio XVIII, and Legio XIX) were defeated by the West-Germanic resistance to Roman imperialism, led by Arminius. Much of what is known about this battle was written in this book. According to Suetonius, this battle "almost wrecked the empire." It is from Suetonius where we get the reaction of Augustus upon learning of the defeat. Suetonius writes that Augustus hit his head against a wall in despair, repeating, Quintili Vare, legiones redde! ('Quinctilius Varus, give me back my legions!') This defeat was one of the worst Rome suffered during the entire Principate. The result was the establishment of the rivers Rhine and Danube as the natural northern border of the empire. Rome would never again push its territory deeper into Germany. Suetonius suggests that Augustus never fully got over this defeat.
Tiberius
Suetonius opens his book on Tiberius by highlighting his ancestry as a member of the patrician Claudii, and recounts his birth father’s career as a military officer both under Caesar and as a supporter of Lucius Antonius in his rebellion against Octavian. Upon the resumption of peace, Octavian took an interest in Livia, and requested that the couple divorce so that he could marry her, making Tiberius his stepson. Tiberius’s adolescence and marriages are recorded, with Suetonius noting Tiberius’s displeasure at being forced by Augustus to divorce his first wife, Vipsania Agrippina, in order to marry Augustus’s daughter Julia.
The early successes of Tiberius in his legal, political, and military career are recounted, including his command of several Roman armies in Germany. It was his leadership in these German campaigns that convinced Augustus to adopt Tiberius and to make him his heir. According to Suetonius, Tiberius retired at a young age to Rhodes, before returning to Rome some time before the death of Augustus. The ascent of Tiberius to the throne was possible because the two grandsons that Augustus had died before Augustus, and the last grandson, Postumus Agrippa – although originally designated co-rule with Tiberius – was later deemed morally unsound by Augustus.
Augustus began a long (and at times successful) tradition of adopting an heir, rather than allowing a son to succeed an emperor. Suetonius quotes from the will Augustus left. Suetonius suggests that not only was Tiberius not thought of highly by Augustus, but Augustus expected Tiberius to fail.
After briefly mentioning military and administrative successes, Suetonius tells of perversion, brutality and vice and goes into depth to describe depravities he attributes to Tiberius.
Despite the lurid tales, modern history looks upon Tiberius as a successful and competent emperor who at his death left the state treasury much richer than when his reign began. Thus Suetonius' treatment of the character of Tiberius, like Claudius', must be taken with a pinch of salt.
Tiberius died of natural causes. Suetonius describes widespread joy in Rome upon his death. There was a desire to have his body thrown down the Gemonian stairs and into the Tiber River, as this he had done many times previously to others. Tiberius had no living children when he died, although his (probable) natural grandson, Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero (Gemellus), and his adopted grandson, Gaius Caesar Caligula, both survived him. Tiberius designated both as his joint heirs, but seems to have favored Caligula over Gemellus, due to Gemellus' youth.
Caligula
Most of what is known about the reign of Caligula comes from Suetonius. Other contemporary Roman works, such as those of Tacitus, contain little, if anything, about Caligula. Presumably most of what existed regarding his reign was lost long ago.
For most of the work, Suetonius refers to Caligula by his actual first name, Gaius. ('little boots') was a nickname given to him by his father's soldiers, because as a boy he would often dress in miniature battle gear and 'drill' the troops (without knowing the commands, but the troops loved him all the same and pretended to understand him). Caligula's father, Germanicus, was loved throughout Rome as a brilliant military commander and example of Roman pietas. Tiberius had adopted Germanicus as his heir, with the hope that Germanicus would succeed him. Germanicus died before he could succeed Tiberius in 19 AD.
Upon the death of Tiberius, Caligula became emperor. Initially the Romans loved Caligula due to their memory of his father. But most of what Suetonius says of Caligula is negative, and describes him as having an affliction that caused him to suddenly fall unconscious. Suetonius believed that Caligula knew that something was wrong with him.
He reports that Caligula married his sister, threatened to make his horse consul, and that he sent an army to the northern coast of Gaul and as they prepared to invade Britain, one rumour had it that he had them pick seashells on the shore (evidence shows that this could be a fabrication as the word for shell in Latin doubles as the word that the legionaries of the time used to call the 'huts' that the soldiers erected during the night while on campaign). He once had a walkway built from his palace to a temple so that he could be closer to his "brother," the Roman god Jupiter, as Caligula believed himself to be a living deity. He would also have busts of his head replace those on statues of different gods.
He would call people to his palace in the middle of the night. When they arrived, he would hide and make strange noises. At other times, he would have people assassinated, and then call for them. When they did not show up, he would remark that they must have committed suicide.
Suetonius describes several omens that predicted the assassination of Caligula. He mentions a bolt of lightning that struck Rome on the ides of March, which was when Julius Caesar was assassinated. Lightning was an event of immense superstition in the ancient world. The day of the assassination, Caligula sacrificed a flamingo. During the sacrifice, blood splattered on his clothes. Suetonius also describes a comet that was seen shortly before the assassination. In the ancient world, comets were believed to foretell the death or assassination of important people. Suetonius even suggested that Caligula's name itself was a predictor of his assassination, noting that every caesar named Gaius, such as the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, had been assassinated (a statement which is not entirely accurate; Julius Caesar's father died from natural causes, as did Augustus).
Caligula was an avid fan of gladiatorial combats; he was assassinated shortly after leaving a show by a disgruntled Praetorian Guard captain, as well as several senators.
Claudius
Claudius (full name: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was the grandson of Mark Antony, brother of Germanicus, and the uncle of Caligula. He was descended from both the Julian and the Claudian clans, as was Caligula. He was about 50 years old at the time of Caligula's murder. He never held public office until late in his life, mainly due to his family's concerns as to his health and mental abilities. Suetonius has much to say about Claudius' apparent disabilities, and how the imperial family viewed them, in the "Life of Augustus".
The assassination of Caligula caused great terror in the palace and, according to Suetonius, Claudius, being frightened by the sounds of soldiers scouring the palace for further victims, hid behind some curtains on a balcony nearby. He was convinced that he would be murdered as well because he was within direct family of Caligula, the last emperor. A soldier checking the room noticed feet sticking out from underneath the curtains, and upon pulling back the curtains discovered a terrified Claudius. He acclaimed Claudius the new emperor and took him to the rest of the soldiers, where they carried him out of the palace on a litter. Claudius was taken to the Praetorian camp, where he was quickly proclaimed emperor by the troops.
We learn from Suetonius that Claudius was the first Roman commander to invade Britain since Julius Caesar a century earlier. Cassius Dio gives a more detailed account of this. He also went farther than Caesar, and made Britain subject to Roman rule. Caesar had "conquered" Britain, but left the Britons alone to rule themselves. Claudius was not as kind. The invasion of Britain was the major military campaign under his reign.
According to Suetonius, Claudius suffered from ill health all of his life until he became emperor, when his health suddenly became excellent. Nonetheless, Claudius suffered from a variety of maladies, including fits and epileptic seizures, a funny limp, as well as several personal habits like a bad stutter and excessive drooling when overexcited. Suetonius found much delectation in recounting how the pitiable Claudius was ridiculed in his imperial home due to these ailments. In his account of Caligula, Suetonius also includes several letters written by Augustus to his wife, Livia, expressing concern for the imperial family's reputation should Claudius be seen with them in public. Suetonius goes on to accuse Claudius of cruelty and stupidity, assigning some of the blame to his wives and freedmen.
Suetonius discusses several omens that foretold the assassination of Claudius. He mentions a comet that several Romans had seen shortly before the assassination. As mentioned earlier, comets were believed to foretell the deaths of significant people. Per Suetonius, Claudius, under suggestions from his wife Messalina, tried to shift this deadly fate from himself to others by various fictions, resulting in the execution of several Roman citizens, including some senators and aristocrats.
Suetonius paints Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing his good works to the influence of others. Thus the portrait of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. Claudius’ dining habits figure in the biography, notably his immoderate love of food and drink, and his affection for the city taverns.
His personal and moral failings aside however, most modern historians agree that Claudius generally ruled well. They cite his military success in Britannia as well as his extensive public works. His reign came to an end when he was murdered by eating from a dish of poisoned mushrooms, probably supplied by his last wife Agrippina in an attempt to have her own son from a previous marriage, the future emperor Nero, ascend the throne.
Nero
Suetonius portrays the life of Nero in a similar fashion to that of Caligula—it begins with a recounting of how Nero assumed the throne ahead of Claudius' son Britannicus and then descends into a recounting of various atrocities the young emperor allegedly performed.
One characteristic of Nero that Suetonius describes was Nero's enjoyment of music. Suetonius describes Nero as being a gifted musician. Nero would often give great concerts with attendance compelled for upper-class Romans. These concerts would last for hours on end, and some women were rumored to give birth during them, or men faking death to escape (Nero forbade anyone from leaving the performance until it was completed).
Nero's eccentricities continued in the tradition of his predecessors in mental and personal perversions. According to Suetonius, Nero had one boy named Sporus castrated, and then had sex with him as though he were a woman. Suetonius quotes one Roman who lived around this time who remarked that the world would have been better off if Nero's father Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus had married someone more like the castrated boy.
It is in Suetonius we find the beginnings of the legend that Nero "fiddled as Rome burned." Suetonius recounts how Nero, while watching Rome burn, exclaimed how beautiful it was, and sang an epic poem about the sack of Troy while playing the lyre.
Suetonius describes Nero's suicide, and remarks that his death meant the end of the reign of the Julio-Claudians (because Nero had no heir). According to Suetonius, Nero was condemned to die by the Senate. When Nero knew that soldiers had been dispatched by the Senate to kill him, he committed suicide.
Galba
The book about Galba is short. Galba was the first emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors.
Galba was able to ascend to the throne because Nero's death meant the end of Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Suetonius includes a brief description of Galba's family history. Suetonius describes Galba as being of noble birth, and born into a noble patrician family. Suetonius also includes a brief list of omens regarding Galba and his assassination.
Most of this book describes Galba's ascension to the throne and his assassination, along with the usual side notes regarding his appearance and related omens. Suetonius does not spend much time describing either any accomplishments nor any failures of his reign.
According to Suetonius, Galba was killed by Otho's loyalists.
About this time, Suetonius has exhausted all his imperial archival sources.
Otho
His full name was Marcus Salvius Otho. Otho's reign was only a few months. Therefore, the book on Otho is short, much as the book on Galba had been.
Suetonius used a similar method to describe the life of Otho as he had used to describe the life of Galba. Suetonius describes Otho's family, and their history and nobility. And just as Suetonius had done with prior caesars, he includes a list of omens regarding Otho's reign and suicide.
Suetonius spends most of the book describing the ascension of Otho, his suicide, and the other usual topics. Suetonius suggests that as soon as Otho ascended the throne, he started defending himself against competing claims to the throne.
According to Suetonius, Otho suffered a fate similar to the fate Galba had suffered. It was the loyalists of another aspiring emperor (in this case, the next emperor Vitellius) who wanted to kill him. Suetonius claims that one night Otho realized that he would soon be murdered. He contemplated suicide, but decided to sleep one more night before carrying out a suicide. That night he went to bed with a dagger under his pillow. The next morning he woke up and stabbed himself to death.
Vitellius
In the book of the last of the short-lived emperors, Suetonius briefly describes the reign of Vitellius.
Suetonius says that Otho killed himself while Vitellius was marching to Rome.
This book gives an unfavorable picture of Vitellius; however it should be remembered that Suetonius' father was an army officer who had fought for Otho and against Vitellius at the first Battle of Bedriacum, and that Vespasian basically controlled history when he ascended to the throne. Anything written about Vitellius during the Flavian dynasty would have to paint him in a bad light.
Suetonius includes a brief description of the family history of Vitellius, and related omens.
Suetonius finally describes the assassination of Vitellius. According to Suetonius, Vitellius was dragged naked by Roman subjects, tied to a post, and had animal waste thrown at him before he was killed. However, unlike the prior two emperors, it was not the next emperor who killed Vitellius. The next emperor and his followers had been waging a war against the Jews in Judaea at the time. The death of Vitellius and subsequent ascendance of his successor ended the worst year of the early principate.
Vespasian
Suetonius begins by describing the humble antecedents of the founder of the Flavian dynasty and follows with a brief summary of his military and political career under Aulus Plautius, Claudius and Nero and his suppression of the uprising in Judaea. Suetonius documents an early reputation for honesty but also a tendency toward avariciousness.
A detailed recounting of the omens and consultations with oracles follows which Suetonius suggests furthered Vespasian's imperial pretensions. Suetonius then briefly recounts the escalating military support for Vespasian and even more briefly the events in Italy and Egypt that culminated in his accession.
Suetonius presents Vespasian's early imperial actions, the reimposition of discipline on Rome and her provinces and the rebuilding and repair of Roman infrastructure damaged in the civil war, in a favourable light, describing him as 'modest and lenient' and drawing clear parallels with Augustus. Vespasian is further presented as being extraordinarily just and with a preference for clemency over revenge.
Suetonius describes avarice as Vespasian's only serious failing, documenting his tendency for inventive taxation and extortion. However, he mitigates this failing by suggesting that the emptiness of state coffers left Vespasian little choice. Moreover, intermixed with accounts of greed and 'stinginess' are accounts of generosity and lavish rewards. Finally Suetonius gives a brief account of Vespasian's physical appearance and penchant for comedy. This section of the work is the basis for the famous expression "Money has no odor" (); according to Suetonius, Vespasian's son (and the next emperor), Titus, criticized Vespasian for levying a fee for the use of public toilets in the streets of Rome. Vespasian then produced some coins and asked Titus to sniff them, and then asked Titus whether they smelled bad. When Titus said that the coins did not smell bad, Vespasian replied: "And yet they come from urine".
Having contracted a 'bowel complaint,' Vespasian tried to continue his duties as emperor from what would be his deathbed, but on a sudden attack of diarrhea he said "An emperor ought to die standing," and died while struggling to do so.
Titus
Titus was the elder son of Vespasian, and second emperor of the Flavian dynasty. As Suetonius writes: "The delight and darling of the human race." Titus was raised in the imperial court, having grown up with Britannicus. The two of them were told a prophecy pertaining to their future where Britannicus was told that he would never succeed his father and that Titus would. The two were so close that when Britannicus was poisoned, Titus – who was present – tasted it and was nearly killed. "When Titus came of age, the beauty and talents that had distinguished him as a child grew even more remarkable." Titus was extremely adept at the arts of "war and peace." He made a name for himself as a colonel in Germany and Britain; however, he really flourished as a commander under his father in Judea and when he took over the siege of Jerusalem. Titus' near six-month siege of Jerusalem ended with the destruction of Herod's Temple and the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem. The resulting period is known as the Jewish diaspora (roughly from 70 till 1948). Titus had a love affair with the Jewish queen Berenice, whom he brought briefly to Rome.
As emperor, he tried to be magnanimous and always heard petitions with an open mind. And after going through a day having not granted any favors, he commented that "I have wasted a day." During his reign he finished what would be the most enduring reminder of his family: the Flavian Amphitheater. His reign was tainted by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, a great fire in Rome, and one of the worst plagues "that had ever been known." These catastrophes did not destroy him. Rather, as Suetonius remarks, he rose up like a father caring for his children. And although he was deified, his reign was short. He died from poison (possibly by his brother, Domitian), having only reigned for "two years, two months and twenty days." At the time of his death, he "[drew] back the curtains, gazed up at the sky, and complained bitterly that life was being undeservedly taken from him – since only a single sin lay on his conscience."
Domitian
Younger brother of Titus, second son of Vespasian, and third emperor of the Flavian dynasty. Recorded as having gained the throne through deliberately letting his brother die of a fever. During Titus' rule he had caused dissent and had sought the throne through rebellion. From the beginning of his reign Domitian ruled as a complete autocrat, partly because of his lack of political skills, but also because of his own nature. Having led a solitary early life, Domitian was suspicious of those around him, a difficult situation which gradually got worse.
Domitian's provincial government was so carefully supervised that Suetonius admits that the empire enjoyed a period of unusually good government and security. Domitian's policy of employing members of the equestrian class rather than his own freedmen for some important posts was also an innovation. The empire’s finances, which the recklessness of Titus had thrown into confusion, were restored despite building projects and foreign wars. Deeply religious, Domitian built temples and established ceremonies and even tried to enforce public morality by law.
Domitian personally took part in battles in Germany. The latter part of his reign saw increasing trouble on the lower Danube from the Dacians, a tribe occupying roughly what is today Romania. Led by their king Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the empire in 85 AD. The war ended in 88 in a compromise peace which left Decebalus as king and gave him Roman "foreign aid" in return for his promise to help defend the frontier.
One of the reasons Domitian failed to crush the Dacians was a revolt in Germany by the governor Antonius Saturninus. The revolt was quickly suppressed, but from then on, Suetonius informs us, Domitian's already suspicious temper grew steadily worse. Those closest to him suffered the most, and after a reign of terror at the imperial court Domitian was murdered in 96 AD; the group that killed him, according to Suetonius, included his wife, Domitia Longina, and possibly his successor, Nerva. The Senate, which had always hated him, quickly condemned his memory and repealed his acts, and Domitian joined the ranks of the tyrants of considerable accomplishments but evil memory. He was the last of the Flavian emperors, and his murder marked the beginning of the period of the so-called Five Good Emperors.
Manuscript tradition
The oldest surviving copy of The Twelve Caesars was made in Tours in the late 8th or early 9th century AD, and is currently held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France. It is missing the prologue and the first part of the life of Julius Caesar, as are all other surviving copies of the book. Including the Tours manuscript, there are nineteen surviving copies of The Twelve Caesars from the 13th century or earlier. The presence of certain errors in some copies but not others suggests that the nineteen books can be split into two branches of transmission of roughly equal size.
References to the book appear in older works. John Lydus, in his 6th-century book De magistratibus populi Romani, quotes the dedication (from the now-lost prologue) to Septicius Clarus, then prefect of the Praetorian cohort. This allows the book to be dated to 119–121 AD, when Septicius was Praetorian prefect.
Extant manuscripts (ninth to thirteenth centuries)
Alpha branch
Beta branch
As identified and assigned in Kaster.
"In." indicates that the manuscript is believed to originate around the beginning of that century. "Med." indicates towards the middle and "Ex." indicates towards the end. Otherwise the number indicates first (1/2) or second half (2/2) of the century or one of the quarters of the century (1-4/4).
Influence
The Twelve Caesars served as a model for the biographies of 2nd- and early 3rd-century emperors compiled by Marius Maximus. This collection, apparently entitled Caesares, does not survive, but it was a source for a later biographical collection, known as Historia Augusta, which now forms a kind of sequel to Suetonius' work. The Historia Augusta is a collective biography, partly fictionalized, of Roman emperors and usurpers of the second and third centuries.
In the ninth century, Einhard modelled himself on Suetonius in writing the Life of Charlemagne, even borrowing phrases from Suetonius' physical description of Augustus in his own description of the character and appearance of Charlemagne.
Robert Graves, famous for his historical novels I, Claudius and Claudius the God (later dramatized by the BBC), made a widely read translation of The Twelve Caesars, first published in Penguin Classics in 1957.
Suetonius' work has had a significant impact on coin collecting. For centuries, collecting a coin of each of the twelve caesars has been a challenge for collectors of Roman coins.
Many artists created series of paintings or sculptures based on the lives of the Twelve Caesars, including Titian's Eleven Caesars, and the Aldobrandini Tazze, a collection of twelve 16th-century silver standing cups.
Complete editions and translations
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Caesars, tr. Robert Graves. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957, revised by James B. Rives, 2007
C. Suetoni Tranquilli opera, vol. I: De vita Caesarum libri VIII, ed. Maximilianus Ihm. Leipzig: Teubner, 1908.
Suetonius, with an English translation by J. C. Rolfe. London: Heinemann, 1913–4.
Bibliography
C. Suetoni Tranquilli Divus Vespasianus ed. A. W. Braithwaite. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927.
C. Suetoni Tranquilli Divus Iulius [Life of Julius Caesar] ed. H. E. Butler, M. Cary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927. Reissued with new introduction, bibliography and additional notes by G.B. Townend. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1982.
Suetonius, Divus Augustus ed. John M. Carter. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1982.
A. Dalby, 'Dining with the Caesars' in Food and the memory: papers of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2000 ed. Harlan Walker (Totnes: Prospect Books, 2001) pp. 62–88.
Suetonius, Domitian ed. Brian W. Jones. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1996.
Suetonius, Tiberius ed. Hugh Lindsay. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1995.
Suetonius, Caligula ed. Hugh Lindsay. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1993.
Hans Martinet, C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Divus Titus: Kommentar. Königstein am Taunus: Hain, 1981.
Suetonius, Claudius ed. J. Mottershead. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1986.
Suetonius, Galba, Otho, Vitellius ed. Charles L. Murison. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1992.
Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. Cambridge, 1940.
A. Wallace-Hadrill, Suetonius: the scholar and his Caesars. London: Duckworth, 1983.
D. Wardle, Suetonius' Life of Caligula: a commentary. Brussels: Latomus, 1994.
Suetonius, Nero ed. B.H. Warmington. London: Bristol Classical Press, 1999.
Suetonius. The Twelve Caesars (Titus). (London: Penguin, 1979), pp. 296–302.
References
External links
The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at LacusCurtius (Latin and translation from Loeb Classical Library (1914) by John Carew Rolfe)
Suetonius' works at Latin Library
The Lives of the Twelve Caesars at Project Gutenberg (English translation of Alexander Thomson, M.D., Revised and corrected by T. Forester, Esq., A.M. – includes Lives Of The Grammarians, Rhetoricians, And Poets. 1796)
Gai Suetoni Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libri III–VI Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.
The Twelve Caesars at Poetry in Translation (New English translation with in-depth name index (2010) by A. S. Kline)
Biographical books
Latin biographies
2nd-century history books
2nd-century Latin books
Books about monarchs |
4358686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.%20Cleon%20Skousen | W. Cleon Skousen | Willard Cleon Skousen (; January 20, 1913 – January 9, 2006) was an American conservative author with the John Birch Society and a faith-based conspiracy theorist. A notable anti-communist and supporter of the John Birch Society, Skousen's works involved a wide range of subjects including the Six-Day War, Mormon eschatology, New World Order conspiracies, and parenting. His most popular works are The Five Thousand Year Leap and The Naked Communist.
Early life and education
Skousen was born on a dryland farm in Raymond, Alberta, Canada, the second of nine children of Royal Pratt Skousen and Margarita Bentley Skousen, who were U.S. citizens. He lived in Canada until he was ten years old, then moved with his family to California where his father supervised the paving of some of the original Route 66. In 1926, Skousen went to the Mormon colony, Colonia Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico, for two years to help his seriously ill grandmother. While there, he attended the Juarez Academy and was employed for a time as a race horse jockey. Skousen then returned to California, graduating from high school in 1930. At the age of 17 he traveled to Great Britain as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).
After completing his missionary service, Skousen attended San Bernardino Valley Jr. College, graduating in 1935. He married Jewel Pitcher in August 1936, and they raised eight children together. He graduated with an LL.B. from George Washington University Law School in June 1940 (the school updated his degree as Juris Doctor (J.D.) in 1972 with its degree nomenclature).
Professional life
In June 1935, Skousen went to work for the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, a New Deal program to subsidize farmers. Soon thereafter, he found employment with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), working as a messenger while attending law school at night. In 1940, after receiving his law degree and passing the Washington, D.C., bar exam, he became an FBI Special Agent. FBI memos have described his work at the Bureau as mainly clerical and administrative. Skousen left the FBI in 1951. Ironically, the FBI would maintain a file on Skousen that would come to number more than 2,000 pages.
From 1951 to 1955, he taught at Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah. In 1956, Salt Lake City mayor Adiel F. Stewart hired Skousen to serve as police chief in the wake of a police department scandal. Skousen was a well-respected police chief for nearly four years.
In 1960, newly elected mayor J. Bracken Lee dismissed Skousen shortly after Skousen raided an illegal poker club where Lee was in attendance. National Review commentator Mark Hemingway characterized the gathering as "a friendly card game." Skousen supporters protested the abrupt firing by disrupting a city council meeting and planting burning crosses on Lee's lawn. Lee characterized Skousen's strict enforcement of anti-gambling laws as Gestapo-like. Lee said that although Skousen was an anti-communist, he "ran the police department in exactly the same manner as the Communists in Russia operate their government." Time magazine reported in 1960 that Skousen's "real offense seemed to be that he had failed to show enough enthusiasm for Lee's determination to slash the police-department budget." Lee told a friend that Skousen was "one of the greatest spenders of public funds of anyone who ever served in any capacity in Salt Lake City government", and a "master of half truths".
The National Center for Constitutional Studies (NCCS), an organization founded by Skousen, claimed that Skousen had eliminated the sources of illegal activity in the city by 1959. The group asserts that after Skousen's firing, his model police programs were dismantled, and crime increased, on the average, by 22%.
Skousen continued his involvement in law enforcement issues by working as the editor of the police journal Law and Order for fifteen years. He also served as field director for the American Security Council, but an increasing perception of paranoia resulted in his abrupt termination in 1962. In 1967 he was hired as a BYU religion professor by Ernest L. Wilkinson, BYU's 7th president. Other professors in the religion department were very critical of his hiring, believing he was unqualified for the position and was only hired because of his conservative viewpoints. Dallin H. Oaks, Wilkinson's successor, attempted to separate politics from BYU in his dealings with Skousen. During the Oaks administration, Skousen claimed to have been authorized to teach a new course about "Priesthood and Righteous Government", which would be published clandestinely under the name "Gospel Principles and Practices". This course was intended to be for ultra-conservative students to inform them of what to do about communist infiltration. Upon learning of Skousen's intentions, Oaks informed the First Presidency that he would not be permitted to teach that course. Skousen was told to stop mixing church doctrine and politics and to stop activities associated with his educational politics-based organization called the Freemen Institute, now known as the National Center for Constitutional Studies. However, he largely ignored this instruction, and continued teaching his version of politically-infused doctrine until his retirement from BYU in 1978.
Political life
After losing his police job, Skousen founded a group called the All-American Society, which Time magazine described in 1961 as an "exemplar of the far-right ultras." Throughout the 1960s, Skousen was also admired by members and leaders of the John Birch Society, although members of the more mainstream conservative movement and the American Security Council snubbed him out of fear that his controversial views would hurt the credibility of the conservative movement. Skousen used Birch Society magazines as source and reference material, and was pictured on the cover of its magazine, American Interest. Although he was never officially a member of the organization, he was a member of its speakers' bureau and lectured at John Birch Society events throughout the United States for many years. A 1962 FBI memo described Skousen as affiliating with an "extreme right-wing" group which was promoting "anticommunism for obvious financial purposes". Skousen authored a pamphlet titled The Communist Attack on the John Birch Society, characterizing criticism of the Society as incipient communism.
Although Skousen was not a tax protester, he campaigned for several proposals to eliminate the federal income tax. One, the proposed Liberty Amendment, would have precluded the federal government from involvement in any activities that competed with private enterprise and transferred federally-owned land to the states.
In 1970, the LDS Church was under considerable attack for its refusal to ordain blacks into its priesthood. In response, Skousen penned an article, "The Communist Attack on the Mormons," in which he accused critics of "distorting the religious tenet of the Church regarding the Negro and blowing it up to ridiculous proportions" and of serving as Communist dupes. The LDS Church altered its stance in the 1978 Revelation on Priesthood.
In 1971, Skousen founded a non-profit educational foundation, The Freeman Institute. In 1982, it became the National Center for Constitutional Studies (NCCS), a national organization headquartered in Malta, Idaho.
Skousen had support among many Latter-day Saints in the 1960s and early 1970s. However, by 1979, the First Presidency issued a letter against promoting Skousen in LDS wards and stakes by stating, "This instruction is not intended to express any disapproval of the right of the Freemen Institute and its lecturers to conduct such meetings or of the contents of the lectures. The only purpose is to make certain that neither Church facilities nor Church meetings are used to advertise such events and to avoid any implication that the Church endorses what is said during such lectures."
In 1981, the first year of Ronald Reagan's presidency, Skousen was asked to be a charter member of the conservative thinktank the Council for National Policy, founded by Tim LaHaye, who was later author of the Left Behind series of books. Other early participants included Paul Weyrich; Phyllis Schlafly; Robert Grant; Howard Phillips, a former Republican affiliated with the Constitution Party; Richard Viguerie, the direct-mail specialist; and Morton Blackwell, a Louisiana and Virginia activist who is considered a specialist on the rules of the Republican Party. Skousen's proposals with the group included a plan to convert the Social Security system to private retirement accounts as well as a plan that he claimed would completely wipe out the national debt.
Skousen was a member of the Meadeau View Institute but resigned citing "irregularities" in management. While at the Institute, he mentored Oliver DeMille, and his influence helped shape George Wythe University, a private, unaccredited university in Cedar City, Utah, which grew out of the Meadeau View, at one point used Skousen's books as texts, and closed in 2016.
Views
Skousen opposed all federal regulatory agencies and argued against the creation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the Environmental Protection Agency. He also wanted to repeal the minimum wage, eliminate unions, nullify anti-discrimination laws, sell off public lands and national parks, end the direct election of senators, eliminate the income tax and the estate tax, remove the walls separating church and state, and end the Federal Reserve System.
Skousen "once called Jamestown's original settlers communists, wrote end-of-days prophecy and suggested Russians stole Sputnik from the United States." In 1987, Skousen was criticized for suggesting in one of his books that "American slave children were freer than white non-slaves." Beginning with his first book, Skousen viewed the U.S. Constitution as a divinely inspired document that was under siege.
Skousen spoke against communism throughout his career. He agreed with John Birch Society co-founder Robert W. Welch Jr.'s contention that President Dwight D. Eisenhower was a communist agent. He did not believe the U.S. should establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, claiming that the U.S. State Department was engaging in treason with respect to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's visit to "his old friend Mao Tse-tung."
Skousen claimed that the Rockefeler family and Wall Street had conspired to elect Jimmy Carter president, asserting a cabal of bankers like the Rockefellers and J. P. Morgan were conspiring to create a one-world government. Skousen was also known as a strong supporter of "law and order" and believed that local police departments were being undermined in order to promote a national police state.
He influenced Russell Pearce, Evan Mecham and Glenn Beck.
Writings
Skousen authored The Naked Communist and was the source of the "Current Communist Goals" that was read into the Congressional Record in 1963. In 1970, he wrote The Naked Capitalist based on the book Tragedy and Hope by Carroll Quigley, which claimed that top Western merchant bankers, industrialists and related institutions were behind the rise of communism and fascism around the world. Skousen's aim was to summarize the ideas in Quigley's books and thus make them accessible to a wider audience, however, Quigley disavowed Skousen's interpretations of his work. Skousen states in the work that the purpose of liberal internationalist groups such as the Council on Foreign Relations, is to push "U.S. foreign policy toward the establishment of a world-wide collectivist society." Among the sources Skousen cited to substantiate his claims in The Naked Capitalist was a former czarist army officer named Arsene de Goulevitch, whose own sources included Boris Brasol, a White Russian émigré who provided Henry Ford with the first English translation of the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later became a supporter of Nazi Germany. In 1971, G. Edward Griffin released the documentary The Capitalist Conspiracy: An Inside View of International Banking crediting the film: "We wish to acknowledge that this film was inspired by Cleon Skousen's book, The Naked Capitalist which we believe is one of the most important documents of the decade."
The Naked Capitalist has been cited by many, including Cleon Skousen's nephew Joel Skousen, as proof of a "New World Order" strategy to create a One World Government.
In So You Want to Raise a Boy? (1962), Skousen advocates spanking as an appropriate domestic disciplinary resource for parents of boys.
In 1987, controversy erupted in California when the state briefly considered using Skousen's book, The Making of America, as a textbook for California schools. Statements in the book regarding slavery, and its use of the term "pickaninny" as a label for slave children engendered a heated debate as to whether the book was appropriate. The state commission's Executive Director, a former colleague of Skousen at the National Center for Constitutional Studies, asserted that these statements were "largely taken out of context" from a 1934 essay on slavery by the historian Fred Albert Shannon that Skousen had included in his book. Skousen highlights the global history of slavery as independent of color or race in The Making Of America claiming that "... the emancipation of human beings from slavery is an ongoing struggle. Slavery is not a racial problem. It is a human problem."
Skousen began his research for his book The Five Thousand Year Leap in the 1930s while attending law school, combing archives in the Library of Congress for the original writings of such Founding Fathers as John Adams and Thomas Jefferson and continued to work on the manuscript for the next 50 years, finally publishing it in 1981.
Contemporary reception
While Skousen was alive, many of his ideas were met with fierce criticism, while his pronouncements made him "a pariah among most conservative activists". In one instance, the constitutional scholar Jack Rakove, of Stanford University, inspected Skousen's books and seminars and pronounced them "a joke that no self-respecting scholar would think is worth a warm pitcher of spit." A 1971 review in the Mormon studies journal Dialogue described Skousen as "inventing fantastic ideas and making inferences that go far beyond the bounds of honest commentary," and also of promoting concepts that were "perilously close" to Nazism.
Moreover, in 1979 after Skousen described President Jimmy Carter as beholden to the Council on Foreign Relations and the wealthy and influential Rockefeler family, Spencer W. Kimball, then president of the LDS church, issued an order prohibiting announcements about Skousen's groups from official LDS meetings or publications.
Legacy
By Skousen's 2006 death, he remained fairly obscure except among "furthest-right Mormons." U.S. Senator Orrin Hatch, himself Mormon, who had Skousen and Skousen's Freemen Institute as patrons when Hatch ran for the Senate as an unknown in 1976, eulogized Skousen on the floor of the U.S. Senate, saying:
Shortly before I announced that I would be running for the U.S. Senate in 1976 as a political novice and virtually unknown candidate—Cleon was one of the first people of political significance and substance who agreed to meet with me and discuss my candidacy. A few short years before this time, Cleon had organized a nonprofit educational foundation named "The Freemen Institute," to foster "constitutionalist" principles including a drastic reduction in the size and scope of the Federal Government, and a reverence for the true, unchanging nature of our Constitution. I knew that he had strongly held beliefs and I was very interested in what he had to say. We found in each other at that first meeting many areas of common ground and a shared love for the principles that make America the strongest bastion of freedom on Earth. Cleon quickly agreed to help, and throughout the coming months he became a true champion of my candidacy. [...] As we all know, Cleon was a prolific author and writer. His books The First 2000 Years, The Making of America, and The Five Thousand Year Leap have been used by foundations, and in forums across America for many years. [...] I loved an account I recently read in the Deseret News from the Rev. Donald Sills, a Baptist minister who became close friends over many years with Cleon. He spoke of his knowledge and study and recalled a time when he found Cleon sitting on the steps of the Jefferson Memorial in Washington, DC. When he asked Cleon what he was doing just sitting there, Cleon's fitting response was, "I'm talking to Tom Jefferson."
In September 2007, a year prior to the 2008 United States presidential election, Jan Mickelson of Iowa radio station WHO and Republican Iowa caucus presidential candidate Mitt Romney discussed Skousen in an off-the-air conversation during a break in Mickelson's broadcast, which Mickelson recorded. In the conversation, Mickelson touted Skousen's American Constitutionalism and Romney cited Skousen as an expert on Mormon theology. In commentary about this exchange, the National Reviews Mark Hemingway termed Skousen an "...all-around nutjob", and described The Naked Communist as "so irrational in its paranoia that it would have made Whittaker Chambers blush," adding, "to be fair, Skousen wrote on numerous topics with wildly varying degrees of intellectual sobriety. In fact, as the radio host in the YouTube video notes, Skousen's writings on original intent and the U.S. Constitution in The Making of America are compellingly argued, and to this day are often cited by conservatives unaware of Skousen's more checkered writings. Further, Skousen's scriptural commentaries are still very popular and well-regarded within the relatively unradical world of mainstream Mormonism."
In fall of 2007, political commentator Glenn Beck began promoting The 5,000 Year Leap on his show, describing it as "divinely inspired" and written by someone "much more intelligent than myself". Leap argues that the U.S. Constitution is infused with Judeo-Christian virtues as well as Enlightenment philosophy. Skousen's son Paul Skousen asked Beck to write the foreword for a new edition of the book. Texas Governor Rick Perry has also promoted the book.
In a November 2010 article in Canada's National Post, Alexander Zaitchik, author of Common Nonsense (a book critical of Glenn Beck), described Skousen as a "whack job" with "decidedly dubious theories."
After Beck began promoting Skousen's The 5,000 Year Leap in March 2009, it climbed at one point to number one in sales on the Amazon.com non-fiction list and stayed in the top 15 throughout the following summer. In September 2009, the book was being sold at meetings of Beck's 9-12 Project and was often used as source material for 9-12 Project speakers.
Skousen's book on LDS end times prophecy, The Cleansing of America, was published by Valor Publishing Group in 2010.
Former Republican Party candidate for U.S. president Ben Carson's frequent claims that Democratic Party or liberal politicians have communist or fascist beliefs have led commentators to investigate his sources. Carson has "endorsed the work of W. Cleon Skousen, a conspiracy-minded author and supporter of the John Birch Society." "Mr. Carson views Mr. Skousen's work, especially The Naked Communist, as an interpretive key to America today." "He [Carson] recommends W. Cleon Skousen's The Naked Communist, a 1958 book by the former FBI special agent and favorite of the right who lays out the strategy communists would use to take control of the U.S." "There's also a book called The Naked Communist. It was written in 1958 by Cleon Skousen, the same guy who wrote The 5000 Year Leap. It lays out the whole progressive plan for fundamentally changing America. The only thing that's truly amazing is how quickly it's being done." Carson plagiarized Skousen's 5,000 Year Leap, among other works, in his own book America the Beautiful; Carson apologized in January 2015 after the plagiarism came to light.
In an op-ed, Chris Zinda of The Independent points out a book co-published by Cliven Bundy, the central figure of a 2014 standoff with the Bureau of Land Management. According to Zinda, it lays out Bundy's motivations behind the standoff, which he describes as "a combination of LDS theology and Skousen constitutional theory".
Family
Skousen's son, Paul Skousen, is an author, and his nephews include Joel Skousen, a survivalist and political author; Royal Skousen, a Mormon studies scholar and BYU professor of linguistics and English; and Mark Skousen, a libertarian economist and author–commentator who runs FreedomFest, an annual convention sponsored by Charles G. Koch among others.
Selected works
Political writing
ASIN: B000J5A9XY
ASIN: B000NKE3M
ASIN: B000GDX9D6
Religious
ASIN: B000Q8120S
ASIN: B000QXLQYA
ASIN: B000WLY4UY
ASIN: B0007EXO02
Discography
Building Balanced Children, Key Records KEY LP-770, 1961.
Instant Insanity Drugs, Key Records KLP-1101, 1968.
The Ten Commandments: A Timely Commentary by W. Cleon Skousen, Key Records KLP-2670.
See also
Originalism
Red-baiting
Sovereign citizen movement
Bundy standoff
Occupation of the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
References
Informational notes
Citations
External links
"Radical Constitutionalism" by Jeffrey Rosen, New York Times (November 26, 2010)
Success Rate of the Communist Goals in America.
"A Practical Application and Book Review of 'The 5,000 Year Leap.'"
The Atonement, a discourse by Skousen on the Mormon scripture, Doctrine and Covenants
Meet the man who changed Glenn Beck's life
"An Open Letter to Detractors of W. Cleon Skousen and His Works" by Brian R. Mecham
Obituary in the Salt Lake Tribune
Obituary of Skousen by Carrie A. Moore in the Deseret News
1913 births
2006 deaths
20th-century Mormon missionaries
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American expatriates in Mexico
American family and parenting writers
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4358916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20St%20Quentin%20Canal | Battle of St Quentin Canal | The Battle of St Quentin Canal was a pivotal battle of World War I that began on 29 September 1918 and involved British, Australian and American forces operating as part of the British Fourth Army under the overall command of General Sir Henry Rawlinson. Further north, part of the British Third Army also supported the attack. South of the Fourth Army's front, the French First Army launched a coordinated attack on a front. The objective was to break through one of the most heavily defended stretches of the German Siegfriedstellung (Hindenburg Line), which in this sector used the St Quentin Canal as part of its defences. The assault achieved its objectives (though not according to the planned timetable), resulting in the first full breach of the Hindenburg Line, in the face of heavy German resistance. In concert with other attacks of the Grand Offensive along the length of the line, Allied success convinced the German high command that there was little hope of an ultimate German victory.
Background
Rawlinson wanted the Australian Corps, under the command of Lieutenant General Sir John Monash, with its well-earned reputation, to spearhead the attack. Monash was unhappy, because his Australian force was by now short of manpower and many soldiers were showing signs of strain, having been heavily engaged in fighting for several months. There had been some episodes of mutiny by troops who were feeling unfairly put upon. Monash was however very pleased when Rawlinson offered him the American II Corps (the U.S. 27th and 30th Divisions), which still remained at the disposal of the British command, since American divisions were twice the numerical strength of their British counterparts. U.S. Corps commander Major General George Windle Read handed command of his American force for the duration of the action to Monash. However, the American soldiers lacked battle experience. A small group of 217 Australian officers and N.C.O.s was assigned to the U.S. troops for advice and liaison. The British high command considered that German morale was suffering badly and that their capacity to resist was much weakened. Monash believed that the operation would be "more a matter of engineering and organisation than of fighting". Whilst there had been some evidence of poor German morale from previous operations, this proved to be a dangerous assumption.
Monash was tasked with drawing up the battle plan. He would use the Americans to breach the Hindenburg Line and the Australian 3rd and 5th Divisions to follow behind and then exploit the breakthrough. Monash intended to attack the Hindenburg Line south of Vendhuile where the St Quentin Canal runs underground for some through the Bellicourt Tunnel (which had been converted by the Germans into an integral part of the Hindenburg Line defensive system). The tunnel was the only location where tanks could cross the canal. Where the canal runs underground, the main Hindenburg Line trench system was sited to the west of the line of the canal. Two British corps, III and IX, would be deployed in support of the main assault. To Monash's plan Rawlinson made a very significant change: IX Corps would launch an assault directly across the deep canal cutting south of the Bellicourt Tunnel. This plan originated with Lieutenant-General Sir Walter Braithwaite, commander of IX Corps. Monash felt such an assault to be doomed to failure and would never have planned for it himself, believing it to be too risky. This view was shared by many in the 46th (North Midland) Division of IX Corps, which was tasked with spearheading the assault. The Germans believed the canal cutting to be impregnable.
Prelude
After the German spring offensive, British Empire, French, and American counterattacks during the Hundred Days Offensive brought the Allies back up against the outposts of the Hindenburg Line by the autumn of 1918, close to the village of Bellicourt, where the Battle of Épehy was fought on 18 September 1918.
Preliminary operation of 27 September
Monash's plan assumed that the Hindenburg outpost line would be in Allied hands by the date set for the start of the battle. Whilst the Australians had already captured it in the southern part of the front (from where the American 30th Division would launch its attack), the northern section of the line was still in German hands. The American 27th Division was ordered to attack on 27 September, to finish clearing German forces from outposts in front of their line, including the strong points of The Knoll, Gillemont Farm, and Quennemont Farm. Commander in Chief Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig initially opposed using the Americans to take the outpost line, wanting to preserve them for the main attack. He was persuaded by Rawlinson to change his mind. The British III Corps had previously failed to capture the outposts, but that failure had been attributed by Rawlinson to the tiredness of the troops. Rawlinson was convinced that the Germans were at breaking point and managed to persuade Haig that this was so. The American soldiers were inexperienced and problems were compounded by a shortage of American officers (there were only 18 officers in the 12 attacking companies – the remainder were absent receiving further training).
The U.S. attack was unsuccessful. Monash asked Rawlinson for permission to delay the main attack due on 29 September, but this was refused because of the priority given to Marshal Ferdinand Foch's strategy of keeping the Germans under the relentless pressure of coordinated assaults along the front. As a result of the confusion created by the failed attack (with the corps command being unsure of where the American troops were), the battle on 29 September on the American 27th Division front had to be started without the customary (and highly effective) close artillery support. The British artillery commander argued that attempting to alter the barrage timetable at this late stage would cause problems and the American divisional commander Major General John F. O'Ryan was also concerned about the possibility of friendly fire. All of the Allied commanders therefore agreed to proceed with the original artillery fire plan. The result was that the barrage would now start at the originally-intended jump-off point, some beyond the actual starting point of the infantry, leaving them very vulnerable during their initial advance. 27th Division was required to make an advance greater than any that had been asked of its highly experienced Australian allies, an advance of some in a single action. In an attempt to compensate for the lack of a creeping barrage Rawlinson provided additional tanks. However, the absence of a creeping barrage in the 27th Division sector was to have a very detrimental effect on the initial operations of the battle on the front opposite the tunnel.
Main assault of 29 September
The battle was preceded by the greatest British artillery bombardment of the war. Some 1,600 guns were deployed (1,044 field guns and 593 heavy guns and howitzers), firing almost 1,000,000 shells over a comparatively short period of time. Included in these were more than 30,000 mustard gas shells (the first use of a British-made version of this weapon). These were specifically targeted at headquarters and groups of batteries. Many of the high explosive shells fired had special fuses which made them very effective in destroying the German barbed wire. The British were greatly helped by the fact that they were in possession of highly detailed captured plans of the enemy defences (especially useful for the IX Corps sector). Monash's battle plan for 29 September envisaged breaking through the main Hindenburg Line defences, crossing the canal tunnel mound, breaching the fortified Le Catelet–Nauroy Line beyond that, and reaching the Beaurevoir Line (the final fortified line) beyond that as the objective on the first day. Monash had originally intended to capture the Beaurevoir Line on 29 September, but Rawlinson removed this as a first day objective, considering it overly ambitious.
Attack over Bellicourt Tunnel
On 29 September, the two American divisions attacked followed by the two Australian divisions, with approximately 150 tanks of the 4th and 5th Tank Brigades of the British Tank Corps (including the newly trained American 301st Heavy Tank Battalion, which was equipped with British tanks) in support of the four divisions. The objective of the Americans was the Le Catelet-Nauroy Line, a defensive line east of the canal. Here the Australian 3rd Division (behind the U.S. 27th) and 5th Division (behind the U.S. 30th) were intended to "leapfrog" through the American forces and press on towards the Beaurevoir Line. Australian 2nd Division was in reserve.
On the left of the front, where the U.S. 27th Division began at a disadvantage, none of the objectives were met on the first day and the Americans suffered severe losses. The 107th Infantry Regiment suffered the worst casualties sustained in a single day by any U.S. regiment during the war. Rather than leapfrogging through the Americans, the Australian 3rd Division became involved in a desperate fight for positions that should already have been captured had Monash's plan run to timetable. Despite some individual acts of heroism the lack of progress on the left of the front had an adverse effect on the progress of the right of the front too. As the American 30th Division and then the Australian 5th Division moved forward whilst the units to their left did not, they had to contend with German fire from the side and rear as well as from ahead. An added difficulty was thick fog across the battlefield in the earlier stages of the attack which led to American troops passing by Germans without realising that they were there, with the Germans causing severe problems to the Americans following the assault wave. Fog also caused problems for infantry/tank cooperation. The 30th Division broke through the Hindenburg Line in the fog on 29 September 1918, entering Bellicourt, capturing the southern entrance of Bellicourt Tunnel and reaching the village of Nauroy, where Australian troops joined them to continue the attack.
The advancing Australians came across large groups of leaderless, disoriented Americans. Charles Bean wrote: "By 10 o'clock Monash's plan had gone to the winds.... From that hour onward ... the offensive was really directed by Australian battalion or company commanders at the front..." The 30th Division won the praise of General John J. Pershing, who wrote: "... the 30th Division did especially well. It broke through the Hindenburg Line on its entire front and took Bellicourt and part of Nauroy by noon of the 29th." There has since been considerable debate over the extent to which the American forces were successful. Monash wrote: "...in this battle they demonstrated their inexperience in war, and their ignorance of some of the elementary methods of fighting employed on the French front. For these shortcomings they paid a heavy price. Their sacrifices, nevertheless, contributed quite definitely to the partial success of the day's operations..." The objective of U.S. II Corps, the Catelet–Nauroy Line, was not captured by the Americans. During the battle, Monash was furious about the performance of the American divisions. Late on 29 September Rawlinson wrote: "The Americans appear to be in a state of hopeless confusion and will not, I fear, be able to function as a corps, so I am contemplating replacing them ... I fear their casualties have been heavy, but it is their own fault."
Meanwhile, on the right of the Bellicourt Tunnel front, the Australian 32nd Battalion under the command of Major Blair Wark established contact with the 1/4th Battalion, Leicestershire Regiment, of 46th Division, which had crossed the canal and were now present in force east of the Hindenburg Line.
By this stage in the war the Tank Corps had suffered greatly and there were fewer tanks available for the battle than had been deployed in the Battle of Amiens in August. Eight tanks were destroyed when they strayed into an old British minefield but the 29 September attack also highlighted the high vulnerability of tanks to strong German anti-tank measures. In one instance, four heavy tanks and five medium tanks were destroyed in the space of 15 minutes by German field guns at the same location. This was during the attempt to subdue severe machine gun fire coming from the Le Catelet–Nauroy Line in the vicinity of Cabaret Wood Farm (a tank fort – see map) and showed the danger posed by German field guns to tanks operating without close infantry support (because the crew had very limited visibility and often could not see a threat which those outside the tank could see). The tanks could protect the infantry but they also needed the close cooperation of the infantry to alert them to the danger of concealed field guns. In the case of this attack, the machine gun fire was so severe that the infantry were ordered to withdraw, leaving the tanks well forward of them and prey to the German field guns.
Attack across the canal cutting
The attack across the canal cutting, also known as the Battle of Bellenglise, saw IX Corps (commanded by Braithwaite), on the right of the American and Australian Divisions, launch its assault between Riqueval and Bellenglise. The assault was spearheaded by the British 46th Division under the command of Major-General Gerald Boyd. In this sector the St Quentin Canal formed an immense, ready-made anti-tank "ditch" and the main Hindenburg Line trench system lay on the east (German) side of the canal. IX Corps was supported by tanks of the 3rd Tank Brigade, which had to cross Bellicourt Tunnel in the American 30th Division sector and then move south along the east bank of the canal. IX Corps had to cross the formidable canal cutting (which increased in depth as it approached Riqueval until its very steep banks, strongly defended by fortified machine gun positions, were over deep in places), and then fight its way through the Hindenburg Line trenches. The 46th Division's final objective for 29 September was a line of high ground beyond the villages of Lehaucourt and Magny-la-Fosse. The British 32nd Division, following behind, would then leapfrog the 46th Division. Following a devastating artillery bombardment (which was heaviest in this sector), and in thick fog and smoke, the 46th Division fought its way through the German trenches west of the canal and then across the waterway. The 137th (Staffordshire) Brigade spearheaded the attack.
The ferocity of the creeping artillery barrage contributed greatly to the success of the assault, keeping the Germans pinned in their dugouts. The soldiers used a variety of flotation aids devised by the Royal Engineers (including improvised floating piers and 3,000 lifebelts from cross-Channel steamers) to cross the water. Scaling ladders were used to climb the brick wall lining the canal. Some men of the 1/6th Battalion, the North Staffordshire Regiment, led by Captain A. H. Charlton, managed to seize the still-intact Riqueval Bridge over the canal before the Germans had a chance to fire their explosive charges. The 46th Division captured the village of Bellenglise, including its great tunnel/troop shelter (which had been constructed as part of the Hindenburg Line defences). By the end of the day the 46th Division had taken 4,200 German prisoners (out of a total for the army of 5,100) and 70 guns.
The assault across the canal met all of its objectives, on schedule, at a cost of somewhat fewer than 800 casualties to the division. The great success of the day had come where many had least expected it. The 46th Division assault was considered to be one of the outstanding feats of arms of the war. Bean described the attack as an "extraordinarily difficult task" and "a wonderful achievement" in his official Australian war history. Monash wrote that it was "an astonishing success...[which] materially assisted me in the situation in which I was placed later on the same day".
Later in the day the leading brigades of the 32nd Division (including Lt Wilfred Owen of the Manchester Regiment) crossed the canal and moved forward through the 46th Division. The whole of the 32nd Division was east of the canal by nightfall. On the right of the front in IX Corps sector, the 1st Division, operating west of the canal, had the task of protecting the right flank of the 46th Division by clearing the Germans from the ground east and north-east of Pontruet. It met with fierce German resistance and heavy enfilade fire from the south. On the evening of the 29 September orders were issued for IX Corps to seize the Le Tronquoy Tunnel defences to allow the passage of the XV French Corps over the canal tunnel. The following day, the 1st Division advanced under a creeping barrage and early in the afternoon the 3rd Brigade of the division linked up on the tunnel summit with the 14th Brigade of the 32nd Division, which had fought its way forward from the German side of the canal.
Aftermath
Subsequent fighting
On 2 October, the British 46th and 32nd Divisions, supported by the Australian 2nd Division, planned to capture the Beaurevoir Line (the third line of defences of the Hindenburg Line), the village of Beaurevoir and the heights overlooking the Beaurevoir Line. While the attack succeeded in widening the breach in the Beaurevoir Line, it was unable to seize the high ground further on. However, by 2 October, the attack had resulted in a 17 km breach in the Hindenburg Line.
Continuing attacks from 3 to 10 October (including those by the Australian 2nd Division capturing Montbrehain on 5 October and the British 25th Division capturing the village of Beaurevoir on 5/6 October) managed to clear the fortified villages behind the Beaurevoir Line, and capture the heights overlooking the Beaurevoir Line – resulting in a total break in the Hindenburg Line. The Australian Corps was subsequently withdrawn from the line after the fighting on 5 October, for rest and reorganisation. They would not return to the front before the Armistice on 11 November.
Cemeteries and memorials
Dead American soldiers from the battle were interred in the Somme American Cemetery near Bony, where the missing are also commemorated. The U.S. 27th and 30th Divisions (and those other units which served with the British) are commemorated on the Bellicourt Monument, which stands directly above the canal tunnel. The Australian and British dead were interred in numerous Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries scattered around the area, including Bellicourt British Cemetery; Unicorn Cemetery, Vendhuile and La Baraque British Cemetery, Bellenglise (UK dead only). Australian soldiers with no known grave are commemorated on the Villers-Bretonneux Australian National Memorial and the missing British soldiers killed in the battle are commemorated on the Vis-en-Artois Memorial.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Websites
External links
Military History Encyclopedia on the Web – Battle of Cambrai-St. Quentin
C.E.W. Bean, Volume VI – The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Allied Offensive, 1918 (1st edition, 1942)
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving the United States
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battles in Hauts-de-France
Conflicts in 1918
History of Somme (department)
1918 in France
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
September 1918 events
October 1918 events |
4358940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta%20Highway%2063 | Alberta Highway 63 | Alberta Provincial Highway No. 63, commonly referred to as Highway 63, is a highway in northern Alberta, Canada that connects the Athabasca oil sands and Fort McMurray to Edmonton via Highway 28. It begins as a two-lane road near the hamlet of Radway where it splits from Highway 28, running north through aspen parkland and farmland of north central Alberta. North of Boyle, it curves east to pass through the hamlet of Grassland and becomes divided west of Atmore where it again turns north, this time through heavy boreal forest and muskeg, particularly beyond Wandering River. Traffic levels significantly increase as Highway 63 bends through Fort McMurray, crossing the Athabasca River before connecting the city to the Syncrude and Suncor Energy plants further north. It ends approximately beyond a second crossing of the Athabasca River northeast of Fort McKay.
The southern segment of Highway 63 from Radway to Atmore was built before the mid-1950s and numbered as Highway 46 until the 1970s. Construction north of Atmore on the first road connecting Fort McMurray to the rest of the Alberta highway system began in 1962. Upgrades in the following decades saw the two-lane highway widened and improved with the addition of passing lanes, and extended to its present terminus northeast of Fort McKay. Since 2004, the highway has formed the majority of the National Highway System core route between Fort McMurray and Edmonton, and in 2016 played a key role in the evacuation of over 80,000 people from Fort McMurray and the surrounding areas during a highly destructive wildfire.
Despite relatively low traffic volumes compared to other major highways in the province, the route has earned the moniker "Highway of Death" due to many fatal crashes. In 2006, Alberta committed to twinning the stretch from Grassland to Fort McMurray, but progress was initially slower than anticipated due to muskeg and wildlife restrictions. After a particularly high-profile crash killed seven people, the province announced an accelerated timeline for the project in 2012 and all work was completed in 2016. Alberta has long-term plans to create a divided highway for the entire length of the Edmonton–Fort McMurray corridor by similarly upgrading the southernmost of the highway, a portion of Highway 28, and the entirety of Highway 28A.
Route description
Thorhild and Athabasca Counties
Highway 63 begins as a two-lane rural highway approximately northeast of Edmonton in Thorhild County at an intersection with Highway 28, southwest of Radway. It splits to the north, first intersecting Highways 18 and 656 east of Thorhild, before continuing north through the hamlet of Abee after which it curves slightly to the northeast, paralleling a railway line. It proceeds on this northeasterly heading for less than before veering back north and intersecting Highway 661 in Newbrook. Highway 63 carries on through aspen parkland into Athabasca County past Ellscott to Highway 663 south of Flat Lake. It turns due east, concurrent with 663 for until the village of Boyle from which Highway 663 continues east past Skeleton Lake to Lac La Biche. Highway 63 carries on, curving back due north along the east shore of Flat Lake to its first intersection with Highway 55 south of the hamlet of Donatville. The two continue north concurrently, and beyond Skeleton Lake turns east through the hamlet of Grassland to an intersection at the southwest corner of Charron Lake near Atmore, marking the end of this second concurrency. Highway 55 continues east as an alternate route into Lac La Biche, and Highway 855 turns south to the town of Smoky Lake. Highway 63 turns north, becoming a divided highway soon thereafter.
Highway 63 continues through the aspen parkland of Athabasca County on a northeasterly heading, briefly following the northwest shore of Charron Lake before turning due north into the increasingly wooded terrain of northern Alberta. It crosses the La Biche River then parallels its east bank for the next . north of Atmore the highway reaches the hamlet of Wandering River, the only significant community between Atmore and Fort McMurray. Highway 63 crosses Wandering River and runs north through boreal forest, intersected by only a few minor local roads until northbound and southbound rest areas that lie and north of Wandering River, respectively.
Lac La Biche County and Fort McMurray
After traversing the northern part of Lac La Biche County and entering the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo, Highway 63 reaches an intersection with Highway 881 west of Anzac, nearly north of Wandering River. The highway veers slightly northwest, paralleling the Hangingstone River for the remaining of its journey to an access for Fort McMurray International Airport at Airport Road (formerly Highway 69), and the southern limit of Fort McMurray. In Fort McMurray, Highway 63 continues as a divided expressway along the east bank of the Hangingstone River through the communities of Gregoire and Beacon Hill. It then adopts the name Memorial Drive, curving slightly east and then back north before descending to cross the river after a diamond interchange at Prairie Loop Boulevard. Climbing from the Hangingstone River, a second diamond interchange at Hospital Street follows as the four lanes of Highway 63 bypass downtown Fort McMurray to the west, separating it from the neighbourhoods of Hilltop Estates and Aspen Gardens. The highway then turns west to cross the Athabasca River on three bridges. The northernmost bridge, the Athabasca River Bridge, carries three through lanes and two lanes from Franklin Avenue that eventually merge into the main northbound lanes on the west side of the river. The Ralph Steinhauer Bridge is in the centre, carrying the three main eastbound lanes. The Grant MacEwan Bridge is the southernmost crossing; it carries two lanes of eastbound traffic exiting from Highway 63 to Franklin Avenue and C.A. Knight Way downtown. On the river's east bank, the two lanes from the MacEwan descend into a short tunnel under the northern bridges to reach Franklin Avenue.
West of the river, Highway 63 and its brief collector-distributor system curve north to follow the Athabasca's west bank toward Fort McKay, passing the neighbourhood of Ross Haven en route to trumpet interchanges each at Thickwood Boulveard, Confederation Way, and Parsons Access Road, the last of which essentially marks the northern limit of Fort McMurray's residential development. The divided highway continues north alongside the river through boreal forest to Tar Island where it bends slightly northwest. The northbound and southbound lanes diverge as the highway passes between the Suncor Energy and Syncrude plants near Mildred Lake. The two carriageways then rejoin and the highway becomes undivided, but later a brief divided section precedes a second crossing of the Athabasca River on the Peter Lougheed Bridge. The Fort McKay Road splits to the north from the divided section prior to the river, providing access to the community of Fort McKay. East of the river, Highway 63 curves north along the east bank to a point approximately north of Fort McKay near the Fort MacKay/Albian Aerodrome, where the highway designation ends at an intersection with a dirt road. The unnamed local paved road continues for another before becoming gravel. In the winter months, it carries on north to Fort Chipewyan on the western shore of Lake Athabasca as a winter road through the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo, paralleling the Athabasca River.
Traffic
Divided for the majority of its length, traffic volumes on Highway 63 south of the Highway 881 junction near Fort McMurray remain relatively light despite the high number of fatal crashes. The volume is comparable to major two-lane highways in Alberta such as Highways 2A, 8, 22, 28, and 39. All are in the vicinity of 10,000 vehicles per day or more in rural areas, generally double the average of Highway 63. While Alberta has plans to twin at least a portion of most of these highways, no project has reached the construction stage nor been expedited like Highway 63. Until 2013, traffic levels had steadily increased on Highway 63, and an increasing number of trucks carrying large equipment caused traffic delays. Such loads often are wide enough to occupy two traffic lanes which impedes traffic in both directions, and as a result motorists have shared notice of super-wide loads on social media so that others could schedule their trips around them. The highway is the only route leading south out of Fort McMurray until its split with Highway 881, making it a critical link to Fort McMurray and the Athabasca oil sands. The economic importance of the area, the number of slow moving vehicles, and the absence of alternate routes are not generally reflected in annual traffic numbers, but were factors in the decision to expedite twinning of the highway.
Year-over-year, traffic decreased on Highway 63 in 2016 at most locations measured by Alberta Transportation compared to 2015. In Fort McMurray, traffic over the Athabascsa River decreased by nearly 12% in 2016 compared to 2015. In addition to the wildfire, Statistics Canada estimates that over 33,000 oil and gas related jobs were lost in Alberta from December 2014 to April 2016, likely reducing travel to and from Fort McMurray via Highway 63, and also on Highway 881 which has similarly decreased since 2013. Other 2016 estimates say more than 40,000 oilpatch jobs were lost since the end of 2014. Traffic levels increased again in 2017, nearly reaching 2015 levels over the Athabasca River in Fort McMurray, but trended downward again in 2018 and 2019.
Collisions
The road has earned the nickname "Highway of Death" due to a high number of fatal collisions. Between 2001 and 2005, over 1,000 crashes occurred on Highway 63 in which 25 people were killed and 257 others were injured. At least 149 people died between 1990 and 2012, 125 of which occurred on the 240-kilometre stretch between Grassland and Fort McMurray. The figure includes seven who died when two pickup trucks collided head-on near Wandering River on April 27, 2012. Days later, hundreds met at MacDonald Island Park in Fort McMurray to protest the slow pace of improvements to the highway. Many called for twinning of the highway to be expedited, with only of the province's original 240-kilometre commitment completed by May 2012. Some attendees carried signs adorned with the names of people who had died on the highway.
Regular users of the highway have suggested that poor driving is to blame for the majority of collisions, with impatient drivers making poor decisions. Shift work is common in the Fort McMurray and oil sands areas, and residents have suggested that such commuters are more likely to be travelling at unsafe speeds or under the influence of alcohol. Local MLA Mike Allen stated that he has seen drivers taking unnecessary risks every time he has driven on the highway. An Alberta Transportation spokeswoman in 2012 said that Highway 63's collision rate is below the provincial average for two-lane highways, though the metric does not account for the percentage of those collisions that are fatal. Alberta implemented aerial enforcement on multiple highways to catch speeders and reckless drivers in 2012, including Highway 63. The Coalition for a Safer 63 and 881 was created in an attempt to increase awareness and encourage safe driving on the highway and neighbouring Highway 881. Industry leaders in oil and gas are among the members of the group whose website offers driving tips and features an interactive map of the two highways, describing collisions that have occurred along both routes.
History
Background
Predicated on the rapid development of the Athabasca oil sands in the 1960s, construction of Highway 63 lagged decades behind the other major highways in Alberta that now form core routes of the National Highway System. By the 1930s, roads of varying quality had been constructed along the approximate alignments of present-day Highways 1, 2, 3, 4 and 16, all paralleling existing railways. Highway 63 was developed similarly, with construction of the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway (A&GW) completed by 1920. It connected Edmonton to Waterways (now a neighbourhood of Fort McMurray) via Lac La Biche, near the present-day alignment of Highway 881 and as many as east of the route that later became Highway 63 north of Boyle. Prior to the railway, a common route from Edmonton to McMurray was for one to first reach Athabasca by rail, then travel north along the Athabasca and House Rivers before portaging into McMurray.
The completed A&GW Railway made Edmonton trips more feasible, but the population of McMurray remained under 1,000 in the 1930s so a highway to the remote outpost through heavy muskeg and forest had not yet been deemed worthwhile. At this time, the only major road stretching into northern Alberta beyond Lac La Biche was Highway 2, which ran from Edmonton to Athabasca before turning west to Lesser Slave Lake and the Peace Country. A route splitting from Highway 2 at High Prairie leading to Grande Prairie and the British Columbia border had also been constructed, comprising a portion of present-day Highways 2A, 43, and 49. Additionally, a short segment of the Mackenzie Highway near Peace River was in place, as were portions of Highways 28, 29 and 36 from Mundare to Cold Lake via Brosseau and St. Paul.
Construction
By 1940, a portion of present-day Highway 63 from Boyle to Atmore had been constructed as an unsigned gravel road that formed part of the route from Athabasca to the western shore of Lac La Biche. By the mid-1950s, this section formed part of Highway 46 which ran from Township Road 590 (then Highway 28) near Radway to the hamlet of Lac La Biche along the present alignment of Highway 63 through Abee, Newbrook and Boyle. Highway 46 had been re-signed as Highways 55 and 63 by the end of the decade.
Until the 1960s, the only access to Fort McMurray was by air, rail, rugged path, or the Athabasca River. In 1957, the first car travelled between Fort McMurray and Edmonton, taking 18 hours to travel via Wabasca and Slave Lake. Construction of the northern part of Highway 63 beyond Atmore began in 1962 and continued for several years, the first gravel road to connect Fort McMurray to the rest of Alberta's road network. The Grant MacEwan Bridge, a two-lane truss bridge across the Athabasca River, was completed in 1965. By the end of the decade, paving of the route was underway at a rate of per year. It continued into the next decade, with planned for 1974. In that year, $2.3 million of funding was approved for paving of the highway north of Wandering River, which resulted in an all-weather route from Edmonton to Fort McMurray. Alberta prioritized the project, resulting in delays to work on other projects. Paving work was completed by year's end, but a 1975 budget cut prevented widening of the highway, despite its high number of accidents.
The Ralph Steinhauer Bridge was completed in 1974 alongside the MacEwan, doubling capacity of the highway across the river. A two-lane bridge over the Hangingstone River in Fort McMurray was completed in 1977. In this year, work also began on a $2.57 million project at the south end of Fort McMurray in the vicinity of Hangingstone; it added a stretch of divided highway, southbound climbing lane, and grade levelling. A second bridge built to carry southbound traffic over the river was completed in 2003. North of Fort McMurray, the Peter Lougheed Bridge was built across the Athabasca in 1979. The structure was initially dubbed the "Bridge to Nowhere" due to the lack of development on the river's east bank near Fort McKay.
After years of both public and political pressure, the provincial government announced in February 2006 that it would begin twinning the entire two-lane portion of the highway from Atmore to the south end of Fort McMurray, the stretch they deemed to be the most dangerous. Work began in 2006 and was estimated to take at least five years to complete. The first section was completed in 2008 at a cost of $53 million, stretching south from Airport Road (then Highway 69) to a point south of the Highway 881 intersection. The Mariana Lakes Country Store near Mariana Lake was closed in September 2008 to make way for the twinning. It was the only service station between Wandering River and Fort McMurray, but Alberta Transportation had no other options due to the proximity of the lake and utilities. The store's owner was reluctant to relinquish the property but acknowledged that upgrades to the dangerous highway were more important than the continued operation of the store. "The twinning of the highway is far more important, and there really is no other way for us to stay here," she stated. of tree clearing had been completed by February 2010, but further work was delayed until July to protect threatened caribou populations. An additional of grading near Wandering River was completed by fall 2011.
In October 2012, it was announced that work on the remaining portion of Highway 63 between Grassland and Fort McMurray would be accelerated, and completed by the end of 2016. On April 27, 2012, seven people were killed in a head-on collision south of Fort McMurray. The victims included a Fort McMurray pastor, his pregnant wife and two children. One child was orphaned. The Alberta government was faced with public outrage that the highway had not yet been twinned. At the time of the accident, 46 people had died in accidents on the highway since the 2006 announcement and only 19 kilometres had been twinned.
Premier Alison Redford appointed Fort McMurray-Wood Buffalo MLA Mike Allen as the special advisor to the Minister of Transportation for Highway 63 on May 22, 2012. Allen produced a report with more than 20 suggestions for reducing reckless driving on the highway on July 2, 2012. The report did not offer a precise timeline for converting the highway into a twinned highway, frustrating Mayor Melissa Blake and Shayne Saskiw, the Wildrose MLA for Lac La Biche. Alberta Transportation Minister Ric McIver said twinning the highway at the time would cost $50 million per year and take eight to 11 years if the province adopted a "pay-as-you-go" model.
But the Alberta government was able to shorten this timeline considerably. In October 2012, the Alberta government announced twinning 240 kilometres of Highway 63 would begin immediately and completed by the end of 2016.
On November 5, of twinned highway opened north of Wandering River and east of McMillan Lake, nine months ahead of schedule. Approximately half of the section was in Lac La Biche County while the other half was in Athabasca County. Interchanges in Fort McMurray at Confederation Way and Thickwood Boulveard were completed in late September 2013.
To handle the quickly rising traffic levels in Fort McMurray after 2000, a new three bridge system was devised for the Athabasca River crossing, comprising significant reconstruction of the existing two bridges and a new third bridge. In 2008, work began on the "Athabasca River Bridge". The bridge is seven spans, carrying five westbound lanes over the river on the largest bridge deck in Alberta. In 2011 the bridge was completed, and that same year modifications to the existing Steinhauer Bridge began. Built in 1974 to carry westbound traffic, the Steinhauer's two-lane bridge deck was reconstructed and widened to carry three eastbound lanes, with construction completed in 2013.
Extensive reconstruction of the Grant MacEwan Bridge was completed in December 2013, carrying two eastbound lanes over the river. Prior to this reconfiguration, the MacEwan's two lanes carried all eastbound traffic but upon completion of this project it would serve only as an exit ramp for south/eastbound traffic accessing downtown, while the repurposed Steinhauer Bridge carried the main eastbound through traffic. The reconstruction consisted of the demolition of the truss superstructure to make way for a modern girder design, while the existing piers were retained. The piers were slightly shortened with the new bridge deck built on top; the new lanes veer left at the end of the bridge and descend into a short tunnel passing underneath the main eastbound and westbound lanes of Highway 63, connecting to Franklin Avenue downtown. To access the bridge, southbound traffic exits the highway to the right several hundred meters before the river, immediately after Thickwood Boulevard. The two-lane ramp curves east alongside the main eastbound lanes and forms the two lanes of the MacEwan.
On July 24, 2015, a section of twinned highway opened, approximately halfway between Mariana Lake and Highway 881. It was followed on August 17 by another entirely in Athabasca County. Late September saw the completion of in Lac La Biche County south of Mariana Lake, connecting at the south end to the 2012 Athabasca County twinning. On October 15, a section immediately south of Highway 881 intersection was opened, connecting it to the 16 km north of the intersection that had been completed in 2008. It includes a single span bridge that carries northbound traffic over the Hangingstone River approximately south of Highway 881; southbound traffic travels over a culvert that was built during initial construction in 1965. An section north of Mariana Lake also opened on October 15, and two days later an stretch at the southern end of the project was finished, beginning at the intersection with Highway 55 near Atmore. On October 19, another north of Mariana Lake was completed, leaving only in Lac La Biche County which opened the following year on May 26, 2016.
2016 wildfire
In early May 2016, a wildfire encroached on Fort McMurray and surrounding areas, causing a complete evacuation of nearly 90,000 people and over $3 billion in damage. With twinning of Highway 63 from Fort McMurray to Grassland fully complete by the end of 2015 with the exception of a 3 km section near Wandering River, the upgraded highway was instrumental in the evacuation of Fort McMurray as it is the only route out of the community to the south. In June, police and firefighters welcomed residents back into Fort McMurray by waving from the King Street overpass as drivers entered the city on Highway 63. In October 2016, Premier Rachel Notley announced that the bridge would be renamed "Responders Way", and signs were unveiled at a ceremony on March 10, 2017.
Reviews of the evacuation procedures during the fire showed that Highway 63 performed well in the evacuation, but would be best supplemented by another road. In late October 2016, the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo council unanimously voted in support of a second highway that would serve as an alternate evacuation route, tentatively called the East Clearwater Highway. It would run east of Fort McMurray as an extension of Highway 881 near Anzac, crossing the Clearwater River and connecting to a proposed segment of Highway 686 before continuing north. The project is estimated to cost $1.5 billion, of which $5 million was committed by council in 2016 for pre-design work. The road would require provincial funding and the feasibility of its construction was assessed by Notley's government as part of a review of the wildfire evacuation process.
Future
Alberta has long-term plans to twin almost the entire length of Highway 63. A planning study will identify future interchange locations and a twinning plan for the approximately stretch of the highway between Fort McMurray and the Peter Lougheed Bridge near Fort McKay that remains undivided. Like the majority of the corridor, this section will ultimately be a six-lane freeway. As of 2016, all newly twinned sections require second stage paving, and design work is underway.
A study completed in May 2014 assessed the potential alignment and right of way requirements for a twinned Highway 63 from Highway 28 to Ellscott, and a second study assessed the remainder from Ellscott to Highway 55. There are also plans to upgrade the southern portion of Highway 28 from near Gibbons to the Highway 63 split, and the entire length of Highway 28A, creating a fully divided highway from Edmonton to Fort McMurray. In Fort McMurray, a 2006 study recommended the construction of an interchange at Main Street as an expansion of the collector-distributor system.
Major intersections
Notes
References
External links
Northeast Provincial Highway Projects by Alberta Transportation
Coalition for a Safer 63 and 881
Twin Highway 63 Now
Highway 63 timelapse in Fort McMurray
Aerial video of traffic jam during 2016 wildfire evacuation
063
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Transport in Fort McMurray |
4359133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Mexico | Human rights in Mexico | Human Rights in Mexico refers to moral principles or norms that describe certain standards of human behaviour in Mexico, and are regularly protected as legal rights in municipal and international law. The problems include torture, extrajudicial killings and summary executions, police repression, sexual murder, and, more recently, news reporter assassinations.
The Human Rights Watch reports that Mexican security forces have enforced widespread disappearances since 2006. It also states that Mexican security forces commit unlawful killings of civilians at an alarmingly high rate and widely use torture including beatings, waterboarding, electric shocks, and sexual abuse as a tool to gain information from detained victims. In addition, it reports that the criminal justice system is largely failing victims of violent crimes and human rights violations when they seek justice and that attacks on journalists by authorities or organized crime will cause them to self-censor. The report also cites issues related to unaccompanied migrant children, women's and girls’ rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, palliative care, and disability rights.
While the Mexican government has taken action to fight organized crime in Mexico's drug war, security forces in Mexico have committed human rights violations that include extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, and torture. There have been limited efforts to investigate and prosecute these abuses. Human rights in Mexico also face difficulty in the battle to access reproductive rights and health care, and have yet to solve problems involving violence against members of the press.
Civil Liberties
Freedom of the press
Mexico is one of the most dangerous countries in the world for journalists, it is among the countries with the highest levels of impunity for crimes against journalists. Violence against the media is a serious issue because while it seriously threatens the livelihood of members of the press, it also creates an “environment of fear” where free information is stifled, negatively affecting healthy democracy, and hinders freedom of expression. Though the exact figures of those killed are often conflicting, press freedom organizations around the world agree through general consensus that Mexico is among the most dangerous countries on the planet to exercise journalism as a profession. The Human Rights Watch states that Mexican authorities are ineffective in their attempts to investigate criminal actions against journalists. They also report that between the year 2000 to July 2016, the Attorney General's Office reported 124 cases of journalists being killed.
A study that focused on the socialization of future journalists found that students in Mexico are more likely than students in other large countries to hold sentiments that journalism should be loyal, meaning that journalists should perpetuate a positive image in relation to the country's leaders and the policies the government sets forth. Information and the press was often controlled in Mexico by chayote, or one-off payments, or embute, regular pay-offs given in return for twisting the stories journalists put out so they portray whatever side the bribing party prefers. Journalists were inclined to take this money as supplements to the low-wages they make and were encouraged to do so by the news organizations they work for in order for those organizations to save money. This also meant that journalists did not have to seek stories, as the government would hand them to them. Although attitudes in journalism are changing and these practices are looked down upon by contemporary journalists, these practices still affect how the general population sees journalists.
In a study conducted that focused on violence by criminal organizations, evidence showed that the sole presence of large and profitable criminal organizations does not always lead to fatal attacks, but attacks and killings are increased when there are rival groups live and work in the same territories. The rivalry between criminal organizations affects the control either criminal organization has over journalists and the information that gets leaked to them, which leads to threats and even lethal violence against journalists.
Nearly 100 media workers have been killed or disappeared since 2000, and most of these crimes remained unsolved, improperly investigated, and with few perpetrators arrested and convicted.
Occurrences of physical violence and threats against journalists covering sensitive issues have been frequent across Mexico's regions. To protect themselves, journalists must practice self-censorship.
Child labor
According to the updated version of the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor issued in December 2014, child labor contributes to the production of a total of 11 goods in Mexico, 10 of which are agricultural goods (including coffee, tobacco and sugarcane) and the remaining item is pornography. Among the list's 74 countries where significant instances of indentured labor have been observed, 7 countries were reported to resort to child labor in the pornography industry and Mexico was one of them.
Freedom of religion
The constitution declares that Mexico is a secular state and provides for the right to religious freedom.
In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.
In the same year, the country was ranked as the 38th most difficult place in the world to be a Christian.
LGBT rights
Same-sex sexual acts are legal in Mexico, but LGBT people have been prosecuted through the use of legal codes that regulate obscene or lurid behavior (atentados a la moral y las buenas costumbres). Over the past twenty years, there have been reports of violence against gay men, including the murders of openly gay men in Mexico City and of transvestites in the southern state of Chiapas.
Local activists believe that these cases often remain unsolved, blaming the police for a lack of interest in investigating them and for assuming that gays are somehow responsible for attacks against them.
Intersex rights
Intersex children in Mexico face significant human rights violations, starting from birth. There are no protections from non-consensual cosmetic medical interventions and no legislative protection from discrimination. Intersex persons may have difficulties in obtaining necessary health care.
Other Issues
Domestic violence
The rate of domestic violence against women in Mexican marital relationships varies at between 30 and 60 percent of relationships.
As of 2014, Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women in the world. This rate has been on the rise since 2007.
Gender violence is more prevalent in regions along the Mexico-US border and in areas of high drug trading activity and drug violence.
According to the 2013 Human Rights Watch, many women do not seek out legal redress after being victims of domestic violence and sexual assault because "the severity of punishments for some sexual offenses contingent on the "chastity" of the victim" and "those who do report them are generally met with suspicion, apathy, and disrespect."
In September 2014, several Mexican human rights groups and International Federation for Human Rights, had filed a complaint with the office of the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, asking it to investigate the “systematic and widespread” abuse of thousands of civilians by the army and the police in their fight against organized crime.
On 26 August 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that President Andrés Manuel López Obrador’s planned to formally transfer control of the National Guard—the main federal law enforcement agency charged with public security operations—from the Public Security Ministry to the Defense Ministry. This step posed a serious threat to human rights and transparency. The military, informally deployed for civilian law enforcement since 2006, has committed widespread human rights violations.
Domestic violence and rape along the U.S.-Mexico border
Many feminist scholars argue that rape and sexual assault is based on the power and dehumanization of women; sociologist Sylvanna Falcón argues that rape is one outcome of militarization of the border between the United States and Mexico. The militarization of this border is largely a product of the drug war and the occupation of the cartels in the northern part of Mexico along the Texan border, and has two main elements: integration of military units into the border region and making Border Patrol resemble the military via equipment, structure, and tactics. In terms of militarized border rape, a large number of women report that being raped was the price they needed to pay in order to cross the border without being deported or arrested, or to gain their documents back. Practices like these are unique in the border region. Women often decide not to prosecute their assailants because they would be prosecuting not only the individual, but also challenging a powerful and entrenched institutional system of social control.
Some factors that enable rape in a militarized border zone are the wide discretionary power that border enforcements have while performing their job, ineffective and misguided hiring which leads to inefficient and questionable staff members, the failure to enforce and abide by law enforcement standards, a lack of reporting on these crimes by other militarized border zone officials owing to a “code of silence,” and warlike characteristics being forced onto a geographic region that makes human rights violations easier to commit especially in an area of high militarization.
Massacres
Massacres have occurred in Mexican history. In recent years they've been related to the Mexican drug war, but also include prison riots, political motivated massacres, and conflicts in regional areas.
Female Homicide
Female homicide–also known as femicide, feminicide, feminicidios in Spanish–is a sex-based hate crime term, broadly defined as “the intentional killing of females (women or girls) because they are females,” or “generally as the murder of women for simply being women,” though definitions vary depending on the cultural context. The term femicide was coined in 1976 as a way to raise awareness of this phenomenon, and using this particular term has allowed for these deaths to be recognized and accentuated the differences between the killing of men and the killing of women so that femicides can be put at the forefront of public attention.
According to the World Health Organization, there are four different types of femicide: intimate femicide, murders in the name of ‘honor,’ dowry-related femicide, and non-intimate femicide. Intimate femicide, or femicide committed by a current or former male partner, is reported to be the cause of 35% of all murders of women globally. Murders in the name of ‘honor’ consist of a girl or woman being murdered by a family member for a sexual or behavioral transgression, assumed or actual. Dowry-related femicides occur when newly married women are murdered by their in-laws over arguments related to the dowry. Non-intimate femicides are the most common femicides committed in Ciudad Juárez. Non-intimate femicides are the murders of women committed by someone without an intimate relationship with the victim. Sometimes they are random, but often they are systemic.
Studies conducted by José Manuel Aburto, a research fellow in Italy, suggest that despite major improvements in mortality and health in Mexico, the effects of those improvements have been reversed overall because of an increase in homicide rates in the 2000s. Although the Seguro Popular de Salud program worked to provide universal health insurance to those who did not have it, a stark rise in homicides slowed life expectancy gains for women.
Female homicides have been a common sensation in Ciudad Juárez since 1993. As of February 27, 2005, the number of murdered women in Ciudad Juárez since 1993 is estimated to be more than 370. Literature notes that the victims are usually young factory workers who come from impoverished areas to seek employment in maquiladoras. Because these women come from impoverished backgrounds, they do not have the financial resources to avoid public transport and walking alone late at night in dangerous areas. A lot of victims also face sexual violence and dehumanization. Families of the victims of female homicide and other groups of activists have been working to advocate and bring attention to the issue. The Mexican Federal Parliament cooperated with UN Women to establish the Special Commission to Follow up on Femicide (CESF) which issued a comprehensive report on femicide and gender-based violence since Ciudad Juárez does not have an official data collection on femicides. This commission found that in 1995, 2000, and 2005 Ciudad Juárez had the third highest record of femicide in Mexico, and in 2010 the rate of femicides in the state of Chihuahua was 32.8 out of 100,000 women, which was the highest rate of femicide in the country. Scholar Marcela Lagarde y de los Ríos asserts that state and country security authorities fail to fulfill their sworn duties to prevent and punish the murder of women, and this creates an environment of impunity concerning female homicides. Dr. Howard Campbell, a professor of anthropology at the University of Texas at El Paso, argues that women at the top of the social structure may be empowered and liberated by participating in the drug trade, but notes that women at the bottom face considerable violence, stress, and anxiety while enjoying little of the benefits of participating in the drug trade. He also posits that drug smuggling tends to exacerbate female victimization, and that the drug trade being the generator of violence that it is should be given a greater consideration when discussing the Ciudad Juárez femicides.
Corruption
Corruption plagues the various levels of police and government institutions, and is frequently difficult to track down and prosecute since police officers and government officials may be protected by district attorneys, other members of the judiciary, or even businessmen. The problem is especially pronounced in northern border areas such as Tijuana, where police are engaged by drug traffickers to protect and enforce their illicit interests.
Many of the human rights violations discussed in this article are committed by Mexico's Armed Forces. The Mexican government allows the Armed Forces to play a large part in the drug war, despite the fact that the Mexican Constitution restricts the Armed Forces to functioning only connected to military discipline in peace times. The Armed Forces often respond to civilians with arbitrary arrests, personal agendas and corruption, extrajudicial executions, the use of torture and excessive force. Because these cases would be tried in military tribunals, there is limited legal and social accountability for these violations and a low rate of prosecution. Although the Mexican government has argued that the presence of the Armed Forces in areas where the drug war is most active will increase security in the country, it has not been proven that the government's reliance on the military has reversed this trend of insecurity. The Centro de Derechos Humanos reports a continued rise in drug-related killings in many regions of Mexico.
The Mexican police force often do not investigate crimes, and will either victimize the victims and harass them so they don't pursue legal action, or generally randomly select someone to be the guilty party (chivo expiatorio, scapegoat) then fabricate the evidence. This issue is a major problem throughout Mexico as many of the actual police force are the ones involved in the crimes or are trying to cover up their poor police work.
Human rights advocacy
National Human Rights Commission (Mexico), Mexican government entity.
Lydia Cacho, human rights activist.
Attacks on human rights advocates
Digna Ochoa was a human rights lawyer who was murdered in 2001.
On 26 April 2010, several human rights activists on their way to San Juan Copala, subject to a paramilitary blockade established since January, were ambushed by Ubisort-militia. Two were killed, and twelve are missing.
See also
2006 civil unrest in San Salvador Atenco
International child abduction in Mexico
Index of Mexico-related articles
Internet in Mexico#Internet censorship
Crime in Mexico
Law of Mexico
Law enforcement in Mexico
List of journalists and media workers killed in Mexico
References
External links
Review of Mexico by the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review, February 10, 2009
Human Rights - Mexico - Amnesty International - Mexico Concerns
Freedom of expression in Mexico - IFEX
CNDH - National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)
Law of Mexico |
4359671 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User%20Account%20Control | User Account Control | User Account Control (UAC) is a mandatory access control enforcement feature introduced with Microsoft's Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 operating systems, with a more relaxed version also present in Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 8, Windows Server 2012, Windows 8.1, Windows Server 2012 R2, Windows 10, and Windows 11. It aims to improve the security of Microsoft Windows by limiting application software to standard user privileges until an administrator authorises an increase or elevation. In this way, only applications trusted by the user may receive administrative privileges and malware are kept from compromising the operating system. In other words, a user account may have administrator privileges assigned to it, but applications that the user runs do not inherit those privileges unless they are approved beforehand or the user explicitly authorises it.
UAC uses Mandatory Integrity Control to isolate running processes with different privileges. To reduce the possibility of lower-privilege applications communicating with higher-privilege ones, another new technology, User Interface Privilege Isolation, is used in conjunction with User Account Control to isolate these processes from each other. One prominent use of this is Internet Explorer 7's "Protected Mode".
Operating systems on mainframes and on servers have differentiated between superusers and userland for decades. This had an obvious security component, but also an administrative component, in that it prevented users from accidentally changing system settings.
Early Microsoft home operating-systems (such as MS-DOS, Windows 95-98 and Windows Me) did not have a concept of different user-accounts on the same machine. Subsequent versions of Windows and Microsoft applications encouraged the use of non-administrator user-logons, yet some applications continued to require administrator rights. Microsoft does not certify applications as Windows-compliant if they require administrator privileges; such applications may not use the Windows-compliant logo with their packaging.
Behavior in Windows versions
Windows 1.0-3.1 and 9x: all applications had privileges equivalent to the operating system;
All versions of Windows NT up to Windows XP: introduced multiple user-accounts, but in practice most users continued to function as an administrator for their normal operations. Further, some applications would require that the user be an administrator for some or all of their functions to work.
Windows Vista: Microsoft developed Vista security firstly from the Limited User Account (LUA), then renamed the concept to User Account Protection (UAP) before finally shipping User Account Control (UAC). Introduced in Windows Vista, User Account Control (UAC) offers an approach to encourage "super-user when necessary". The key to UAC lies in its ability to elevate privileges without changing the user context (user "Bob" is still user "Bob"). As always, it is difficult to introduce new security features without breaking compatibility with existing applications.
When someone logs into Vista as a standard user, the system sets up a logon session and assigns a token containing only the most basic privileges. In this way, the new logon session cannot make changes that would affect the entire system.
When a person logs in as a user with membership in the Administrators group, the system assigns two separate tokens: the first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive.
User applications, including the Windows Shell, then start with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced-privilege environment – even when running under an Administrator account.
When an application requests higher privileges or when a user selects a "Run as administrator" option, UAC will prompt standard users to enter the credentials of an Administrator account and prompt Administrators for confirmation and, if consent is given, continue or start the process using an unrestricted token.
Windows 7: Microsoft included a user interface to change User Account Control settings, and introduced one new notification mode: the default setting. By default, UAC does not prompt for consent when users make changes to Windows settings that require elevated permission through programs stored in %SystemRoot% and digitally signed by Microsoft. Programs that require permission to run still trigger a prompt. Other User Account Control settings that can be changed through the new UI could have been accessed through the registry in Windows Vista.
Windows 8 and 8.1: add a design change. When UAC is triggered, all applications and the taskbar are hidden when the desktop is dimmed.
Windows 10: copies the same layout as Windows 8 and 8.1, but the Anniversary Update has a more modern look. Also, Windows 10 adds support for Windows Hello in the User Account Control dialog box.
Tasks that trigger a UAC prompt
Tasks that require administrator privileges will trigger a UAC prompt (if UAC is enabled); they are typically marked by a security shield icon with the 4 colors of the Windows logo (in Vista and Windows Server 2008) or with two panels yellow and two blue (Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 and later). In the case of executable files, the icon will have a security shield overlay. The following tasks require administrator privileges:
Running an Application as an Administrator
Changes to system-wide settings
Changes to files in folders that standard users don't have permissions for (such as %SystemRoot% or %ProgramFiles% in most cases)
Changes to an access control list (ACL), commonly referred to as file or folder permissions
Installing and uninstalling applications outside of:
The %USERPROFILE% (e.g. C:\Users\{logged in user}) folder and its sub-folders.
Most of the time this is in %APPDATA%. (e.g. C:\Users\{logged in user}\AppData), by default, this is a hidden folder.
Chrome's and Firefox's installer ask for admin rights during install, if given, Chrome will install in the Program Files folder and be usable for all users, if denied, Chrome will install in the %APPDATA% folder instead and only be usable by the current user.
The Microsoft Store.
The folder of the installer and its sub-folders.
Steam installs its games in the /steamapps/ sub-folder, thus not prompting UAC. Some games require prerequisites to be installed, which may prompt UAC.
Installing device drivers
Installing ActiveX controls
Changing settings for Windows Firewall
Changing UAC settings
Configuring Windows Update
Adding or removing user accounts
Changing a user's account name or type
Creating a new account or deleting a user account
Turning on Guest account (Windows 7 to 8.1)
Turning on network discovery, file and printer sharing, Public folder sharing, turning off password protected sharing or turning on media streaming
Configuring Parental Controls (in Windows 7) or Family Safety (Windows 8.1)
Running Task Scheduler
Backing up and restoring folders and files
Merging and deleting network locations
Turning on or cleaning logging in Remote Access Preferences
Running Color Calibration
Changing remote, system protection or advanced system settings
Restoring backed-up system files
Viewing or changing another user's folders and files
Running Disk Defragmenter, System Restore or Windows Easy Transfer (Windows 7 to 8.1)
Running Registry Editor
Running the Windows Experience Index assessment
Troubleshoot audio recording and playing, hardware / devices and power use
Change power settings, turning off Windows features, uninstall, change or repair a program
Change date and time and synchronizing with an Internet time server
Installing and uninstalling display languages
Change Ease of Access administrative settings
Common tasks, such as changing the time zone, do not require administrator privileges (although changing the system time itself does, since the system time is commonly used in security protocols such as Kerberos). A number of tasks that required administrator privileges in earlier versions of Windows, such as installing critical Windows updates, no longer require administrator privileges in Vista. Any program can be run as administrator by right-clicking its icon and clicking "Run as administrator", except MSI or MSU packages as, due to their nature, if administrator rights will be required a prompt will usually be shown. Should this fail, the only workaround is to run a Command Prompt as an administrator and launch the MSI or MSP package from there.
Features
User Account Control asks for credentials in a Secure Desktop mode, where the entire screen is temporarily dimmed, Windows Aero disabled, and only the authorization window at full brightness, to present only the elevation user interface (UI). Normal applications cannot interact with the Secure Desktop. This helps prevent spoofing, such as overlaying different text or graphics on top of the elevation request, or tweaking the mouse pointer to click the confirmation button when that's not what the user intended. If an administrative activity comes from a minimized application, the secure desktop request will also be minimized so as to prevent the focus from being lost. It is possible to disable Secure Desktop, though this is inadvisable from a security perspective.
In earlier versions of Windows, Applications written with the assumption that the user will be running with administrator privileges experienced problems when run from limited user accounts, often because they attempted to write to machine-wide or system directories (such as Program Files) or registry keys (notably HKLM). UAC attempts to alleviate this using File and Registry Virtualization, which redirects writes (and subsequent reads) to a per-user location within the user's profile. For example, if an application attempts to write to a directory such as "C:\Program Files\appname\settings.ini" to which the user does not have write permission, the write will be redirected to "C:\Users\username\AppData\Local\VirtualStore\Program Files\appname\settings.ini". The redirection feature is only provided for non-elevated 32-bit applications, and only if they do not include a manifest that requests specific privileges.
There are a number of configurable UAC settings. It is possible to:
Require administrators to re-enter their password for heightened security,
Require the user to press Ctrl+Alt+Del as part of the authentication process for heightened security;
Disable only file and registry virtualization
Disable Admin Approval Mode (UAC prompts for administrators) entirely; note that, while this disables the UAC confirmation dialogs, it does not disable Windows' built-in LUA feature, which means that users, even those marked as administrators, are still limited users with no true administrative access.
Command Prompt windows that are running elevated will prefix the title of the window with the word "Administrator", so that a user can discern which instances are running with elevated privileges.
A distinction is made between elevation requests from a signed executable and an unsigned executable; and if the former, whether the publisher is 'Windows Vista'. The color, icon, and wording of the prompts are different in each case; for example, attempting to convey a greater sense of warning if the executable is unsigned than if not.
Internet Explorer 7's "Protected Mode" feature uses UAC to run with a 'low' integrity level (a Standard user token has an integrity level of 'medium'; an elevated (Administrator) token has an integrity level of 'high'). As such, it effectively runs in a sandbox, unable to write to most of the system (apart from the Temporary Internet Files folder) without elevating via UAC. Since toolbars and ActiveX controls run within the Internet Explorer process, they will run with low privileges as well, and will be severely limited in what damage they can do to the system.
Requesting elevation
A program can request elevation in a number of different ways. One way for program developers is to add a requestedPrivileges section to an XML document, known as the manifest, that is then embedded into the application. A manifest can specify dependencies, visual styles, and now the appropriate security context:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="yes"?>
<assembly xmlns="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:asm.v1" manifestVersion="1.0">
<trustInfo xmlns="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:asm.v2">
<security>
<requestedPrivileges>
<requestedExecutionLevel level="highestAvailable" />
</requestedPrivileges>
</security>
</trustInfo>
</assembly>
Setting the level attribute for requestedExecutionLevel to "asInvoker" will make the application run with the token that started it, "highestAvailable" will present a UAC prompt for administrators and run with the usual reduced privileges for standard users, and "requireAdministrator" will require elevation. In both highestAvailable and requireAdministrator modes, failure to provide confirmation results in the program not being launched.
An executable that is marked as "requireAdministrator" in its manifest cannot be started from a non-elevated process using CreateProcess(). Instead, ERROR_ELEVATION_REQUIRED will be returned. ShellExecute() or ShellExecuteEx() must be used instead. If an HWND is not supplied, then the dialog will show up as a blinking item in the taskbar.
Inspecting an executable's manifest to determine if it requires elevation is not recommended, as elevation may be required for other reasons (setup executables, application compatibility). However, it is possible to programmatically detect if an executable will require elevation by using CreateProcess() and setting the dwCreationFlags parameter to CREATE_SUSPENDED. If elevation is required, then ERROR_ELEVATION_REQUIRED will be returned. If elevation is not required, a success return code will be returned at which point one can use TerminateProcess() on the newly created, suspended process. This will not allow one to detect that an executable requires elevation if one is already executing in an elevated process, however.
A new process with elevated privileges can be spawned from within a .NET application using the "runas" verb. An example using C#:
System.Diagnostics.Process proc = new System.Diagnostics.Process();
proc.StartInfo.FileName = "C:\\Windows\\system32\\notepad.exe";
proc.StartInfo.Verb = "runas"; // Elevate the application
proc.StartInfo.UseShellExecute = true;
proc.Start();
In a native Win32 application the same "runas" verb can be added to a ShellExecute() or ShellExecuteEx() call:
ShellExecute(hwnd, "runas", "C:\\Windows\\Notepad.exe", 0, 0, SW_SHOWNORMAL);
In the absence of a specific directive stating what privileges the application requests, UAC will apply heuristics, to determine whether or not the application needs administrator privileges. For example, if UAC detects that the application is a setup program, from clues such as the filename, versioning fields, or the presence of certain sequences of bytes within the executable, in the absence of a manifest it will assume that the application needs administrator privileges.
Security
UAC is a convenience feature; it neither introduces a security boundary nor prevents execution of malware.
Leo Davidson discovered that Microsoft weakened UAC in Windows 7 through exemption of about 70 Windows programs from displaying a UAC prompt and presented a proof of concept for a privilege escalation.
Stefan Kanthak presented a proof of concept for a privilege escalation via UAC's installer detection and IExpress installers.
Stefan Kanthak presented another proof of concept for arbitrary code execution as well as privilege escalation via UAC's auto-elevation and binary planting.
Criticism
There have been complaints that UAC notifications slow down various tasks on the computer such as the initial installation of software onto Windows Vista. It is possible to turn off UAC while installing software, and re-enable it at a later time. However, this is not recommended since, as File & Registry Virtualization is only active when UAC is turned on, user settings and configuration files may be installed to a different place (a system directory rather than a user-specific directory) if UAC is switched off than they would be otherwise. Also Internet Explorer 7's "Protected Mode", whereby the browser runs in a sandbox with lower privileges than the standard user, relies on UAC; and will not function if UAC is disabled.
Yankee Group analyst Andrew Jaquith said, six months before Vista was released, that "while the new security system shows promise, it is far too chatty and annoying." By the time Windows Vista was released in November 2006, Microsoft had drastically reduced the number of operating system tasks that triggered UAC prompts, and added file and registry virtualization to reduce the number of legacy applications that triggered UAC prompts. However, David Cross, a product unit manager at Microsoft, stated during the RSA Conference 2008 that UAC was in fact designed to "annoy users," and force independent software vendors to make their programs more secure so that UAC prompts would not be triggered. Software written for Windows XP, and many peripherals, would no longer work in Windows Vista or 7 due to the extensive changes made in the introduction of UAC. The compatibility options were also insufficient. In response to these criticisms, Microsoft altered UAC activity in Windows 7. For example, by default users are not prompted to confirm many actions initiated with the mouse and keyboard alone such as operating Control Panel applets.
In a controversial article, New York Times Gadgetwise writer Paul Boutin said "Turn off Vista's overly protective User Account Control. Those pop-ups are like having your mother hover over your shoulder while you work." Computerworld journalist Preston Gralla described the NYT article as "...one of the worst pieces of technical advice ever issued."
See also
Comparison of privilege authorization features
Features new to Windows Vista
Polkit
runas
Secure attention key (SAK)
Security and safety features new to Windows Vista
sudo – A similar feature in UNIX-like operating systems
References
External links
Turning UAC On or Off in Windows 7
Documentation about UAC for Windows 7, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Vista
UAC Understanding and Configuring More Information at Microsoft Technet
Development Requirements for User Account Control Compatibility More information at Microsoft Developer Network
UAC Team Blog
Microsoft Windows security technology
Windows Vista |
4359841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-Fighter%20Kabuto | B-Fighter Kabuto | is a Japanese television series in the Metal Hero Series franchise. It is the sequel to Juukou B-Fighter, taking place five years after the preceding B-Fighter series. Kabuto aired from 1996 to 1997. The action footage and props were used for the Beetleborgs Metallix series.
Plot
Five years after the destruction of Jamahl, Earth has returned to peace again. The Earth Academia has become the , a scientific research and military organization, where Takuya Kai works with Sage Guru on a new generation of Insect Armor in the event of another threat to the Earth.
This threat is realized when a Cosmo Academia exploration submarine comes across a fissure in the ocean floor, out of which rises a huge flying fortress of the ancient tribe Melzard. This clan has been resting for millennia and seeks to destroy mankind. Matriarch Mother Melzard sends her oldest sons Raija and Dezzle to lead the attack with Raija's Elebamamoth. By then, Guru has infused the Neo Insect Armor with Insect Power, creating the three Command Voicers to link three humans with the armor. Kengo Tachibana and Ran Ayukawa, who have been selected to wear the new armor, ready themselves and become B-Fighter Kuwagar and B-Fighter Tentou. But the person to become B-Fighter Kabuto had not been chosen when the remaining Command Voicer flies out the window. Ran and Kengo follow it to meet Kouhei Toba, a star athlete at his school who is losing badly to Elebammoth who froze the boy's sister as the last Command Voicer flies into his hand. Kengo and Ran are shocked that this high school student is to be B-Fighter Kabuto, but they go to him and teach him how to transform. He changes into Kabuto and the three of them attack Elebammoth and several henchmen, with Kabuto killing Elebammoth.
Refusing to accept defeat, Mother Melzard continues her attacks, with Raija and Dezzle working against each other in their attacks on the B-Fighters.
Characters
New Generation of B-Fighters
is a 17-year-old (later 18 year-old) high-school student at Hijiri Sei High School in the second grade (3rd grade later) who is dragged into the fight. A star athlete, Kouhei is a very courageous fighter, although he is sometimes impetuous. He lives with his younger sister Yui, whom he cares for and overprotects. As Kabuto (and like Blue Beet before him), Kouhei dons armor modeled after a Japanese rhinoceros beetle. Kabuto is the only B-Fighter who can wield the Astral Saber to become one with and gain control of the giant robot, Kabuterios. He is in love with Sophie. After the final battle, He leaves for the United States with Sophie for college studies and training in 2 New York offices of Cosmo Academia.
is a serious, 22-year-old environment investigator. He originally had no respect for Kouhei, because Kouhei was chosen to become Kabuto instead of himself and Kouhei was younger, although they eventually became friends. As Kuwagar (and like G-Stag before him), Kengo donned armor modeled after a stag beetle. At the end of the series, Kuwagar was able to wield the Geist Axe and take control of the giant robot, Kuwaga Titan, which was formerly being used by Descorpion and Mother Melzard for evil but was not actually evil. In episode 11 is revealed who his father is a diplomat.
is an 18-year-old cyber engineer, who sometimes thought too much about mechanics and ignored the natural side. She had feelings for Julio when he taught her to appreciate nature. Ran loved to eat and was skilled at playing the shamisen, a stringed Japanese instrument. She left her parents' home at 15. As Tentou (unlike Reddle before her), Ran's armor was modeled after a ladybug. After the death of her father, her mother moves to United States to study hotel management.
New B-Fighters
The were four individuals from the New York head office, South American, Peking, and Paris branches of Cosmo Academia who used the , a variant of the Command Voicer that stored their Neo Insect Armor which activated when they inserted their respective data card and shouted . They consumed most of their power to destroy a crystal Mother Melzard had that ignited detonators inside various humans. Afterwards, their Insect Commanders merged with the Geist Axe in the finale.
: Mac was from the New York office, a master of boxing and aikido chosen by the Dragonfly Insect Medal to become Yanma. He posed as an exchange student in Kouhei's school, becoming the boy's rival as a result. He eventually revealed himself as a B-Fighter when the three were attacked by B-Crushers, making an enemy out of Mukadelinger and losing to him until Kabuto comes to his aid. After giving him his Tonbou Gun, Mac left for America after telling them of the three other Insect Medals. Mac was outgoing, flirting with Japanese girls at every chance and pigging out on sushi. As Yanma, Mac's armor was modeled after a dragonfly. His attacks were the spin attack, and the , a tornado spin attack.
was a Peruvian archeologist/agent from the South American Cosmo Academia branch. He played a reed flute with strange powers that he gave to Ran as a memento of their time together. He was chosen by the Firefly Insect Medal to become Genji, whose armor was modeled after a firefly.
is a 35-year-old from the Peking branch of Cosmo Academia. Li was an elementary schoolteacher who loved children and often put on magic shows in parks for children, and was also a good cook. He was a peaceful man who hated the fight between the B-Fighters and Melzard, and at first refused to cooperate when he obtained the Cicada Insect Medal. However, Kengo made him realize that the B-Fighters fight in order to stop the fighting, and so he agreed to help as Min, whose armor was modeled after a cicada. His attacks are the and the , fires from his antennae.
17 years-old who was born on 10 May 1979. From the Paris branch, Sophie was a master violinist at 14 years-old a study in a Paris Art University aged 10. At first, she had no idea how to use her Insect Commander. She is in love with Kouhei, and her song was able to awaken the Astral Saber from its sleep. She was chosen by the Butterfly Insect Medal to become Ageha, whose armor was modeled after a butterfly. She used her Kniving Radar to scan for a fast-moving enemy.
Arsenal
are the transformation devices used by all seven B-Fighters. They store the Neo Insect Armor which is activated when the users of the Command Voicer insert their respective data card and shout . The Command Voicers disappeared with the Astral Saber and Geist Axe after Jadow Mothera is defeated.
: Sidearms for the main three B-Fighters. Activated with the Input Cards. Numbers as follows:
IC-01. : Standard energy blast
IC-02. : Blast of fire
IC-03. : Blast of disrupting sound waves that stun enemies
IC-04. : Blast of small needle-like darts
IC-05. : Blast of cement that hardens when it hits its target
IC-06. : Freezing blast of cold
IC-07. : Blast of powerful air at high speeds
: For the main three B-Fighters. These can fire , crossing two or three.
: Kabuto's Finish Weapon. Its finishing attacks are the and on the Road Kabuto.
: Kuwagar's Finish Weapon. Its finishing attack is the .
: Tentou's Finish Weapon. Its finishing attack is the .
New B-Fighter Weapons
: Genji's weapon. Its attack is .
: Min's weapons
: Ageha's weapon, transforms from her Insect Commander and "Flower Weapon" Input Card. Its attacks are the and the .
: Secondary weapons given to the main B-Fighters by the New B-Fighters
: At first B-Fighter Yanma's weapon. Later given to B-Fighter Kabuto, who can attach in front of the Input Cardgun.
: At first B-Fighter Genji's weapon. Later given to B-Fighter Tentou, who can attach it to the top of the Input Cardgun and fire the and the , used to ruin or restore. Also usable as a tranquilizer. Attaching it to the Input Cardgun, it can fire the and the .
: At first B-Fighter Min's weapon. Later given to B-Fighter Kuwagar to attach to the back of the Input Cardgun and give elemental powers of the six including Water Power, Thunder Power, Flame Power, Light Power, Storm Power, and Earth Power. Attaching it to the Input Cardgun with the Bright Pointer, it can fire the (combined with Brighter Pointer), used to heal Kabuto, Tentou and Min.
: Combination of Input Cardgun and the three Beet Arms. The Input Rifle is much more powerful than any other in the B-Fighters' arsenal. Normally held by Kabuto, who fires the , a ball of destructive energy. Once, however, Kuwagar with Yanma and Min used the Input Rifle and fired a similar ball called the .
: The Astral Saber is a red and gold short sword with a red crystal ball in its hilt. Within this ball is a small mechanical kabutomushi beetle that is actually the giant Kabuterios. The Astral Saber was sleeping in a cave until Sophie Villeneuve's song woke it. Upon having the Dragonfly, Firefly, Cicada, Butterfly, Scorpion, Centipede, Mantis and Hornet Insect Medals put into the handle of the Astral Saber, B-Fighter Kabuto was able to call Kabuterios forth from the saber and join with the giant robot, gaining the B-Fighters a powerful ally. After Kabuterios and Kuwaga Titan first defeat each other, the hilt of the Astral Saber turns into stone, returning to normal in episode 41. It disappears after the final battle.
: The Geist Axe is a green axe with a green crystal ball similar to the Astral Saber's in its hilt. Within it is a mechanical stag beetle that becomes the giant Kuwaga Titan. Initially, Descorpion was the wielder of the Geist Axe and the commander of Kuwaga Titan. After Kabuterios and Kuwaga Titan defeat each other, its hilt turned to stone, returning to normal in episode 41 with Mother Melzard as the new wielder. She lost the Axe in the next episode. Later in the finale, with the New B-Fighters' Insect Commanders merging into it, B-Fighter Kuwager got possession of the weapon and used the power of Kuwaga Titan for good. It disappears after the final battle.
Road Beetles
Each B-Fighter has a providing his primary transportation. Their names are , and .
is Professor Osanai's prototype of the Road Beetle that can change into . Its name stands for "Operating system of Self-Awake Navigation with Accelerate-Interface-set-in 0 (zero)-Unit".
Neo Beet Machines
The are the B-Fighters' super machines that they use to fight Melzard airborne and ground vehicles. They emerge from the , the B-Fighter's base of operations following the command "Neo Beet Machines, launch!". The Beetle Base was blown up along with the Neo Beet Machines thanks to the efforts of Killmantis, Beezack, Dezzle and Dord near the finale.
is Kabuto's Neo Beet Machine, a gold and black 6-wheeled vehicle with a rhinoceros beetle horn on the front. From this horn it can fire a powerful energy blast, the . It can open its wings to reveal jets that let it fly for . It can also tilt downward for so that its horn can dig a trench in the ground to dig up underground enemies, and can throw an enemy in the attack.
is Kuwagar's Neo Beet Machine, a black tank with two pincer-like horns on the front. The Kuwaga Tank can grab enemies in these horns and toss them about. On top, it has a double-barreled gun, the . It can convert to Battle Formation, the front rising up and folding back, and can fire off its horns to hit enemies at long-range in the attack.
is Tentou's Neo Beet Machine, a small plane with two large turbines on its tail and two large wings with hover turbines on them. The Stealth Gyro can fire a blast of energy from its . In , it can transport the two Neo Beet Machines, attaching Kabutron and Kuwaga Tank to the underside of its wings.
Shell Gods
The two are giant insect robot gods from space. Kabuterious and Kuwaga Titan were allies that fought a great battle and were swept into a vortex that defeated an evil foe. They were eventually encased inside two weapons, the Astral Saber and the Geist Axe, until they would be found in the present.
is the gold and black Shell God that can change into a giant robot from a . It normally stays inside the Astral Saber but can emerge and enlarge itself when needed. B-Fighter Kabuto can join with Kabuterios and control it. Kabuterios fights with the that can block laser blasts from Fly Gidorbas and can fire a powerful blast of fire, the , or fire eye beams called the , and an energy beam from its chest, the .
is the green and black Shell God that can change into a giant robot Build Mode from a . It stays inside the Geist Axe until called forth, and was originally controlled by Descorpion, later by Mother Melzard, and was used for evil. However, Kuwaga Titan was (despite his title) not actually evil and once fought alongside Kabuterios. At the end of the series, the Geist Axe was claimed by the B-Fighters and allowed B-Fighter Kuwagar to use it to fight for good. Kuwaga Titan can fire a blast of energy, the using the (it can be used to block Kabuterios' Big Flare), shoot lightning from its left fist called the ; or a blast of lightning from either its eyes or antennae.
Allies
is the Japan branch chief of Cosmo Academia.
is the artificial lifeform in the computer of the Beetle Base that sends out alerts and analyzes data on enemies.
is Kouhei's younger sister and his self-proclaimed manager, covering for him when he leaves school to fight Melzard. She is in love with Kengo. She was once put under a spell, when Mother Melzard gave her a pink/white flower armor-themed warrior.
gave the original B-Fighters their powers. Though aged, he is still able to help the B-Fighters using his extensive knowledge of the Melzard. Guru died trying to protect the insects of the world from the "Dark Wave Motion" power of Dargriffon. He was buried in the cave where Takuya first found him as the B-Fighters' technology eventually fades, from the First Generation to the New Generation once they had defeated the Melzard.
is Guru's son who left his father one hundred years before and traveled across the dimensions as a supplier of weapons and equipment. He returned to Earth to visit his mother's grave, bringing with him the Beet Ingram to give to Takuya Kai/Blue Beet years ago. When his father Guru died, he returned again to visit his father's grave.
First Generation of B-Fighters
The B-Fighters of the first generation sometimes appear and help out the new generation. After destroying the Jamahl, they were transferred to the Cosmo Academia branch. They occasionally aid the New Generation B-Fighters before Guru dies, destroying their ability to become B-Fighters.
is the team leader who developed the Neo Insect Armors as the chief of the development project of the new B-Fighters. Now 28, he works at the New York office.
is also 28 and works at the Europe branch.
is 24.
Arsenal
is a cannon type weapon that was developed at the New York head office.
is a combination attack that upgraded the Sonic Flap.
Melzard Tribe
The are an ancient race that have existed since prehistoric times. They dwell in the fortress , which Mother Melzard is an extension of.
is a monster with a snake-like tail instead of legs who leads Melzard. She gave birth to the members by eating a fossil of any animal or plant with one of her tendrils and spitting it back out as an egg which instantly hatches into a Melzard. After the battle in which Kabuterios and Kuwaga Titan defeat each other, Mother Melzard fell asleep, gaining an eye on her left breast upon waking up and taking control of Kuwaga Titan. After a battle on the moon with Kabuterios, the Geist Axe was lost. Mother Melzard then proceeded to use a rain to implant bombs in all humans in a scheme to wipe out the entire population. When the B-Fighters entered her fortress, she fought them personally before activating the bombs, leaving only Kabuto unaffected. Severing her connection to the Melzardos, the New B-Fighters destroyed the detonator as the Melzardos crashes. But using the energy of the Earth, Mother Melzard evolved into a larger reptilian monster called . She then went on a city-smashing spree while overpowering Kuwaga Titan until he chopped her tail off. When Kabuterios was summoned, the two Shell Gods destroy Jadow Mothera.
is the eldest son of Melzard. A powerful warrior with red Ceratopsia-like armor, he commanded the Melzard monsters based on land-dwelling creatures. Raija frequently quarreled with Dezzle, each trying to outdo the other. Sent to obtain the Insect Medals, Raija battled Kabuto one-on-one after his clone creation was destroyed. Though seemingly killed by Kabuto, Raija managed to take the Scorpion Insect Medal as his body petrified. Raija was later revived by Mother Melzard in a new maroon armored form, empowered by the magma deep within the earth. He make new friends with Descorpion, who also helped to defeat Kabuto. Surviving the Melzardos, Rajia overpowered Kuwagar before battling Kabuto and before being mortally wounded.
is the second son of Melzard. Dezzle was Raija's constant rival and wore an elaborate blue costume with fins and an anglerfish-like helmet. He commanded the Melzard monsters based on water-dwelling creatures and often actively sabotaged Raija's plans. After Raija was killed, Dezzle was granted greater power from Mother Melzard and became where he wields a trident. He was defeated by the Input Rifle with only his head remaining. Dord placed Dezzle's head on a tank. Dezzle was later revived by Mother Melzard in a new, mysterious form. His new form, giving him new power from the darkness of the deep sea, had a small torso, a black cape, and a white mask which hid his face. Dezzle later found the B-Fighters' base of operations, assuming Professor Osanai's form to activate the BF Base's self-destruct along with a virus to spread to the other branches. He overpowered Kuwagar and Tentou as Kabuto arrived. They took the fight outside while Professor Osanai deleted the virus. He almost killed Kabuto until he was hit by the Input Rifle. He accidentally fell into the Kabuto Lancer still latched unto Dord before he is killed by the Input Rifle.
is Raija's comrade, a female warrior in light green insectoid armor who wields two red swords. When Raija was seemingly killed, she stayed by his petrified body until he awakened. Miolra survived the Melzardos only to die fighting Tentou.
is the captain of Dezzle's Bodyguards, a squat creature whose head resembles an ammonite fossil. Dord looked after Dezzle's head after he was blown to pieces and remained as his loyal servant until Dezzle returned in his new form. Dord was killed alongside Dezzle by B-Fighter Kabuto with the Input Rifle after his shell was impaled by Kabuto's lance.
are the Melzard's primary fighters against the B-Fighters. Raija and Dezzle gathered 4 of the 8 Insect Medals (first obtaining the Centipede Insect Medal, than the Bee, Mantis and the Scorpion Insect Medal afterwards) for Mother Melzard using energy gathered by Dezzle. She had four of her larval offspring merge into suits of armor powered by the medals. In their debut, the B-Crushers lured the B-Fighters into the open and sprang a trap. The B-Crushers overpower them until Mac Windy comes to aid as B-Fighter Yanma. Descorpion ordered a fall back as they proved their superiority. But in the second match, Kabuto defeated them. After B-Fighter Kabuto activated Kabuterios, the B-Crushers were injured and had to be cocooned until their wounds had healed. Afterwards, they gained possession of the Geist Axe. They also came to be at odds with Raija, Dezzle and their crew.
is the leader of the B-Crushers. His armor was modeled after a scorpion. Also known as the , he is an honorable warrior by nature, preferring to fight fair compared to his teammates' methods. He uses the on his right to grab and strangle enemies and a claw-attachment for his left forearm slashing attacks. His rival is Raija, who also wants to defeat Kabuto. Once tried to kill Kabuto using a bomb attached to his belt buckle. He wielded the Geist Axe until Mother Melzard took it from him. When the B-Fighters enter the Melzardis, Descorpion fights them as Rajia and Miolra join in. Surviving the Melzardos' crash, Descorpion battles Kabuto. Accepting defeat, he was killed by Kabuto's Liner Blast.
is the polar opposite of Descorpion, with armor modeled after a centipede. Also known as the , his weapon is the trident and he can open his chest to reveal the . He uses the centipede legs on his armor to control ordinary humans via mind control, such as when he attempted revenge on Yanma. Leaving Melzard, he challenged the B-Fighters despite learning that he had a bomb inside him and then took Yui hostage. The New B-Fighters arrived and used their signature moves to weaken Mukadelinger before Kabuto defeated him with the Input Rifle. Mother Melzard activated the bombs and destroyed Mukadelinger.
is a mantis-armored expert at using bladed weapons. Also known as the , his two sickles allow him to cut through millions of peaches in blinding speed with lightning-fast strikes and used in his attack. Sent with Beezack to the Neo B-Machine hangar to destroy the mecha, Killmantis learned they'd been sent on a suicide mission where Kabuto wounded them. Near death, Killmantis sacrificed himself to complete his mission.
is a hornet-armored master of disguise and illusion assuming human guides to lower his enemies' guard. Also known as the , he can hide himself and attack from shelter with his weapon. Sent with Killmantis to the Neo B-Machine hangar to destroy the mecha. Like Killmantis, Beezack did not know they'd been sent on a suicide mission and sacrificed himself.
The are Melzard's foot soldiers who belong to either Raija and Dezzle. seem to be made from the fossils of land creatures: 2 Stegoceras, 2 Pteranodons, and 2 prehistoric spiders. seem to be made from the fossils of sea creatures: 2 prehistoric fish, 2 prehistoric jellyfish, and 2 prehistoric squids. They are disintegrated by Mother Melzard in episode 42.
: Giant worm-like tanks can transform into the aerial fighters, and vice versa.
Melzard Monsters
Monsters of the land and sea given birth by Mother Melzard.
Raija's Monsters
Raija's monsters are land-based creatures.
is a deformed monster who was born from a woolly mammoth fossil. He was sent to begin a new Ice Age and kill all of humanity. Elebammoth froze everything in his path with his liquid nitrogen gas. When he froze Yui, Kouhei battled it and lost until the last Command Voicer flies into his hand as Kengo and Ran arrived. As Kabuto, Kouhei killed Elebammoth with the Cavalier Lancer attack.
was born from a Tyrannosaurus fossil. Dinozaura had three heads, two Tyrannosaurus-like arms, and two tails for extra arms. He was sent to destroy the power lines and sources in the city to prevent Cosmo Academia from setting up the Neo Beet Machines. Dinozaura was soon defeated by the B-Fighters. He returned with powerful bombs in his heads for a kamikaze attack to take out the Neo Beet Machines. When the B-Fighters realized Dinozaura was not attacking powerlines as before, they got him to follow them to the countryside to finally kill him after his heads detached from his exploding body.
was born from a Tyrrhenian mole fossil. He was weak at first until he ate a special fruit that empowered him. Mogerado was killed when Tentou blasted his sunglasses off, leaving him blinded by sunlight and vulnerable for the deathblow by Tentou's Crossway Slicer.
is an ant monster with ant-like heads for hands who was born from a Titanomyrma fossil. She was sent to lay her eggs around Mount Fuji and as the eggs neared hatching, they began to rise in temperature, threatening to cause an eruption. Dezzle, intend on sabotaging his brother's plan, gave medicine to Baeria that would raise her body temperature. However, the temperature in Baeria kept rising making her a living bomb. Kabuto managed to freeze Baeria to reduce her temperature so he could finish her off without an explosion.
was born from a giant kangaroo fossil. He stole the talents of various athletes by swallowing them in his pouch. He also swallowed Kengo. Gangaroo was killed by Kabuto after a lengthy battle.
was born from half of a cactus fossil. He was finished off by Tentou. Zabodera's spirit was later summoned by Zanshoror.
was born from a prehistoric giant vampire bat fossil. He was killed by Kabuto's Liner Blast. Zyren's spirit was later summoned by Zanshoror.
was born from a Smilodon fossil. Dorafire looked like a near-skeletal mouse with a second tiger-striped smilodon's head on his forehead and smilodon-like hands. Dorafire could blast flamethrowers from his tiger head. After being briefly frozen, he was killed by Kabuto's Cold Laser/Liner Blast combo.
was born from a fern fossil. Groba could sprinkle a destructive pollen from her head in battle. Killed by the combined weapons of all 3 B-Fighters.
was born from a pineapple fossil. Pineappler was killed by one punch from Kabuto.
was born from a Teratornis fossil. With flaps of his wings or a blast from his breath, Zarst could cause immense heat waves. This lasted until the B-Fighters killed him.
was born from a prehistoric chameleon fossil. Killed by B-Fighter Tentou.
was born from a Amphibamus fossil and looks like it was composed of many salamanders. Zanshoror brought the spirits of Zabodera, Zyren, and Isogilala to life. Kuwagar killed him.
was a Triceratops monster born from a part of Raija's body. Driceraija could breathe fire and use a sword. He accompanied his parent in taking the Insect Medals from the powerless B-Fighters, setting the forest on fire to flush Kouhei and Takuya as they and the other B-Fighters were gathered in one place to be executed. Once the team regain their transformation abilities, Driceraija was killed by the B-Fighter's teamwork.
Dezzle's Monsters
Dezzle's monsters are water-based creatures.
was born from a trilobite fossil and was sent to abduct the girls at Kouhei's school. His mission was to absorb the lifeforce from people through his tentacles and use it to enlarge himself to giant size. Zazanyoda was almost invincible until the B-Fighters fired at his weak point, the small trilobyte on his forehead. Reduced to his normal size, he was killed by the B-Fighters.
was born from an Archelon fossil. The powder scraped from his shell was sold as a calcium supplement called "Bone-Health", but that hardened skin into bone. B-Fighters attacked Gamegeron, but his shell was too hard to be cracked. Gamegeron's only weaknesswas his belly, which he covered. Kabuto's determination finally shattered the monster's shell.
was born from a Calliderma fossil. He could possess people and enhance their aggressive behavior. Targeting Kazuya Yano, the son of Kengo's late sensei Ryuzaburo Yano, he used the man's hatred for Kengo to wreak havoc across town. He uses smaller starfish parasites from his body to possess people, turning them into violent slaves under his control. The B-Fighters were forced to retreat as a result. The B-Fighters dispatched Kengo to fight Kazuya, while Kabuto and Tentou handled the angry mob. The two fortunately learned that electricity was the starfish-parasite's weakness. They freed the people with the Electric Shockwave just as Kengo freed Kazuya from Hitodenajiru's control, forcing the monster out of him. Once gathered, the B-Fighters learned that Electric ShockWave was useless on Hitodenajiru. But Kazuya's Triple Lightning Kick severely weakened Hitodenajiru enabling B-Fighter Kuwagar to finish him off.
was born from a coelacanth fossil. B-Fighter Kuwagar singlehandedly killed him after Coelaganaza murdered Kuwagar's sister.
was born from a Beelzebufo fossil. Hellgama was killed by Kabuto.
was born from a prehistoric sea anemone fossil and killed by Tentou's Crossway Slicer. Isogilala's spirit was later summoned by Zanshoror.
was born from a sea scorpion fossil. In battle, Kaizazora could detach/blast its arms and its combined head and stinger tail at opponents. After B-Fighter's Kabuto and Tentou hit his weak spot, he was killed by Kuwagar's Gravity Crush.
is a Kappa-themed monster with no backstory. He was killed by Kuwagar.
was born from a prehistoric scorpionfish fossil. Okozezeze could blast stinger darts from its mouth in battle. Okozezeze was killed by Kabuto's Liner Blast.
Combo Monsters
Some of these creatures were both Raija and Dezzle's monsters.
was a hybrid monster born from a Flores cave rat fossil and an prehistoric clam fossil, combining both their strengths. Nezugaira suffered a split personality: he was both a gentle creature and a sadistic monster. He was eventually killed by Tentou's Crossway Slicer.
is a monster that resembles a gorgon from Greek Mythology with snake-headed tendrils and has no backstory. She was sent to retrieve the case containing four Insect Medals. Though killed by Super Blue Beet, Hebyusa's snake-headed tendrils infected the B-Fighters with her venom (first Kuwagar, then Tentou, G-Stag, Blue Beet, Reddle, and Kabuto) turning the two teams against each other until the viral venom is removed from the commanders.
is a hybrid monster born from a prehistoric porcupine fossil and a prehistoric stingray fossil. Almost impossible to kill, Arajibiray could encase its victims in a cocoon that eventually killed them. With the help of a crystal that Genji found, Tentou used Impact Flash to finally kill Arajibiray.
is a hybrid monster born from a prehistoric swordfish fossil, a Tyrrhenian mole fossil, and a prehistoric chameleon fossil. He could fire an acid that could melt the Neo Insect Armor (affecting both Kabuto and Tentou and later Min), change color to be invisible, and disappear, and digs underground. Tokasuzura was killed by the four B-Fighters: by Min with his Ringer Swords, Kuwagar with Gravity Crash, Tentou with Crossway Slicer, and Kabuto using the Input Rifle.
is a unicorn-resembling monster and has no backstory. She was finished off by Kuwagar using the Input Rifle in a technique he called "Kuwagatic Buster".
is a devil-resembling monster with no backstory. After using the Input Cardguns and Bloom Cannon to destroy Zadan's horn, he was killed by the B-Fighters' signature attacks.
is a 2-faced griffin monster born from a cave lion fossil and a Haast's eagle fossil where it has an eagle head with a lion head above it. He is able to emit dark shockwaves from his chest to affect everything insect-related, and ensure the spread of darkness. Though he overpowered the new team, the first-generation B-Fighters arrive and managed to slow Dargriffon down with their newest weapon. The monster later returns. The B-Fighters hold it at bay until the original B-Fighters again appeared while Guru sacrifices himself. The original B-Fighters negated Dargriffon's power so the new team could finish him off with their signature attacks.
Episodes
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Osamu Kaneda
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Osamu Kaneda
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Osamu Kaneda
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Osamu Kaneda
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Osamu Kaneda
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Akira Asaka, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Kyoko Sagiyama, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Nobuo Ogizawa, directed by Kaneharu Mitsumura
: written by Yasuko Kobayashi, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Shohei Tojo
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Hidenori Ishida
: written by Junichi Miyashita, directed by Hidenori Ishida
Cast
Kouhei Toba, Clone Kouhei (15): (Played as )
Kengo Tachibana, Clone Kengo (15): (Played as )
Ran Ayukawa, Fake Ran (30):
Masaru Osanai:
Yui Toba:
Mack Windy:
Sophie Villeneuve:
Li Wen:
Julio Rivera:
Dinosaur Warrior Raija:
Insect Swordswoman Miola:
Voice actors
Artificial Life Bit:
B-Fighter Yanma (eps-28-29):
Shell God Seal Sword Astral Saber:
Mother Melzard:
Deep Sea Fish-man Dezzle:
Rock Shell Chamberlain Dord:
Deadly Poison Armored General Descorpion:
Cold-Blooded Armored General Mukaderinger:
Demon Blade Armored General Killmantis:
Mirage Armored General Beezack:
Guest Stars
Takuya Kai (1, 25-27 & 47): Daisuke Tsuchiya
Sage Guru (1, 25–29, 32–35, 47): Yasuo Tanaka
Megumi Nakajima (2): Reiko Okabe
Takashi Nakajima (2): Kyohei Iizuka
Akane (3): Asuka Yamaguchi
Atsuko Endo (5): Mika Omine
Akio (5): Hiroshi Sakamoto
Yumiko (5): Eri Shimizu
Genzo (6): Kenichi Matsuno
Kikonosuke (6):Takeshi Yamazaki
Tatsuyoshi (6): Enryu Sanyutei
Yano Family (7)
Kazuya Yano: Kotaro Yoshida
Natsumi Yano: Masumi Ogawa
Ryuzaburo Yano: Satoshi Kurihara
Toshiya Hirano (8): Koichi Nagata
Teacher (8, 16): Yuzo Ogura
Shinosuke Ima (9): Shintaro Mizushima
Master (9): Takuya Haronobu
Eiji (10): Hidenori Tokuyama
Toru (10): Yoshiko Tonawa
Yamada (10): Akira Amamiya
Kohei's Friend (10, 14): Tsuyoshi Sugawara
Erika Shiraishi (11, 50): Tina Kawamura
Hiroshi (12): Kenta Uchino
Shunsuke (13, 50): Yūta Mochizuki
Haruka Satsuki (14): Megumi Nishimura
Mari Hayase (15): Rina Sato
Kazue Hayase (15): Mariko Sakai
Nurse (15): Hiroko Kamei
Naoya (16): Yasuyuki Fukuba
Doctor (17): Yoshiaki Wakao
Staff Member(17): Hirofumi Ishigaki
Lia/Kana (18): Asuka Umemiya
Lia (voice - 18): Yukari Nozawa
Marina (19): Misao Oka
Swimming Club's Captain (19): Yoshiyuki Uchiyama
Yoshizo Hiraoka (20): Kazuma Suzuki
Tokuko Hiraoka (20): Kanako Nakatake
Kyoichi Nakagawa (21): Masahide Hirai
Reporter (21): Hideki Fukushi
Bunzo Kariya (22): Bunmei Tonamiyama
Bullies (23): Yugo Mori, Yuki Takamura, Yuichi Tada, Kazuki Ogawa
Chikako (24): Akane Kaiho
Daisaku Katagiri (25-27 & 47): Shigeru Kanai
Mai Takatori (25-27 & 47): Chigusa Tomoe
Beezack's human form (30): Akemi Fuji
Beezack's human form (32): Michihiko Hamada
People who listen Sophie's performance (32): Yoko Koyanagi
Cabin Attendant (34):Naoko Hiroshima
Doctor (37, 43): Toshio Matsuo
Announcer (42): Isao Kishimoto
Eri/Fake Eri (Zadan's human form)(44): Nanako Hotomi
Yukio Suzuki (44): Toshiya Baba
Yukio's mother (44): Jun Matsumoto
Museum Staff (45): Wataru Abe
BF Fans (45): Nagatoshi Saegusa, Yamato Tachikawa
Ryosuke Takano (46): Yosuke Ishii
Takano's wife (46): Rikako Sato
Takano's son (46): Yuta Suzuki
Boy who Yui cares in the hospital (50): Yusuke Osawa
Kabuto (voice) (50): Takahiro Yoshimizu
Songs
Opening theme
Lyrics:
Composition:
Arrangement:
Artist:
The song's full version is used as the ending for episode 50
Ending theme
(1-49)
Lyrics: Yoko Aki
Composition: Ryudo Uzaki
Arrangement: Eiji Kawamura
Artist: Nobuhiko Kashiwara
The instrumental version is used as insert song for episode 50
International Broadcasting and Home Video
In its home country of Japan, the series was released on Sale and Rental VHS by Toei Video from March 1997 to February 1998 in full with all episodes spread throughout 12 volumes. Each volume contains four episodes, while the final volume contained five episodes. Then from November 21, 2006, to March 21, 2007, Toei Video then released the series on DVD for the first time spread through five volumes and each holding two discs. Each DVD volume release contains 10 episodes.
In Thailand, TIGA Company licensed the series for VCD distribution under Iron Armor B-fighter Kabuto. (นักรบเกราะเหล็ก บี-ไฟท์เตอร์ คาบูโตะ)
In the Philippines it was aired on ABS-CBN, as well as on RPN, ABC 5 & GMA Network with names changed and dubbed in Tagalog.
External links
Japanese science fiction television series
Television series about insects
Fictional soldiers
Metal Hero Series
1996 Japanese television series debuts
1997 Japanese television series endings
TV Asahi original programming
Japan Self-Defense Forces in fiction |
4359961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shemini%20%28parashah%29 | Shemini (parashah) | Shemini, Sh'mini, or Shmini (—Hebrew for "eighth", the third word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 26th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the third in the Book of Leviticus. Parashah Shemini tells of the consecration of the Tabernacle, the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, and the dietary laws of kashrut (). The parashah constitutes Leviticus 9:1–11:47. It is made up of 4,670 Hebrew letters, 1,238 Hebrew words, 91 verses, and 157 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews read it the 25th or 26th Sabbath after Simchat Torah, in late March or April. In years when the first day of Passover falls on a Sabbath (as it did in 2018 and 2019), Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read the parashah following Passover one week before Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora, for Jews in Israel and Reform Jews celebrate Passover for seven days and thus read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) on the Sabbath one week after the first day of Passover, while Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora celebrate Passover for eight days and read the next parashah (in 2018, Shemini) one week later. In some such years (for example, 2018), the two calendars realign when Conservative and Orthodox Jews in the Diaspora read Behar together with Bechukotai while Jews in Israel and Reform Jews read them separately.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 9:1–16
In the first reading, on the eighth day of the ceremony to ordain the priests and consecrate the Tabernacle, Moses instructed Aaron to assemble calves, rams, a goat, a lamb, an ox, and a meal offering as sacrifices (, korbanot) to God, saying: "Today the Lord will appear to you." They brought the sacrifices to the front of the Tent of Meeting, and the Israelites assembled there. Aaron began offering the sacrifices as Moses had commanded.
Second reading—Leviticus 9:17–23
In the second reading, Aaron concluded offering the sacrifices as Moses had commanded. Aaron lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them. Moses and Aaron then went inside the Tent of Meeting, and when they came out, they blessed the people again. Then the Presence of the Lord appeared to all the people.
Third reading—Leviticus 9:24–10:11
In the third reading, fire came forth and consumed the sacrifices on the altar, and the people shouted and fell on their faces. Acting on their own, Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu each took his fire pan, laid incense on it, and offered alien fire (, eish zarah), which God had not commanded. And God sent fire to consume them, and they died. Moses told Aaron, "This is what the Lord meant when He said: 'Through those near to Me I show Myself holy, and gain glory before all the people,'" and Aaron remained silent. Moses called Aaron's cousins Mishael and Elzaphan to carry away Nadab's and Abihu's bodies to a place outside the camp. Moses instructed Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar not to mourn Nadab and Abihu by rending their garments or leaving their hair unshorn and not to go outside the Tent of Meeting. And God told Aaron that he and his sons must not drink wine or other intoxicants when they entered the Tent of Meeting, so as to distinguish between the sacred and the profane.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 10:12–15
In the fourth reading, Moses directed Aaron, Eleazar, and Ithamar to eat the remaining meal offering beside the altar, designating it most holy and the priests' due. And Moses told them that their families could eat the breast of the elevation offering and the thigh of the gift offering in any clean place.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 10:16–20
In the fifth reading, Moses inquired about the goat of sin offering, and was angry with Eleazar and Ithamar when he learned that it had already been burned and not eaten in the sacred area. Aaron answered Moses: "See, this day they brought their sin offering and their burnt offering before the Lord, and such things have befallen me! Had I eaten sin offering today, would the Lord have approved?" And when Moses heard this, he approved.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 11:1–32
In the sixth reading, God then instructed Moses and Aaron in the dietary laws of kashrut ().
Seventh reading—Leviticus 11:33–47
In the seventh reading, God instructed Moses and Aaron in several laws of purity, saying: "You shall be holy, for I am holy."
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-Biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 9
This is the pattern of instruction and construction of the Tabernacle and its furnishings:
Gordon Wenham noted that the phrase "as the Lord commanded Moses" or a similar phrase "recurs with remarkable frequency" in Leviticus 8–10, appearing in Leviticus 8:4, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 34, 36; 9:6, 7, 10, 21; 10:7, 13, and 15.
In Leviticus 9:23–24, the Presence of the Lord appeared to the people and fire came forth and consumed the sacrifices on the altar. God also showed approval by sending fire in Judges 13:15–21 upon the birth of Samson, in 2 Chronicles 7:1 upon the dedication of Solomon's Temple, and in 1 Kings 18:38 at Elijah's contest with the prophets of Baal.
Leviticus chapter 10
Leviticus 10:1 reports that Nadab and Abihu put fire and incense (, ketoret) in their censors and offered "strange fire" (, eish zarah). Exodus 30:9 prohibited offering "strange incense" (, ketoret zarah).
Leviticus 10:2 reports that Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu died prematurely, after Aaron had in Exodus 32:4 fashioned for the Israelites the Golden Calf and they said, "This is your god, O Israel, who brought you up out of the land of Egypt." Similarly, the northern Kingdom of Israel's first King Jeroboam's sons Nadab and Abijah died prematurely (Nadab in 1 Kings 15:28 and Abijah in 1 Kings 14:17), after Jeroboam had in 1 Kings 12:28 made two golden calves and said to the people, "This is your god, O Israel, who brought you up from the land of Egypt!" Professor James Kugel of Bar Ilan University noted that Abihu and Abijah are essentially the same names, as Abijah is a variant pronunciation of Abihu.
Perhaps reflecting some of the motivation for God's instruction in Leviticus 10:9 for priests to "drink no wine nor strong drink" while performing their duties, Isaiah 28:7 reports "the priest and the prophet reel through strong drink, they are confused because of wine, they stagger because of strong drink; they reel in vision, they totter in judgment.”
Leviticus chapter 11
The Torah sets out the dietary laws of kashrut () in both Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:3–21. And the Hebrew Bible refers to clean and unclean animals in Genesis 7:2-9, Judges 13:4, and Ezekiel 4:14.
Leviticus 11:8 and 11 associate death with uncleanness; in the Hebrew Bible, uncleanness has a variety of associations. Leviticus 21:1–4, 11; and Numbers 6:6–7 and 19:11–16; also associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, Leviticus 12 associates it with childbirth and Leviticus 13–14 associates it with skin disease. Leviticus 15 associates it with various sexuality-related events. And Jeremiah 2:7, 23; 3:2; and 7:30; and Hosea 6:10 associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 10
Philo interpreted Leviticus 10 to teach that because Nadab and Abihu fearlessly and fervently proceeded rapidly to the altar, an imperishable light dissolved them into ethereal beams like a whole burnt-offering and took them up to heaven. Thus, Nadab and Abihu died in order that they might live, exchanging their mortal lives for immortal existence, departing from the creation to the creator God. Philo interpreted the words of Leviticus 10:2, "they died before the Lord", to celebrate their incorruptibility and demonstrate that they lived, for no dead person could come into the sight of the Lord.
Josephus taught that Nadab and Abihu did not bring the sacrifices that Moses told them bring, but rather brought those that they used to offer before, and consequently they were burned to death.
Leviticus chapter 11
Aristeas cited as a reason for dietary laws that they distinctly set Jews apart from other people.
Isaiah Gafni noted that in the Book of Tobit, the protagonist Tobit observed the dietary laws.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 9
Rabbi Judah taught that the words of Leviticus 9:1, "And it came to pass on the eighth day", begin the second major topic of the book of Leviticus.
A Midrash taught that the account that begins with Leviticus 9:1, "And it came to pass on the eighth day", should have appeared at the beginning of the Book of Leviticus (as it relates the Inauguration of the Tabernacle service), but that it appears where it does illustrates the proposition that the Torah does not follow a chronological order.
Rabbi Levi (or others say Rabbi Jonathan or Rabbi Tanḥuma in the name of Rabbi Hiyya the Elder and Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Eleazar's name) taught that a tradition was handed down from the Men of the Great Assembly that wherever Scripture uses the term "and it was" or "and it came to pass" (, va-yehi), it indicates the approach of trouble (as , va-yehi can be read as , vai, hi, "woe, sorrow"). Thus, the first words of Leviticus 9:1, "And it came to pass (, va-yehi) on the eighth day", presage that Nadab and Abihu died on that day.
But a Baraita compared the day that the Israelites dedicated the Tabernacle with the day that God created the universe. Reading the words of Leviticus 9:1, "And it came to pass on the eighth day", a Baraita taught that on that day (when the Israelites dedicated the Tabernacle) there was joy before God as on the day when God created heaven and earth. For Leviticus 9:1 says, "And it came to pass (, va-yehi) on the eighth day", and Genesis 1:5 says, "And there was (, va-yehi) one day."
Rabbi Eliezer interpreted the words, "And there I will meet with the children of Israel; and [the Tabernacle] shall be sanctified by My glory," in Exodus 29:43 to mean that God would in the future meet the Israelites and be sanctified among them. The Midrash reports that this occurred on the eighth day of the consecration of the Tabernacle, as reported in Leviticus 9:1. And as Leviticus 9:24 reports, "when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces."
Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥman taught that Moses first incurred his fate to die in the wilderness from his conduct at the Burning Bush, for there God tried for seven days to persuade Moses to go on his errand to Egypt, as Exodus 4:10 says, "And Moses said to the Lord: 'Oh Lord, I am not a man of words, neither yesterday, nor the day before, nor since you have spoken to your servant'" (which the Midrash interpreted to indicate seven days of conversation). And in the end, Moses told God in Exodus 4:13, "Send, I pray, by the hand of him whom You will send." God replied that God would keep this in store for Moses. Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Levi's name and Rabbi Helbo give different answers on when God repaid Moses. One said that all the seven days of the consecration of the priesthood in Leviticus 8, Moses functioned as High Priest, and he came to think that the office belonged to him. But in the end, God told Moses that the job was not his, but his brother's, as Leviticus 9:1 says, "And it came to pass on the eighth day, that Moses called Aaron.” The other taught that all the first seven days of Adar of the fortieth year, Moses beseeched God to enter the Promised Land, but in the end, God told him in Deuteronomy 3:27, "You shall not go over this Jordan."
A Baraita taught that in the Inauguration of the Tabernacle, Aaron removed himself for seven days and then officiated for one day. Throughout the seven days, Moses transmitted to Aaron the Torah's guidelines to train Aaron in the service. Following this example, in subsequent generations, the High Priest removed himself for seven days before Yom Kippur to officiate for one day. And two scholars of the disciples of Moses (thus excluding the Sadducees) transmitted the Torah's guidelines to the High Priest throughout the seven days to train him in the service.
Rabbi Jacob bar Acha taught in the name of Rabbi Zorah that the command to Aaron in Leviticus 8:35, "at the door of the tent of meeting shall you abide day and night seven days, and keep the charge of the Lord," served as a source for the law of seven days of mourning for the death of a relative (, shivah). Rabbi Jacob bar Acha interpreted Moses to tell Aaron that just as God observed seven days of mourning for the then-upcoming destruction of the world at the time of the Flood of Noah, so too Aaron would observe seven days of mourning for the upcoming death of his sons Nadab and Abihu. And we know that God observed seven days of mourning for the destruction of the world by the Flood from Genesis 7:10, which says, "And it came to pass after the seven days, that the waters of the Flood were upon the earth." The Gemara asked whether one mourns before a death, as Jacob bar Acha appears to argue happened in these two cases. In reply, the Gemara distinguished between the mourning of God and people: People, who do not know what will happen until it happens, do not mourn until the deceased dies. But God, who knows what will happen in the future, mourned for the world before its destruction. The Gemara noted, however, that there are those who say that the seven days before the Flood were days of mourning for Methuselah (who died just before the Flood).
Similarly, reading in Leviticus 9:1 that "it came to pass on the eighth day", a Midrash recounted how Moses told Aaron in Leviticus 8:33, "you shall not go out from the door of the tent of meeting seven days." The Midrash interpreted this to mean that Moses thereby told Aaron and his sons to observe the laws of mourning for seven days, before those laws would affect them. Moses told them in Leviticus 8:35 that they were to "keep the charge of the Lord", for so God had kept seven days of mourning before God brought the Flood, as Genesis 7:10 reports, "And it came to pass after the seven days, that the waters of the Flood were upon the earth." The Midrash deduced that God was mourning by noting that Genesis 6:6 reports, "And it repented the Lord that He had made man on the earth, and it grieved Him (, vayitatzeiv) at His heart." And 2 Samuel 19:3 uses the same word to express mourning when it says, "The king grieves (, ne'etzav) for his son." After God told Moses in Exodus 29:43, "And there I will meet with the children of Israel; and [the Tabernacle] shall be sanctified by My glory," Moses administered the service for seven days in fear, fearing that God would strike him down. And it was for that reason that Moses told Aaron to observe the laws of mourning. When Aaron asked Moses why, Moses replied (in the words of Leviticus 8:35) "so I am commanded". Then, as reported in Leviticus 10:2, God struck Nadab and Abihu instead. And thus in Leviticus 10:3, Moses told Aaron that he finally understood, "This is what the Lord meant when He said: 'Through those near to Me I show Myself holy, and gain glory before all the people.'"
Rabban Simeon bar Yochai taught that we learn in Leviticus 9:1, among many places in Scripture, that God showed respect to the elders. For Leviticus 9:1 reports that at the Tent of Meeting, "Moses called Aaron and his sons, and the elders of Israel.” And in Messianic times it will also be so, as Isaiah 24:23 says: "For the Lord of Hosts will reign in Mount Zion, and in Jerusalem, and before His elders shall be glory.”
Rav Assi of Hozna'ah deduced from the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month", in Exodus 40:17 that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan. With reference to this, a Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation, (2) the first day of the princes' offerings, (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings, (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven, (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel, (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing of Israel, (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places, and (10) the first of the months of the year.
The Gemara read the words "Take you" (, kach lecha) in Leviticus 9:2 to mean "Take from your own means" and thus to indicate that God required Aaron to bring the inaugural bull and ram from his own property and not from the community's assets. The Gemara contrasted the language of Leviticus 9:2, "And he said to Aaron: 'Take you a bull-calf for a sin-offering,'" from the language of Leviticus 9:3, "And to the children of Israel you shall speak, saying: 'Take a he-goat for a sin-offering.'" The Gemara concluded from this difference that the words "take you" mean from your own resources.
Rabbi Abahu thus distinguished Aaron's offering from his own resources in the Inauguration of the Tabernacle from the High Priest's communal offerings for Shavuot and Rosh Hashanah, and concluded that one cannot reason by analogy from the requirements for the Inauguration to those of Shavuot or Rosh Hashanah. Similarly, Rabbi Abba distinguished the bull and single ram that Leviticus 9:2 required Aaron to bring for the Inauguration of the Tabernacle from the bull and two rams that Leviticus 23:18 required the High Priest to bring on Shavuot, and thus the Gemara concluded that one cannot reason by analogy from the requirements for the Inauguration to those of Shavuot.
A Midrash taught that Leviticus 9:2 required Aaron to bring
"a bull calf for a sin-offering” to atone for the sin of the Golden Calf in Exodus 32.
Rabbi Tanḥum taught in the name of Rabbi Judan that the words "for today the Lord appears to you" in Leviticus 9:4 indicated that God's presence, the Shekhinah, did not come to abide in the Tabernacle all the seven days of consecration when Moses ministered in the office of High Priest, but the Shekhinah appeared when Aaron put on the High Priest's robes.
Reading the words of Leviticus 9:4, "And [take] an ox and a ram for peace-offerings ... for today the Lord will appear to you," Rabbi Levi taught that God reasoned that if God would thus reveal God's Self to and bless a priest who sacrificed an ox and a ram for God's sake, how much more should God reveal God's Self to Abraham, who circumcised himself for God's sake. Consequently, Genesis 18:1 reports, "And the Lord appeared to him [Abraham]."
Reading Leviticus 9:4, "And an ox and a ram for peace offerings ... for today the Lord appears to you," Rabbi Levi taught that God reasoned that if God would appear to and blessed a priest who offered a ram in God's name, how much more should God appear to and bless Jacob, whose features are engraved on God's throne. Thus Genesis 35:9 says, "And God appeared to Jacob again, when he came from Paddan-aram, and blessed him."
The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that because Leviticus 2:15 says with regard to a meal offering of first-fruits, "you shall ... lay frankincense thereon; it is a meal-offering," Leviticus 2:15 meant to include within the requirement for frankincense the meal-offering that Leviticus 9:4 required Aaron to offer on the eighth day of consecration.
A Tanna recited before Rabbi Isaac bar Abba the words of Leviticus 9:16, "And he presented the burnt offering; and offered it according to the ordinance," which refer to the obligatory burnt offering that Leviticus 9:2 required Aaron to bring on the eighth day of his consecration. The Tanna reasoned that by saying "according to the ordinance", Leviticus 9:16 referred to the rules that Leviticus 1:3–9 applied to voluntary burnt offerings, and thus taught that those rules also applied to obligatory burnt offerings. The Tanna concluded that as Leviticus 1:4 required laying on of hands for voluntary burnt offerings, the law also required laying on of hands for obligatory burnt offerings.
In the Tosefta, Rabbi Simeon taught that wherever the Torah mentions a heifer without further specification, it means a one-year-old; and a "a calf and a lamb” are also one-year-olds, as specified in Leviticus 9:3; and "of the herd” means a two-year-old, as in Leviticus 9:2, "Take a calf of the herd for a purification offering and a ram for a burnt offering."
Reading Leviticus 9:22, "And Aaron lifted up his hands toward the people, and blessed them," the Sifra taught that Aaron gave the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24–26.
Reading Leviticus 9:23, "And Moses and Aaron went into the tent of meeting," the Sifra asked why Moses and Aaron went into the Tabernacle together. The Sifra taught that they did so that Moses might teach Aaron the right of offering the incense.
Rabbi Judah taught that the same fire that descended from heaven settled on the earth, and did not again return to its former place in heaven, but it entered the Tabernacle. That fire came forth and devoured all the offerings that the Israelites brought in the wilderness, as Leviticus 9:24 does not say, "And there descended fire from heaven," but "And there came forth fire from before the Lord." This was the same fire that came forth and consumed the sons of Aaron, as Leviticus 10:2 says, "And there came forth fire from before the Lord." And that same fire came forth and consumed the company of Korah, as Numbers 16:35 says, "And fire came forth from the Lord." And the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that no person departs from this world until some of that fire, which rested among humanity, passes over that person, as Numbers 11:2 says, "And the fire rested."
Leviticus chapter 10
According to the Sifra, Nadab and Abihu took their offering in Leviticus 10:1 in joy, for when they saw the new fire come from God, they went to add one act of love to another act of life.
A Midrash noted that Scripture records the death of Nadab and Abihu in numerous places. This teaches that God grieved for Nadab and Abihu, for they were dear to God. And thus Leviticus 10:3 quotes God to say: "Through them who are near to Me I will be sanctified."
A Midrash taught that the strange fire was neither from the continual offering of the evening nor from the continual offering of the morning, but was ordinary secular fire. Similarly, Rabbi Akiva taught that the fire they brought was the kind used in a double stove, and read Leviticus 10:1 to report that they "offered unholy fire before the Lord".
The Gemara presented alternative views of how the fire devoured Nadab and Abihu in Leviticus 10:2. According to one view, their bodies were not burned because Leviticus 10:2 says, "they died before the Lord," teaching that it was like normal death (from within, without an outward effect on their body). And according to the other view, they were actually burned. The fire commenced from within, as in normal death (and then consumed their bodies).
Abba Jose ben Dosetai taught that Nadab and Abihu died in Leviticus 10:2 when two streams of fire came forth from the Holy of Holies and divided into four streams, of which two flowed into the nose of one and two into the nose of the other, so that their breath was burned up, but their garments remained untouched (as implied in Leviticus 10:5).
Bar Kappara said in the name of Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar that Nadab and Abihu died (as reported in Leviticus 10:2) because of four things: (1) for drawing too near to the holy place, (2) for offering a sacrifice that they had not been commanded to offer, (3) for the strange fire that they brought in from the kitchen, and (4) for not having taken counsel from each other, as Leviticus 10:1 says "Each of them his censer", implying that each acted on his own initiative.
Similarly, reading the words of Leviticus 16:1, "the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they drew near before the Lord, and died," Rabbi Jose deduced that Aaron's sons died because they drew near to enter the Holy of Holies.
Rabbi Mani of She'ab (in Galilee), Rabbi Joshua of Siknin (also in Galilee), and Rabbi Joḥanan all said in the name of Rabbi Levi that Nadab and Abihu died because of four things, in connection with each of which Scripture mentions death: (1) Because they had drunk wine, for in connection with drinking wine Leviticus 10:9 mentions death, saying, "Drink no wine nor strong drink ... so that you do not die." (2) Because they lacked the prescribed number of garments (while officiating), for in connection with appropriate garments Exodus 28:43 mentions death, saying, "And they [the garments] shall be upon Aaron, and upon his sons ... so that they bear no iniquity and die." Nadab and Abihu lacked their robes (implied perhaps by the report of Leviticus 10:5 that they their bodies were carried out in their tunics), in connection with which Exodus 28:35 mentions death, saying, "And it shall be upon Aaron to minister ... so that he does not die." (3) Because they entered the Sanctuary without washing their hands and feet, for Exodus 30:21 says, "So they shall wash their hands and their feet, so that they do not die," and Exodus 30:20 says, "When they go into the tent of meeting, they shall wash with water, so that they do not die." (4) Because they had no children, for in connection with not having children Numbers 3:4 mentions death, saying, "And Nadab and Abihu died ... and they had no children." Abba Hanin taught that it was because they had no wives, for Leviticus 16:6 says, "And [the High Priest shall] make atonement for himself, and for his house," and "his house" implies that he had to have a wife.
Similarly, Rabbi Levi taught that Nadab and Abihu died because they were arrogant. Many women remained unmarried waiting for them. Nadab and Abihu thought that because their father's brother (Moses) was king, their mother's brother (Nachshon ben Aminadav) was a prince, their father (Aaron) was High Priest, and they were both Deputy High Priests, that no woman was worthy of them. Thus Rabbi Menahma taught in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Nehemiah that Psalm 78:63 applied to Nadab and Abihu when it says, "Fire devoured their young men," because (as the verse continues), "their virgins had no marriage-song."
Rabbi Eliezer (or some say Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob) taught that Nadab and Abihu died only because they gave a legal decision in the presence of their Master Moses. Even though Leviticus 9:24 reports that "fire came forth from before the Lord and consumed the burnt-offering and the fat on the altar," Nadab and Abihu deduced from the command of Leviticus 1:7 that "the sons of Aaron the priest shall put fire upon the altar" that the priests still had a religious duty to bring some ordinary fire to the altar, as well.
According to the Sifra, some say that Nadab and Abihu died because earlier, when at Sinai they were walking behind Moses and Aaron, they remarked to each other how in a little while, the two old men would die, and they would head the congregation. And God said that we would see who would bury whom.
A Midrash taught that when Nadab, Abihu, and the 70 elders ate and drank in God's Presence in Exodus 24:11, they sealed their death warrant. The Midrash asked why in Numbers 11:16, God directed Moses to gather 70 elders of Israel, when Exodus 29:9 reported that there already were 70 elders of Israel. The Midrash deduced that when in Numbers 11:1, the people murmured, speaking evil, and God sent fire to devour part of the camp, all those earlier 70 elders had been burned up. The Midrash continued that the earlier 70 elders were consumed like Nadab and Abihu, because they too acted frivolously when (as reported in Exodus 24:11) they beheld God and inappropriately ate and drank. The Midrash taught that Nadab, Abihu, and the 70 elders deserved to die then, but because God so loved giving the Torah, God did not wish to create disturb that time.
A Midrash taught that the death of Nadab and Abihu demonstrated the teaching of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi that prayer effects half atonement. At first (after the incident of the Golden Calf), God pronounced a decree against Aaron, as Deuteronomy 9:20 says, "The Lord was very angry with Aaron to have destroyed (, le-hashmid) him." And Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that "destruction" (, hashmadah) means extinction of offspring, as in Amos 2:9, which says, "And I destroyed (, va-ashmid) his fruit from above, and his roots from beneath." When Moses prayed on Aaron's behalf, God annulled half the decree; two sons died, and two remained. Thus Leviticus 8:1–2 says, "And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying: 'Take Aaron and his sons'" (implying that they were to be saved from death).
The Gemara interpreted the report in Exodus 29:43 that the Tabernacle "shall be sanctified by My glory" to refer to the death of Nadab and Abihu. The Gemara taught that one should read not "My glory" (bi-khevodi) but "My honored ones" (bi-khevuday). The Gemara thus taught that God told Moses in Exodus 29:43 that God would sanctify the Tabernacle through the death of Nadab and Abihu, but Moses did not comprehend God's meaning until Nadab and Abihu died in Leviticus 10:2. When Aaron's sons died, Moses told Aaron in Leviticus 10:3 that Aaron's sons died only so that God's glory might be sanctified through them. When Aaron thus perceived that his sons were God's honored ones, Aaron was silent, as Leviticus 10:3 reports, "And Aaron held his peace", and Aaron was rewarded for his silence.
Similarly, a Midrash interpreted Leviticus 10:3, where Moses told Aaron, "This is what the Lord meant when He said: 'Through those near to Me I show Myself holy, and gain glory before all the people.'" The Midrash taught that God told this to Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, when in Exodus 29:43 God said, "there I will meet with the children of Israel; and the Tabernacle shall be sanctified by My glory." And after the death of Nadab and Abihu, Moses said to Aaron, "At the time that God told me, I thought that either you or I would be stricken, but now I know that they [Nadab and Abihu] are greater than you or me."
Similarly, the Sifra taught that Moses sought to comfort Aaron, telling him that at Sinai, God told him that God would sanctify God's house through a great man. Moses had supposed that it would be either through Aaron or himself that the house would be sanctified. But Moses said that it turned out that Aaron's sons were greater and Moses and Aaron, for through them had the house been sanctified.
Rabbi Akiva taught that because Aaron's cousins Mishael and Elzaphan attended to the remains of Nadab and Abihu (as reported in Leviticus 10:4–5), they became the "certain men" who Numbers 9:6 reported "were unclean by the dead body of a man, so that they could not keep the Passover." But Rabbi Isaac replied that Mishael and Elzaphan could have cleansed themselves before the Passover.
(Family tree from Exodus 6:16–23)
The Tosefta found in the account of Leviticus 10:5 that Mishael and Elzaphan "carried them in their tunics out of the camp" that even when God is angry at the righteous, God is mindful of their honor. And the Tosefta concluded that if when God is angry at the righteous, their treatment is such, then when God is disposed to be merciful, how much more so will God be mindful of their honor.
Our Rabbis taught in a Baraita that when Rabbi Ishmael's sons died, Rabbi Tarfon consoled him by noting that, as Leviticus 10:6 reports, upon the death of Nadab and Abihu, Moses ordered that "the whole house of Israel bewail the burning that the Lord has kindled." Rabbi Tarfon noted that Nadab and Abihu had performed only one good deed, as Leviticus 9:9 reports, "And the sons of Aaron presented the blood to him" (during the inaugural service of the Tabernacle). Rabbi Tarfon argued that if the Israelites universally mourned Nadab and Abihu, how much more was mourning due to Rabbi Ishmael's sons (who performed many good deeds).
Rabbi Simeon taught that Nadab and Abihu died only because they entered the Tent of Meeting drunk with wine. Rabbi Phinehas in the name of Rabbi Levi compared this conclusion to the case of a king who had a faithful attendant. When the king found the attendant standing at tavern entrances, the king beheaded the attendant and appointed another in his place. The king did not say why he killed the first attendant, except that he told the second attendant not to enter the doorway of taverns, and thus the king indicated that he put the first attendant to death for such a reason. And thus God's command to Aaron in Leviticus 10:9 to "drink no wine nor strong drink" indicates that Nadab and Abihu died precisely because of wine.
Rabbi Levi taught that God gave the section of the Torah dealing with the drinking of wine by priests, in Leviticus 10:8–11, on the day that the Israelites set up the Tabernacle. Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Bana'ah that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as Psalm 40:8 says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law." The Gemara reported that Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law", to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined together from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted Psalm 40:8, "in a roll of the book written of me", to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll", as Zechariah 5:2 says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in Leviticus 21, the section of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in Numbers 9:1–14, the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in Numbers 5:1–4, the section of Leviticus 16:1–34 (dealing with Yom Kippur, which Leviticus 16:1 states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in Leviticus 10:8–11, the section of the lights of the menorah in Numbers 8:1–4, and the section of the red heifer in Numbers 19 (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up).
The Gemara read the term "strong drink" (, sheichar) in Leviticus 10:9 to mean something that intoxicates. And the Gemara cited a Baraita that taught that if a priest ate preserved figs from Keilah, or drank honey or milk (and thereby became disoriented), and then entered the Sanctuary (to perform the service), he was culpable.
And the Gemara explained that the Sages ruled that Kohanim did not recite the Priestly Blessing at Minchah and Ne'ilah prayer services out of concern that some of the Kohanim might be drunk at that time of day (and Leviticus 10:9 prohibited Kohanim from participating in services when intoxicated). But the Kohanim did say the Priestly Blessing at Minchah and Ne'ilah services on Yom Kippur and other fast days, because the Kohanim would not drink on those days. Rabbi Isaac noted that Deuteronomy 10:8 speaks of separating the Levites "to minister to [God] and to bless in [God's] name" (and thus likens sacrificial service to blessing). From this, Rabbi Isaac deduced that as Leviticus 10:9 did not prohibit an officiating priest from eating the shells of grapes, a priest about to recite the Priestly Blessing could also eat the shells of grapes.
A Baraita taught that both priests who were drunk with wine and those who let their hair grow long were liable to death. For Leviticus 10:9 says, "Drink no wine nor strong drink, you nor your sons with you, that you not die." And Ezekiel 44:20–21 juxtaposes the prohibition of long hair with that of drunkenness. Thus, the Baraita concluded that just as a priest's drunkenness during service was punishable by death, so was his growing long hair. Thus, a Baraita taught that a common priest had to get his hair cut every 30 days, the High Priest every week on the eve of the Sabbath, and the king every day.
A Baraita taught that the righteous are blessed, for not only do they acquire merit, but they bestow merit on their children and children's children to the end of all generations. The Baraita deduced from the words "that were left" used in Leviticus 10:12 to describe Aaron's remaining sons that those sons deserved to be burned like Nadab and Abihu, but Aaron's merit helped them avoid that fate.
A Baraita reported that Rabbi taught that in conferring an honor, we start with the most important person, while in conferring a curse, we start with the least important. Leviticus 10:12 demonstrates that in conferring an honor, we start with the most important person, for when Moses instructed Aaron, Eleazar, and Ithamar that they should not conduct themselves as mourners, Moses spoke first to Aaron and only thereafter to Aaron's sons Eleazar and Ithamar. And Genesis 3:14–19 demonstrates that in conferring a curse, we start with the least important, for God cursed the serpent first, and only thereafter cursed Eve and then Adam.
The Mishnah deduced from Leviticus 10:15 that the sacrificial portions, breast, and thigh of an individual's peace-offering required waving but not bringing near the Altar. A Baraita explained how the priests performed the waiving. A priest placed the sacrificial portions on the palm of his hand, the breast and thigh on top of the sacrificial portions, and whenever there was a bread offering, the bread on top of the breast and thigh. Rav Papa found authority for the Baraita's teaching in Leviticus 8:26–27, which states that they placed the bread on top of the thigh. And the Gemara noted that Leviticus 10:15 implies that the breast and thigh were on top of the offerings of fat. But the Gemara noted that Leviticus 7:30 says that the priest "shall bring the fat upon the breast." Abaye reconciled the verses by explaining that Leviticus 7:30 refers to the way that the priest brought the parts from the slaughtering place. The priest then turned them over and placed them into the hands of a second priest, who waived them. Noting further that Leviticus 9:20 says that "they put the fat upon the breasts", the Gemara deduced that this second priest then handed the parts over to a third priest, who burned them. The Gemara thus concluded that these verses taught that three priests were required for this part of the service, giving effect to the teaching of Proverbs 14:28, "In the multitude of people is the king's glory."
The Gemara taught that the early scholars were called soferim (related to the original sense of its root safar, "to count") because they used to count all the letters of the Torah (to ensure the correctness of the text). They used to say the vav () in gachon, ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 marks the half-way point of the letters in the Torah. (And in a Torah Scroll, scribes write that vav () larger than the surrounding letters.) They used to say the words darosh darash, ("diligently inquired"), in Leviticus 10:16 mark the half-way point of the words in the Torah. And they used to say Leviticus 13:33 marks the half-way point of the verses in the Torah. Rav Joseph asked whether the vav () in gachon, ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 belonged to the first half or the second half of the Torah. (Rav Joseph presumed that the Torah contains an even number of letters.) The scholars replied that they could bring a Torah Scroll and count, for Rabbah bar bar Hanah said on a similar occasion that they did not stir from where they were until a Torah Scroll was brought and they counted. Rav Joseph replied that they (in Rabbah bar bar Hanah's time) were thoroughly versed in the proper defective and full spellings of words (that could be spelled in variant ways), but they (in Rav Joseph's time) were not. Similarly, Rav Joseph asked whether Leviticus 13:33 belongs to the first half or the second half of verses. Abaye replied that for verses, at least, we can bring a Scroll and count them. But Rav Joseph replied that even with verses, they could no longer be certain. For when Rav Aha bar Adda came (from the Land of Israel to Babylon), he said that in the West (in the Land of Israel), they divided Exodus 19:9 into three verses. Nonetheless, the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are 5,888 verses in the Torah. (Note that others say the middle letter in our current Torah text is the aleph () in hu, ("he"), in Leviticus 8:28; the middle two words are el yesod, ("at the base of"), in Leviticus 8:15; the half-way point of the verses in the Torah is Leviticus 8:7; and there are 5,846 verses in the Torah text we have today.)
The Sifra taught that the goat of the sin-offering about which Moses inquired in Leviticus 10:16 was the goat brought by Nachshon ben Aminadav, as reported in Numbers 7:12, 16.
The Mishnah deduced from Leviticus 10:16–20 that those in the first stage of mourning (onen), prior to the burial of their dead, are prohibited from eating the meat of sacrifices. Similarly, the Mishnah derived from Leviticus 10:16–20 that a High Priest could offer sacrifices before he buried his dead, but he could not eat sacrificial meat. An ordinary priest in the early stages of mourning, however, could neither offer sacrifices nor eat sacrificial meat. Rava recounted a Baraita that taught that the rule of Leviticus 13:45 regarding one with skin disease, "the hair of his head shall be loose", also applied to a High Priest. The status of a High Priest throughout the year corresponded with that of any other person on a festival (with regard to mourning). For the Mishnah said the High Priest could bring sacrifices on the altar even before he had buried his dead, but he could not eat sacrificial meat. From this restriction of a High Priest, the Gemara inferred that the High Priest would deport himself as a person with skin disease during a festival. And the Gemara continued to teach that a mourner is forbidden to cut his hair, because since Leviticus 10:6 ordained for the sons of Aaron: "Let not the hair of your heads go loose" (after the death of their brothers Nadab and Abihu), we infer that cutting hair is forbidden for everybody else (during mourning), as well.
A Midrash taught that when in Leviticus 10:16 "Moses diligently inquired [literally: inquiring, he inquired] for the goat of the sin-offering," the language indicates that Moses made two inquiries: (1) If the priests had slaughtered the goat of the sin-offering, why had they not eaten it? And (2) If the priests were not going to eat it, why did they slaughter it? And immediately thereafter, Leviticus 10:16 reports that Moses "was angry with Eleazar and with Ithamar", and Midrash taught that through becoming angry, he forgot the law. Rav Huna taught that this was one of three instances where Moses lost his temper and as a consequence forgot a law. (The other two instances were with regard to the Sabbath in Exodus 16:20 and with regard to the purification of unclean metal utensils Numbers 31:14.) In this case (involving Nadab and Abihu), because of his anger, Moses forgot the law that those in the first stage of mourning (onen), prior to the burial of their dead, are prohibited from eating the meat of sacrifices. Aaron asked Moses whether he should eat consecrated food on the day that his sons died. Aaron argued that since the tithe (which is of lesser sanctity) is forbidden to be eaten by a bereaved person prior to the burial of his dead, how much more certainly must the meat of the sin-offering (which is more sacred) be prohibited to a bereaved person prior to the burial of his dead. Immediately after Moses heard Aaron's argument, he issued a proclamation to the Israelites, saying that he had made an error in regard to the law and Aaron his brother came and taught him. Eleazar and Ithamar had known the law, but kept their silence out of deference to Moses, and as a reward, God addressed them directly along with Moses and Aaron in Leviticus 11:1. When Leviticus 11:1 reports that "the Lord spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying to them", Rabbi Hiyya taught that the words "to them" referred to Eleazar and Ithamar.
Similarly, Rabbi Nehemiah deduced from Leviticus 10:19 that Aaron's sin-offering was burned (and not eaten by the priests) because Aaron and his remaining sons (the priests) were in the early stages of mourning, and thus disqualified from eating sacrifices.
A scholar who was studying with Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said in Rabbi Joshua ben Levi's name that the words, "and, behold, it was burnt", in Leviticus 10:16 taught that where a priest mistakenly brought the blood of an outer sin-offering into the Sanctuary within, the priests had to burn the remainder of the offering. Similarly, Rabbi Jose the Galilean deduced from the words, "Behold, the blood of it was not brought into the Sanctuary within," in Leviticus 10:18 that if a priest took the sacrifice outside prescribed bounds or took its blood within the Sanctuary, the priests were required to burn the rest of the sacrifice.
The Rabbis in a Baraita noted the three uses of the word "commanded" in Leviticus 10:12–13, 10:14–15, and 10:16–18, in connection with the sacrifices on the eighth day of the Inauguration of the Tabernacle, the day on which Nadab and Abihu died. The Rabbis taught that Moses said "as the Lord commanded" in Leviticus 10:13 to instruct that the priest were to eat the grain (minchah) offering, even though they were in the earliest stage of mourning. The Rabbis taught that Moses said "as I commanded" in Leviticus 10:18 in connection with the sin-offering (chatat) at the time that Nadab and Abihu died. And the Rabbis taught that Moses said "as the Lord commanded" in Leviticus 10:15 to enjoin Aaron and the priests to eat the peace-offering (shelamim) notwithstanding their mourning (and Aaron's correction of Moses in Leviticus 10:19), not just because Moses said so on his own authority, but because God had directed it.
Samuel taught that the interpretation that Aaron should not have eaten the offering agreed with Rabbi Nehemiah while the other interpretation that Aaron should have eaten the offering agreed with Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon. Rabbi Nehemiah argued that they burned the offering because the priests were in the first stages of mourning. Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon maintained that they burned it because the offering had become defiled during the day, not because of bereavement. Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon argued that if it was because of bereavement, they should have burned all three sin offerings brought that day. Alternatively, Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon argued that the priest would have been fit to eat the sacrifices after sunset. Alternatively, Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon argued that Phinehas was then alive and not restricted by the law of mourning.
According to Rabbi Nehemiah, this is how the exchange went: Moses asked Aaron why he had not eaten the sacrifice. Moses asked Aaron whether perhaps the blood of the sacrifice had entered the innermost sanctuary, but Aaron answered that its blood had not entered into the inner sanctuary. Moses asked Aaron whether perhaps the blood had passed outside the sanctuary courtyard, but Aaron replied that it had not. Moses asked Aaron whether perhaps the priests had offered it in bereavement, and thus disqualified the offering, but Aaron replied that his sons had not offered it, Aaron had. Thereupon Moses exclaimed that Aaron should certainly have eaten it, as Moses had commanded in Leviticus 10:18 that they should eat it in their bereavement. Aaron replied with Leviticus 10:19 and argued that perhaps what Moses had heard was that it was allowable for those in mourning to eat the special sacrifices for the Inauguration of the Tabernacle, but not the regular ongoing sacrifices. For if Deuteronomy 26:14 instructs that the tithe, which is of lesser holiness, cannot be eaten in mourning, how much more should that prohibition apply to sacrifices like the sin-offering that are more holy. When Moses heard that argument, he replied with Leviticus 10:20 that it was pleasing to him, and he admitted his error. Moses did not seek to excuse himself by saying that he had not heard the law from God, but admitted that he had heard it and forgot it.
According to Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Simeon, this is how the exchange went: Moses asked Aaron why he had not eaten, suggesting the possibilities that the blood had entered the innermost sanctuary or passed outside the courtyard or been defiled by being offered by his sons, and Aaron said that it had not. Moses then asked whether perhaps Aaron had been negligent through his grief and allowed the sacrifice to become defiled, but Aaron exclaimed with Leviticus 10:19 that these events and even more could have befallen him, but Aaron would not show such disrespect to sacrifices. Thereupon Moses exclaimed that Aaron should certainly have eaten it, as Moses had commanded in Leviticus 10:18. Aaron argued from analogy to the tithe (as in Rabbi Nehemiah's version), and Moses accepted Aaron's argument. But Moses argued that the priests should have kept the sacrificial meat and eaten it in the evening. And to that Aaron replied that the meat had accidentally become defiled after the sacrifice.
Leviticus chapter 11
Tractate Chullin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of kashrut () in Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:3–21.
Reading Leviticus 11:1, a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
A Midrash taught that Adam offered an ox as a sacrifice, anticipating the laws of clean animals in Leviticus 11:1–8 and Deuteronomy 14:4–6.
Rav Ḥisda asked how Noah knew (before the giving of Leviticus 11 or Deuteronomy 14:3–21) which animals were clean and which were unclean. Rav Ḥisda explained that Noah led them past the Ark, and those that the Ark accepted (in multiples of seven) were certainly clean, and those that the Ark rejected were certainly unclean. Rabbi Abbahu cited Genesis 7:16, "And they that went in, went in male and female," to show that they went in of their own accord (in their respective pairs, seven of the clean and two of the unclean).
Rabbi Tanḥum ben Hanilai compared the laws of kashrut to the case of a physician who went to visit two patients, one whom the physician judged would live, and the other whom the physician judged would die. To the one who would live, the physician gave orders about what to eat and what not to eat. On the other hand, the physician told the one who would die to eat whatever the patient wanted. Thus, to the nations who were not destined for life in the World To Come, God said in Genesis 9:3, "Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you." But to Israel, whom God intended for life in the World To Come, God said in Leviticus 11:2, "These are the living things which you may eat."
Rav reasoned that since Proverbs 30:5 teaches that "Every word of God is pure", then the precepts of kashrut were given for the express purpose of purifying humanity.
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances (, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (, chukotai) shall you keep," the Sifra distinguished "ordinances" (, mishpatim) from "statutes" (, chukim). The term "ordinances" (, mishpatim), taught the Sifra, refers to rules that even had they not been written in the Torah, it would have been entirely logical to write them, like laws pertaining to theft, sexual immorality, idolatry, blasphemy and murder. The term "statutes" (, chukim), taught the Sifra, refers to those rules that the impulse to do evil (, yetzer hara) and the nations of the world try to undermine, like eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), wearing wool-linen mixtures (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of a person affected by skin disease (, metzora, regulated in Leviticus 13–14), and the goat sent off into the wilderness (the "scapegoat", regulated in Leviticus 16). In regard to these, taught the Sifra, the Torah says simply that God legislated them and we have no right to raise doubts about them.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.
Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Isaac that in the Time to Come, God will make a banquet for God's righteous servants, and whoever had not eaten meat from an animal that died other than through ritual slaughtering (, neveilah, prohibited by Leviticus 17:1–4) in this world will have the privilege of enjoying it in the World To Come. This is indicated by Leviticus 7:24, which says, "And the fat of that which dies of itself (, neveilah) and the fat of that which is torn by beasts (, tereifah), may be used for any other service, but you shall not eat it," so that one might eat it in the Time to Come. (By one's present self-restraint one might merit to partake of the banquet in the Hereafter.) For this reason Moses admonished the Israelites in Leviticus 11:2, "This is the animal that you shall eat."
Providing an exception to the laws of kashrut in Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14:3–21, Rabin said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that one may cure oneself with all forbidden things, except idolatry, incest, and murder.
A Midrash interpreted Psalm 146:7, "The Lord lets loose the prisoners", to read, "The Lord permits the forbidden", and thus to teach that what God forbade in one case, God permitted in another. God forbade the abdominal fat of cattle (in Leviticus 3:3), but permitted it in the case of beasts. God forbade consuming the sciatic nerve in animals (in Genesis 32:33) but permitted it in fowl. God forbade eating meat without ritual slaughter (in Leviticus 17:1–4) but permitted it for fish. Similarly, Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Jonathan in the name of Rabbi Levi taught that God permitted more things than God forbade. For example, God counterbalanced the prohibition of pork (in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8) by permitting mullet (which some say tastes like pork).
Reading Leviticus 11:2, "These are the living things that you may eat", the Sifra taught that the use of the word "these" indicates that Moses would hold up an animal and show the Israelites, and say to them, "This you may eat", and "This you may not eat."
The Mishnah noted that the Torah states (in Leviticus 11:3 and Deuteronomy 14:6) the characteristics of domestic and wild animals (by which one can tell whether they are clean). The Mishnah noted that the Torah does not similarly state the characteristics of birds, but the sages taught that every bird that seizes its prey is unclean. Every bird that has an extra toe (a hallux), a crop, and a gizzard that can be peeled off is clean. Rabbi Eliezer the son of Rabbi Zadok taught that every bird that parts its toes (evenly) is unclean. The Mishnah taught that among locusts, all that have four legs, four wings, jointed legs (as in Leviticus 11:21), and wings covering the greater part of the body are clean. Rabbi Jose taught that it must also bear the name "locust". The Mishnah taught that among fish, all that have fins and scales are clean. Rabbi Judah said that it must have (at least) two scales and one fin (to be clean). The scales are those (thin discs) that are attached to the fish, and the fins are those (wings) by which it swims.
Reading Leviticus 11:3, "Whatever ... chews the cud, among the beasts, that may you eat,” the Tosefta taught that whatever chews the cud has no upper teeth.
The Mishnah taught that hunters of wild animals, birds, and fish, who chanced upon animals that Leviticus 11 defined as unclean were allowed to sell them. Rabbi Judah taught that a person who chanced upon such animals by accident was allowed to buy or sell them, provided that the person did not make a regular trade of it. But the sages did not allow it.
Rav Shaman bar Abba said in the name of Rav Idi bar Idi bar Gershom who said it in the name of Levi bar Perata who said it in the name of Rabbi Nahum who said it in the name of Rabbi Biraim who said it in the name of a certain old man named Rabbi Jacob that those of the Nasi's house taught that (cooking) a forbidden egg among 60 (permitted) eggs renders them all forbidden, (but cooking) a forbidden egg among 61 (permitted) eggs renders them all permitted. Rabbi Zera questioned the ruling, but the Gemara cited the definitive ruling: It was stated that Rabbi Helbo said in the name of Rav Huna that with regard to a (forbidden) egg (cooked with permitted ones), if there are 60 besides the (forbidden) one, they are (all) forbidden, but if there are 61 besides the (forbidden) one, they are permitted.
The Mishnah taught the general rule that wherever the flavor from a prohibited food yields benefit, it is prohibited, but wherever the flavor from a prohibited food does not yield benefit, it is permitted. For example, if (prohibited) vinegar fell into split beans (it is permitted).
Reading Leviticus 11:7, "the swine, because it parts the hoof, and is cloven-footed, but does not chew the cud, is unclean to you," a Midrash compared the pig to the Roman Empire. Just as the swine when reclining puts out its hooves as if to say, "See that I am clean", so too the Roman Empire boasted (of its virtues) as it committed violence and robbery under the guise of establishing justice. The Midrash compared the Roman Empire to a governor who put to death the thieves, adulterers, and sorcerers, and then leaned over to a counselor and said: "I myself did these three things in one night."
The Gemara reported the Sages' teaching that bees' honey is permitted, because bees bring the nectar from the flowers into their body, but they do not excrete it from their body. The Gemara answered that Rav Sheshet taught (in accordance with the opinion of Rabbi Jacob) that God permits honey as an exception to the principle that a substance that emerges from a non-kosher animal is non-kosher. For in a Baraita, Rabbi Jacob read the words of Leviticus 11:21, "Yet these may you eat of all winged creatures," and reasoned that the word "these" indicates that you may eat these, but you may not eat a non-kosher winged creature. The Gemara asked why this inference was necessary, as Leviticus 11:20 provides the prohibition against eating a non-kosher winged creature explicitly, saying, "All winged creatures that go upon all fours are a repugnance to you." Rather, the Gemara taught, one should understand the inference to mean that one may not eat a non-kosher winged creature, but one may eat that which a non-kosher winged creature discharges from its body—namely the honey of bees.
Reading Leviticus 11:29–38, the Mishnah compared human blood to the blood of domestic animals in one respect, and to the blood of reptiles in another respect. The Mishnah noted that human blood is like the blood of animals in that it renders seeds susceptible to impurity (by virtue of Leviticus 11:34–38) and like the blood of reptiles in that one would not be liable to extirpation (, karet) on account of consuming it. (Leviticus 7:26 forbids consuming the blood of animals, but not the blood of reptiles.)
The Gemara noted the paradox that mother's milk is kosher even though it is a product of the mother's blood, which is not kosher. In explanation, the Gemara quoted Job 14:4: "Who can bring a pure thing out of an impure? Is it not the One?" For God can bring a pure thing, such as milk, out of an impure thing, such as blood.
On the day when Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah displaced Rabban Gamaliel II as Principal of the School, Rabbi Akiva expounded on the words of Leviticus 11:33, "and every earthen vessel, into which any of them falls, whatsoever is in it shall be unclean." Rabbi Akiva noted that Leviticus 11:33 does not state "is unclean" but "will make others unclean". Rabbi Akiva deduced from this that a loaf that is unclean in the second degree (when, for example, the vessel becomes unclean first and then defiles the loaf in it), can make whatever it comes in contact with unclean in the third degree. Rabbi Joshua asked who would remove the dust from the eyes of Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai (so that he might hear this wonderful proof), as Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai said that another generation would pronounce clean a loaf that was unclean in the third degree on the ground that there is no text in the Torah according to which it would be unclean. Rabbi Joshua noted that Rabbi Akiva, the intellectual descendant of Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai (as Rabbi Akiva was the pupil of Rabbi Eliezer ben Hurcanus, a disciple of Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai), adduced a text in the Torah—Leviticus 11:33—according to which such a loaf was unclean.
The Mishnah taught that the wife of one who scrupulously observes tithes and purity laws (a chaver) may lend a sieve and a sifter to the wife of one who is lax observing tithes and purity laws (an am ha-aretz), and may sort, grind and sift with her. But once she wets the flour and thereby renders it subject to uncleanness under Leviticus 11:34, she may not touch it, as one may not assist transgressors. The Mishnah taught that this teaching was said only for the sake of peace.
The Gemara reported that the Sages read the words of Leviticus 11:44, "Sanctify yourselves and you will be sanctified," to teach that people who sanctify themselves a little are sanctified and assisted greatly. If people sanctify themselves below, then they are sanctified above. If people sanctify themselves in this world, then they will be sanctified in the World To Come.
Rav Naḥman bar Isaac reported a Baraita: Rav Judah said that Rav said (or some say that it was taught in a Baraita) that the words of Leviticus 11:44 allude to steps one takes at a meal. "Sanctify yourselves” alludes to the first waters with which one washes one's hands before a meal; "you shall be holy" alludes to the final waters with which one washes one's hands after a meal and before reciting the Grace after Meals (, Birkat Hamazon); "for I am holy" alludes to the oil that one spreads on one's hands; and "I am the Lord your God" alludes to the Grace after Meals.
The Gemara considered whether the words of Leviticus 11:44, "Sanctify yourselves therefore, and be sacred," which apply to avoiding the foods prohibited in Leviticus 11, could also teach that with regard to every act that the Torah prohibits, there is in addition a positive commandment of sanctity to avoid that act. The Gemara objected that if this were so, then every single prohibition in the entire Torah would contain both a positive commandment and a prohibition, and thus rejected this reasoning.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 9
The Zohar taught that Leviticus 9:2 directed Aaron to "take for yourself a bull calf for a sin offering” as an ordinance meant personally for Aaron to atone for the sin of the Golden Calf that he brought upon Israel. The Zohar taught that Aaron had to purge himself during the seven sacred days of Leviticus 8:33 and after that by means of the calf that Leviticus 9:2 directed. The Zohar observed that Aaron had to purge himself, for but for him the Golden Calf would not have emerged.
Reading the words of Moses in Leviticus 9:4, "today the Lord will appear to you," Ibn Ezra taught that Moses referred to the fire that came forth from God.
Leviticus chapter 10
Baḥya ibn Paquda taught that because God shows special goodness to certain people, by which they have been singled out, for instance, to be a prophet, a leader of a nation, or a sage whose spirit God has awakened and endowed with wisdom, understanding, counsel, and similar qualities, such people are under an obligation of additional service of God. Baḥya taught that God will continue these gifts for those who perform that service in full measure, and will increase their power over these gifts and understanding of them, and reward those people in the world hereafter. But whoever among such people rebels against God, despite the beneficence that God has specially bestowed upon them, will fall from all these degrees, and God will hold them more strictly to account, as Leviticus 10:3 says, "This is it that the Lord spoke, saying, 'I will be sanctified in them that come near Me, and before all the people I will be glorified.'"
Leviticus chapter 11
Judah Halevi expressed admiration for those who first divided the Torah's text into verses, equipped it with vowel signs, accents, and masoretic signs, and counted the letters so carefully that they found that the gimel () in gachon, ("belly"), in Leviticus 11:42 stands at the exact middle of the Torah. (Note, however, the Gemara's report, discussed in "classical rabbinic interpretation" above, that some said that the vav () in gachon, , marks the half-way point of the Torah.)
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 10
James Kugel reported that according to one theory, the Priestly source (often abbreviated P) invented Nadab and Abihu, giving them the names of the discredited King Jeroboam's sons, so that they could die in the newly inaugurated sanctuary (as noted in Leviticus 16:1) and thereby defile it through corpse contamination, so that God could then instruct Aaron in Leviticus 16:3 about how to purify the sanctuary through Yom Kippur. This theory posited that the Israelites had originally used Yom Kippur's purification procedure any time it was needed during the year, and thus it made sense to the narrative to have the sanctuary contaminated (in Leviticus 10) and then immediately purged (in Leviticus 16), but eventually, when the Israelites made sanctuary purgation an annual rite, the Priestly source inserted Leviticus 11–15 to list other potential sources of impurity that might require the sanctuary to be purged.
Jacob Milgrom noted that Leviticus 10:8–15 sets forth some of the few laws (along with Leviticus 6:1–7:21 and 16:2–28) reserved for the Priests alone, while most of Leviticus is addressed to all the Israelite people.
Samuel Balentine explained God's instruction in Leviticus 10:9 for priests to "drink no wine nor strong drink" as a caution "against using stimulants to induce, enhance, or influence their encounter with God".
Balentine described the admonition of Leviticus 10:10 to "put difference between the holy and the common, and between the unclean and the clean" as Leviticus's "most fundamental prerequisite for priests and their congregants".
Leviticus chapter 11
Robert Oden argued that the reason for the Priestly laws of kashrut in Leviticus 11 was the integrity of creation and what the world's created order looked like. Those things that cohere with the comprehensiveness of the created cosmology are deemed good.
Kugel reported that the archaeologist Israel Finkelstein found no pig bones in hilltop sites starting in the Iron I period (roughly 1200–1000 BCE) and continuing through Iron II, while before that, in Bronze Age sites, pig bones abounded. Kugel deduced from Finkelstein's data that the new hilltop residents were fundamentally different from both their predecessors in the highlands and the city Canaanites—either because they were a different ethnic group, or because they had adopted a different way of life, for ideological or other reasons. Kugel inferred from Finkelstein's findings that these highlanders shared some ideology (if only a food taboo), like modern-day Jews and Muslims. Kugel concluded that the discontinuities between their way of life and that of the Canaanite city dwellers and earlier highland settlers supported the idea that the settlers were not exurbanites.
Noting that Leviticus 11:3 limits the mammals that qualify for the Jewish table to those that chew the cud and show split hoofs, Milgrom observed that these requirements effectively prohibit people from eating the flesh of the entire animal kingdom, except for three domestic plant-eaters—cattle, sheep, and goats. Milgrom argued that the Bible's system of dietary laws was thus meant to tame the killer instinct in humans through a system of restrictions allowing humans to satiate their lust for animal flesh but not become dehumanized in the process. Milgrom posited that the basic rules are these: (1) The law severely limited the choice of animal food. (2) Only those who can qualify by their skill and piety can kill the animals—skill in employing a slaughtering technique that renders death painless, and piety in being aware of the Divine sanction that has permitted such slaughter. (3) The few permitted animals, when ritually slaughtered, are still not allowed for consumption until their blood is drained.
Balentine argued that God's admonition in Leviticus 11:44, "sanctify yourselves and be holy; for I am holy," explained "why Israel must not defile itself by eating forbidden animals", for as God distinguished between animal species in creation, human "distinguishing between clean and unclean animals is an act of faith that mirrors God's work in establishing and sustaining the 'very good' design of creation".<ref>Samuel E. Balentine, Leviticus, page 94 (quoting Circa 66–70. (abrogating kashrut).
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:8:6–7; 8:8:4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 92, 229. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Acts 10:11–16, 28. 2nd century. (abrogating kashrut).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Sheviit 5:9, 7:4; Bikkurim 2:7, 11; Pesachim 8:8; Sotah 5:2; Avodah Zarah 5:2; Horayot 3:5; Menachot 5:6; Chullin 1:1–12:5. Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 81, 84, 171–72, 246, 455, 670, 695, 743, 765–87. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Berakhot 4:17; Demai 2:7; Sotah 5:13; Zevachim 8:25; Shehitat Chullin 1:1–10:16; Parah 1:5. Land of Israel, circa 250 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 26, 85, 853; volume 2, pages 1347, 1371–1405, 1746. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra 99:1–121:2:13. Land of Israel, 4th Century C.E. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 121–229. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Peah 12b; Kilayim 69a; Sheviit 55b; Terumot 1b, 73a, 88a, 100a, 101a; Maasrot 41a; Orlah 34a; Bikkurim 12b; Shabbat 13a, 78b; Eruvin 10b; Pesachim 13b, 24a, 62b–63b; Yoma 3b; Taanit 20b; Megillah 15a, 29a; Moed Katan 17a; Chagigah 8a, 23a; Nazir 23a, 27b; Sotah 23b, 26a, 36a; Gittin 11a; Bava Kamma 30a; Sanhedrin 46b, 72b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 3, 5, 6b–9, 12–13, 16, 18–19, 21, 25–28, 34–37, 39, 41, 45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Leviticus Rabbah 1:8; 2:10; 10:4; 11:1–14:1; 20:4–5, 8–10; 26:1. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 12, 29, 125, 135–79, 257–62, 325. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 53b, 61a; Shabbat 12a, 27a, 63b–64a, 83b–84a, 87b, 90b, 95b, 107a, 123b, 125a, 136a–b; Eruvin 13b, 28a, 63a, 87b, 104b; Pesachim 14a, 16a, 18a–b, 20b, 23a–b, 24b, 49b, 67b, 82b–83a, 91b; Yoma 2b–4a, 5b, 21b, 39a, 53a, 73b, 76b–77a, 80a–b, 87a; Sukkah 25b; Beitzah 6b, 19a, 20a; Rosh Hashanah 16b; Taanit 15b, 17b, 26b; Megillah 9b, 10b, 18a; Moed Katan 2a, 13a–b, 14b–15b, 19b, 24a, 28b; Chagigah 11a, 19a, 22b, 24a, 26b; Yevamot 20b, 40a, 43a, 54a–b, 74b–75a, 87a, 114a; Ketubot 15a, 50a, 60a; Nazir 4a, 38a, 52a, 64a; Sotah 27b, 29a–b, 38a–b, 47a; Gittin 60a–b, 61b–62a, 68b; Kiddushin 30a, 59b, 80a; Bava Kamma 2a–b, 16a, 25b, 38a, 54a–b, 62b–63a, 64b, 76b–77a, 78a, 81a; Bava Metzia 22a, 61b, 90b; Bava Batra 9b, 66b, 80a, 91a, 97a; Sanhedrin 5b, 17a, 22b, 52a, 70b–71a, 83b, 107b, 108b; Makkot 3b, 11a, 13a, 16b; Shevuot 5a, 7a, 9b–10b, 14b, 18b, 23a, 36b; Avodah Zarah 40a, 47b, 68b; Horayot 4a, 12b; Zevachim 3a–b, 10b, 17b, 25b, 28a, 34a, 55a, 60a, 61b, 69b, 82a–b, 99b, 100b–01b, 105a, 115b; Menachot 23a, 29a, 39b, 59a, 61a, 62a, 70b, 93b, 96b, 101b; Chullin 2a–142a; Bekhorot 6a–7b, 9b, 15b, 16a, 38a, 45b, 51a; Keritot 4b, 13b, 15b, 21a, 22a; Meilah 16a–17b; Tamid 33b; Niddah 18a, 19b, 21a, 42b, 51a–b, 55b, 56a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
Saadia Gaon. The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, 10:15. Baghdad, Babylonia, 933. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, page 396. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 35:470. Spain, 11th Century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, pages 62–63. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 9–11. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 93–134. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 47–68. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. part 3, ¶ 31. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 165. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 56–84. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Tum'at Ochalin (The Laws of the Impurity of Foods), chapter 16, ¶ 12. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Taharah: The Book of Purity. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 294–95. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2009.
Maimonides. Guide for the Perplexed, 1:37; 3:46, 47, 48. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 53, 364, 367–68, 370. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 694–712. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 102–55. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar 1:54a, 73b, 167b; 2:11b, 26b, 67a, 124b, 193a, 219b; 3:24b, 31b, 33a, 35a–42a, 127a, 190b. Spain, late 13th Century.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1572–620. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Commentary on the Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1079–111. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 827–51. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 567–77. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 81–105. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 526–37. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 643–59. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 211–18. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 140–210. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1019–56. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 187–274. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Naḥman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 321–36. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Word of Wisdom 1833. Codified as Doctrine and Covenants section 89. In, e.g., Stephen E. Robinson and H. Dean Garrett. A Commentary on the Doctrine and Covenants, Volume Three. Section 89. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2004. (Mormon dietary laws).
Samson Raphael Hirsch. Horeb: A Philosophy of Jewish Laws and Observances. Translated by Isidore Grunfeld, pages 47–50, 211, 314–31, 338, 574, 582–86. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Reprinted 2002. Originally published as Horeb, Versuche über Jissroel's Pflichten in der Zerstreuung. Germany, 1837.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 924–33. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Union of American Hebrew Congregations. The Pittsburgh Platform. Pittsburgh, 1885. ("We hold that all such Mosaic and rabbinical laws as regulate diet ... originated in ages and under the influence of ideas entirely foreign to our present mental and spiritual state. They fail to impress the modern Jew with a spirit of priestly holiness; their observance in our days is apt rather to obstruct than to further modern spiritual elevation.")
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, up to 1905. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 159–65. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Louis Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, volume 3, pages 179–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911.
Abraham Isaac Kook. The Moral Principles. Early 20th Century. In Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, page 140. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press 1978.
G. Deutsch. "Kosher Kitchen in Military Camps". In Yearbook of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, Vol. 28, pages 124–127. Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1918.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 103, 110, 205. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 81–84. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 256–57, 348. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
Ernest Wiesenberg. "Related Prohibitions: Swine Breeding and the Study of Greek". Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 27 (1956): pages 213–33.
Mary Douglas. "The Abominations of Leviticus". In Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo, pages 41–57. New York: Routledge, 1966.
Joe Green. The Jewish Vegetarian Tradition. South Africa: 1969.
Seymour E. Freedman. The Book of Kashruth: A Treasury of Kosher Facts and Frauds. Bloch Publishing Company, 1970. .
Noah J. Cohen. Tsa'ar Ba'ale Hayim—The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Its Bases, Development, and Legislation in Hebrew Literature. New York: Feldheim, 1976.
J.C.H. Laughlin. "The 'Strange Fire' of Nadab and Abihu". Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 95 (1976): pages 559–65.
Aaron Lichtenstein. "Holocaust Homily and Response". Hebrew Studies, volume 19 (1978): page 82.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 145–85. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979. *Samuel H. Dresner, Seymour Siegel, and David M. Pollock. The Jewish Dietary Laws. United Synagogue, New York, 1980.
Alfred Cohen. "Vegetarianism from a Jewish Perspective". Journal of Halacha and Contemporary Society, volume 1 (number 2) (fall 1981).
Louis A. Berman. Vegetarianism and the Jewish Tradition. New York: Ktav, 1982.
Elijah J. Schochet. Animal Life in Jewish Tradition: Attitudes and Relationships. New York : Ktav, 1984.
Victor (Avigdor) Hurowitz. "The Priestly Account of Building the Tabernacle". Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 105 (number 1) (January–March 1985): pages 21–30.
J. David Bleich. "Vegetarianism and Judaism". Tradition, volume 23 (number 1) (Summer, 1987).
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 115–19. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Baruch A. Levine. The JPS Torah Commentary: Leviticus: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 55–72, 243–48. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989.
Jacob Milgrom. "Ethics and Ritual: The Foundations of the Biblical Dietary Laws". In Religion and Law: Biblical, Jewish, and Islamic Perspectives, pages 159–91. Edited by E.B. Firmage. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1989.
Yochanan Zweig. "The Dedication of the Tabernacle". Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, volume 25 (number 1) (fall 1989): pages 11–16.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 111–19. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Roberta Kalechofsky. Judaism and Animal Rights: Classical and Contemporary Responses. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1992.
Jacob Milgrom. "Food and Faith: The Ethical Foundations of the Biblical Diet Laws: The Bible has worked out a system of restrictions whereby humans may satiate their lust for animal flesh and not be dehumanized. These laws teach reverence for life". Bible Review, volume 8 (number 6) (December 1992).
Mary Douglas. "The Forbidden Animals in Leviticus". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 18 (number 59) (1993): pages 3–23.
Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. "Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation". AJS Review, volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., "The Book of Leviticus", in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1063–83. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Food and Sanctification". In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 257–63. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Roberta Kalechofsky. A Boy, A Chicken, and The Lion of Judea—How Ari Became a Vegetarian. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1995.
Rabbis and Vegetarianism: An Evolving Tradition. Edited by Roberta Kalechofsky. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 159–62. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Erhard S. Gerstenberger. Leviticus: A Commentary, pages 96–146. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 254–67. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 177–82. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Roberta Kalechofsky. Vegetarian Judaism: A Guide for Everyone. Marblehead, Massachusetts: Micah Publications, 1998.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, volume 3, pages 569–742. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
Mary Douglas. "Land Animals, Pure and Impure" and "Other Living Beings". In Leviticus as Literature, pages 134–75. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 149–64. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 10:3).
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus". In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 154–56. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Ilene Schneider. "Kashrut, Food, and Women". In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 196–201. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Richard H. Schwartz. Judaism and Vegetarianism. New York: Lantern, 2001.
Samuel E. Balentine. Leviticus: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, pages 69–70, 80–100. Louisville: John Knox Press, 2002.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 81–90. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 161–68. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Pinchus Presworsky. Birds of the Torah. Brooklyn: Silver Graphics, 2002.
Elie Wiesel. "Nadab and Abihu: A Story of Fire and Silence". In Wise Men and Their Tales: Portraits of Biblical, Talmudic, and Hasidic Masters, pages 68–81. New York: Schocken, 2003.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 576–88. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Aaron Gross, Richard H. Schwartz, Roberta Kalechofsky, and Jay Levine. A Case for Jewish Vegetarianism. Norfolk, Virginia: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 88–121. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus". In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 224–32. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Julie Wolkoff. "Haftarat Shimini: II Samuel 6:1–7:17". In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 121–24. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Antony Cothey. "Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 168–74. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus". In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 705–33. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "A Detailed List". In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 87. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
David C. Kraemer. Jewish Eating and Identity Through the Ages. New York: Routledge, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 289–90, 303, 327–28, 541, 660. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Nathan MacDonald. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.
Naphtali S. Meshel. "Food for Thought: Systems of Categorization in Leviticus 11". Harvard Theological Review, volume 101 (number 2) (April 2008): pages 203–29.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 615–36. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus". In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 298–301. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 153–57. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Tamar Kamionkowski. "Nadav and Avihu and Dietary Laws: A Case of Action and Reaction: Parashat Shemini (leviticus 9:1–11:47)". InTorah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 135–39. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Union for Reform Judaism. "Eating Jewishly". New York, 2009. (resolution adopted by the URJ).
Mark Leuchter. "The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16". Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus". In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 154–58. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Pinchus Presworsky. Animals of the Torah. Sys Marketing Inc., 2011.
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, pages 13, 103, 325 note 22, 337 note 16. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (kashrut).
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Don't Dwell on It". In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 151–55. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Tracy M. Lemos. "Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions". Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37, number 3 (March 2013): pages 265–94.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 133–61. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Annette Yoshiko Reed. "From Sacrifice to the Slaughterhouse: Ancient and Modern Approaches to Meat, Animals, and Civilization". Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, volume 26, number 2 (2014): pages 111–58.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 135–39. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 165–69. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
James Michaels. "Strange Fire of Substance Abuse". Washington Jewish Week. (April 19, 2017): page 34.
Kenneth Seeskin. Thinking about the Torah: A Philosopher Reads the Bible, pages 113–33. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 26–36. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 83–85. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Laura Reiley. "Doctrine and Diet: Shalt Thou Eat an Impossible Burger?” The Washington Post. September 12, 2019, pages A1, A18.
External links
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Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
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Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
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4360161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%20shot%20in%20Thailand | List of films shot in Thailand | This is a list of foreign films shot in Thailand. See also: List of Thai films
Dozens of foreign films have been shot in Thailand, with the kingdom either playing itself or standing in for a neighboring country, such as Vietnam or Cambodia.
The availability of elephants, exotic jungle and beach settings, relatively low production costs, and a mature domestic film industry that provides a legion of experienced crew members, have made Thailand an attractive location for many Hollywood films and other foreign productions.
Films set in Thailand include Around the World in 80 Days, The Big Boss, The Man with the Golden Gun and The Beach. And Thailand has been used as a stand-in setting for such Vietnam War-era films as The Deer Hunter; Good Morning, Vietnam; Casualties of War; and The Killing Fields.
In addition to providing work for Thai film crews and extras (including the Royal Thai Army), films that use Thailand as a location help Thailand promote itself as a tourist destination. As a result, the Tourism Authority of Thailand is keenly interested in attracting production companies to make films in the Kingdom.
Film makers have been criticized for damaging the Thai environment. The island used to depict the villain's hideout in The Man with the Golden Gun is now a major draw for tourism operators in Phuket's Phang Nga Bay. Environmentalists also protested the filming of The Beach, in which the film crew made alterations to Maya Bay that were viewed as damaging.
History
Hollywood has played an important role in the development of Thailand's film industry. One of the first feature films made in Thailand, 1923's Miss Suwanna of Siam, was a Hollywood co-production, made with the royal assistance of King Vajiravudh, who gave the production free use of his 52 automobiles, 600 horses, use of the Royal Thai Navy, the Grand Palace, the railways, the rice mills, rice fields, coconut groves, canals and elephants.
The 1927 documentary, Chang, by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack, was made in Thailand.
In recent years, even the Bollywood film industry has chosen Thailand as location.
In 2018, 714 foreign productions—documentaries, TV dramas, series, advertising, short films, and feature films—were shot in Thailand. In the first six months of 2019, 410 productions were shot in Thailand contributing 3.5 billion baht to the economy according to the Thailand Film Office of the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT).
Incentives
At the 69th Cannes Film Festival in 2016 Thailand introduced a cash rebate policy for foreign films shot in Thailand. It took effect in January 2017. The program grants a 15% tax rebate for foreign film productions that spend more than 50 million baht. Incentives increase by 2% for films that promote Thai tourism and another 3% for hiring key Thai personnel on set. Filmed advertisements are not eligible for the program.
List of foreign films shot in Thailand
1920s–1970s
Nangsao Suwan (Suvarna of Siam) (1922-US): Directed by Henry MacRae. A love story with a Thai cast. The film has been lost; only a few stills survive.
Chang: A Drama of the Wilderness (1927-US) – Directors Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack were assisted by Prince Yugala Dighambara in the production of their silent docudrama about a family of subsistence farmers living in the jungle, battling elephants, tigers and other animals. Among the cast is a gibbon named Bimbo.
A Handful of Rice (1940-Sweden): Portrays Thailand's rural life in docudrama form.
Yutthana Siriporn (1963-Germany): Depicts urban life in Bangkok in the early-1960s and examines a Buddhist rite.
Around the World in Eighty Days (1956): Director Michael Todd was able to borrow one of the royal barges of King Bhumibol Adulyadej when the production was in Bangkok.
The Ugly American (1963-US): Thai statesman Kukrit Pramoj appeared on screen with Marlon Brando, portraying the prime minister of the fictional Southeast Asian country of Sarkhan. He was later elected Prime Minister of Thailand, serving in office in 1975–1976.
The Big Boss (1971): Chinese American martial artist and Jeet Kune Do founder Bruce Lee portrays Cheng Chao-An, a young fighter from Guangdong who emigrates to Thailand to be with his expatriate family and finds a job working in an ice factory; it soon turns out that the factory is a disguised drug operation, and Cheng soon finds himself having to fight for his life. After the original 1971 premiere, Hong Kong censors demanded that some of the footage be trimmed, including graphic violence, and an entire sequence in which Cheng visits a whorehouse and makes love to a Thai prostitute (featuring the only nude scene in Lee's career). The missing footage is rumoured to still exist.
Duel of Fists (1971): David Chiang travels to Bangkok looking for his long-lost brother (Ti Lung), who's a muay Thai boxer in this Shaw Brothers Studio film by Chang Cheh. Pawana Chanachit co-starred as a love interest for Chiang's character. Locations include the Dusit Thani Hotel on Rama IV Road, long before overpass bridges and the Bangkok Skytrain were built, as well as the Siam Intercontinental, since razed to make way for Siam Paragon.
Ulagam Sutrum Valiban (1973): Produced and Directed by MGR, a Tamil movie released in 1973 has Bangkok and the Dusit Thani Hotel.
Emmanuelle (1974): Filmed around Bangkok.
The Man with the Golden Gun (1974) – Filmed around Bangkok and Phang Nga Bay near Phuket. Bond attended a boxing match at Ratchadamnoen Boxing Stadium in Pom Prap Sattru Phai District. One of the islands seen in the film is known as Nail Island. It is the hideout of Scaramanga (Christopher Lee) and is now known as "James Bond Island".
The Deer Hunter (1978): The Russian roulette bar scene was shot in Patpong, while the POW camp was in Sai Yok, Kanchanaburi Province.
1980s
Uncommon Valor (1983): Set in Laos but filmed partly in Bangkok. Lao scenery was filmed in Hawaii.
The Killing Fields (1984-US): Locations in Hua Hin and Phuket stood in for Khmer Rouge-era Cambodia. Actor Spalding Gray recounts the film's shoot in his monologue, Swimming to Cambodia.
Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985-US): Sylvester Stallone's super soldier goes to Vietnam (actually Thailand) looking for his POW buddies. Followed by Rambo III''', set in Afghanistan, but partially shot in Thailand.
Good Morning, Vietnam (1987-US): Thai actress Jintara Sukapat portrayed the love interest for Robin Williams' character. Filmed on location in Bangkok, standing in for pre-1975 Saigon.
Off Limits (1988): Christopher Crowe's Vietnam War crime thriller featured Willem Dafoe and Gregory Hines. The film is also known as Saigon.
Casualties of War (1989-US): Brian De Palma's Vietnam War saga was filmed around Phuket and Kanchanaburi.Kickboxer (1989): Jean-Claude Van Damme movie about a Westerner who learns muay Thai.
1990s
Air America (1990): Mae Hong Son Province in northern Thailand stands in for Secret War-era Laos. The film later attracted tourism to the region and was featured on the cover of Conde Nast Traveller in May 1993.
Heaven & Earth (1993-US): Oliver Stone's Vietnam War-era drama was made in Thailand.
Operation Dumbo Drop (1995-US): Walt Disney Pictures' Vietnam War comedy-drama features Thai elephants.
Cutthroat Island (1995): Renny Harlin's swashbuckler was filmed on location in Maya Bay, which would later be used for The Beach.
Mortal Kombat Annihilation (1997): Tony Jaa worked as a stunt double and went on to become a major Thai action star. Filming was in historic old Ayutthaya, where a minor stir was caused when scantily clad foreign women were filmed dancing on top of some sacred ruins. Mortal Kombat (1995) also was made in Thailand, around Sukhothai historical park. The opening and closing scenes in Mortal Kombat are also filmed in Ayutthaya.
Tomorrow Never Dies (1997): Another Bond film and another Bond. Michelle Yeoh co-stars, as Bangkok stands in for Ho Chi Minh City. Scaramanga's island is seen, as Phang Nga Bay substitutes for Halong Bay, Vietnam. Production crew originally were destined to film in Vietnam but were denied entry. Thailand was chosen as an alternate location.
"Brokedown Palace" (1999): Clair Danes and Kate Beckinsale are arrested for smuggling while visiting Thailand. It was partly shot in Bangkok and the Bangkok airport.
Bangkok Dangerous (1999): Directed by Oxide and Danny Pang. A Thai hit-man story by Hong Kong directors.
2000–2003
The Beach (2000-US): Environmentalists protested the film because the production crew altered the beach of Ko Phi Phi Leh. A 2006 court ruling held that 20th Century Fox was among the parties responsible for damages.In the Mood for Love (2000): Wong Kar-wai's love story starring Maggie Cheung and Tony Leung Chiu Wai is set in 1960s Hong Kong, but exterior scenes were filmed in Bangkok.
Butterfly Man (2002): About a British tourist and a Thai masseuse. Directed by Kaprice Kea.City of Ghosts (2002): Matt Dillon's noirish thriller was set in Cambodia and mostly filmed there, but some scenes were shot in Thailand, and many of the crew were Thai people.
The Medallion (2003): Jackie Chan's action picture was filmed in Thailand under the working title, Highbinders.
Belly of the Beast (2003): Steven Seagal portrays a former CIA agent who searches in Thailand for his kidnapped daughter. Co-stars Thai actors Sarah Malakul, Pongpat Wachirabanjong, and Chakrit Yamnam.
2004
2046: Wong Kar-wai's follow-up to In the Mood for Love was filmed partially in Bangkok, and the film underwent post-production processing at Bangkok's Kantana Group labs, where the director made last-minute edits to the film before delivering it late to the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.
Two Brothers: This family-friendly story about two tigers had some scenes made in Samut Prakan Province, at a tourist site called Mueang Boran (Ancient City), which has scaled-down replicas of many of Thailand's important structures. The tigers used in the film were from the Si Racha Tiger Zoo near Pattaya. The film was set in neighboring Cambodia, and many locations were used there was well.
Alexander (2004-US): Oliver Stone's epic starring Colin Farrell as Alexander the Great was filmed along the Mekong River in northeastern Ubon Ratchathani Province and in Saraburi Province. Royal Thai Army soldiers were used as extras. Thai actors Bin Bunluerit and Jaran Ngamdee portrayed an Indian king and an Indian prince respectively.Around the World in 80 Days (2004): This Jackie Chan/Steve Coogan remake of the 1956 film was filmed in Thailand, with scenes shot in Krabi that were meant to take place in a rural village in China. Sammo Hung makes an appearance as Wong Fei Hung.
Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason: Made in Bangkok and Phuket, including Bangkok's Soi Cowboy. Tabloid reports that Hugh Grant was chased by bargirls were false.
2005
Ghost of Nak (2005): A film version of the Mae Nak Phra Khanong legend by a British director.
Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005): The approach to Kashyyyk, the Wookiee homeworld, was filmed around Krabi Province by Santa Film International.
Stealth (2005): Jamie Foxx, Jessica Biel, and Josh Lucas portray high-tech US Navy aviators. Rest and relaxation scenes are set in Thailand and were filmed on The Beach island, Ko Phi Phi Leh. Neighboring Myanmar is the setting for a missile target, but those scenes were filmed in Australia.
Blackbeard (2005): With Angus Macfadyen, Stacy Keach, Richard Chamberlain, and Rachel Ward, was filmed in Surat Thani and Nakorn Si Thammarat by Living Films. The story depicts the exploits of English pirate Edward Teach, better known as Captain Blackbeard. Blackbeard roamed the Caribbean in the 18th century. The swashbuckling adventure story appears to take place primarily in the Caribbean city of New Providence in 1717.
2006
The Elephant King (2006): Directed by Seth Grossman.
Journey from the Fall: Unable to make his film at home, Vietnamese director Ham Tran came to Thailand to make his drama about Vietnam's re-education camps and the experience of boat people.
Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006): The HBO-BBC joint production came to Phuket in April–June 2006 to film a mini-series about the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the resulting tsunami that hit Thailand's Andaman coastline.
2007
American Gangster (2007-US): Directed by Ridley Scott and starring Denzel Washington and Russell Crowe, the story of an American heroin smuggler was filmed in November 2006 in Chiang Mai.Agence France Press. 26 October 2006. Denzel Washington, Sylvester Stallone to shoot films in Thailand, via The Nation.
Croc (2007): This Thai Occidental Productions movie about a large man-eating crocodile, was filmed in Thailand in 2006. Michael Madsen, who plays a crocodile hunter in the film, was in Thailand for the filming. The movie has played on Sky One in the UK, the Sci Fi Channel (United States) channel in the US, and Star Movies in Asia.
Rambo (2007-US): Sylvester Stallone returned to Thailand to make the fourth installment in his Rambo franchise, directing and starring as the Vietnam War veteran who takes on a mission to protect Christian missionaries delivering aid to the Karen people in Myanmar. Filming was due to start in January 2007.Production Weekly. October 6, 2006. "Stallone looks 'In the Serpent's Eye'" (retrieved October 11, 2006).
Rescue Dawn (2007): Werner Herzog came to Thailand in August 2005 to direct this true story of US pilot Dieter Dengler and his escape from a POW camp during the Vietnam War. It stars Christian Bale and Steve Zahn.
2008
Bangkok Dangerous (also called Big Hit in Bangkok or Time to Kill) (2008): A remake of Bangkok Dangerous by the Pang Brothers, it stars Nicolas Cage and Charlie Yeung and began shooting in Bangkok in August 2006. Production was delayed by the coup d'état.
2009
Soi Cowboy (2009): The story of a European man and a Thai woman. Directed by Thomas Clay.
Street Fighter: The Legend of Chun-Li: The second live-action film based on the Street Fighter series of video games. Set in Bangkok.
2010–19
2020–present
List of films set in Thailand
Several films have been set in Thailand, but were made elsewhere. These include:
Anna and the King of Siam (1946): The first film adaptation of stories written by Anna Leonowens. The film is still banned in Thailand for historical inaccuracies and because Thai authorities claim its depiction of King Mongkut denigrates and trivializes the monarch and the royal family. It was filmed in California.
The King and I (1956): The film of the musical is banned in Thailand for the same reasons as Anna and the King of Siam.
The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957): Based on a novel by Pierre Boulle, David Lean's highly fictionalized account of work on the Death Railway contains many historical inaccuracies. It was filmed in Ceylon.
Uncommon Valor (1983): A scene depicting the Laotian-Thai border was filmed in Hawaii.
Missing in Action (1984) and Braddock: Missing in Action III (1988): Chuck Norris's two films were partially set in Bangkok but filmed in the Philippines.
Anna and the King (1999): With a Thai adviser and many Thai actors in the cast, Andy Tennant's remake of the 1946 film went through several rewrites in an effort to win approval by the Thai government so the movie could be made and shown there. However, the screenplay still contained too many inaccuracies, so the production was moved to Malaysia. The film is banned in Thailand, though video copies have found their way into the kingdom and the film has gained a following.
Brokedown Palace (1999): Alice and Darlene, best friends, decide to take a trip to Thailand to celebrate high-school graduation. While there, they are befriended by charming Australian rogue Nick Parks. Nick convinces them to take a weekend side trip to Hong Kong, but at the airport, they are busted for smuggling drugs. They are convicted in a show trial and sentenced to 33 years; in desperation, they contact Yankee Hank, an American lawyer based in Thailand who has been reported to be helpful if you've got the cash. Most scenes were filmed in the Philippines.
Bright Rainbow After the Rain (2010): The movie is unique in a sense that it is in English and it could be known as the first English movie in Thailand done by Thai students. The movie was filmed in Phayao Province. It is drama about two girls who were best friends- น.ส.สิริพร จันทร์เอี่ยม (Siripon Janauem) as Ana and น.ส.ณัฐณิชา ขอนพิกุล (Natnicha Khonpikul) as Sara. Ana was rich and Sara was poor with no father when she was growing up. Sara's mother sells vegetables at the market for a living. Sara helped her mother by having a part-time job. Sara's best friend Ana wants to study overseas and searches the internet to find overseas scholarship available for Thais. Sara also wanted to study overseas but didn't have the confidence to apply. Finally, Ana finds a scholarship abroad in Canada, but seeing her very poor best friend struggling in poverty has brought pain in her heart and has become her turning point. She cannot stand to see her best friend having so many difficulties in life while she is enjoying life's comfort. So Ana decided to help Sara escape poverty, but wants to do it secretly. She pretends to be Sara and applys for a scholarship in Sara's name. Ana does this without Sara's knowledge. She steals Sara's personal information and passport to complete Sara's scholarship application. Ana wants to study abroad but had sacrifices her dream for the sake of her best friend. At the end, Sara gets a scholarship in Canada through Ana's secret help. The "Bright Rainbow After the Rain" is the first English movie in Thailand with Thai students as the cast. The director Alejandro Cardeinte is an English teacher teaching at Phayao Pittayakhom School (โรงเรียนพะเยาพิทยาคม). The goal of the movie is to help Thai students learn English. The movie has English subtitles but no Thai subtitles. The movie uses simple day-to-day English. The film's soundtrack was written by the movie director himself. But partly, some music he used is not cleared with copyright yet. The movie is for educational purposes only and not for business.
Thirteen Lives'' (TBA): Ron Howard's upcoming film based on the Tham Luang cave rescue will shoot in Australia. Gold Coast, Queensland will stand in for Thailand.
See also
Cinema of Thailand
List of Thai films
References
External links
A list of (all) the best movies set in Thailand!
An interactive map showing filming locations of well-known Hollywood films made in Thailand, together with a list of Thailand focused documentaries.
Titles with locations including Thailand at the Internet Movie Database
"Hollywood movies made in Thailand"
Films Shot In Thailand at the Internet Movie Database
Shot in Thailand
Films
Thailand |
4360273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20Murray | Raymond Murray | Major General Raymond Leroy Murray (January 30, 1913 – November 11, 2004) was a highly decorated United States Marine Corps officer who earned two Navy Crosses, one during World War II and a second during the Korean War. He retired from active duty on August 1, 1968.
As a lieutenant colonel on Saipan during World War II, General Murray was awarded his first Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism under fire, June 15, 1944, while commanding the 2nd Battalion 6th Marines, 2nd Marine Division. He was the inspiration for the battalion commander in Leon Uris's 1953 novel Battle Cry. During the Korean War, he was twice again cited for extraordinary heroism, earning the Army Distinguished Service Cross during the period of November 29 to December 4, 1950, and a second Navy Cross on December 6 and 7, 1950, as commander of the 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Reinforced).
Marine Corps career
Early years
On July 9, 1935, following graduation from Texas A&M College, he accepted his commission as a Marine second lieutenant.
After completing the Basic School at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in March 1936, Lieutenant Murray joined the 2nd Marine Brigade in San Diego, California. Embarking with the brigade for China in September 1937, he served for a short time with the 2nd Battalion in Shanghai. In January 1938, he joined the Marine detachment at the American Embassy in Peiking. He was promoted to first lieutenant in August 1938. Upon his return to San Diego in September 1940, he again saw duty with the 2nd Brigade.
While there, he was promoted to captain in March 1941. That May, Captain Murray sailed for duty in Iceland with the 6th Marines (Reinforced), 1st Provisional Marine Brigade.
He later graduated from the British Force Tactical School. After the brigade was disbanded, he returned to San Diego in April 1942, and the following month was promoted to major.
World War II
In October 1942, Major Murray embarked with the 6th Marines for the Pacific theatre. For conspicuous gallantry on Guadalcanal in January 1943, as commander of the 2nd Battalion 6th Marines, he was awarded his first Silver Star. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in June 1943. Lieutenant Colonel Murray was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for conspicuous gallantry while commanding the same unit on Tarawa in November 1943. Serving in this same capacity on Saipan, his heroism in remaining at his post although seriously wounded and continuing to direct his battalion during the initial assault, earned him his first Navy Cross on June 15, 1944.
Returning to the United States in August 1944, Lieutenant Colonel Murray entered the Command and Staff School at Quantico the following month. After brief duty as an instructor, he was named assistant chief of staff, G-3, 1st Special Marine Brigade, moving with the brigade to Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, in February 1946. In October 1946, he departed for duty in the Pacific area as deputy chief of staff, Headquarters Marine Garrison Forces, Pacific, and the following April was named Inspector of Marine Garrison Forces.
He returned to Quantico in July 1948 for temporary duty on the Marine Corps Board at Marine Corps Schools. Transferred to Camp Pendleton, California in January 1949, Lieutenant Colonel Murray served consecutively as assistant chief of staff, G-4; as commanding officer, 3rd Marine Regiment; and as executive officer, 5th Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division.
Korean War
In July 1950, when the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade was formed for duty in Korea, he was ordered overseas with the 5th Marine Regiment which was to be the nucleus for the brigade. As Commanding Officer, 5th Marines, he was awarded his third and fourth Silver Star Medals (Army) and the Legion of Merit during action in August and September 1950.
With his unit, he participated in the battles of the Naktong River perimeter, Wolmi-Inchon, Seoul and Wonsan; and in the Marine advance north toward the Yalu River. He was subsequently awarded the Army Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in the 1st Division's historic breakout from the Chosin Reservoir area to the sea at Hamhung, and two days later took part in the action which earned him his second Navy Cross. Shortly afterward, with his regiment committed to fighting on the Central Korean front, he was advanced to the rank of colonel, in January 1951.
Post-war years
Following his return from Korea, Colonel Murray served from May until August 1951 at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D. C., then entered the National War College. On completing the course in June 1952, he saw two years duty as commanding officer, The Basic School, Marine Corps Schools, Quantico. In July 1954, he was ordered to the Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton.
Colonel Murray remained at Camp Pendleton four years, serving first as commanding officer, 1st Infantry Training Regiment, until February 1955; then as chief of staff of the Marine Corps Base, until July 1957. During his final year there, he was assigned to the 1st Marine Division, serving as Division Inspector, chief of staff, and assistant chief of staff, respectively. In July 1958, he assumed duties as chief of staff, Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune. He was promoted to brigadier general in June 1959.
General Murray departed for Okinawa, Japan, in July 1959, assuming duties as assistant division commander, 3rd Marine Division, in August 1959. In July 1960, he reported to Camp Pendleton, as Deputy Base Commander, and subsequently, in March 1961, became commanding general of the Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton. He served in the latter capacity until June 1962. On July 1, 1962, he began a two-year assignment as commanding general, Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. While serving in this capacity, he was promoted to major general on February 1, 1963.
Transferred to Headquarters Marine Corps in June 1964, General Murray was assigned as Inspector General of the Marine Corps. In August 1966, he assumed duties as assistant chief of staff, C-3. Detached from Headquarters in September 1967, he reported to the Far East the following month and began his last tour of active duty as deputy commander, III Marine Amphibious Force in South Vietnam. He returned to the United States in February 1968 and entered the U.S. Naval Hospital at Bethesda, Maryland, where he remained until he retired from active duty on August l, 1968.
Murray was active in the Marine Corps Oral History Program and received a Certificate of Appreciation from the Commandant of the Marine Corps, Paul X. Kelley in June 1986. He died in 2004 and was buried in Oceanside's Mission San Luis Rey Cemetery.
Awards and honors
In 2007 a continuation high school was named after him as Major General Raymond Murray High School.
First Navy Cross citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for extraordinary heroism as Commanding Officer of the Second Battalion, Sixth Marines, SECOND Marine Division, in action against enemy Japanese forces during the assault on Saipan, Marianas Islands, on 15 June 1944. Although sustaining two severe and painful wounds which necessitated his crawling from place to place during the initial stages of the landing, Lieutenant Colonel Murray refused to be evacuated and continued to direct the operations of his Battalion until his condition became so serious from pain and loss of blood that he was ordered to return aboard ship by the Regimental Commander. By remaining at his post, seriously wounded though he was, during the initial and crucial stages of the assault, Lieutenant Colonel Murray set a fine example for his officers and men and aided materially in overcoming the handicaps resulting from the heavy initial casualties, thereby contributing materially to the success of the operations. His outstanding courage, determination and devotion to duty were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Second Navy Cross citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Navy Cross to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United Nations while serving as Commanding Officer of the Fifth Marines, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in the Republic of Korea on 6 and 7 December 1950. Charged with the tremendous responsibility of taking over the perimeter defense of Hagaru-ri, and subsequently pressing the attack to Koto-ri in conjunction with another Marine regiment, (the then) Lieutenant Colonel Murray, with his ranks depleted by casualties and all his officers and men exhausted from several days of fierce fighting in sub-zero temperatures, launched vigorous attacks to the eastward to seize a vital enemy-held ridge and consolidate his positions. Affording protection for the airstrip where approximately one thousand vehicles containing division supplies, ammunition and equipment were assembled, he remained until all the wounded had been evacuated. Before directing his regiment in forming a rear guard for the entire column. Throughout the night, he beat of vicious onslaughts continuously launched by the enemy and, on the following morning, carried out a brilliantly executed counterattack, taking two hundred prisoners and leaving an ineffective and decimated enemy in his wake as he continued on to his destination, arriving that evening with units intact and ready to continue the attack to the south. By his great personal valor, daring combat tactics and superb leadership throughout this bitter offensive and defensive action, Lieutenant Colonel Murray served as a constant inspiration to his regiment in completing this extremely hazardous mission against tremendous odds, and his courageous devotion to duty reflects the highest credit upon himself, his gallant officers and men, and the United States Naval Service.
Distinguished Service Cross citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America, under the provisions of the Act of Congress approved July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United Nations while Commanding the Fifth Marines, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in Korea from 29 November to 4 December 1950. Charged with the tremendous responsibility of taking over the perimeter defense of Hagaru-ri, and subsequently pressing the attack to Koto-Ri in conjunction with another Marine regiment, (the then) Lieutenant Colonel Murray, with his ranks depleted by casualties and all his officers and men exhausted from several days of fierce fighting in sub-zero temperatures, launched vigorous attacks to the eastward to seize a vital enemy-held ridge and consolidate his positions. Affording protection for the airstrip where approximately one thousand vehicles containing division supplies, ammunition and equipment were assembled, he remained until all the wounded had been evacuated before directing his regiment in forming a rear guard for the entire column. Throughout the night, he beat of vicious onslaughts continuously launched by the enemy and, on the following morning, carried out a brilliantly executed counterattack, taking two hundred prisoners and leaving an ineffective and decimated enemy in his wake as he continued on to his destination, arriving that evening with units intact and ready to continue the attack to the south which contributed materially to the successful breakthrough of United Nations Forces in the Chosin Reservoir area and are in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service.
First Silver Star citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Silver Star to Major Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity as Commanding Officer of the Second Battalion, Sixth Marines (Reinforced), in action against enemy Japanese forces on Guadalcanal Island, Solomon Islands, 26 January 1943. When his battalion, maneuvering into a position in the vicinity of the Pha River and the Coast Road, suddenly encountered withering fire from an enemy strong point, Major Murray, with inspiring leadership and utter disregard for his own personal safety, directed the hazardous advance of his troops to their post and committed them to action. During the remainder of the day and night he was constantly in the most exposed front lines, despite hostile fire from the trees and concealed foxholes, and, through his splendid courage and excellent tactical skill, his command was responsible for the complete destruction or forced retreat of the enemy. Major Murray's heroic conduct and valiant devotion to duty contributed greatly to the success of this vital mission and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Second Silver Star citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Silver Star to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity as Commanding Officer of the Second Battalion, Sixth Marines, SECOND Marine Division, during action against enemy Japanese forces at Tarawa Atoll, Gilbert Islands, from 24 to 28 November 1943. Landing his battalion on a separate island to prevent the enemy from escaping from the eastern end of Betio, then under attack by our forces, Lieutenant Colonel Murray fearlessly countered strong hostile resistance when the island was later secured to lead his men in determined attacks against the fanatic Japanese, forcing them to fall back from one island to another until they were destroyed and the Atoll seized and occupied. By his forceful leadership, his valiant fighting spirit and dauntless courage under fire, Lieutenant Colonel Murray served as an inspiration to his command during the fierce hostilities and contributed materially to the success of our sustained drive against the Japanese in the Pacific War Area. His unwavering devotion to duty throughout was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
Third Silver Star citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in addition to a previously awarded Gold Star in lieu of a Third Award of the Silver Star (Army Award) to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity while commanding the Fifth Marines, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in the amphibious landing resulting in the capture of Inchon, Korea, on 15 September 1950 in the Inchon-Seoul operation. His actions contributed materially to the success of this operation and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the military service.
Fourth Silver Star citation
Citation:
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting a Second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in addition to a previously awarded Gold Star in lieu of a Fourth Award of the Silver Star (Army Award) to Lieutenant Colonel Raymond Leroy Murray (MCSN: 0-5127), United States Marine Corps, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action against an armed enemy of the United Nations in Korea during the period 3 August to 6 September 1950. While serving as Commanding Officer of the Fifth Marine Regiment, FIRST Marine Division (Reinforced), Colonel Murray displayed exceptional ability in directing the operations of his regiment against organized enemy resistance of superior strength. With complete disregard for his own safety, Colonel Murray made numerous visits to forward elements of his assault battalions to obtain first hand information necessary for sound tactical judgment in the employment of his regiment. On 11 August, as the regiment was advancing along the road to Sachon, it was halted by heavy enemy fire directed from well concealed emplacements on high ground overlooking the route of movement. Moving up to the front, constantly exposed to enemy small arms fire, Colonel Murray personally directed the tactical employment of his troops until the situation became stabilized. His cool and positive control of the command, fearless determination, and indomitable courage were an inspirational propellant for his valiantly fighting men and furthered the United Nations campaign for peace. Colonel Murray, through his valor and notable proficiency as a combat commander, reflects great credit on himself and the military service.
See also
Battle of Chosin Reservoir
Autobiography
Notes
References
1913 births
2004 deaths
United States Marine Corps generals
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Texas A&M University alumni
Military personnel from Los Angeles |
4360332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20South%20Australian%20history | Timeline of South Australian history | This is a Timeline of South Australian history.
Pre 1836
18,000 BC: Evidence of flint mining activity and rock art in the Koonalda Cave on the Nullarbor Plain.
1627: First recorded European sighting of the South Australian coast.
1802: South Australian coastline mapped by Matthew Flinders und Nicolas Baudin.
1802 (Circa): Unofficial settlement of Kangaroo Island by sealers.
1830: Captain Charles Sturt travels to the mouth of the Murray River in a whale boat.
1831: Captain Collet Barker explores the Adelaide Plains and climbs to the summit of Mount Lofty.
1800s
1830s
1836: South Australia proclaimed by Governor John Hindmarsh on 28 December at the Old Gum Tree, Glenelg.
1836: Site for Adelaide chosen by Colonel William Light beside the River Torrens.
1837: Colonel Light completes survey of Adelaide city centre and designs the city's grid layout. Allotments of are made.
1837: First regional town, Gawler, is founded north of Adelaide.
1837: Adelaide's first hospital opens on North Terrace.
1838: The first Australian police force is formed in Adelaide, the South Australia Police.
1838: Overlanders Joseph Hawdon and Charles Bonney arrive in Adelaide from New South Wales with 300 head of cattle.
1838: First German immigrants arrive and settle in Adelaide and surrounds.
1839: Colonel Light dies at Thebarton and is interred in Light Square beneath a memorial. He is the only person buried within "the square mile".
1839: The first road in South Australia, Port Road, is opened.
1839: Edward John Eyre begins his explorations of the Flinders Ranges and beyond.
1840s
1840: The first portion of Government House is completed, becoming the first in Australia.
1840: Royal Adelaide Show held for the first time.
1840: The Corporation of Adelaide is founded as the first municipal authority in Australia.
1840: All 26 survivors of the shipwreck Maria are murdered by Aboriginals in mysterious circumstances along the Coorong.
1841: Construction of Adelaide Gaol begins.
1841: Adelaide Hospital (later Royal) opened.
1842: Copper is discovered at Kapunda.
1843: The first Legislative Council building opens on North Terrace.
1844: The colonial Government takes control of the Corporation of Adelaide.
1845: Copper is discovered at Burra.
1845: Port Pirie founded on the upper Spencer Gulf.
1846: John Ainsworth Horrocks dies while exploring land to the northwest of Lake Torrens.
1847: St Peter's College established.
1848: Pulteney Grammar School established.
1850s
1850: The forerunner to Harris Scarfe, G. P. Harris and J. C. Lanyon, opened on Hindley Street.
1852: The Corporation of Adelaide is reconstituted. First transport of gold overland arrived in Adelaide.
1854: The township of Port Augusta at the head of Spencer Gulf is surveyed.
1854: The township of Gambierton, later Mount Gambier is founded in the South East.
1855: James Macgeorge lays telegraph line between Adelaide and Port Adelaide.
1856: The South Australian Institute, from which the State Library, State Museum and Art Gallery derived, is founded.
1856: Government telegraph line and steam railway between Adelaide and Port Adelaide opened.
1856: South Australia becomes one of the first places in the world to enact the Secret Ballot.
1857: Adelaide Botanic Garden opened at today's site in the Parklands at the corner of North and East Terraces.
1858: Melbourne-Adelaide telegraph line opened.
1858: The first edition of The Advertiser newspaper is published.
1859: A jetty of more than 350 metres in length is constructed at Glenelg.
1859: Shipwreck of SS Admella off Carpenter Rocks in the South East. 89 dead. Worst maritime disaster to this day.
1860s
1860: Thorndon Park Reservoir supplied water through new reticulation system.
1861: East Terrace markets opened.
1861: Copper discovered at Moonta, on the Yorke Peninsula.
1862: John McDouall Stuart successfully crosses the continent from north to south on his sixth attempt.
1863: First gas supplied to city.
1864–1867: Great drought
1865: Bank of Adelaide founded.
1866: The Italianate Adelaide Town Hall opened.
1866: First oil exploration in Australia at Alfred Flat near Salt Creek, along the Coorong.
1867: Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, made first royal visit to Adelaide.
1869: The City Market (later Central) opened on Grote Street.
1869: Prince Alfred College established.
1870s
1870: Port Adelaide Football Club established.
1871 The South Australian Cricket Association is formed.
1872: The General Post Office opened. Adelaide became first Australian capital linked to Imperial London with completion of the Overland Telegraph.
1873: First cricket match played at Adelaide Oval.
1874: The Adelaide Oval is officially opened.
1874: The University of Adelaide founded.
1874: Iron ore mined and smelted at Mount Jagged, then abandoned.
1875: Adelaide Steamship Company founded.
1876: Adelaide Children's Hospital founded.
1877: The Adelaide Bridge across the River Torrens completed.
1877: Copper mines at Burra and Kapunda close.
1878: First horse-drawn trams in Australia commenced operations in the city.
1879: Foundation stone of the University of Adelaide laid.
1880s
1880: Telephone introduced in South Australia.
1880: Fort Glanville opens.
1880: Reformatory Hulk Fitzjames commissioned and moored off Largs Bay.
1881: The Art Gallery of South Australia opened by Prince Albert Victor.
1881: Torrens Lake created following the construction of weir.
1881: Coopers Brewery is established.
1881: Drought ruins thousands of farmers on marginal land in the Mid North and Goyder's Line is recognised as the limit to agricultural settlement.
1882: First water-borne sewerage service in Australia commenced.
1882: The City Baths opened on King William Road.
1883: Adelaide Zoological Gardens opened.
1884: Adelaide Trades and Labor Council inaugurated.
1884: Fort Largs opens.
1885: The Adelaide Arcade opens.
1886: Commercial Bank of South Australia failed in February.
1885: Flinders Column erected at the Mount Lofty Summit.
1887: The Overland train service between Adelaide and Melbourne commences.
1887: Stock Exchange of Adelaide forms.
1889: School of Mines and Industries opens on North Terrace.
1889: Lead smelters built at Port Pirie.
1890s
1891: The Central Australia Railway reaches Oodnadatta in the far north.
1892: First public statue, Venus (Venere Di Canova), unveiled on North Terrace.
1892: Following drop in share values, Bank of South Australia taken over by the Union Bank of Australia.
1894: Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894, the world's second Act granting women suffrage and the first granting women the right to stand for parliament passed in Parliament House on North Terrace.
1896: Moving pictures shown for first time in South Australia at Theatre Royal on Hindley Street.
1896: Happy Valley Reservoir opened.
1896: Adelaide Hospital Board of Management sacked by the Government. The dysfunctional nature of the workplace came to a head when Edward Willis Way, no friend of Premier Kingston, was accused of nepotism.
1897: Constitutional Convention on Federation held in Adelaide.
1899: South Australian contingent leaves Adelaide for the Second Boer War.
1899: State Referendum on Federation: South Australia votes Yes (70.2%).
1900s
1900s
1900: First electricity station opened in South Australia at Grenfell Street.
1901: Adelaide became a state capital upon the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January. The Duke and Duchess of York visit.
1901: Whyalla founded on the upper Spencer Gulf as a port for iron ore from the Middleback Ranges.
1904: Adelaide Fruit and Produce Exchange opens in the East End.
1904: State Flag of South Australia is officially adopted.
1906: Federal Referendum on Senate Elections: South Australia votes Yes (86.99%).
1908: Outer Harbor opens.
1908: Adelaide High School established.
1909: Electric tram services begin.
1910s
1910: Federal Referendum on Surplus Revenue: South Australia votes No (50.94%).
1911: Federal Referendum on Trade and Commerce: South Australia votes No (61.93%).
1912: The Verco Building, an early 'skyscraper', is built on North Terrace.
1913: Metropolitan abattoirs open.
1913: Federal Referendum on Trade and Commerce: South Australia votes Yes (51.32%).
1914: South Australian troops join their Australian comrades in Europe to fight in World War I.
1914: Torrens Island Internment Camp opens.
1915: Liquor bars close at 6 pm following referendum, creating the six o'clock swill.
1915: Torrens Island Internment Camp closes.
1915: Four women Justices of the Peace appointed, the first in Australia.
1915: Cheer-up Hut opens 4 November, first anniversary of Cheer-Up Society.
1917: German private schools close because of the World War I.
1917: First trains to Perth following completion of the Trans-Australian Railway.
1918: Railway line from Hallett Cove to Willunga opens.
1918: Mount Pleasant railway line between Balhannah and Mount Pleasant opens.
1919: Adelaide awarded official city status and Mayor became Lord Mayor.
1919: Sedan railway line between Monarto South and Sedan opens.
1920s
1921: Percy Brookfield, a NSW Politician, is shot at the Riverton railway station and later dies.
1924: 5CL, Adelaide's first AM broadcaster commences broadcasting
1924: James Stobie invents the Stobie pole, now a South Australian icon.
1924: Township of Murray Bridge is founded.
1925: Wayville Showgrounds open.
1927: Duke and Duchess of York visit.
1928: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
Yes (62.68%) on State Debt
1929: Electric service to Glenelg commences.
1929: Central Australia Railway extended to Alice Springs.
1930s
1932: Local government overhauled when Government redefined boundaries and names and abolished others.
1933: First John Martin's Christmas Pageant
1935: Many German place names, which had been changed during World War I, are restored.
1936: South Australia celebrates its centenary.
1936: South Australian Housing Trust is founded.
1937: First trolley bus services commence.
1937: First permanent traffic lights installed.
1937: Federal Referendum - South Australia Votes:
No (59.87%) on Aviation
No (79.17%) on Marketing
1937: Outbreak of poliomyelitis.
1938: South Australian Housing Trust completes first dwelling.
1939: Worst heat wave recorded with disastrous bushfires and highest Adelaide temperature of 47.6 °C.
1939: New Parliament House opened on North Terrace by the Governor-General Lord Gowrie.
1940s
1940: Birkenhead Bridge opens.
1940: Ship building begins at Whyalla.
1940: Pinguin enters South Australian waters, laying sea mines along vital shipping lanes.
1940: Loveday POW camp opens
1942: Rationing of tea and clothing introduced.
1943: Rationing of butter introduced.
1944: Federal Referendum - South Australia Votes:
Yes (50.64%) on Post War Reconstruction and Democratic Rights
1944: Rationing of meat introduced.
1944: attacks the Greek freighter Ilissos off the Limestone Coast.
1945: Gas and electricity restrictions imposed.
1945: Hills Industries founded.
1946: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
Yes (51.73%) on Social Services
No (51.26%) on Marketing
No (51.80%) on Industrial Employment
1947: Orchards ripped up following discovery of fruit fly in the metropolitan area.
1948: Federal Referendum -[South Australia votes:
No (57.85%) on Rents and Prices
1948: Glenelg jetty destroyed and widespread damage caused by severe storms.
1948: Clothing and meat rationing abolished.
1948: Holden begins production.
1950s
1950: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Thomas Playford, holds onto government.
1950: Petrol, butter and tea rationing abolished.
1950: Port Pirie proclaimed South Australia's first provincial city.
1951: Federal Referendum - South Australia Votes:
No (52.71%) on Communists and Communism
1953: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Thomas Playford, holds onto government.
1954: Adelaide is hit by an earthquake causing much property damage but no loss of life.
1954: Queen Elizabeth II makes first sovereign visit to Adelaide.
1954: Mannum–Adelaide pipeline completed, pumping water from the River Murray to metropolitan reservoirs.
1955: Adelaide Airport at West Beach opens.
1955: Elizabeth officially proclaimed.
1956: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Thomas Playford, holds onto government
1956: British nuclear tests at Maralinga commence
1958: Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, visits Adelaide.
1958: First parking metres installed.
1958: South Para Reservoir opened and connected to Adelaide water supply.
1958: Last street tram removed, leaving only the Glenelg tram line.
1959: Television broadcasting commences in Adelaide with NWS-9. ADS-7 (now ADS-10) begins broadcasting one month later.
1959: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Thomas Playford, holds onto government.
1960s
1960: Adelaide Festival of Arts held for the first time.
1962: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Thomas Playford, holds onto government.
1963: Port Stanvac Refinery begins operations.
1963: Queen Elizabeth II visits Adelaide.
1963: Gas discovered in the Cooper Basin.
1964: Record wind gust of 148 kilometres per hour recorded in Adelaide.
1965: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Frank Walsh, wins government for the first time in 33 years.
1965: Television station SAS-10 (Now SAS-7) begins broadcasting.
1966: Flinders University opens at Bedford Park.
1966: Beaumont children go missing at Glenelg beach.
1967: South Australian Lotteries commence.
1967: Liquor trading hours extended.
1967: Torrens Island Power Station begins operations.
1967: Premier Frank Walsh retires and is replaced by Don Dunstan.
1967: Federal Referendum - South Australia Votes:
Yes (86.26%) on Aboriginals
No (66.09%) on Parliament
1968: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Steele Hall, wins government.
1970s
1970: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Don Dunstan, wins government. South Australia becomes first state to reform abortion laws.
1971: Fluoridation of water supply commences.
1973: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Don Dunstan, holds onto government.
1973: Modbury Hospital opens.
1973: Two children disappear from Adelaide Oval and are never seen again.
1973: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
No (58.84%) on Commodity Prices
No (71.75%) on Incomes
1974: Prince Philip, The Duke of Edinburgh, visits Adelaide
1974: South Australian Railways split into two new entities, Australian National and State Transport Authority.
1974: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
No (52.86%) on Simultaneous Elections
No (55.74%) on Mode of Altering the Constitution
No (55.89%) on Democratic Elections
No (57.48%) on Local Government Bodies
1975: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Don Dunstan, holds onto government.
1975: The International Equestrian Exposition is held in Adelaide and attended by Princess Anne.
1975: The Adelaide City Council adopts the City of Adelaide Plan.
1976: Rundle Mall, Australia's first pedestrian mall, opens between King William and Pulteney streets.
1977: Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip visit Adelaide to open the Adelaide Festival Centre.
1977: Late night shopping commences.
1977: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
Yes (65.99%) on Simultaneous Elections
Yes (76.59%) on Senate Vacancies
Yes (83.29%) on Referendums
Yes (85.57%) on Retirement of Judges
1978: The remains of seven women are found in bushland near Truro.
1979: Don Dunstan resigns as Premier and is replaced by Des Corcoran.
1979: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by David Tonkin, wins government.
1980s
1980: Thirty-five homes destroyed in an Adelaide Hills bushfire., Central Australia Railway and Marree railway line replaced by the Tarcoola-Alice Springs railway line
1981: Prince Charles, The Prince of Wales, visits Adelaide.
1982: State Election: The Labor Party, led by John Bannon, wins government.
1982: International air services begin at Adelaide Airport.
1983: Ash Wednesday fires claim 28 lives throughout the state.
1983: Prince and Princess of Wales visit Adelaide.
1983: Wendy Chapman elected the first woman Lord Mayor of Adelaide.
1984: South Australia officially adopts the current Coat of Arms.
1984: Keswick Railway Terminal opens.
1984: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
No (50.02%) on Terms of Senators
No (54.06%) on Interchange of Powers
1985: State Election: The Labor Party, led by John Bannon, holds onto government.
1985: The Adelaide Casino opens in the Adelaide railway station as part of the multimillion-dollar Adelaide Station and Environs Redevelopment (ASER).
1985: The first Australian Grand Prix held on the Adelaide Street Circuit.
1986: Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip visit Adelaide.
1986: Pope John Paul II visits Adelaide and holds Mass to a gathering of hundreds of thousands in the East Parklands.
1986: The South Australian Maritime Museum opens.
1986: South Australia celebrates its sesqui-centenary as "Jubilee 150".
1987: The Collins class submarine contract awarded to the Australian Submarine Corporation at Outer Harbor.
1987: The Adelaide Convention Centre opens on North Terrace.
1988: The Prince and Princess of Wales visit Adelaide.
1988: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
No (73.24%) on Parliamentary Terms
Yes (69.39%) on Fair Elections
No (70.15%) on Local Government
Yes (73.99%) on Rights and Freedoms.
1989: State Election: The Labor Party, led by John Bannon, holds onto government.
1989: The Bicentennial Conservatory, referred to as "The Crystal Pasty", opens at the Botanic Gardens.
1990s
1990: Remaining country rail passenger services from Adelaide to Mount Gambier, Whyalla and Broken Hill are axed by Australian National.
1991: State Bank of South Australia collapses plunging South Australia into a debt of $3.1 billion.
1991: The University of South Australia formed from a merger of several institutions.
1991: Adelaide Entertainment Centre opened.
1991: Adelaide Football Club enters the AFL after being established in late 1990.
1992: First WOMADelaide, at Botanic Park
1992: John Bannon resigns as Premier and is replaced by Lynn Arnold.
1992: The final edition of The News newspaper is published.
1993: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by Dean Brown, wins government in a landslide.
1993: Poker machines installed for first time in South Australia.
1994: Sunday trading introduced in the Adelaide city centre.
1994: High-speed ferry service from Glenelg to Kangaroo Island begins.
1995: The Australian Grand Prix is held in Adelaide for the last time.
1995: United Water is contracted to manage Adelaide's water and sewerage systems.
1995: The Local Government (Boundary Reform) Act, 1995 passed to encourage municipal amalgamations, resulting in an overhaul of local government.
1997: Port Adelaide Football Club enters the AFL.
1997: State Election: The Liberal Party, led by John Olsen, narrowly holds onto government.
1997: Adelaide Football Club wins its first AFL premiership.
1998: Adelaide Football Club wins its second AFL premiership.
1999: Eight bodies are found in a disused bank vault in Snowtown, further bodies were later found, revealing Australia's worst serial killings.
1999: Federal Referendum - South Australia votes:
No (56.43%) on an Australian Republic
No (61.90%) on Constitution Preamble.
2000s
2000s
2000: South Eastern Freeway opened.
2001: John Olsen resigns as Premier and is replaced by Rob Kerin.
2001: The National Wine Centre of Australia opens in the north-east of the Adelaide Parklands.
2002: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Mike Rann, narrowly wins government.
2003: The transcontinental railway line from Adelaide to Darwin is completed.
2003: Port Stanvac Refinery closed.
2004: Port Adelaide Football Club wins its first AFL premiership.
2005: Nine people die in bushfires on the Eyre Peninsula.
2006: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Mike Rann, retains government in a landslide.
2009: Wind gusts of 152 km/h recorded at Adelaide Airport.
2010s
2010: State Election: The Labor Party, led by Mike Rann, retains government with a reduced majority.
2010: Northern Expressway opened.
2014: State election, Labor Party now led by Jay Weatherill retains government with a further reduced majority
2014: South Road Superway opened
2015 Sampson Flat bushfires in January and 2015 Pinery bushfire in November both destroyed houses near Adelaide (the Pinery fire also killed two people)
2018: State election, Liberal Party led by Steven Marshall elected
2020s
2020: COVID-19 pandemic in South Australia
2022: State election, Labor Party led by Peter Malinauskas elected
See also
History of South Australia
History of Adelaide
Governors of South Australia
Premiers of South Australia
List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Adelaide
History of Australia
South Australian timelines |
4360488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence%20Newman | Terence Newman | Terence Newman (born September 4, 1978) is an American former professional football player who was a cornerback for 15 seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys, Cincinnati Bengals, and Vikings. He played college football for the Kansas State Wildcats, earning unanimous All-American recognition. He was selected by the Cowboys with the fifth overall pick in the 2003 NFL Draft.
Early years
A native of Salina, Kansas, Newman attended Salina High School Central, where he lettered as a junior and senior in football, three times in track & field and basketball and once in baseball for the Mustangs. As a senior in football, he had 10 receptions for 251 yards and three touchdowns playing as a wide receiver on offense, while also making 45 tackles, five interceptions and five PBUs on the defensive side. In addition, he also returned 13 punts for 271 yards (20.9 avg.), two of them for touchdowns. He was an All-Class 5A selection by the Topeka Capital Journal and Wichita Eagle. He was listed as one of the top 20 recruits in the state of Kansas by First Down Recruiting and was a PrepStar All-Region selection.
Apart from football, Newman was also an outstanding track & field performer with times of 10.36 seconds in the 100-meter dash and 21.6 seconds in the 200-meter dash entering his senior season.
College career
Newman attended Kansas State University, where he played as a defensive back for head coach Bill Snyder's Kansas State Wildcats football from 1998 to 2002. His first two seasons he was a backup, until he became a starter and a second-team Big 12 selection as a junior. During his college career, he was also a special teams returner (second player in team history to score on a kickoff and punt return in the same season) and was used sparingly as a wide receiver. He was also a member of the Wildcats track & field team.
He redshirted his first year in 1998, and then went on to play from 1999 to 2002.
Freshman year
Still a developing backup defensive back in his second year, Newman saw action in all 11 games as a freshman in 1999. He became an outstanding special teams player, returning a 73-yard kickoff against Baylor. He snagged his first career interception in a 66–0 win over Missouri. He had an impressive spring game with 10 tackles, two passes broken up and an interception that he returned 18 yards.
Sophomore year
Newman played in all 14 games as a sophomore in 2000. He recorded a career-high five tackles, including career-high three solos vs. Louisiana Tech in his first career start. He scored a touchdown on a 16-yard blocked-punt against Oklahoma.
In track & field, Newman Finished third in the 60-meter dash (6.76s) at the Big 12 Indoor Track & Field Championships, but posted a season-best of 6.72 seconds in the prelims, that rank 2nd all-time behind football teammate Aaron Lockett. He had a season-best time of 21.34 seconds in the 200-meter dash, and was a member of the Wildcats' 4 × 100 m relay team that placed fifth at Big 12 Championships.
Junior year
As a junior in 2001, Newman was a second team All-Big 12 selection by the coaches, Dallas Morning News, Fort Worth Star-Telegram and Waco Tribune-Herald, and also an honorable mention All-Big 12 selection by the Associated Press (AP). He was named one of 10 semifinalists for the Jim Thorpe Award, given to the top defensive back of the year. He shared the Most Improved Defensive Player award with Terry Pierce. He started all 11 games at cornerback, and was just one of eight Wildcats to start all 11 games at the same position. He ranked fifth in the Big 12 and 16th in the nation in passes defended with 19. He was tabbed as coaches' Special Teams Player of the Game three times (USC, Texas A&M and Louisiana Tech). He ranked fifth on the team with 51 total tackles, including 44 solo stops, led the team with 14 PBUs and two blocked kicks and was third with three interceptions. He had an impressive all-around day against Oklahoma, picking off two passes and defending seven more to go with six solo tackles, leading this to be named the Defensive Player of the Game by the Kansas State coaches. He tied a season-high with seven tackles and blocked his second kick of the season vs. Nebraska. Against Missouri, he got his third interception of the season and also added three other PBUs and five tackles. Newman also server ad a kick returner, and ranks second behind Aaron Lockett in returns, yards and average, totalling 211 yards on nine kickoffs with a 23.4 yards per return average. He also tallied a season-best 81 return yards on two carries against Missouri.
In track & field, Newman was just one of two athletes to represent Kansas State's men's team at the NCAA Indoor Nationals, where he finished 15th in the 60 meters. He set a pair of school records for the Wildcats at the 2001 Big 12 Indoor Track and Field Championships, running a 6.67 in the 60-meter dash semifinals to break the old mark of 6.69 set in 1999 by football teammate Aaron Lockett, while also setting Kansas State's indoor 200-meter dash record with a time of 21.17 seconds. He earned NCAA Outdoor All-American honors in the 100 meters after finishing 12th in a time of 10.49 seconds at the 2001 NCAA Outdoor T&F Championships. He was the Big 12 Outdoor Champion in 100-meter dash with a mark of 10.29 seconds, and set a new school record with a 10.22 mark in qualifying for that event.
Senior year
As a senior in 2002, Newman recorded 54 tackles, five interceptions and 14 pass deflections. He was a first-team All-Big 12 selection, as well as the Big 12 Conference Defensive Player of the Year and a unanimous All-American. He also won the Jim Thorpe Award as the nation's best defensive back, and was a finalist for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy as the nation's best defensive player.
In track & field, Newman defended his Big 12 Outdoor Championship in the 100 meters with a win at Missouri (10.34s). He reached the NCAA semifinals in the 100m, but did not make the final rounds. He broke his own outdoor school record in the 100-meter dash after clocking a 10.20 at the Jim Click Shootout in his first outdoor meet of the year. He collected his first All-America honor by finishing fifth in the 60 meters at the NCAA Indoor Championship with a time of 6.67 seconds. He was the Big 12 Indoor Champion in the 60-meter dash, clocking a 6.65 in the finals after posting a school-record 6.62 in the prelims. He finished second in the 200 meters at the Big 12s with an NCAA provisional time of 21.42. He also won the 60 meters in 6.70 seconds at the KSU Open, his only regular-season appearance.
Professional career
Dallas Cowboys
The Dallas Cowboys selected Newman in the first round (fifth overall) of the 2003 NFL Draft. As the fifth overall pick, Newman became Kansas State's highest draft pick in school history, surpassing Clarence Scott who was drafted 14th overall by the Cleveland Browns in the 1971 NFL Draft. He entered the league as a 25-year-old rookie.
2003
On July 24, 2003, the Dallas Cowboys signed Newman to a six-year, $18.41 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $13 million. The contract is worth up to $33 million with incentives and includes a seventh-year option.
Head coach Bill Parcells named Newman a starting cornerback to begin the regular season, alongside Mario Edwards. He made his professional regular season debut and first career start in the Dallas Cowboys' season-opener against the Atlanta Falcons and recorded five combined tackles and a pass deflection in their 27–13 loss. The following week, Newman recorded five solo tackles, a season-high four pass deflections, and made his first career interception off a pass by quarterback Kerry Collins during a 35–32 victory at the New York Giants in Week 2. On October 5, 2003, Newman collected five solo tackles, broke up a pass, and made his first career sack on quarterback Jeff Blake in the Cowboys' 26–7 win against the Arizona Cardinals in Week 4. In Week 13, he made a season-high seven solo tackles in the Cowboys' 40–21 loss to the Miami Dolphins. On December 14, 2003, Newman recorded five combined tackles, three pass deflections, and intercepted three passes by Tim Hasselbeck during a 27–0 victory at the Washington Redskins in Week 15. He tied the franchise record for most interceptions in a single game. Newman finished his rookie season in with 76 combined tackles (66 solo), 14 pass deflections, four interceptions, and a sack in 16 games and 16 starts.
The Dallas Cowboys finished second in the NFC East with a 10–6 record and received a wildcard berth. On January 3, 2004, Newman started his first career playoff game and recorded five solo tackles in the Cowboys' 29–10 loss at the Carolina Panthers in the NFC Wildcard Game.
2004
Newman entered training camp slated as the No. 1 cornerback on the Cowboys' depth chart. Head coach Bill Parcells officially named him the starter to begin the regular season, opposite Pete Hunter. In Week 6, Newman collected a season-high 12 combined tackles (11 solo) during a 24–20 loss against the Pittsburgh Steelers. On December 26, 2004, he made three solo tackles, two pass deflections, and an interception in the Cowboys' 13–10 victory against the Washington Redskins in Week 16. He finished the season with 68 combined tackles (64 solo), 15 pass deflections, and four interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts. He also returned two punts for 13-yards.
2005
Defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer retained Newman as the No. 1 cornerback to begin the regular season, alongside Anthony Henry. In Week 2, Newman collected five solo tackles, broke up a pass, and made an interception during a 14–13 loss to the Washington Redskins. In Week 10, he made four combined tackles and a season-high three pass deflections in the Cowboys' 21–20 victory at the Philadelphia Eagles. On January 1, 2006, Newman collected a season-high six solo tackles during a 20–10 loss to the St. Louis Rams in Week 17. He finished the 2005 season with 59 combined tackles (56 solo), 14 passes defensed, three interceptions, and a sack in 16 games and 16 starts. Newman did not give up a single touchdown reception in coverage throughout the 2005 regular season and also had ten punt returns for 55-yards (5.50 YPR).
2006
Head coach Bill Parcells retained Newman and Anthony Henry as the starting cornerback duo in 2006. In Week 7, he collected a season-high six solo tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception in the Cowboys' 36–22 loss to the New York Giants. On December 10, 2006, Newman recorded a season-high seven combined tackles and a pass deflection during a 42–17 loss to the New Orleans Saints in Week 14. On December 31, 2006, Newman had two solo tackles and two punt returns for 56-yards and a touchdown in a 39–31 loss to the Detroit Lions in Week 17. He returned a punt for a 56-yard touchdown in the third quarter to mark the first score of his career. Newman completed the season with 63 combined tackles (53 solo), 11 pass deflections, and an interception in 16 games and 16 starts. Newman also had 20 punt returns for 202 return yards (10.1 YPR) and a touchdown.
2007
On January 23, 2007, head coach Bill Parcells announced his retirement from coaching after the Cowboys finished with a 9–7 record in 2006 and were defeated 21–20 by the Seattle Seahawks in the NFC Wildcard Game due to a fumbled snap on a rain slicked field by Tony Romo during an extra point. New head coach Wade Phillips officially named Newman and Anthony Henry the starting cornerbacks to begin the season, with Jacques Reeves filling in for Newman during his absence.
Newman developed plantar fasciitis in his foot during the preseason and was inactive for the rest of the preseason and the first two regular season games (Weeks 1–2). On
October 8, 2007, Newman recorded five combined tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception during the Cowboys' 25–24 comeback victory at the Buffalo Bills in Week 5. Newman made a key interception off a pass deflection by teammate DeMarcus Ware. Ware deflected a pass by quarterback Trent Edwards and Newman returned it for a 70-yard gain in the fourth quarter to set up a touchdown pass by Tony Romo as the Cowboys were down 24–16. The Cowboys defeated the Bills after a last second 37-yard field goal by Nick Folk and advanced to a 5–0 record. On December 19, 2007, it was announced that Newman was named to the 2008 Pro Bowl as part of the NFC team. Newman finished the season with 50 combined tackles (44 solo), 13 passes defensed, four interceptions, three forced fumbles, and a touchdown in 13 games and 11 starts.
2008
On March 20, 2008, the Dallas Cowboys signed Newman to a six-year, $50.20 million contract that includes $22.50 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $12 million.
Newman entered training camp slated as the No. 1 cornerback, but was unable to participate due to a groin injury. He was replaced by newly acquired free agent Adam Jones and rookie first round pick Mike Jenkins. He was inactive for the Dallas Cowboys' season-opening victory at the Cleveland Browns. Newman aggravated his groin injury and missed the next five games (Week 5–9). On October 10, 2008, Newman underwent sports hernia surgery. He returned in Week 12 and recorded a season-high seven combined tackles, two pass deflections, and an interception during a 14–10 victory at the Washington Redskins. On December 14, 2008, Newman collected six combined tackles, two pass deflections, and intercepted two passes by Eli Manning in the Cowboys' 20–8 victory against the Miami Dolphins in Week 15. He completed the season with 37 combined tackles (32 solo), 11 pass deflections, and four interceptions in ten games and ten starts.
2009
Head coach Wade Phillips retained Newman as the No. 1 starting cornerback to start the 2009 regular season, alongside Mike Jenkins. He started in the Dallas Cowboys' season-opener at the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and recorded a season-high nine combined tackles in their 34–21 victory. On September 28, 2009, Newman collected four combined tackles, two pass deflections, and returned an interception during a 21–7 victory in Week 3. He intercepted a pass by Jake Delhomme and returned for a 27-yard touchdown in the fourth quarter. Newman completed the season with 57 combined tackles (52 solo), a career-high 18 pass deflections, three interceptions, and a touchdown in 16 games and 16 starts.
The Dallas Cowboys finished atop The NFC East with an 11–5 record. The Cowboys went on to defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 24–17 in the NFC Wildcard Game and reached the NFC Divisional Round. On January 17, 2010, Newman started in the NFC Divisional Round and recorded eight combined tackles during a 34–3 loss at the Minnesota Vikings. On January 20, 2010, Newman was named to the 2010 Pro Bowl after Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie sustained an injury.
2010
Newman and Jenkins returned as the starting cornerbacks to begin the 2010 season. On October 25, 2010, Newman made six solo tackles, two pass deflections, and an interception during a 41–35 loss at the New York Giants in Week 5. He intercepted a pass by Eli Manning and sustained a rib injury during the 30-yard return. He reportedly played through the injury for the remainder of the season. On November 9, 2010, the Dallas Cowboys fired head coach Wade Phillips after they fell to a 1–7 record. Offensive coordinator Jason Garrett was named the interim head coach for the remainder of the season. On November 25, 2010, Newman recorded a season-high eight solo tackles and a pass deflection in the Cowboys' 30–27 loss to the New Orleans Saints in Week 12. In Week 17, Newman made six solo tackles, two pass deflections, and intercepted two pass attempts by quarterback Kevin Kolb during a 14–13 victory at the Philadelphia Eagles. He finished the season with a career-high 79 combined tackles (77 solo), nine pass deflections, and a career-high five interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts. Pro Football Focus ranked him 86th among 100 qualifying cornerbacks in 2010.
2011
On August 3, 2011, Newman sustained a groin injury during practice and was forced to miss the entire preseason and first two regular season games (Weeks 1–2). Due to his injury, head coach Jason Garrett named Mike Jenkins and Orlando Scandrick the starting cornerbacks to begin the regular season. In Week 8, Newman recorded a season-high six solo tackles during a 34–7 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. On November 13, 2011, Newman made three combined tackles, two pass deflections, intercepted two passes by Ryan Fitzpatrick, and returned one for a touchdown in the Cowboys' 44–7 victory against the Buffalo Bills in Week 10. He completed the season with 53 combined tackles (45 solo), 11 pass deflections, three interceptions, and a touchdown in 14 games and 14 starts. Newman was ranked 97th among the 109 qualifying cornerbacks in 2011 by Pro Football Focus.
2012
On March 13, 2012, the Dallas Cowboys released Newman in a salary cap related decision that freed up $4 to $6 million in cap space.
Cincinnati Bengals
On April 11, 2012, the Cincinnati Bengals signed Newman to a one-year, $825,000 contract with $150,000 guaranteed. The signing reunited him with former Cowboys defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer, who he played under from –.
Throughout training camp, he competed for a job as a starting cornerback against Leon Hall, Jason Allen, Dre Kirkpatrick, Nate Clements, and Adam Jones. All six players were former first round picks from 2001 to 2012. Head coach Marvin Lewis named Newman the third cornerback on the depth chart and first-team nickelback to begin the season, behind Leon Hall and Nate Clements.
On September 16, 2012, Newman collected a season-high ten combined tackles (eight solo) during a 34–27 win against the Cleveland Browns in Week 2. In Week 6, he tied his season-high of ten combined tackles (seven solo) in the Bengals' 34–24 loss at the Cleveland Browns. On November 4, 2012, Newman made four combined tackles, a season-high four pass deflections, and intercepted two passes by Peyton Manning during a 31–23 loss to the Denver Broncos in Week 9. He was inactive for the Bengals' Week 17 victory against the Baltimore Ravens due to a groin injury. Newman finished the season with 75 tackles (53 solo), ten passes defensed (led the team), two interceptions, a forced fumble, and two fumble recoveries in 15 games and 15 starts.
2013
Newman became an unrestricted free agent after having a productive season in 2012 and attended a private meeting with the Oakland Raiders where he received a contract offer. On April 1, 2013, the Cincinnati Bengals re-signed Newman to a two-year, $5 million contract with $1.40 million guaranteed.
Newman entered training camp slated as a starting cornerback after the Bengals opted to not re-sign Nate Clements. Head coach Marvin Lewis officially named Newman and Leon Hall the starting cornerbacks to begin the regular season, ahead of Dre Kirkpatrick and Adam Jones. In Week 3, Newman recorded a season-high six solo tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception during a 34–30 victory against the Green Bay Packers. He was inactive for three games (Weeks 15–17) after spraining his MCL in Week 14. He completed the season with 52 combined tackles (45 solo), 11 pass deflections, and two interceptions in 13 games and 13 starts.
2014
Newman entered camp slated as a starting cornerback, but saw minor competition for his job from Adam Jones, Dre Kirkpatrick, and 2014 first round draft pick Darqueze Dennard. Head coach Marvin Lewis opted to retain Newman and Leon Hall as the starting cornerbacks to begin the 2014 regular season.
In Week 2, Newman collected a season-high 11 combined tackles (eight solo) and three pass deflections during a 24–10 victory against the Atlanta Falcons. In Week 10, he made five combined tackles before exiting in the third quarter of the Bengals' 24–3 loss to the Cleveland Browns. Newman injured his chest during the game and was inactive for the Bengals' Week 11 victory at the Cleveland Browns. Newman was also sidelined for the Bengals' Week 15 victory at the New Orleans Saints. He started in Week 16, but went on to be sidelined for a Week 17 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers during their season finale. He completed the 2014 season with 72 combined tackles (48 solo), 14 pass deflections, and an interception in 13 games and 13 starts. Newman earned the 56th highest overall grade among 108 qualified cornerbacks from Pro Football Focus in 2014.
The Cincinnati Bengals finished second in the AFC North with a 10–5–1 record and clinched a wildcard berth. On January 4, 2015, Newman started in the AFC Wildcard Game and recorded three solo tackles and a pass deflection during a 26–10 loss to the Indianapolis Colts. This was his last appearance with the Cincinnati Bengals.
Minnesota Vikings
On March 27, 2015, the Minnesota Vikings signed Newman to a one-year, $2.50 million contract with $750,000 guaranteed. He selected to join the Vikings and reunite with head coach Mike Zimmer. Newman played under Zimmer with three different teams, including the Dallas Cowboys (2003–2006), Cincinnati Bengals (2012–2014), and Minnesota Vikings.
Throughout training camp, Newman competed for a job as a starting cornerback against Captain Munnerlyn and 2015 rookie first round pick Trae Waynes. Head coach Mike Zimmer named Newman a starting cornerback to begin the regular season, along with Xavier Rhodes.
Newman made his Minnesota Vikings' regular season debut in their season-opener at the San Francisco 49ers and recorded seven solo tackles in their 20–3 loss. On November 15, 2015, Newman recorded four combined tackles, a career-high five pass deflections, and made two interceptions during a 30–14 victory at the Oakland Raiders in Week 10. He intercepted his second pass of the day off a touchdown pass attempt by quarterback Derek Carr that was originally intended for wide receiver Andre Holmes in the endzone and secured it for a touchback in the fourth quarter as the Vikings led 23–14. The pick sealed their victory and earned him the NFC Defensive Player of the Week award. Newman also earned the distinction of being the second player in league history to have multiple interceptions in a single game after the age of 37. Newman finished the 2015 season with 62 combined tackles (52 solo), 12 passes defensed, and three interceptions in 16 games and 16 starts.
2016
On March 18, 2016, the Minnesota Vikings signed Newman to a $2.50 million contract with $1.10 million guaranteed.
During training camp, Newman competed against Trae Waynes to keep his role as a starting cornerback. Defensive coordinator George Edwards retained Newman and Xavier Rhodes as the starting cornerback duo to begin the regular season. Waynes filled in at starter for the first two games due to a knee injury to Xavier Rhodes. Newman became the second oldest active defensive player in the league in 2016 after the retirement of Charles Woodson during the offseason. The only defensive player in the league older than Newman was Pittsburgh Steelers' linebacker James Harrison who was four months older. He started in the Minnesota Vikings' season-opener at the Tennessee Titans and recorded a season-high seven combined tackles during a 25–16 victory. In Week 10, Newman began rotating with Trae Waynes and started in two of the last seven games. Newman was inactive for the Vikings' Week 12 loss at the Detroit Lions after injuring his neck the previous week. He ended the 2016 season with 38 combined tackles (33 solo), eight passes defended, and an interception in 15 games and ten starts He earned an overall grade of 86.4 and was ranked ninth among qualified cornerbacks from Pro Football Focus in 2016.
2017
On March 15, 2017, the Minnesota Vikings re-signed Newman to a one-year, $3.25 million contract that includes $1.50 guaranteed and a signing bonus of $500,000.
During training camp, Newman competed against Mackensie Alexander to be the first-team nickelback after it was left vacant due to the departure of Captain Munnerlyn. Head coach Mike Zimmer named Newman the third cornerback on the depth chart and first-team nickelback to begin the season, behind Xavier Rhodes and Trae Waynes. On October 15, 2017, Newman recorded a season-high five combined tackles during a 23–10 win against the Green Bay Packers in Week 6. In Week 15, he made a solo tackle, a season-high two pass deflections, and an interception during a 34–7 win against the Cincinnati Bengals. He finished his 2017 campaign with 35
combined tackles (25 solo), five passes defended, and an interception in 16 games and seven starts.
The Minnesota Vikings finished atop the NFC North with a 13–3 record, clinching a first round bye and home-field advantage. They reached the NFC Championship Game after defeating the New Orleans Saints 29–24 in the NFC Divisional Round. On January 21, 2018, Newman started in the NFC Championship Game and record four solo tackles in the Vikings' 38–7 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. Pro Football Focus gave Newman an overall grade of 75.1, which was the 66th highest overall grade among all qualified cornerbacks in 2017.
2018
On April 30, 2018, the Minnesota Vikings signed Newman to a one-year, $1.10 million contract.
On September 1, 2018, Newman announced his retirement from the NFL, and immediately joined the Vikings coaching staff.
The Vikings waived Newman from their reserve/retired list on January 7, 2020, and worked him out later that week. He was not signed to a contract.
NFL career statistics
Regular season
NFL records
One of two cornerbacks to have 2 INT's in a single game at the age of 37: Deion Sanders, 2004
Coaching career
On September 1, 2018, Newman retired from football to join the Vikings coaching staff. In 2020 he worked out for the Vikings, eyeing a possible comeback as a player, but was not signed.
References
External links
Kansas State Wildcats bio
1978 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Salina, Kansas
Players of American football from Kansas
African-American players of American football
All-American college football players
American football cornerbacks
Kansas State Wildcats football players
Dallas Cowboys players
Cincinnati Bengals players
Minnesota Vikings players
Minnesota Vikings coaches
National Conference Pro Bowl players
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople |
4360909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20budget | Government budget | A government budget is a projection of the government's revenues and expenditure for a particular period of time often referred to as a financial or fiscal year, which may or may not correspond with the calendar year. Government revenues mostly include taxes (e.g. inheritance tax, income tax, corporation tax, import taxes) while expenditures consist of government spending (e.g. healthcare, education, defense, infrastructure, social benefits). A government budget is prepared by the government or other political entity. In most parliamentary systems, the budget is presented to the legislature and often requires approval of the legislature. Through this budget, the government implements economic policy and realizes its program priorities. Once the budget is approved, the use of funds from individual chapters is in the hands of government ministries and other institutions. Revenues of the state budget consist mainly of taxes, customs duties, fees and other revenues. State budget expenditures cover the activities of the state, which are either given by law or the constitution. The budget in itself does not appropriate funds for government programs, hence need for additional legislative measures. The word budget comes from the Old French bougette ("little bag").
History
Credible budgets, which are defined as statutory fixed term (generally one year) budgets auditable by parliament, were first introduced in the Netherlands in 1572, England in 1689, France in 1830, Denmark, Piedmont and Prussia in 1848, Portugal in 1851, Sweden in 1866, Austria in 1867, and Spain in 1876. Credible budgets had two main effects: 1. They made parliament more likely to approve new taxation, and 2. They enhanced wartime military spending and increased the chance of victory in war.
The practice of presenting budgets and fiscal policy to parliament was initiated by Sir Robert Walpole in his position as Chancellor of the Exchequer, in an attempt to restore the confidence of the public after the chaos unleashed by the collapse of the South Sea Bubble in 1720. Thirteen years later, Walpole announced his fiscal plans to bring in an excise tax on the consumption of a variety of goods and services, such as wine and tobacco, and to lessen the taxation burden on the landed gentry. This provoked a wave of public outrage, including fierce denunciations from the Whig peer William Pulteney, who wrote a pamphlet entitled The budget opened, Or an answer to a pamphlet. Concerning the duties on wine and tobacco - the first time the word 'budget' was used in connection with the government's fiscal policies. The proposed Excise Bill was eventually rescinded.
The institution of the annual account of the budget evolved into practice during the first half of the 18th century and had become well established by the 1760s; George Grenville introduced the Stamp Act in his 1764 budget speech to the House of Commons of Great Britain.
Modern government budget
Generation
The true government budget, the modern government budget, arose during the period of capitalist society and was gradually established during the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the feudal ruling class. As the productive forces of capitalism developed, the economic power of the bourgeoisie gradually grew and the political demands for democracy became more and more vocal. In the early stages of its development, the budget aimed to establish the duties of the legislature and, after a long struggle with the monarchy, it finally gave the legislature control over taxation. After obtaining the taxation, the power to amend tax laws and approve tax proposals, the legislature turned its attention to controlling expenditure. As a result, the legislature required an annual budget report, including a statement of expenditure and a statement of revenue. England was the highest country in the world to establish a modern government budget. After the triumph of the bourgeois revolution in 1640, England, as a parliamentary monarchy, had all of its financial powers controlled by Parliament. The Bill of Rights of 1689 reaffirmed that the royal government could not force anyone to pay taxes without the approval of Parliament for adoption, and also required that how taxes were to be spent and the items of budgetary expenditure be approved by Parliament, and that revenues and expenditures be allocated on an annual basis and that a plan of revenues and expenditures be made in advance and submitted to Parliament for approval and monitoring. In other capitalist countries, government budgets were created later, such as in France in 1817 and in the United States in 1921. In short, the government budget system was historically established and developed as a way for the National Assembly to control and organise the financial activities of the government (the executive), with the aim of effective control of the executive by the legislature.
The government budget is both a product of government administration and of political democratisation. The emergence of the capitalist mode of production and the high level of development of the commodity economy led to an expansion of the state's financial resources and a massive increase in both revenue and expenditure. The expansion of fiscal revenues and expenditures and the increase in government departments and personnel required the government to plan its funds, which gave rise to the concept of the government budget. The government budget is also a product of the democratisation of modern politics. From the West, the emergence of the capitalist mode of production and the gradual economic power of the bourgeoisie led to increasing demands for political rights. The bourgeoisie demanded the complete separation of the state from the home and the control of government revenues and expenditures through parliament. To this end, the bourgeois theorists put forward the famous "principle of participation", which states that the people have the right not to recognise taxes and expenditures that have not been discussed yet and adopted by the representatives of the people, and to refuse to pay them. On the basis of this principle, the bourgeoisie united with the workers in a long struggle against the feudal aristocracy, which was finally compromised. In 1689, a constitutional monarchy was established in England, with a bourgeoisie-dominated House of Commons, which confirmed the status of the principle of participation: firstly, no taxes could be levied without the consent of Parliament; secondly, the government established a budget, which could only be implemented with the approval of Parliament, etc. By gaining the right to tax and budget, the bourgeoisie finally entered the political arena.
Significance
The institutional framework of public finance is the government budget or public budget. The budgetary system is a system of popular approval and oversight of the financial activities of the state. The history of constitutional politics can be described as the history of the establishment of the modern budgetary system. The budget is, in economic and technical terms, a schedule for the comparison of government revenues and expenditures, a mechanism for allocating resources in modern economic society. The budget, determined through the political process, determines, first of all, the proportion and structure of the allocation of the resources of society as a whole between the various sectors, and therefore the scale and direction of the financial allocation of resources. In essence, the budget is a mechanism by which the taxpayers and their representative bodies control the financial activities of the government, a distribution of public power between different subjects as a means of allocating resources, a structure of checks and balances and a democratic political process. The taxpayers, who have the right to independent assets, are responsible for the financial provision of the State, which necessarily requires control of the State's finances and a legal procedure to ensure that government revenues and expenditures do not deviate from the interests of the taxpayers. In conclusion, the government budget, as a rule of the allocation of resources by public power, is a system of control and organisation of the operation of public finances, and is the basis of representative politics, the core of whose values is democratic finance.
Types of budget
Budgets are of the following types:
National budget: a budget prepared by the central government for the country as a whole.
State budget: In federal systems, individual states also prepare their own budgets.
Plan budget: It is a document showing the budgetary provisions for important projects, programmes and schemes included in the central plan of the country. It also shows the central assistance to states and union territories.
Performance budget: The central ministries and departments dealing with development activities prepare performance budgets, which are circulated to members of parliament. These performance budgets present the main projects, programmes and activities of the government in the light of specific objectives and previous years' budgets and achievements.
Supplementary budget: This budget forecasts the budget of the coming year with regards to revenue and expenditure.
Zero-based budget: This is defined as the budgetary process which requires each ministry/department to justify its entire budget in detail. It is a system of budget in which all government expenditures must be justified for each new period.
Elements
The two basic elements of any budget are the revenues and expenses. In the case of the government, revenues are derived primarily from taxes. Government expenses include spending on current goods and services, which economists call government consumption; government investment expenditures such as infrastructure investment or research expenditure; and transfer payments like unemployment or retirement benefits.
Government revenue
Government revenue is the income of the government earned by redistribution of the social products. It is the financial resource necessary for the functionality of the government. The contents of government revenue have undergone multiple changes. Today, it mostly consists of the following:
Tax revenues: Government income, gained by levying various types of taxes. Taxes typically make the majority of income for most governments. We refer to taxes such as income tax, sales tax, property tax, or corporate tax.
Fees and charges: Fees for additional services provided by the government, which can be referred to as public goods. Such fees include fee on sewage treatment, charges for education, charges for issuing permits or even fines for violating laws.
Loans: Government may borrow money by issuing bonds and other securities, increasing its debt.
Grants and aid: Grants are given to the government by international organizations to fund specific projects. Aid may come from private entities, other governments or international organizations.
Sale of assets: Government may sell public assets such as land, buildings or equipment, in order to generate additional income. Such actions can be referred to as privatization.
Government expenditures
Government expenditures refer to how money raised by the government is allocated in order to support a wide range of causes, meet the needs of its citizens and ensure economic growth through various programs. The expenditures can be divided by the Classification of Functions of Government (COFOG):
General public services: Funding of services provided for the entire population. Some examples are spendings on executive and legislative organs of the government, fiscal actions, international economic aid and transfers.
Defense: Funds allocated by the government for military and civil defense or foreign aid and research.
Public order and safety: Services provided by the government, in order to ensure public safety. Unlike defense spending, it concerns only the protection of the public, such as police or fire-protection services.
Economic affairs: Funds allocated into different industries of the economy, in order to ensure economic growth.
Environmental protection: Governments may spend money on environmental protection, which includes initiatives to tackle climate change, improve the quality of the air and water, and conserve wildlife.
Housing and community amenities: This type of expenditures refers to public goods such as residential development, water supply or street lighting.
Health: These spendings refer to support of healthcare, including prevention and research.
Recreation, culture and religion: Funds allocated to provide recreational goods and services and for cultural services. Additionally includes spending on religious activities.
Education: Funds allocated in order to support the state’s education system. Includes expenses for all levels of education and other types of education.
Social protection: Additional services offered to specific parts of population, in attempt to achieve equity and provide additional social security. These expenditures mostly consist of pensions and unemployment benefits.
Special consideration
Government budgets have economic, political and technical basis. Unlike a pure economic budget, they are not entirely designed to allocate scarce resources for the best economic use. Government budgets also have a political basis wherein different interests push and pull in an attempt to obtain benefits and avoid burdens. The technical element is the forecast of the likely levels of revenues and expenses.
Classification
Government budget can be of three types:
Balanced budget: when government receipts are equal to the government expenditure.
Deficit budget: when government expenditure exceeds government receipts. A deficit can be of 3 types: revenue, fiscal and primary deficit.
Surplus budget: when government receipts exceed expenditure.
A budget can be classified according to function or according to flexibility.
Approaches to government budgeting
Line-item budgeting: In line-item budgeting (also known as the traditional budgeting), the government budget is divided into a list of items which the government plans to spend its money on. The expenditures often exceed the budget, but the majority of the spendings follows the budget plan. This approach was developed in the 1920s in order to prevent corruption.
Incrementalism: This approach focuses on making small changes from year to year. The government forms a budget for the new fiscal year by taking the budget from the previous fiscal year as a base and makes only small changes to it.
Top-down approach: The central financial authority (e.g. the Ministry of finance) sets boundaries to the budget and the government completes it. This approach originated in the 1990s as an attempt to control the increasing fiscal deficits.
Division of responsibilities
The relationships between the federal government and the states and localities are complex and are not well described by a simple look at expenditures. In some cases, the federal government pays for a program and gives broad discretion to the states as to how to carry out the mandate. In other cases, the federal government essentially dictates all the terms, and the states simply administer the program.
Government budget is a subject of importance for a variety of reasons:
Planned approach to the government's activities
Integrated approach to fiscal operations
Affecting economic activities
Instrument of economics policy
Index of government's functioning
Public accountability
Allocation of resources
GDP growth
Elimination of poverty
Reduce inequality in distribution of income
Tax and non-tax receipt
See also
List of countries by government budget
References
Further reading
External links
List of countries by budget; its reference is the CIA's World factbook , in alphabetic order.
Professor L. Randall Wray:Why The Federal Budget Is Not Like a Household Budget
Budget Deficits and Net Private Saving
Sectoral Balances in State Budget. By Fred Bethune
Performance Budgeting: Linking Funding and Results, Marc Robinson (ed.), IMF, 2007
Fiscal Policy in a Stock-Flow Consistent Model by Wynne Godley and Marc Lavoie
From Line-item to Program Budgeting, John Kim, Seoul, 2007
Securities,25 Jan 2022
Government spending |
4360918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miljoenenjacht | Miljoenenjacht | Miljoenenjacht (; ), officially Postcode Loterij Miljoenenjacht, is a Dutch game show, sponsored by the country's postcode lottery, where a contestant and at-home viewer could win up to €5,000,000 (approx. $5,583,720 or £4,390,423) or as little as €0.01. The show is broadcast at various times, spanning across six episodes for each set. The program was originally shown by TROS on NPO 2, but moved to creator John de Mol's channel Tien in 2005. After the channel was discontinued after its sale to the RTL Group, the program moved to RTL 4. In 2019, the program moved to SBS6 due to the transfer of Linda de Mol from RTL to SBS (owned by Talpa).
Originally based on the German game show Die Chance deines Lebens, the format of the programme's final round used since 2002 has been exported worldwide by Dutch producer Endemol under the title Deal or No Deal, a title also used for Miljoenenjacht lower-stakes sister spinoff on RTL 5, which is based more on the global format and removes the additional elements.
Airings
The show began airing in late 2000. In the first season which aired from November 2000 to September 2001, there was only one show per month (seven shows plus one special edition in total). Since the Deal or No Deal endgame was introduced, Miljoenenjacht airs two series (of about five episodes each) per year: one in spring and the other in fall. A New Year's Eve special aired in 2017 and a New Year's Day special aired in 2019.
Quiz rounds
Original rules (2000–2001)
One thousand contenders were split into ten numbered sections of 100, these blocks were also divided into five blocks of 20. The first round consisted of four multiple-choice questions, each one with three possible answers. The contenders were given keypads to answer each of the questions within six seconds. They were divided into two teams of 500 - a red team (blocks 1-5) and a blue team (blocks 6-10). Each right answer gained their team a point, the team with the most points after four questions (red or blue) advanced to the second round, the other team was eliminated from the contest. In the second round, the five victorious sections from the first round played each other exactly the same way as in the previous round, with only one of the five sections proceeding to the next round. The five blocks of this section were then pit against each other in Round 3. At the end of those three rounds, whenever there is an equal score, only the tied teams will play an additional question where the speed of answers might also be considered if the tie can not be broken.
The 20 winning contenders made it to Round 4 where they faced each other in trivia question duels - in each duel, a question with four possible answers was asked. Contenders buzzed in when they thought they knew the answer. If no-one buzzed in, every 10 seconds one of the wrong answers disappeared. The first contender to buzz in got the right to answer. If he was right, he proceeded - if he was wrong, he was eliminated and his opponent advanced to the next round. That means that only 10 contestants were allowed to proceed.
Round 5 consisted of some estimated guess questions the contenders had to answer using their keypads. After each question, the contestant with the best guess was announced. This player was automatically qualified for the next round. Five questions were asked - five contenders moved on.
The five remaining contenders had to put six historical events into chronological order. This game was played twice - after each game, the player who did it worst was eliminated. Only three players proceeded to Round 7 - the Photo Quiz. (In later editions, the game has only been played once, with the two worst players getting eliminated)
At the Photo Quiz, the three contenders were shown 25 pictures, each one showing a celebrity (later: only 15 pictures) - each photo was an answer to one of the following questions. Open-ended questions were asked in this round - contenders again had to buzz in when they thought they knew the answer. If a contender was right, he gained two points. In case of a wrong answer, his two opponents received one point each. The first two players to 15 points (later: 10 points) each made it to the semi-final.
The semi-final consisted of two parts - in the first part, an amount of money starting at 10,000 guilders rose up to an unknown amount determined by the show's independent adjudicator. As long as the amount kept rising, contenders could buzz in and take the money - the first contender to press their buzzer received the current amount and left the game, which meant that their opponent proceeded to the show's endgame. If none of the two players buzzed in before the rising of the money stops, they move on to the second part where the two competitors receive a calculation. If one contender buzzed in with the correct result, he won the game and advanced to the endgame. If a player buzzed in with the incorrect answer, his opponent moved on to the endgame (rules of the endgame see below).
Three times during the game (after round 4, 5 and 6), the remaining contenders were given the chance to leave the game with a valuable prize. (The value of the prize was increased round by round - starting with FL. 10,000 in the first bonus round, followed by a long-distance trip in round 2 and climaxing in Round 3 which offered a brand-new BMW luxury car) They were given a secret amount of seconds (indicated by a giant neon bulb at the center of the Temptation Table) to press their buzzer - the first one to do so was given the prize and left the game. He was then replaced by an audience member selected by the Random Remote of Doom (see below). If none of the contenders decided to leave the game, the Random Remote of Doom picked out an audience member to win the prize instead.
In 2002, the format of Miljoenenjacht has been changed and the "Deal or no Deal" final round was introduced. These are the new rules used for the show from 2002 on:
Settings
Five hundred contestants (plus one friend or family member for each of them, so 1,000 audience members in total) are seated in an arena-style set. The audience is divided into two sections of 250 contenders each, one red and one blue. Each section is then divided into five sections of 50 players each. The five red blocks are numbered 1 to 5 and the blue blocks are numbered 6 to 10. These blocks of 50 are further divided into two blocks of 25, labeled A (the lower half of the section) and B (the upper half) respectively.
Preliminary rounds
In the first round, the host asks the contestants a multiple choice question with three possible answers, which they have 5 seconds to answer using their keypads. Each correct answer gains their team of 250 (red or blue) a point, with a wrong answer worth nothing. Points are announced after each question and the team with the most points after three questions (from 2002 to 2003: four questions) advances to round two. The other team of 250 is out of the game. (Starting in 2008, everyone on the winning team receives a small prize valued at about €100.)
In round two, the five blocks of 50 compete against each other in the same fashion as above, with the winning group proceeding.
Finally, round three sees the two blocks of 25 battle each other, with the winning half continuing to the next round.
After each of those three rounds, there might be the possibility of an additional question if two or more teams are tied, with only the tied teams contending. If the tie can not be broken, the speed of the players locking in their correct answers will decide which group will proceed.
In 2009, after each round, one player from the losing section was randomly chosen and given the option of taking home a valuable prize or taking a seat in Round 4. If the contestant took the seat in Round 4, the prize rolled over to the next round, so after Round 3 someone could have gone home with about €15,000 in prizes.
Starting in 2010, after each round, one of the eliminated players is randomly selected and given the opportunity to pick one of three colored briefcases (red, white or blue). Two of them have a valuable prize inside. If one of these is chosen then everyone in that block of 25 wins that prize. The other case contains a "Chance to win € 5 million" sign and, if this case is picked, the contestant then takes a seat in Round 4.
Round 4
Six different variations of Round 4 have existed during the show's current run.
Variation used from 2002 to 2003
The twenty-five players from the winning block in Round 3 proceed to the next round where they get joined by another contender selected completely at random from the remaining 475 players. Originally, the fourth round consisted of two parts - in the first part, the contenders had to answer seven multiple-choice questions, each one with two possible answers. They had five seconds to answer each of the questions and, in case of a correct answer, received one point for each incorrect answer from their opponents (e.g. if 11 contenders answered correctly and 15 gave a wrong answer, the 11 players with the right answer received 15 points each). After seven questions, the names of the 10 best players were announced. These contenders moved on to the second part of the game. In this second part, the rules were equal to those in the first part, but now there were four possible answers for each question instead of two. After the second part of the game, the two highest scorers moved on to the final quiz round, Round 5.
Variation used until 2005
The 25 players in the winning block proceed to the next round where they will be joined by another player selected at random (see "Random Remote of Doom") after Round 3. The randomly-chosen player gets the opportunity to choose between a valuable prize and a seat in Round 4 - the prize he rejects (either the got-off premium or the ticket for the next round) will be given away to another randomly-selected audience member. The final 26 players then are placed on podiums in the middle of the set where they will be asked 10 questions - the first three have two possible answers, the next three questions have three, and the final four questions have four. All players key in their answers. If a player answers correctly, they receive one point for each contestant who answered incorrectly. All players who choose a wrong answer receive nothing. The two highest scorers at the end of the round move on to the final quiz round, Round 5.
There has also been a slight variation of this 26-player round where the contestants had to answer only six questions, with the first three questions having two possible answers and the last three questions having four options. Again, players who answered correctly scored one point for each incorrect answer of their opponents, and the two highest scorers advance to the final quiz round. (In a further variation of that round used in 2003, the players had to answer eight questions - the first four questions having two possible answers and the last four questions having four options each)
Variation used in 2005 and 2006
Starting in 2005, the five best players from the winning block plus one randomly selected audience member take their place at one of six podiums. Linda gives the players a series of clues one at a time that pertain to a certain person, place, or object. If a player buzzes in and is incorrect, they will leave the game. If a player buzzes in and is correct, however, that person must select an opponent to eliminate from the game by pressing one of five buttons on their podium. However, the player who is about to be eliminated still has a chance to win some money. If they feel they have been chosen to be eliminated, they can press their buzzer. The first person that does chooses a coloured suitcase. These contain amounts from €1,000 to €22,000. Whatever is in the case is what that player wins, however, they must then leave the game. If no-one chooses to take the bribe, the player who was selected to be eliminated leaves without any money. The game continues until two remain.
Variation used in 2007 and 2008
The five best players from the winning block plus one randomly selected audience member take their place at one of six podiums. Linda asks the players questions. The answers to these questions are always numbers. The players type in their answer. The one whose answer is furthest away from the correct answer gets eliminated. However, like in the variation used in 2005 and 2006, the player who is about to be eliminated still has a chance to win some money. Before Linda reveals the answer, they are given a chance to press their buzzer and bail out of the game. This person can then choose between four coloured suitcases (red, blue, green, orange). The four suitcases together contain €40,000. Whatever is in the case is what that player wins, however, they must then leave the game. If no-one chooses to take the bribe, the player whose answer was furthest away leaves without any money. The game continues until two remain.
Variation used in 2008
Just like in the previous variation, the five best players and a randomly selected audience member take place at one of six podiums and answer four questions, to which the answers are always numbers. The only difference is that the players have no possibility to press their buzzer and choose one of the suitcases. Instead of this the player whose answer is furthest away from the correct answer wins a small sum of money (€1000 for the first eliminated, €2000 for the second, €3000 for the third and €4000 for the fourth).
Variation used from 2009 onward
As in the previous two variations, the six players—those who turned down prizes from the previous rounds, plus the best players in the quiz—will answer questions with numerical answers. The difference is that the questions are now based on audience polls. Linda will ask a yes-or-no survey question to either the entire studio audience or a particular part of it (men, women, married men, married women, etc.) and once everyone has entered his answer, she will ask the players to guess how many people answered yes to that question. Whoever is furthest away from the actual number is eliminated, but will win a sum of money as stated above.
Round 5
The two remaining contestants face each other at a single showdown-style podium (the Temptation Table), with one buzzer for each contender and a neon bulb in the centre. A mystery suitcase, which is spinning, is placed on the set's stairs. The contents can be given to one of the players if they eliminate themselves from the game, therefore giving the other player a chance to win from €0.01 to €5,000,000. Its contents can include trips, cars, and a variety of other prizes. If no-one chooses to take the contents of the suitcase, which they will not know until it is open, the two contenders had to play another short quiz round. From 2003 until 2004, Linda would ask the players a simple math question, the first player to buzz in and provide the right answer proceeds to the final round. A player who buzzes in with an incorrect answer gets eliminated and his opponent moves on to the final game.
In later shows, Linda asks one more multiple-choice question with three possible answers. (In fact, the question given was an estimated guess question with three possible guesses proposed, the best guess had to be selected). If a player buzzes in and answers correct, that player wins the game and moves on to the final round. If a player buzzes in and answers incorrect, the other player may answer with one of the two remaining choices. If both are wrong, the player who buzzed in first proceeds, and the other is eliminated.
During the first 2008 series, however, the mysterious suitcase was no longer the prize one of the two players left could take. Starting from €0 (later €1,000 see below), the amount of money awarded to a player who eliminates themselves rises up to a certain amount, chosen beforehand, after which the players cannot eliminate themselves freely anymore. If a player buzzes before the money rise has ended, the player will receive the amount of money it had risen to up to that point. If no player eliminates themselves, the contestants will receive a calculation, which they will have to answer correctly to proceed to the final round. If an incorrect answer is given, the other contestant will proceed to the final round.
Final round
Variation used until 2002
The original final round of Miljoenenjacht was based on the final round of the German game show format "Die Chance deines Lebens" ("The Chance of Your Life"): The winning player is sitting in a red armchair which is situated on a platform rising towards the ceiling as the final game begins. (S)he will be guaranteed at least ƒ1, but can turn it into ƒ10,000,000. To do so, Linda will ask seven multiple-choice questions, each one with seven possible answers of which only one is correct. The player has to answer each of the questions within 30 seconds. For each question the contestant answers correctly, a zero will be added to their winnings. They are asked the questions back-to-back however. After answering all seven questions, the platform gets lowered again, Linda joins the player on stage and the finalist gets notified which and how many questions they got right and their total winnings. Here is the ladder for the amount of winnings:
On September 2 in 2001, a special edition of the final game was carried out in order to close out the first series of Miljoenenjacht. In this new setup, two contenders could qualify for the final game. These two competitors were asked questions of general knowledge, each one with seven possible answers, and each player had to key in an answer. The answer of the fastest competitor was shown; if he was right, he would score a point and his competitor would receive nothing regardless of his answer. If the fastest player answered incorrectly, his opponent would receive a point regardless of his answer. The first competitor to score seven points would receive 10 million guilder.
Variation used from 2002 onward
On December 22, 2002, the format of the final round was changed and the show first introduced the format known in many countries as Deal or No Deal. The final player faces 26 sealed golden briefcases, numbered 1 to 26 and containing hidden cheque of certain amounts of money. At this point, neither the host nor the contenders, as well as the producers, know which amount is sealed in which case. The player now has to select one of the 26 cases to keep in his possession for as long as possible. After the selection, the players have a brief talk with the show's independent adjudicator responsible for loading the various cash amounts into the cases. Linda and the qualified contestant then make their way to the middle of the stage (where the quiz portion had earlier taken place, but with the podiums moved). The other contestants from the winning section in round 3, plus the randomly selected person for round 4 (or without this person if it had been the winning contestant in round 5), are each given a different suitcase from the 25 remaining ones. They are seated in a special section on set in the order of their case numbers. The winning player chooses cases to be opened, however if they open a case, they will no longer be able to win that amount of money (unless they accept it in a deal, see below). Each round calls for the contestant to eliminate a set number of cases:
Six cases are removed in the first round, each round removing one less case, and after 6 rounds of offers, the cases are opened one at a time.
The player selects a case, and the eliminated player holding it guesses which value from the remaining ones on board it contains. If they are correct, the player wins €1,000 for each unopened case at the moment of guessing, so if the first selected panel member guesses correctly, they win €26,000. After the selected number of cases for the round are opened, an alarm sounds, and a bank offer is placed on the screen using an on-screen graphic. The offer corresponds with what round it is, what is left on the board, the luck and emotions of the player, how many cases are left on the set, and probability of removing a giant amount. The longer the large values remain on the board, the higher the offer will be. The player in this bonus round has a friend sitting on the set (much like the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? companion seat) to help with the decision. During the first seasons aired from 2002 on, the contenders were even able to ask the audience about taking or refusing the bank offer. Similar to the "Who wants to be a Millionaire" lifeline "Ask the Audience", the audience members used keypads to key in their decision within five seconds - the result of the voting was shown in percentage terms. Once seeing the offer and considering it, the player either says "Deal", in which case the player sells their briefcase for the bank offer, or "No Deal", in which case the player opens the next round's number of cases, before the next offer. Play continues until the player says "Deal" or until all cases are opened, and in this situation, the player leaves with their briefcase's contents. A random at-home viewer will also be given the same amount of money as the contestant's win.
Fall 2002 – Spring 2006
Fall 2006 – Spring 2012
Fall 2012 – Fall 2016
Spring 2017
Fall 2017 – present
Random Remote of Doom
An item of the show known by fans as the "Random Remote of Doom" has almost become a trademark of the show. Sometimes, de Mol has the remote in her hand, which seemingly appears from nowhere. She presses one of its buttons, a red light flashes on it and someone from the audience is selected randomly - in fact, as this is common use in game shows, the contenders chosen have been predetermined before the taping of the show by an independent adjudicator who randomly ascertains the players. The announcement of the appropriate players - accompanied by various light effects - is presented by firstly "selecting" one of the 10 audience sections. After that, one of the two blocks (prior to 2002: five blocks) of that section gets chosen. Finally, a seat number from that block gets selected, the person sitting on this seat is the contestant which gets awarded whatever is on the line. This might be a (cash) prize or the opportunity to join the game as an additional contender. Sometimes, if neither contestant playing Round 5 eliminated themselves from the game to accept the prize in the mystery suitcase, then de Mol activates the remote, and an audience member wins that very prize instead.
The Random Remote of Doom was first introduced in the German original version "Die Chance deines Lebens" in April 2000 and also became an important part of the Dutch version. It has been used from the beginning of the show in late 2000 until 2010 when the production moved from the former Endemol studios in Aalsmeer to the new Endemol headquarters in Amsterdam.
Temptation Table
Another permanent feature of the show is the so-called "Temptation Table", a circle-round futuristic table with a giant neon bulb in its center. Ten buzzers are situated at the edge of the table, and lightning stripes visible through the transparent tabletop lead form the buzzers to the central neon bulb which can be illuminated in various colours. After Round 4 of the original show aired from 2000 on, the ten victorious players gathered around the table, with each player standing behind one of the buzzers. After Linda presented the prize the contenders can gain for bailing out, the neon bulb, which has been illuminated in red colour up to that point, turned green for 10 seconds - as long as the bulb was green, players could hit their buzzer to quit the game. The first one to hit his buzzer automatically switched on the lightning stripe leading from the appropriate buzzer to the bulb which indicated the winner. If no-one bails out within the countdown of 10 seconds, the bulb turns red again. The table was used for the bailout rounds after the fourth, fifth and sixth quiz round, as well as for the semi-final.
When the "Deal or No Deal" format was introduced in 2002, the fifth and final quiz round saw only two players facing of at the Temptation Table. After the production moved from the TROS to Talpa, the eight unused buzzers were removed from the tables edge, leaving only two buzzers opposite of each other (one for each semi-finalist). Even when the production moved from Aalsmeer to the MediArena studios in Amsterdam in 2010 and the entire design of the show was changed, the Temptation Table still kept its look, only to be replaced by a more futuristic model in 2016.
Extreme prizes (theoretical and factual)
Each show Miljoenenjacht can, theoretically, give away more than three times the jackpot of the case game, €5,000,000. This happens when:
The in-studio player has the opportunity to win €5,000,000 in the case game.
A random at-home viewer, who plays in the Postcode Loterij, and has selected the same "number" as the briefcase chosen by the end game player, is given an amount equal to what the in-studio player wins, which could also be €5,000,000.
When a player selects their briefcase in the final round, that person states their postcode. The following week, whatever the in-studio player wins, that person's postcode dwellers win a portion of the top prize too. When all values are given away to each person in the postcode, it totals up to €5,000,000.
If all the briefcase holders correctly guess the amounts in their briefcases (see Final Round section), a further €350,000 will be given away.
In round four, if all of the four contestants chosen to be eliminated take the bribe, a further amount of money will be given away.
When all these amounts are summed, the total is €15,350,000 plus the money from the 'bribes', which is more than three times the top prize of €5,000,000.
Extreme winners:
The show's biggest winner is Arno Woesthoff from Zeist. He won ƒ10,000,000 (€4,537,802) in the episode of September 2, 2001. In a previous episode of Miljoenenjacht he had already won ƒ1,000,000 (€453,780), to a grand total of ƒ11,000,000 (€4,991,582). With that, he holds the record of Dutch quiz show winnings, and remained as, to date, the biggest game show winner worldwide.
The show's second-biggest winner is Helma. She won €1,495,000 (US$2,147,723 or £1,211,700) with the amounts of €1,000, €75,000, €2,500,000 and €5,000,000 remaining on the board. As per normal, she continued picking cases after she dealt, to see how much she would have won had she carried on. She removed the €5,000,000 on her next pick, thus ending up having a 'perfect' game. Her briefcase turned out to only have had €1,000. This was reportedly one of the biggest wins in worldwide traditional game show history.
The show's third-biggest winner is Krijn Schouten from Almere. He won €1,120,000 (US$1,321,208 or £978,178) in the episode of October 1, 2017. The 5 amounts which remained on the board were €5, €750,000, €1,000,000, €2,500,000 and €5,000,000. He would have removed the €5 in the next case. His briefcase turned out to contain €1,000,000. He asked his wife if she wanted to marry him after the game.
The show's smallest winner is Frank, a man from Venlo who won €10 on January 1, 2005, after rejecting €6,000 with €10,000 being the other amount in play.
The show's biggest loss of a deal occurred on November 3, 2013 when Arrold van den Hurk unintentionally pressed the red button and thus made a deal of €125,000. His case turned out to have the top prize in it. A male contestant on June 1, 2008, a female contestant on April 4, 2010, male contestant on November 21, 2010, and a male contestant on October 15, 2022 accepted €1,050,000, €1,000,000, €460,000, and €449,000 respectively for their cases, which also had the top prize.
Fall 2010 changes
Quiz Round
The 500 players (and their respective partners, that means 1,000 audience members in total) are divided into 10 sections of 50 contenders each, each from a pre-selected postal code.
Linda asks 5 multiple-choice questions, each with 3 possible answers. [The third question is accompanied by a video related to the subject of that question.] Players have 6 seconds to enter their answers via keypad. The player in each section who answers the most questions correctly in the fastest time moves on to Round 2; the remaining players in each section receive a consolation prize, such as a digital video camera.
In 2013, this round has been completely rearranged - the 500 players have to answer estimated guess questions by typing in a number as close as possible to the correct figure using their keypads. The contestant with the best answer gets chosen after each question and now has to decide whether going through to the next round or selecting one of five briefcases on the set's stairs. The cases contain valuable prizes, starting from 500 euro in cash going up to a brand-new car. If the contestant chooses to proceed, he nevertheless has to select one of the cases, the content of which get awarded to a randomly selected audience member. If the contestant selects to take the prize, another audience player selected randomly goes through to the next round instead. Five questions get asked in this round - because of that, five contestants proceed to the next game.
Round 2
The ten winners from the Quiz Round are then paired into a series of 5 one-on-one matchups, with Linda polling the studio audience, or certain members of that audience, on a particular question for each matchup. After the audience members electronically answer yes or no, the contestants, using keypads, will guess how many of the audience members answered "yes". The player closest to the actual number moves on to Round 3. Guessing the number exactly wins a brand-new car.
In 2013, this round has been eliminated - after the new first round, the game directly proceed with what has been the third round before.
Round 3
(Round 2 from 2013 on)
The five winners from the previous round play another question round, placed 1st through 5th, based on how well they did in the first 2 rounds. Linda asks a series of general-knowledge questions for players to buzz in and answer. A correct answer moves a player up one place [i.e., from 2nd to 1st], while an incorrect answer moves a player down one place [i.e., from 1st to 2nd]. A player in last place who answers incorrectly is blocked from answering the next question. After 100 seconds (later 90), the 5th place player is eliminated and wins €1,000. The process is then repeated for two more rounds, with the 4th place contestant winning €2,000 and the 3rd place contestant winning €3,000.
Round 4
The last two contestants from Round 3 faced each other at the Temptation Table and are shown a jackpot starting at €1,000 and increasing irregularly up to a predetermined amount. Whoever buzzes in first takes whatever money is shown on the counter while the other player goes on to the Final Round. If no one buzzes in when the predetermined amount is reached, Linda would ask a math question, with the first to buzz in and answer correctly advancing to that Final Round.
Final Round
The final round is played as before, but instead of audience members holding the briefcases and guessing how much theirs is worth, the models are holding the cases, as in the US and Philippine versions of Deal or No Deal. Prior to this round, a randomly selected audience member is given a handbell to ring, during the first two briefcase-picking rounds, if that audience member thinks a briefcase chosen by the contestant has a lot of money. If the briefcase holds €50,000 or more, the audience member wins €50,000, but anything less, and the audience member wins that amount. (In 2017, the handbell game has significantly changed - now, the selected audience member can choose one of the 26 briefcases at the beginning of the final and then receives a "mini-suitcase" with the same number, containing an amount of money according to the amount in the original case. Like in the handbell game, the audience player receives the same amount of money as hidden in the original case if it is less than €50,000. If the case contains more than €50,000, the bonus player wins €50,000. If the selected case contains the 5 million, the bonus player wins €100,000.)
Whatever each contestant wins is also won by a randomly selected viewer, and is also divided amongst lottery players in the winner's postal code.
Random Remote of Doom variation
A couple of times in each episode, audience members are randomly selected to win a cash prize, such as €10,000. To do so, firstly one of the ten postcode sections gets selected completely at random before one of the fifty players of this section gets selected by announcing their name (instead of their seat number as in the previous shows of Miljoenenjacht). In some cases, the entire section (all 50 players) selected wins a small prize while the selected contender wins an additional €10,000 cash prize. For this new selection process, Linda does not use her Random Remote of Doom anymore. As of 2014, only viewers can win €10,000 by calling in or texting.
References
External links
Postcode Loterij "Miljoenenjacht" Website
View archived episodes of "Miljoenenjacht" when they are available
2000s TV shows in the Netherlands
Deal or No Deal
2000 Dutch television series debuts
Game shows about lotteries
Lottery games
NPO 2 original programming
Television series by Endemol
Television series by Banijay |
4361374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Gonz%C3%A1lez | Ray González | Ramón González Rivera (born May 4, 1972), better known by his ring name Ray González, is a Puerto Rican professional wrestler and businessman. He has performed in the World Wrestling Council (WWC) and International Wrestling Association (IWA) in Puerto Rico, Wrestling International New Generation (W*ING) in Japan, Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) in Mexico, and the X Wrestling Federation (XWF) in the United States.
González has won the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship and the IWA World Heavyweight Championship on numerous occasions. He also held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship once, with his reign being the third for a Latin American-born wrestler by chronological order, but the first among those formally acknowledged by the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA).
Career
El Cóndor; AWF, CMLL, WING, WWC/CSP (1990–1998)
González debuted in Capitol Sports Promotions (CSP) in 1990 as a masked cruiserweight named "El Cóndor", facing Joseph D'Acquisto, who performed locally as The Rochester Roadblock. He continued performing in the lowcard under this heel character for half a year, when he was unmasked and reintroduced as "Ray González". Under this new persona, González defeated Alex Porteau to win the CSP World Junior Heavyweight Championship on September 21, 1991. He vacated this title and began performing in the Americas Wrestling Federation, winning the light heavyweight title and the tag team championship along Tom Brandi. Parallel to this, Capitol reorganized into the World Wrestling Council after going bankrupt. On January 3, 1993, González defeated Takashi Okano in a Wrestling International New Generation tour. Two months later, Mastoshi Yosegi defeated him to retain the WWC Junior Heavyweight Championship. Back in WWC, González entered a feud against Louis Fabbiano, who was wrestling under the stereotypical villainous Arabic character, Mohammed Hussein, defeating his tag team partner. He teamed with Ricky Santana and unsuccessfully challenged for the WWC World Tag Team Championship after defeating a team known as "Solid Gold" twice. González also entered a battle royal but was eliminated. Two more attempts to win the championship along Santana and Ricky Steamboat ended in no contests. After losing to a team known as "The Dream Warriors", González began being pushed as a singles wrestler. He defeated Fabbiano three times, a jobber known as "Slammer" once and wrestling Mike Lozansky to a no contest. On July 8, 1993, González teamed with Carlos Colón to defeat Fabbiano and Dusty Wolfe.
He went on to team with Lozansky in an unsuccessful attempt to win the tag team championship from Fabbiano and Wolfe. González lost his following singles contests against Sione Havea Vailahi, Greg Valentine and a masked Steve Keirn, who was wrestling as "Doink the Clown". He formed a tag team with Ramón Álvarez, defeating Fabbiano and Santana, who had turned heel. On March 19, 1993, González defeated Valentine. He and Álvarez went on to defeat "The Bruise Brothers", Ron and Don Harris. Two days later, he won a disqualification over Dutch Mantell in a title match. On April 24, 1994, González defeated Valentine to win his first Universal Heavyweight Championship. He came in as replacement for an injured José Huertas González, who in reality was promoting a push for him backstage and convinced Colón to grant him the opportunity. Despite this, González's first reign was portrayed as a "underdog run", which saw him win mostly by being opportunist. This creative direction brought forward a lukewarm reception from the crowd, which motivated the creative team to give it back to Mantell. He then entered a feud with Eddie Gilbert winning twice by disqualification and losing once in the same manner. González interrupted this feud by defeating Glen Jacobs in a singles match. He teamed on with Álvarez to feud with Gilbert and Mantell, exchanging victories but failing to win the tag team championship. A fourth match between González and Gilbert ended in a double disqualification. On August 5, 1994, he teamed with Jesús Castillo Jr. against Gilbert and Mantell in a losing effort. Following this, González and Álvarez teamed again, wrestling The Moondogs, composed by Randy Colley and Larry Booker, to two double countouts. On August 11, 1995, he began a Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre tour in Mexico by teaming with Juan Manuel Rodríguez and José Luis Casas to defeat Roberto Guttíerez Frias, José "Negro" Casas and Ultimo Dragon. He once again teamed with Casas Ruiz and Dr. Wagner win a match over Gutierrez Frias, Hector Garza and Ultimo Dragon. On August 25, 1995, González unsuccessfully challenged Gutierrez Frias for the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship in a two out of three falls match.
La Familia del Milenio (1998–2002)
González remained working in the midcard, improving his skills and gathering support from the fanbase. This earned him more backstage supporters and a push was planned following Colón's purported retirement. A tournament for the vacant title was announced, supposedly with rounds taking place in several countries. However, this was a mechanism to trigger a push for González, who was receiving vignettes where Colón was depicted training him. Brandi was brought to WWC, claiming that he was the winner of the other tournament branch. On August 13, 1997, González defeated his former tag team partner to win the Universal Heavyweight Championship. During this reign he was heavily pushed, eventually entering a feud against David Sierra. The belt was held up following a match between them, but González recovered it two weeks later in a rematch. His next feud was precipitated randomly, when "El Nene" interrupted González during a promo, challenging him for the championship. However, this was used to advance the actual storyline, which began with Colón advising him not to accept the challenge. González dropped the title and a confrontation between both ensued after the match, with the differences between both growing during the following months. On May 19, 1998, González won a rematch and went on to turn heel by delivering a promo insulting Colón afterwards. He went on to create a stable known as La Familia del Nuevo Milenio or New Milenium Family and defeated every face wrestler in the midcard, which set up a match between both at Aniversario 1998. In the first night of this event, Colón won the Universal Heavyweight Championship, only to drop it back to González the following night. He went on another successful midcard talent run and held the title until November 26, 1998, losing it to Shane Sewell, before recovering it two days later. On January 6, 1999, González dropped the title in a rematch against Colón, quickly winning it back three days later. González brought in Pierroth, Jr along several Lucha Libre AAA World Wide (AAA) wrestlers to 'invade' the WWC, but the Mexican turned on him after claiming being tired of receiving orders. The first contest between them resulted in a double disqualification due to illegal tactics, with the Universal Heavyweight Championship being held up. On April 3, 1999, González won the title back in a hair vs. mask apuestas match, unmasking Pierroth. However, he dropped it in their next encounter. The feud came to a conclusion in a stipulation match, in which the loser would leave WWC, which was won by González. Shortly afterwards, Carly Colón began appearing in WWC events as a cameraman. González began teasing him, prompting another contest against Colón Sr., who won the championship after his son hit González with a shovel. On November 13, 1999, the title was held up due to outside interference, Colón regained it. González went on to defeat Colón Sr. and regain the championship in WWC's next event, while Carly Colón began his career entering a major push. Soon, both engaged in a feud, and Colón became the youngest Universal Heavyweight Champion by pinning him on January 29, 2000. González then began bringing in several wrestlers to wrestle Colón for the championship, initially including Álvarez and Hercules Ayala.
On February 19, 2000, he defeated Colón to regain the championship. At Aniversario 2000, González dropped the championship to Colón after Álvarez accidentally hit him. González turned on Álvarez, beginning a trend in which he would turn on wrestlers that "failed" the Familia. In this manner he entered a feud with Ayala and brought Curt Hennig to challenge for the title. His next guest challenger was Jerry Flynn. After this feud concluded, González and Colón once again feuded, with him winning the Universal Heavyweight Championship from Álvarez. On November 16, 2000, González defeated WWC President Victor Jovica to win 16% of WWC's stocks. This was used to explain the introduction of his own half-hour segment in WWC programming, "El Café del Milenio". Later that month, he wrestled in a three-way dance against Huertas and Álvarez. In his first match of December, González defeated Colón. He subsequently re-joined Álvarez to wrestle Colón Sr. and Huertas to a no contest. González closed the year by getting disqualified in a match against Hennig, after turning on him in the usual fashion. One of the wrestlers that he brought in was Ricky Fontán, who wrestled as the masked "Super Gladiador". Once he lost the mask to a jobber, La Familia expelled him. In a match against Fontán, the title was held up. On October 26, 2001, González won a rematch to regain the championship. This was followed by a program in which Félix "Barrabás" López and the tag team of Thunder and Lightning, composed by Reynaldo "Thunder" Rodríguez and Alex "Lightning" Cruz took control of the stable away from González. This led to a brief partnership between him and Colón, who teamed to defeat Thunder and Lightning. However, González turned on him shortly afterwards and recovered control of La Familia del Nuevo Millenio. In Lockout, González dropped the title in another match. González was later invited to participate in two tapings of the X Wrestling Federation, owned by Valentine and Jimmy Hart. In this promotion, he teamed with Konnan to defeat Juventud Guerrera and Psicosis. In his only singles match for the XWF, González defeated Kevin Northcutt. He then brought in another foreign challenger to WWC, Vampiro, only to turn on him. In May 2002, González defeated him by disqualification twice. Subsequently, González left the WWC after wrestling in WWC for over a decade, due to internal conflicts against Colón Sr. and Jovica following six months of irregular payment.
Rey Fénix, Capitol Sports and NWA World Championship (2002–2005)
González entered the International Wrestling Association under a mask as "Rey Fénix" in July 2002 weeks after leaving WWC due to disagreements with both Jovica and Colón. The change was forced due to a lawsuit filed by WWC over the identity of "Ray González". Upon arriving, he joined Juan Rivera's (as Savio Vega) heel stable, "La Compañia" and feuded with Germán Figueroa (as "El León" Apolo), Gilbert Cosme (as Ricky Banderas) and Shane Sewell over the IWA World Heavyweight Championship. González won his first IWA World Heavyweight Championship at Golpe de Estado 2002 by defeating Banderas. This match was contested under heavy rain before a full Estadio Roberto Clemente Walker and became known as La Lucha del Siglo ("The Match of the Century"), being recognized eight years later as the best performance of the 2000s. Subsequently, a storyline was run where González started having problems with Vega over Banderas being allowed into La Compañia while they were feuding over the title. In February 2003, he gathered a sum of money to purchase his contract, but Vega refused to grant him a release. He then lost the title to Apolo on November 9, 2002, in Bayamón, Puerto Rico. On February 1, 2003, once the lawsuit had been won in his favor, González unmasked and turned babyface. He won his second World Heavyweight Championship by defeating Banderas on April 5, 2003, in an event held in Carolina, Puerto Rico. After unmasking, González joined the dominant face faction, "El Ejército de la Gente". In June 2003, González was attacked by a masked Fontán, billed as "Super Fénix". In July 2003, when Huertas arrived to the IWA, he asked to form a partnership. At Summer Attitude, González challenged Figueroa for the World Heavyweight Championship before a crowd of 11,000 fans. In October 2003, González defeated Banderas to become the first contender. In June 2003, Carly Colón signed a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment. The following month, IWA began promoting the arrival of the "son of a legend that is universally recognized" which was heavily hinted to be Colón, but in reality, turned out to be Ric Flair's son, David Flair. He feuded with Banderas, Vega and Figueroa for the rest of the year until Víctor "The Bodyguard" Rodríguez turned on him in November 2003 and sided with Flair. He won the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship from Flair on November 30, 2003, in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. To close 2003, Thunder and Lightning arrived to the IWA, soon joining González to reform La Familia. Víctor "The Bodyguard" Rodríguez emerged as the self-proclaimed leader of La Compañia during his absence. With the groups defined, La Familia now moved with the intent of acquiring full control of IWA. Immediately after being reformed, the group entered into a feud with the Ejercíto de la Gente, namely Figueroa, Pérez Jr. and Cotto. In May 2004, González challenged for the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship. The same week, he retained his title over Cotto. González entered an angle where he competed with José Chaparro for the contents of a "black box" that was stolen from Vega, but decided to join forces instead, announcing the return of El Café del Milenio. On June 5, 2004, La Familia and La Compañia joined forces and Chaparro along them.
However, this storyline was interrupted by the death of Rodríguez due to a heart attack, and Vega unsuccessfully attempted to regain control of the General Manager by challenging González at Summer Attitude.
In August 2004, he was involved in an angle in which he won 49% of IWA's stocks. He then entered a feud with the owner of the remaining 51%, Victor Quiñones. On August 28, 2004, at Bad Blood, González announced that from that moment onwards, IWA would be known as "Capitol Sports", claiming that Quiñones had already received documentation confirming this. Despite this, the IWA took the angle seriously and replaced the IWA's logo in all of its promotional material and website with a modified darker and duller version of the Capitol Sports Promotions logo. The creative team also added Apollo 100's "Joy", a track often used by Capitol Sports Promotions, to its televised commercials and the El Café del Milenio segment. In a subsequent interview, González claimed that he actually owned the 51% and that Quiñonez had misread the contract, noting that any wrestler that did not side with the new regime would be fired. When questioned if he would fill the ensuing vacants by bringing talent from WWC, he noted that was plan and revealed that one of the first acquisitions was "a surprise wrestler [that has] Capitol running through his veins". To further confirm that he was referring to Carly Colón (who had recently turned on his family as part of an angle that WWC prepared in anticipation to his promotion from Ohio Valley Wrestling to WWE SmackDown), González went on to describe his new associate as someone with whom he had problems in the past that were now overcome, going on to praise him as a "young [...] great wrestler" with great "stamina" and a "tremendous future in the United States" (in reference to Colón's contract with WWE). During this description, Chaparro made gesticulations that mimicked the afro that Colón had grown during the summer of 2004 while preparing for the debut of a new character. González concluded by noting how this signing was done so this wrestler could complete an unspecified "special" task for Capitol Sports, because this was the "perfect person" to accomplish it. The IWA further mocked Colón in a skit where Savio Vega dismissed this revelation, citing that he was going to air the video of a match where Flash Flanagan (who was active in the promotion performing as "Slash Venom") pinned him at OVW. This angle was concluded in a segment where González berated an unknown individual during a call for being unable to appear in a card, claiming that "he [was] as mediocre as [his] father and brother".
González then began recruiting Huertas to join him, claiming that their origin in "Capitol joins them". On September 4, 2004, he dropped the title to Figueroa due to intervention from Havana, who then proposed to her. This angle continued when González interrupted the scripted wedding, painting the bride's dress in black. In September 2004, somebody assaulted Huertas backstage, leaving behind Vega's trademark bat. It was subsequently revealed that the culprit was "Lightning" Cruz acting on his behalf, just when Huertas was about to join the "Capitol" faction. On October 9, 2004, González announced that "Capitol" had formed an alliance with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling-NWA for Golpe de Estado and that this move would bring in NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarret, Robert Roode, Konnan and Shawn Hernandez. Immediately after completing this announcement, Vega proposed that they bet the stocks at Golpe de Estado with the winner taking full control of both halves of the promotion, which was accepted. On October 14, 2004, with the score tied between "Capitol" and IWA, González lost to Figueroa ending the name change angle. During the course of the undercard, La Familia turned on Konnan for losing. In the next event, González brought in the Commissioners of the fictional Puerto Rico Box and Wrestling Commission to challenge the result, only to assault them after being told that IWA did in fact win. The feud with Figueroa resumed when he interrupted González match against Sewell for the Intercontinental Championship. At Noche de Campeones, he defeated Figueroa to win the World Heavyweight Championship. At Hardcore Weekend, González brought in Homicide and Mafia from Ring of Honor to face the Ejercíto, but lost his match against Figueroa. After failing to secure a partnership with a now-heel Vega, González made a face turn and entered a feud against Jarrett. In the promotion of their feud, references were made to the latter's status as the incumbent King of the Mountain. On April 3, 2005, he faced Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship with a TNA referee as part of Juicio Final. González won the match by pinfall to become the second Puerto Rican to pin a NWA Champion in a titular match. However, the title was stripped later in the same event, when Jarrett complained that José Vázquez, the referee that made the count once the TNA official was knocked out, was not recognized by the NWA. IWA recognized the reign on television because the pin was clean and Vázquez was a sanctioned IWA referee and thus, allowed to replace another referee in case of injury. This win was retroactively recognized by the NWA nearly ten years later, with the organization including the title change in their official list on February 16, 2015.
La Familia and World Heavyweight Championship feuds (2005–2008)
On May 14, 2005, González lost to Sewell. The following night he defeated Vega's bodyguard, Miguel "Mr.Big" Maldonado in an anything goes match. González won his next contest over Jean Pierre Lafitte. The feud continued with him teaming with Banderas victory over Lafitte and Sewell. González next entered a feud with Jason Bates, trading wins. This came to an end when he teamed with Banderas to defeat Bates and Lafitte. Four days later he participated in a Texas Tornado match teaming with Chicano to defeat Sewell and Maldonado. This was followed by two victories over midcarder Edgar Díaz. The team of González and Banderas teamed once again to defeat Lafitte and Vega. Gonzâlez won the Víctor The Bodyguard Memorial Cup but lost to Vega in the same event. He then entered a concrete feud with Maldonado, picking two wins and one no contest. González's next neud was with Slash Venom, who defeated him in a tag team match. After interrupting this angle by wrestling Figueroa to a no contest, González defeated Kindred in a tag team and singles match. Leading to Sumner Attitude 2005, he teamed with Bison Smith to defeat Figueroa and Vega. At the actual event, González defeated Vega. In his next appearances, González lost three tag team matches against different variations of La Compañia. However, he did pick two disqualification victories over Vega. In their next confrontation, González won a lumberjack match. He lost consecutive tag team contests against the team of Maldonado and Hannibal. González went on to gather singles victories over Maldonado and Ricky Cruz. González teamed with Thunder and Lightning twice, defeating Vega and different members of La Compañia. He subsequently defeated Cruz and Vega in lumberjack matches.
At Hardcore Weekend, González lost a coal miner's match to Banderas, avenging this lost the following week. La Familia continued its feud against La Cruz del Diablo and La Compañia, rounding a record of 2–1. On December 12, 2005, he unsuccessfully challenged Kindred for the Hardcore Championship. González closed the year by defeating Figueroa at Christmas in PR. On January 6, 2006, he defeated Vega in a "loser leaves IWA" match. For the following month, he feuded with Figueroa, Kindred and Maldonado, exchanging victories. On February 18, 2006, a returning Vega defeated González while wrestling under his "El hombre que ellos llaman T.N.T." gimmick. He then turned face and entered a winning streak of five contests, gathering wins over Cotto, Kindred and Huertas González. This streak ended in a tag team match, when he lost to Vega and Huertas, then known as "Los Inhumanos". This feud continued, with Los Inhumanos earning a 3–1 advantage. However, González did win a titular contest over Huertas and another over Jeff Bradley. He went on to gather wins over Vega and Christian Martínez, as well as a successful title defense over slugga, but lost rematches against Huertas and Ricky Cruz. On September 2, 2006, González defeated Mikael Judas to win the World Heavyweight Championship. This ignited a feud, in which he won four consecutive tag team matches. On September 16, 2006, González once again defeated Judas in a contest for the World Heavyweight Championship. A rematch ended in a no contest, but Judas did win a "baseball bat in a pole" contest. González defeated Judas and Maldonado in singles matches, also picking a victory over The British Milicia in tag team competition. Around this time, "Lightning" Cruz turned on La Familia and went on to defeat González and Judas in a four corners match, going on to win the World Heavyweight Championship. González won a singles match between them by disqualification. This was followed by the final stage of his long running feud with Judas, which concluded with him earning an advantage of 4–1.
On December 9, 2006, González dropped the title to Sewell, prompting a heel turn and a rivalry between them. After Sewell won three straight contests, including a rematch for the title, he was disqualified in a special challenge against Bison Smith. The following day he won the World Heavyweight Championship and formed a partnership with Smith. However, Sewell won all of the tag team matches between them while his partner, Banderas, defeated González one on one. Depots this run, he retained the title in a rubber match held on February 3, 2007. González then teamed with Judas and reunited with "Lightning" Cruz winning two out of three appearances over the face stable. However, Vega's reappearance earned Sewell and Banderas the upper hand, going on to win a 3-on-3 match, while another was ruled a no contest. On February 24, 2007, González participated in an over-the-top battle royal, won by Sewell, who also won a tag team match between them in his next appearance. The following month, he was involved in a feud against Thunder and Lightning, losing to both in singles matches and a tag team contest. On March 23, 2007, González defeated Pérez, which was followed by two more matches against Los Autenticos, which his team lost in a six-on-six. González also defended the IWA World Heavyweight Championship against Billy Kidman and Joe Bravo. Following a hiatus, González made his return to the IWA on December 15, 2007, participating on the Christmas in PR event. At Histeria Boricua 2008, he returned by teaming with Figueroa to defeat Los Autenticos. In February 2008, González formed a tag team with Cotto, which was quickly dissolved when he turned heel following two losses. He won two consecutive matches, before fading from IWA programming.
Return of El Cóndor and Rey Fénix (2008–2011)
González reappeared in WWC, once again adopting the character of "El Cóndor" and donning its mask. He aligned himself with Chaparro and demanded to be part of WWC's Tournament to determine a champion for the vacated Universal Heavyweight Championship. The tournament consisted of wrestlers competing against each other and the winner receiving points to determine the top contenders, with a final being held at Aniversario 2008. He entered the tournament, quickly gaining his first points by winning a three-way match. He interrupted his participation by entering a feud against the Colón family. After wrestling Colón Sr. to a no contest, González joined Jovica against him and Orlando Colón, but lost. His next two contests were double count outs and after failing to accumulate any points, he challenged Orlando Colón to a stipulation match. González won and his point total was upgraded to tie Colón's, however, the following week he announced that he was going to drop out of the race for the title, citing "more important business". This being to focus on his ongoing feud, which saw him take a 3–1 lead before getting disqualified against Eddie Colón. They had a re-match where Cóndor took off his mask before he wrestled Orlando. He was identified as Ray González, but because there was "no evidence", continually denied his unmasking. He appeared on a show named Anda pa'l Cara to confront Carlos Colón Sr. and Carly Colón. He took off his mask in front of the cameras and revealed his identity as Ray González. He threw coffee onto Carly Colón's shirt and slapped Carlos Colón Sr. across the face.
In Aniversario 2008 González defeated Carly Colón in a match promoted as an eliminatory to determine the "best pound for pound wrestler in Puerto Rico". He went on to win consecutive contests over both of the cousins, before losing twice to Orlando. González was also involved in a sub-feud with Thunder and Lightning, winning two tag team matches but losing to Lightning. On August 23, 2008, he brought back his talk show "El Cafe del milenio" but he changed the name to "Ray-tings Cafe". After exchanging defeats with Orlando Colón, he entered the race for the Universal World Championship again. His main challenger was Sewell, who beat him in a non-title confrontation. On September 20, 2008, González defeated Sewell to win the vacant title. He won his first two defenses over Sabu and Kindred, while also picking a victory over Ángel "BJ" Rosado. "Thunder" Rodríguez was the first to win an opportunity by winning a singles match, but González retained twice. On November 23, 2008, he was betrayed by "La Familia" led by Álvarez for failing to negotiate a re-institution to WWC. This was followed by a double feud against Charles Evans and Steve Corino, which saw him defeat Evans twice. After retaining against Corino once, González dropped the championship to him on January 31, 2009. After this, he exchanged tag team wins with Corino and wrestled him to a double disqualification. The delayed feud with Álvarez resumed and González won a singles match but lost in tag team competition. He went on to exchange victories with Kizarny and defeat Idol Stevens. González also exchanged matches with Corino but failed to regain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. However, a masked wrestler simply known as "La Pesadilla" began antagonizing him during this time, evolving into a series of matches.
González gained a 2–1 edge in matches involving La Pesadilla, but insisted that it clearly was Orlando Colón behind the mask, which lead to another exchange of victories between both. After defeating Corino and his manager, Chaparro, he challenged La Pesadilla to a hair vs. mask match at Aniversario. At the event, González defeated La Pesadilla in a match where Félix Trinidad served as special referee, to reveal that it was in fact Colón, who countered weeks after by double teaming him along Hiram Tua. As a consequence, González suffered a storyline neck injury that forced him to retire from the World Wrestling Council. However, this hiatus was short-lived and after earning victories over Stevens and exchanging contests with Bradley, the feud with Colón resumed, with both men once again emerging with one victory a piece. At Euphoria 2010, González defeated Banderas and Carly Colón to win the Wrestler of the Decade Cup. However, he dropped it to Banderas the following week. González went on to defeat Eric Pérez on three consecutive times and Orlando Colón in a stipulation match. This was followed by a battle royal to determine the first contender for the Universal Heavyweight Championship, which Cotto won. Despite this, González participated and won a three-way dance for the title the following week. González quickly entered a feud with Scott Steiner, winning the first contest by disqualification. He retained it twice, including defeating Sinigalia. At Honor vs Traición 2010, Steiner won the second matchup against González to win the title. He followed this by winning a tag team match, regaining the first contendership by defeating Torres and winning a rematch over Chaparro. At Summer Madness, a contest between González and Steiner finished controversially and was declared a no contest, with the Universal Heavyweight Championship being held up. He followed this with a victory in a rematch over Sinigaglia and yet another exchange of victories with Orlando Colón. At Aniversario 2010, González defeated Steiner to regain the Universal Heavyweight Championship. On July 31, 2010, he dropped the title to Shelton Benjamin following external intervention from the debuting Gilbert. González disappeared from WWC programming following this event, only being mentioned occasionally during Gilbert's promos.
Prior to Christmas in PR 2010, the IWA began running an angle where a "mysterious voice" left messages to some of its wrestlers. On January 6, 2011, hours before the "Histeria Boricua" event was going to be held in Bayamón, the IWA published a video featuring a masked Rey Fénix announcing his presence at the event. At the actual event, González donned the mask and demanded a rematch against Banderas, claiming that he had "never defeated Rey Fénix". The match was promoted as "La Revancha del siglo" (The rematch of the century) and was won by Banderas. The angle with the "mysterious voice" continued for some time, in instances being hinted as a psychotic conversation between González and his alter ego. A conclusion came at Juicio Final, when it was revealed that he had been mocking the fans all along and proceeded to remove the mask. González then recruited Thunder and Lightning as well as the academy, a group composed by Olympic style wrestler, Phillip Cardona, and the undefeated Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion, Chris Angel. Following this, González made several non-wrestling appearances explaining that in Angel he saw "a younger version" of himself. Despite this, he left the IWA shortly after the promotion ceased to work with Telemundo de Puerto Rico, entering another period of inactivity.
Feud with Gilbert; La Nueva Familia (2011–2013)
On December 3, 2011, Gilbert Cruz mentioned González on a segment of Las Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre Saturday edition, also stating that "he [was] tired of being compared to Ray González" and later reiterating that "[González] ran away from wrestling because he was afraid of him" before issuing an invitation for the latter to be the guest in a skit hosted by him titled "La Opinión de Gilbert". González accepted, appearing in a segment where he confirmed his presence at Lockout. The event took place on December 17, 2011, with the segment serving as the starting point for a feud between both wrestlers. González won their first encounter at Euphoria 2012, but Cruz retaliated at La Hora de la Verdad to become the first contender to the Universal Championship. He was then involved in an angle against manager Orlando Toledo, concluding with a victory over one of his clients, Kenny Dykstra. At Camino a la Gloria, González became the first contender for the Universal Championship by winning a three-way match over Roberto Rubio and Dykstra, however the rest of Toledo's stable attacked him and a run in by Colón and Thunder and Lightning hinted at an alliance. After defeating Rubio in singles competition, the creation of a new version of La Familia began being hinted in television segments in which the manager of Thunder and Lightning, Félix "Barrabás" López, began recruiting members. Despite this, González turned down the offer to recreate his old stable and wrestled Cruz for the title, but was unable to win it after being attacked by two masked wrestlers during the match.
On May 12, 2012, González wrestled Colón in a bid to become the first contender, but the masked duo intervened and later revealed their identity as Thunder and Lightning, officializing the emergence La Nueva Familia as a heel antithesis. This was followed by a mirror version of the angle where both teamed for the first time. This led to a bet at Aniversario, where González and Colón risked their hair and Thunder and Lightning their masks. Leading up to the event, he challenged Cruz for the Universal Championship, but the intervention of La Nueva Familia prevented a conclusion. At Summer Madness, González defeated a disguised Lightning, which was billed as a "surprise wrestler" brought in by "Barrabás" López. On June 29, 2012, he opened Aniversario by defeating Davey Richards during the first date of the event. The following night, González and Colón won the bet to unmask Thunder and Lightning, but lost a rematch to close Aniversario. The feud was extended throughout August and during this timeframe he defeated both members of Thunder and Lightning by disqualification. Both teams faced each other in a handcuff match at Septiembre Negro, but Colón turned on González, costing them the match and leading to a new feud. He made an unexpected alliance with Cruz, joining him in two losses and a win against Thunder and Lightning. At Halloween Wrestling Xtravaganza the tag team joined Carlos Colón Sr. to defeat Thunder & Lightning and "Barrabás" López.
On October 29, 2012, González defeated Andy Levine to win the Universal championship. This title rekindled the feud with Colón who unsuccessfully challenged him, but lead to a stipulation that Rivera, who had entered the promotion after the IWA closed, would serve as special referee during their next match at Lockout. Colón Sr. sided with González in this angle, scoring a win over his son, a returning Figueroa and "Barrabás" López. An additional hair vs. hair match was subsequently added. In the meantime, González successfully defended the title against Levine twice. At Lockout, lost the match to Colón after Rivera turned on him, starting a new angle. Their first encounter as won by the returning persona of Rey Fénix, which was adopted only for this match. González continued a two-way feud with Rivera and Colon, defeating the latter but losing in tag team action after joining Victor Jovica. After Rivera won a rematch, González retained the title in another encounter. Colón also lost an opportunity for the championship, but was joined by several other heels in an assault that concluded when Thunder and Lightning intervened on his behalf.
Rey Fénix vs. Súper Fénix; Los Inhumanos (2013–2014)
A masked Cruz was introduced to the angle as a new version of the Súper Fénix, with González losing their first two encounters and dropping the Universal Championship. A third match for the title concluded in a double disqualification. González then wrestled a recent addition to Colón's stable, a now-heel Huertas, to a disqualification. Cruz retained the Universal Championship at Camino a la Gloria 2013. After briefly interrupting the feud with a match against Colón, Gonzalez won the title in a stipulation match where his career was on the line, holding it for a pair of weeks before losing it to Cruz's associate, Chris Angel. A rematch concluded with a disqualification. During this timeframe, an angle took place where Cruz defied being Súper Fénix, leading to a career vs. mask match at Summer Madness. The event took place on June 29, 2013, Cruz defeated González, who entered into another hiatus in his career following a faux retirement ceremony. The following month, the character of El Fénix made a return joining Rivera, who had been expelled from the heel faction, to feud with Huertas and Cruz.
At Aniversario both versions of the Fénix faced each other, with Cruz losing the contest and his mask. Later in the event, a still masked González intervened and costed Colón a match against Sting. After unsuccessfully challenging Angel for the Universal Championship, he resumed his previous feud. A mask vs hair match was announced for Crossfire in which Colón defeated Rey Fénix, but it was revealed that Ricky Santana had supplanted González for this event.
On that same night, the storyline involving the faux retirement was concluded by granting him permission to resume his career. Despite winning, Colón protested the switch and intervened in a contest between him and Angel. At Lockout, a masked heel wrestler known as Mighty Ursus attacked González after losing a match, beginning a parallel feud. The following night, he resumed his previous storyline by defeating Colón. Another match between them concluded with the same result to open Euphoria 2014. The following night González joined Santana in a loss to Colón and Huertas, the latter of whom betrayed his partner. Days later Rivera, who had adopted a martial arts gimmick that he used two decades earlier known as TNT, also turned to recreate a faction known as Los Inhumanos.
He joined Colón to defeat this team, but they were subsequently assaulted until Miguel Pérez made the save in his return to the local scene. González joined the former president of IWA, but lost to Los Inhumanos. Individually, he defeated Rivera twice to win the Universal Championship. Ursus served as the new contender for the championship, with their first encounter concluding in a disqualification. González won a rematch, but was assaulted after the match. A rubber match at Camino a la Gloria concluded with the same result. González's next opponent was Levine, who was managed by Huertas. After a successful defense, he was involved in a backstage segment where he was ambushed, leading to a disqualification win a in rematch. Leading to another match against Levine, González was challenged by Chaparro to defend against Ursus, now his client. This began two parallel feuds, after the challenge was accepted for the upcoming Summer Madness. On June 21, 2014, González retained in a match that José Laureano worked as his manager. The feud with Ursus continued throughout the following month, with him dominating all but one where Chaparro created a false ending by ringing the bell prematurely leading to a disqualification.
Alberto del Rio; Ray González Jr. (2014-2015)
On July 19, 2014, González dropped the title to Ursus. Rivera interfered in a rematch for the title and reverted to his Savio Vega persona, joining Ursus and a new manager, Juan Manuel Ortega. The first match of this new series concluded in a disqualification, with another taking place the following week. On August 24, 2014, WWC began a transition of storyline by airing a backstage segment where Ortega talked by telephone with someone only identified as "patrón" and referenced a reunion previously held at WrestleMania XXX. The following week featured a segment where the manager picked Ricardo Rodriguez from Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport and drove to a golf club where González was playing a round. There it was revealed that the former WWE ring announcer had been sent on behalf of Alberto Del Rio (who had recently adopted the persona of "El Patrón Alberto" in AAA after being fired from WWE for unsportsmanlike conduct), delivering a sign of disrespect as a "personal message" before fleeing the scene. The following week a match between both was confirmed for Septiembre Negro, where González defeated Rodriguez (now promoted as "El Emisario de El Patrón"), also injuring his leg after the encounter, and challenged Del Rio to a match at Aniversario.
This was followed by a match against Ursus and a revival of his feud with Cruz, while internal negotiations continued. On September 24, 2014, the storyline with Rodriguez continued, when he was depicted calling Ortega to confirm the presence of Del Rio at Aniversario. However, after being announced Del Rio was unable to make an appearance and the storyline digressed, while his absence was attributed to "la migra". On October 12, 2014, González defeated Gilbert. After the match, Ricardo Rodríguez ordered the debuting Hernandez to attack him. González defeated Hernandez at Aniversario, but was subsequently attacked and left covered by the flag of Mexico. Other feuds were hinted and during this event, he also joined a returning Huertas to defeat Álvarez and Ursus. Meanwhile, Ortega took over the role of main antagonist by bringing in Jinder Mahal and Noriega as a surprise opponent, but both failed to fulfill his goal. González defeated Hernandez in a tables match at Lockout, but was attacked by Mahal afterwards.
On January 3, 2015, both faced each other in an Indian Strap Match, which González won. The following day he filled a vacant and defeated Colón to win the WWC Universal Championship. On January 17, 2015, the title was held up due to the circumstances and the champion was to be determined in a three-way cagematch the following week. Colón won the contest, but González suffered a legitimate injury and was removed from the arena in an ambulance. Fractures in the L5 and S1 vertebrae affected his movement, leading to surgery weeks later. While he recovered, his 17-year-old son Rey debuted in WWC as El Hijo de Ray González while he played the passive role of counselor. Despite mainly appearing in backstage segments emphasizing his recovery, González made a brief return to the ring by joining his son against Colón and a masked underling as part of the summer Madness card. However, after defeating his long-time rival in singles, González resumed his physical therapies.
On August 11, 2015, his figure was involved in an ongoing rivalry between the promotion and the World Wrestling League, when the latter published a segment implying that a stable formed by former WWC employees, named El Consejo, had a leader and which featured an unknown wrestler impersonating his voice and congratulating the stable for what they had done. A rebuttal came in the form of a video where González urged those involved to "abandon [that] rubbish" which was followed by the announcement that he was now the legitimate owner of a fraction of the promotion. Despite remaining inactive, he also served as the guest referee of Aniversario's main event. Earlier in the night, González celebrated along his son when the latter won the Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship.
On November 7, 2015, WWC resumed the angle with Del Rio, beginning with a segment where he assaulted his son during a training session at Texas Wrestling Academy, citing it as payback for his father injuring Rodriguez. The skit was filmed before the former returned to WWE, but was given continuity. This was the only external appearance cleared by the promotion after the enactment of a new contract, even superseding his remaining compromises as the incumbent Mega Champion of AAA. The following day, González challenged Del Rio to a match. The promotion of the event focused on the vindictiveness that fueled the training of the former, and also included an interview where the latter expressed confidence. The script of both wrestlers took on a nationalistic approach, including external elements such as the Mexico–Puerto Rico boxing rivalry, as well as a recap of Pierroth's run in WWC. On December 5, 2015, González defeated Del Rio by disqualification at Lockout.
Early and personal life
González became interested in professional wrestling by serendipity, being mesmerized by a match between Colón Sr. and Abdullah the Butcher that was casually being aired while he changed channels during his youth. This interest was not well received among his immediate family members, and he felt compelled to train covertly. However, a lack of adjacent wrestling academies (at the time) complicated this goal. While still in school, one of his classmates introduced González to a wrestler named Gerardo "Jerry" Quiñonez Mercado and he began training under him at a multi-sports gymnasium located in the Río Piedras district of San Juan. Still doing this on his own accord, he was forced to either hitchhike or board the Cataño Ferry to the locale. After González debuted in CSP, his family figured that he was wrestling, but left him to his own devices. During this timeframe he was influenced by both local (i.e., Colón Sr.) and international (i.e., Ric Flair) performers.
Outside of professional wrestling, he is the father of four children, three daughters and a son. González divides his time between tending to them and maintaining a family store, now known as Rayting Minimarket, in the municipality of Dorado. Originally inherited from his father, "Yuyin" González, he decided not to change the business model to something more lucrative and instead choose to honor the "legacy and sacrifice" of his family, noting that he still feels identified with the people there, who still recognize him by the given name of Ramón instead of his alter ego. It was due to these responsibilities and his local success that González declined several offers to wrestle abroad, further fueled by a concern that the stability of WWC as a promotion could be threatened if he migrated since Rivera had left to WWE several years before and had been joined by Miguel Pérez Jr. and Jesús Castillo Jr. (all three would form Los Boricuas). He is also a follower of mainstream sports and a fan of teams like Vaqueros de Bayamón and the New York Yankees.
In other media
González is mentioned in Bad Bunny’s single "Puesto Pa' Guerrial", released in the album YHLQMDLG.
Championships and accomplishments
Americas Wrestling Federation (Puerto Rico)
AWF World Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
AWF World Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Tom Brandi
International Wrestling Association
IWA Undisputed World Heavyweight Championship (7 times)
IWA Intercontinental Championship (2 times)
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him #95 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1994
World Wrestling Council
WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship (21 times)
WWC Puerto Rico Championship (5 times)
WWC World Junior Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
WWC Television Championship (2 times)
WWC World Tag Team Championship (11 times) - with El Bronco 1 (3), Huracan Castillo Jr. (3) Ricky Santana (3), Rex King (1) and La Ley (1)
WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Ricky Santana
Copa Luchador de la Década (2010)
Luchas de Apuestas record
See also
Professional wrestling in Puerto Rico
References
External links
La historia de la rivalidad entre Ray González y Carlito
1972 births
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
Living people
Masked wrestlers
NWA World Heavyweight Champions
People from Dorado, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican male professional wrestlers
WWC Universal Heavyweight Champions
WWC Puerto Rico Champions
WWC Television Champions |
4361469 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive%20margin | Passive margin | A passive margin is the transition between oceanic and continental lithosphere that is not an active plate margin. A passive margin forms by sedimentation above an ancient rift, now marked by transitional lithosphere. Continental rifting forms new ocean basins. Eventually the continental rift forms a mid-ocean ridge and the locus of extension moves away from the continent-ocean boundary. The transition between the continental and oceanic lithosphere that was originally formed by rifting is known as a passive margin.
Global distribution
Passive margins are found at every ocean and continent boundary that is not marked by a strike-slip fault or a subduction zone. Passive margins define the region around the Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and western Indian Ocean, and define the entire coasts of Africa, Australia, Greenland, and the Indian Subcontinent. They are also found on the east coast of North America and South America, in Western Europe and most of Antarctica. Northeast Asia also contains some passive margins.
Key components
Active vs. passive margins
The distinction between active and passive margins refers to whether a crustal boundary between oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere is a plate boundary. Active margins are found on the edge of a continent where subduction occurs. These are often marked by uplift and volcanic mountain belts on the continental plate. Less often there is a strike-slip fault, as defines the southern coastline of West Africa. Most of the eastern Indian Ocean and nearly all of the Pacific Ocean margin are examples of active margins. While a weld between oceanic and continental lithosphere is called a passive margin, it is not an inactive margin. Active subsidence, sedimentation, growth faulting, pore fluid formation and migration are all active processes on passive margins. Passive margins are only passive in that they are not active plate boundaries.
Morphology
Passive margins consist of both onshore coastal plain and offshore continental shelf-slope-rise triads. Coastal plains are often dominated by fluvial processes, while the continental shelf is dominated by deltaic and longshore current processes. The great rivers (Amazon. Orinoco, Congo, Nile, Ganges, Yellow, Yangtze, and Mackenzie rivers) drain across passive margins. Extensive estuaries are common on mature passive margins. Although there are many kinds of passive margins, the morphologies of most passive margins are remarkably similar. Typically they consist of a continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise, and abyssal plain. The morphological expression of these features are largely defined by the underlying transitional crust and the sedimentation above it. Passive margins defined by a large fluvial sediment budget and those dominated by coral and other biogenous processes generally have a similar morphology. In addition, the shelf break seems to mark the maximum Neogene lowstand, defined by the glacial maxima. The outer continental shelf and slope may be cut by great submarine canyons, which mark the offshore continuation of rivers.
At high latitudes and during glaciations, the nearshore morphology of passive margins may reflect glacial processes, such as the fjords of Greenland and Norway.
Cross-section
The main features of passive margins lie underneath the external characters. Beneath passive margins the transition between the continental and oceanic crust is a broad transition known as transitional crust. The subsided continental crust is marked by normal faults that dip seaward. The faulted crust transitions into oceanic crust and may be deeply buried due to thermal subsidence and the mass of sediment that collects above it. The lithosphere beneath passive margins is known as transitional lithosphere. The lithosphere thins seaward as it transitions seaward to oceanic crust. Different kinds of transitional crust form, depending on how fast rifting occurs and how hot the underlying mantle was at the time of rifting. Volcanic passive margins represent one endmember transitional crust type, the other endmember (amagmatic) type is the rifted passive margin. Volcanic passive margins also are marked by numerous dykes and igneous intrusions within the subsided continental crust. There are typically a lot of dykes formed perpendicular to the seaward-dipping lava flows and sills. Igneous intrusions within the crust cause lava flows along the top of the subsided continental crust and form seaward-dipping reflectors.
Subsidence mechanisms
Passive margins are characterized by thick accumulations of sediments. Space for these sediments is called accommodation and is due to subsidence of especially the transitional crust. Subsidence is ultimately caused by gravitational equilibrium that is established between the crustal tracts, known as isostasy. Isostasy controls the uplift of the rift flank and the subsequent subsidence of the evolving passive margin and is mostly reflected by changes in heat flow. Heat flow at passive margins changes significantly over its lifespan, high at the beginning and decreasing with age. In the initial stage, the continental crust and lithosphere is stretched and thinned due to plate movement (plate tectonics) and associated igneous activity. The very thin lithosphere beneath the rift allows the upwelling mantle to melt by decompression. Lithospheric thinning also allows the asthenosphere to rise closer to the surface, heating the overlying lithosphere by conduction and advection of heat by intrusive dykes. Heating reduces the density of the lithosphere and elevates the lower crust and lithosphere. In addition, mantle plumes may heat the lithosphere and cause prodigious igneous activity. Once a mid-oceanic ridge forms and seafloor spreading begins, the original site of rifting is separated into conjugate passive margins (for example, the eastern US and NW African margins were parts of the same rift in early Mesozoic time and are now conjugate margins) and migrates away from the zone of mantle upwelling and heating and cooling begins. The mantle lithosphere below the thinned and faulted continental oceanic transition cools, thickens, increases in density and thus begins to subside. The accumulation of sediments above the subsiding transitional crust and lithosphere further depresses the transitional crust.
Classification
There are four different perspectives needed to classify passive margins:
map-view formation geometry (rifted, sheared, and transtensional),
nature of transitional crust (volcanic and non-volcanic),
whether the transitional crust represents a continuous change from normal continental to normal oceanic crust or this includes isolated rifts and stranded continental blocks (simple and complex), and
sedimentation (carbonate-dominated, clastic-dominated, or sediment starved).
The first describes the relationship between rift orientation and plate motion, the second describes the nature of transitional crust, and the third describes post-rift sedimentation. All three perspectives need to be considered in describing a passive margin. In fact, passive margins are extremely long, and vary along their length in rift geometry, nature of transitional crust, and sediment supply; it is more appropriate to subdivide individual passive margins into segments on this basis and apply the threefold classification to each segment.
Geometry of passive margins
Rifted margin
This is the typical way that passive margins form, as separated continental tracts move perpendicular to the coastline. This is how the Central Atlantic opened, beginning in Jurassic time. Faulting tends to be listric: normal faults that flatten with depth.
Sheared margin
Sheared margins form where continental breakup was associated with strike-slip faulting. A good example of this type of margin is found on the south-facing coast of west Africa. Sheared margins are highly complex and tend to be rather narrow. They also differ from rifted passive margins in structural style and thermal evolution during continental breakup. As the seafloor spreading axis moves along the margin, thermal uplift produces a ridge. This ridge traps sediments, thus allowing for thick sequences to accumulate. These types of passive margins are less volcanic.
Transtensional margin
This type of passive margin develops where rifting is oblique to the coastline, as is now occurring in the Gulf of California.
Nature of transitional crust
Transitional crust, separating true oceanic and continental crusts, is the foundation of any passive margin. This forms during the rifting stage and consists of two endmembers: volcanic and non-volcanic. This classification scheme only applies to rifted and transtensional margin; transitional crust of sheared margins is very poorly known.
Non-volcanic rifted margin
Non-volcanic margins are formed when extension is accompanied by little mantle melting and volcanism. Non-volcanic transitional crust consists of stretched and thinned continental crust. Non-volcanic margins are typically characterized by continentward-dipping seismic reflectors (rotated crustal blocks and associated sediments) and low P-wave velocities (<7.0 km/s) in the lower part of the transitional crust.
Volcanic rifted margin
Volcanic margins form part of large igneous provinces, which are characterised by massive emplacements of mafic extrusives and intrusive rocks over very short time periods. Volcanic margins form when rifting is accompanied by significant mantle melting, with volcanism occurring before and/or during continental breakup. The transitional crust of volcanic margins is composed of basaltic igneous rocks, including lava flows, sills, dykes, and gabbro.
Volcanic margins are usually distinguished from non-volcanic (or magma-poor) margins (e.g. the Iberian margin, Newfoundland margin) which do not contain large amounts of extrusive and/or intrusive rocks and may exhibit crustal features such as unroofed, serpentinized mantle. Volcanic margins are known to differ from magma-poor margins in a number of ways:
A transitional crust composed of basaltic igneous rocks, including lava flows, sills, dykes, and gabbros
A huge volume of basalt flows, typically expressed as seaward-dipping reflector sequences (SDRS) rotated during the early stages of crustal accretion (breakup stage)
The presence of numerous sill/dyke and vent complexes intruding into the adjacent basin
The lack of significant passive-margin subsidence during and after breakup
The presence of a lower crust with anomalously high seismic P-wave velocities (Vp=7.1-7.8 km/s) – referred to as lower crustal bodies (LCBs) in the geologic literature
The high velocities (Vp > 7 km) and large thicknesses of the LCBs are evidence that supports the case for plume-fed accretion (mafic thickening) underplating the crust during continental breakup. LCBs are located along the continent-ocean transition but can sometimes extend beneath the continental part of the rifted margin (as observed in the mid-Norwegian margin for example). In the continental domain, there are still open discussion on their real nature, chronology, geodynamic and petroleum implications.
Examples of volcanic margins:
The Yemen margin
The East Australian margin
The West Indian margin
The Hatton-Rockal margin
The U.S. East Coast
The mid-Norwegian margin
The Brazilian margins
The Namibian margin
The East Greenland margin
The West Greenland margin
Examples of non-volcanic margins:
The Newfoundland Margin
The Iberian Margin
The Margins of the Labrador Sea (Labrador and Southwest Greenland)
Heterogeneity of transitional crust
Simple transitional crust
Passive margins of this type show a simple progression through the transitional crust, from normal continental to normal oceanic crusts. The passive margin offshore Texas is a good example.
Complex transitional crust
This type of transitional crust is characterized by abandoned rifts and continental blocks, such as the Blake Plateau, Grand Banks, or Bahama Islands offshore eastern Florida.
Sedimentation
A fourth way to classify passive margins is according to the nature of sedimentation of the mature passive margin. Sedimentation continues throughout the life of a passive margin. Sedimentation changes rapidly and progressively during the initial stages of passive margin formation because rifting begins on land, becoming marine as the rift opens and a true passive margin is established. Consequently, the sedimentation history of a passive margin begins with fluvial, lacustrine, or other subaerial deposits, evolving with time depending on how the rifting occurred and how, when, and by what type of sediment it varies.
Constructional
Constructional margins are the "classic" mode of passive margin sedimentation. Normal sedimentation results from the transport and deposition of sand, silt, and clay by rivers via deltas and redistribution of these sediments by longshore currents. The nature of sediments can change remarkably along a passive margin, due to interactions between carbonate sediment production, clastic input from rivers, and alongshore transport. Where clastic sediment inputs are small, biogenic sedimentation can dominate especially nearshore sedimentation. The Gulf of Mexico passive margin along the southern United States is an excellent example of this, with muddy and sandy coastal environments down current (west) from the Mississippi River Delta and beaches of carbonate sand to the east. The thick layers of sediment gradually thin with increasing distance offshore, depending on subsidence of the passive margin and the efficacy of offshore transport mechanisms such as turbidity currents and submarine channels.
Development of the shelf edge and its migration through time is critical to the development of a passive margin. The location of the shelf edge break reflects complex interaction between sedimentation, sealevel, and the presence of sediment dams. Coral reefs serve as bulwarks that allow sediment to accumulate between them and the shore, cutting off sediment supply to deeper water. Another type of sediment dam results from the presence of salt domes, as are common along the Texas and Louisiana passive margin.
Starved
Sediment-starved margins produce narrow continental shelves and passive margins. This is especially common in arid regions, where there is little transport of sediment by rivers or redistribution by longshore currents. The Red Sea is a good example of a sediment-starved passive margin.
Formation
There are three main stages in the formation of passive margins:
In the first stage a continental rift is established due to stretching and thinning of the crust and lithosphere by plate movement. This is the beginning of the continental crust subsidence. Drainage is generally away from the rift at this stage.
The second stage leads to the formation of an oceanic basin, similar to the modern Red Sea. The subsiding continental crust undergoes normal faulting as transitional marine conditions are established. Areas with restricted sea water circulation coupled with arid climate create evaporite deposits. Crust and lithosphere stretching and thinning are still taking place in this stage. Volcanic passive margins also have igneous intrusions and dykes during this stage.
The last stage in formation happens only when crustal stretching ceases and the transitional crust and lithosphere subsides as a result of cooling and thickening (thermal subsidence). Drainage starts flowing towards the passive margin causing sediment to accumulate over it.
Economic significance
Passive margins are important exploration targets for petroleum. Mann et al. (2001) classified 592 giant oil fields into six basin and tectonic-setting categories, and noted that continental passive margins account for 31% of giants. Continental rifts (which are likely to evolve into passive margins with time) contain another 30% of the world's giant oil fields. Basins associated with collision zones and subduction zones are where most of the remaining giant oil fields are found.
Passive margins are petroleum storehouses because these are associated with favorable conditions for accumulation and maturation of organic matter. Early continental rifting conditions led to the development of anoxic basins, large sediment and organic flux, and the preservation of organic matter that led to oil and gas deposits. Crude oil will form from these deposits. These are the localities in which petroleum resources are most profitable and productive. Productive fields are found in passive margins around the globe, including the Gulf of Mexico, western Scandinavia, and Western Australia.
Law of the Sea
International discussions about who controls the resources of passive margins are the focus of law of the sea negotiations. Continental shelves are important parts of national exclusive economic zones, important for seafloor mineral deposits (including oil and gas) and fisheries.
See also
Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary
References
| http://www.mantleplumes.org/VM_Norway.html
| http://www.mantleplumes.org/VM_Norway.html
Plate tectonics |
4361524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHBF-TV | WHBF-TV | WHBF-TV (channel 4) is a television station licensed to Rock Island, Illinois, United States, serving as the CBS affiliate for the Quad Cities area. It is owned by Nexstar Media Group alongside Burlington, Iowa–licensed CW owned-and-operated station KGCW (channel 26); Nexstar also provides certain services to Davenport, Iowa–licensed Fox affiliate KLJB (channel 18) under a shared services agreement (SSA) owner Mission Broadcasting. The stations share studios in the Telco Building on 18th Street in downtown Rock Island, while WHBF-TV's transmitter is located in Bettendorf, Iowa.
History
Early history
WHBF-TV signed on the air on July 1, 1950. It is the fifth-oldest surviving station in Illinois, and the oldest outside Chicago. It was owned by the Potter family, publishers of the Rock Island Argus along with WHBF radio (1270 AM, later known as WKBF, now defunct; and 98.9 FM, now WLKU).
WHBF-TV has been a CBS affiliate since its inception, but carried secondary affiliations with ABC and the DuMont Television Network. After DuMont's demise in 1956, WHBF shared ABC programming with primary NBC affiliate WOC-TV (channel 6, now KWQC-TV) until WQAD-TV (channel 8) signed on as an ABC affiliate in 1963. During the late 1950s, the station was also briefly affiliated with the NTA Film Network.
The Potters broke up their media holdings in 1986; at that time, Citadel Communications acquired WHBF-TV, and the radio stations moved out of the Telco Building. The following year, Lynch Entertainment acquired a stake in the station; at that time Coronet Communications Company was formed as a partnership between Citadel and Lynch.
WHBF-TV was the first station in the area to use color radar and now uses the state-of-the-art weather system known as ESP: Live (Exclusive Storm Prediction). This allows the station to alert the Quad Cities about any potential weather hazards. Citadel's other stations also use the ESP: Live branding. On January 29, 2007, WHBF-TV rebranded as "CBS 4". It also adopted a variation of the circle logo shared with Citadel's other major network affiliates.
Nexstar ownership
On September 16, 2013, Citadel announced that it would sell WHBF-TV, along with WOI-DT in Des Moines and KCAU-TV in Sioux City to the Irving, Texas–based Nexstar Broadcasting Group for $88 million. Nexstar immediately took over the station's operations through a time brokerage agreement. The deal followed Citadel founder and CEO Phil Lombardo's decision to "slow down," as well as a desire by Lynch Entertainment to divest its investments in WHBF and WOI.
Six weeks later, on November 6, Nexstar announced that it would purchase the stations owned by Grant Broadcasting—including Fox affiliate KLJB (channel 18) and CW affiliate KGCW (channel 26)—for $87.5 million. Nexstar was able to acquire KGCW directly as, under FCC regulations in effect at the time, the Davenport–Moline–Rock Island market had eight independent, full-power station owners—the minimum required to permit a duopoly—through the existing KLJB/KGCW combination (even though that duopoly originated through the latter's 1996 conversion into a KLJB satellite). Due to FCC ownership regulations that prohibited ownership of two or more of the four highest-rated television stations in the same media market, KLJB was spun off to Marshall Broadcasting Group, a newly formed minority-controlled company headed by Pluria Marshall Jr.; Nexstar subsequently assumed the operations of KLJB through a shared services agreement, forming a virtual triopoly with WHBF and KGCW. The sale for WHBF was completed on March 13, 2014.
On January 27, 2016, Nexstar announced that it would acquire Richmond, Virginia–based Media General—which had owned NBC affiliate KWQC-TV since November 2013—for $4.6 billion, in exchange for giving right of first refusal to the Meredith Corporation to acquire any broadcast or digital properties that may be divested (a clause that Meredith did not exercise) as compensation for terminating a concurring acquisition agreement with Media General to accept Nexstar's counterbid. Because of the FCC's "top-four" rule in its duopoly regulations, Nexstar was precluded from acquiring KWQC directly and was required to sell either WHBF (possibly in conjunction with the SSA with KLJB) or KWQC to another company. Nexstar was allowed to keep KGCW, either under its existing duopoly with WHBF or through the formation of a new duopoly with KWQC as that station ranked below the top four ratings threshold.
On June 3, 2016, Nexstar announced that it would retain ownership of WHBF and fellow CBS-affiliated sister station WFRV-TV in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and—on Media General's behalf—sell KWQC and its ABC-affiliated sister station in Green Bay, WBAY-TV, to Gray Television for $270 million. The transaction was approved by the FCC on January 11, 2017; the sale was completed on January 17, at which point the existing Nexstar stations and the former Media General outlets that neither group had to sell in order to rectify ownership conflicts in certain markets became part of the renamed Nexstar Media Group.
On December 3, 2018, Nexstar announced it would acquire the assets of Chicago-based Tribune Media—which has owned WQAD-TV since December 2013—for $6.4 billion in cash and debt. Nexstar was precluded from acquiring WQAD directly or indirectly, as FCC regulations prohibit common ownership of more than two stations in the same media market, or two or more of the four highest-rated stations in the market. (Furthermore, any attempt by Nexstar to assume the operations of WQAD through local marketing or shared services agreements would have been subject to regulatory hurdles that could have delayed completion of the FCC and Justice Department's review and approval process for the acquisition.) As such, Nexstar was required to sell either WQAD or both WHBF and KLJB (separately as it would break the grandfathered LMA) to separate, unrelated companies to address the ownership conflict. KGCW could either be retained by Nexstar (tied with either WQAD or WHBF) or sold to the new buyer if WHBF is sold, as KGCW does not rank among the four highest-rated stations in the Quad Cities market.
On March 20, 2019, it was announced that Nexstar would keep WHBF-TV, KGCW and the SSA for KLJB and sell WQAD to McLean, Virginia–based Tegna Inc., as part of the company's sale of nineteen Nexstar- and Tribune-operated stations to Tegna and the E. W. Scripps Company in separate deals worth $1.32 billion; this would make WQAD the first television property in Iowa for Tegna and its first television property in Illinois since the group (under its pre-2016-split structure as the broadcasting arm of the Gannett Company) sold WREX in Rockford, Illinois to the Gilmore Broadcasting Corporation in 1969. The sale was approved by the FCC on September 16 and was completed on September 19, 2019.
Subchannel history
On January 16, 2012, WHBF-TV along with all Citadel stations, launched an affiliation with the Live Well Network on its DT2 subchannel. From December 1, 2008, to January 15, 2012, the station carried the Retro Television Network on DT2. Prior to that, WHBF had been simulcasting its main programming in SDTV on the DT2 subchannel. From March 5, 2011, to January 15, 2012, WHBF-TV's subchannel affiliation with the Retro Television Network had a local competitor in the Quad Cities as the DT2 subchannel of WQAD-TV became an affiliate of Antenna TV after WQAD discontinued their "Quad Cities Weather Channel" service.
Programming
Past preemptions
During the late 1970s, WHBF-TV was one of the handful of Midwestern CBS affiliates that did not clear The Incredible Hulk, choosing to instead air the country music program Hee Haw, which it carried as part of CBS' own prime time lineup from its 1969 debut until CBS cancelled it during their 1971 rural purge.
From 1982 to 2011, WHBF-TV didn't carry either CBS News Up to the Minute, nor its predecessor, CBS News Nightwatch. Instead the station joined its fellow Citadel stations in signing off every night, making WHBF one of the few stations in the country to still do so. However, as of the mid-2000s, WHBF ran its transmitters all night, airing a test pattern with station identification superimposed over the pattern. Digital channel 4.2 has operated 24/7 since the Retro Television Network debut on December 1, 2008. WHBF-TV finally added Up to the Minute to its programming lineup in October 2011. Up to the Minute was replaced by the CBS Overnight News on September 21, 2015. The move left Iowa Public Television station KQIN as the last Quad Cities television station to sign-off.
News operation
From 1950 to 2011, WHBF, unlike most CBS affiliates, didn't air a morning newscast. Instead, a weather forecast was aired during the CBS Morning News, CBS This Morning, and The Early Show each weekday morning between 6:00 and 9:00 a.m. Previously, WHBF had local news updates during those three shows but later on it was simply a repeat of the weather update that aired earlier in the half-hour. The CBS Morning News was aired at 6:00 a.m. and repeated itself at 6:30 a.m. weekdays on WHBF. Unlike most CBS affiliates, WHBF does not air a midday newscast during the week.
WHBF won numerous awards and public recognition for a ground-breaking news series that ran weekly from April 1995 to April 1996. Robb's Life focused on the life of Robb Dussliere, a Rock Island resident who was battling AIDS. Each week, News Director Ken Gullette (From November 1993 to July 1997) followed Robb as he went to doctors offices, enjoyed his family and worked to renovate a home for HIV and AIDS patients. WHBF viewers watched as Robb went from being relatively healthy in April 1995 to his funeral in April 1996. The stories were unique in that Gullette's voice was never heard and he never appeared on camera. Working as a one-man producer, videographer and editor, he told Robb's story through video, natural sound, interviews and music. The feature stories also ran longer than the normal TV stories. Robb's Life raised awareness, changed viewer opinions about AIDS and won awards from the Illinois and Iowa Associated Press organizations. Most of the weekly features can now be seen on YouTube. Fifteen years after it aired, the Dispatch/Argus ran a story about the impact of the series, and interviewed Robb's parents, Lorney and Hattie Dussliere of East Moline, Illinois.
On December 21, 2010, WHBF-TV became the second in the Quad Cities market, behind KWQC to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition, beginning with the 5:00 p.m. newscast.
During the summer of 2011, WHBF announced morning newscasts would be coming to the station. Meredith Dennis anchored and Travis Michels provided weather information as of September 12, 2011. Also, the 6:00 p.m. news returned after a 14-year absence on September 26, 2011. The local morning newscast, known as CBS4 News This Morning (now known as Local 4 News This Morning), was aired from 5:30 to 7:00 a.m. The CBS Morning News was moved back to 5:00 a.m. and the station's daily paid early morning religious programming was discontinued. As of Spring 2012, CBS4 News This Morning airs from 5:00-7:00 a.m., while the CBS Morning News airs at 4:30 a.m.
In March 2014, Morning Anchor Meredith Dennis left WHBF and was replaced in April 2014 by Emily Scarlett.
On March 4, 2015, WHBF debuted its new set, graphics, and logo. The new Local 4 branding, similar to that of WKRC (Local 12) in Cincinnati, Ohio, WPSD (Local 6) in Paducah, Kentucky, and sister station WOI (Local 5) in Des Moines, went into effect, replacing original CBS 4.
On August 7, 2015, WHBF revealed that a new 4 p.m. newscast would debut in the Fall of 2015. The new broadcast, known as Local 4 News at 4, made its debut on Monday, September 14, 2015. WHBF's new
4 p.m. newscast directly competes against KWQC's 4 p.m. newscast, which has been on the air since Fall 2011.
On December 31, 2015, it was announced that WHBF would begin producing a one-hour 9 p.m. newscast for its SSA partner station, Fox affiliate KLJB (owned by Marshall Broadcasting Group). Also, on September 5, 2017, it was made public that beginning on September 18, 2017, WHBF would begin producing a new two-hour weekday morning newscast for KLJB from 7 to 9 a.m.
Ratings
WHBF was a solid, if distant, runner-up to rival WOC-TV until the mid-1970s, when it surged to first place. It lost the lead to WOC-TV around 1980. The station was able to hold up the number 2 spot for most of the 1980s until WQAD passed it. Since the late 1980s, WHBF has clearly been the third ranked station in the Quad Cities market. However, during the May 2015 ratings period, the ratings for WHBF did increase after the station's change to the Local 4 branding.
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Translator
19 Rock Island
Analog-to-digital conversion
WHBF-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 4, at 6:01 a.m. on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 58, which was among the high band UHF channels (52-69) that were removed from broadcasting use as a result of the transition, to its analog-era VHF channel 4. WHBF-TV is now one of the very few TV stations in the United States to broadcast its digital signal on a low VHF channel assignment, alongside former sister station WOI-DT in Des Moines, NBC affiliate WMC-TV in Memphis and ABC O&O station WPVI-TV in Philadelphia.
On its second digital subchannel, the station affiliated with the Retro Television Network from December 1, 2008, to January 15, 2012. On January 16, 2012, WHBF, along with all of its sister stations, switched to the Live Well Network, carrying the network in a 16:9 letterbox format while preserving the 480i resolution and 4:3 aspect ratio of the subchannel; scaled down from Live Well Network's 720p master signal. Exactly two years later on January 16, 2014, before Nexstar (which historically dropped all Live Well Network affiliations upon the purchase of acquired stations) took control of WHBF, the station dropped the subchannel entirely. It was the only area station without a subchannel for a period of sixteen months.
In November 2014, while Nexstar was still waiting for the completion of its sale of KLJB to Marshall Broadcasting Group, there was speculation by other local media that KGCW might move to a WHBF subchannel. On May 14, 2015, Nexstar relaunched WHBF's digital subchannel 4.2 with a standard definition simulcast of KGCW. Due to the fact that KLJB is now owned by a separate company than KGCW, the simulcast of KGCW, which was previously aired on KLJB's 18.2 subchannel, moved to WHBF's 4.2 subchannel as Nexstar owns WHBF and KGCW, where Marshall Broadcasting Group owns KLJB.
Post-transition digital signal issues
During the Summer of 2009 (June 12, 2009), WHBF-TV, being broadcast in digital on a low VHF channel assignment, encountered numerous reception problems and received several reception related complaints in its first two months alone of being broadcast digitally on VHF channel 4. As a result, the station's then-owner (Citadel) filed an application for a digital UHF fill-in translator on channel 47 and also sought permission to increase the ERP output of its main digital signal on VHF channel 4 from 24.1 kW to 33.7 kW. The fill-in translator is located on the station's Rock Island tower at the telco building-based studios in downtown and operates at an ERP of 2300 watts. Sister station KCAU-TV in Sioux City as well as former sisters WOI-DT in Des Moines and KLKN in Lincoln, Nebraska, all of which returned their digital broadcasts to their former analog channel assignments in the VHF spectrum at the end of the digital transition in 2009 as well, are going through a similar process and they have all set up fill-in translators themselves.
As of September 8, 2009, WHBF has been operating its main digital signal on VHF channel 4 at an effective radiated power of 33.7 kW. Also, as of October 22, 2009, WHBF has been operating its digital fill-in translator on UHF channel 47 from its studio location in downtown Rock Island.
References
External links
The Unofficial Grandpa Happy Website
CBS network affiliates
Court TV affiliates
Grit (TV network) affiliates
Ion Mystery affiliates
Television channels and stations established in 1950
Rock Island, Illinois
Television stations in the Quad Cities
Nexstar Media Group
1950 establishments in Illinois
Companies based in Rock Island County, Illinois |
4361541 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Oliver | John Oliver | John William Oliver (born 23 April 1977) is a British-American comedian, writer, producer, political commentator, actor, and television host. Oliver started his career as a stand-up comedian in the United Kingdom. He came to wider attention for his work in the United States as Senior British Correspondent on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart from 2006 to 2013. Oliver won three Primetime Emmy Awards for writing for The Daily Show and he became the guest host for an eight-week period in 2013. He also co-hosted the comedy podcast The Bugle with Andy Zaltzman, with whom Oliver had previously worked with on the radio series Political Animal. From 2010 to 2013, Oliver hosted his stand-up series John Oliver's New York Stand-Up Show on Comedy Central. He has also acted on television, most prominently in a recurring role as Dr Ian Duncan on the NBC sitcom Community, and in films, including voice-over work in The Smurfs (2011), The Smurfs 2 (2013), and the 2019 remake of The Lion King. He became a US citizen in 2019.
Since 2014, Oliver has been the host of the HBO series Last Week Tonight with John Oliver. He has received widespread critical and popular recognition for his work on the series, and its influence over US culture, legislation and policymaking has been dubbed the "John Oliver effect". For his work on Last Week Tonight, Oliver has won fourteen Emmy Awards and two Peabody Awards and was included in the 2015 Time 100. Time described him as a "comedic agent of change...powerful because he isn't afraid to tackle important issues thoughtfully, without fear or apology". Oliver's work has been described as journalism or investigative journalism; labels that Oliver rejects.
Early life and education
John William Oliver was born on 23 April 1977 in Birmingham, England, to Carole and Jim Oliver. His father, from the Wirral Peninsula, was both a school headmaster and social worker, and his mother, from Liverpool, was a music teacher. His uncle was the composer Stephen Oliver. Oliver attended the Mark Rutherford School in Bedford and learned to play the viola as a child.
Following secondary school, he studied at Christ's College, Cambridge. While a student there in the mid-to-late 1990s, Oliver was a member of the Cambridge Footlights, the university theatrical club run by students of Cambridge University. Oliver's contemporaries included David Mitchell and Richard Ayoade, and he became the club's vice president in 1997. In 1998, Oliver graduated with a degree in English.
Career
1985–2005: Early career
Oliver's first appearance on-screen was playing Felix Pardiggle, a minor role in the BBC drama Bleak House, in 1985. In an appearance on Late Night with Seth Meyers, he commented, "When I was six years old ... [the BBC] wanted a kid with dark hair and brown eyes, and I was two-for-two on that". In 2001, Oliver appeared as a bank manager in series two of People Like Us. Oliver said in a later Seth Meyers appearance that one of his first paying jobs was writing for the British morning show The Big Breakfast.
Oliver's first major stand-up appearance was at the 2001 Edinburgh Festival Fringe as part of the late-night showcase The Comedy Zone, where he played an "oleaginous journalist". Oliver frequently worked with other members of the comedian group the Chocolate Milk Gang, including Daniel Kitson, Russell Howard, David O'Doherty, and Alun Cochrane. His debut solo show was at the 2002 Edinburgh Festival Fringe, and he returned the following year. In 2004 and 2005, he performed in a double act and co-hosted the political radio show Political Animal with Andy Zaltzman.
From 2002 to 2003, Oliver worked on the BBC Three comedy series The State We're In, along with Anita Rani, Jon Holmes, and Robin Ince. In 2003, Oliver manned the "results desk" on an election night episode of Armando Iannucci's satirical show Gash on Channel 4. In 2004, Oliver wrote and performed in the satirical radio programme The Department on BBC Radio 4 with Andy Zaltzman and Chris Addison. Starting in June 2005, Oliver made appearances on British television as a panellist on the satirical news show Mock the Week, and became a frequent guest on the first two series.
2006–2013: The Daily Show with Jon Stewart
In July 2006, Oliver joined The Daily Show with Jon Stewart as its Senior British Correspondent. He says he was interviewed for the show on the recommendation of comedian Ricky Gervais, who had never met Oliver, but was familiar with his work. Two weeks after the interview, he got the job, flying from London to New York City on a Sunday and unexpectedly appearing on camera the next day. Oliver received Emmy Awards for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series for The Daily Show in 2009, 2011, and 2012.
In 2007, Oliver wrote and presented a BBC America campaign to have viewers use closed captions. Shown in brief segments before shows, one of the campaign messages said, "The following program contains accents you would have heard a lot more if you hadn't thrown our tea into Boston Harbor ... Not even British people can follow the British accent 100 per cent of the time. Therefore you, like me, might want to use closed-captioning." Oliver used some of these jokes in his stand-up routine.
After moving to New York City, Oliver began performing stand-up comedy in clubs, later headlining shows in larger venues. From October 2007 to May 2015, Oliver co-hosted The Bugle, a weekly comedy podcast, with Andy Zaltzman. Originally produced by The Times, it became an independent project in 2012. John Oliver: Terrifying Times, his first stand-up special, premiered on Comedy Central in 2008. In 2009, Comedy Central announced that it would be ordering six episodes of the John Oliver's New York Stand-Up Show, a series on Comedy Central that featured sets from himself and other comedians, including Janeane Garofalo, Brian Posehn, Paul F. Tompkins and Marc Maron. From 2010 to 2013, four seasons were produced. In 2013, he went to Afghanistan on a USO tour to perform for the troops. Oliver continues to perform stand-up.Oliver had a recurring role on the NBC sitcom Community as the professor of psychology Dr Ian Duncan. Owing to his work at The Daily Show, he declined the offer to become a regular member of the cast, and did not appear in the third, fourth, or sixth seasons, but returned in season five, appearing in seven of its thirteen episodes. In 2008, Oliver played Dick Pants in The Love Guru, his first film role. He later voiced Vanity Smurf in The Smurfs film and its sequel. Oliver performed several roles in the 2009 Comedy Central series Important Things with Demetri Martin. In 2009, Oliver made a cameo appearance in the music video for The Fiery Furnaces' single "Even in the Rain".
Starting in June 2013, Oliver guest-hosted The Daily Show for eight weeks while Stewart directed his film Rosewater. Oliver's performance received positive reviews, with some critics suggesting that he should eventually succeed Stewart as the host, or receive his own show. CBS discussed the possibility of Oliver replacing Craig Ferguson on The Late Late Show. Three months after his role as the interim Daily Show host ended, HBO announced it was giving Oliver his own late-night show.
2014–present: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver
In 2014, Oliver began hosting his current events late-night talk show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver. The show features thoroughly-researched segments dedicated to topics or events in the news. His initial two-year contract was extended through to 2017 in 2015, to 2020 in September 2017, and to 2023 in September 2020. Oliver has stated that he has full creative freedom, including free rein to criticise corporations, given HBO's ad-free subscription model. In 2015, Oliver was named one of Time 100 influential people of the year for his work on the show. Across the TV airings, DVR, on-demand, and HBO Go, Last Week Tonight averaged 4.1 million weekly viewers in its first season. In 2014, Last Week Tonight was honoured with a Peabody Award in the "Entertainment" category for "bringing satire and journalism even closer together". The show received a second award in 2017. The show has also won 26 Primetime Emmy Awards, five Writers Guild of America Awards, eight Producers Guild Awards, and three Critics' Choice Television Awards.
Oliver has guest-starred in several TV shows, including The Simpsons as Booth Wilkes-John (2014); Gravity Falls as the voice of Sherlock Holmes (2012); Rick and Morty as an amoeba named Dr Xenon Bloom (2013); Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja as the voice of Coach Green (2012–15); My Hero as a man from the BBC (2001); Green Wing as a car salesman (2004); Big Mouth as the camp counsellor Harry (2020); and Bob's Burgers as a cat agent (2017). Oliver was originally cast in 2010 to star in the Terry Jones film Absolutely Anything as Neil Clarke, but scheduling conflicts due to the debut of Last Week Tonight in 2014 led to the role being recast for Simon Pegg. In 2019, Oliver voiced the porcupine Steve in the CGI animated film Wonder Park and hornbill Zazu in the remake of Disney's The Lion King. From 2018 to 2019, Oliver worked as an executive producer for Wyatt Cenac's Problem Areas. On 30 August 2023, Oliver began hosting the comedy podcast Strike Force Five with Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Stephen Colbert and Seth Meyers, to support their staff members out of work due to the 2023 Writers Guild of America strike.
Influences
Oliver has said that among his comedic influences are Armando Iannucci, David Letterman, Monty Python, Peter Cook, Richard Pryor, and Jon Stewart. Oliver said regarding Monty Python, "I saw Life of Brian in middle school, when a substitute teacher put it on to keep us quiet on a rainy day ... I've never forgotten how it made me feel". Edward Helmore wrote in The Guardian about Oliver's comedy, "His style leans toward the kind that Americans like best from the British – exaggerated, full of odd accents and mannerisms, in the vein of Monty Python." Oliver describes his own accent as a "mongrel" of Brummie, Scouse, and Bedford influences.
Personal life
Oliver lives in New York City with his wife Kate Norley, an Iraq War veteran who served as a United States Army medic. Oliver has said that they met at the 2008 Republican National Convention; he was reporting for The Daily Show and Norley was campaigning with Vets for Freedom. She and other veterans hid Oliver, the other correspondents, and the camera crew from security. The two married in 2011 and have two sons, one born prematurely in 2015 and the other born in 2018. Oliver occasionally wears a 1st Cavalry Division lapel pin – his wife's unit in Iraq. Oliver has a younger sister who lives in Australia.
Oliver's immigration status when he joined The Daily Show in 2006 placed certain constraints on what he could do in the United States, but also provided him with comedy material as he poked fun at the opacity and occasional absurdity of the process of obtaining US residency. During the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, which temporarily stopped production of The Daily Show, Oliver participated in picketing protests; he appeared on the show upon its resuming production on 7 January 2008. During a sketch, he pointed out that he was then in America on a visitor visa that requires him not to strike while the show is in production, as violation of the terms of the visa would be grounds for deportation.
In an episode of The Bugle released on 2 November 2009 and recorded three days earlier, Oliver announced that he was approved for his US green card, noting that now he can "get arrested filming bits for The Daily Show". Oliver says he was given a scare when applying at the US embassy in London when an immigration officer asked, "Give me one good reason I should let you back in to insult my country?", which the officer followed up with, "Oh, I'm just kidding, I love the show". Since then, he has referred to Americans as "us" or "you" based on what each segment has demanded. Oliver was naturalized as a US citizen on 13 December 2019. Since moving to the United States, Oliver has been a fan of the New York Mets. Oliver has said that being a New York Yankees fan would be the "wrong thing to do morally".
Oliver's philanthropy includes an on-air giveaway in which he forgave over $15 million of medical debt owed by over 9,000 people. He purchased the debt for $60,000 and forgave it on his show on 4 June 2016. Oliver was raised in the Church of England. In an interview with Terry Gross, he said his Anglicanism lapsed when he was aged 12 because of the death of a school friend and an uncle, and a feeling of not having received any useful answers from his church.
Political views
Oliver was opposed to Brexit, making multiple pieces about it and calling it "painful, it's pointless, and most of you didn't even agree to run it; you were just signed up by your dumbest friend". He also found it "sad" to consider that his children with British citizenship would not experience the benefits of the EU. He has also been particularly critical of the British Conservative Party, and of Boris Johnson when he was Prime Minister of the UK. In November 2022, he made a piece criticising the British monarchy, stating "we've long evolved past needing them". He also criticised the Royal Family's secrecy concerning their wealth, calling them "a freeloading multimillionaire family exempt from paying most taxes" and stating that "the Royal Family's wealth ― unlike its gene pool ― is massive". Oliver declined an Order of the British Empire. On a September 2022 edition of Late Night with Seth Meyers, he said he declined the award because the words "British Empire" in its title made him uncomfortable.
In American politics, Oliver favoured Joe Biden for president in the 2020 election, later celebrating his victory over Donald Trump. He warned that "more than 70 million people voted for [Trump] and everything he said and stands for, and that is something we are going to have to reckon with for the foreseeable future". Due to his strong criticism of Trump and the Republican Party on Last Week Tonight, Oliver and Last Week Tonight have been accused of liberal bias; Zac Davis wrote in America that Oliver "robs his viewers of the opportunity to think, or have any deep understanding of an issue". Politico argued that Oliver criticised liberal politicians as much as those on the right.
Oliver has expressed support for LGBT and transgender rights, abortion rights, immigration reform (particularly making access to immigration systems easier), criminal justice reform (particularly stopping wrongful convictions and harmful prison labour), police reform, Medicare for All, net neutrality, legalization of drugs (particularly marijuana), and gun control. He has expressed opposition to the death penalty and lethal injections, solitary confinement, and US drone strikes.
Legacy
Reception and the "John Oliver effect"
Oliver's comedic commentary has been credited with influencing US legislation, regulations, court rulings, and other aspects of US culture; this has been dubbed the "John Oliver effect". This came from the show's fifth episode, which dealt with net neutrality, a subject that had previously been considered obscure and technical. Oliver documented problems attributed to internet service providers and argued that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) could resolve these concerns with upcoming changes to internet regulation. Oliver then encouraged viewers to submit public comments through the FCC's website. The FCC's website promptly crashed. Internal FCC emails revealed that the clip was being watched inside the agency. The FCC Chairman Tom Wheeler publicly addressed the video. The day after the broadcast, the FCC had received over 45,000 comments on net neutrality; in total, it received 3.7 million comments on the subject, by far the most for any issue in the agency's history. Reporters detected a shift in the FCC's stance: Before Oliver's segment, The New York Times described an FCC proposal that would leave net neutrality "all but dead", but the paper later said that Wheeler showed "a steady shift toward stronger regulation". A study conducted in 2018 found that viewers of Last Week Tonight and The Colbert Report were generally more familiar with net neutrality than non-viewers; Last Week Tonight viewers were also more likely to support strict regulation to ensure net neutrality. In the end, the FCC enacted robust net neutrality rules that classified the broadband internet service as a public utility. Oliver was credited with transforming the net neutrality debate.
A Ninth Circuit Court judge cited a Last Week Tonight segment about the lesser constitutional rights of residents of US territories in a ruling in favour of the residents of Guam. Members of Congress credited Oliver with helping to win a vote to enforce protections for chicken farmers who speak out about industry practices, after a Last Week Tonight segment on the subject. A Washington, D.C., council member proposed a resolution in Oliver's honour after he aired a segment on the district's struggle to attain statehood. A study published in 2022 found that "calls for action" by Oliver in seasons seven and eight of Last Week Tonight raised over $5 million for charities and other causes.
Oliver maintains that he is not a journalist, but reporters have contended that his show is a form of journalism. The Peabody Awards honoured Oliver, saying his programme engages in "investigative reports that 'real' news programs would do well to emulate". One example of Oliver's investigative work is a segment on the Miss America organization, which bills itself as "the world's largest provider of scholarships for women". Oliver's team, which includes four researchers with journalism backgrounds, collected and analysed the organization's state and federal tax returns to find that its scholarship programme only distributes a small fraction of the claimed "$45 million made available annually". Oliver said that at the national level, the Miss America Organization and Miss America Foundation together spent only $482,000 in cash scholarships in 2012. the official YouTube video of Oliver's Miss America segment has been viewed more than 23 million times. The Society of Women Engineers said Oliver's reference to their scholarship led to $25,000 in donations over the subsequent two days.
Oliver also founded and legally incorporated a church, Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption, to demonstrate how easy it is to qualify as a church and receive tax-exempt status in the United States. The church was created in conjunction with a segment on televangelists who have tax-free mansions and private jets funded by millions of dollars in donations, which are sent in the belief that money given to televangelists can result in God rewarding donors with money, blessings, and by curing diseases. The next week, Oliver showed off the large quantity of donations posted to him, which included $70,000 in cash, a large cheque, and other gifts. The church's website stated that donations would go to Doctors Without Borders upon the church's dissolution.
Oliver's February 2016 segment on presidential candidate Donald Trump received 62 million views on Facebook and 23 million on YouTube within a month, and was reportedly the "most watched piece of HBO content ever". A network spokesperson said that this was "a record for any piece of HBO content". In 2018 on Last Week Tonight, Oliver presented the children's book A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo, a parody of Marlon Bundo's A Day in the Life of the Vice President. A Day in the Life of Marlon Bundo featured the rabbit Marlon Bundo, who was the pet of the 48th US Vice President Mike Pence, in a gay relationship. During the 2023 Reddit API controversy, the major subreddits r/pics, r/gifs, and r/aww, among others, protested at Reddit's API policy changes by only allowing content containing Oliver.
John Oliver Koala Chlamydia Ward
In May 2018, actor Russell Crowe donated approximately $80,000 to the Australia Zoo wildlife hospital for the creation and naming of "The John Oliver Koala Chlamydia Ward". Oliver had previously bought in an auction several film props that had been used by Crowe, including his jockstrap from Cinderella Man, which he sent to one of the last Alaskan Blockbuster Video shops for exhibition. Crowe then donated the proceeds from the auction towards the establishment of the Chlamydia Ward named after Oliver, calling it "a cool way" to honour him. Covering the story on his show, Oliver admitted admiration for the gag: "Well played, Russell Crowe. Well played indeed. That may honestly be the greatest thing I've ever seen." Crowe visited the ward in early 2020, posing with the nameplate bearing Oliver's name.
John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant
In August 2020, the mayor of Danbury, Connecticut, Mark Boughton, announced in a Facebook video his intention to rename the Danbury Water Pollution Control Plant as the "John Oliver Memorial Sewer Plant" as a comedic symbol of his displeasure at Oliver's hyperbolic insult to the city during a segment concerning alleged racial disparities in a jury selection process. After reporting that Connecticut jury rolls had excluded two entire towns, Oliver said, "If you're going to forget a town in Connecticut, why not forget Danbury?" Oliver then humorously offered to "thrash" the entire town, including its children.
As a response to Boughton's video, Oliver embraced the idea enthusiastically, promising to donate $55,000 to Danbury charities if the city renamed the sewage plant after him. After the city council voted 18–1 in favour of naming the plant after him, Oliver visited Danbury to attend the unveiling ceremony on 8 October 2020 in person, wearing a hazmat suit. Mayor Boughton had made Oliver's personal attendance a condition for the renaming, and Oliver complied, revealing footage of his trip on Last Week Tonight the following week.
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Oliver won three Primetime Emmy Awards, one WGA Award, and one Grammy Award for his work at The Daily Show. For Last Week Tonight, he has received fourteen Emmy Awards, two Peabody Awards, eight PGA Awards, and six WGA Awards. Oliver has also received nominations for his writing on the Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear and for hosting Last Week Tonight.
Published works
See also
New Yorkers in journalism
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
1977 births
Living people
British television personalities
American television personalities
Male television personalities
Late night television talk show hosts
Last Week Tonight with John Oliver
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Writers Guild of America Award winners
British male comedians
Comedians from Birmingham, West Midlands
20th-century English comedians
21st-century English comedians
American male comedians
21st-century American comedians
British political commentators
American political commentators
British male television actors
British male voice actors
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
21st-century American male actors
British comedy writers
British television writers
British male television writers
American comedy writers
American male television writers
British television producers
American television producers
British podcasters
American podcasters
National Youth Theatre members
British republicans
Anti-monarchists
Former Anglicans
People with multiple nationality
People with acquired American citizenship
British emigrants to the United States
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
People educated at Mark Rutherford School
Male actors from Birmingham, West Midlands |
4361554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher%20tortoise | Gopher tortoise | The gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) is a species of tortoise in the family Testudinidae. The species is native to the southeastern United States. The gopher tortoise is seen as a keystone species because it digs burrows that provide shelter for at least 360 other animal species. G. polyphemus is threatened by predation and habitat destruction. Habitat degradation is the primary reason that the gopher tortoise is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, but they are considered threatened in some states while they are endangered in others.
The gopher tortoise is a representative of the genus Gopherus, which contains the only tortoises native to North America. The gopher tortoise is the state reptile of Georgia and the state tortoise of Florida.
Etymology
The specific name, polyphemus, refers to the cave-dwelling giant, Polyphemus, of Greek mythology. Gopher tortoises are so named because of some species' habit of digging large, deep burrows like the gopher.
Description
The gopher tortoise is a terrestrial reptile that possesses forefeet that are well adapted for burrowing, and elephantine hind feet. These features are common to most tortoises. The front legs have scales to protect the tortoise while burrowing. G. polyphemus is dark brown to gray-black in overall color, with a yellow plastron (bottom shell). A gular projection is evident on the anterior plastron where the head projects from the shell. Sexual dimorphism is evident, with the male gopher tortoise having a concave plastron, while that of the female is flat. In addition, the gular projection of a male plastron is generally longer than that of a female. Straight carapace length of adults usually ranges from , with a maximum of . The carapace is at least twice as long as it is high. Body mass averages , with a range of .
Behavior
Diet
Gopher tortoises are herbivore scavengers and opportunistic grazers. Thus, their diets contains over 300 species of plants, with the dominant plants within their environment likely making up the bulk of their diet. They consume a very wide range of plants, but mainly eat broad-leaved grass, regular grass, wiregrass, and terrestrial legumes. However, other plant parts, including shoots, stems, leaves, and pine needles are also eaten. They also eat mushrooms, and fruits such as gopher apple, pawpaw, blackberries, and saw palmetto berries. In addition, gopher tortoises eat flowers from the genera Cnidoscolus (nettles), Tillandsia (Spanish and ball moss), Richardia, and Dyschoriste. A very small portion of the tortoises’ diet is composed of fungi, lichens, carrion, bones, insects, and feces, eaten more commonly by females before and after nesting time. Juvenile tortoises tend to eat more legumes, which are higher in protein, and fewer grasses and tough, fibrous plants than mature tortoises. As gopher tortoises usually get water from the food they eat, they usually only drink standing water in times of extreme drought.
Burrowing
Gopher tortoises, like other tortoises of the genus Gopherus, are known for their digging ability. Gopher tortoises spend most of their time in long burrows (up to 80% of their time). On average, these burrows are long and deep, but can extend up to in length and deep. The length and depth of the burrow vary with the depth of sand and depth of the water table. In these burrows, the tortoises are protected from summer heat, winter cold, fire, and predators. The burrows are especially common in longleaf pine savannas, where the tortoises are the primary grazers, playing an essential role in their ecosystem. Except during breeding season, gopher tortoises are solitary animals, inhabiting a small home range. Within their range they dig several burrows. On average, each gopher tortoise needs about to live.
Life span
Gopher tortoises can live more than 40 years. One current specimen, Gus (age 100—the oldest known living gopher tortoise—as of 2022), has been living continuously in captivity at the Nova Scotia Museum of Natural History in Halifax for 75 years and is believed to have hatched between 1920 and 1925. Additionally, there are journalistic reports of a specimen in North Texas with a verified age of 75–78 years old.
The gopher tortoise reaches maturity at approximately 10–15 years of age, when their shells are around long. Male tortoises reach adulthood at approximately 9–12 years of age, and females take up to 10–21 years to reach maturity. Maturation time may vary based on local resource abundance and latitude. Gopher tortoises prefer to live solitary lifestyles, burrowing alone and only breaking this during mating season
Breeding and reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves courtship rituals. During the mating season females only produce 1 clutch annually between April and November, females lay about 1–25 eggs and incubate them underground for 70–100 days. The sex of the eggs is determined by the temperature where they are incubated in a nest laid below sand. If the sand is over 30 degrees Celsius, it is a female and if below 30 degrees Celsius, the egg is a male. Incubation period can last from 80 to 90 days in Florida and 110 days in South Carolina. The eggs will stay in the uterus of the female for 60 days until oviposition occurs, they will use their uterine epithelium to supply "pumping water", and transport important nutrients to the eggs.
Gopher tortoises may mate from February through September, with a peak throughout May and June. Females may lay clutches of 3–14 eggs, depending on body size, in a sandy mound very close to the entrance of their burrow.
Ninety percent of clutches may be destroyed by predators such as armadillos, raccoons, foxes, skunks, and alligators before the eggs hatch, and less than 6% of eggs are expected to grow into tortoises that live one year or more after hatching. As the tortoises age, they have fewer natural predators. Egg predation rates are unchanged regardless of whether nests are close to or remain far from burrows. Additionally, a denser soil composition may affect hatchlings' ability to emerge due to the hatchlings' apparent inability to dig themselves out of the nest.
Social behavior
It has been suggested that gopher tortoises, more than other tortoise species, exhibit social behavior. While primarily solitary creatures, gopher tortoises live in well-defined colonies which are similar to those of highly social animals such as the prairie dog. The distribution and proximity of burrows might be the consequence of social relationships between tortoises. Some females have been observed visiting the burrows of a particular female repeatedly, even if there are other tortoises nearby. This may be a sort of 'friendship', but such terms are not normally used to describe the relationships between animals. Female gopher tortoises generally do not relocate once they have moved into a colony and larger males usually have their burrows adjacent to females in the spring. It has been found that males can travel up to 500m to visit females and their burrows.
Conservation concerns
Historically
Since July 7, 1987, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has listed Gopherus polyphemus as "Threatened" wherever the tortoises are found west of the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. On November 9, 2009, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed rulemaking to include the eastern population of Gopherus polyphemus in the List of Threatened Wildlife. In October 2022, the USFWS announced that the species overall and its eastern distinct population segment (DPS) did not warrant listing at that time. G. polyphemus appears on the IUCN Red List as a "Vulnerable" species; however, it has not been assessed for the purposes of this list since 1996. In July 2011, the USFWS determined that listing the eastern population of the tortoise as Threatened under the Endangered Species Act is warranted, however, it is precluded from doing so at this time due to higher priority actions and a lack of sufficient funds to commence proposed rule development. In the interim period of time the USFWS will place the eastern population of the tortoise on its candidate species list until sufficient funding is available to initiate a proposed listing rule. In 2018, the IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group recommended a re-assessment and re-classification of all six Gopherus species This reclassification would move G. polyphemus from Vulnerable (VU) to Endangered (EN). NatureServe considers the species to be Vulnerable.
The Conservation Clinic at the University of Florida's Levin College of Law describes five main threats to the tortoise population, which are: (1) habitat loss through human development, (2) habitat loss through poor supervision, (3) human desire to use it as a pet or eat it as meat (see human predation), (4) relocation causing population disruption, and (5) disease caused by relocation.
In Mississippi, along State Route 63, chain link fences were built to prevent gopher tortoise mortality from traffic. These fences, made from heavy gauge wire for durability, are three feet high and are buried one foot below the surface. The fences have "turnarounds" at either end, which are angled fences that redirect tortoises back into the area from which they come. As of 2003, no roadside gopher tortoise deaths had been reported along Route 63 since the construction of the fences.
On July 27, 2016, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission issued a warning to residents and visitors to the state not to paint the shell of a gopher tortoise, as the paint can hinder their ability to absorb vitamins they need from the sun, cause respiratory problems, allow toxic chemicals into the bloodstream, and other harmful effects. The commission has also stated that it is illegal to do so otherwise.
Head-start and release programs have been shown to be effective methods of combating gopher tortoise population decline. At the Yuchi Wildlife Management Area in Burke County, Georgia, during 2014 and 2015 145 tortoises were released and tracked. Survivorship was variable throughout the study but site fidelity remained high. Since tortoises were staying in the same area after release it could be a viable method of population recovery. Release strategy and predator mitigation are essential to its success.
Keystone species
Gopher tortoises are known as a keystone species.
The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission states the gopher tortoise provides temporary or permanent refuge for as many as 350 to 400 species, whether the gopher tortoise is present or not. The burrows are used for feeding, resting, reproduction, and protection from temperature extremes, moisture loss, and predators. These species include gopher frogs (Rana capito), several species of snake, such as the eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi), small invertebrates, and burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia). Several species associated with gopher tortoise burrows are listed as endangered, threatened, or species of special concern by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Therefore, conservation efforts focused on the gopher tortoise aid these species as well. The largest threats to gopher tortoises are habitat destruction, habitat degradation, and human predation.
Additionally, gopher tortoise burrows may benefit plant life by exposing mineral soil favorable for germination.
Habitat conversion
Conversion of gopher tortoise habitat to urban areas, croplands, and pasture, along with adverse forest management practices, has drastically reduced the historic range of the gopher tortoise. The taking of gopher tortoises for sale or use as food or pets has also had a serious effect on some populations. The seriousness of the loss of adult tortoises is magnified by the length of time required for tortoises to reach maturity and their low reproductive rate. According to the website of the Brevard Zoo in Melbourne, Florida, current estimates of human predation and road mortality alone are at levels that could offset any annual addition to the population, and sightings of gopher tortoises have become rare in many areas, and the ones sighted are much smaller than in the past. A number of other species also prey upon gopher tortoises, including the raccoon, which is the primary egg and hatchling predator, gray foxes, striped skunks, nine-banded armadillos, dogs, and snakes. Red imported fire ants also have been known to prey on hatchlings. A 1980 report indicated clutch and hatchling losses often approach 90 percent.
In the past, approximately 83,955 gopher tortoises were incidentally taken (destroyed) and 137,759 acres of gopher tortoise habitat was permitted for development in Florida as developers could acquire Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Incidental Take Permits to build in the gopher tortoises' natural habitat. Additional gopher tortoise habitat was lost due to issuance of Special Tortoise Relocation Permits and Standard Tortoise Relocation Permits, but the total acreage of habitat lost and total number of gopher tortoises relocated cannot be estimated due to issuance of these two types of permits. Both the tortoise and their burrows are now protected under state laws. On July 31, 2007, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission implemented new permitting rules requiring developers to relocate tortoises. Starting on April 22, 2009, three types of permits were available in Florida for developers wishing to build on gopher tortoise habitat. Two of these permits allow for the relocation of gopher tortoises, either to some other place on the site being used for construction, or to a recipient site which has been certified by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. The third type of permit allows for temporary relocation of tortoises while major utility lines are installed. In the third case, the tortoises are returned to their habitat after construction is complete.
Natural Disaster Threats
Gopher tortoises are sensitive to the stability or quality of the environment that they live in. There have many anthropogenic disturbances to gopher tortoise habitat, such as fire regimes to maintain healthy ecosystems, meaning this may disrupt potential vegetation that is essential to their diet. Though most research has been conducted on upland habitats for gopher tortoises, they also inhabit sand dune ecosystems. Far less is known about these tortoises' role and niche within these coastal environments. However, this also means that they are threatened by human activity causing these tortoises to be subject to sea level rise and irregular and intense hurricane patterns. An increase in storm intensity can lead to the ultimate destruction of these coastal habitats and therefore the species that occupy them, or at the very least misplacement into other unsuitable habitats. Many of these habitats are located on Florida beaches, which have decreased due to development and have left less than 86,000 acres of wild lands. As a result of these storms, tortoises have been moving up in elevation and residing in abandoned burrows that are deeper in order be protected from the hurricanes. This increase in storms may cause a range shift to higher elevation which may result in more human contact, which may reduce their populations over time. Since many beaches in Florida run parallel to trafficked roads and are therefore fragmented ecosystems, this may directly decrease the survival of these coastal gopher tortoises before there is adequate research done to understand the ecological importance that the coastal gopher tortoises contribute.
Human predation
Tortoises are subjected to predation by other animals, including by humans. People have eaten gopher tortoises for thousands of years. During the Great Depression, the gopher tortoise was known as the "Hoover Chicken" because they were eaten by poor people out of work. Some people see gopher tortoise meat as a delicacy, or as simply a free source of meat. Although it is now illegal to hunt gopher tortoises or possess their meat or shells, illegal hunting was still taking place at an unsustainable rate, with some colonies being driven to extinction. In 2006, police uncovered "five pounds of tortoise meat in [a] man's refrigerator" after they spotted empty tortoise shells along a highway in Florida. In nineteen counties in Alabama, tortoise was listed as "game species," though one with "no open season."
Gopher tortoises have been kept as pets, preventing them from reproducing in their local populations. Captured gopher tortoises could be raced in tortoise races, but this practice was banned in Florida in 1989. Moving a tortoise can lead to harmful consequences to the environment from which it came, because the tortoise is often not returned to the same place where it was found. Also, as tortoise racing involves several tortoises in close proximity to one another, diseases can easily spread from one tortoise to another. If an infected captive tortoise is then returned to the environment, other tortoises may be infected.
Climate change
Climate change poses another challenge for the gopher tortoise through alteration of habitat, but they are adapting by way of natural selection. According to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, rising temperature and change in rainfall patterns may increase the numbers of invasive species which if more adapted to these environmental changes could drive out native plants essential for tortoise's diet. Invasive species can cause habitat fragmentation and increase stress to gopher tortoises and other native animals. Warmer temperatures cause sea level to rise and more extreme weather to occur. Extreme periods of rainfall and drought will cause fewer lands to become available. There will also be an increase or decrease in water availability. One meter rise in sea level leads to loss of 20% of existing conservation lands and 30% of the natural habitats. However, based on current sea level rise, a one-meter rise in ocean levels would occur only after the passage of several centuries. As the sea level rises, it will move storms closer to land and affect both coastal and marine environments. Species may move inland as less land is accessible. This can increase the spread of diseases or disrupt food cycles and reproduction.
Habitat loss
In 1987, human urbanization and various human activities in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama caused dramatic declines in the tortoise population, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed them as "endangered." Even though the population declined in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina, they were not yet listed as threatened at the time. However, in recent years, habitat loss is increasing as southern states continue to experience human population growth, and expand on highway road construction. The southeast has had a 20% increase in human population between 1990 and 2000.
One of the most suitable habitats for gopher tortoise is the longleaf pine ecosystem, which provides suitable well-drained and sandy soils for tortoises to inhabit. Longleaf pine forests include abundant low herbaceous plant growth and open canopy/space for tortoise's eggs to incubate. Since European settlement, longleaf pine decreased in area by an estimated of 96%, which has contributed to an 80% decrease in population densities of gopher tortoise. This means that there is only 4% of longleaf pine remaining.
Over its range in the southeast, there are still four large core areas that provide the opportunity to protect large areas of tortoise habitat, as well the biological diversity of the coastal plain. They are (from west to east) De Soto National Forest, Eglin Air Force Base, Apalachicola National Forest, and Okefenokee Swamp in Florida. These areas offer an opportunity to restore forest stands and land areas containing populations of native vertebrate animals threatened by habitat fragmentation. Restoring the natural causal factors of fire, especially, and flooding would also assist in restoring the plant and animal communities.
If Florida's population doubles, of land, which is the size of Vermont, could be developed. of agricultural lands and of unused land will be developed. This will cause more competition for water resources between animals and humans. The low reproductive rate of the tortoise makes it more vulnerable to declines in longleaf ecosystem and extinction.
Habitat fragmentation
Anthropogenic activity appears to not only result in habitat loss but also habitat fragmentation. Turtles and tortoises are strongly impacted by railways, which can act as barriers to movement. Radio telemetry data show that gopher tortoises cross railways significantly less frequently than expected. Tortoises also have poor ability to escape from railways after entering the area between the rails. Railway habituated tortoises (those believed to live near railways and interact with them) and naïve tortoises (those unlikely to frequently interact with railways) do not differ substantially in their railway escape behavior, suggesting that prior experience may not improve tortoises’ ability to escape from railways that they have entered. Trenches dug beneath railways can facilitate movement across and escape from railways. As railways are prevalent throughout the gopher tortoise's geographic range, implementation of railway trenches may improve population connectivity and reduce habitat fragmentation.
Diseases
Gopher tortoises are known to contract upper respiratory tract diseases (URTDs) caused by various microorganisms, including the bacterium Mycoplasma agassizii and iridovirus and herpes viruses. Symptoms of URTDs include serous, mucoid, or purulent discharge from the nares, excessive tearing to purulent ocular discharge, conjunctivitis, and edema of the eyelids and ocular glands. M. agassizii is known to exist in tortoises without showing obvious symptoms. Little is known about why some tortoises test positive and live for years, while others become seriously ill and die. The antibiotic enrofloxacin has been used to treat bacterial URTDs in G. polyphemus. However, there is no cure for URTD.
Although long-term studies indicate URTDs can cause population declines in desert tortoise populations 10–15 years after initial infection, studies of such length have not been performed on G. polyphemus. One study, which observed G. polyphemus tortoises in Florida from 2003 to 2006, returned the unexpected observation that tortoises which were seropositive for URTD antibodies were less likely to die over that time than seronegative tortoises. However, the habitats of more seropositive populations had more remains of dead tortoises. The investigators offered the explanation that seropositive tortoises had survived an initial infection, then developed chronic disease. This evidence may imply a possible acute effect on mortality, followed by chronic disease in surviving individuals. Further studies are needed to more fully understand the effects of URTD on this species.
There was a study that found that 14 out of 35 Florida gopher tortoises tested positive for a bacteria called, Candidatus Anaplasma testudinis. These tortoises came into the animal hospitals with anemia and Cytoplasmic vacuolization. With this bacteria present, it can cause anaplasmosis, that is thought to damage red blood cells. It can spread by ticks or other biological vectors and this disease is transmittable, but not contagious. Since this disease was so prevalent within the tortoises studied, it is believed that this disease occurs frequently and is common occurrence in wild populations. This then becomes a pressing issue in terms of the conservation efforts put forward to decrease the likelihood of this disease affecting the population counts. This study will allow us to develop more diagnostic tests to ensure the effective diagnosis and treatment of wild gopher tortoises, and will also ensure a method is cemented for the identification and removal of the potential biological vectors. Ticks are the predicted biological vector, but more research needs to be done to identify other potential carriers and which tick species are more likely to spread diseases to gopher tortoises.
Longleaf forest conservation
Since the preservation of the longleaf pine ecosystem in particular is required for the maintenance of the gopher tortoise, conservation efforts are needed to maintain this endangered ecosystem. The longleaf pine ecosystem provides extreme conditions such as "nutrient" deprived soil and "sandy sites" for gopher's habitation. The longleaf pine is a relatively long-lived tree for this region of the world, with individual trees often persisting for several centuries.
Conserving these forests would provide the natural habitats gopher tortoises need.
Successful reforestation efforts have been made. According to the Environmental Defense Fund's website, environmentalists and private land owners are working together to maintain the wildlife habitat while maintaining crops productivity. Groups provide assistance to private landowners to ensure funding for conservation incentives to landowners who are willing to preserve wildlife on their soil. Most lands in the East are privately owned. Landowners used "prescribed burns' to restore favorable habitat conditions. Prescribed burns managed by the Safe Harbor Agreement benefits U.S. Fish & Wildlife, serve under Federal Endangered Species Act help reduces and prevents the amount of invasive species that are threatening to the tortoise; Invasive species such as the (1) cogongrass aka Imperata cylindrica and (2) Fire ants disrupt gopher tortoise's habitat and kill tortoise eggs can be controlled. Prescribed fire is one method to provide sufficient ground for the tortoise and its eggs to survive and maintain biodiversity.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Daudin FM (1801). Histoire Naturelle, Générale et Particulière des Reptiles; ouvrage faisant suite à l'Histoire générale et particulière, composée par Leclerc de Buffon, et rédigée par C.S. Sonnini, membre des plusieurs sociétés savantes. Tome Second [Volume 2]. Paris: F. Dufart. 432 pp. (Testudo polyphemus, new species, pp. 256–259). (in French and Latin).
Goin CJ, Goin OB, Zug GB (1978). Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. . (Gopherus polyphemus, p. 155).
Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 47 plates, 207 figures. . (Gopherus polyphemus, p. 230 + Plate 19 + Figure 205 on p. 459).
Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. (paperback), (hardcover). (Gopherus polyphemus, pp. 62–63).
External links
Enchanted Forest Nature Sanctuary: Gopher tortoise
Gopherus polyphemus Blog of the Digital Library of Georgia
Gopherus
Reptiles of the United States
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Symbols of Georgia (U.S. state)
Reptiles described in 1802
Articles containing video clips
Symbols of Florida |
4361658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Masses | The Masses | The Masses was a graphically innovative American magazine of socialist politics published monthly from 1911 until 1917, when federal prosecutors brought charges against its editors for conspiring to obstruct conscription in the United States during World War I. It was succeeded by The Liberator and then later New Masses. It published reportage, fiction, poetry and art by the leading radicals of the time such as Max Eastman, John Reed, Dorothy Day, and Floyd Dell.
History
Beginnings
Piet Vlag, an eccentric Dutch socialist immigrant from the Netherlands, founded the magazine in 1911. For the first year of its publication, the printing and engraving costs of the magazine were paid for by a sympathetic patron, Rufus Weeks, a vice president at the New York Life Insurance Company. Vlag's dream of a co-operatively operated magazine never worked well, and after just a few issues, he left for Florida. His vision of an illustrated socialist monthly had, however, attracted a circle of young activists in Greenwich Village to The Masses; these included visual artists such as John French Sloan from the Ashcan School. These Greenwich Village artists and writers asked one of their own, Max Eastman (who was then studying for a doctorate under John Dewey at Columbia University), to edit their magazine. John Sloan, Art Young, Louis Untermeyer, and Inez Haynes Gillmore (among others) mailed a terse letter to Eastman in August 1912: "You are elected editor of The Masses. No pay." In the first issue, Eastman wrote the following manifesto:
The Masses was to some extent defined by its association with New York's artistic culture. "The birth of The Masses," Eastman later wrote, "coincided with the birth of 'Greenwich Village' as a self-conscious entity, an American Bohemia or gipsy-minded Latin Quarter, but its relations with that entity were not simple." The Masses was very much embedded in a specific metropolitan milieu, unlike some other competing socialist periodicals (such as the Appeal to Reason, a populist-inflected 500,000-circulation weekly produced out of Girard, Kansas).
The magazine carved out a unique position for itself within American Left print culture. It was more open to Progressive Era reforms, like women's suffrage, than Emma Goldman's anarchist Mother Earth. At the same time it fiercely criticized more mainstream leftist publications like The New Republic for insufficient radicalism.
After Eastman assumed leadership, and especially after August 1914, the magazine's denouncements of the war were frequent and fierce. In the September 1914 edition of his column, "Knowledge and Revolution," Eastman predicted: "Probably no one will actually be the victor in this gambler's war—for we may as well call it a gambler's war. Only so can we indicate its underlying commercial causes, its futility, and yet also the tall spirit in which it is carried off."
By May 1916, the radical content published in The Masses had caused it to be boycotted by two major American magazine distribution companies, United News Co. of Philadelphia, and Magazine Distributing Co. of Boston. It was also excluded from the Canadian mails, university libraries, bookshops, and the newsstands of the New York City subway system.
Associated Press lawsuits
In July 1913, in the aftermath of the Paint Creek–Cabin Creek strike of 1912 in West Virginia, Max Eastman wrote an editorial in The Masses accusing the Associated Press of "having suppressed and colored the news of that strike in favor of the employers". Eastman detailed the AP's alleged suppression of information regarding the abuses carried out by a military tribunal set up to punish striking coal workers, and also accused the AP of having a conflict of interest, after it was discovered that the AP's local correspondent was also a member of the tribunal. The editorial was accompanied by a cartoon by Art Young, entitled "Poisoned at the Source", which featured a figure of the AP poisoning the reservoir of news with "Lies", "Suppressed Facts", "Prejudice", "Slander", and "Hatred of Labor Organization".
The AP filed suit for criminal libel against Eastman and Young through its attorney William Rand, but the suit was dismissed by a judge. Rand followed up by persuading the District Attorney in New York City to convene a Grand Jury, which indicted Eastman and Young for criminal libel in December 1913. The two editors were arrested on December 13 and released on $1,000 bail each, facing the prospect of a year in prison if found guilty. A month later, the two were also charged with personally libeling the President of the Associated Press, Frank Brett Noyes, when it was determined that the figure of the AP in Young's cartoon was in Noyes's likeness.
Young and Eastman were represented pro bono by Gilbert Roe, and their plight attracted the support of an array of activists including Lincoln Steffens, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Inez Milholland, and Amos Pinchot. At a meeting held in support of Eastman and Young at Cooper Union, Pinchot expressed his support of their cause and agreed with the two editors' charge that the AP was operating as a monopoly "in constraint of truth". The AP demanded he retract his statement on the threat of a $150,000 libel lawsuit, but Pinchot persuaded the organization that the publicity would reflect poorly on them and the suit went nowhere. The defense consulted the lawyer Samuel Untermyer, who claimed to have personally witnessed the distortion of the West Virginia news by the AP. After two years of litigation, the District Attorney's office quietly dropped the lawsuits against Young and Eastman.
First trial
Following the passing of the Espionage Act (Pub. L. 65-24, 40 Stat. 217, enacted June 15, 1917), The Masses attempted to comply with the new regulations as to remain eligible for shipment by the U.S. Post Office. The business manager, Merrill Rogers, "made efforts to be in compliance by seeking counsel from George Creel, Chairman of the Committee on Public Post office still denied use of the mails." Challenging the injunction from the mail, The Masses found brief success in having the ban overturned; however, after bringing public attention to the issue, the government officially identified the "treasonable material" in the 1917 August issue and, shortly after, issued charges against Max Eastman, Floyd Dell, John Reed, Josephine Bell, H.J. Glintenkamp, Art Young, and Merrill Rogers. Charged with seeking to "unlawfully and willfully…obstruct the recruiting and enlistment of the United States" military, Eastman and his "conspirators" faced fines up to 10,000 dollars and twenty years imprisonment.
The trial opened April 15, 1918, and despite the onslaught of prejudicial emotions, the defendants were not very worried. The Masses cohort, aware of the prosecutory artifice, played up a lackadaisical performance of absurdist humor. "Contributing to a carnival atmosphere that first day of the trial was a band just outside the courtroom window patriotic tunes in a campaign to sell Liberty Bonds and disturbing the solemnity within the courtroom itself. Each time the band played the "Star Spangled Banner" Merrill Rogers jumped to the floor to salute the flag. Only after the fourth time that the band played the tune and only after the Judge asked him did Rogers finally dispense with the salute." Finally, only five of seven defendants even appeared for the trial – Reed was still in Russia and H.J. Glintenkamp was of unknown whereabouts, though rumored to be anywhere from South America to Idaho. Louis Untermeyer commented, "As the trial went on it was evident that the indictment was a legal subterfuge and that what was really on trial was the issue of a free press."
Before releasing the jury for deliberation, Judge Learned Hand altered the charges against the defendants and attempted to preface the jury of their constitutional duties. Hand dismissed all the charges against Josephine Bell, and dismissed the first count – "conspiracy to cause mutiny and refusal of duty"—against the remaining defendants. Prior to releasing the jurors, Judge Hand stated, "I do not have to remind you that every man has the right to have such economic, philosophic or religious opinions as seem to him best, whether they be socialist, anarchistic or atheistic." After deliberating from Thursday afternoon to Saturday, the jury returned with two decisions. First, the jury was unable to come to a unanimous decision. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, the jurors seeking to convict the defendants blamed one juror for being unable to conform to the majority opinion, as he was also a socialist and, consequently, un-American. Not only did the other eleven jurors demand the prosecutor to levy charges against the lone juror, but moved to drag the socialist supporter out into the street and lynch him. Judge Hand, given the uproar, declared a mistrial.
Second trial
In September 1918, The Masses were back on trial, this time joined by John Reed (who had smuggled himself back into the United States from Russia in order to be present at the trial). Aside from new defense attorneys, the proceedings remained very similar to the first trial.
Ending his closing arguments, Prosecutor Barnes invoked the image of a dead soldier in France, stating, "He lies dead, and he died for you and he died for me. He died for Max Eastman. He died for John Reed. He died for Merrill Rogers. His voice is but one of a thousand silent voices that demand that these men be punished." Art Young, who had taken to sleeping through most of the court proceedings, awoke at the end of Barnes's argument, whispering loudly, "What? Didn't he die for me?" John Reed, sitting next to Young responded, "Cheer up Art, Jesus died for you." As before, the jury returned unable to come to a unanimous decision (though without threats of violence).
After The Masses died, Eastman and other writers were unwilling to let its spirit go with it. In March 1918, their new monthly adopted the name of William Lloyd Garrison's famed The Liberator.
The Masses continued to serve as an example for radicals long after it was suppressed. "The only magazine I know which bears a certain resemblance to (Dwight Macdonald's magazine) Politics and fulfilled a similar function thirty years earlier," Hannah Arendt claimed in 1968, was "the old Masses (1911-1917)."
Notable contributors
Sherwood Anderson
Cornelia Barns
George Bellows
Louise Bryant
George Creel
Arthur B. Davies
Dorothy Day
Floyd Dell
Max Eastman
Wanda Gág
Jack London
Amy Lowell
Mabel Dodge Luhan
Inez Milholland
Robert Minor
Pablo Picasso
John Reed
Boardman Robinson
Carl Sandburg
John French Sloan
Upton Sinclair
Louis Untermeyer
Mary Heaton Vorse
Art Young
Politics
Labor struggles
The magazine reported on most of the major labor struggles of its day: from the Paint Creek–Cabin Creek strike of 1912 in West Virginia to the 1913 Paterson silk strike and the Ludlow Massacre in Colorado. It strongly sympathized with Big Bill Haywood and his IWW, the political campaigns of Eugene V. Debs, and a variety of other socialist and anarchist figures. The Masses also indignantly followed the aftermath of the Los Angeles Times bombing.
Women's rights and sexual equality
The magazine vigorously argued for birth control (supporting activists like Margaret Sanger) and women's suffrage. Several of its Greenwich Village contributors, like Reed and Dell, practiced free love in their spare time and promoted it (sometimes in veiled terms) in their pieces. Support for these social reforms was sometimes controversial within Marxist circles at the time; some argued that they were distractions from a more proper political goal, class revolution. Emma Goldman once tutted: "It is rather disappointing to find THE MASSES devoting an entire edition to 'Votes for Women.' Perhaps Mother Earth alone has any faith in women ... that women are capable and are ready to fight for freedom and revolution."
Literature and criticism
American realism was a vital, pioneering current in the writing of the time, and several leading lights were willing to contribute work to the magazine without pay. The name most associated with the magazine is Sherwood Anderson. Anderson was "discovered" by The Masses''' fiction editor, Floyd Dell, and his pieces there formed the foundation for his Winesburg, Ohio stories. In the November 1916 The Masses, Dell described his surprise years before while reading Anderson's unsolicited manuscript: "there Sherwood Anderson was writing like—I had no other phrase to express it—like a great novelist." Anderson would later be cited by the Partisan Review circle as one of the first homegrown American talents.
The magazine's criticism, edited by Floyd Dell, was cheekily titled (at least for a time) "Books that Are Interesting." Dell's perceptive reviews gave accolades to many of the most notable books of the time: An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, Spoon River Anthology, Theodore Dreiser's novels, Carl Jung's Psychology of the Unconscious, G. K. Chesterton's works, Jack London's memoirs, and many other prominent creations.
Illustrations
Although the magazine's birth coincided with the explosion of modernism, and its contributor Arthur B. Davies was an organizer of the Armory Show, The Masses published for the most part realist artwork that would later be classified in the Ashcan School. Art Young, who served on the editorial board for the full run of the magazine, is credited with first using the term "ash can art" in 1916. These artists were attempting to record real life and create honest pictures, and they would often use the crayon technique to do so. This technique resulted in "capturing the feeling of a rapid sketch made on the spot and permitting a direct, unmediated response to what they saw" and is commonly found on the pages of The Masses from 1912 to 1916. This type of illustration became less common after the artists' strike in 1916, which ended with many artists leaving the magazine. The strike occurred when Max Eastman began to assert more influence over what was published and began printing material without first submitting it to the editorial board for a vote. While the majority of the editorial board backed up Eastman, some of the staff questioned "what they saw as Eastman's attempts to turn The Masses into a 'one-man magazine instead of a cooperative sheet.'" One of the main issues the artists took up during the strike was that Eastman and Floyd Dell were appending many illustrations with captions without the approval or knowledge of the artists. This particularly irritated John Sloan who saw the magazine as moving away from its original purpose and stated, "The Masses is no longer the resultant of the ideas and art of a number of personalities. The Masses has developed a 'policy.'" Not agreeing with this idea of a policy, which became more and more serious with the escalation of World War I, Sloan and other artists (including Maurice Becker, Alice Beach Winter, and Charles Winter) resigned from the magazine in 1916.
During the later years of its publication, the magazine embraced more modernist art than before, although it never dropped realist illustrations completely. Several of the cover issues from 1916 and 1917 attest to this shift. Instead of featuring crayon drawings of realistic scenes with gentle social satire, they featured cover girls often clad in modern attire and embodying a modernist style. Frank Walts' picture of Mary Fuller has been given as an example of this.
In addition to the realistic and modernist artwork, the magazine was also well known for its many political cartoons. Art Young is perhaps most famous for these; but other artists, such as Robert Minor, also contributed to this aspect of the magazine. The cartoons, especially those by Young and Minor, were at times quite controversial and, after the United States entered World War I, considered treasonous for their anti-war sentiments.
The illustrations published often pushed the socialist agenda for which The Masses was known. John Sloan's drawings of the working class and immigrants, for example, advocated for labor rights; Alice Beach Winter's work was known to emphasized motherhood and the plight of working children; and Maurice Becker's city life scenes satirized the extravagant lifestyle of the upper class. While many of the illustrations in The Masses made a political or social point, Max Eastman did frequently publish art for its aesthetic value and wanted the magazine to be a publication, which combined revolutionary ideas with both literature and art for its own sake.
See also
Christian anarchism
Christian pacifism
Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten
References
Further reading
Schreiber, Rachel. Gender and Activism in a Little Magazine: the modern figures of the Masses. London: Routledge, 2016 (original publicated Ashgate, 2011).
Watts, Theodore F. The Masses Index 1911–1917. Easthampton, MA: Periodyssey, 2000.
The Masses | Vol. 1 (1911) | Vol. 2 (1912) | Vol. 3 (1913) | Vol. 4 (1914) | Vol. 5 (1915) | Vol. 6 (1916) | Vol. 7 (1917) |
External links
The Masses digital library site from the Tamiment Library & Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University: full coverage for 79 issues, from No. 1.1 (Jan 1911) through No. 10-1/2 (Nov/Dec 1917); includes a downloadable index of the magazine's contents.
"The Radical Impulse" from the Library of Congress Exhibition "Life of the People"
The Masses Cover Illustrations Collection
http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/search_list.php?search=The_Masses
Marxists Internet Archive
The Masses Complete, high resolution color scans. Most authoritative digital archive of The Masses. Copies provided by NYU.
Political Cartoons from the Masses
Max Eastman Archive
John Reed Archive
Modernist Journals Project
The Masses : a cover-to-cover digital edition of all 79 issues, based on NYU's originals, with free pdfs and a search database.
The Masses Work Site at the Modernist Journals Project : explore the database using quantitative analysis and visualization tools.
Complete volume/issue inventory of The Masses and U.S. libraries with original holdings
Articles
"The Crayon Was Mightier Than the Sword" by David Oshinsky in the New York Times'' (September 4, 1988).
The Masses - Spartacus encyclopedia
Censorship in the United States
Defunct political magazines published in the United States
Free love advocates
Magazines established in 1911
Magazines disestablished in 1917
Progressive Era in the United States
Socialist magazines |
4361682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7afrique | Françafrique | In international relations, () is France's sphere of influence (or in French, meaning 'backyard') over former French and (also French-speaking) Belgian colonies in sub-Saharan Africa. The term was derived from the expression , which was used by the first president of Ivory Coast, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, in 1955 to describe his country's close ties with France. It was later pejoratively renamed by François-Xavier Verschave in 1998 to criticise the alleged corrupt and clandestine activities of various Franco-African political, economic and military networks, also defined as France's neocolonialism.
Following the accession to independence of its African colonies beginning in 1959, France continued to maintain a sphere of influence over the new countries, which was critical to then President Charles de Gaulle's vision of France as a global power (or in French) and as a bulwark to British and American influence in a post-colonial world. The United States supported France's continuing presence in Africa to prevent the region from falling under Soviet influence during the Cold War. France kept close political, economic, military and cultural ties with its former African colonies that were multi-layered, involving institutional, semi-institutional and informal levels.
has been characterised by several features that emerged during the Cold War, the first of which was the African cell, a group that comprised the French President and his close advisors who made policy decisions on Africa, often in close collaboration with powerful business networks and the French secret service. Another feature was the franc zone, a currency union that pegged the currencies of most francophone African countries to the French franc. was also based, in large part, on the concept of , which was implemented through a series of cooperation accords that allowed France to establish close political, economic, military and cultural ties with its former African colonies. France also saw itself as a guarantor of stability in the region and therefore adopted an interventionist policy in Africa, resulting in military interventions that averaged once a year from 1960 to the mid-1990s. Finally, a central feature of were the personal networks that underpinned the informal, family-like relationships between French and African leaders. These networks often lacked oversight and scrutiny, which led to corruption and state racketeering.
After the Cold War, the regime weakened due to France's budgetary constraints, greater public scrutiny at home, the deaths of pivotal actors (Foccart, Mitterrand, Pasqua and members of Elf), and the integration of France into the European Union. Economic liberalisation, high indebtedness and political instability of the former African colonies have reduced their political and economic attractiveness, leading France to adopt a more pragmatic and hard-nose approach to its African relations.
Etymology
The term was derived from the expression , which was used in 1955 by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Ivory Coast, who advocated maintaining a close relationship with France, while acceding to independence. Close cooperation between Houphouët-Boigny and Jacques Foccart, chief advisor on African policy in the Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou governments (1958–1974) is thought to have contributed to the "Ivorian miracle" of economic and industrial progress.
The term was subsequently renamed by François-Xavier Verschave and was used as the title of his 1998 book, , which criticises French policies in Africa. Verschave and the association Survie, of which he was president until his death in 2005, re-used the expression of Houphouët-Boigny to name and denounce the many concealed bonds between France and Africa. He later defined Françafrique as "the secret criminality in the upper echelons of French politics and economy, where a kind of underground Republic is hidden from view".
Pun
Verschave also noted the pun in the term , as it sounds like "" (a source of cash for France; is French slang for 'cash'), and that "Over the course of four decades, hundreds of thousands of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, cocoa... or drained through French importing monopolies, have financed French political-business networks (all of them offshoots of the main neo-Gaullist network), shareholders' dividends, the secret services' major operations and mercenary expeditions".
History
Charles de Gaulle's presidency (1958–1969)
When Charles de Gaulle returned to power as French President in 1958, France had already been severely weakened by World War II and by the conflicts in Indochina and Algeria. He proceeded to grant independence to France's remaining colonies in sub-Saharan Africa in 1960 in an effort to maintain close cultural and economic ties with them and to avoid more costly colonial wars. Compared to the decolonisation of French Indochina and Algeria, the transfer of power in sub-Saharan Africa was, for the most part, peaceful. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was keen on preserving France's status as a global power (or ) and as a bulwark against British and American influence in a post-colonial world. Thus, he saw close links with France's former African colonies as an opportunity to enhance France's image on the world stage, both as a major power and as a counterbalancing force between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The United States supported France's continuing presence in Africa to prevent the region from falling under Soviet influence. Similarly, the United Kingdom had little interest in West Africa, which left France as the only major power in that region.
On August 24, 1958, in Brazzaville, President Charles de Gaulle recognized that African states had legitimate demands in terms of independence, but that they should go through a period of political learning in the French Community, an organization encompassing France and its colonies. A referendum was organized on September 28, 1958, to decide on the fate of the African states in question. Voting "yes" meant joining the French Community and engaging on a path to independence, while voting "no" meant immediate independence. De Gaulle had also warned that states voting "no" would commit "secession", and that France would pull out their financial and material aids. All voted yes but Guinea, led by Ahmed Sékou Touré, head of the [[Democratic Party of Guinea
—African Democratic Rally|Democratic Party of Guinea]]. On October 2, 1958, Guinea proclaimed its independence, and Sékou Touré became its first ever president. At the time, France was still processing its defeat in Indochina, and feared uprisings in Cameroon and other African nations. Paris feared that Guinea could incite similar movements in the region, so they decided to engage in political and economic retaliation. Though Sékou Touré had sent a letter to de Gaulle on October 15, 1958, asking for Guinea to stay in the CFA franc zone, France banished them from the monetary union in the wake of their independence. Resolutely isolated, Guinea got closer to Eastern Bloc countries in the context of the Cold War. They started working on a new currency with the help of foreign experts, but France saw this as a threat to the stability in the region and its influence there. Therefore, in 1959, France launched operations to undermine the regime in place. Among the methods of destabilization used, one called "Operation Persil" involved introducing a large quantity of fake bills of the new currency in the country to cause inflation and disturb the economy. Nevertheless, with the help of the USSR and China, Sékou Touré's regime held on power until his death in 1984.
To implement his vision of France's , de Gaulle appointed Jacques Foccart, a close adviser and former intelligence member of the French Resistance during World War II, as Secretary-General for African and Malagasy Affairs. Foccart played a pivotal role in maintaining France's sphere of influence in sub-Saharan Africa as he put in place a series of cooperation accords that covered political, economic, military and cultural sectors with an ensemble of African countries, which included France's former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Gabon, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Republic of the Congo and Senegal), former United Nations trust territories (Cameroon and Togo), former Belgian colonies (Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo) and ex-Portuguese (Guinea-Bissau) and Spanish (Equatorial Guinea) territories. France's relationship with this whole ensemble was managed by the Ministry of Cooperation, which was created in 1961 out of the old colonial ministry, Ministry for Overseas France. The Ministry of Cooperation served as a focal point for France's new system of influence in Africa and was later merged with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1999. Foccart also built a dense web of personal networks that underpinned the informal and family-like relationships between French and African leaders. These accords and relationships, along with the franc zone, allowed France to maintain close ties with its former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa that were multi-layered, involving institutional, semi-institutional and informal levels.
Foccart continued to serve as chief adviser until he was replaced with his younger deputy, René Journiac, by French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. Upon becoming President of France in 1995, Chirac again sought Foccart's counsel and even brought him on his first trip to Africa as French President. Foccart continued to play a role in Franco-African relations until his death in 1997.
Georges Pompidou's presidency (1969–1974)
During his five years in power, Georges Pompidou did not break with the Gaullist tradition. Françafrique was very strong under the leadership of Foccart, and these years consolidated a system of networks between France, French companies, and African elites.
Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's presidency (1974–1981)
When Valéry Giscard d'Estaing came to power in 1974, he intended on breaking with the practices of de Gaulle and modernize relations between France and Africa. Despite these intentions, he faced several obstacles. First of all, the networks of Françafrique endure thanks to René Journiac, Foccart's successor, who maintained strong ties with South Africa despite apartheid, but also with Congo, Gabon and Niger, whose raw materials were essential to France. He was also confronted with the political instability of African states, which led him to play the role of "policeman of Africa", i.e. to intervene militarily, notably in Chad and Zaire, to lend a hand to local leaders. Finally, the last obstacle was that the French president was involved in corruption cases revealed by the Canard Enchainé in October 1979. Jean-Bedel Bokassa, emperor of the Central African Republic, is said to have sent him suitcases of diamonds on several occasions. Silent about the affair at first, he finally spoke out as new evidence emerged and declared that the gifts received were all sold and the money collected paid to NGOs. More than the facts, it is above all the symbolism of the affair that shook Valéry Giscard d'Estaing.
François Mitterrand's presidency (1981–1995)
During François Mitterrand's 14 years in power, two dynamics confronted each other. The imperative remained to defend French interests in Africa. That was in line with the political choices of Mitterrand's predecessors even though he was a socialist, unlike de Gaulle and Pompidou. Nevertheless, there was a change of doctrine in terms of foreign policy concerning Françafrique. Mitterrand made public financial and material aid distributed by the French state conditional on the democratization of African countries.
Additionally, unlike his predecessors who maintained strong ties with South Africa, Mitterrand denounced the crimes of apartheid.
When Jacques Chirac was the French Prime Minister from 1986 to 1988, during the cohabitation, he consulted Foccart on African issues.
Jacques Chirac's presidency (1995–2007)
In 1995, after several attempts, Chirac was elected president of France. He brought with him Foccart, who had been his advisor on African matters during Chirac's time as mayor of Paris and Prime Minister. Generally speaking, Chirac continued French diplomatic efforts to maintain the special ties with Africa that de Gaulle had built earlier. He was thus opposed to the devaluation of the CFA franc as well as to the reform of the co-operation, which would be for him an abandonment of French solidarity in the African continent. He was appreciated by the African political leaders in place, but he did not make the issue of human rights a priority in his foreign policy, as was shown by his proximity to the authoritarian regime of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire.
Nicolas Sarkozy's presidency (2007–2012)
Nicolas Sarkozy has worked to transform the Franco-African relationship. He attached the "African cell" of the French state to the diplomatic cell, thus closing the page on decades of official and unofficial networks once woven by Foccart. However, Sarkozy also caused indignation in a speech on July 26, 2007, at the Cheikh Anta Diop University, in Dakar, when he declared that "the African man has not entered history enough" and that "the problem of Africa is that it lives too much in the present in nostalgia for the lost paradise of childhood."
Francois Hollande's presidency (2012–2017)
The five-year term of François Hollande is marked by an ambivalence in French foreign policy on Africa. Indeed, when he came to power he promised the end of Françafrique and also declared that "the time of Françafrique is over: there is France, there is Africa, there is the partnership between France and Africa, with relations based on respect, clarity and solidarity." However, Hollande had military troops deployed in the Sahel, and ties are built of maintained with networks that were more or less occult. Also, the presence of many African dictators such as Idriss Déby or Paul Biya recalled the difficulty of France to break clearly with Françafrique, which embedded French interests. That recalled the hopes and delusions associated with the Mitterrand years in these matters.
Emmanuel Macron's presidency (2017–present)
In August 2017, Emmanuel Macron founded the Presidential Council for Africa, an advisory body composed of people from civil society, mostly members of the African diaspora. While its supporters see the institution as a way to bring together civil society personalities around issues related to Africa rather than officials or business leaders, others see it as a new bridge between African elites, the Diaspora, and French interests in the Africa.
In April 2021, President Macron visited Chad for the funerals of President Idriss Déby, who died while he was commanding military forces who were fighting rebels from the Front for Change and Concord in Chad (FACT) on the frontline. Déby had ruled Chad from 1990 to his death and was succeeded by his son and army general Mahamat Déby who staged what some called an "institutional coup d'état". The official visit of the French head of state thus contributed in legitimizing the authoritarian regime.
Features from the Cold War
African cell
Decisions on France's African policies have been the responsibility (or in French) of French presidents since 1958. They along with their close advisors formed the African cell, which made decisions on African countries without engaging in broader discussions with the French Parliament and civil society actors such as non-governmental organisations. Instead, the African cell worked closely with powerful business networks and the French secret service.
The African cell's founding father, Jacques Foccart, was appointed by President Charles de Gaulle. He became a specialist on African matters at the Élysée Palace. Between 1986 and 1992, Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, the son of President François Mitterrand and a former AFP journalist in Africa, held the position of chief advisor on African policy at the African cell. He was nicknamed (translated as 'Daddy told me'). He was appointed as a diplomatic advisor on Africa but the difference in titles was only symbolic. Subsequently, Claude Guéant served as Africa Advisor to President Sarkozy. In 2017, President Macron appointed Franck Paris to the same role.
Franc zone
The franc zone, a currency union in sub-Saharan Africa, was established when the CFA franc (or ) was created in 1945 as a colonial currency for over a dozen of France's African colonies. The zone continued to exist even after the colonies had achieved their independence in the early 1960s, with only three African countries ever leaving the zone, mostly for reasons of national prestige. One of the three countries, Mali, rejoined the zone in 1984. The CFA franc was pegged to the French franc, and now the euro, and its convertibility is guaranteed by the French Treasury. Despite sharing the same exchange rate, the CFA franc is actually two currencies, the Central African CFA franc and the West African CFA franc, which are run by their respective central banks in Central and West Africa. The foreign exchange reserves of member countries are pooled and each of the two African central banks keeps 65% of its foreign reserves with the French Treasury.
The franc zone was intended to provide African countries with monetary stability, with member countries such as Ivory Coast experiencing relatively low inflation at an average rate of 6% over the past 50 years compared to 29% in neighboring Ghana, a non-member country. Moreover, the fixed exchange rate between the CFA Franc and the French franc has changed only once in 1994 when the CFA franc was considered overvalued. However, this monetary arrangement has enabled France to control the money supply of the CFA franc and to influence the decision-making process of the African central banks through their boards.
The parity of the CFA franc to the euro has allowed French companies and French people to buy African resources (e.g., cocoa, coffee, gold, uranium, etc.) without having to pay any foreign currency. It also serves as a guaranty for French investments in the region as the CFA franc is pegged on the euro which means that there is little risks of monetary fluctuations. Many French corporations such as TotalEnergies, Orange, or Bouygues have used this free movement of capital to bring back profits made in these 14 countries, without any typical risks associated to foreign currency exchanges.
Critics of the CFA franc also point to the structure of the CFA franc to euro convertibility as being unfair since the economic cycles happening inside the Eurozone differ from those happening in the UEMOA and the CEMAC. This indirectly leaves the 14 African states subject to EU dynamics in terms of monetary policy. Nonetheless, while the European Central Bank's main mission is to control inflation in the EU, most African states' present priorities are creating jobs and investing in infrastructures, which are policies driving inflation. Therefore, some say that the convertibility of the CFA franc is a disservice to the development of African nations.
Cooperation accords
In the early 1960s, French governments had developed a discourse around the concept of , or "post-independence relationship". This concept was linked to the effort of spreading French influence across the world such as promoting French language and culture, securing markets for French goods and projecting French power. It was to be achieved outside of a traditional colonial context whereby sovereign states such as France and the newly independent African countries would work together for mutual benefit. The concept of also appealed to France's sense of historic responsibility to advance the development of its former colonial "family". To that end, France signed cooperation accords with its former colonies, which provided them with cultural, technical and military assistance such as sending French teachers and military advisors to work for the newly formed African governments. The accords also allowed France to maintain troops in Chad, Djibouti, Gabon, Ivory Coast and Senegal, and to establish a framework that would allow France to intervene militarily in the region.
In the aftermath of World War Two, France took steps to create a military nuclear program. In principle, this would have allowed it to protect itself from the Soviet threat in the East, but also to guarantee peace in Europe and a certain independence from the United States. However, in order to do this, France needed a stable supply of uranium, and so they signed a cooperation agreement with Niger in the early 1960s to get access to the African state's uranium reserves. This agreement was a priority for then President Charles de Gaulle who wished to compete with the largest nuclear powers.
From 1970 to 1981, the French military cooperation budget constituted 11 to 19% of the entire budget. Under President de Gaulle, French aid and assistance were made contingent on the signing of these accords. For example, when Guinea refused to sign the accords, France immediately withdrew its personnel from Guinea and terminated all assistance to that country. The implementation of these accords was the responsibility of Jacques Foccart, Secretary-General for African and Malagasy Affairs under Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou. In 1987, France was the largest source of development aid to sub-Saharan Africa, providing up to 18% of total aid to the region, followed by the World Bank (13%), Italy (8.5%), United States (6.8%), Germany (6.8%), and the European Community (6.4%). All French aid was provided through the Ministry of Cooperation. France has benefited from its aid, trade and investments in Africa, which has consistently generated a positive balance of payment in France's favour.
Military interventions
After decolonisation, France established formal defence agreements with many francophone countries in sub-Saharan Africa. These arrangements allowed France to establish itself as a guarantor of stability and hegemony in the region. France adopted an interventionist policy in Africa, resulting in 122 military interventions that averaged once a year from 1960 to the mid-1990s and included countries such as Benin (Operation Verdier in 1991), Central African Republic (Operation Barracuda in 1979 and Operation Almandin in 1996), Chad (Opération Bison in 1968–72, Opération Tacaud in 1978, Operation Manta in 1983 and Opération Épervier in 1986), Comoros (Operation Oside in 1989 and Operation Azalee in 1995), Democratic Republic of Congo (Operation Léopard in 1978 and Operation Baumier in 1991 when it was Zaire, and Operation Artemis in 2003), Djibouti (Operation Godoria in 1991), Gabon (1964 and Operation Requin in 1990), Ivory Coast (Opération Licorne in 2002), Mauritania (Opération Lamantin in 1977), Republic of Congo (Opération Pélican in 1997), Rwanda (Operation Noroît in 1990–93, Operation Amaryllis in 1994 and Opération Turquoise in 1994), Togo (1986), Senegal (prevent a coup d'état in 1962) and Sierra Leone (Operation Simbleau in 1992). France often intervened to protect French nationals, to put down rebellions or prevent coups, to restore order or to support particular African leaders.
Personal networks
A central feature of was that state-to-state relations between French and African leaders were informal and family-like and were bolstered by a dense web of personal networks (or in French), whose activities were funded from the budget. Jacque Foccart put in place these networks, which served as one of the main vehicles for the clientelist relations that France had maintained with its former African colonies. The activities of these networks were not subjected to parliamentary oversight or scrutiny, which led to corruption as politicians and officials became involved in business activities that resulted in state racketeering.
The blurring of state, party and personal interests made it possible for the informal, family-like relationships of the Franco-African bloc to benefit specific interest groups and small sections of French and African populations. For example, major French political parties have received funding from the recycling of part of the budget, which secretly made its way to the party's coffers via Africa and from Elf, a French state-owned oil company, when it achieved its strategic objectives in Africa. African leaders and the small French-speaking elites to which they belonged also benefited from this informal relationship as it provided them with political, economic and military support.
Post–Cold War era
The regime was at its height from 1960 to 1989 but after the Cold War, it has weakened due to France's budgetary constraints, greater public scrutiny at home, the deaths of pivotal figures and the integration of France into the European Union. Economic liberalisation, high indebtedness and political instability of the former African colonies have reduced their political and economic attractiveness, leading France to adopt a more pragmatic and hard-nosed approach to its African relations. Furthermore, many of the dense web of informal networks that bound France to Africa have declined.
The pre-1990 aid regime of the old , which has made the sub-Saharan African countries economically dependent on France has now given way to a new regime that is supposed to promote self-sufficiency as well as political and economic liberalism. France has also adopted the Abidjan doctrine, which has internationalised the economic dependency of African countries by having them first reach an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) before receiving French aid. This in turn has decreased the French government's ability to manoeuvre freely to pursue its own distinctive African policy. As a result, the old Franco-African bloc has now splintered, with France adopting a new style of relationship with its former African colonies.
France has made efforts to reduce its military footprint in Africa by making multilateral arrangements with African and European states. French President François Hollande started his tenure with a commitment to non-interventionism. However, a year later, France intervened in Mali at the request of the Malian government, sending 4,000 troops (see Operation Serval, then Operation Barkhane). According to a 2020 study, "France's commitment to multilateralism is genuine yet not absolute
—meaning that French policy-makers do not shy away from operational unilateralism if conditions on the ground seem to require swift and robust military action, as long as they can count on the political support of key international partners."
The French Development Agency (AFD) and Caisse des Dépôts et des Consignations (CDC) signed a strategic alliance charter in December 2016, one of the financial drivers of which is the creation of a €500 million investment fund. This fund is used to finance infrastructure projects in Africa, in various sectors (energy, telecommunications, etc.). Some critics, however, point to the fund's strategy of creating opportunities and opening the market to mostly French companies, thus feeding capital transfer bridges that are the roots of Françafrique.
The arrestation of Senegalese opposition leader and member of Parliament Ousmane Sonko for allegations of rape, in Senegal, in March 2021, shook the country. Senegalese people, especially young ones, critiqued the lack of transparency of the proceedings, and saw this as a political maneuver orchestrated by President Macky Sall to suppress the opposition before the next presidential elections in Senegal. Protesters took to the streets, and days of chaos ensued. Among their grievances, people blamed Sall for leaning too much towards France, giving too many opportunities to French companies when local businesses could step in. To manifest this frustration protesters targeted French corporate symbols such as Auchan supermarkets, Orange stores, and TotalEnergies gas stations. Some protesters also committed looting and destroyed property. These companies were accused by protesters of reaping benefits from the hands of Senegalese people.
On December 21, 2019, French President Emmanuel Macron, and Ivorian President Alassane Ouattara announced in a press conference that they had signed a new cooperation accord replacing that of 1973. This agreement replaced the West African CFA franc with the Eco, the new currency for the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). This will only apply to countries belonging to the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) which includes Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo, and not to member states of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC from its French appellation), which use the Central African CFA franc and includes Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo.
A bill approving the new cooperation accord was ratified on November 10, 2020, by the French National Assembly, and then by the French Senate on January 28, 2021. The text is composed of three main reforms: the change of currency from the CFA franc to the eco, the abolition of the obligation to centralize 50% of the CFA franc reserves at the Banque of France, and the withdrawal of French representatives from the UEMOA's governing bodies (e.g., BCEAO's board, UMOA's banking commission, etc.).
In June 2021, Emmanuel Macron announced that Operation Barkhane was drawing down to be gradually replaced by the international Takuba Task Force. As of 2021, France retains the largest military presence in Africa of any former colonial power. The French presence has been complicated by other expanding spheres of influence in Africa such as those of Russia and China. In 2016, China's investment in Africa was $38.4 billion versus France's $7.7 billion. Russia has been seen as expanding opportunistically in Africa, with both the mercenary Wagner Group, with which the Kremlin has denied links, and official military agreements. Macron has accused Moscow and Ankara of fueling anti-French sentiment in the Central African Republic. One of the main emphases of France's continuing links in Africa is opposing Islamist militants in the Sahel.
Many former French colonies have experienced a growing anti-French sentiment in the past 30 years. This feeling, particularly present among the younger generations who have not experienced colonization or the period of independence, is also reinforced by events such as the genocide of the Tutsi in Rwanda, the civil war in Côte d'Ivoire or the crisis in Libya. While the older generation is more likely to support strong ties with France because they believe it brings stability, the younger generation sees it as a brake on the development of African states and businesses. It is worth noting that this anti-French sentiment is aimed more at France's African foreign policy than at the French people themselves.
The Sahel is an area of land that serves as a demarcation line between Western and Central Africa. It is situated between the nations of Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad, and Burkina Faso, which are all former French colonies. In 2012, militant groups affiliated with Al-Qaeda attempted to seize parts of Mali with the intent to take control of other areas within the region. Due to these pertinent issues, the involvement of France has increased in order to provide military assistance to Sahelian countries. This is defined by Operation Serval, which was a French effort under the leadership of former president Francois Hollande in order to prevent Islamist militants from seizing Bamako, Mali. The success of this operation was short-lived as militant groups began to appear in neighboring nations, including Chad and Burkina Faso. By 2014, the French military sent over 5,000 troops to the Sahel under Operation Barkhane as a means to support governments throughout the region in their struggle against Islamist groups. As a result of these operations, French forces have only expanded their oversight throughout the Sahel.
The ongoing conflict between French-backed forces and Jihadist militant groups continues to have detrimental consequences, which have led to increased rates of death and displacement within the Sahel territories. In 2021 alone, almost 6,000 people died due to conflict-related deaths in Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso. There are also increasing security concerns for coastal nations such as Benin and Senegal as militant groups advance further within the region's borders.
Military operations in the Sahel
While the support of the French military continues to be a source of protection for countries in the Sahel, recent developments suggest that this reality may soon change. Despite the initial demand for military backing and aid in 2013 and 2014, public opinion has shown less enthusiasm for France's current involvement in the Sahel. People have grown increasingly critical of the French government's action, or lack thereof, in preventing further casualties and attacks by Islamic militant forces. Many have also opposed the strategy of the French military and its lasting presence, which echoes its former colonial past in these territories.
In February 2022, French President Emmanuel Macron announced the official withdrawal of military forces within Mali. His decision follows escalating tensions between the French and Malian governments, the latter of which rose to power through a series of military coups in both 2020 and 2021, respectively. Colonel Assimi Goïta is currently serving as interim president of Mali, with the intention to not hold elections until 2024, with the initial goal of not holding elections until 2027. Under Goïta's rule, Mali has signed a deal with the Wagner Group, a Russian military contractor, which has only heightened France's desire to distance itself from the area. These issues, alongside the removal of the French ambassador in the midst of electoral controversy, played a significant role in the nation's decision to remove its officials from Mali.
While a complete withdrawal of French troops in Mali is now evident, it raises further questions regarding the social and political instability within the Sahel region. Many governments, including Mali and Burkina Faso, lack the infrastructure necessary to combat militant groups from advancing their agendas, which leaves the ability to secure their borders in tandem. Subsequently, the French government is now searching for a means to continue its military presence in a neighboring country as a way to address military concerns while simultaneously furthering its influence upon the region.
Economic interests today
France's economic interests in Africa have remained important since the end of the Cold War. More than 40,000 French companies are active in Africa, dozens of which are large multinationals such as TotalEnergies, Areva, or Vinci. In fact, France's exports to Africa have increased from 13 billion dollars to 28 billion in the last 20 years, while French foreign direct investment has increased tenfold, from 5.9 billion euros in 2000 to 52.6 billion in 2017. However, it is important to note that while these investments and economic flows have increased, France's market share has drastically decreased since the early 2000s. Indeed, while French exports to Africa have doubled, the total size of the market has quadrupled (from 100 billion dollars to 400); France's market share has therefore been divided by 2 in 20 years.
While France remains a crucial player in the African market, its position has been compromised by other foreign investors such as China, who have recently showcased their interest in the continent. From 2010 to 2015, Chinese investors granted $2.5 billion in loans for infrastructure to Côte d'Ivoire alone. And their sights are set on the entirety of Francophone Africa as they seek new opportunities for development in the private sector. By the end of 2017, China's capital increased at a rate of 332% throughout the region. This leaves China in an economically advantageous position, thereby making their monetary gain a legitimate threat to French investors.
Although France's influence may be weakening throughout Francophone Africa, there also remains strong social and economic ties that link these nations together. One prime example can be displayed through the already established business deals with the French private sector in order to increase development in West Africa. An additional factor that connects France to its former colonies is their usage of the French language. Francophone African nations are placed at an economic advantage within European countries such as France, Switzerland, and Belgium due to their shared linguistic identities.
With increasingly younger populations, African countries are viewed as the ideal candidates for long-term investment by international actors. This sentiment directly reflects France's approach to its former colonies, which comprise over half of its primary trade exports. This includes West African countries such as Senegal and Cameroon, which continue to play an integral role in supplying natural resources, hardware, and manufactured goods. Despite these staggering numbers, France remains in a vulnerable position as it renounces its title as the top investor in the region. The prospect of foreign backers and the appeal of Intra-African trade opportunities have encouraged West African nations to reclaim their economic agency from their former occupiers. Ultimately, these circumstances have contributed to France's declining economic influence.
Currently, French companies are less linked to Africa, or at least to the countries that were formerly colonies of France. France's main economic partners in Africa are indeed the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), Nigeria, South Africa, and Angola. Some critics of French foreign policy in Africa question the deep commitment that France has with the former French colonies, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, given the low financial and commercial interest that the countries of the CFA franc zone represent for French companies.
On June 6, 2023, France wants to remain a "relevant partner" in Africa despite "anti-French rhetoric", Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna said while presenting the country's foreign policy in Africa to the Senate.
Opposition
Kémi Séba
Nathalie Yamb
Cultural references
Film
Françafrique (2010), movie by Patrick Benquet
(1981), action film by Georges Lautner
Fratricide in Burkina: Thomas Sankara and French Africa (2008) by Didier Mauro and Thuy-Tiën Ho
Music
, album and song by Tiken Jah Fakoly
, song by Tryo
, song by Refused
Literature
(2003), novel by Érik Orsenna
See also
France–Africa relations
Hispanic Africa
Monroe Doctrine
References
Further reading
Marina E. Henke (2020). "A tale of three French interventions: Intervention entrepreneurs and institutional intervention choices." Journal of Strategic Studies.
Stefano Recchia & Thierry Tardy (2020). "French military operations in Africa: Reluctant multilateralism," Journal of Strategic Studies.
Thierry Tardy (2020). "France's military operations in Africa: Between institutional pragmatism and agnosticism," Journal of Strategic Studies.
External links
François-Xavier Verschave about what Françafrique means.(English)
50 years later Françafrique is alive and well Christophe Boisbouvier, Radio France Internationale (English)
Africa: 50 years of independence Radio France Internationale (English)
French foreign policy in Africa: between pré carré and multilateralism by Sylvain Touati (English)
Foreign relations of France
French Fifth Republic
French colonial empire
French colonisation in Africa
French language in Africa
French words and phrases
International relations education
International relations
Neocolonialism |
4361698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Washington%20Commanders | History of the Washington Commanders | The Washington Commanders, an American football team belonging to the National Football League (NFL), have also played as the Boston Braves, Boston Redskins, Washington Redskins, and Washington Football Team. Founded in 1932, the team has won five professional American football championships including two NFL Championships and three Super Bowls. Washington has also captured 15 NFL divisional titles and five NFC championships. The team played as the Washington Redskins from 1932-2022 before rebranding as the Commanders in 2022.
The team won the 1937 and 1942 Championship games, as well as Super Bowl XVII, XXII, and XXVI. They also played in and lost the 1936, 1940, 1943, and 1945 Championship games, as well as Super Bowl VII and XVIII. They have made 24 postseason appearances, and have an overall postseason record of 23 wins and 19 losses. Only five teams have appeared in more Super Bowls than Washington: the New England Patriots (11), Dallas Cowboys (eight), Pittsburgh Steelers (eight), Denver Broncos (eight), and San Francisco 49ers (seven); Washington's five appearances are tied with the Oakland Raiders, Miami Dolphins, New York Giants, and Green Bay Packers.
All of the team's championships were attained during two 10-year spans. From 1936 to 1945, Washington went to the NFL Championship six times, winning two of them. The second period lasted between 1982 and 1991 where they appeared in the postseason seven times, captured four Conference titles, and won three Super Bowls in four appearances. In contrast, from 1946 to 1970, Washington only posted four winning seasons and did not have a single postseason appearance. During this period, they went without a single winning season from 1956 to 1968. In 1961, they posted their worst regular-season record with a 1–12–1 showing. Since their last Super Bowl victory following the end of the 1991 season, they have only won the NFC East three times with just nine seasons with a winning record. In those, the team only made the postseason in six of them.
George Preston Marshall ownership (1932–1969)
Establishment in Boston (1932–1936)
The city of Boston, was awarded an NFL franchise on July 9, 1932, under the ownership of George Preston Marshall, Vincent Bendix, Jay O'Brien, and Dorland Doyle. The team took the place of the temporary traveling Cleveland Indians, who themselves were operated under the franchise of the Newark Tornadoes after the Tornadoes had left the league after the 1930 season and had sold its franchise rights back to the NFL. Despite this, neither team management nor the NFL claim that the Indians or Tornadoes were earlier incarnations of the team currently in Washington. Additionally, none of the members of the 1930 Newark Tornadoes roster, and only two of the 1931 Indians (Algy Clark and Dale Waters), remained on the 1932 Boston Braves roster.
Initially, the new team took the same name as their landlords, the Boston Braves, one of the two local Major League Baseball teams. The Braves played their first game on October 2, 1932, under the leadership of coach Lud Wray, against the Brooklyn Dodgers, to whom they lost 14–0. The next week, the Braves recorded their first win, beating the New York Giants 14–6. The new franchise's losses during the first season reached $46,000 (about $1,026,408 in 2023) and Bendix, O'Brien, and Doyle dropped out of the investment, leaving Marshall the sole owner of the Braves. The team moved to Fenway Park (home of the Boston Red Sox) the next year, and Marshall changed the name to "Redskins". According to ESPN, the team has long contended it was named in honor of Marshall's head coach, William Henry "Lone Star" Dietz, who was believed to be part Sioux. A 1933 news article quotes Marshall as saying that he did not name the team specifically in honor of Dietz or any of the team's native members, but because Marshall wanted to avoid any confusion with the Braves baseball squad while still keeping the native connotations of the previous moniker.
Dietz's first year as coach in 1933 was unremarkable, and the Redskins finished with a 5–5–2 record. However, one impressive feat during the season was Cliff Battles' performance against the New York Giants on October 8, 1933, when he rushed 16 times for and scored one touchdown and became the first player ever to rush for more than in a game.
Dietz was fired after posting a 6–6 record in 1934, and Eddie Casey was hired as his replacement. During the 1935 season, the Redskins split their first two games before going into a season-long scoring slump, posting only 23 points during a seven-game losing streak. The Redskins posted a win and a tie in their final two games, finishing with a 2–8–1 record, scoring only 65 points on the season. Casey was fired at the end of the season.
1936
The Redskins' most productive year in Boston came in 1936. It started with the first annual NFL Draft on February 8, 1936, in which the Redskins had the second overall pick. Their first selection as an NFL team was Riley Smith, a blocking back from Alabama. The first player ever selected in the draft, Heisman Trophy winner Jay Berwanger, chose not to play pro football. Because of this, Smith holds the distinction of being the first drafted player to play in the National Football League. Later in the draft, the Redskins selected Wayne Millner, who became a large part of their offense. The next big addition was the hiring of Ray Flaherty as head coach. In the following decade, Flaherty led the team to two NFL championships and four divisional titles.
After starting the season 4–5, the Redskins won their last three games to finish with a record of 7–5, attaining both their first winning record and their first Eastern Division Championship. However, during the final game of the regular season, a 30–0 win over the Pittsburgh Pirates, only 4,813 fans showed up to Fenway Park. An angry Marshall then decided to give up home field advantage for the 1936 NFL Championship Game. The game was then played on December 13, 1936, at New York's Polo Grounds, where they lost to the Green Bay Packers, 21–6.
1936/1937 offseason
"I moved my team to Washington because the Boston papers gave girls' field hockey more coverage than the Redskins," Marshall said in 1953. Before leaving Massachusetts, however, the Redskins made one more big addition that helped their franchise for years to come. The addition came after the 1937 NFL Draft on December 12, 1936, when they signed an innovative rookie quarterback from Texas Christian University: Sammy Baugh. In an era where the forward pass was relatively rare, the Redskins used it as their primary method of gaining yards. "Slingin' Sammy" Baugh also played numerous other positions, including cornerback and punter.
First years in D.C. (1937–1945)
After the disappointing 1936 NFL title game, George Preston Marshall had the team moved to his home in Washington, D.C., on February 13, 1937, retaining the name "Redskins" although it was now out of context. They then shared Griffith Stadium with the Washington Senators baseball team.
Marshall sought to incorporate many elements of the college football atmosphere into Redskins games. At the time, the college game was far more popular than the NFL, which was still shaking off its barnstorming roots. On August 9, 1937, the Redskins marching band was founded. The all-volunteer ensemble formed when Marshall brought the Redskins to Washington, with the goal of entertaining fans from the moment they walked into the stadium until the time they left it. The Redskins are now one of only two teams in the NFL with an official marching band. The other is the Baltimore Ravens. The Redskins were also one of the first teams to have a fight song, "Hail to the Redskins", which made its debut on August 17, 1938, as the official fight song of the Redskins. The song was composed by band leader Barnee Breeskin and the lyrics were written by actress Corinne Griffith, the wife of Marshall.
1937
The Redskins played their first game and had their first victory in Washington, D.C., on September 16, 1937, against the Giants. The Thursday night game drew nearly 25,000 fans to Griffith Stadium and culminated with Riley Smith scoring on a interception return, making the final score 13–3.
On December 5, 1937, the Redskins earned their first division title in Washington by beating the Giants 49–14, including two touchdown runs by Cliff Battles for 75 and , for the Eastern Championship. The team then proceeded to win their first league championship, the 1937 NFL Championship Game, on December 12, 1937, against the Chicago Bears, their first season in D.C.
1938
The 1938 season started with the 1938 NFL Draft and the selection of Andy Farkas. The Redskins then went 6–3–2, which was good enough for second place in the division.
1939
On October 15, 1939, the Redskins achieved an NFL first when Frank Filchock threw the first touchdown pass in NFL history, to Andy Farkas, in a game against his old team, the Pirates. This set a record for longest play from scrimmage, a record that can only be tied, not broken.
1940
The Redskins won nine games in 1940 and finished on top of the Eastern Division. They met the Bears again in the 1940 NFL Championship Game on December 8, 1940, in Washington, D.C. The Redskins were annihilated by the Bears 73–0 for the most lopsided score in NFL history.
The other big loss for the Redskins that season occurred during a coin-tossing ceremony prior to a game against the Giants. After calling the coin toss and shaking hands with the opposing team captain, Turk Edwards attempted to pivot around to head back to his sideline. However, his cleats caught in the grass and his knee gave way, injuring him and bringing his season and career to an unusual end.
1941–1944
Though the Redskins failed to make the 1941 NFL Championship Game with a record of 6–5, the 1941 season is still worth mentioning because of one game. The Redskins won their last game of the season by beating the Philadelphia Eagles, 20–14. However few remember that day for the game, because it occurred on December 7, 1941, the same day as the Attack on Pearl Harbor, a surprise attack against the United States' naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii by the Japanese Navy that resulted in the death of over 2,400 Americans and brought the United States into World War II. On a more personal note for the Redskins, this act ultimately drove two of the most popular Redskins players, Frankie Filchock and Wayne Millner, to enlist in the U.S. Navy.
In what became an early NFL rivalry, the Redskins and Bears met two more times in the NFL Championship. The second was during the 1942 NFL Championship Game on December 13, 1942, where the franchise won their second championship, 14–6, over the previously undefeated Bears. The final time the two met was the 1943 NFL Championship Game on December 26, 1943, during which the Bears won, 41–21. The most notable accomplishment achieved during the Redskins' 1943 season was Sammy Baugh leading the NFL in passing, punting, and interceptions.
1945
The Redskins played in the NFL Championship one more time before a quarter-century drought that did not end until the 1972 season. With former Olympic gold medalist Dudley DeGroot as their new head coach, the Redskins went 8–2 during the 1945 season. One of the most impressive performances came from Sammy Baugh, who had a completion percentage of .703. They ended the season by losing to the Cleveland Rams 15–14 in the 1945 NFL Championship Game on December 16, 1945. The one-point margin of victory came under scrutiny because of a safety early in the game. In the first quarter, the Redskins had the ball at their own line. Dropping back into the end zone, quarterback Sammy Baugh threw to an open receiver, but the ball hit the goal post (which at the time were on the goal line instead of at the back of the end zone) and bounced back to the ground in the end zone. Under the rules at the time, this was ruled as a safety and thus gave the Rams a 2–0 lead. It was that safety that proved to be the margin of victory. Owner Marshall was so mad at the outcome that he became a major force in passing the following major rule change after the season: A forward pass that strikes the goal posts is automatically ruled incomplete. This later became known as the "Baugh/Marshall Rule",
Disarray and resistance to integration (1946–1961)
The Redskins' early success endeared them to the fans of Washington, D.C. However, after 1945, the franchise began a slow decline that was not ended until a playoff appearance in the 1971 season.
The 1946 season began with the signing of former-player Turk Edwards as head coach. He was the coach until 1948 and finished with an unimpressive record of 16–18–1. The only highlight that occurred during his tenure was Sammy Baugh's 1947 season, where he threw 354 passes, completed 210 of them for , setting three all-time NFL records in one season. A major blunder also occurred during his tenure. With the ninth overall pick in the 1946 NFL Draft, the Redskins chose Cal Rossi, a back out of UCLA. However, Rossi was a junior, and at that time ineligible to be drafted. After waiting a year, the Redskins drafted Rossi again in the first-round of the 1947 NFL Draft, but he never had intention to play football professionally.
After the end of Edwards' coaching career, the Redskins hired three different head coaches during the next three seasons: John Whelchel, Herman Ball, and former player Dick Todd, but none were successful.
Nevertheless, this did not stop George Preston Marshall from trying to make the Redskins the most successful franchise in the league. His first major innovation occurred on June 14, 1950, when it was announced that American Oil Company planned to televise all Redskins games, making Washington the first NFL team to have an entire season of televised games. Before that, in 1944, the Redskins formed a radio network to broadcast their games throughout the southern United States.
His next major change came in February 1952, when he hired former Green Bay Packers and Chicago Cardinals coach Earl "Curly" Lambeau. However, after two seasons, Marshall fired Lambeau following the Redskins loss in their exhibition opener to the Los Angeles Rams and hired Joe Kuharich. In 1955, Kuharich led the Redskins to their first winning season in ten years and was named both Sporting News Coach of the Year and UPI NFL Coach of the Year.
After Kuharich resigned as coach to accept the Notre Dame head coaching position, Marshall hired Mike Nixon before the 1959 season. Over the next two seasons, Nixon proved to be statistically the worst coach the Redskins have had in terms of winning percentage, with a record of 4–18–2. In the 1961 draft, the Redskins made another poor draft choice in QB Norm Snead and passing over Fran Tarkenton, who later became a Hall-of-Famer after his career with the Vikings and Giants. In 1961, the Redskins moved into their new stadium called D.C. Stadium (changed to Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in 1969). The first game in new D.C. Stadium occurred on October 1, 1961, in front of 37,767 fans. However, the Redskins failed to hold a 21–7 lead and lost to the New York Giants 24–21. Along with stadiums, Marshall decided to change head coaches again, this time choosing Bill McPeak. Though McPeak's coaching record was nothing to be proud of (21–46–3 over five seasons), he is better known for helping the Redskins draft future stars such as wide receiver Charley Taylor, tight end Jerry Smith, safety Paul Krause, center Len Hauss, and linebacker Chris Hanburger. He also helped pull off two of the best trades of the 1960s, gaining quarterback Sonny Jurgensen from the Philadelphia Eagles and linebacker Sam Huff from the New York Giants. However, even with these additions, the Redskins were still not performing up to expectations. While the Redskins became more popular than ever, they struggled through the 1960s.
Integration controversy
During most of this unsuccessful period, Marshall continued to refuse to integrate the team, despite pressure from The Washington Post and the federal government of the United States. A typical comment by Post writer Shirley Povich was
On March 24, 1961, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall warned Marshall to hire black players or face federal retribution. For the first time in history, the federal government had attempted to desegregate a professional sports team. Finally, under threat of civil rights legal action by the Kennedy administration, which would have prevented a segregated team from playing at the new District of Columbia stadium, as it was owned by the U.S. Department of the Interior and thus federal government property, the Redskins became the final pro football franchise to integrate, in 1962, in their second season in the stadium. First, the team drafted Ernie Davis, the first black player to win the Heisman Trophy. Two days before, the Buffalo Bills of the American Football League had also drafted Davis and there was some doubt as to whether Marshall would offer enough money to sign him. For their second pick in the draft, the Redskins chose another black halfback, Joe Hernandez from Arizona. They also took black fullback Ron Hatcher in the eighth round, a player from Michigan State who became the first black football player to sign a contract with the Redskins.
In 1961, the Redskins drafted their first African-American player and first black Heisman Trophy winner, RB Ernie Davis. However, in mid-December, Marshall (who once was infamously described by Povich as the man who kept the Redskins team colors "burgundy, gold, and Caucasian") announced that on the day of the NFL draft he had clandestinely traded the rights to Davis to the Cleveland Browns, who wanted Davis to join the league's leading rusher, Jim Brown, in their backfield. Davis was traded to the Browns for running back Bobby Mitchell (who became a wide receiver in Washington) and 1962 first-round draft choice Leroy Jackson. The move was made under unfortunate circumstances – as it turned out that Davis had leukemia, and died without ever playing a down in professional football.
1962–1969: Continued struggles
Although Bobby Mitchell was only welcomed to the team grudgingly, he was nonetheless joined by black stars like receiver Charley Taylor, running back Larry Brown (who had a hearing aid installed in his helmet due to near-total deafness in his right ear), defensive back Brig Owens, and guard John Nisby from the Pittsburgh Steelers. The Redskins ended the 1962 season with their best record in five years: 5–7–2. Mitchell led the league with eleven touchdowns, caught 72 passes and was selected to the Pro Bowl. He was eventually elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame and became assistant general manager of the Redskins. Nisby had three successful seasons with the team and then was released. 1963 saw the Redskins fall to 3–11, with Norm Snead throwing 27 interceptions, then 1964 and 1965 saw two consecutive 6–8 seasons after which Bill McPeak was fired. On January 25, 1966, the Redskins hired Otto Graham as head coach from 1966 to 1968, but whatever magic he had as an NFL player disappeared on the sidelines as the team saw records of 7–7, 5–6–3, and 5–9 in 1966, 1967 and 1968 respectively.
Edward Bennett Williams ownership (1969–1974)
Marshall, team owner and president, would begin a mental decline in 1962, and the franchise's other stockholders found it difficult to make decisions without their boss. Marshall died on August 9, 1969, and Edward Bennett Williams, a minority stockholder a Washington-based attorney, was chosen to run the franchise while the majority stockholder, Jack Kent Cooke, lived in Los Angeles and ran the NBA's Los Angeles Lakers.
In addition, the Redskins hired former Packers coach Vince Lombardi after promising him part ownership of the franchise. Lombardi led the team to a 7–5–2 record, their best since 1955 (which kept Lombardi's record of never having coached a losing NFL team intact), but died of cancer on the eve of the 1970 season. Assistant coach Bill Austin was chosen to replace Lombardi during 1970 and produced a record of 6–8. However, one highlight from the 1970 season occurred on December 13, 1970, against the Philadelphia Eagles, when running back Larry Brown broke off a run, and became the first Redskins player to rush for . That season, Brown became the first Redskins player since Cliff Battles to win the NFL rushing title with totals of on 237 carries, a 4.7 rushing average.
George Allen era (1971–1977)
After the death of Lombardi and Austin's successful 1970 season, Williams signed former Los Angeles Rams head coach George Allen as head coach on January 6, 1971. Partial to seasoned veterans instead of highly touted young players, Allen's teams became known as the Over-the-Hill Gang. "The future is now" was his slogan, and his players soon proved him right.
Allen and players Billy Kilmer, running back Larry Brown, center Len Hauss, receiver Charley Taylor, linebacker Chris Hanburger and safety Pat Fischer helped the Redskins make the playoffs for the first time since 1945 with a 9–4–1 mark. However, they lost in the Divisional Playoffs to the San Francisco 49ers, 24–20.
1972
The 1972 season began with the Redskins winning their first two games but then suffering an agonizing 24–23 loss to the New England Patriots. After the loss, Allen re-inserted Sonny Jurgensen as the starter, but Jurgensen's season ended three weeks later when he tore an Achilles tendon. Kilmer returned and led the Redskins to a 6–2 mark over the final eight weeks and an 11–3 overall record that brought an NFC East title.
The Redskins then hosted their first post-season game in Washington since 1942, where they beat the Green Bay Packers 16–3 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs, as the shrewd Allen resorted to a five-man defensive front that handcuffed the Packers' powerful running game. The Redskins reached the NFC Championship Game, defeating Dallas 26–3, only to lose to the undefeated Miami Dolphins 14–7 in Super Bowl VII.
The Redskins posted a 10–4 record in 1973, which made them tied with the Dallas Cowboys atop the NFC East. However, Dallas won the division crown based on better point differential with a net 13 points, which forced the Redskins to play in the Divisional playoffs at Minnesota one week later, where Washington lost 27–20.
Jack Kent Cooke ownership (1974–1997)
1974–1978
The 1974 season ended quite similarly to the 1973 season. The Redskins finished 10–4 and again, were forced to play in the Divisional playoffs. This time, they played against the Los Angeles Rams, and again fell short, 19–10. Then before the beginning of the next season, on May 1, 1975, Sonny Jurgensen retired from pro football after 18 seasons in the NFL, 11 of which were for the Redskins.
When the 1975 season was over, the Redskins had an 8–6 record and did not make the playoffs for the first time since Allen's tenure began. The highlight of the year came during the season finale on December 21, 1975, against the Philadelphia Eagles, when Charley Taylor became the NFL's all-time receptions leader with his 634th career catch.
The 1976 season started with the Redskins going 6–4, but won the final four games to finish at 10–4 and earned a playoff berth for the fifth time in six years under George Allen. However, on December 18, 1976, the Vikings beat the Redskins in the Divisional playoffs, 35–20.
After his Redskins failed to make the playoffs despite posting a 9–5 record in 1977, Allen was fired and was replaced by new head coach Jack Pardee, a star linebacker under Allen in Los Angeles and Washington. In his first year, his team started 6–0 but then lost 8 of their last 10 games to finish 8–8, being the only team until the 2003 Minnesota Vikings to start 6–0 and miss the playoffs. Then, in the offseason, Redskins majority owner Jack Kent Cooke moved from Los Angeles to Virginia and took over the team's day-by-day operations from Edward Bennett Williams.
Pardee era (1979–1980)
The Redskins chose well during the 1979 NFL Draft, where they drafted future stars Don Warren and Monte Coleman. They opened the 1979 season 6–2 and were 10–5 heading into the season finale at Dallas, against whom a win would assure a playoff spot and a possible NFC East title. Washington led 34–28 with time running out, but quarterback Roger Staubach then led the Cowboys in a fourth-quarter comeback with two touchdown passes. The 35–34 loss knocked the 10–6 Redskins out of playoff contention. Pardee's quick success with the team did not go unnoticed, however, and he was named Associated Press Coach of the Year and UPI NFC Coach of the Year.
Pardee's tenure did not last long though, for he was fired after posting a 6–10 record in 1980. He did, however, select Art Monk in the first-round.
Joe Gibbs era (1981–1992)
1981
On January 13, 1981, owner Jack Kent Cooke signed the offensive coordinator of the San Diego Chargers, Joe Gibbs, as their head coach. Also during the off-season, the Redskins acquired Mark May, Russ Grimm, and Dexter Manley in the 1981 NFL Draft, all of whom became significant contributors to the team for the next few years. After starting the 1981 season 0–5, the Redskins won eight out of their next eleven games and finished the season 8–8.
1982
The 1982 season started with two road wins and high hopes in Washington. Then starting on September 21, 1982, the NFL faced a 57-day-long players' strike, which reduced the 1982 season from a 16 games per team to nine. Because of the shortened season, the NFL adopted a special 16-team playoff tournament, in which eight teams from each conference were seeded 1–8 based on their regular season records. After the strike was settled, the Redskins dominated, winning six out of the seven remaining games to make the playoffs for the first time since 1976. Mark Moseley also got some attention on December 19, 1982, when he kicked his 21st consecutive field goal against the Giants, breaking Garo Yepremian's NFL record of 20.
During 1982, players like quarterback Joe Theismann, running back John Riggins, and receiver Art Monk got most of the publicity, but the Redskins were one of the few teams ever to have a famous offensive line. Line coach Joe Bugel, who later went on to be the head coach of the Phoenix Cardinals, nicknamed them "The Hogs", not because they were big and fat, but because they would "root around in the mud" on the field. Among the regular Hogs were center Jeff Bostic, guards Raleigh McKenzie and Russ Grimm, and tackles Joe Jacoby, Mark May and Jim Lachey. Tight ends Don Warren and Clint Didier, as well as Riggins, were known as "Honorary Hogs." Also during the early 1980s, the Redskins had a group of wide receivers and tight ends called the Fun Bunch, who were known for their choreographed group celebrations in the end zone (usually a group high-five) following a touchdown. The members included wide receivers Monk, Virgil Seay, Charlie Brown, and Alvin Garrett, and tight ends Rick Walker, and Don Warren. Every single one of these players won a Super Bowl with the Redskins, and three were chosen for the Pro Bowl. The Fun Bunch's actions eventually resulted in a league-wide ban of "excessive celebration" in 1984. The 1980s Redskins had another group of wide receivers with a nickname: "The Smurfs", which consisted of Gary Clark, Alvin Garrett, and Charlie Brown. The three were given this nickname because of their diminutive size (Garrett was 5'7", Clark was 5'9", and Brown the tallest at 5'10"), comparing them to the tiny blue comic and cartoon characters in The Smurfs.
On January 15, 1983, during the second round of the playoffs against the Minnesota Vikings, Riggins rushed for a Redskins playoff record , leading Washington to a 21–7 win and a place in the NFC Championship Game against Dallas, whom they beat 31–17. The Redskins' first Super Bowl win, and their first NFL Championship in 40 years, was in Super Bowl XVII, where the Redskins defeated the Miami Dolphins 27–17 on January 30, 1983. Riggins provided the game's signature play when, on 4th and inches, with the Redskins down 17–13, the coaches called "70 Chip" a play designed for short yardage. Riggins instead gained by running through would-be tackler Don McNeal and getting the go-ahead touchdown. The Redskins ended up winning by a 27–17 score.
1983
The 1983 season started off with a loss to the Dallas Cowboys 31–30 on the Monday Night Football season opener. The game also marked the rookie debut of Darrell Green, selected in the 1983 NFL Draft along with Charles Mann, who played for 20 more seasons. They lost only one more time in the regular season, which was filled with extraordinary individual and team achievements. On October 1, 1983, the Redskins lost to the Green Bay Packers 48–47 in the highest scoring Monday Night Football game in history, in which both teams combined for more than of total offense. Then on November 20, 1983, Riggins set an NFL record by scoring a touchdown in his 12th consecutive game during a 42–20 win over the Los Angeles Rams. His streak ended at 13 consecutive games. Then during the regular-season finale on December 17, 1983, Moseley set an NFL scoring record with 161 points while Riggins' total of 144 points was second. This marked the first time since 1951 that the top two scorers in a season played on the same team. They dominated the NFL with a 14-win season which included scoring a then NFL record 541 points, many of which came from Riggins, who scored 24 touchdowns.
In the postseason, the Redskins beat the Los Angeles Rams 51–7. The next week, Washington beat the San Francisco 49ers 24–21. It was their final win of the season because two weeks later, the Los Angeles Raiders beat the Redskins 38–9 in Super Bowl XVIII.
1984
During the offseason, the Redskins signed future standout Gary Clark in the second round of the 1984 NFL Supplemental Draft. The Redskins finished the 1984 season with an 11–5 record, and won the NFC East for the third consecutive season. However, they lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to the Chicago Bears, 23–19.
1985
The 1985 season was disappointing to the franchise. Week 1 opened as usual with a trip to Texas Stadium. The game proved a disaster as Joe Theismann threw five interceptions and was taunted by Cowboys fans singing "Happy Birthday" en route to a 44–14 loss. On November 18, while playing against the Giants, Theismann suffered a comminuted compound fracture to his tibia and fibula during a sack by Lawrence Taylor. The compound fracture forced him to retire after a 12-year career, during which he became the Redskins' all-time leader in pass attempts and completions. Though the Redskins finished the season with a 10–6 record, they finished only third in the NFC East and failed to make the playoffs for only the second time in Gibbs' tenure.
1986
The 1986 offseason's major highlight occurred during the 1986 NFL Draft, when the Redskins picked up future Super Bowl MVP Mark Rypien in the sixth round.
In 1986, the road to the playoffs was even harder, with the Redskins making the postseason as a wild-card team despite having a regular season record of 12–4. They won the Wild Card playoff against the Rams, and then again in the Divisional playoffs against the Bears. This game was Gibbs 70th career victory, which made him the winningest head coach in Redskins history. The season ended next week, however, when the Redskins lost to the Giants 17–0 in the NFC Championship game. As the Cowboys sank into irrelevance during the second half of the '80s, New York would become Washington's main rival in the NFC East.
1987
The 1987 season began with a 24-day players' strike, reducing the 16-game season to 15. The games for weeks 4–6 were won with all replacement players. The Redskins have the distinction of being the only team with no players crossing the picket line. Those three victories are often credited with getting the team into the playoffs and the basis for the 2000 movie The Replacements. The Redskins won their second championship in Super Bowl XXII on January 31, 1988, in San Diego, California. The Redskins routed the Denver Broncos 42–10 after starting the game in a 10–0 deficit, the largest come-from-behind victory in Super Bowl history at that time. This game is more famous for the stellar performance by quarterback Doug Williams who endured a hyper extended knee injury and passed for four touchdowns in the second quarter en route to becoming the first African-American quarterback to lead his team to a Super Bowl victory. Rookie running back Timmy Smith had a great performance as well, running for a Super Bowl record .
1988–1990
The following two seasons, the Redskins did not live up to the expectations of a former Super Bowl team by not making the playoffs in either the 1988 or 1989 seasons. One bright note that came from 1989, however, when Gerald Riggs set the Redskins' all-time single-game rushing record with a performance in a 42–37 loss to the Philadelphia Eagles. The Redskins returned to the playoffs in 1990 as a Wild Card team, but lost in the Divisional playoffs to the 49ers, 28–10.
1991
The 1991 season started with a franchise-record 11 straight victories. Also during the season, the Hogs allowed a league low and club record nine sacks — the third lowest total in NFL history. After posting a 14–2 record, the Redskins made and dominated the playoffs, beating the Falcons and Lions by a combined score of 64–17. On January 26, 1992, the Redskins won Super Bowl XXVI by defeating the Buffalo Bills 37–24. After the Super Bowl, the Redskins set another club record by sending eight players to the Pro Bowl. Helping the Redskins accomplish this achievement was a trio of wide receivers known as the Posse: Art Monk, Gary Clark, and Ricky Sanders. The trio averaged 210 catches for per season in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Super Bowl XXVI showcased the receivers' talents, with Clark recording seven catches for and a touchdown and Monk with seven catches for .
1992
The Redskins in 1992 came close, but failed to equal their success of the previous season. They finished with a record of 9–7 and earned a trip to the playoffs as a Wild Card team, but lost in the Divisional playoffs to the 49ers, 20–13. The most impressive feat during the season occurred on October 12, 1992, when Art Monk became the NFL's all-time leading pass receiver against the Denver Broncos on Monday Night Football by catching his 820th career reception.
The era ended on March 5, 1993, when Joe Gibbs retired after 12 years of coaching with the Redskins. In what proved to be a temporary retirement, Gibbs pursued an interest in NASCAR by founding Joe Gibbs Racing.
Gibbs retirement (1993)
After the end of Gibbs' first tenure, the Redskins hired former player Richie Petitbon for the 1993 season. However, his first and only year as head coach, the Redskins finished with a record of 4–12. Petitbon was fired at the end of the season and on February 2, 1994, Norv Turner was hired as head coach after being the offensive coordinator of the Dallas Cowboys.
Of the starters from Super Bowl XXVI, the team entered the season having lost Gary Clark, Fred Stokes, Wilber Marshall, and Martin Mayhew through free agency; Don Warren, meanwhile, retired after 1992. And the defections through free agency or retirement did not end there: the team lost Ron Middleton, Art Monk, Charles Mann, Eric Williams, Earnest Byner, Andre Collins, Danny Copeland, Ricky Sanders, and Brad Edwards to free agency by the start of training camp in 1994. Meanwhile, Jeff Bostic, Kelly Goodburn, and Joe Jacoby retired following the 1993 season.
Norv Turner era (1994–1999)
Turner's first two years as head coach were unimpressive, going 9–23 during the 1994 and 1995 season. One individual achievement that happened during these season occurred on October 9, 1994, when linebacker Monte Coleman played in his 206th career game with the Redskins, which broke Art Monk's team record for games played (Coleman retired at season's end with 216 games played). The team finished 3–13 in 1994, which was the last for Chip Lohmiller, Kurt Gouveia, Raleigh McKenzie, and Mark Schlereth, all of whom left the team via free agency.
The team did see modest improvement in 1995, which was the last for pass rusher Tim Johnson, who left for Cincinnati at season's end; and Jim Lachay, who retired after 1995. The highlight of the season was arguably a season sweep over the hated Cowboys, including a shocking 24–17 upset in week 14 at Irving.
By 1996, and of the 25 players starting for Washington (including kicker Chip Lohmiller and punter Kelly Goodburn) in Super Bowl XXVI, only running back/kick returner Brian Mitchell and cornerback Darrell Green had remained with the team continuously since then. Salary cap problems gutted the Redskins; the attrition through free agency and retirements mentioned above was devastating, to say nothing of attrition of backups from the 1991 Redskins (e.g., backup quarterback Jeff Rutledge retired following the 1992 season, longtime offensive lineman Russ Grimm retired after Super Bowl XXVI, linebacker Monte Coleman retired after 1994. Meanwhile, then-third-string quarterback Stan Humphries was traded to San Diego in training camp in 1992.)
In hope of inspiring the team, on March 13, 1996, Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke, Maryland Governor Parris Glendening, and Prince George's County executive Wayne K. Curry signed a contract that paved the way for the immediate start of construction for the new home of the Redskins (now FedExField). The 1996 season was an improvement, with the Redskins going 9–7, but they were still unable to make the playoffs. However, in December 1996, two important events occurred. On December 16, 1996, the Redskins played their final game at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium against the Dallas Cowboys. The Redskins defeated the Cowboys 37–10, finished their tenure at the stadium with a 173–102–3 record, including 11–1 in the playoffs. The second achievement was on December 22, 1996, when Terry Allen rushed past Riggins' single-season rushing record, gaining . He also led the NFL with 21 touchdowns.
On April 6, 1997, Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke died of congestive heart failure at the age of 84. In his will, Cooke left the Redskins to the Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, with instructions that the foundation sell the team. His estate, headed by son John Kent Cooke, took over ownership of the Redskins and at his memorial service, John Kent Cooke announced that the new stadium in Landover, Maryland will be named Jack Kent Cooke Stadium. Also during the 1997 offseason, two Redskins players became the focus of media attention when Michael Westbrook, 1995 first-round draft pick, punched Stephen Davis, an incident caught by local TV news cameras. The Redskins fined Westbrook $50,000. On September 14, 1997, the Redskins played in their new stadium for the first time, and beat the Arizona Cardinals, 19–13 in overtime. On November 23, 1997, they played the New York Giants and the result was a 7–7 tie, the Redskins first tie game since the 1971 season. The result was an 8–7–1 record, and the Redskins missed the playoffs for a fifth season in a row. One bright spot during the season, however, occurred on December 13, 1997, when Darrell Green played in his 217th career game as a Redskin, breaking Monte Coleman's record for games played.
The 1998 season started with a seven-game losing streak, and the Redskins finished with a 6–10 record, their first losing record in two seasons. On December 27, 1998, however, Brian Mitchell finished the season leading the NFL in total combined net yards for the fourth time. By doing so, he joined Jim Brown as the only players in league history to lead the league in the category four times.
Daniel Snyder ownership (1999–2023)
1999
After two seasons, John Kent Cooke eventually sold the franchise to Daniel Snyder for $800 million, a deal that was the most expensive team-purchasing deal in sporting history. One of his first acts as team owner occurred on November 21, 1999, when he sold the naming-rights to Jack Kent Cooke Stadium to the highest bidder, FedEx, who renamed the stadium FedExField.
In Snyder's first season as owner, the Redskins went 10–6, including a four-game winning streak early in the season, and made it to the playoffs for the first time in Norv Turner's career, and the first time for the Redskins since 1992. One of the most important games of the regular season occurred on December 26, 1999, when the Redskins overcame a 10-point fourth quarter deficit to defeat the San Francisco 49ers 26–20, to give the Redskins their first NFC East crown since 1991. The final game of the season, on January 2, 2000, against the Dolphins, running back Stephen Davis rushed for a club-record and quarterback Brad Johnson completed a club-record 316 passes and threw for more than . They then beat the Detroit Lions in the first round of the playoffs, but lost to the Buccaneers, 14–13. The Redskins had a chance to win the game with a field goal attempt in the final seconds of the game, but the snap from center Dan Turk to Brad Johnson, the holder, was off and the Bucs won. This was Dan Turk's last game in the NFL, as he died later that year of cancer.
2000
The 2000 season started with the selection of future Pro Bowlers LaVar Arrington and Chris Samuels in the 2000 NFL Draft and included five consecutive wins in the first half of the season. However, they ended up going 7–6 through 14 weeks (counting their bye-week), and on December 4, 2000, Norv Turner was fired after almost seven seasons as head coach. Terry Robiskie was named interim coach to finish out the season, which ended with an 8–8 record. During the final game of the season on December 24, 2000, Larry Centers became the NFL's all-time leader in catches by a running back with 685 receptions.
Marty Schottenheimer era (2001)
On January 3, 2001, the Redskins hired former Browns and Chiefs head coach Marty Schottenheimer as the 24th Redskins head coach. The 2001 season began with a loss to the San Diego Chargers, 30–3. On September 13, 2001, after the September 11 attacks, the Redskins announced the establishment of the Redskins Relief Fund to help families of the victims of the attack at the Pentagon. During the course of the season, the Redskins raised more than $700,000. In light of the attacks, the NFL rescheduled the game from the weekend of September 16 and 17 to the weekend of January 6 and 7.
The rest of the Redskins' season was filled with highs and lows. They started 0–5, but then went on to win five consecutive games, to bring their record to 5–5. Despite the turnaround, they finished the season with an 8–8 record. However, on January 6, 2002, Stephen Davis became the first Redskin in team history to rush for 1,000-plus yards for three consecutive seasons. He finished the 2001 campaign with on 356 carries, which were both franchise single-season records.
Steve Spurrier era (2002–2003)
2002
On January 14, 2002, Snyder hired former Heisman winner and University of Florida coach Steve Spurrier, the Redskins' fifth new head coach in ten years. During the offseason, he acquired Heisman winner Danny Wuerffel and Shane Matthews, who were both quarterbacks under Spurrier at Florida. He continued signing Florida players during his tenure with the Redskins, including using the Redskins' second-round draft pick during the 2003 NFL Draft to select Taylor Jacobs, a wide receiver who was largely considered a bust for the Redskins. Spurrier made his Redskins pre-season debut on August 3, 2002, against the 49ers in the 2002 American Bowl in Osaka, Japan, where the Redskins won 38–7. However, it did not go as well in the regular season, and they finished with a 7–9 record, their first losing season since 1998. A bittersweet moment during the season occurred on December 29, 2002, when Darrell Green concluded his 20th and final season as the Redskins defeated the Cowboys 20–14 at FedExField. During his twenty seasons, he set an NFL record for consecutive seasons with at least one interception (19) and a Redskins team record for regular season games played (295) and started (258).
2003
Hoping for a turnaround from the year before, the Redskins started the 2003 season on September 4, 2003, when they hosted the NFL kickoff game at FedExField, defeating the Jets 16–13, thanks to a last-minute field goal by ex-Jets kicker John Hall. The week's festivities included a concert on the National Mall before the game with special guests, Britney Spears, Aerosmith, Mary J. Blige, and Aretha Franklin, who concluded the concert by singing the national anthem from the Mall leading up to kickoff. Despite such a spectacular beginning to the season, the Redskins finished with a 5–11 record, their worst since 1994. The one bright note of the season was on December 7, 2003, when defensive end Bruce Smith sacked Giants quarterback Jesse Palmer in the fourth quarter. With his 199th career sack, broke Reggie White's all-time NFL mark (Smith finished the season with 200 career sacks). After two mediocre years, Spurrier resigned after the 2003 season with three years left on his contract.
Return of Joe Gibbs (2004–2007)
The 2004 off-season began with three major changes. The first came on January 7, 2004, when Snyder successfully lured former coach Joe Gibbs away from NASCAR to return as head coach and team president. Snyder also expanded FedExField to a league-high capacity of 91,665 seats. The final big change in the off-season occurred on March 3, 2004, when the Redskins agreed to a trade with the Broncos, sending cornerback Champ Bailey and a second-round draft choice to Denver for running back Clinton Portis.
2004
The 2004 season started on a high note on September 12, 2004, during Gibbs' first game back as head coach, when the Redskins defeated the Buccaneers 16–10. The win was the 500th regular season win in franchise history. It was also Gibbs' 125th regular season win as Redskins head coach, making him responsible for a full one-quarter of the franchise's 500 wins. However, Gibbs' return to the franchise did not pay instant dividends as the Redskins finished the season with a 6–10 record.
Despite an impressive defense, the team struggled offensively. Newly acquired quarterback Mark Brunell struggled during the season, and was replaced midway by backup Patrick Ramsey. However, some of Gibbs' other new signings, such as cornerback Shawn Springs and linebacker Marcus Washington did very well. The Redskins also picked Sean Taylor and Chris Cooley during the 2004 NFL Draft, who both quickly emerged as talented players.
The Redskins made only one major move at the beginning the 2005 off-season, acquiring wide receiver Santana Moss from the New York Jets for Laveranues Coles. Other signings included center Casey Rabach and wide receiver David Patten. The Redskins made their biggest off-season moves at the 2005 NFL Draft, where they drafted cornerback Carlos Rogers in the first round, from Auburn. The team then traded away multiple picks to select again in the first round, with which they drafted quarterback Jason Campbell, also from Auburn. The team also added to the coaching roster with the hiring of former Jacksonville Jaguars offensive coordinator Bill Musgrave as the quarterbacks coach. Having coached quarterback Mark Brunell when they both were in Jacksonville, they quickly formed a rapport. Musgrave's input allowed the Redskins to utilize the shotgun formation, a first under Gibbs.
2005
During the 2005 offseason, the Redskins traded back WR Laveranues Coles to the New York Jets and acquired WR Santana Moss in return. The Redskins used their first pick of the 2005 NFL Draft on Auburn University cornerback Carlos Rogers. The Redskins used their next first round draft pick (acquired from the Denver Broncos) on Auburn Quarterback Jason Campbell. The rest of their picks included UCLA fullback Manuel White Jr., Louisville linebacker Robert McCune, Stanford linebacker Jared Newberry, and Citadel College fullback Nehemiah Broughton.
Hoping to improve on the previous season's dismal passing attack, Coach Gibbs added former Jacksonville Jaguars offensive coordinator Bill Musgrave as his quarterbacks coach. For the first time under Gibbs, the Redskins offense utilized the shotgun formation.
The team won its first three games, including a Monday Night Football victory over Dallas. The Monday Night Football game would go down as one of the greatest comebacks in Redskins history. Trailing 13–0 with 3:46 left in the game and facing a 4th down with 15 yards to go at the Dallas 39-yard line, QB Mark Brunell hit WR Santana Moss in the end zone with a pass to cut the lead to 13–7 after the PAT. After Dallas would go three and out on their next possession, The Redskins got the ball back at their 30-yard line. On the next play, Mark Brunell hit Santana Moss again and he went untouched into the endzone for their second touchdown, a 70-yard bomb. The Redskins led 14–13 and held off Dallas' last drive to preserve the come-from-behind win.
The Redskins then fell into a slump, including three straight losses in November, which lessened the chances of the team making the playoffs. However, five consecutive victories at the end of the season allowed Washington to finish the season at 10–6, qualifying for the playoffs as a wild card team. They opened the playoffs on the road against the NFC South champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers on Saturday, January 7, 2006. They won the rematch by a final score of 17–10, after taking an early 14–0 lead, which they later seemed to have squandered until replay evidence showed that an apparent touchdown that would have tied the game was in fact an incomplete pass. In that game, the Redskins broke the record for fewest offensive yards (120) gained in a playoff victory, with one of their two touchdowns being from a defensive run after a fumble recovery. The following weekend, they played the Seattle Seahawks, who had received a first-round bye. The Seahawks defeated the Redskins 20–10, ending the Redskins' hopes of reaching their first NFC Championship Game since 1991.
Three team records were broken during the 2005 season. Clinton Portis set the Redskins record for rushing yards in a season with 1,516 yards, breaking Stephen Davis's 2001 mark of 1,432 yards and Santana Moss' 1,483 receiving yards broke Bobby Mitchell's 1963 record of 1,436 yards. Chris Cooley's 71 receptions broke Jerry Smith's season record for a Redskins tight end.
2006
The inconsistency of the offense during the 2005 season resulted in Gibbs hiring offensive coordinator Al Saunders as the associate head coach – offense. Saunders came from a similar background as Gibbs through being mentored under Don Coryell and was expected to make the offense become more efficient. Saunders would serve as the primary playcaller. Because of this, it was believed that Gibbs would have the role of head coach/CEO with the Redskins in 2006 and would largely deal with personnel matters, as well as having more time to focus on special teams and defense, while Saunders would supplement Gibbs with the offense. Gibbs also added former Buffalo Bills defensive coordinator Jerry Gray to his staff as Secondary/Cornerbacks Coach. Gibbs did lose quarterbacks coach Bill Musgrave to the Atlanta Falcons over the summer of 2006.
After bringing in new faces Brandon Lloyd, Antwaan Randle El, Adam Archuleta and Andre Carter with lucrative contracts and lucrative bonuses in the 2005–06 offseason, expectations for the Redskins were high. The expectations would in no way be met. The Redskins struggled every week to stay close in games and hold leads. The Redskins lost a close season-opener to the Minnesota Vikings 19–16. However, the season turned for the worse quickly. The Redskins played another primetime game the very next week against the hated rival Dallas Cowboys on Sunday Night football and fell flat on their face, losing 27–10. The Redskins seemed to turn it around after that, routing the Houston Texans 31–15 and quarterback Mark Brunell setting a then-NFL record by completing 22 consecutive passes. The Redskins then defeated the highly regarded Jacksonville Jaguars in overtime 36–30. However, this 2-game win streak would be the high point. The Redskins entered the next week favored over the slumping rival New York Giants and fell again, being demolished 19–3. The Redskins then hosted the winless Tennessee Titans at home, and lost 25–22, allowing Vince Young to win his first career start. After a loss to Indianapolis Colts, the Redskins returned home for a second jab at the Cowboys. The Redskins rallied to tie the game at 19–19. However, the Cowboys were on their way to victory and lined up for a 38-yard field-goal attempt by renowned kicker Mike Vanderjagt. When the kick went up, it was blocked by Troy Vincent and returned by Sean Taylor to the Cowboys 47-yard line as time expired, apparently sending the game to overtime, but a facemask on Dallas allowed newly signed kicker Nick Novak attempt a 49-yard field goal on an untimed down. He squeezed it through the uprights and the Redskins won the game 22–19. The next week, the Redskins traveled to Philadelphia to take on the rival Philadelphia Eagles and fell flat again, falling 27–3. After this, Joe Gibbs replaced Brunell with young quarterback Jason Campbell. The Redskins continued to lose games by close margins and blow late leads, winning only two of its final 7 games, and finishing the season 5–11, last in the NFC East.
Analysts differ on exactly why the 2006 season was such a failure. Some point to free agent signings such as strong safety Adam Archuleta and wide receiver Brandon Lloyd. Others point to the disconnect between the offensive philosophies of Gibbs and Saunders: Gibbs preferring a power-running scheme while Saunders desired an aggressive pass-oriented style. Many looked to the breakdowns in defensive coordinator Gregg Williams's system, while some point to specific player breakdowns in the porous secondary such as the struggles of defensive backs, allowing a league high 30 TD passes, and accumulating an NFL low 6 interceptions. The defense went from 7th overall in 2005 to 29th in 2006.
2007, Sean Taylor's murder
The 2007 season was one of the most emotional years the team and its fans have ever faced. The 2007 off-season started with the signing of linebacker London Fletcher and the return cornerback Fred Smoot, as well as the selection on LaRon Landry in the first round of the 2007 NFL Draft. However, they lost Derrick Dockery, a major part of Washington's offensive line, to the Buffalo Bills during free agency.
The 2007 season began with the Redskins posting a 5–3 record through nine weeks. The following week the Redskins started a four-game losing streak that did not end until week 14. The first lost came against the Eagles, with a score of 33–25. Also lost during the game was Sean Taylor, who had to leave early with a knee injury. The Redskins lost the next two games to the Cowboys and Buccaneers. Though this was thought of as bad, the Redskins did not know just how bad it would get.
Two days after the Buccaneers game, on November 26, 2007, Sean Taylor was shot in the upper leg by an armed intruder at his Palmetto Bay, Florida home while he was resting an injury that had kept him sidelined for the previous two games, critically wounding him by severing his femoral artery. After undergoing surgery, Taylor remained unconscious and in a coma. On November 27, at 3:30 a.m., Taylor died at the hospital.
On November 30, 2007, law enforcement officials detained four people in the Fort Myers area for questioning in connection with Taylor's death. Later that night, a Miami-Dade police spokeswoman announced that the four men: Venjah Hunte, 20; Eric Rivera, Jr., 17; Jason Mitchell, 19; and Charles Wardlow, 18; were arrested and charged with Taylor's murder. All four men were charged on December 1, 2007, with felony second-degree murder, armed burglary, and home invasion with a firearm or another deadly weapon. The charges could result in life imprisonment for the perpetrators.
The NFL recognized the death of Taylor by placing a black #21 sticker on the back of NFL players' helmets, as well as having a moment of silence before each game played that week. The Redskins had the number 21 painted on the field, a parking lot entrance and the Redskins Hall of Fame, all three of which became makeshift memorials. In addition to the #21 sticker on the back of every helmet, the Redskins wore it as a patch on player uniforms, warm-up shirts and coaching staff jackets, as well as unveiling a banner bearing his name and number. His locker at Redskin Park was encased in plexi-glass and left as Taylor left it. The organization also established a trust fund for Taylor's daughter, Jackie. At the University of Miami, a giant banner honoring Taylor and signed by students and alumni was displayed in the student union breezway, and a candlelight vigil was held on the campus in his honor the evening of December 2, 2007.
Just five days after Taylor's death, the Redskins tried to snap their losing streak at home against the Buffalo Bills. Before the kickoff, the stadium held a memorial service for Taylor. For the team's first defensive play, the Redskins came out with only ten players on the field (as opposed to 11) to honor to Taylor. The game ended with the Bills getting into position to kick a game-winning field goal. The original field goal was good, however Gibbs called timeout right before the snap to "ice the kicker" (a common practice). However, when Buffalo tried to kick again, Gibbs again called timeout. A coach is not allowed to call two timeouts in a row without the ball being in play. This unintentional call got his team an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty, which not only moved the Bills closer to their end zone, but reduced Lindell's field goal attempt to . Rian Lindell made the kick, and the Bills won 17–16. With their fourth-straight loss, Washington fell to 5–7.
On December 3, a day after the loss, the entire Redskins organization flew to Florida and attended Taylor's funeral, along with 4,000 other people, in the Pharmed Arena at Florida International University. Speakers at the funeral, which was nationally televised, included NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, coach Gibbs, and former professional and collegiate teammates LaVar Arrington, Clinton Portis, and Buck Ortega. The Reverend Jesse Jackson and O. J. Simpson were also in attendance. Taylor was buried near his Palmetto Bay, Florida home.
Three days later, the Redskins played the Chicago Bears on a Thursday night, hoping to stop the losing-streak and to honor Taylor properly with a victory. The beginning of the game did not go as planned, with a scoreless first quarter and the loss of starter Jason Campbell, who left early in the second quarter with a dislocated knee. However, backup quarterback Todd Collins led the team to a 24–16 victory, thus ending the losing streak. Collins proved to be more than just a one-game solution, despite not having started a game in 10 years, and led the Redskins to three more straight victories to finish the season with a 9–7 record and secured a Wild Card spot in the players. They secured that playoff berth on December 30, 2007, with a 27–6 win over the Dallas Cowboys in front of a record-setting FedExField crowd. For many players, the Redskins' 21-point victory margin called to mind the late Taylor, who wore jersey No. 21.
The Redskins' season came to end a week later, with a loss in the Wild Card round of the playoffs against the Seahawks, 35–14. However, the season was not over for three players, Chris Cooley, Chris Samuels, and long snapper Ethan Albright, who were all named to the 2008 Pro Bowl. During the game, all three players wore No. 21 to honor Taylor one last time before the end of the season. Taylor was coming off a Pro Bowl season in 2006, and was the leading vote getter for the NFC Free Safety in 2007 when his untimely death occurred. Taylor then became the first player to be posthumously elected to a Pro Bowl.
Although Sean Taylor's murder trial was originally scheduled for April 7, it was postponed until August 25 because both the defense attorneys and prosecutors were not properly prepared to begin by the initial trial date. On May 12, 2008, it was announced the suspects, if convicted, would not face the death penalty, but may be subjected to life imprisonment. On May 13, 2008, a fifth suspect in the murder of Taylor, Timothy Brown, was arrested and charged with first-degree murder and armed burglary of an occupied dwelling. Also on May 13, suspect Venjah Hunte signed a plea agreement and will serve 29 years in prison and cooperate with prosecutors.
Jim Zorn era (2008–2009)
2008
On January 7, 2008, Joe Gibbs announced his retirement for a second time, citing a need to spend more time with his family, in particular his grandson Taylor, who was diagnosed with leukemia in January 2007. Being former head coaches themselves, assistant head coach (defense) Gregg Williams and associate head coach (offense) Al Saunders were considered to be the top candidates for replacing Gibbs. This changed, however, on January 26, 2008, when both were fired and Greg Blache was promoted to defensive coordinator. The day before, Jim Zorn was hired as offensive coordinator. The hunt for a new coach lasted two more weeks with numerous coaches mentioned as a possible replacement, including former Giants coach Jim Fassel, Giants' defensive coordinator Steve Spagnuolo, Patriots' offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels, Colts defensive coordinator Ron Meeks, and Titans defensive coordinator Jim Schwartz, but nothing was finalized. The biggest surprise came on February 10, 2008, when the Redskins promoted newly hired offensive coordinator Zorn as head coach instead of hiring someone else outside the franchise. On February 15, 2008, Sherman Smith, former running backs coach for the Tennessee Titans, was hired as an offensive coordinator.
The franchise and fans alike expressed great pride on February 2, 2008, when the Pro Football Hall of Fame voted in former players Darrell Green and Art Monk, as well as former defensive backs coach Emmitt Thomas. They were inducted on August 2, 2008, during the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game (the preseason opener), in which the Redskins played the Colts. The Redskins also played in the NFL Kickoff game on September 4, 2008, against the Giants.
On April 5, 2008, the Redskins signed Pro Bowl kickoff returner and wide receiver Jerome Mathis from the Houston Texans, their only free agent signing during the 2008 offseason. However, he was waived by the team on May 15, 2008. The Redskins also lost players to free agency, including Mark Brunell, Reche Caldwell, David Macklin, and Pierson Prioleau. In the 2008 NFL Draft, the Redskins selected standout wide receivers Devin Thomas and Malcolm Kelly, John Mackey Award winning tight end Fred Davis, Ray Guy Award winning punter Durant Brooks, and Sammy Baugh Trophy winning quarterback Colt Brennan.
2009
The Redskins signed defensive tackle Albert Haynesworth to a 7-year, $100 million contract in the offseason. They also signed cornerback DeAngelo Hall to a 6-year, $54 million contract. Hall had joined the team for the final seven games of the 2008 season after being released by the Oakland Raiders.
The Redskins also signed offensive guard Derrick Dockery to a 5-year deal, bringing him back to the team that drafted him in 2003. In the 2009 NFL Draft the Redskins, with the 13th pick overall in the first round, drafted defensive end Brian Orakpo out of Texas. Orakpo was dominant in his senior season (2008) with the Texas Longhorns winning multiple prestigious awards including the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, Ted Hendricks Award, Lombardi Award, and the Bill Willis Trophy, the Redskins hadn't had a pass rushing force like Orakpo since Dexter Manley and Charles Mann donned the burgundy & gold. Orakpo would go on to finish his rookie season with 50 combined tackles, 11 sacks, 1 forced fumble, 2 passes defensed, and 4 run stuffs. Orakpo's highlight game would come on December 13 against the Oakland Raiders, Orakpo recorded 6 combined tackles, 4 sacks, and 1 forced fumble earning him the NFC Defensive Player of the Week Award for his efforts, he also was selected to his first Pro Bowl. The Redskins also released two veterans, offensive tackle Jon Jansen and wide receiver/kick returner James Thrash.
After starting the season 2–3, although every Redskins' opponent had been previously winless, the Redskins hired former NFL offensive coordinator Sherman Lewis as an offensive consultant. Following a close loss to the Kansas City Chiefs, Lewis was promoted to playcalling duties with coach Jim Zorn was stripped of those duties. Despite huge controversy of the job security of coach Zorn, Vinny Cerrato had stated that Zorn will be the coach of the Redskins for the remainder of the season. However, Zorn and Campbell would outlast Cerrato himself, as he resigned after Week 14. While at the time it was stated in the press that Cerrato resigned, in a January 2013 interview with The Washington Post, Snyder stated he had in fact fired Cerrato for allowing him to hire the unqualified Jim Zorn as the head coach. Three days before the Monday Night Football game against the New York Giants, the Redskins hired former Tampa Bay Buccaneers General Manager Bruce Allen. Despite the fanfare surrounding the Redskins after hiring the son of George Allen, the man who began the winning tradition in Washington, the Redskins were routed 45–12, being swept by the Giants for the third time in four years.
The Redskins finished their 2009 season on January 3, 2010, with a 23–20 loss to the San Diego Chargers. The next day, in the early morning, head coach Jim Zorn was fired. They finished with the 2009 season with a 4–12 record.
Mike Shanahan era (2010–2013)
2010
On January 5, 2010, Mike Shanahan agreed to a five-year contract with the Redskins and announced that he would bring his son, Kyle, from Houston to be the team's offensive coordinator, and ex-NFL head coach Jim Haslett for the defensive coordinator position. They also hired Sean McVay as the assistant tight ends coach. Other major changes in the coaching staff included retirement of long-time offensive line coach Joe Bugel and defensive coordinator Greg Blache. Jim Haslett made a major change to the defensive scheme, switching from the traditional 4–3 defense to a 3–4 defense, a move which drastically changed the Redskins' plans for defensive personnel. Ahead of free agency, general manager Bruce Allen released 10 players, including notables such as Antwaan Randle El and Fred Smoot.
Early in his tenure at Washington, Mike Shanahan entered into a heated controversy with star defensive lineman Albert Haynesworth. Haynesworth, unhappy with the prospect of playing the position of nose tackle in the new 3–4 defense, did not attend off-season team activities or mandatory minicamp. Shanahan refused to let Haynesworth practice at preseason camp until he passed a fitness test. Haynesworth was unable to pass this test for several weeks, during which the divide between him and Shanahan grew deeper. On December 7, 2010, Haynesworth was suspended for the last four games of the season for conduct detrimental to the team, after he told general manager Bruce Allen that he refused to speak to Coach Shanahan after Shanahan made Haynesworth inactive in Week 13 for poor practice the week prior. Shanahan said the suspension followed a refusal by Haynesworth to cooperate in a series of ways and not only because of the practice absence.
On April 4, 2010, the team acquired Pro Bowl quarterback Donovan McNabb from the division rival Philadelphia Eagles in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2010 draft and a fourth-round pick in 2011. On April 22, 2010, in the 2010 NFL Draft, the team selected All-American Oklahoma Tackle Trent Williams with the 4th overall pick. Also during the 2010 draft, they traded their former starting quarterback Jason Campbell to the Oakland Raiders for a 2012 fourth-round draft pick.
The Redskins won their season opener, 13–7, at FedExField against the Dallas Cowboys on September 12, 2010. The game was also Coach Shanahan's debut with the team. On October 24, 2010, DeAngelo Hall recorded 4 interceptions in a game against the Chicago Bears at Soldier Field, tying former Redskin Sammy Baugh with a team single-game pass interception record. The Redskins went on to win the game 17–14 and earned Hall a Pro-Bowl spot with his performance.
On December 17, only three days before the Redskins traveled to Dallas, Coach Shanahan announced that McNabb would no longer be the starting quarterback, and he was benched in favor of Rex Grossman. McNabb was the second-string quarterback for the Dallas game, and the third-string quarterback for the last two games of the season. Shanahan also reportedly told McNabb that he could not guarantee that McNabb would be with the team the next year. In the game against Dallas, Grossman threw for 322 yards, 4 touchdowns and two 2-pt conversions, yet he turned the ball over three times. It was not enough, however, to overcome the Cowboys, who won 33–30. The Redskins would finish the season with a 6–10 record.
2011
At the conclusion of the 2010 season, Mike Shanahan stated that the Redskins were going to revamp their roster in the coming offseason via trades, free agency and the draft. On February 28, after finishing the last three seasons on IR, the Redskins released Clinton Portis, due to the $8 million he was scheduled to make next season. The Redskins then released veteran guard Derrick Dockery and linebacker Andre Carter. On March 3, the Redskins signed O.J Atogwe to a five-year contract. The Redskins then traded troubled defensive tackle Albert Haynesworth to the New England Patriots for a 5th-round pick in the 2012 NFL Draft. The Redskins then traded Quarterback Donovan McNabb to the Minnesota Vikings for two 6th round draft picks. The Redskins chose not to re-sign their 2005 first round draft pick Carlos Rogers, who later signed with the San Francisco 49ers.
In the 2011 NFL draft, the Redskins traded the 10th overall pick to the Jacksonville Jaguars for the 16th pick, among others, and selected defensive end Ryan Kerrigan from Purdue. Kerrigan won the Bill Willis Trophy his senior season (2010) while also becoming the Big Ten Conferences all-time leader in forced fumbles with 14, which also tied the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) career record of 14 forced fumbles. Kerrigan was also awarded Purdue's "Pit Bull Award" in 2009, which was given to the player that exemplified and displayed tenacity and tough play. During his rookie season with Washington, Kerrigan would go on to record 63 combined tackles, 7.5 sacks, 4 forced fumbles, 4 passes defensed, 4 run stuffs, and 1 interception that he returned for a 9-yard touchdown in week 1 against the Redskins NFC East division rival New York Giants. During the 2011 NFL season, Redskins outside linebacker Ryan Kerrigan along with fellow Redskins outside linebacker Brian Orakpo earned the nickname KERRAKPO for being the Redskins dynamic pass rushing duo, of which the likes the Redskins had not had since the pass rushing duo of Dexter Manley and Charles Mann during the 1980s. The Washington Redskins also made a habit of trading down and acquiring more, later round picks in the draft; the team entered the draft with 7 picks and ended up making a total of 12 selections. The Redskins selected Jarvis Jenkins, a defensive tackle from Clemson University in the second round; Mike Shanahan addressed this selection in a post-draft interview, saying that Jenkins will transition to a defensive end in the 3–4 defensive scheme that Jim Haslett runs. In the 3rd preseason game against the Ravens, Jenkins tore his ACL in the 1st quarter, resulting in an end to his promising rookie season.
On the 10th Anniversary of the September 11 terrorist attacks which impacted both the cities of New York and Washington, D.C., the Redskins won their season opener, 28–14, at FedExField against the New York Giants. The game also featured an interception for a touchdown by 2011 first round draft pick Ryan Kerrigan against quarterback Eli Manning of the Giants.
During Week 6, quarterback Rex Grossman was benched in favor of backup John Beck after throwing four interceptions. John Beck was then given the nod by Coach Mike Shanahan to start the following week. Beck started the next three games going 0–3, and was finally benched after Shanahan realized that while Beck's mobility was exceptional and superior to Grossman's, he did not have the range of Grossman. Running back Tim Hightower played well starting in five of the Redskins' six games, in which he rushed for 321 yards on 84 carries with two total touchdowns, Hightower was placed on injured reserve due to a torn ACL. Afterward, Coach Shanahan began splitting reps between RB Ryan Torain and rookie RB Roy Helu. Torain showed inconsistency throughout the season, despite a good start against the Rams which he rushed for over 100 yards and 1 touchdown. On November 6, 2011, in his first career start, Helu broke the Redskins all-time record for receptions in a game with 14 catches, in a loss against the San Francisco 49ers. On November 27, 2011, Helu rushed for a Redskins rookie-record 108 yards on 23 carries and a touchdown against the Seattle Seahawks' top-ten ranked run defense. He was then named the full-time starter by Coach Shanahan, and responded with three consecutive 100 yard performances. Following his 126-yard performance against the New England Patriots, Helu led all active rookies in rush yards. His streak of three consecutive 100 yard games is the most by any Redskins rookie in franchise history; a record he was unable to extend to four games due to an injury he sustained. During Week 16 against the Vikings rookie RB Evan Royster made his first career start rushing for 132 yards on 19 carries while Helu was nursing an injured knee and toe. After week 13 the Redskins were informed that starting TE Fred Davis and LT Trent Willams would be suspended for the rest of the season for failing consecutive drug tests. On December 27 RB Ryan Torain was released and the Redskins activated WR Aldrick Robinson, their 6th pick, from the practice squad making 11 of the Redskins 2011 draft picks on the 53-man roster (the only one who did not make it was 2nd round pick DE Jarvis Jenkins who was placed on IR during the preseason). The Redskins finished the season at 5–11, which was the worst season recorded for Shanahan at the time.
2012, division title
The long-awaited arrival of the practice bubble at Redskins Park was completed in early 2012. Former Redskins defensive end, Phillip Daniels, was hired as the new director of player development on February 17, 2012. On March 2, 2012, the Redskins announced that they had placed a franchise tag on Fred Davis. On March 9, 2012, the Redskins agreed in principle to trade their first round (#6 overall) and second round (#39 overall) picks in the 2012 NFL Draft, as well as their first-round picks in the 2013 (#22 overall) and 2014 (#2 overall) NFL Drafts, to the St. Louis Rams for their second overall draft pick in 2012. They proceeded to select Robert Griffin III, after the Indianapolis Colts selected Andrew Luck from Stanford University with the 1st overall pick. Griffin III would go on to complete 65.6% of his passes for 3,200 yards, 20 touchdowns, and only 5 interceptions while also having a 102.4 passer rating which would be the highest rookie QB passer rating in NFL history. Griffin III also rushed for 815 yards and 7 touchdowns becoming only the sixth quarterback in NFL history to rush for at least 800 yards, he also won the 2012 NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award for his outstanding play and was selected to his first Pro Bowl, but did not participate due to injury. On March 12, 2012, the NFL commission fined the Redskins $36 million in cap space over two years because of the organization's approach to structuring contracts in the 2010 NFL season, when there was no salary cap. On March 26, 2012, the Redskins and the Dallas Cowboys, who were penalized $10 million in cap space, filed a grievance against NFL and the NFLPA to attempt to overturn their cap space penalties. The joint grievance was dismissed on May 22, 2012.
Pierre Garçon and Josh Morgan were the first two free agents signings that the Redskins made for the 2012 season. Veteran kicker Neil Rackers was also signed to compete with inconsistent starter, Graham Gano. The team re-signed defensive co-captain, London Fletcher, to a five-year deal that expires in two. The Redskins also proceeded to re-sign last season's starters, Tim Hightower, Will Montgomery, Adam Carriker, and Kory Lichtensteiger during the offseason. They decided to not re-sign LaRon Landry, making him the third player who was a first-round draft pick of the Washington Redskins to leave the team since the Shanahan administration; the first being Campbell (via trade) and the second being Rogers (via free agency). Landry would later sign a one-year deal with the New York Jets.
The Redskins released veteran fullback, Mike Sellers, and last season's starters, Oshiomogho Atogwe and Jabar Gaffney. Despite being the team's leader in receiving yards, Gaffney was cut after the team failed to trade him. His leaving of the team was expected due to the additions of free agent wide receivers, Garçon and Morgan, and the expectancy of second-year receiver, Leonard Hankerson, to emerge as a threat for the 2012 season. The most surprising release of the season was starting tight end, Chris Cooley, on August 28, 2012. However, to the delight of many fans, Cooley was re-signed by the team in October following an injury to Fred Davis.
Running back Alfred Morris was drafted by the Redskins in the sixth round of the 2012 NFL Draft. Following an impressive preseason, he was given the starting job. In an important game against the New York Giants on December 3, 2012, Morris became only the second rookie in Redskins history to gain 1,000 rushing yards in a season, ultimately finishing the regular season with 1,613 rushing yards which would be a Redskins single season rushing record, and the second most rushing yards in the league in 2012 only behind Adrian Peterson.
Redskins outside linebacker Brian Orakpo tore his left Pectoral muscle in a Week 2 game against the St. Louis Rams, on a play in which he had a sack and forced fumble. It was the same muscle he injured the previous season in the final game against the Philadelphia Eagles. Head coach Mike Shanahan confirmed the next day that Orakpo would have surgery and miss the remainder of the season and be placed on the injured reserve list. Orakpo's injury highlighted a slew of injuries suffered by the Redskins in 2012.
The Redskins would go on to make the 2012–13 NFL playoffs after winning their final seven games of the season en route to winning their division championship for the 13th time in franchise history, including defeating the Dallas Cowboys on Thanksgiving Day by a score of 38–31, this marked the first time the Redskins had won at Cowboys Stadium as well as the first time Washington had defeated the Cowboys on Thanksgiving, previously 0–5 to their archrival on Thanksgiving Day. RGIII completed 19 of 27 passes for 304 yards and had 4 touchdown passes and 1 interception on his way to winning the Galloping Gobbler Award issued to the player deemed to have had the best performance in the game. Alfred Morris also had 113 yards rushing on 24 carries and 1 touchdown while the Redskins defense intercepted two passes from Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo and sacked him a total of three times. Then in the last game of the 2012 NFL season the Redskins met the Cowboys in a huge game in prime time on NBC Sunday Night Football at FedExField in a matchup that was to decide the winner of the NFC East division with the winner advancing to the playoffs and the loser missing the playoffs. The Redskins would not disappoint the home crowd and put on a show winning the game 28–18 behind a spectacular performance by Redskins rookie running back Alfred Morris who rushed for 200 yards and 3 touchdowns on 33 carries, while the Redskins offensive line only gave up one sack the entire game and held Cowboys defensive stalwart DeMarcus Ware, who was playing with a hurt shoulder and elbow, to 0 sacks and just one assisted tackle. The Redskins defense, led by London Fletcher's 11 total tackles, 2 sacks, and 1 pass defensed, confused and rattled Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo all game long. The Redskins defense had 2 sacks and 3 interceptions in the game with the final one being the most costly, with Dallas trailing 21–18 late in the fourth quarter from the Cowboys own 29-yard line, Romo threw a pass to the flat intended for Cowboys running back DeMarco Murray which was intercepted by Redskins outside linebacker Rob Jackson who was pretending he was going to blitz on the play but at the last second dropped into coverage fooling Tony Romo to make the game changing interception on a play designed by Redskins defensive coordinator Jim Haslett, propelling the Redskins to their first playoff appearance since 2007 and their first NFC East title since 1999.
The Redskins would go on to face the Seattle Seahawks in the wild card round of the 2012–2013 NFL playoffs. The Redskins quickly jumped out to a 14–0 lead on the Seahawks in the first quarter but Redskins quarterback Robert Griffin III would tweak a previous knee injury he got against the Baltimore Ravens earlier in the season while scrambling to pick up a first down, he was hit by the Ravens 350 lb. defensive tackle Haloti Ngata causing his knee to bend awkwardly and spraining his LCL. Griffin III would try his best though to lead his team to victory and stayed in the game and played through the pain, although he was not very effective he showed courage up to the moment on a bobbled snap, his knee gave out from underneath him and he tore his LCL and ACL. The loss of RGIII proved to be too much for the Redskins to overcome, and eventually succumbed to the Seahawks 24–14. Griffin III had surgery on January 9, 2013, performed by Dr. James Andrews and both his LCL and ACL were repaired. Griffin then vowed to return better than ever for the Redskins 2013 season opener against the Philadelphia Eagles.
Prince George's County and D.C. officials were reportedly making a play to lure the Redskins back to their respective areas for training camp at either RFK Stadium or Bowie State University. However, the Redskins eventually chose to relocate their summer training camp to Richmond, Virginia.
2013
After winning the NFC East in the previous season, hopes were high for a repeat in 2013. However, these hopes were in vain, as poor play and controversy stirred during the entire year, leading to the disastrous record of 3–13. This was the worst record the Redskins have posted since 1994. Even though most players had a down year compared to last season, Pierre Garçon had his greatest season statistically yet. Garcon eventually broke Art Monk's 29-year-old franchise record for catches in a single season. Garcon had 113 catches total, which broke Monk's 106 catches in 1984 by seven.
The Washington Redskins fired Shanahan and most of his staff on December 30, 2013.
Jay Gruden era (2014–2019)
2014
On January 9, 2014, the Redskins hired Jay Gruden as their head coach. Gruden became the eighth head coach of the team since Daniel Snyder purchased the franchise in 1999. Gruden lost his first regular season game as an NFL coach against the Houston Texans 17–6 with the Texans defense controlling the Washington offense for the majority of the game. Gruden would then go on to win his first game as an NFL head coach the following week against the Jacksonville Jaguars 41–10. Gruden and the Redskins struggled throughout the season, having three different quarterbacks start games, amounting to a 4–12 record. Defense coordinator Jim Haslett was fired at the end of the season.
In August 2014, team owner Daniel Snyder made public his desire of getting the team a new stadium, which would eventually replace FedExField, the home for the team for nearly 20 seasons. While the location has yet to be decided, Snyder indicated the possibility of building a domed stadium at the site of the old RFK Stadium in the district itself, but also stated that other sites in Maryland and Virginia were a possibility as well. Early plans have included making the stadium and fan experience more nostalgic, akin to the days at RFK Stadium, where the team spent over 30 years. Snyder also stated his desire for the area to host a Super Bowl as a contributing factor behind his push for a new stadium.
2015
On January 7, 2015, the Redskins hired Scot McCloughan to be their general manager. McCloughan took over control of the roster from Bruce Allen, who was given the sole title of team president after the hiring. On October 25, 2015, the Redskins had their largest comeback win in franchise history, coming back to win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 31–30, after being down 0–24 in the second quarter.
The Redskins clinched the NFC East division title on December 26, when they beat the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 16, 38–24. The division title was their third since Snyder took over ownership of the team, and was the first since the 1999 season to be clinched before Week 17. The Redskins hosted the Green Bay Packers in the Wild Card round on January 10, 2016, but lost 35–18, ending their 2015 season.
Kirk Cousins, who took over as starting quarterback in the preseason, finished the season with career highs in touchdowns (29), yards (4,166), and completion percentage (69.8%). His completion percentage led the league, while his 29 touchdowns tied him for second on the franchise single-season list.
2016
Prior to the start of the season, the Redskins announced that they had hired Danish architecture firm Bjarke Ingels Group to begin work on a new stadium. The team's offense in 2016 set several franchise records, including having over 6,000 total net yards, which was only the third time in franchise history the team had accomplished that. Quarterback Kirk Cousins also set single-season team records in attempts, completions, and passing yards, breaking many of his records he had previously set in 2015. DeSean Jackson, Pierre Garçon, Jamison Crowder, Robert Kelley, Chris Thompson, Jordan Reed, Vernon Davis, and Matt Jones all finished the season with at least 500 yards from scrimmage, tying the 2011 New Orleans Saints for the most in a single season in NFL history.
Despite the numerous records set, the Redskins missed the playoffs, losing 19–10 in a "win and in" situation against the New York Giants in the final week of the season. However, the Redskins still finished the season with a record of 8–7–1, giving the team their first consecutive winning seasons in nearly 20 years. In contrast with the record setting offense, the team's defense had a poor season, finishing 29 out of 32 teams in total defense, which lead to the firing of defensive coordinator Joe Barry, as well as three of his assistants.
2017
2017 was the team's 85th season. While playing under the franchise tag, Kirk Cousins threw for over 4,000 passing yards. The Redskins finished the year at 7–9 missing the playoffs. After the season, Cousins left the team as a free agent to join the Minnesota Vikings, ending his six-year tenure with the Redskins.
2018
Following the departure of Kirk Cousins, the Redskins traded for Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Alex Smith; in exchange the Redskins gave the Chiefs Kendall Fuller and a third-round pick in the 2018 NFL Draft.
During the season, the Redskins got off to a promising start with their new quarterback with a record of 6–3 record. However, during a Week 11 game against the Houston Texans, Smith would break his leg with a spiral compound fracture to his tibia and fibula that would end his season. This led to a Quarterback carousel of Colt McCoy, Mark Sanchez, and Josh Johnson. The Redskins would not recover from the injuries as they would collapse losing 1–6 and end up finishing the season 7–9 for the second year in a row and missing the playoffs. The Redskins had a league-high 25 players on injured reserve at the end of the season.
2019
Due to Alex Smith's injury, the Redskins acquired Case Keenum from the Denver Broncos in the off season and drafted Dwayne Haskins from Ohio State in the 2019 NFL Draft. However Keenum was named the starting QB on August 25, 2019, for the Week 1 opener against the Philadelphia Eagles. During the season, the Redskins started the season 0–5 which included the Redskins blowing a 17-point halftime lead against the Philadelphia Eagles, and a 24–3 loss to the Daniel Jones led New York Giants where in Haskins debut due to him replacing a struggling Keenum for the Redskins, ended with three interceptions thrown with one returned for a touchdown and two thrown to Janoris Jenkins. On October 4, 2019, Colt McCoy was named the starter over Haskins and Keenum for the game against the New England Patriots. However the Redskins lost 33–7 despite early success with a 65-yard touchdown run by Steven Sims.
With a league worst 0–5 record at the time tying with the Cincinnati Bengals, and their worst start since 2001, the Redskins fired head coach Jay Gruden on October 7, 2019. Gruden finished his six-year tenure with the Redskins with a 35–49–1 regular season record with one playoff appearance. Bill Callahan was named the interim head coach as of result. Callahan got the Redskins first victory over the 0–4 Miami Dolphins snapping a 7-game losing streak dating back to Week 16 of last year. This was Callahan's first NFL victory as a head coach since Week 15 with the Oakland Raiders in 2003.
Throughout the season, fans voiced their apathy and displeasure with the team's management by owner Dan Snyder and team president Bruce Allen, and reports of dysfunction within the Redskins organization often surfaced. Following a 3–13 finish to the season, Allen was fired by the Redskins, ending a 10-year stint with the team.
Rebranding, federal investigations into Snyder (2020–2023)
The team underwent several changes in 2020, including retiring the Redskins name and logo and hiring former Carolina Panthers head coach Ron Rivera in the same role, as well as naming Jason Wright as team president, the first black person named to that position in NFL history. Some notable members of Rivera's staff include former Jacksonville Jaguars and Oakland Raiders head coach Jack Del Rio as defensive coordinator and Scott Turner, the son of former Redskins head coach Norv Turner, as offensive coordinator.
Under Rivera and Del Rio, the team switched their defensive scheme from a 3–4 defense, which the team had used under both Shanahan and Gruden's tenure, to a 4–3 defense. Due to their 3–13 record the previous season, the team had the second overall pick in the 2020 NFL Draft and selected Chase Young, who would go on to be named Defensive Rookie of the Year. Dwayne Haskins, the team's first-round draft pick from 2019, was released prior to the season's end due to ineffective play and not meeting the team's standards off the field. Despite that, Washington would eventually win the division for the first time since 2015 at 7–9, becoming only the third team in NFL history to win a division with a losing record in a non-strike year after the 2010 Seattle Seahawks and 2014 Carolina Panthers, the latter of which Rivera also coached.
Earlier in 2020, minority owners Robert Rothman, Dwight Schar, and Frederick W. Smith were reported to have hired an investment banking firm to help search for potential buyers for their stake in the team, worth around 40 percent combined. The group, who bought their stake in 2003, were reported to have urged Snyder to change the name for years. In April 2021, Snyder was approved by the league for a debt waiver of $400 million to acquire the remaining 40 percent in a deal worth over $800 million.
Some other additions and changes in 2021 included the team hiring Martin Mayhew as general manager and Marty Hurney as another high-ranking executive. With the hiring of Mayhew, who is black, Washington became the first team in NFL history to concurrently have a minority general manager, head coach, and president. Ryan Kerrigan, the franchise's all-time leader in sacks, left the team as a free agent to sign with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles.
A year-long independent investigation into the team's workplace culture under owner Daniel Snyder, led by lawyer Beth Wilkinson, was concluded in July 2021. It found that several incidents of sexual harassment, bullying, and intimidation were commonplace throughout the organization under his ownership. The NFL fined the team $10 million in response, with Snyder also voluntarily stepping down from running the team's day-to-day operations for a few months, giving those responsibilities to his wife Tanya. Snyder would later be investigated by the United States House Committee on Oversight and Reform for those claims, as well as accusations of financial improprieties.
The team rebranded as the Commanders in 2022 and continued to see cultural changes within the organization. With the rebrand, their fight song returned with revised lyrics as "Hail to the Commanders", while their longtime cheerleading squad was replaced by a co-ed performance group known as the Command Force. The year also saw the team trade for Colts quarterback Carson Wentz, who was released after the season due to poor performance.
Josh Harris era (2023–present)
In November 2022, Snyder hired BofA Securities to explore possible sale transactions of the franchise. In May 2023, he reached an agreement to sell to an investment group led by Josh Harris, who also owns the Philadelphia 76ers and New Jersey Devils, for $6.05 billion. The group has 20 limited partners worth a combined $100 billion, including Danaher founder and art collector Mitchell Rales, NBA hall of famer Magic Johnson, senior Blackstone executive and multi-sports club owner David Blitzer, venture capitalist Mark Ein, Maverick Capital founder Lee Ainslie, Blue Owl Capital founders Marc Lipschultz and Doug Ostrover, financier Alejandro Santo Domingo and his family, ProShares founder Michael Sapir, former Google CEO Eric Schmidt, and Cambridge Information Group CEO Andy Snyder. The sale was the largest of any sports team and was unanimously approved by league owners on July 20, 2023.
References
External links
NFL History by Decade:1931–1940
NFL History by Decade:1941–1950
NFL History by Decade:1961–1970
NFL History by Decade:1981–1990
NFL History by Decade:1991–2000
Redskins' History by Decades
Sports E-cyclopedia: Boston Redskins (1932–1936)
Sports E-cyclopedia: Washington Redskins (1937–present)
Pro Football Hall of Fame: Washington Redskins Franchise history
Washington Redskins History: Football @ JT-SW.com
CBS Sports – Washington Redskins History
Washington Redskins Team History – NFLTeamHistory.com
History
Washington Commanders |
4361912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence%20Star | Intelligence Star | The Intelligence Star is an award given by the Central Intelligence Agency to its officers for "voluntary acts of courage performed under hazardous conditions or for outstanding achievements or services rendered with distinction under conditions of grave risk". The award citation is from the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency and specifically cites actions of "extraordinary heroism". It is the third-highest award given by the Central Intelligence Agency, behind the Distinguished Intelligence Cross and Distinguished Intelligence Medal, and is analogous to the Silver Star, the US military award for extraordinary heroism in combat. Only a few dozen people have received this award (mostly posthumously), making it one of the rarest valor awards awarded by the US government.
Recipients
Many recipients have reportedly been Paramilitary Operations Officers from the CIA's Special Activities Center, Special Operations Group, Ground Branch, which selects its members from the U.S. military's most elite units, including the Navy's DEVGRU ('SEAL Team 6') and SEALs, the Army's Delta Force, Special Forces, and Rangers; and the Marine Corps' Force Reconnaissance and MARSOC.
The recipients whose identities are known are:
Grayston L. Lynch
Grayston Lynch (1923–2008) was one of the CIA/Special Activities Division (SAD) Paramilitary Operations Officers who commanded the Cuban rebel army during the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He was the first to land on the beach and fired the initial shots of the battle. He is revered among Cuban Americans for his heroics during the failed invasion, which included several rescue missions to save stranded members of Brigade 2506. The other CIA Paramilitary Officer at the Bay of Pigs was William "Rip" Robertson, who had an extraordinary history of valor in service to his country. Lynch was wounded at Normandy, fought in the Battle of the Bulge, Heartbreak Ridge in Korea, served with the Special Forces in Laos, and received three Purple Hearts, two Silver Stars and one Bronze Star with a "V" for valor in combat. He was selected to become a Paramilitary Operations Officer in the CIA's Special Activities Division in 1960. For his extraordinary heroism during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Lynch was awarded the Intelligence Star, the "CIA's most coveted award". In the six years after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, he ran commando raids into Cuba. Lynch retired from the CIA in 1971. He wrote a book, Decision for Disaster: Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs, based on his experience leading Brigade 2506.
Félix Ismael Rodríguez
Félix Rodríguez was a Paramilitary Operations Officer from SAD. He was born in Cuba in 1941. Rodriguez was infiltrated into Cuba before the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He led the CIA/SAD team into Bolivia that captured Che Guevara, served in Vietnam, and received the Intelligence Star and the Silver Star for his actions in combat as part of a joint CIA/US Military unit called MAC-V SOG and the Phoenix Program. He was also a recipient of nine Crosses for Gallantry from the South Vietnamese government. In addition, Rodriguez was involved in the SAD paramilitary program in Nicaragua which was considered tactically very successful, but politically very controversial. This program eventually became part of the Iran Contra Affair. Rodriguez testified in this matter as a witness.
Douglas Seymour MacKiernan
In 1949, Douglas Seymour Mackiernan was a CIA officer in China. MacKiernan volunteered to stay behind while every other U.S. official fled the country, in order to provide the only intelligence available to the President of the United States about the takeover of the Communist forces of Mao Zedong. He was eventually forced to flee on horseback over the Himalayas to India. Armed with machine guns and supported by a few local men employed by the CIA, he lived off the land for several months. While waiting for the opportunity to make the trek over the mountains to Tibet, MacKiernan was killed in a firefight near Lhasa. However, his men made it with his reports and information. The North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel 13 days later, starting the Korean War. The intelligence that MacKiernan passed from China helped U.S. leaders prepare for military action and understand the Chinese involvement in the Korean War.
Anthony Alexander Poshepny
Anthony Alexander Poshepny (1924–2003), known as Tony Poe, was a CIA Paramilitary Operations Officer in what is now called SAD. He trained the Secret Army in Laos during the Vietnam War. In 1959, he received the Star for his heroic actions while leading these forces in combat. He was assigned with J. Vinton Lawrence to train Hmong hill tribes in Laos to fight North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao forces. In Laos, Poshepny gained the honor and respect of the Hmong forces with his actions in combat and his victory among and on the battlefield. He and his Hmong fighters collected the ears of dead enemy soldiers; on at least one occasion, he mailed a bag of ears to the U.S. embassy in Vientiane to prove his body counts. He also dropped severed heads onto enemy locations twice in a grisly form of psy-ops. He was wounded several times, but refused to leave his troops to be evacuated. Over several years, Poshepny grew disillusioned with the U.S. government's management of the war. The CIA extracted him from Laos in 1970 and reassigned him to Thailand until his retirement in 1974. He received another Intelligence Star in 1975 for an undisclosed operation. Several press stories have suggested that Poshepny was the model for Colonel Walter Kurtz in the film Apocalypse Now. He was one of the driving forces behind the Laos Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery.
Wilbur "Will" Green
Wilbur "Will" Green served as a paramilitary case officer in the Secret War in Laos. On two occasions, he led the guerrillas under his command in battles against the Vietnamese of Campaign 139 when they threatened to end the war by defeating Vang Pao's Clandestine Army.
George Bacon
George Bacon served as a paramilitary case officer in Laos under call sign Kayak. He was later killed in the Angolan Civil War.
John Merriman
John G. Merriman was serving as an instructor for Cuban exile pilots in the Congo during the Simba Rebellion when his T-28 Trojan was shot down. He was severely injured in the crash and died several weeks later after a delay in medical attention and evacuation caused his physical state to deteriorate, resulting in his death in 1964.
Howard Phillips Hart
Howard Hart had a Ph.D. in Asian politics and spoke both the Hindi and Urdu languages. He was recruited and joined the CIA in 1965. He spent two years at Camp Peary in Virginia, attending the "standard two-year course for aspiring case officers" and then reported to the Directorate of Operations (now called the National Clandestine Service). In 1978, Hart began working on the streets of Tehran. His reports that, contrary to over 15 years of CIA estimates, the Shah's rule was far from stable or secure were suppressed by more senior personnel within the CIA. He was captured a few days after the Shah's fall by an armed group of supporters of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, and escaped summary execution by appealing to speak to a mullah, who agreed that the Koran did not sanction such punishment.
Hart worked as the CIA Chief of Station in Islamabad, Pakistan from May 1981 until 1984. He started the CIA efforts to equip the Afghan resistance with weapons and supplies to allow them to mount an effective campaign during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Hart said, "I was the first chief of station ever sent abroad with this wonderful order: 'Go kill Soviet soldiers'. Imagine! I loved it." Hart's background as a Paramilitary Operations Officer made him a perfect candidate to be the field general for the covert war in Afghanistan. He led these efforts from the front lines of Afghanistan. For his actions during the Soviet occupation, he received the Intelligence Star.
William Francis Buckley
William Francis Buckley (1928–1985) was an Army Special Forces officer and a Paramilitary Operations Officer in the Special Activities Division of the CIA. He died on or about June 3, 1985 after being held captive by members of Hezbollah. He was interred in Arlington National Cemetery, and is commemorated with a star on the Memorial Wall at the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia. On October 4, 1985, Islamic Jihad announced that it had executed William Buckley. However, Buckley's remains were not recovered until 1991, when his remains were found in a plastic sack on the side of the road en route to the Beirut airport. He had been severely tortured. His body was returned to the United States on December 28, 1991.
A public memorial service was held with full military honors at Arlington on May 13, 1988, just short of three years after his presumed death date. At the service, attended by more than 100 colleagues and friends, CIA Director William H. Webster eulogized Buckley, saying, "Bill's success in collecting information in situations of incredible danger was exceptional, even remarkable with help of Miles Agha." Among Colonel Buckley's Army awards are the Silver Star, Soldier's Medal, Bronze Star with a V-device, two Purple Hearts, Meritorious Service Medal, Combat Infantryman Badge, and the Parachutist Badge. He also received the Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Bronze Star from the ARVN. Among his CIA awards are the Intelligence Star, the Exceptional Service Medallion and the Distinguished Intelligence Cross.
Gary Berntsen
Gary Berntsen (born July 23, 1957) is an American former Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) career officer who served in the Directorate of Operations between October 1982 and June 2005. During his time at the CIA, he served as a CIA Station Chief on three occasions and led several of the CIA’s most important counterterrorism deployments including the United States’ response to the East Africa Embassy bombings and the 9/11 attacks. Notable and extremely rare possessing both, Berntsen was awarded the Distinguished Intelligence Medal in 2000 and the Intelligence Star in 2004. He's fluent in both Farsi and Spanish with a BA from the U. of New Mexico in Political Science and a minor in Russian Studies.
Gary ran for the US Senate in 2010 for Chuck Schumer's seat, but lost the Republican primary to Jay Townsend, who in turn lost the general election.
Francis Gary Powers
Francis Gary Powers (1929–1977), was a US Air Force fighter pilot and CIA Special Activities Division officer. Powers was a pilot in the top-secret U-2 spy plane program. On May 1, 1960, he was shot down over the Soviet Union, captured, and convicted of espionage. On February 10, 1962, twenty-one months after his capture, he was exchanged for Soviet KGB Colonel Vilyam Fisher (better known as Rudolf Abel) at the Glienicke Bridge in Berlin, Germany. Although criticized, he was eventually commended for his heroic actions by a US Senate investigation. In 2000, on the anniversary of the U-2 Incident, the Powers family was presented with the Prisoner of War Medal, Distinguished Flying Cross, Silver Star and National Defense Service Medal. CIA Director George Tenet authorized Powers to posthumously receive the CIA's coveted Intelligence Star for "extreme fidelity and extraordinary courage in the line of duty". He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery along with his wife Sue Powers.
Black Shield pilots
On 26 June 1968, Vice Admiral Rufus L. Taylor, the Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, presented the Intelligence Star for valor to Lockheed A-12 spy aircraft pilots Kenneth S. Collins, Ronald J. Layton, Francis J. Murray, Dennis B. Sullivan, and Mele Vojvodich for participation in Operation BLACK SHIELD. The posthumous award to pilot Jack W. Weeks was accepted by his widow. These individuals were part of a top secret joint US Air Force/CIA program to replace the Lockheed U-2 spy plane. The A-12 flew 20,000 feet higher and four times faster than the previous CIA U-2 program. The project was called OXCART and is considered one of the key milestones in aviation history. These pilots undertook extraordinarily dangerous missions, both to test this aircraft and to conduct surveillance flights over Vietnam and North Korea.
André V. Kesteloot
André Kesteloot (1937–2015). Born in Brussels, Belgium, he retired from the CIA in 1994 after having served extensively in the Middle East and Western Europe. He was awarded the Intelligence Star for work he performed in the Middle East.
Antonio (Tony) J. Mendez
Antonio Joseph Mendez (1940–2019). On 12 March 1980, President Jimmy Carter and the Director of Central Intelligence Admiral Stansfield Turner presented Antonio J. Mendez (also known as Tony Mendez) with the CIA's Intelligence Star for his heroic actions in the "Canadian caper", a covert operation in Iran. Mendez was a technical operations officer in the CIA. This position is similar to the job of the fictional character called "Q" in the James Bond series of books and movies. Mendez's primary skill was creating disguises and exfiltrating assets out of hostile areas. In 1979, Iranian student militants took 52 Americans hostage in the US Embassy in Tehran. Six U.S. embassy employees had managed to escape and hide out at the homes of Canadian diplomats living in the city.
Mendez created a fake movie production company called Studio Six (named for the six embassy personnel). He made up a movie poster and took out advertisements in Hollywood trade papers, announcing the production of Argo, a fictitious film. Mendez flew to Tehran, Iran with six fake Canadian passports and a risky plan to present the embassy personnel as Canadian filmmakers. Keeping in mind the potential worst-case scenario should somebody be caught, Mendez disguised the American diplomats as Canadian filmmakers looking to make a movie in Iran. He then exfiltrated all the Americans, as Canadians, safely back to the United States. In 2012, the film Argo was based on the story of this rescue, starring and directed by Ben Affleck. Mendez retired and was a successful artist until his death in 2019 at age 78.
Thomas Willard Ray
In the late 1990s, Captain Thomas Willard Ray and his navigator, Leo Baker, were posthumously awarded the Intelligence Star for their actions in the Bay of Pigs Invasion leading to their capture and execution. The US-trained Cuban Brigade 2506 invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961. Ray, a pilot of the Alabama Air National Guard detailed to the CIA, and his co-pilot Baker were at the Puerto Cabezas air base of the Brigade in Nicaragua. The pilots returning from Cuba brought news that the soldiers of the Brigade were running out of ammunition. Each minute that went by, they were losing positions they had gained the first day when they had supplies. The air battle was not much different. The Air Force pilots of the Brigade with their slow Douglas B-26 were not a match for the T-33 jets of the Cuban government.
Ray had been designated by the CIA to train and supervise the Air Force of the Brigade in Central America, which did not have to participate in combat operations. At first, the Cuban exile pilots did the flying. The pilots returning from operations kept saying that without air support from jet fighters the Brigade would be destroyed. The B-26s, the only combat airplanes of the Brigade, had been modified to be able to fly the long run from Nicaragua to Cuba. The defensive machine guns had been removed to allow carrying more fuel. The Cuban government pilots immediately noticed this and attacked the airplanes from behind. There had been an air raid on April 15 before the invasion to destroy Cuban government combat aircraft. The White House canceled a second air raid against Cuba's airfields on April 16. Ray and Baker were aware of their responsibility for the mission and to the Brigade. Disregarding the warnings of the Cuban exile pilots of the danger, he piloted a B-26 to the Bay of Pigs. The Cuban government forces shot down the B-26 on April 19, 1961 north of Larga beach. They landed in Cuba and survived. The Cuban army captured them and they were immediately executed by Major Oscar Fernandez Mell. Years later when Cuba returned Ray's body, an autopsy revealed a pistol bullet. The bullet is in the Brigade Museum in Miami.
Larry N. Freedman
On 23 December 1992, CIA Paramilitary Officer Larry Freedman was the first casualty of the conflict in Somalia. Freedman was a former Army Delta Force operator and Special Forces soldier. Freedman served in Vietnam for two years and was awarded two Bronze Stars and a Purple Heart and then served in every conflict that America was involved in both officially and unofficially until his death. Freedman was born into a devoutly Jewish home and nicknamed himself "SuperJew," a nickname also used by his colleagues in Delta Force.
Freedman was killed while conducting special reconnaissance in advance of the entry of U.S. military forces into Somalia. His mission was completely voluntary, as it required entry into a very hostile area without any support. His actions provided US forces with crucial intelligence in order to plan their eventual amphibious landing. Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star on 5 January 1993 for his heroic actions. Brigadier General Richard Potter gave the eulogy at Fort Bragg's John F. Kennedy Chapel and cited a passage from Isaiah:
"I heard the Lord say: Who shall I send and who will go for us? I answered: Here I am, send me."
Greg Vogle
On October 9, of 2001 Hamid Karzai entered Afghanistan and linked up with his supporters to seize the town of Tarin Kowt. Taliban forces launched a counterattack against Karzai's lightly armed forces and he was forced to withdraw. On November 3, Karzai contacted a member of the CIA's paramilitary unit identified only as "Greg V." who immediately acted by linking up Karzai and himself with his joint CIA/US Army Special Forces/JSOC team. From there, they made a nighttime insertion back into Tarin Kowt. Karzai then went from village to village seeking support to fight against the Taliban. On November 17, a large battle ensued. Several of Karzai's new recruits fled, but Greg V. took command and ran between defensive positions shouting, "If necessary, die like men!". The line held and as the Director of the CIA George Tenet said in his book Center of the Storm, "It was a seminal moment. Had Karzai's position been overrun, as appeared likely for much of November 17, the entire future of the Pashtun rebellion in the south could have ended."
Later on December 5, Karzai was leading his resistance force against the Taliban at Khandahar, their capital, and one of their last remaining strongholds. Greg V. was the lead paramilitary advisor to Karzai in this battle when, as a result of a mistake in calculating an airstrike, a bomb was dropped on their position. Greg V. threw his body on Karzai and saved his life. The same day Khandahar fell and Karzai was named the interim Prime Minister.
Tenet wrote, "The routing of the Taliban and al-Qa'ida from Afghanistan in a matter of weeks was accomplished by 110 CIA officers, 316 Special Forces soldiers and scores of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) raiders creating havoc behind enemy lines—a band of brothers with the support of U.S. airpower, following a CIA plan, that has to rank as one of the great successes in Agency history." Several Intelligence Stars were awarded for these activities; presumably "Greg V." was one of those.
Johnny Micheal Spann
On 31 May 2002, the Intelligence Star was awarded to Johnny Micheal "Mike" Spann after he was killed at the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi in November 2001 in Afghanistan. Spann, a Paramilitary Operations Officer in the CIA's Special Activities Division, was the first American killed during combat in the Global War on Terror. Spann was also awarded the Exceptional Service Medallion. Spann was killed during a riot at the Qala-i-Jangi compound in Mazari Sharif in northern Afghanistan. On the same day, he and another CIA officer were at a military garrison named Qali Jangi near Mazari Sharif and questioned John Walker Lindh. As shown on British television (Channel 4 News), Spann asked "Are you a member of the IRA?" (This question was asked because Lindh was told to claim he was Irish to "avoid problems.") At his memorial at Arlington National Cemetery they stated that he "fought with his AK-47 until it ran out of ammunition, then drew his pistol and emptied it, before turning to hand to hand combat which saw him shot". According to members of a German television crew who were later trapped in the fort with the other CIA officer named "Dave", Spann asked the prisoners who they were and why they joined the Taliban. They massed around him. "Why are you here?" Spann asked one. "To kill you," came the reply as the man lunged at Spann's neck.
Spann's family visited the fortress after his death. Afghan doctors on-site at the time of the riot gave the Spann family the following account. They said they thought "Mike might run and retreat, but he held his position and fought using his AK rifle until out of ammo, and then drew and began firing his pistol," Spann's father said. While watching Mike fight they were able to jump up and run to safety. They said the only reason that they and several others were able to live was because Mike stood his position and fought off the prisoners while enabling them the time to run to safety. The doctors stated that as they fled toward a safe haven, they saw Mike run out of ammo and then witnessed him fighting hand to hand until he was overcome by the numerous al-Qaida and Taliban prisoners.
Although Spann had served in the United States Marine Corps for ten years, he was no longer in the military at the time of his death. However, because the Intelligence Star is considered the equivalent of the US Military's Silver Star and recognized as equivalent by President George W. Bush, Spann was approved for burial in Arlington National Cemetery.
Operation Hotel California
Four CIA officers received the Intelligence Star for actions in 2002 and later as part of Special Activities Division (SAD) paramilitary teams in Iraq. The SAD teams, the first U.S. forces to enter Iraq in 2002 in preparation for the March 2003 U.S. invasion, were soon joined by members of the Army's 10th Special Forces Group to form a joint team called the Northern Iraq Liaison Element (NILE). The joint team organized the Kurdish Peshmerga and defeated Ansar al-Islam, an ally of Al Qaeda, in a battle for the northeast corner of Iraq, killing many terrorists and uncovering a chemical weapons facility at Sargat, the only such facility of its type discovered in the Iraq war.
SAD teams also conducted high-risk special reconnaissance missions behind enemy lines to find enemy senior leaders. These missions led to the initial strikes against Saddam Hussein and his key generals. An initial strike tried and failed to kill Saddam, but did effectively end his ability to command and control his forces. Other strikes killed key generals and degraded Iraqi forces' ability to fight the U.S.-led invasion force. SAD operations officers also convinced some key Iraqi Army officers to surrender their units once the fighting started.
Because Turkey refused to allow the U.S. Army's 4th Infantry Division to enter northern Iraq, the SAD and Army Special Forces joint teams and the Kurdish Pershmerga were the entire northern invasion force against Saddam. Still, their efforts kept the Iraqi Army's 5th Corps from moving to contest the invasion's main force to the southeast.
Michael Patrick Mulroy
Michael Patrick Mulroy is the U.S. Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for the Middle East sworn in by Secretary Mattis on October 17, 2017. He is responsible for Department of Defense (DoD) policy and representing the DoD in the interagency policy process for the Middle East. He is a retired CIA Paramilitary Operations Officer (PMOO) in SAC and a retired United States Marine. Foreign Policy reported that Mulroy accepted the position because Secretary Mattis was looking for a “nonpartisan and apolitical individual" who spent time in conflict areas to fill that office. They continued that, "Mulroy spent most of his career as a CIA paramilitary operations officer in conflict zones." His CIA awards include the Intelligence Star, the Intelligence Commendation Medal, the Career Intelligence Medal and the National Intelligence Exceptional Achievement Medal, among others. He is also a recipient of the State Department's Superior Honor Award and the Secretary of Defense Medal for Outstanding Public Service.
Other recipients
Nate Chapman, U.S. Army Green Beret. He was detailed to the CIA after the 9/11 attacks and died acting as a CIA paramilitary team's communications specialist. He was the first U.S. military member killed in action in the War in Afghanistan.
Brigadier General Dennis B. Sullivan, U.S. Air Force fighter pilot.
Alex Bolling, who served 28 years in the CIA's Directorate of Operations as Chief of Station and Deputy Chief of Station in several war zones in the Middle East, North Africa and Southwest Asia.
Hans Holmer, who received the Intelligence Star for a technology-related operation before the turn of the century. He continued to serve until his retirement in 2012.
Maureen Devlin, the youngest recipient, aged 14, for resisting robbers in the Congo in 1966.
Thomas Polgar, Saigon station chief from 1972 to 1975.
CIA Memorial Wall
The CIA Memorial Wall, located inside the entrance to the CIA's original headquarters building's lobby in Langley, Virginia, honors some of the employees who died in the line of duty. As of May 21, 2012, there were 103 stars on this marble wall. Many officers memorialized on this wall also received the Intelligence Star and the Distinguished Intelligence Medal and are candidates for additional posthumous medals for their valor. There have been discussions over the years with ranking members of the Senate, House, and the Intelligence Community about the placement of a more fitting and lasting monument near the Vietnam Memorial.
Intelligence Star in popular culture
Tom Clancy main characters John Clark and Jack Ryan each are awarded multiple Intelligence Stars over the courses of their careers.
In the 2002 film Bad Company, Chris Rock plays Jake Hayes, whose brother, Kevin Pope, is posthumously awarded the Intelligence Star for his work in bringing down a nuclear terrorist.
In the 2003 Dee Henderson novel True Honor, CIA agents and US Navy SEALs fight in the Global War on Terror. The main character receives an Intelligence Star.
In the 2003 movie The Recruit, Colin Farrell plays a CIA agent whose father received an Intelligence Star.
In the 2005 CHERUB book Maximum Security by Robert Muchamore, James and Lauren Adams and Dave Moss are all awarded Intelligence Stars.
In the 2007 Andrew Britton novel The Assassin (Kensington Books), a former special forces officer becomes a paramilitary officer in the CIA and eventually receives the Intelligence Star and the Distinguished Intelligence Cross.
In the 2009-premiering television series NCIS: Los Angeles, Hetty Lange, operations manager for the Office of Special Projects, received an Intelligence Star.
In the 2012 film Argo, Ben Affleck plays Tony Mendez, who is awarded the Intelligence Star for his work in the Canadian caper.
In the 2014 film Dying of the Light, Nicolas Cage plays Evan Lake, described as the only living recipient of the Intelligence Star.
See also
Awards and decorations of the United States government
References
Awards and decorations of the Central Intelligence Agency |
4362004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C5%8Dj%C5%8Dki | Hōjōki | , variously translated as An Account of My Hut or The Ten Foot Square Hut, is an important and popular short work of the early Kamakura period (1185–1333) in Japan by Kamo no Chōmei. Written in March 1212, the work depicts the Buddhist concept of impermanence (mujō) through the description of various disasters such as earthquake, famine, whirlwind and conflagration that befall the people of the capital city Kyoto. The author Chōmei, who in his early career worked as court poet and was also an accomplished player of the biwa and koto, became a Buddhist monk in his fifties and moved farther and farther into the mountains, eventually living in a 10-foot square hut located at Mt. Hino. The work has been classified both as belonging to the zuihitsu genre and as Buddhist literature. Now considered as a Japanese literary classic, the work remains part of the Japanese school curriculum.
The opening sentence of Hōjōki is famous in Japanese literature as an expression of mujō, the transience of things:The flow of the river never ceases,
And the water never stays the same.
Bubbles float on the surface of pools,
Bursting, re-forming, never lingering.
They’re like the people in this world and their dwellings. (Stavros)
This invites comparison with the aphorism panta rhei (everything flows) ascribed to Heraclitus, which uses the same image of a changing river, and the Latin adages Omnia mutantur and Tempora mutantur.
The text was heavily influenced by Yoshishige no Yasutane's Chiteiki (982). In addition, Chōmei based his small hut, and much of his philosophical outlook, on the accounts of the Indian sage Vimalakīrti from the Vimalakīrti Sūtra.
Synopsis
Chōmei introduces the essay with analogies emphasizing the impermanence of nature, setting a pessimistic view for the rest of this work. He recalls the devastating fire of the Fourth Month of Angen 3 where homes and governmental buildings "turned to ash and dust." Winds picked up the fire and spread the flames throughout the city. Those who were caught near it choked and collapsed. Others instantly died.
Chōmei goes on to recount a great whirlwind that raged on from Nakanomikado and Kyōgoku to Rokujō during the Fourth Month of Jishō 4. The wind blew on for several blocks. No homes were spared; homes were reduced to posts and beams, and others were flattened. The wind blew items, boards, and shingles from the homes into the sky along with dust that obscured it.
The Sixth Month of Jishō 4 brought on a change of the relocation of Japan's capital from Kyoto to Fukuhara. Although people objected, the emperor, ministers and high officials still moved. Those who depended on the capital left with them while others were left behind. Houses went in to ruin, and plots of land became barren fields. Chōmei takes a chance to visit Fukuhara, in which he sees that the city was too crowded for proper streets and nature always beat Fukuhara with violent winds.
Residents complained about the pain of rebuilding in Fukuhara. Officials who usually wear court robes also wear simple clothes now. The uneasiness of disorder set into the capital, and eventually the fears became true. The capital was moved back to Kyoto. The houses of those who moved were never the same.
In the Yōwa era, there was a two-year famine caused by the onslaught of droughts, typhoons, floods and the fact that grains never ripened for harvest. People abandoned their land; some moved to the mountains. Buddhist prayers and rites were performed to remedy the situations but to no effect. Beggars began to fill the streets, and the famine became an epidemic in the second year. Bodies of those who starved lined the streets with almost no passage for horses and carriages. Some tore down their houses for simple resources to sell for spare change; others went to the extent of stealing Buddhist images and temple furnishings to sell. Chōmei reveals that he was born in this age, and he recounts that one of the saddest occurrences is when loved ones died first by starving to feed their family or lovers. Chōmei also gruesomely describes," I also saw a small child who, not knowing that his mother was dead, lay beside her, sucking at her breast."
The priest Ryugo of Ninna Temple grievingly marked the first letter of the Sanskrit alphabet on the foreheads of the dead to link them to Buddha. He counted their bodies lining from Ichijō of the north to Kujō of the south and Kyōgoku of the east to Suzaku of the west totaling in 42,300 Corpses, although there were more.
A devastating earthquake happened, which caused the mountains to crumble, water to flow onto land, and shrines to be destroyed. The earthquake was so dangerous that people's homes could be crushed at any moment. After the earthquake subsided, there came a period of aftershocks which lasted 3 months. This was during the Saiko era (around 855), when many significant events occurred: the great earthquake, and the head falling from the Buddha at Tōdai Temple.
Chōmei describes the dissatisfaction that is felt by people of lower rank in relation to their status: they face cruel hardships and they are never able to find peace. Chōmei also shares his experiences in this time period. He inherited his paternal grandmother's house and lived there for some time. Then, when he lost his father, he could no longer live in the house, because it reminded him of past memories. Since then, he has created a house only for himself, made of earth materials and bamboo posts. During times of snowfall and wind, his house would be in great danger of falling apart. At the age of 50, Chōmei left his house and became secluded from the world: he was not married and he did not have any children. He did not have any relatives that he felt it would be hard to leave behind. Chōmei was jobless and had no income. Chōmei spent five years living on Mount Ohara. When Chōmei reached the age of 60, he decided to build another house that would last him until the end of his life. This house was significantly smaller than the others he built: only ten feet square in terms of area, and seven feet in height. Land is not necessary for him, according to Chōmei, because with a makeshift house, he can easily move it around.
Chōmei describes how he built a water shelf to place offerings on, bamboo shelves with Japanese poetry, and hung a painting of Amida Buddha. His ten-foot square hut is near the woods in Toyama. His accessibility to the woods makes gathering kindling easier. Chōmei describes that at the base of the mountain is a brushwood hut that houses the caretaker of the mountain and a child. Despite a 50-year age difference, him and the boy are great friends. They go on journeys through the mountain together, visit the Ishiyama temple, and collect offerings. At night, he gets emotional when thinking of his early life and old friends. Chōmei then tells of how he thought his stay in his ten-foot square hut would be temporary. However, he has lived in it for five years and feels as though it is his home. He knows very little of life in the capital and does not relate to the people there. He lacks ambitions and only seeks tranquility. Chōmei describes the type of people people like, and the way he treats his body. When he feels distressed, he rests his body. When he feels strong, he works it. He is also unaffected by society's standards and is not embarrassed by his appearance. Chōmei then goes to say that “The Three Worlds exist in only one mind.” This is based on Buddhist beliefs of three worlds: the world of desire, the world of form, and the world of formlessness.
Context
Transition from the Heian Classical Period to Medieval Japan
Kamo no Chōmei experienced the change of the aristocratic Heian era to the tumultuous Shōgun rule at the age of thirty. Military rulers seized the court and set about a medieval feudal-like structure. During this era, the influence of Buddhism significantly faded. Cyclic cosmology foretold of its decline in which aristocrats enacted the move from city life to reclusion in nature for religious Buddhist pursuits. This impacted Chōmei's decision to a simpler and more devoted existence. As the overpowering rule continues, there is also a transition from optimistic Buddhism to pessimistic Buddhism. This can be seen in Chōmei's work as follows: “All human endeavors are foolish, but among them, spending one’s fortune and troubling one’s mind to build a house in such a dangerous capital is particularly vain.” Here Chōmei expresses his feelings not only on human motives, but one can see how Chōmei immediately assumes the worst in living at the capital. In context, Chōmei is referring to the great fire that consumed nearly all the houses in Kyoto. From this one experience, he advises others that investing in a residence in a capital is irrational. Another example of Chōmei's pessimistic philosophy is here: “The powerful man is consumed by greed; he who stands alone is mocked. Wealth brings many fears poverty brings cruel hardship. Look to another for help and you will belong to him. Take someone under your wing, and your heart will be shackled by affection.”
Denial of Position at Kamo Shrine
Chōmei, who comes from a respected lineage of Shinto priests, persists in obtaining a post at the Kamo Shrine, where his family legacy was established. However, he fails. Chōmei decides to depart to the mountains even after Emperor Go-Toba establishes an alternate post for him at the temple. This significant event prompted his bleak outlook on life and his decision to become a recluse.
Structure
Zuihitsu
Zuihitsu style is a style of writing in which a person is reacting to his or her surroundings. In Hōjōki, the Zuihitsu style is seen as Chōmei is giving his account of what is happening around him and is contemplating on how others are reacting to certain situations. Zuihitsu writings tend to focus on themes that are reflective of the time period in which they're written in. Chōmei focuses on the theme of dissatisfaction that comes from people of lower rank and the hardships they face because of this. “All in all, life in this world is difficult; the fragility and transience of our bodies and dwellings are indeed as I have said. We cannot reckon the many ways in which we trouble our hearts according to where we live and in obedience to our status.”
Yugen
In Japanese aesthetics, Yūgen is meant to be an exploration of a “mysterious sense of beauty” within the universe, and the sad beauty of human suffering. As Chōmei is describing the great earthquake that occurred in his time period, he reveals this sense of beauty in the universe and the sad beauty of human suffering, which can be seen in the quote, “A dreadful earthquake shook the land. The effects were remarkable. Mountains crumbled and dammed the rivers; the sea tilted and inundated the land. The earth split open and water gushed forth…people who were inside their houses might be crushed in a moment.”
Chinese Influences
Bo Juyi (772-846) was a renowned Chinese poet and a government official of the Tang dynasty. Bo Juyi was known for writing poetry that focused on his career or observations about his everyday life. Bo Juyi can be seen as an influence for Hōjōki, since many his works were done in the observational, Zuihitsu style, in which Hōjōki is written.
Themes
Buddhism
Mujō
Chōmei immediately begins the work with analogies of a river and a home to show mujō. He explains, “The current of a flowing river does not cease, and yet the water is not the same water as before. The foam floats on stagnant pools, now vanishing, now forming, never stays the same for long. So, too, it is with the people and dwellings of the world.” Throughout the essay, he draws comparisons to highlight the impermanence of life and events. Buddhist influences are inclusive in Chōmei's work. Chōmei understands Buddha's ideology of not becoming attached to material things, but Chōmei believes is that what is important is the way in which things are dealt with. The actions that people take, or where they go are not really important in life since nothing truly ever lasts. This includes buildings, wealth, and homes.
Dukkha
Chōmei shows dukkha by consistently focusing on the experiences of suffering in life. He says, “All in all, life in this world is difficult… We cannot reckon the many ways in which we trouble our hearts according to where we live and in obedience to our status… Wealth brings many fears; poverty brings cruel hardship.”
Asceticism
Significantly, Chōmei's hut, in which this work is named after, is simply a ten-foot square hut. Chōmei illustrates, “In the course of things, years have piled up and my residences have steadily shrunk… In area it is only ten feet square; in height, less than seven feet.” He goes on to say, “I lay a foundation, put up a simple makeshift roof, secure each joint with a latch. This is so I can easily move the building if anything dissatisfies me.” Chōmei practices in asceticism in which everything he owns is of significance to him, and he values his possessions more.
Reclusion
Later in Chōmei's life, he moves to the mountains. Living alone significantly impacts Chōmei's life by allowing him to focus on his connection to Amida Buddha. He describes, “Using what comes to hand, I cover my skin with clothing woven from the bark of wisteria vines and with a hempen quilt, and sustain my life with asters of the field and fruit of the trees on the peak. Because I do not mingle with others I am not embarrassed by my appearance…”
Symbolism
Nature
Natural Disasters
“Of all the follies of human endeavor, none is more pointless than expending treasures and spirit to build houses in so dangerous place as the capital.” Chōmei often makes a point that no matter where individuals may be, the world still impacts them. Chōmei believes that the discontent in many people's lives come from the heart and not the environment in which they are in. Because the natural disasters destroy the things people are attached to, people hearts are often disturbed by the loss of their possessions.
Homes
Dwelling
Chōmei does not believe in any form of permanent home. Often he refers to the concept of “man” and “dwelling.” He believes that a home is symbolic of impermanence. Chōmei did not build his cottage to last. The style in which he built his cottage requires small effort to rebuild. This symbolizes human nature to rebuild even though the feats of their labor would soon be taken away by nature. In essence, Chōmei does not believe any effort is necessary to create something since there is no value in what one builds. Chōmei spent his eremitic life in hermitage. The only way in which he could avoid being trapped by materialistic reasons. He did not spend much effort in the construction of his house in order to be detached from his “dwelling.” Chōmei constructed a temporal dwelling in order to distance himself from any fear or regrets.
Sphere
Chōmei refers to The Sphere as “an environment which leads him to impiousness.” The Sphere relies on the human senses to determine it, and it can be different for each individual to define. The Sphere (kyogai) was originally a term that was used in Buddhism, but it was influenced by Japanese culture to involve the environment, circumstances, or surrounding things. Chōmei believes that The Sphere is not impious, but The Sphere itself is the cause of his impiousness.
Significance in Recluse Literature
In order to understand recluse literature's influence on Asian culture, it must be determined why recluses decide to forsake society and cast off into the wilderness at all. According to Li Chi's “The Changing Concept of the Recluse in Chinese Literature”, men had various reasons to go into seclusion. Some believed that in secluding themselves they would find some sort of personal ascension and a better understanding of life, away from the material drives of the world, and even more so after the rise of Buddhism. Others found that seclusion would garner them more attention, status, and material gain, a direct contrast to the idea of personal and/or Buddhist piety. Some men made the transition into the wilderness because their structured life had been so terribly destroyed by natural disasters that they had no other choice but to do so. In the context of Chōmei's pilgrimage, we find Chōmei searching for asylum from the downtrodden society he once lived in, in the unstructured pursuit of Buddhist understanding. Recluses in Asian antiquity were revered for their writing because their works introduced those in society to a point of view not cluttered by the conformed ideals of societal life. Because there were various reasons behind intellectuals retiring into the wilderness, we are left with a wealth of knowledge in various writings from the multitude of intellectuals and transcendentalists that secluded themselves in the wilderness, preserved over the years and translated.
Manuscripts
Unusually for works of the period, Chōmei's original manuscript survives. Numerous copies have been made and circulated, some complete and some abridged. The complete editions are further categorized into old and popular, while the abridge editions are categorized into Chōkyō, Entoku, and Mana. The Chōkyō and Entoku editions are named after the era date in the afterword and both include extra passages. The Mana editions are written entirely in kanji replacing the kana in the kohon editions.
Translations
Hōjōki is one of the earliest Japanese classical works that was brought to the attention of Western readership, mainly because of its Buddhist elements. The first mention of the work in English language goes as far back as to 1873, when Ernest Mason Satow in an article on Japan briefly mentioned this work while discussing Japanese Literature. However, the first English translation of the work was attempted by Natsume Sōseki in 1891, one of the most prominent Japanese literary figures in modern times. He translated the work into English upon the request of James Main Dixon, his English literature professor at Tokyo Imperial University. Dixon consequently came out with his own translation of the work that was mostly based on Sōseki's translation. Later on William George Aston, Frederick Victor Dickins, Minakata Kumagusu, and many others translated the work into English again. Notable modern translations were prepared by Yasuhiko Moriguchi & David Jenkins (1998), Meredith McKinney (2014), and Matthew Stavros (2020). The work has also been translated into many other foreign languages.
See also
Chiteiki
Shimogamo Shrine (a model of the Hut described in Hōjōki is located in Kawai Jinja section of the shrine.)
Notes
References
Stavros, Matthew (2020). Hōjōki: A Hermit's Hut as Metaphor. Vicus Lusorum. ISBN 978-0645393200.
Stavros, Matthew (2022). In Praise of Solitude: Two Japanese Classics on Reclusion. Chiteiki by Yoshishige no Yasutane, and Hōjōki by Kamo no Chōmei. ISBN 978-0645393224
External links
Hōjōki, original text at Aozora Bunko
English translation of Hōjōki by Robert N. Lawson in 2001, on Washburn University website
Hojoki (Eremitorium): Latin Translation, by Alexander Ricius
Reception of Hōjōki with a focus on Sōseki's English translation, by Gouranga C Pradhan
Chasing a Recluse: Kamo no Chōmei
1212 books
Early Middle Japanese texts |
4362013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWQC-TV | KWQC-TV | KWQC-TV (channel 6) is a television station licensed to Davenport, Iowa, United States, serving the Quad Cities area as an affiliate of NBC. Owned by Gray Television, the station maintains studios on Brady Street in downtown Davenport, and its transmitter is located near Orion, Illinois.
History
KWQC first signed on the air on October 31, 1949, as WOC-TV. The station was founded by B. J. Palmer, founder of the Palmer College of Chiropractic (located directly across the street from the station's studios) along with WOC radio (1420 AM and 103.7 FM, now WLLR-FM). The WOC stations were also sister stations to WHO-AM/FM/TV in Des Moines. According to local legend, the WOC calls stood for "Wonders of Chiropractic", though the Palmer family never acknowledged the phrase in print or otherwise. WOC-TV has the distinction of being considered both Iowa's and the Quad Cities' first television station, carrying programming from all four networks at the time: (NBC, CBS, ABC and DuMont). However, it has always been a primary NBC affiliate owing to WOC radio's long-standing affiliation with the NBC Radio Network. Originally on channel 5, WOC-TV moved to channel 6 in 1952 because of interference with both Iowa State University's WOI-TV in Ames, and WNBQ-TV (now WMAQ-TV) in Chicago. During its early years, original programming on WOC-TV included the daily Show Boat children's show hosted by Cap'n Ernie from 1964 to 1974.
WOC-TV lost CBS when Rock Island–based WHBF-TV (channel 4) was launched in 1950. The two stations shared ABC until WQAD-TV (channel 8) signed on from Moline in 1963, and has since served as an exclusive NBC station. The station was also affiliated with the short-lived Paramount Television Network; in fact, it was one of that network's strongest affiliates, carrying programs such as Dixie Showboat, Hollywood Reel, and Hollywood Wrestling.
Channel 6 remained with the Palmer family's broadcasting division after Dr. Palmer's death in 1961. In 1986, Palmer Communications sold its Quad Cities radio properties to Vickie Anne Palmer and her then-husband J. Douglas Miller. Due to Federal Communications Commission (FCC) rules at the time, channel 6 changed its calls to the current KWQC-TV on December 8 so as not to confuse the two properties. KWQC was sold to Broad Street Television in 1989 and to Young Broadcasting in 1995.
On June 6, 2013, Media General announced they would acquire Young Broadcasting in an all-stock deal. The merger was completed on November 12. The addition of KWQC to Media General's portfolio marked a return to Iowa for Media General, who had owned KIMT in Mason City from 2000 to 2006, though they would regain ownership of that station upon acquiring LIN Media in 2014. In September 2015, Media General announced the acquisition of Meredith Corporation in a cash and stock deal valued at $2.4 billion. If the deal was completed, KWQC and KIMT would have become Meredith's first television stations in its home state of Iowa.
Media General announced on January 27, 2016, that it was terminating the Meredith deal, and also announced that it was being acquired by Nexstar Broadcasting Group with the new company named Nexstar Media Group. As Nexstar already owns WHBF-TV, and since both WHBF and KWQC rank among the top four stations by daily ratings in the market, in order to comply with FCC ownership rules as well as planned changes to rules regarding same-market television stations which would prohibit future joint sales agreements, the company was required to sell either KWQC or WHBF to another company. WHBF's sister station KGCW was not affected, and could have either remained in its duopoly with WHBF or created a new duopoly with KWQC, as its ratings are below the top-four threshold. On June 3, 2016, it was announced that Nexstar would keep its existing assets and sell KWQC to Gray Television for $270 million. It represents a reunion of sorts as Gray previously managed the station when Young was encountering financial difficulties, but this time Gray acquired the station outright. That makes KWQC a sister station to KCRG-TV in Cedar Rapids, WIFR in Rockford and fellow NBC affiliate WMTV in Madison. The sale was completed on January 17, 2017.
On February 1, 2021, Gray Television announced its intent to purchase Quincy, Illinois–based Quincy Media for $925 million. The deal was completed on August 2, 2021, placing KWQC under common ownership with fellow NBC affiliates in several Illinois and Iowa markets, including WEEK-TV in Peoria, KTIV in Sioux City, KTTC in Rochester, Minnesota–Mason City, and WGEM-TV in Quincy (the long-time flagship television station of Quincy Media). Only KWWL in Waterloo–Cedar Rapids needed to be divested to a third party, as Gray Television already owns that market's ABC affiliate KCRG-TV, and had elected to keep KCRG-TV and sell KWWL due to the ownership conflict in that market. On April 29, Gray announced that it would divest KWWL, along with fellow NBC affiliate and Quincy Media sister station WREX in Rockford, to Allen Media Broadcasting, a subsidiary of Los Angeles based Entertainment Studios, for $380 million. WREX's divestiture was optional as FCC regulations would permit common ownership of WREX and WIFR-LD as WIFR-LD is a low-power station but the sale of KWWL was required as KWWL and KCRG-TV are both full-power stations.
Subchannel history
KWQC-DT2
KWQC-DT2 is the Ion Television–affiliated second digital subchannel of KWQC-TV, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 6.2.
On August 13, 2007, KWQC launched a local digital weather service called the "KWQC 24/7 Weather Channel" on over-the-air digital subchannel 6.2 and on Mediacom digital channel 247 in the Quad Cities and surrounding areas. The subchannel's display was similar in format to Young Broadcasting's other digital weather subchannel offerings on sister stations WBAY-TV and WTEN: Radar feeds from the station's computer system, local weather conditions (also from the computers) on the right side of the screen, a seven-day forecast below the radio/video window, and a news ticker at the bottom of the screen. Forecasts and weather maps were played on a 10-minute loop, with public service announcements and some local advertising a part of the subchannel. Per FCC guidelines requiring three hours of E/I programming per week on digital subchannels, KWQC-DT2 ran children's oriented programming Mondays thru Saturdays at 5:00 p.m. The subchannel also featured same-day rebroadcasts of Paula Sands Live at 7:00 p.m. Subchannel 6.2 initially broadcast programming in a 4:3 aspect ratio before converting to a 16:9 widescreen format (to match that of modern widescreen television receivers) in Fall 2011.
On November 1, 2015, the KWQC 24/7 Weather Channel was discontinued and replaced with entertainment programming from Ion Television. The switch made KWQC the earliest of several Media General-owned stations to affiliate a subchannel with Ion in markets where Ion does not have an owned-and-operated station. KWQC also moved subchannel 6.2 back to its original 4:3 aspect ratio. Ion Television programming and network promos are seen in a 16:9 letterbox while commercials and infomercials are center-cut to match the 4:3 aspect ratio of the subchannel.
KWQC-DT3
KWQC-DT3 is the Cozi TV–affiliated third digital subchannel of KWQC-TV, broadcasting in 16:9 widescreen standard definition on UHF channel 6.3.
In June 2013, KWQC began testing a third digital subchannel (6.3) with an ID still. The still was replaced on Labor Day of that year with programming from NBCUniversal-owned classic television network Cozi TV. The channel is also available on Mediacom cable channel 106.
Heroes & Icons (6.4) and Start TV (6.5)
On February 1, 2019, the station added Weigel Broadcasting's Heroes & Icons and Start TV to their subchannel lineup on channels 6.4 and 6.5, respectively.
Programming
In January 2008, KWQC began broadcasting syndicated programs, and NBC network programs in high definition. The first two programs aired in the format, Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune, are recorded and broadcast in high definition every weekday. The Saturday evening reruns of Wheel of Fortune are also broadcast in high definition. KWQC's local programs soon followed, converting their broadcasts to HD on October 27, 2010.
The station also produces a half-hour daytime talk/discussion program called Paula Sands Live at 3:00 p.m. weekdays. Hosted by weeknight 6:00 p.m. news anchor Paula Sands, the program focuses on current events in the Quad Cities area, along with a variety of other segments.
On December 2, 2020, KWQC chose not to air a rare Wednesday late afternoon Baltimore Ravens vs. Pittsburgh Steelers game, which had been originally been a Thanksgiving night matchup for NBC Sunday Night Football that was postponed three times in one week due to COVID-19 issues. Instead, Sands' daytime show and local newscasts aired as usual, with the station justifying the decision to provide local news and a platform for local businesses during the pandemic that would have been delayed due to a game without any overall regional interest.
News operation
KWQC is known by Quad Cities residents for the Highlight Zone, an Emmy award-winning Friday night sports segment (which airs during the station's 10:00 p.m. newscast from roughly late August through early March, with a break in December), showcasing highlights from area high school football and basketball games. The segment debuted in 1989, and its format has since been copied by many stations around the United States. Each member of the news anchor staff, along with the meteorologist who does weather forecasts on that particular evening, take turns recapping a featured game. The camera crews invite fans from each of the games they cover to participate in a skit related to the night's theme. The theme usually centers on a holiday (e.g., Valentine's Day) or local promotion (e.g., The Student Food Drive, an initiative by area high schools to collect food for the needy).
On July 31, 2007, KWQC debuted drastic changes to its graphics and newscast music, dumping Frank Gari's "Hello News" package that had been in use since 1990. KWQC added a "cube" ID graphic (similar to the on-screen logo bug used by Fox News Channel), which stirred up some controversy among viewers. Eventually, KWQC slowed the cube down as a result of a vote by nearly 2,000 people on its website. KWQC began using "U-Phonix", a syndicated music package composed by Stephen Arnold Music. Just eight weeks later on September 24, KWQC switched back to the "Hello News" package, making KWQC the first station to use a syndicated music package for the least amount of time. KWQC was the only station that continued to use the original "Hello News" package, but on January 16, 2012, it was dropped once again and was replaced by "Breakthrough" by 360 Music as the music package for its newscasts. On October 31, 2023, ahead of the station's 75th anniversary, the "Hello News" package and the classic "Hello Quad Cities" advertising campaign were reinstated.
On September 25, 2008, KWQC introduced a new graphics package during its 5:00 p.m. broadcast, which also brought significant changes to its weather forecast presentation. The station introduced a new graphics system that allows the First Alert Weather team to provide more interactive weather forecasts and severe weather coverage, through animation, touch-movement and wireless transition of graphics. KWQC also introduced a revised station logo, the first change to its on-air logo since 1990. While it was similar to the one previously used, the "-TV" suffix was replaced with a "-DT" suffix (for digital television), though KWQC-TV remained as the station's official call sign.
On October 27, 2010, beginning with the 5:00 p.m. newscast, KWQC became the first television station in the Quad Cities market and the first station owned by Young Broadcasting to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition. A high definition-ready news set was constructed for the newscasts (a "compact" news desk was temporarily placed in the newsroom during the construction phase so that only three on-air staffers could be seen at a given time). Logos, call signs and on-air graphics were changed as well to refer to its newscasts as KWQC-HD News. The station returned to their original KWQC-TV 6 News branding in 2012 after all the market's stations converted to high definition news operations.
On November 4, 2013, KWQC introduced brand new weather graphics. The whole Young Broadcasting Association had been working on the new graphics for over six months. The change brought a new banner to the top of the screen, entitled "KWQC Weather", not "First Alert", though "First Alert" is still the official name of the weather on KWQC. The radar, 7 Day Forecast, Current Temperatures, and Watches/Warnings were all given a new look. Some new features include being able to put pictures from Facebook right on the screen and being able to put LIVE video of the meteorologists right over the radar or other image. On December 12, 2013, KWQC took away the KWQC Weather logo and replaced it again with the First Alert logo.
Starting on September 6, 2014, KWQC introduced Quad Cities Today: Weekend Edition. It runs before NBC's Today Show at 6:00 a.m. on Saturdays and Sundays. A half-hour newscast follows at 8:30 a.m. Saturdays, and a 60-minute newscast airs at 8:00 a.m. Sundays. Meet the Press has been moved to 9:00 a.m. Sundays; and This Week in Agribusiness and U.S. Farm Report airs at 5:00 a.m. Saturdays and Sundays. KWQC had canceled its Saturday morning newscasts in 2008 due to financial struggles.
In July 2017, KWQC reinstated the longtime slogan "The Station that Cares for You" for KWQC special coverage of the Quad Cities Times Bix 7 Road Race. The slogan was used from the early 1990s until being phased out during the station's HD switch in 2010. The slogan was featured on news team T-shirts and was introduced in different promos and station commercials.
KWQC radio content
KWQC has news and weather updates broadcast for iHeartMedia's Quad Cities stations, among them KMXG, WLLR-FM, and its former sister station WOC (AM). The news updates are mostly heard in the morning, from Quad Cities Today anchor David Nelson and Morgan Ottier. KMXG morning personalities McFadden & Evans also present the entertainment-themed "Showbiz Buzz" segment daily during KWQC-TV6 News at 4.
The audio of the Monday through Friday 5:00 p.m. News is rebroadcast on WOC 1420 at 5:30 p.m.
KWQC/KLJB partnership
On September 29, 2012, KWQC announced they would be partnering with Fox affiliate KLJB to produce a 9:00 p.m. newscast starting New Year's Eve and planned to expand the news staff to accommodate the move. The fate of this partnership was unknown with the June 2014 announcement that KLJB would be purchased by Marshall Broadcasting Group; competitor station WHBF from Citadel Communications was acquired by Nexstar Broadcasting Group, which universally operates Marshall Broadcasting Group stations through LMA and JSA agreements. On December 30, 2015, KWQC announced that its contract to produce KLJB's newscast had expired and that KLJB chose not to renew it. On December 31, 2015, WHBF took over production of KLJB's Fox 18 News at Nine and expanded the newscast to a full hour. Nearly 13 months earlier, the sale of KLJB to Marshall Broadcasting Group was completed, and Nexstar (which already owned WHBF and KGCW at the time) entered into its existing SSA with KLJB.
Ratings
KWQC has been the ratings leader in the Quad Cities for most of its history. It briefly lost the lead to WHBF in the mid-1970s but regained it in 1980, and its newscasts have been the highest-rated in the market ever since. According to the Des Moines Register in the November 2007 books, KWQC had the third highest-rated newscast among all stations in the top 100 media markets. In 2015, KWQC's newscasts remained number one in total viewers in every time slot. As of 2013–2014, Nielsen's DMA rank for the Quad Cities was 100.
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital conversion
After the shutdown of the KWQC-TV analog nightlight signal on June 26, 2009, the KWQC-TV call sign was legally transferred from the now-defunct analog channel 6 to the new digital channel 36 and the KWQC-DT call sign was officially discontinued. However, until mid-November 2009, the PSIP identifier continued to identify the main channel 6.1 as KWQC-DT. This finally changed before Thanksgiving Day in late November and the PSIP now identifies the main channel on 6.1 as the station's legal callsign, KWQC-TV.
KWQC-TV shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 6, at 11:59 p.m. on June 12, 2009, the official date when full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station shut off its pre-transition digital signal on channel 56 just after midnight on June 11–12. The station returned to the air on channel 36 around 1:00 a.m. on Friday, June 12. Through the use of PSIP, digital television receivers display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 6. Most of the station's programming on the broadcast day of June 12, 2009, was actually broadcast both on analog channel 6 and the new digital channel 36, until 11:59 p.m. when KWQC used analog channel 6 to provide a Nightlight service to those remaining analog-only television viewers without a digital TV set or digital converter box for the two weeks following the digital transition.
KWQC's audio signal transmitted on a frequency of 87.76 MHz (+10 kHz shift) and was picked up on the lower end of the dial on most FM radios in most of the Quad Cities until 11:59 p.m. on June 12, 2009. As of 11:59 p.m. on June 12, 2009, the station's main programming is no longer heard on 87.75 MHz on FM radios.
Analog nightlight service
After June 12, KWQC continued using its analog channel 6 for Nightlighting for the next two weeks strictly for the purpose of informing the public about the need to switch over to digital. This included the details on purchasing and installation of DTV converter boxes and television sets, as well as how digital TV works. This service is known as "Nightlighting." The national PSAs, produced by the National Association of Broadcasters, as well as a locally produced version by the station itself, was a joint effort between KWQC and the other broadcasters in the Quad Cities, including WHBF-TV, WQAD-TV, WQPT-TV, and KLJB, to inform the remaining unprepared TV viewers about the need to take action to continue receiving over- the-air television broadcasting. The transmitter for KWQC analog channel 6 was shut down permanently at 11:59 p.m. on June 26, 2009. Being broadcast as it was in analog on VHF channel 6, the KWQC Nightlight Service was being heard on FM 87.76 MHz on FM radios during the two week Nightlight period instead of the KWQC main programming. Today, there is nothing but static on 87.7 FM on radios as well as snow on VHF channel 6 on analog TV sets.
Transmitter
The KWQC-TV Tower is a high guy-wired aerial mast for the transmission of FM radio and television programs in Bettendorf, west of the Scott Community College campus. (Geographical coordinates: ). It was built in 1982. In addition to the former KWQC analog signal, WHBF-TV and radio stations WOC (AM), and WLLR-FM, both former sister stations of KWQC-TV (as WOC-TV), as well as religious WDLM-FM, and NPR member station WVIK, transmit their signals from this site.
KWQC's digital transmission tower is located in Orion, Illinois. KWQC no longer transmits a signal from Bettendorf, as Orion is now its new permanent home for transmission facilities, as of June 12. KWQC's analog transmitter in Bettendorf was broadcasting the Quad City Market's "Nightlight" service around the clock until June 26, 2009. During the two-week "nightlight" period, none of the station's regular programming was broadcast on the analog signal. The aforementioned radio stations in the top paragraph of this section, as well as WHBF-TV, are continuing to transmit from Bettendorf. WHBF is the only Quad Cities television station to transmit from Bettendorf, while KWQC and the market's other stations are transmitting from Orion, with the exception of KGCW. This means many viewers in and around the Quad Cities market need either a rotor or two separate antennas to receive all their local TV stations.
July 2015 carriage dispute with Mediacom
On July 14, 2015, KWQC-TV and its digital subchannels were pulled from Mediacom cable systems in the Quad Cities region because of a carriage dispute over retransmission consent fees between Mediacom and KWQC's owner at the time, Media General. This carriage dispute was part of an ongoing disagreement nationwide between Mediacom and Media General, which saw Media General stations in 14 television markets in the United States pulled from Mediacom cable systems. Three Fox affiliates owned by Media General were lost to Mediacom subscribers in Hampton Roads, Virginia, Terre Haute, Indiana, and Topeka, Kansas, just before the start of the 2015 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. On July 30, 2015, Mediacom and Media General reached a new agreement, thereby restoring KWQC and its digital subchannels to Quad City area Mediacom subscribers.
References
Further reading
KWQC On-Air accessed 2007-04-03
External links
KWQC.com - Official KWQC TV-6 Website
WOC's Captain Ernie's Cartoon Showboat website
The Unofficial WOC Broadcast Center Website
Television stations in the Quad Cities
NBC network affiliates
Ion Television affiliates
Cozi TV affiliates
Heroes & Icons affiliates
Start TV affiliates
Circle (TV network) affiliates
Scripps News affiliates
Television channels and stations established in 1949
1949 establishments in Iowa
Davenport, Iowa
Gray Television |
4362030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice%20World%20%28film%29 | Spice World (film) | Spice World is a 1997 British musical comedy film directed by Bob Spiers and written by Kim Fuller. The film stars pop girl group the Spice Girls, who all play themselves. The film—made in a similar vein to the Beatles' A Hard Day's Night (1964)—depicts a series of fictional events leading up to a major concert at London's Royal Albert Hall, liberally interspersed with dream sequences and flashbacks as well as surreal moments and humorous asides, whilst also including a subplot dealing with a smear campaign against the Spice Girls by an overzealous newspaper CEO in an attempt to destroy their reputation for his own benefit.
This is the second feature-length film directed by Spiers, following That Darn Cat (1997). The film features Richard E. Grant, Claire Rushbrook, Naoko Mori, Meat Loaf, Barry Humphries, and Alan Cumming in supporting roles, with cameo appearances by a number of British celebrities. Filming took place in London for six of the eight filming weeks and also inside Twickenham Studios, as well as at over 40 famous British landmarks. Shooting featured several fourteen-hour shooting sessions and a constant, heavy media presence due to the Spice Girls' then-large popularity.
The film premiered in the United Kingdom on 15 December 1997, ahead of its wide theatrical release on the British holiday Boxing Day (26 December). In North America, it was released on 23 January 1998 by Columbia Pictures. In the United States, Spice World became a box office success and broke the record for the highest-ever weekend debut for Super Bowl weekend with box office sales of $10.5 million. The film grossed $56 million at the worldwide box office and received primarily negative reviews.
To celebrate its 20th Anniversary in 2017, Spice World was given a limited release across the United Kingdom showing at Odeon Cinemas. Spice World is the highest-grossing film of all time by a musical group.
Plot
The Spice Girls perform their song "Too Much" at the Top of the Pops, but are dissatisfied with the burdens of fame and fortune. Meanwhile, the sinister newspaper owner, Kevin McMaxford, is trying to ruin the girls' reputation for his ratings. McMaxford dispatches photographer Damien to take pictures and tape recordings of the girls. Piers Cuthbertson-Smyth, with his camera crew, stalks the girls, hoping to use them as subjects for his next project. At the same time, the girls' manager, Clifford, is fending off two over-eager Hollywood writers, Martin Barnfield and Graydon, who relentlessly pitch absurd plot ideas for the girls' feature film.
Amid this, the girls must prepare for their live concert at the Royal Albert Hall in three days, which will be the biggest performance of their music career. At the heart of it, the constant rehearsals, travelling, publicity appearances and other burdens of celebrity affect the girls on a personal level, preventing them from spending much time with their best friend, Nicola, who is due to give birth soon. Throughout the busy schedule, the girls try to ask Clifford for time off to spend with Nicola and relax, but Clifford refuses after talking with the head of the girls' record label, the cryptic and eccentric "Chief". The stress and overwork compound, which culminate in the girls' huge argument with Clifford. The girls suddenly storm out on the evening before their gig at the Albert Hall.
The girls separately think back on their humble beginnings and their struggle to the top. They reunite by chance outside the abandoned café where they practised during their adolescent years, they reconcile, and decide to take Nicola out dancing. However, Nicola's contractions start at the nightclub and she is rushed to the hospital, where she gives birth to a healthy baby girl. When Emma notices that the delivery "doctor" has a camera, the girls realize that he is Damien, who flees with the girls in hot pursuit, only to hit his head after accidentally colliding with an empty stretcher. When Damien sees the girls standing over him, he tells them that they have made him realise he's "been living a meaningless lie", and he goes after McMaxford, who is subsequently fired in a "Jacuzzi scandal". After noticing the girls' bus driver, Dennis, is missing, Victoria decides to take the wheel. It becomes a race against time as Victoria drives recklessly through the streets of London to the Albert Hall. While approaching Tower Bridge, the bridge starts being raised to let a boat through the River Thames. Victoria drives up the bridge and over the gap. The bus lands safely on the other side, but when Emma opens a trapdoor in the floor, she discovers a bomb, and the girls scream before Emma slams the trapdoor shut again.
The girls finally arrive at the Albert Hall for their performance. However, the girls have one more obstacle to overcome: a London policeman charges them with "dangerous driving, criminal damage, flying a bus without a licence, and frightening the pigeons". Emma is pushed forward and explains to the policeman that she and the other girls were late for their performance at the Albert Hall. Emma smiles at the policeman, and he lets the girls off for their performance. The girls open their Albert Hall concert with their song "Spice Up Your Life", which is broadcast live on global television. The supporting cast later talk about the girls' film during its closing credits. Melanie C breaks the fourth wall and tells the other girls that the outgoing audience is watching them. The girls talk to the audience, commenting on "those two in the back row snogging" and on one's dress, and discuss their film, just minutes before the bomb in their bus explodes.
Cast
Production
Development
As the popularity of the Spice Girls grew, The Walt Disney Company approached the band about making a film. The band turned down Disney's offer as they did not like the "Disney-fied" script, which was about "a young single mother of one of the girls, fighting hardship to form the band." Kim Fuller, brother of the band's manager Simon Fuller, decided to write the screenplay for a Spice Girls movie himself.
According to Fuller, the script had to be revised many times to accommodate the growing number of celebrities hoping to take part in the film. Director Bob Spiers had been working in America on the Disney film That Darn Cat at the peak of the Girls' popularity. He was unaware of the group when first offered the job until his friend Jennifer Saunders advised that he take it. He arrived at a meeting with them in a New York hotel, unaware of what they looked like.
Casting
Frank Bruno was originally cast as the tour bus driver, but withdrew after a security guard prevented his son Franklin having an on-set photo taken with the girls. Mentions of Princess Diana and scenes featuring the designer Gianni Versace had to be edited out in post-production following their deaths shortly before the release of the film.
"Their company rang me up and asked if I would be in it", remarked Elvis Costello of his cameo. "I wouldn't have thought I was the kind of face you would get to do a cornflakes advert. Maybe twenty years ago. I was surprised."
Gary Glitter controversy
Glam rock musician Gary Glitter filmed a four-minute cameo appearance as himself, but shortly before release, he was arrested on child pornography offences. The Spice Girls and the production team agreed that his cameo should be deleted from the final print, although the band's performance of Glitter's "I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)" was retained. Glitter's scene has since been leaked online.
Filming
Spice World began filming in June and wrapped in August 1997. The film was to be set to the songs from the Girls' second studio album, but no songs had been written when filming began. The band thus had to do all the songwriting and recording at the same time as they were filming Spice World.
Music
An official motion picture soundtrack has not been released, since their second studio album, Spiceworld, was released at the time, heavily promoted and serving as the film's soundtrack. The only song from Spiceworld not to appear in the film is "Move Over". The songs appearing in the film are in order of appearance.
"Too Much", the main single, debuted atop the UK Singles Chart, becoming the Spice Girls' second consecutive Christmas number-one single. It made the group the first act to reach number one with their first six singles, and the first to debut atop the chart five times in a row. The single spent two weeks at number one, and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on 9 January 1998.
Spice Girls - "Too Much (Spice World Version)" (Opening sequence)
Spice Girls - "Do It"
Spice Girls - "Say You'll Be There (Unplugged Concert Version)"
Spice Girls - "Mama"
Spice Girls - "Denying"
Spice Girls - "Saturday Night Divas"
Spice Girls - "Stop"
Spice Girls - "2 Become 1"
Spice Girls - "I'm the Leader of the Gang (I Am)"
Spice Girls - "Never Give Up on the Good Times"
Spice Girls - "Sound Off"
Millie Small - "My Boy Lollipop"
Spice Girls - "Viva Forever"
Spice Girls - "Wannabe (Demo Version)"
Spice Girls - "Who Do You Think You Are (Morales Club Mix Edit)"
Spice Girls - "Spice Up Your Life (Live @ Albert Hall)"
Spice Girls - "The Lady Is a Vamp" (Closing titles)
Release
Rating
In the United Kingdom, Spice World was granted a PG certificate by the British Board of Film Classification for "mild bad language, mild sex references". In the United States, it received a PG rating from the Motion Picture Association for "some vulgarity, brief nudity and language".
Merchandising
Official toy versions of the Spice Bus were produced upon the release of the movie.
Home media
The film was released on VHS in May 1998 in many regions including the UK, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, Japan and Australia. In June 1998, it came out on VHS in the US and Canada. Despite concerns that the high-profile departure of Halliwell from the Spice Girls would affect sales, global demand for the VHS was high. In the UK, the film was number one on the video charts for six consecutive weeks, was certified 11× Platinum, and became the ninth best-selling video of 1998. In the US, the film peaked at number one on the video charts for five consecutive weeks and was the fifth best-selling video of 1998.
Spice World: The 10th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD on 19 November 2007 in the United Kingdom and Australia and on 27 November 2007 in the United States.
Spice World: The 20th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD on 7 February 2018 in Australia.
2017 re-release
In 2017, the film was screened at various cinemas in the UK, Ireland and Australia to mark its 20th anniversary.
Reception
Box office
Spice World was a number-one box office success in the United Kingdom, grossing £2.3 million during its opening weekend on Boxing Day 1997. It was the highest opening gross for a British production in the UK, surpassing the record set earlier in the year by Bean (excluding previews for Bean) and also set a record opening week gross for a British film in the U.K. with a gross of £4.8 million. The film was also successful in the United States, breaking the record at that time for the highest-ever weekend debut for Super Bowl weekend (25 January 1998), with box office sales of $10,527,222. The film took in $56 million at the box office worldwide, though media articles have referred to a higher figure of $100 million after dvd sales were included.
Critical reception
The film received generally negative reviews from critics. Film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave Spice World a rating of 35% based on reviews from 68 critics, with an average rating of 4.7 out of 10 and a critic consensus that reads "Spice Worlds lack of cohesive plot will likely lose most viewers, but for fans of the titular girl group there's more than enough fun to be had in their wacky -- albeit superficial -- whirlwind of an adventure." On Metacritic, the film has a 32 out of 100 rating, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". AllMovie gave it two out of five stars.
Noted American film critic Roger Ebert gave one-half of a star and listed Spice World as one of his most hated films, saying: "The Spice Girls are easier to tell apart than the Mutant Ninja Turtles, but that is small consolation: What can you say about five women whose principal distinguishing characteristic is that they have different names? They occupy Spice World as if they were watching it: They're so detached they can't even successfully lip-synch their own songs." And when he reviewed the film on his and Gene Siskel's film critique programme Siskel & Ebert, only three weeks into 1998, he declared that he had already seen the worst film of that year, and called it "an entertainment-free dead zone". Ebert included the film on the Worst of 1998 special, but he chose Armageddon as the worst film of 1998.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times stated that the film "is pleasant and painless enough to amuse ardent fans, who figure in the film quite often." She also noted that while it got a PG rating in the United States, "nothing about it should disturb its target audience of media-wise, fun-loving 8-year-old girls." Writing for Sight and Sound, in a positive review, Mark Sinker placed it alongside the Monkees' 1968 cult film Head. He went on to say that it "sends up the amiable idiocy of pop packaging - and the slow witted mass-media response to it" and it was "tirelessly generous in its energy".
Derek Elley, resident film critic for Variety, gave a mixed review, calling the film "bright and breezy" and "as timely but evanescent as the Cool Britannia culture it celebrates". He stated that the film would "delight the Fab Five's pre-pubescent fans" but that it would "be forgotten within six months".
Reappraisal
Several critics have reevaluated the film more positively in the years after its initial release. Re-watching Spice World in 2019, Alice Vincent of The Daily Telegraph was "pleasantly surprised" that the jokes had not aged badly and found the sets and costuming had a "now-retro charm". Vincent stated: "It's an irreverent, lighthearted romp that captured the brash, patriotic positivity of a London swept up in Cool Britannia." Writing for The New York Times in 2019, Eleanor Stanford found the film to be "much smarter and more self-aware than I once gave it credit for," particularly enjoying how the Spice Girls poked fun at themselves. Stanford concluded: "The Spice Girls were absolutely working the (very sexist) system, and making a lot of money off it, but they were doing it slyly, with a wink and a grin. They were, I think, misunderstood at the time, and I wonder if an irreverent, breezy group like theirs could even exist today."
Accolades
The film has been listed in Golden Raspberry Awards founder John Wilson's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of "The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made". Along with the nominations and wins racked up at the 1998 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, Spice World was listed in their upcoming "100 Years, 100 Stinkers" list, in which people voted for the 100 worst movies of the 20th century. The film was ranked at #5.
Legacy and cult status
Spice World has arguably achieved cult status. The film, while being negatively reviewed during its original release, is remembered fondly by many who were part of its target audience of younger pop fans at the time of its release. Some commentators consider the film to be a "cult classic", describing it as brilliant, even a masterpiece of the parody genre, that mocks both celebrity culture and cinematic clichés, while giving many winks to popular culture of the time. Several reviews have even made positive comparisons between SpiceWorld and the 1984 "rockumentary" parody film This Is Spinal Tap.
On 18 July 2014, the Spice Bus used in the film was put on permanent display at Island Harbour Marina, on the Isle of Wight, England.
Potential sequel
In 2010, Bunton revealed that there were plans for a sequel following the first film's release, stating: "We would've liked to do another film, but after Spice World, there was an album, then a tour and then Geri left, so it didn't happen."
Speaking in January 2019, following the announcement of the Spice Girls reunion tour, Simon Fuller confirmed plans to make an animated sequel to Spice World. On 13 June 2019, it was reported that Paramount Animation president Mireille Soria had greenlit the project, with all five members of the band returning. The project will be produced by Simon Fuller, with Karen McCullah and Kiki Smith writing the screenplay, and will feature both previous and original songs. The film would feature the band as superheroes. A director has not yet been announced.
See also
Spice Girls filmography
List of films featuring extraterrestrials
References
Book references
External links
1997 films
1997 comedy films
1990s British films
1990s buddy comedy films
1990s English-language films
1990s female buddy films
1990s musical comedy films
British buddy comedy films
British female buddy films
British musical comedy films
Cultural depictions of Elton John
Films about film directors and producers
Films about filmmaking
Films about musical groups
Films set in London
Films shot in Buckinghamshire
Films shot in London
Films shot in Surrey
Golden Raspberry Award winning films
Icon Productions films
PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films
Self-reflexive films
Works about the Spice Girls |
4362359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway%20Theatre%20%2853rd%20Street%29 | Broadway Theatre (53rd Street) | The Broadway Theatre (formerly Universal's Colony Theatre, B.S. Moss's Broadway Theatre, Earl Carroll's Broadway Theatre, and Ciné Roma) is a Broadway theater at 1681 Broadway (near 53rd Street) in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Opened in 1924, the theater was designed by Eugene De Rosa for Benjamin S. Moss, who originally operated the venue as a movie theater. It has approximately 1,763 seats across two levels and is operated by The Shubert Organization. The Broadway Theatre is one of the few Broadway theaters that is physically on Broadway.
The Broadway's facade was originally designed in the Italian Renaissance style and was made of brick and terracotta. The modern facade of the theater is made of polished granite and is part of the office building at 1675 Broadway, completed in 1990. The auditorium contains an orchestra level, one balcony, and box seats. The modern design of the auditorium dates to a 1986 renovation, when Oliver Smith redecorated the theater in a reddish color scheme. The office building is cantilevered above the auditorium.
B.S. Moss's Colony Theatre opened on Christmas Day 1924 and was originally leased to Universal Pictures Corporation. Moss renovated the venue for legitimate shows and reopened it as the Broadway Theatre on December 8, 1930. The theater had several operators over the next decade, and it switched between hosting legitimate shows, movies, and vaudeville. Lee Shubert and Clifford Fischer took over the Broadway Theatre in December 1939, and the Shubert family bought the theater in 1940. Since then, the Broadway has largely been used as a legitimate theater, though it was briefly used for movies in 1947 and in 1952–1953. The Broadway was extensively rebuilt in the late 1980s. Over the years, it has hosted many long-running musicals that have transferred from other theaters, as well as other long-lasting shows such as Evita, Les Misérables, and Miss Saigon.
Description
Buildings
The Broadway Theatre is at the southwest corner of Broadway and 53rd Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is one of the few active Broadway theaters that are physically on Broadway.
Original structure
Its original exterior was designed in the Italian Renaissance style and was made of brick and terracotta. The exterior contained a double-height electric sign. The original building covered ; there was of office space above the theater's lobby and two stores on Broadway. In addition, there was a wrought-iron ticket booth. There were 18 exits, allowing it to be evacuated within three minutes. Due to the presence of the now-demolished Sixth Avenue elevated line on 53rd Street, the theater had soundproof double doors on that street.
Current building
The modern facade of the theater (which has its own address at 1681 Broadway) is part of the 1675 Broadway office building, completed in 1990. The facade of 1675 Broadway, designed by Fox & Fowle, consists of polished granite in deep-green and greenish-gray hues. The seven-story facade on Broadway, which contains the entrance, was refaced in a similar material, with contemporary and Art Deco-style decorations. There is an Art Deco marquee in front of the theater as well. The massing consists of several horizontal and vertical setbacks, inspired by the massing of 30 Rockefeller Plaza. The lower stories have recessed windows; the upper-story windows are surrounded by flame-finished granite panels, which give the impression of depth. When 1675 Broadway was constructed, the theater's air rights were used to increase the height of the office building.
The office building's seventh and eighth stories contain large trusses above the theater, which cantilever the upper stories over the theater at a depth of . There are six trusses spanning the theater from north to south; the largest truss weighs . The office building's ninth and tenth stories each contain of space, while the next ten stories each contain . The upper floors taper to . The building has 35 stories and in total. There was mixed architectural commentary of the current building's design. Although Paul Goldberger called the building "exceptionally handsome, even dignified", another critic described the structure as "unpleasantly monolithic".
Auditorium
The Broadway Theatre has an orchestra, one mezzanine-level balcony, and boxes. According to the Shubert Organization, the theater has 1,763 seats. Meanwhile, Ken Bloom describes the theater as having 1,765 seats; The Broadway League gives a contrasting figure of 1,761 seats; and Playbill cites 1,738 seats. The physical seats are divided into 909 seats in the orchestra, 250 at the front of the mezzanine, 584 at the rear of the mezzanine, and 20 in the boxes. In the early 20th century, the theater had 2,500 seats. When the theater opened, the balcony level was carried by a girder, supported solely by the side walls. This allowed the entire theater to be a column-free space.
The Broadway Theatre was decorated ornately with marble and bronze. The color scheme was largely composed of gold, white, bronze, and gray decorations. One critic described the theater as having pink and gold decorations, crystal lighting, and soft carpets. In the mid-20th century, the theater was repainted in a blue color scheme, which set designer Oliver Smith likened to "a coal mine". Smith redecorated the theater in a reddish color scheme in 1986, since he felt red was the "color that arouses emotion". At the front of the theater was an organ that could be raised or lowered, as well as a projector in the orchestra pit. In the 2000s, the Broadway's orchestra pit was one of the largest in a Broadway theater.
The proscenium opening measures about wide and tall. The depth of the auditorium to the proscenium is , while the depth to the front of the stage is . The stage was originally deep, but it was expanded in 1930 to deep by wide. Following these modifications, the stage also had three lifts. There were dressing rooms for 200 performers, as well as space for up to 50 stage crew members. The Broadway has long been a popular theater for producers of musicals because of its large seating capacity, and the large stage. Successful shows in smaller theaters have frequently transferred to the Broadway Theatre.
History
Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. Manhattan's theater district had begun to shift from Union Square and Madison Square during the first decade of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1920, forty-three theaters were built around Broadway in Midtown Manhattan. Additionally, movie palaces became common in the 1920s between the end of World War I and the beginning of the Great Depression. The Colony Theatre, as the current Broadway Theatre on 53rd Street was originally known, was developed as a movie palace by B. S. Moss, who had previously operated the now-demolished Broadway Theatre on 41st Street.
Development and early years
In 1923, the Neponsit Building Company acquired the five-story Standard Storage Warehouse and three dwellings at the corner of Broadway and 53rd Street. That July, Eugene de Rosa filed plans for a theater and office building on the site, which was to cost $350,000. The site measured on Broadway and on 53rd Street, with a wing extending along 52nd Street. The theater was to be used for vaudeville and films. By mid-1924, Moss was developing the theater, which still had no name. Moss announced in mid-December 1924 that the theater would be named the Colony, and Edwin Franko Goldman was hired to lead the Colony's orchestra. The theater cost $2 million to complete and was originally leased to Universal Pictures Corporation.
B. S. Moss's Colony Theatre opened on December 25, 1924, with the film The Thief of Bagdad. Soon after the theater opened, Moss installed an automated air-cooling system in the theater. The Colony began screening movies during early mornings in October 1925, starting with The Freshman. In its early years, the Colony screened Universal films such as Friendly Enemies, A Woman's Faith, The Flaming Frontier, and The Cat and the Canary. Additionally, the theater hosted a weekly "lingerie revue" with fashion models. Moss left the vaudeville business in late 1927, retaining the Colony as his only theater.
In early 1928, WABC announced that it would begin broadcasting concerts from the venue on Sundays. After the film We Americans flopped in April 1928, the Colony closed temporarily, and Moss considered leasing it for vaudeville. Theatrical operator Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. was negotiating to lease the Colony that June, but he initially balked because he considered the $225,000 annual rent to be too expensive. By that August, Ziegfeld had tentatively agreed to lease the Colony for musical productions and renovate the theater. Meanwhile, the Colony resumed screenings during late 1928. Among those were Steamboat Willie, screened that November as the first Mickey Mouse cartoon to be released to the public, and a documentary about the New York Stock Exchange, screened that December.
Alternating live shows and film
1930s
Moss took back the Colony Theatre in February 1930 and announced that he would begin hosting musicals there. He expanded the Colony into an adjacent parcel; according to The New York Times, "the theatre was gutted until only its four walls remained." The auditorium was also expanded to 2,000 seats. The venue became Moss's Broadway Theatre, since that name had been freed up by the demolition of the old Broadway Theatre on 41st Street. The Broadway's first legitimate show, The New Yorkers by Cole Porter, opened on December 8, 1930; at the time, it was the largest Broadway theater. Moss claimed that the theater would only host shows with "a price scale that is within the reach of every man's pocketbook", but tickets for The New Yorkers cost up to $5.50, which during the Great Depression was unaffordable for many people. The New Yorkers closed in May 1931, after which the theater stood dark for several months.
In September 1931, Moss announced that he would simultaneously present musical revues and talking pictures at the Broadway for twelve weeks. The theater then reverted to live shows. Moss sold the theater in July 1932 to Amalgamated Properties Inc. The same year, Earl Carroll took over the theater, which was renamed Earl Carroll's Broadway Theatre. The Broadway hosted The Earl Carroll Vanities, which featured Milton Berle, Helen Broderick, and Harriet Hoctor and ran for 11 weeks. By February 1933, Associated Artists Productions was hosting an opera series at the Broadway. Stanley Lawton then leased the theater, and the Broadway began showing vaudeville that November. The theater once again hosted opera performances in 1934. The Broadway's next legitimate show was the operetta The O'Flynn, which opened in December 1934 and closed after a week. The Broadway Theatre was leased to the Chasebee Theatre Corporation in August 1935 as part of a receivership proceeding against the Prudence Company.
The theater then switched once more to showing films, reopening as B. S. Moss's Broadway Theatre on October 12, 1935. The Broadway screened double features accompanied by short stage shows. The vaudevillian Gus Edwards leased the Broadway in March 1936 and renamed the theater Gus Edwards' Sho-Window. Edwards began showing vaudeville at the Broadway the next month, but it only lasted for two weeks. The Nuvo Mondo Motion Pictures Corporation then leased the Broadway Theatre in February 1937. The venue was renamed the Ciné Roma and began showing Italian films. Lee Shubert and Clifford Fischer took over the Broadway Theatre in December 1939, renovating the theater to accommodate the Folies Bergère revue, which only ran until February 1940.
1940s and early 1950s
The Broadway then hosted long-running musicals that had transferred from other theaters, beginning with Rodgers and Hart's Too Many Girls in April 1940. To raise money for British soldiers during World War II, Walt Disney showed his feature film Fantasia in November 1940; it was the first Disney film rendered in Fantasound, an early stereo system. This was followed in 1942 by the Irving Berlin musical This Is The Army; a season of productions from the New Opera Company; and a transfer of the comedy My Sister Eileen. In 1943, the Broadway hosted the musical Lady in the Dark, the operetta The Student Prince, and performances by the San Carlo Opera Company in repertory. The same year, theatrical operator Michael Todd reneged on a plan to lease the Broadway, and the Yaw Theatre Corporation took over the theater. The Shubert family's Trebuhs Realty Company acquired the Broadway in July 1943. That December, Billy Rose brought his operetta Carmen Jones to the Broadway Theatre; it ran for 503 performances.
The play The Tempest and the musical Memphis Bound! had brief runs in 1945, followed by a transfer of Up in Central Park that June, which lasted nine months. In mid-1946, the Shuberts acquired the plot at the corner of Broadway and 53rd Street; the theater building had already been extended into the corner lot, but that part of the theater had previously been leased from the landowner. Also in 1946, the Broadway hosted transfers of the operetta Song of Norway and the play A Flag Is Born; a season of ballet; and Duke Ellington and John La Touche's musical Beggar's Holiday. After Beggar's Holiday closed in March 1947, United Artists leased the Broadway as a movie theater for one year. The Cradle Will Rock relocated to the Broadway in early 1948, followed the same year by a limited repertory engagement by the Habimah Players, a three-week concert series, and a transfer of High Button Shoes. The Spanish revue Cabalgata opened at the theater in July 1949, running for three months.
The Katherine Dunham Company performed at the Broadway in 1950, followed by Olsen and Johnson's musical Pardon Our French, which flopped after 100 performances. In 1951, the Broadway hosted transfers of the musical Where's Charley? and the play The Green Pastures, as well as a limited engagement of the musical Oklahoma!. Mae West's Diamond Lil had a brief run later that year. It was followed in early 1952 by Kiss Me, Kate, ANTA's version of Four Saints in Three Acts and the all-Black revue Shuffle Along. Lee Shubert leased the theater in mid-1952 to Cinerama Productions, which added a wide screen for Cinerama films. The Broadway reopened as a Cinerama theater on September 30, 1952, with the film This Is Cinerama, which transferred to the Warner Theatre in February 1953. The venue returned to legitimate use in June 1953, hosting the final performances of the long-running musical South Pacific.
Exclusive use as legitimate theater
Late 1950s to 1970s
Les Ballets de Paris and dancer José Greco performed at the theater in 1954, and the operetta The Saint of Bleecker Street opened there at the end of the year. The Broadway hosted several live engagements in late 1955, including those by dancer Antonio, the Comédie-Française, the Katherine Dunham Company, and the Azuma Kabuki Troupe. Next was the musical Mr. Wonderful with Sammy Davis Jr., which opened in March 1956 and had 383 performances. The musical Shinbone Alley lasted for one month in early 1957, and The Most Happy Fella transferred to the Broadway later the same year. The Broadway hosted another short-lived musical in 1958, The Body Beautiful. This was followed the same year by Ballets de Paris, the Ballet Español, the Théâtre National Populaire, and the Old Vic. In addition, the Broadway hosted the Bolshoi Theatre's version of West Side Story in early 1959. The Broadway was refurbished before the opening of Jule Styne and Stephen Sondheim's musical Gypsy in May 1959.
The theater hosted several musicals from 1960 to 1962, as well as the American Ballet Theatre in 1961 and Martha Graham's dance troupe in 1962. The musical Tovarich with Vivien Leigh and Jean-Pierre Aumont opened in 1963, as did the Obratsov Russian Puppet Theatre and the Noël Coward musical The Girl Who Came to Supper. The Broadway then hosted the Folies Bergère and the revue Zizi with Zizi Jeanmaire in 1964. The musical Baker Street and the play The Devils were staged in 1965, followed the next year by another musical, A Time for Singing. The Lincoln Center Theater's production of the musical Annie Get Your Gun moved to the Broadway in September 1966, and the musical Funny Girl came at the end of the year. The Harkness Ballet performed at the Broadway for three weeks in late 1967, and the Kander and Ebb musical The Happy Time ran for 286 performances in 1968. This was followed by transfers of the musicals Cabaret and Mame from other theaters.
In late 1969, the Shuberts proposed razing the Broadway and constructing a skyscraper with a theater at its base. The project would use a zoning bonus that allowed office-building developers to erect theaters in exchange for additional office space. The New York City Planning Commission approved a zoning permit for the planned 43-story building in May 1970. The project would include a three-level, 1,800-seat theater as well as a shopping arcade between 52nd and 53rd Street. The Shuberts postponed this plan indefinitely in 1971 due to declining demand for office space. Meanwhile, the musical Purlie opened at the Broadway in March 1970. It was followed by Fiddler on the Roof, which transferred to the Broadway in December 1970 and became the longest-running Broadway show just before its closing in 1972. The theater also hosted the 26th Tony Awards in April 1972. The Broadway was renovated at a cost of $100,000 prior to the opening of the musical Dude in October 1972. The show lasted for only two weeks, and the theater's original layout was restored.
The Chelsea Theater Center's version of the operetta Candide opened in March 1974 and ran for close to two years. The theater's capacity was reduced to 900 seats to accommodate the production. This was followed in July 1976 by a version of the musical Guys and Dolls with an all-Black cast; it lasted until the next February. Greek singer Nana Mouskouri then performed at the Broadway in April 1977. Another all-Black musical, The Wiz, moved to the Broadway in mid-1977 and stayed for one-and-a-half years. The musical I Remember Mama had been booked at the Broadway, but it was relocated to make way for the musical Saravà, which opened in March 1979 and flopped after four months. That September saw the opening of Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice's musical Evita, which lasted 1,568 performances over the next four years.
1980s and 1990s
By the early 1980s, the Shuberts were looking to sell adjacent land, though they did not want to demolish the theater. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) had started considering protecting the Broadway as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The same year, the city government had enacted a law providing zoning bonuses for large new buildings in West Midtown. Following the rezoning, the Shubert Organization leased the Broadway's site to the Rudin Organization, which constructed the 1675 Broadway office building on the site in the late 1980s. The musical Zorba with Anthony Quinn opened in October 1983 and ran for nearly a year. It was followed in November 1984 by the musical The Three Musketeers, which only lasted nine performances. In 1985, the Broadway hosted a revival of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical The King and I; this was the last Broadway appearance of Yul Brynner, who had starred in the musical's original 1951 run.
The Shuberts renovated the Broadway's interior for $8 million prior to the April 1986 opening of the musical Big Deal, which flopped after 70 performances. Elvis Costello hosted a rock concert that October, and the popular musical Les Misérables opened at the Broadway in March 1987. While the LPC commenced a wide-ranging effort to grant landmark status to Broadway theaters in 1987, the Broadway was among the few theaters for which the LPC denied either exterior or interior landmark status. It was also the Shuberts' only Broadway theater that was not designated as a landmark. The theater's exterior was renovated with the construction of 1675 Broadway. The musical Miss Saigon was booked for the theater in early 1990, forcing the relocation of Les Misérables. Miss Saigon opened in April 1991, running at the Broadway for 4,095 performances through January 2001. During the 1990s and 2000s, The Late Show With David Letterman (produced at the nearby Ed Sullivan Theater) often taped pranks in front of the Broadway's 53rd Street facade, which was soon filled with show posters.
2000s to present
The Broadway's first new production of the 2000s was the musical Blast!, which opened in April 2001 and ran for 180 performances. Robin Williams hosted his Robin Williams: Live on Broadway comedy show at the Broadway in 2002, winning several Emmy Awards. The opera La Bohème opened the same year and ran for 228 performances, followed in 2003 by John Leguizamo's one-man show Sexaholix. The musical Bombay Dreams had 284 performances in 2004, and the musical The Color Purple then opened in December 2005, running for 910 performances until early 2008. The acrobatic show Cirque Dreams had a limited run at the Broadway in mid-2008, and Shrek The Musical opened at the end of that year, running for 441 performances.
The musical Promises, Promises was revived in 2010 for 291 performances, followed the next year by the original production of the musical Sister Act, which had 561 performances. Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons also performed at the Broadway in late 2012. Subsequently, the theater hosted Douglas Carter Beane's version of Cinderella, which opened in 2013 and ran for 770 performances over the next two years. The musical Doctor Zhivago had a short run in mid-2015, but a revival of Fiddler on the Roof was more successful, opening at the end of 2015 and running for a full year. Another revival to play at the Broadway was Miss Saigon, which opened in 2017 and ran for ten months. The theater then hosted the Rocktopia rock concert in early 2018, followed the same year by the musical King Kong, which had 324 performances.
The Broadway hosted yet another revival, West Side Story, which opened in February 2020. The theater closed on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the revival of West Side Story closed permanently. The Broadway reopened on April 11, 2022, with the musical The Little Prince, which ran for one month. This was to have been followed in late 2022 by a series of concerts performed by rock band Weezer, but the concerts were canceled in August 2022 because of poor ticket sales. The musical Here Lies Love opened at the theater on July 20, 2023.
Notable productions
Productions are listed by the year of their first performance.This list only includes Broadway shows; it does not include films presented at the theater.
1930s to 1990s
1930: The New Yorkers
1932: Troilus and Cressida
1932: Earl Carroll's Vanities
1940: Too Many Girls
1940: Mamba's Daughters
1942: This Is The Army
1942: Ballet Imperial, The Fair at Sorochinsk
1942: La Vie Parisienne
1942: My Sister Eileen
1943: Lady in the Dark
1943: The Student Prince
1943: Artists and Models (1943)
1943: Carmen Jones
1945: The Tempest
1945: Memphis Bound!
1945: Up in Central Park
1946: Song of Norway
1946: A Flag Is Born
1946: Beggar's Holiday
1948: The Cradle Will Rock
1948: Four productions by the Habimah Players
1948: High Button Shoes
1949: Cabalgata
1949: As the Girls Go
1950: Katherine Dunham and Her Company
1951: Where's Charley?
1951: The Green Pastures
1951: Oklahoma!
1951: Diamond Lil
1952: Kiss Me, Kate
1952: Four Saints in Three Acts
1952: Shuffle Along (1952)
1953: South Pacific
1954: The Saint of Bleecker Street
1956: Mr. Wonderful
1957: Shinbone Alley
1957: The Most Happy Fella
1958: The Body Beautiful
1958: Three productions by The Old Vic
1959: West Side Story
1959: Gypsy
1960: The Music Man
1961: Fiorello!
1961: Kean
1962: My Fair Lady
1962: I Can Get It for You Wholesale
1963: Tovarich
1963: The Girl Who Came to Supper
1965: Baker Street
1965: The Devils
1966: A Time for Singing
1966: Annie Get Your Gun
1966: Funny Girl
1968: The Happy Time
1968: Cabaret
1969: Mame
1970: Purlie
1970: Fiddler on the Roof
1972: Dude
1974: Candide
1976: Guys and Dolls
1977: Nana Mouskouri on Broadway
1977: The Wiz
1979: Evita
1983: Zorba
1984: The Three Musketeers
1985: The King and I
1986: Big Deal
1987: Les Misérables
1991: Miss Saigon
2000s to present
2001: Blast!
2002: Robin Williams: Live on Broadway
2002: La Boheme
2004: Bombay Dreams
2005: The Color Purple
2008: Cirque Dreams
2008: Shrek The Musical
2010: Promises, Promises
2011: Sister Act
2012: Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons on Broadway
2013: Cinderella
2015: Doctor Zhivago
2015: Fiddler on the Roof
2017: Miss Saigon
2018: King Kong
2020: West Side Story
2022: The Little Prince
2023: Here Lies Love
See also
List of Broadway theaters
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Playbill Vault
1924 establishments in New York City
Broadway (Manhattan)
Broadway theatres
Midtown Manhattan
Shubert Organization
Theater District, Manhattan
Theatres completed in 1924 |
4362661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esopus%20Creek | Esopus Creek | Esopus Creek is a tributary of the Hudson River that drains the east-central Catskill Mountains in the U.S. state of New York. From its source at Winnisook Lake on the slopes of Slide Mountain, the Catskills' highest peak, it flows across Ulster County to the Hudson at Saugerties. Many tributaries extend its watershed into neighboring Greene County and a small portion of Delaware County. Midway along its length, it is impounded at Olive Bridge to create Ashokan Reservoir, the first of several built in the Catskills as part of New York City's water supply system. Its own flow is supplemented above the reservoir by the Shandaken Tunnel, which carries water from the city's Schoharie Reservoir into the creek.
The creek, originally known by the Native Americans in the area as Atkarkaton or Atkankarten and by Dutch settlers as the "Esopus Kill", takes its name from the Esopus tribe of the Lenape, who were living around the lower Esopus when the Dutch first explored and settled the Hudson Valley in the early 17th century. The creek's wide valley made it an ideal trading route for the Esopus and other Lenape who harvested the beaver pelts the European traders desired. Later, under the English, it became the beginning point for contentious land claims in the mountains. After independence, the Esopus corridor became the main route into the Catskills, first by road then later by the Ulster and Delaware Railroad, for forest-product industries like logging, tanning and charcoal making. Those industries declined in the late 19th century, shortly before the creation of the Forest Preserve and the Catskill Park made the region more attractive for resorts and recreation, particularly trout fishing. The renewed Esopus also attracted the attention of fast-growing New York City, which was able to acquire land and build the reservoir and tunnel after overcoming local political opposition.
The reservoir divides the creek into an upper stretch, mostly a wild mountain stream, and a lower stretch closer to the Hudson that gradually becomes more estuarine. Above the reservoir, its water quality is closely monitored, not only for its role in the city's water supply but to preserve its local economic importance as a recreational resource. As the upper Esopus is one of the most productive trout streams in the Northeast, fly fishermen come in great numbers to take trout from its relatively accessible banks. Canoeists and kayakers have been drawn to its whitewater, which has also spawned a busy local tubing industry in the summer months. The lower Esopus is mainly an aesthetic and ecological resource, although the estuary at Saugerties is a popular bass fishery.
The Esopus's role in the state and regional economy has led to a concentrated effort to protect and manage it, particularly on the upper stretch. The interests of the various stakeholders have not always converged, particularly where it concerns the city's management of its water needs. Turbidity created by discharges from the Shandaken Tunnel after a 1996 flood led to a successful lawsuit against the city and a state regulation; downstream of the reservoir the city has been criticized for contributing to flooding problems by releasing too much water during heavy rainstorms since Hurricane Irene in 2011. Boaters and anglers have also clashed, and invasive species are beginning to enter the upper creek as well.
Etymology
Historians agree that the first Dutch settlers named the stream for the Lenape band that inhabited its banks. The Lenape themselves may have called it Atkarkarton or Atkankarten, meaning "smooth land" in their language, probably in reference to a meadow alongside the river near Kingston. Lenape use of that name is recorded in 1657; it later became the name of a hamlet in the area.
From the mid-17th century Esopus, sometimes Sopers, was in common use. It was believed to have been derived from seepus, meaning river, in the Delaware languages. The name was not always applied to today's Esopus. Alphonso T. Clearwater's 1907 history of Ulster County recounts that in 1677 the local Native tribes deeded to the English the land between the Esopus, which he identifies as Saugerties Creek, and the Rondout, which he calls the "Groot Esopus". In some other accounts, the es prefix is read as a diminutive, making the name mean "little river".
Another interpretation is that Esopus means "high banks", referring to the stream's history of heavy floods.
Course
The Esopus is usually discussed as an upper and lower stream divided by the reservoir. The upper portion, where most recreational use takes place, has the characteristics of a mountain stream — shallow, rocky and swift, with most of the stream's trout taken by anglers there. The upper portion is itself divided into a "small" and "big" stream by the outlet of the Shandaken Tunnel. Below the reservoir's spillway the stream begins again, becoming flatter, deeper and slower to its short estuary.
Small upper Esopus
Winnisook Lake to Big Indian
The Esopus flows out of artificially created Winnisook Lake, at above sea level the highest lake in the Catskills, on the northwest slopes of Slide Mountain, the Catskills' highest peak in the town of Shandaken, within 300 feet (100 m) of the West Branch of the Neversink River on the other side of the divide between the Hudson and Delaware watersheds, amid expansive forest. At the source it is crossed by a small wooden footbridge, followed by Oliverea Road (Ulster County Route 47), which it immediately begins to parallel through the forest.
The stream's headwaters descend from there northward into Big Indian Hollow, dropping per mile (1.6 km) with an average slope of 13 percent, through its first three miles, a narrow and rocky mountains stream through this section. Along it there are three waterfalls—Otter Falls, and Parker and Blossom Falls below. At first trending westward, away from the road, a half-mile (800 m) below Winnisook Lake it returns to the road's side and receives its unnamed first tributary from the east, draining another of Slide's hollows.
Bending to the west northwest, the Esopus forms part of the boundary of the Big Indian Wilderness Area to its south as it receives Giant Ledge Stream from the north, draining the peak of that name and Panther Mountain, the former meteor crater whose walls determine the creek's upper course. Another half-mile further west, the Esopus receives its first left tributary, Hanging Birds Nest Brook, which drains the north face of Spruce and Hemlock mountains to the south.
From there the Esopus flows due northwest for its next mile, as the valley floor of Big Indian Hollow opens up and some cleared land begins to abut the stream. After the Maben Hollow Brook confluence, it turns west and braids into several smaller channels for , reuniting just before crossing under Eagle Mountain Road. It receives, another eastern tributary, the Elk Bushkill, which drains Fir and Big Indian mountains to the southeast, just south of the Burnham Hollow Road bridge. The Esopus then bends back in a northward direction. Short braided sections return during the next mile, along with gravel bars along the banks.
Bending past more braided sections and bars, the Esopus reaches the small former hamlet of Oliverea 0.6 mi (1 km) further north. Here McKenley Hollow Road crosses, in a section with retaining walls on either side of the channel. Another to the north, the similarly named tributary, carrying water from the steep slopes of Haynes and Balsam mountains to the west, joins the Esopus from the west as the stream's main stem turns northwest, further away from the road, then curving northeast with more bars and braiding marking a wider channel.
Big Indian to the Portal
After of this gently curving course, Hatchery Hollow Brook flows in from the east. With the valley floor widening, the Esopus flows more northward. It receives its last Big Indian Hollow tributary, Lost Clove Creek, from the west where it drains Balsam and Bellayre mountains, just below the Lost Clove Road bridge. At the mouth of the hollow, in the small hamlet of Big Indian, from its source, the Esopus turns east and crosses under New York State Route 28, which it closely parallels all the way to Ashokan Reservoir, at in elevation. At the bridge, it receives Birch Creek, which drains from the small former village of Pine Hill to the west, opposite a large gravel bar, and then bends northward. The former channel of the Esopus cuts this corner, rejoining the main stem at the site of the two streams' former confluence a thousand feet (300 m) downstream.
Through this section it widens through a valley floor with more frequent cleared areas amid forested mountains, meandering gently along the circular route around Panther Mountain, paralleled by Creek Side Drive on its north. Another thousand feet downstream, Fire House Road (County Route 47) crosses, after which the Esopus turns sharply to the north, then northeast at a large gravel bar, for its next mile. At the Millbrook Hollow Brook confluence, it bends eastward, with another northern tributary, Seneca Hollow Brook emptying into the stream a half-mile further along.
The Esopus receives Bushnellsville Creek from the north after a mile, then crosses to the south side of Route 28 at the small former hamlet of Shandaken to the east. Its next half-mile serves as part of the northern boundary of the Slide Mountain Wilderness Area. At Allaben, from Big Indian, it receives Fox Hollow Brook from the south, just east of the Fox Hollow Road bridge, and Peck Hollow Brook from the north 500 feet to the east, opposite another gravel bar. At this point the Esopus drops below in elevation.
The creek begins to bend southward, past Shandaken's town hall, over its next mile to where the Shandaken Tunnel brings water from Schoharie Reservoir into the Esopus from the north, increasing its flow. This point on the stream is known as the Shandaken Portal or just the Portal.
Big upper Esopus
South of the Portal, what is now the "big" portion of the upper Esopus turns southeast after Broadstreet Hollow Creek, with one smaller northern channel remaining closer to the road while the larger southern one bends closer to the base of Garfield Mountain, forming another one-mile portion of the Slide Mountain Wilderness boundary; the two converge at a public parking lot used to put in canoes and kayaks. Three miles (4.8 km) downstream, the creek turns to the south for another mile before turning east where Woodland Creek, the largest right tributary of the Esopus, flows in from the south following the east side of the former Panther crater wall, from its headwaters on Wittenberg Mountain, just east of where Woodland Valley Road crosses. Another in that direction, the Esopus reaches Phoenicia, the first major settlement along its course. Route 28 crosses again just west of where the stream receives Stony Clove Creek from the north, where it drains southern Greene County. The creek widens but remains shallow; the Catskill Mountain Railroad parallels its banks.
The stream bends into a southerly course between Mount Tremper to the east and Romer Mountain to the west. After two miles, more gravel bars and some islands in the channel mark a turn to the southeast. Another mile and a half (2.4 km) downstream, the Esopus receives the Beaver Kill at the hamlet of Mount Pleasant. It then crosses under Mount Pleasant Road and, downstream, Route 28, for the last time above the reservoir, near the hamlet of Mount Tremper. Here flood control measures stabilize the west bank.
The Esopus trends to the south southeast over its next mile and a half to the mouth of the Little Beaver Kill at Beechford, where it leaves Shandaken and enters the town of Olive. The shores get more developed over the next as the stream turns south and reaches Boiceville, its largest settlement since Phoenicia, where NY 28A crosses it at Five Arches Bridge. After a large bend that takes it below in elevation, the Esopus enters Ashokan Reservoir, below Allaben, the end of the creek's upper section.
Lower Esopus
Ashokan Reservoir to Kingston
Four miles (6.4 km) from where it widens into the reservoir, just before Travers Hollow Brook and the Bush Kill drain into it, the main stem of the Esopus flows out of the reservoir's spillway. The reservoir continues for to its spillway near Olive Bridge. The reservoir's eastern section, slightly to the north, is not part of the creek's course.
The Esopus drops below in elevation as it leaves the reservoir. A thousand feet (300 m) downstream the reborn stream crosses under Route 28A again, amid a wide, forested canyon. It turns south, then east again, through Cathedral Gorge past the Ashokan Center on the north, through channelized and widened sections. Narrowing again, after another bend, the stream flows into the town of Marbletown another thousand feet east, also crossing the Blue Line and leaving the Catskill Park.
From there the creek bends to the west northwest, through a narrow gorge, with few structures breaking the forest around it. One mile into Marbletown it widens suddenly and bends to the south as a result of receiving the reservoir's other outlet stream. Gravel bars and some cleared areas on either side, still sloped steeply, mark the next mile of flow almost due south.
Over the next the Esopus bends back and forth through similar terrain, paralleling New York State Route 213 for a thousand feet (305 m) below a steep bluff, to where its valley widens and cultivated fields become dominant in the surrounding landscape. Two miles (3.2 km) to the south, with the channel again widening to , Hurley Mountain Road (Ulster County Route 5) crosses. Another south of that bridge, the stream bends again, reaching the southernmost point along its course at a Marbletown park just above its confluence with an unnamed tributary flowing in from the south. From there the Esopus begins flowing northeast, as portions of the stream are diverted into nearby ponds for the farms that surround it and its riparian buffer on the increasingly level terrain.
After the old ford north of the park at Fording Place Road east of the hamlet of Lomontville, the Esopus starts paralleling U.S. Route 209, meandering slightly as it widens, with farmland on its west, sometimes widening from into pools. Two miles north of Fording Place Road, another tributary, Stony Creek, flows in from the west at the Hurley town line. Another downstream, just past a wide braided bend, Wynkoop Road (Ulster County Route 29A) crosses the channel just east of the hamlet of Hurley and the Hurley Mountain Inn.
North of that crossing, the Esopus bends away from Route 209 through fields, with some braiding and diversions, to the Ulster town line a mile downstream. Here its north bank becomes part of the Catskill Park Blue Line as well, bending east southeast and crossing under Route 209 a thousand feet downstream. It bends to the northeast again, and after another reaches the western corner of the city of Kingston, the largest settlement along the creek, after which it becomes the city's northern boundary.
Kingston to Saugerties
Another downstream, a bridge along the abandoned Ulster & Delaware right-of-way crosses the Esopus. The stream takes a long curve to the north and back southeastward over its next half-mile to where it crosses under the New York State Thruway just south of Exit 19, where the Catskill Park Blue Line leaves the stream to run along the west edge of the highway property. Another half-mile further downstream, Washington Avenue crosses; a state-owned public-access area with boat launch is located on the north bank along Sandy Road 500 feet downstream. After a half-mile with an apartment complex and strip mall on the south side and woodlands on the north of the channel, Tannery Brook empties into the Esopus from a buried culvert just below where Route 28, now concurrent with Interstate 587, crosses the creek for the last time.
A half-mile past I-587, amid woodlands on both sides, the Esopus meanders parallel to the Thruway. Three-quarters of a mile downstream on a meandering course with a narrow channel, the Kingston city line leaves the stream on the east. The meandering creek draws near to the Thruway in a mile and begins to run parallel to it. Just past a turn to the northeast the Town of Ulster maintains another public access area near the ballparks on Buckley Street on the south side of the channel.
The Esopus crosses under Route 209 near Lake Katrine north of that point. A half-mile past that bridge, it receives another significant tributary, the Saw Kill. The riverside is more developed here, with homes and docks on the east bank. The channel narrows to .
A mile north of the Saw Kill, the Esopus bends northeast again and Leggs Mill Road (County Route 31) crosses as the stream descends slightly over a weir and some exposed bedrock. Backyards and docks line both banks over the next half-mile, where the channel widens again to , after which the creek again turns north, the channel narrowing to , and the CSX River Subdivision's freight tracks parallel the Esopus on its east. The stream flows north on a straight course, trending slightly east, for until it receives its last major tributary, Plattekill Creek, from the east at the Saugerties town line. At this point it bends eastward again and goes down Glenerie Falls, a series of five cascades that drop over the course of the next of stream,
Below Glenerie Falls, the Esopus, now below a hundred feet (30 m) in elevation, again turns north, paralleling U.S. Route 9W for a mile through a narrow, steep valley. After Glasco Turnpike (Ulster County Route 32) crosses the 100-foot channel, Route 9W veers off to the northeast, away from the stream, while the Esopus continues north through its narrow wooded gorge, for the next three miles (4.8 km), widening to . Development around the stream is limited to a quarry on the east a mile downstream of the bridge, and then a dead-end residential street on the west bank during the last of the three miles; the Esopus Bend Nature Preserve buffers the east bank.
At the end of this reach, just southeast of the village of Saugerties, the Esopus receives its last tributary, Tannery Brook, from the north, turns east and enters the village. A half-mile of meandering past some marshy flats on the south side, a bridge carries Route 9W and New York State Route 32 over the stream, its last crossing. Below the bridge it flows over Cantine Dam, creating Cantine Falls. It bends north, then south, and returns to the east, as docks and structures abound on either side. After the Esopus empties into the Hudson, north of its mouth in New York City at Saugerties Light, a few feet (1-2 m) above sea level.
Watershed
The Esopus' watershed covers . Most of it is in Ulster County, like the stream itself; the Greene County portion includes most of that county south of the Devil's Path range and its southeastern corner. A very small portion overlaps the Delaware County line west of Pine Hill. The upper Esopus basin, above the reservoir, is with the lower basin accounting for the other .
To the south it is bordered by the combined watershed of the Rondout Creek and Wallkill River. On the northeast is the Kaaterskill Creek basin, with the West Kill draining the Spruceton Valley to the northwest into Schoharie Creek, a long tributary of the Mohawk River, itself the Hudson's longest tributary. On the western boundary, water drains into the East Branch of the Delaware River; the two upper branches of the Neversink, the Delaware's largest left tributary, rise along the Esopus basin's southwest boundary, with the Neversink's East Branch headwaters flowing a thousand feet from the Esopus' source at Winnisook Lake.
The upper Esopus watershed is rugged and 95 percent forested, with 58.5 percent part of the "forever wild" Forest Preserve and protected from almost all harvest or clearing. Three different types of forest predominate: montane spruce-fir boreal forest on the higher mountain summits, beech-birch-maple northern hardwood forest with some Eastern hemlock groves that survived the tanbarking area on the slopes, and an oak–hickory forest closer to the stream's banks. The summit of Ashokan High Point, overlooking the reservoir, offers an anomalous pine-oak heath barren.
Downstream of the reservoir the forests become a mix of the lower two. The floodplain forests are a mix of silver maple and elm; river birch clusters around the banks. Another unusual community, a pitch pine-scrub oak barren, is found on the summits of Hallihan and Jockey hills in the town of Kingston, just northwest of the Saw Kill confluence.
While there is some development clustered along Route 28 next to the stream, there is no significant agricultural use. Among the mountains within it or on its boundaries are 21 peaks over in elevation, including all or part of 16 of the 35 Catskill High Peaks exceeding . Slide Mountain, the highest peak in the range, is also the highest peak in the Esopus watershed at about . It has the highest average elevation of any of the watersheds that feed New York City's reservoirs. Tributaries, named and unnamed, add another of streams to the watershed.
From the reservoir to Marbletown, the lower Esopus is also surrounded by forest. Downstream of that point, its flood plain becomes heavily farmed, with of worked agricultural land, mostly cornfields, abutting the stream between there and the Leggs Mills Road bridge at Lake Katrine. The mountains continue to influence the lower stream, with one High Peak, Indian Head Mountain, contributing to the Saw Kill and Plattekill Creek subwatersheds, much of which remain within the forests of the Catskill Park.
History
The history of the Esopus, like the creek itself, has several distinct eras, starting with a meteor falling on the future Catskill Mountains.
Natural history
The Esopus's upper course was set 375 million years ago in the Devonian period, when the Catskills were still a river delta of low sedimentary beaches and the shallow channels between them to a large inland sea that corresponds to the location today of the Allegheny Plateau. A meteor impact during this time left an approximately wide crater whose walls correspond to the courses of the upper Esopus and Woodland Creek today. Geologist Yngvar Isachsen of the New York State Geological Survey discovered the traces of the meteor impact, including a higher fault density in the bedrock on the Esopus, in the late 20th century.
Later, the crater began to fill in with silt and became a crater lake. As the delta uplifted into a single plateau, the stream bed began to form along the heavily jointed and weaker shale and sandstone above the buried rim of the crater wall. As with the Catskills as a whole the newly forming streams began dissecting the plateau into mountains and valleys. This process led the Esopus, with its particularly deep and wide valley, to fill up its bed with the red clay that clouds the waters of the stream in high water and floods. More recently in geologic time, about 12,000 years ago, the Wisconsin glaciation filled the valley, carving the slopes on its sides more steeply and eroding more sediment into the river. It shaped the lower Esopus as well, as the long glacial ridges closer to the Hudson channeled the stream north to Saugerties after they melted.
As the glaciers melted slowly, they created ice dams and glacial lakes. The most significant of the latter along the Esopus's course left behind the large plain at Shokan. In the 20th century the original lake would be recreated as Ashokan Reservoir.
The Esopus was one of three valleys that trees followed into the Catskills, as revegetation of the mountain slopes took place in the glaciers' wake. First to come were the boreal species, such as balsam fir, that today persist only on the summits of the range's higher peaks. Next were the northern hardwoods, primarily beech, birch and maple species, that dominate much of the Catskill forests today. Last were southern hardwood species, mostly oak, hickory and American chestnut, probably following the Indians as they migrated north. Most of the chestnuts died in the chestnut blight of the early 20th century. Catskill forest historian Michael Kudish found that other southern hardwood species can be found in the Esopus valley all the way to Oliverea, a mile or so below the creek's source.
Prehistory–1704: Native and European use
Human habitation or use of the stream's lower reaches has been recorded as far back as 4,000 years ago. As with many other streams in Ulster County, the Native Americans used the flat flood plains of the lower Esopus for cornfields, and there are accounts of the area around Olive, today inundated by the reservoir, planted as an apple orchard. The Natives did not settle the area permanently, and only ventured into the higher reaches of the valley to hunt as there was less arable land there.
The Esopus would be important to the area's early European colonization. It took its name from the Lenape band that inhabited its banks, some of whom entertained Henry Hudson on his voyage up the river in 1609 after possible earlier contact with fur traders. European traders began plying the river in greater numbers, eventually establishing permanent settlements for the purpose. Dutch settlers established Wiltwyck, today's Kingston, on the high ground between the Esopus and the Rondout in 1649. After the Esopus drove them out of the settlement in two wars, colonial governor Peter Stuyvesant ordered that it be enclosed in a stockade so it would be safer from raids by Indians and the other contending colonial power in the area, the English. The latter took over the New Netherland colony in 1664, taking a more nuanced approach to the native peoples of the area.
The settlement's location above the point where the Esopus came out of the Catskills made it an ideal trading post for Indians responding to the European demand for beaver pelts to make the beaver hats then in vogue. In the later 17th century, with European settlement well established around the eastern Catskills, land replaced fur as the Indian-held commodity most desired by the new arrivals. The English government in London charged local officials with granting large chunks of land on the colonial frontier so that it might be better protected from the French to the north and west, but those officials dallied, only making such grants when they could enrich themselves and their friends in the process. The Catskills and the Esopus Valley, with little land that could be cleared for farming, were not suitable to that end.
1704–1885: Settlement and exploitation
In 1704 a group of farmers in Hurley petitioned the colonial governor, Viscount Cornbury, for some of the undeveloped land to their west along the creek to use as common pasture and firewood, since they were getting squeezed by Kingston to their east and Marbletown to the south. The petition was put off for several years while it was ostensibly being surveyed, and in 1706 a grant of 2 million acres (8,000 km2) was made to Johannes Hardenbergh and a group of investors starting from the same point along the Esopus near Kingston and going out to the Delaware River, taking not only all of Ulster County to the west but much of today's Delaware and Sullivan counties as well. The Hardenbugh Patent, as it became known, is the source of many of the land titles in the Catskills today, although its legitimacy was contested from the beginning, a dispute which continued until after the Revolution, aggravated by inadequate surveys of the region. Encumbrances remained on many properties into the 20th century.
The complications with the land claim delayed an accurate survey of the Catskills until 1885. In the meantime, permanent settlement of the Esopus valley began in the mid-18th century and finished with the establishment of the Slide Mountain post office in 1805. Most of these communities were supported by local forest-products industries: loggers harvested trees for sawmill operators, and furniture makers set up shop nearby. A road, the Ulster, Delaware and Dutchess Turnpike, was improved from an old colonial path that led up the valley and then into Delaware County past Highmount. By the middle of the century it was paralleled by the Ulster and Delaware Railroad.
Timber was not the only product taken from the mountainsides and sent down the valley. Tanners brought up cowhides via those routes to treat in water boiled in hemlock bark, and charcoal kilns were more numerous in the Esopus Valley than anywhere else in the Catskills. Bluestone for city sidewalks and buildings was also quarried out of the hills, and in some cases from the stream bed itself.
In 1877 naturalist Ernest Ingersoll visited the Esopus Valley and wrote about it for Harper's. He took note of the deforestation. "The Esopus, from source to outlet at Saugerties, is a brawling mountain stream, such as the painters go to Scotland to find", he wrote. "[O]r rather it was before the forests on its banks were felled and its waters befouled by refuse from the tanneries, mills, and villages, which, attracted by its bark and lumber, have grown up on its banks." Instead, he found the tributaries relatively untouched, places where he "would seek for the love of them the inmost recesses of the wilderness."
1885–1915: Recreational development
The possibility that silt from eroded Adirondack slopes could clog the Erie Canal had led the state's business community to lobby for the creation of the Forest Preserve in 1885. A legislative maneuver by the Ulster County delegation later that year added the Catskills, relieving the county of property tax obligations to the state on lands it had taken by foreclosure after the tanners and loggers had harvested everything of value and absconded with the revenue. The lands transferred to the state by the legislation were required to be kept forever wild. The legislation became Article 14 of the state constitution nine years later, in 1894, with added provisos that prohibited their sale, lease or any other transfer without a new amendment authorizing such a transaction.
By that era most of the easily accessible woodlands had been harvested. In combination with technological advances in some fields that eliminated the need for the raw materials of the forest, most of the industries that had made such an impact on the region in the early 19th century declined. In their place a new one arose, mountain tourism, giving the newly affluent of the Gilded Age a place to connect with nature and get away from hot cities in the summer months. Bishop's Falls House, run by that family on the Esopus near that feature, was a popular destination, expanded to accommodate 135 guests in 1905, earning the proprietors $3,000 ($ in today's dollars) that summer
One destination resort was the Tremper Mountain House, outside Phoenicia on the slopes of Mount Tremper. During its peak period in the 1880s, it had a small trout pond out front. The house doctor, H.R. Winter, was an avid practitioner and promoter of the new sport of fly fishing, which he believed had therapeutic effects, making "a person for a time forget he ever had any care, business, or anxiety."
Anglers of the era who ventured into the Esopus valley were advised by guidebooks and magazine articles touting the Catskills' trout populations to bypass the main stream in favor of the tributaries, since the Esopus itself was generally too warm for brook trout, the favored species at that time, and still too polluted by runoff from the tanneries. In the 1880s pioneering fish farmer Seth Green advocated the stocking of rainbow trout in streams where the brook trout population was beginning to thin as a result of the fishing pressure, as they could handle warmer water better. Other anglers feared that, if introduced, the more aggressive rainbows would displace the native brooks.
In 1883 and 1884, thousands of rainbow fry and mature fish were stocked in the Esopus between Phoenicia and Big Indian. They soon became the stream's dominant fish, and the Esopus became an angling destination in its own right. Specimens of 3–4 pounds (1.2–1.6 kg) were reported, and some were displayed in tanks at the Big Indian Railroad Station.
Unlike the Beaver Kill and Willowemoc Creek to the south, the development of Esopus Creek as a fishing stream did not result in the establishment of private fishing clubs, with one exception. In 1887 Alton Parker and his friends bought the on the slopes of Slide Mountain where the stream's source was located. They dammed the stream and created the Winnisook Lake, the highest lake in the Catskills, for their exclusive enjoyment. In 1896 the members received William Jennings Bryan, then the Democratic nominee for President, as a guest. His visit attracted much attention locally, with residents lining the Ulster and Delaware's rails to see him and huge crowds waiting to shake his hand at stations
1915–1973: Watershed development
In 1861 the city of Kingston had considered buying the land around Bishop's Falls near Ashokan to dam and use as a reservoir. It dropped the idea quickly since the creek's waters were still fouled by tanning effluents. A quarter-century later it took a second look, and found the waters had returned to their pristine state with the tanneries gone. It eventually developed Cooper Lake on a tributary of the Saw Kill, for its water needs instead, after the privately owned Ramapo Water Company bought the rights.
Twenty years after that, in the early years of the 20th century, New York City's reservoirs in Westchester and Putnam counties were barely keeping up with the growing city's demand. The city's agents looked at land along the Ramapo River on the other side of the Hudson, in Rockland and Orange counties, for new reservoir sites, but found the Ramapo Water Company had gotten there first, and was locking up similar rights in Delaware and Sullivan counties as well. The city balked at rewarding this act of speculative profiteering, and in 1900 engineer John Ripley Freeman, who had worked on the development of Boston's water supply, produced a report for the city on possible future water sources that disparaged the upper Esopus, estimating that without any precipitation or streamflow data to work from, it could provide no more than 100 million gallons () a day, half of what Ramapo had claimed and equivalent to some of the areas on the Ten Mile River, a tributary of the Housatonic that the city was also considering. The soil was less conducive to dam and reservoir construction, precluding the possibility of building larger storage facilities.
After political wrangling the state revoked the company's rights in 1901, whereupon the city's early skepticism about the Esopus, as expressed in Freeman's report, evaporated. The creek's soft water was now held to be its chief virtue, as it would among other things save the city's residents almost a half million dollars a year on soap, by a 1903 report Freeman contributed to. Two years later the state allowed the city to create its own water supply commission and granted it the exclusive right to acquire land in the Esopus and Schoharie watersheds and construct two reservoirs.
Residents in the Esopus valley attempted to block the project, objecting to the dislocation the proposed reservoir would require, forcing out the population of seven hamlets and relocating the Ulster and Delaware. They also noted that both reservoirs would be outmoded in a decade, requiring the construction of more reservoirs, and suggested the city look further north, to the Adirondacks. They feared the dam would fail, and called the project the "Esopus folly".
The state's water supply commission ruled in the city's favor, and once the city began acquiring land most local objections faded because local lawyers, well versed in the tangled history of land claims on the former Hardenburgh Patent, were able to negotiate prices highly favorable to local landowners. The reservoir was completed in 1913 and began delivering its first water to the city via the Catskill Aqueduct two years later.
City engineers had taken note of the tendency of the clays and silts on the beds and banks of the Esopus to cloud the water for long periods of time after heavy rain. To deal with this, they designed the reservoir with two basins. Water from the upper Esopus accumulates in the western basin, where accumulated sediment is allowed to settle. The clearer water near the surface is then allowed to flow into the eastern basin, where the aqueduct begins.
The water releases from the Portal made the sections below it into a whitewater stream with rapids of Class II-III on the International Scale of River Difficulty. In the mid-1960s the Kayak and Canoe Club of New York began holding an annual whitewater slalom near Phoenicia. Later businesses in the hamlet began offering tubing to summer visitors; it has become one of the most popular recreational activities on the creek despite its negative impact on angling and occasional fatalities.
1974–2010: Stream management, flooding problems and city-local conflicts
In the late 20th century, the population of the upper Esopus valley more than doubled. Most of the increase came from residential land use, which has also more than doubled as agricultural use has decreased 80 percent. The newer residents have primarily used the area for second homes.
Clashes between homeowners, recreational users and the city have been resolved with regional stream management efforts that involve all stakeholders, such as local and state government, user groups, and local advocacy groups. These began on the upper Esopus in the 1970s between anglers and the city over releases from the Portal. In the 21st century they began to involve homeowners and their communities along the lower Esopus, asking the city to consider the effect on them in how it manages the reservoir even though they are outside its watershed.
This era of the creek's history began in the 1970s. At the time the city considered solely its own water needs in setting the Portal discharges. Regular anglers knew the stream could change greatly, from a torrent one day to a trickle the next, depending on how the city saw its needs. During the 1974 fishing season, two trout kills along the Esopus that the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) attributed to the Portal discharges led to anger at the city and threats of lawsuits. Angler organizations and other local advocacy groups formed Catskill Waters, an umbrella organization, to fight the city on the issue. In 1976 they were able to lobby the state legislature to pass, over vigorous opposition from the city, a new section of the state's Environmental Conservation Law permitting DEC to regulate discharges from the Schoharie and some other reservoirs.
Catskill Waters and the other organizations, later under the auspices of the Catskill Center for Conservation and Development, next worked to prevent the Power Authority of the State of New York (PASNY) from building a pumped-storage station to feed an nearby artificial lake and hydroelectric plant on Schoharie Reservoir, arguing that it would warm the Esopus too much. The authority responded that it would actually be beneficial for trout, by reducing sediment and moderating the colder temperatures that inhibit the fish from breeding in the early spring. In 1987 PASNY withdrew its application to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to build the project.
Flood control measures were built along almost half a mile of the east bank of the Esopus at the northwest corner of Kingston in the late 1970s, in response to the March 1951 flood that reached an estimated discharge of per second, considered to be the heaviest flooding ever in that reach. The combination of levees and concrete flood walls, along with interior measures like catch basins and a pumping station, was designed to contain flooding up to per second, about 10 percent greater than the 1951 flood. They protect an apartment complex and strip mall immediately adjacent to the creek between what is today Washington Avenue and I-587/NY 28.
In March 1980 the upper Esopus flooded significantly for the first time in years following a heavy storm. Roads were left impassable, including a section of Route 28 at Boiceville, some bridges were damaged or washed away, and many tributaries suffered severe damage. The gauge at Coldbrook recorded a maximum discharge of , breaking a 30-year-old record.
To avoid a federal requirement that it build a water filtration plant that would cost several billion dollars, in 1990 the city instituted stricter rules for the use of its lands in its watersheds, regulations that adversely affected the local economies. This exacerbated tensions between the city and local residents, many of whom had long resented what they considered to be the city's arrogance and lack of concern for them. After seven years of litigation and activism, the Catskill Watershed Corporation was created in 1997 to mutually manage the watershed in the city and the local communities' best interest. It invests and facilitates economic development in the city's Catskill and Delaware watersheds that enhances water quality.
The Portal became an issue between anglers and the city again in the late 1990s. After a heavy January 1996 blizzard was followed by a thaw and equally heavy rain, washing the melting snow into waterbodies along with the runoff, and in the process doing severe damage to streambanks in the Schoharie Reservoir's watershed. The eroded silt and clay washed into the depth of reservoir, where it was then drawn into the tunnel and released into the Esopus. The Coldbrook gauge recorded maximum discharge of , its highest since the 1980 flood. For several years afterward the creek was often so muddy that fly-fishermen went elsewhere to pursue trout, adversely affecting the local economy.
In 2000 the angler advocacy group Trout Unlimited filed a lawsuit in federal court under the Clean Water Act arguing that the city needed a permit if it was going to continue releasing muddy water from the Schoharie basin into the Esopus. The trial court's dismissal was overturned on appeal by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in October 2001. In 2003, on remand, another federal judge assessed a $5.7 million fine against the city for muddying the creek and ordered it to get a state permit. The city duly applied for and received a New York State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) permit effective in 2006.
Another heavy rain struck the region at the beginning of April 2005, delivering over 36 hours; the Coldbrook gauge recorded a maximum discharge of per second, the third worst flood in the stream's recorded history at that time after floods in 1980 and 1951. The Allaben gauge recorded its all-time heaviest flow of , whose recurrence interval was estimated to be 30 years, and the upper Esopus experienced similar effects as it had in 1980, severely impacting the stream's brown trout population that year, since the species spawns in the spring. Unlike 1980, this flood also affected the lower Esopus. The Mount Marion gauge recorded what is still its maximum ever amount at , an 80-year flood and far greater a flow than that seen in any flood event there for almost a century.
Roads had to be closed in the vicinity of the creek, including Kingston Circle, the junction of Route 28, Washington Avenue, Interstate 587 and the offramps from the New York State Thruway. Businesses near the stream had to close, including several hotels, and the Red Cross estimated that 109 houses along the creek were destroyed; some areas reached 100-year flood levels. Five years later, the last quarter of 2010 brought two separate storms that both reached around at Coldbrook, meaning that five of the 11 worst storms in that gauge's history had come in the preceding 30 years.
In the wake of the first storm, in October, the city began releasing turbid water into the lower Esopus from the reservoir for the first time. In the hundred days following the storm and its successor, of dark brown muddy water was channeled down the creek in order to clear the reservoir itself. DEC filed a complaint against the city seeking $2.6 million in damages and a committee of state, local and city representatives was convened to decide on a schedule for future releases.
2011–present: Hurricane Irene and after
The sixth, and worst, storm came within a year, when Hurricane Irene struck the Catskills at the end of August 2011. At the peak of the flooding, discharge at Coldbrook was , its all-time high. More than of rain fell all over Ulster County, and the Slide Mountain weather station at Winnisook Lake recorded nearly a foot (305 mm), a 200-year storm.
The deluge at Winnisook Lake led to concerns after the rains stopped that the dam would burst, which could have devastated much of Shandaken even further; the problem was made more urgent since Giant Ledge Stream had washed out the bridge along County Route 47, cutting the lake and headwaters of the Esopus off from the rest of the town. Many homes and businesses downstream had suffered serious damage from the floods; in Phoenicia the popular Sweet Sue's restaurant was flooded to a depth of a foot, with five inches () of silt. The Bridge Street crossing into the hamlet from the east had to be closed and rebuilt. Further downstream on the upper Esopus, a lightly used bridge at Coldbrook was swept away, along with most of the old railroad trestle near the mouth of the reservoir. Two weeks later, the remnants of Tropical Storm Lee brought another of rain and more flooding to areas still recovering from Irene.
While stream discharge on the Esopus below the reservoir remained below the levels experienced in 2005, floods along that reach did more damage. Farmers whose fields are along the creek's flood plain in Marbletown and Hurley reported that some of their fields were under as much as of water, killing livestock, washing away buildings and ruining crops just as the harvest season began. "I don’t think I have ever seen anything on this scale here in New York", remarked Darrel Aubertine, the state's Commissioner of Agriculture and Markets.
Downstream of that reach, the Esopus did not cause the damage it had in 2005, which has been attributed to the reservoir holding the waters back; only near the Saw Kill and Plattekill Creek confluences was flooding severe. The stream remained extremely muddy for several months afterwards as the city again released water from the reservoir, muddy enough for its bright orange color to be visible in satellite photos used by Google Maps. Ulster County and Riverkeeper, whose complaints about similarly turbid releases earlier that year had led DEC to fine the city $2.6 million, again petitioned for the city to be required to either use the reservoir's release channel or add alum to the water, which it had stopped doing in 2007 due to negative environmental effects. The DEP commissioner said that the county had a choice between "mud or flood", a dichotomy local officials saw as false.
The city's local opposition threatened litigation. Ulster County Executive Michael P. Hein, the first elected to the position when it was created in 2008, was particularly vocal, likening the city to a colonial power in the region. "They have their own police force, their own rules and regulations. They're extracting a natural resource at below-market rates and they use their powers indiscriminately,"
An early version of the city's federal Filtration Avoidance Determination (FAD) in 2013 showed that $2 million had been allocated to deal with the muddying of the lower Esopus, but it was taken out before the final version was approved. The city promised a consent order later that year would separately address the issue; since the FAD only applies to water meant for drinking. It has, but Ulster County would still prefer it be included in the FAD.
In 2017 the city released its draft FAD renewal applications. Some comments on it suggested that major discharges from the reservoir should be prohibited; the city replied that the consent order addressed this issue, which was beyond the scope of the FAD. It also responded to a suggestion that it keep the reservoir below capacity to prevent flooding of the lower Esopus by saying that its water supply needs require the reservoir be at or close to full around June 1 each year.
At the end of that year the state Department of Health granted the FAD through 2027. As a condition of that renewal the city had to build a new wastewater treatment plant for the hamlet of Shokan, in the town of Olive just north of the reservoir. It was also required to continue existing programs that provided for streamside land conservation, best-management practices on agricultural lands, and septic tank installations and replacements at local businesses.
Recreation
Angling
Trout from local streams had been a dietary staple since the earliest days of settlement in the Catskills. The farmers used every means they could, including bait, nets, and even sledgehammers, to catch enough to make sure their families had plenty to eat whatever the outcome of their harvests. By the 1840s the Esopus's trout fishery was beginning to attract anglers from outside the region. Many stayed at Milo Barber's Inn in Shandaken.
Theodore Gordon, considered the father of American dry-fly fishing, did most of his angling in the Beaver Kill, Willowemoc Creek, the Neversink River and other streams of Sullivan County, south of the Esopus watershed. But in 1913, he wrote the construction of the reservoir would give the Esopus "the finest trout fishing in America, if properly treated ... It will be stocked naturally from the Esopus with the rainbow and European trout of the finest quality."
Today the upper Esopus still attracts many anglers who fly-fish for trout, particularly because the state land around it in the Slide Mountain and Big Indian-Beaverkill wilderness areas makes it more accessible than other streams in the region, with a number of public parking areas and stretches where DEC has negotiated public fishing rights on private property. In the late 19th century it became the first place in the Catskills where rainbow trout were successfully stocked, and the population of that fish has since become indigenous to the point that it is considered one of the most productive wild-trout streams in the Northeast. The state augments it with regular stockings of brown trout as well. Because of that species' preference for later spawning dates in the fall, trout season along the Esopus extends until November 30, a month and a half later than most other streams in the state.
The Esopus is the only stream in the county with no minimum size restriction; up to five may be taken per day. Most fish taken are thus less than in length, but in 1923 a brown trout was taken at Chimney Hole just above the reservoir that weighed , a state record that stood for three decades.
Anglers subdivide the upper Esopus into four sections: the small Esopus, from Winnisook Lake to Big Indian, and the three sections of the big Esopus. These are from Big Indian to the Portal, from the Portal to Phoenicia, and from Phoenicia to the reservoir.
Trout, along with walleye, bass and crappie are also taken in the reservoir, where anglers must have a permit from the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) as well as a state license. They must use unpowered boats stored at designated areas along the shoreline and used only in the reservoir. Here there is a 12-inch minimum with a limit of three per day.
The creek's estuary below the dam at Saugerties has also become a popular spot for bass fishing. Several tournaments are held for both largemouth and smallmouths. Striped bass from the Hudson also spawn in the estuarine Esopus, making it a popular spot for them as well.
Boating
Canoeists and kayakers use the stretch from just above the Portal at Allaben to just above the reservoir at Boiceville. They only run the Esopus when the Coldbrook gauge records discharge above , or water levels between , which usually occurs after major releases from the Portal or heavy rains. When it does, the whitewater is sufficient for the stream to reach Class II or III on the International scale of river difficulty; the stretch accounts for nearly 30 percent of the dam-controlled whitewater in New York, ideal for both experienced and beginning canoeists and kayakers.
More regional whitewater enthusiasts have been paddling the upper Esopus since the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission stopped dam releases on Western Connecticut's Housatonic River in 2006, limiting whitewater opportunities there. The Appalachian Mountain Club and the Adirondack Mountain Club each conduct organized whitewater trips during the four release weekends. The KCCNY has its annual whitewater slalom race in early June after one of the former. The American Canoe Association has also held its Atlantic Division Championships there every fall since 1979, and the stream hosted the 1980 U.S. Open Canoe Championship.
The lower Esopus is also attractive to boating enthusiasts who prefer flatwater. Much of it outside the Esopus Bend Nature Preserve is private property; the portion near Saugerties has been open to the public only once a year when the Esopus Creek Conservancy held its annual Decks and Docks on the Esopus fundraiser. Marinas on the estuary in Saugerties shelter craft used on the Hudson.
Tubing the Esopus above and below Phoenicia has long been popular, with about 15,000 people a year taking the float. Since the 1970s, local businesses have rented tubes to visitors, and it has become a major draw to the Catskills in summertime. Some residents complained about its local impact and its negative effect on fishing. Other anglers are not as bothered by tubers, pointing out most tubing takes place during daylight hours rather than the crepuscular times at which trout are most active. The Shandaken Town Board proposed a law in 1983 that would have limited tubing to the lower stretch during prescribed hours, required bathroom facilities and levied a 10-cent surcharge on each rented tube to cover the expenses to the town. It was not adopted, but later the town required a special use permit under its zoning code. That requirement was dropped after one of the tube-rental businesses challenged it in court.
Currently, two companies in the area rent to visitors, who can choose between the wilder but more dangerous stretch north of the hamlet (not recommended for children) or the calmer stretch below it. Tubes are rented only when the stream gauge at Coldbrook indicates a level of .
Hydrology
Water quality
New York's Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) rates the water quality of Esopus Creek in different sections. Most of the lowermost of the stream, from Cantine Dam in Saugerties to the Tannery Brook confluence near Kingston, is rated Class B, suitable for primary and secondary contact recreation and fishing. Weed growth along the banks between the mouth and the dam has led DEC to downgrade that reach to Class C, with limited recreational prospects.
From Tannery Brook to the Ashokan Reservoir dam, the Esopus remains Class B, albeit slightly impacted, with equivalent weed growth in many portions. The releases from the reservoir, and the stream's low gradient, are also seen as factors. The reservoir itself is considered impacted, due to pollution from atmospheric mercury, but not to levels that affect its use for drinking water, since mercury does not dissolve much in water. Phosphorus is also present, but within acceptable levels. Those pollutants have resulted in the state's Department of Health issuing an advisory to anglers that they should eat no more than one smallmouth bass over long taken from the reservoir per month.
The stretch of the upper stream from the reservoir to the Portal at Allaben is rated Class A by DEC due to its use as a trout fishery. It is also considered impacted due to the turbidity of the waters released from the tunnel as well as Stony Clove Creek and Broadstreet Hollow Brook. From Allaben to Winnisook Lake the upper Esopus is class C water due to emissions from Pine Hill's wastewater treatment plant via Birch Creek. DEC's assessments found that the stream does have thriving aquatic life.
Discharge
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) maintains five stream gauges along Esopus Creek. The station in Coldbrook, upstream from Ashokan Reservoir, had a maximum discharge of per second on August 28, 2011, as Hurricane Irene passed through the area. Minimum discharge has not been recorded. In 2019 it averaged per second.
Two more stations are further upstream. The one in Allaben, in operation since 1963 between Fox Hollow and Peck Hollow creeks, had a maximum discharge of per second on August 28, 2011, during Irene and a minimum discharge of per second in September 1983. It recorded an average flow of in 2019. A station at the Lost Clove Road bridge near Big Indian has been in operation since 2016. It recorded a maximum discharge of per second in August 2018, and a minimum of per second in October 2016; average discharge in 2019 was per second.
Downstream, there are two more stations. Lomontville, in operation since 2013, below the spillway, had a maximum discharge of per second in September 2015 and a minimum discharge of per second in October 2014. Its 2019 average flow was per second. Mount Marion, at the Glasco Turnpike Bridge between Kingston and Saugerties, recorded its maximum during the 2005 flood, with a minimum of coming in 1999. Average flow for 2019 was per second.
During Irene, up to of rain fell in some locations of the watershed over a 12-hour period. Streamflows on the creek met or surpassed the 100-year flood levels. On the upper Esopus, floodwaters filled the streets of Boiceville and Phoenicia, destroyed homes in Mount Tremper, and washed out numerous roads and bridges in Oliverea. In the 2005 flood, to almost fell in some locations, including at the Slide Mountain station near Winnisook Lake. This along with that fell a few days before produced extensive flooding on the Esopus. The DEP recorded over of rainfall at Ashokan Reservoir. The Federal Emergency Management Agency studied 25 sites along the Esopus, and found that most sites were near the 50-year flood level. The peak level at Bushnellsville Creek in Shandaken surpassed 100-year levels.
Turbidity
In 2014 the USGS released a report on turbidity in the upper Esopus, both above and below the Portal, in light of the ongoing controversy between the city's DEP and local communities over it. The study took in data both from in situ instruments on the creek and the analysis of samples in the laboratory over the three years prior, the former of which it found better at measuring suspended sediment concentrations (SSC) in the water. Instruments were placed both on the Esopus and several tributaries above the reservoir.
The study sought to determine if it was possible to discern what the sources of turbidity in the Esopus might be, and if possible what those sources were. It found that Stony Clove Creek was the largest source of turbidity and suspended-sediment concentration, accounting for more turbidity than the rest of the upper Esopus watershed combined, with those two quantities varying directly with each other and also correlating with discharge. Those loads were markedly higher in 2012, which the authors attributed to the work done to channelize that stream near its mouth in Phoenicia that year in the wake of the flooding caused by Irene. Woodland Creek, which also empties into the Esopus at Phoenicia, was the second-largest source.
Another USGS study, in 2015, considered what effect the turbidity might be having on fish populations in the upper Esopus. The authors collected data from 18 reaches, 10 on tributaries from the Birch to the Little Beaver Kill, and the others on the main stem from Oliverea to Boiceville annually between 2009 and 2011, primarily counting the brown trout, rainbow trout, slimy sculpin and cutlips minnow. They found some effects downstream of the portal, such as lowered density and biomass, but none significant and none that they considered negative. Another 2015 study, that took in the effect of the Irene-induced floods found that rainbow trout were the only species in the stream to have been negatively affected by them, for at least two years after the storm, although populations had been trending down for two years before. A fourth study that year which also considered that species population found that that species' density and biomass were higher in the upper Esopus than they had been since before 2010.
The USGS station along the creek near Mount Marion, between Kingston and Saugerties, collects turbidity data every 15 minutes. The maximum daily SSC mean was 439 mg/L in July 2014, and the minimum was 1 mg/L over four days seven months later. In September 2015 the maximum and minimum daily suspended sediment discharge was recorded: 6,200 tons () on September 30, and 0.23 tons () on September 8–9, respectively. Since 2013 the Lomontville station, above Kingston along the lower stream, has also been collecting turbidity data. Its maximum daily mean for SSC was 210 mg/L in March 2014, and the minimum was less than 1 mg/L on many days from 2014 to 2015. Maximum daily suspended sediment discharge was 770 tons () on September 30, 2015, and the minimum was .01 ton () in October 2014 and May 2015, respectively.
In 2011 a study of the lower Esopus found no significant effect on benthic macroinvertebrates (BMI) at several points in the stream over the previous four years, the period when complaints about the turbidity caused by the reservoir releases began. Samples were taken both under normal flow conditions and storm discharges. In addition to BMI, they showed no effect on other metrics such as turbidity, total dissolved solids or dissolved oxygen that correlated to distance from the reservoir. A 2019 study of the BMI population in the upper Esopus found that although it had declined severely after the floods from Irene and Lee, it had mostly recovered within a year.
Geology
Bedrock of the upper Esopus is generally sedimentary rock of the middle to late Devonian period, deposited when today's Catskills were a river delta and alluvial plain 360-390 million years ago. The stream's uppermost headwaters are underlain by bedrock of the Slide Mountain Formation, a Frasnian cross-bedded yellowish-gray conglomerate layer with quartz pebbles found at the uppermost in the Catskills. It is the youngest of the sediment layers in the mountains, deposited shortly before the entire region uplifted to form the dissected plateau it is today.
Not far below Winnisook Lake, the Slide Mountain formation gradually gives way to the Upper Walton Formation, characterized by gray and greenish-gray fine-grained sandstone with some pebbles like those seen in the stratum above. The Upper Walton soon gives way, by the point the creek receives Giant Ledge Stream, to the Lower Walton, with fine-grained sandstone and some gray shale. This layer remains the Esopus's bedrock all the way to the Bushnellsville Creek confluence.
At that point the Oneonta Formation takes over for the rest of the upper Esopus. The Oneonta's bedrock is more coarse-grained cross-bedded lighter gray sandstone with some red shale beds. Siltstones and claystones are also present.
Below the Ashokan Reservoir, the Catskill sediments continue to underlie the lower Esopus, this time in the form of the region's lowest and oldest layer, the Givetian Plattekill Formation. It is characterized by grayish-red claystone and shale interbedded with medium dark gray shale and cross-bedded sandstone.
Just above its bend to the northeast at Marbletown, the Catskill sediments end, giving way to the limestone underneath the broad flood plains to Kingston. This reach continues north of the city, with oxbow lakes and meander scroll indicating the occurrence of many active floods in the recent past. North of Leggs Mill Road the bedrock changes again to tightly folded shale as the Esopus drops through a fault at Glenerie Falls and into the narrow valley, itself a fault between shale and the limestone layers on the adjoining ridges, that takes it to its mouth at Saugerties.
The Esopus's surficial geology reflects the effect of past glaciations on the Catskills. It begins with glacial till covering the bedrock at the stream's steep uppermost reaches, giving way to kame deposits on the north bank for another short stretch and then till again. At Allaben outwash sand and gravel takes over. The streambed rocks are generally imbricated, keeping them stable except in heavy floods.
Below the reservoir, the outwash gives way in some areas to sand barrens. The fertile soils of the many farms alongside the creek characterize the surface of the floodplain reach. The lower reach, once part of the glacial Lake Albany, still has the clays and silt from its days as a lake bottom.
Conservation and management
The upper and lower Esopus have different conservation and management issues as a result of the reservoir's intervention. Management of the upper stream is more hands-on due to its major role in New York City's water supply system, its importance as a recreational resource and its location amid the Forest Preserve. Below the reservoir it is not a source of drinking water, and its surrounding land is more heavily farmed. Conservation efforts on that stretch primarily focus on its aesthetic and ecological role.
Upper Esopus
The upper Esopus, located within both the Catskill Park and the New York City watershed, is closely monitored by both the state DEC and the city DEP. Between the DEC's Forest Preserve holdings, city-owned buffer lands and privately held forested parcels, 99 percent of the land in the upper watershed is forested. Trout fishermen are also active through groups like Trout Unlimited in working to keep the creek's water clean, although their interests sometimes clash with the city's.
According to the 2007 Upper Esopus management plan compiled by DEP, the Cornell Cooperative Extension and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for the Ashokan Watershed Stream Management Program, a joint program run by DEP, Cornell and the Ulster County Soil and Water Conservation District, water quality in that part of the stream is generally good. Property owners and other stakeholders in the stream expressed concern about flooding risks and attendant erosion problems. The plan did not find any evidence that floods have become more common in the last century (before Hurricane Irene four years after the report, the record flood for the stream occurred in 1980, with discharges of recorded above the reservoir and was calculated to be a 40-year flood), despite two heavy floods in the preceding decade. It recommends that new construction on the creek's flood plain be avoided wherever possible and that flood control measures and warning systems be improved along the length of the upper creek.
The Portal's effect on the creek's fishery is a continuing source of friction. For a long time after its construction it was believed to have a positive effect on the trout, but after the floods of 1996 some fishermen began complaining that the waters from Schoharie have been too turbid and warm (some calling it "Yoo Hoo Creek"), with the rainbow trout population declining as a consequence. New York's Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) says it has found no sign of that, but in 2000 the Catskills chapter of Trout Unlimited, Riverkeeper and some other groups sued the city, arguing the Portal releases into the creek violated the federal Clean Water Act. After lengthy litigation the city was eventually required to get a state permit for the discharges. Environmental groups have said the problems would be solved if the Schoharie, like all the other city reservoirs, had a multi-level discharge structure, allowing water to be taken from the less turbid surface as well as the cooler depths.
Boater and tuber user groups depend on releases from the Portal, which can add up to to the creek's flow, to make those activities possible. Their interests also sometimes differ with the stream's angling community on the question of large woody debris (LWD), such as trees or limbs loosened from the banks during floods. Those usually come to rest in the stream, sometimes at bridge abutments, creating habitat for trout and other aquatic life but creating navigational hazards. In 2002 a kayaker and tuber were killed in separate instances as a result of LWD in the stream; both deaths led to lawsuits against property owners. The management plan has recommended clarifying the liability issues.
Riparian buffers are another issue to be addressed. Most of the upper Esopus has at least 100 feet (30 m) of buffer on either side, but there are portions with or less and have no buffer at all, with revetments shoring up the sides next to the highway or the railroad. The buffers are mostly closed-canpoy floodplain forests, with mowed lawns making up the remainder.
Invasive species
In recent years colonies of Japanese knotweed, an invasive species, have been observed along the banks and in buffer areas. They are considered detrimental to the stream's health since they do not provide shade, are less effective at controlling erosion and, since they grow in thick clusters, impede access to the stream.
Oriental bittersweet, a vine which kills the trees in buffer forests by wrapping itself tightly around them, has also been observed in some areas. The stream management plan recommends that a comprehensive plan be developed for controlling and eradicating both species, and any others that may be found in the future.
In 2009, the invasive species problem in the buffers was complicated further by the confirmed arrival of Didymosphenia geminata, an algae species commonly referred to as "rock snot", in the creek's waters between Shandaken and the reservoir. It was the third stream in the state where it has been found, after Batten Kill in Washington County and the East and West branches of the Delaware River in Delaware County, just to the west of the Esopus valley. The species can clog water intakes but poses no threat to human life. Trout are more at risk because it often grows over river bottoms, smothering the insect hatches they depend on as a food source. There is no way at present to eradicate the species; the state has instead advised fishermen to thoroughly clean and disinfect their waders after trips in order to slow its growth and prevent it from reaching other streams.
Research done by the USGS's New York Water Science Center in 2015 found that D. geminata had not appeared to impair the creek's fishery and aquatic life in general significantly, based on periphyton samples taken from 6–20 locations along the upper Esopus on five occasions during 2009–10. The algae was most abundant during that period at sites just downstream from the Portal. The authors speculated that the suspended sediment and phosphates in the water may limit blooms.
Lower Esopus
Conservation and management efforts in the lower Esopus are not as coordinated as they are in the upper stream, and there is no stream management plan. Most efforts have been spearheaded by local municipalities. In the wake of the 2005 flood, the towns of the lower Esopus and the city of Kingston began holding an annual Esopus Creek Lower Basin Watershed Conference. One of its chief concerns was the effects of that flood on the region: it took some farmers several months to recover.
Much of the farmland affected by the flood was located in the town of Marbletown, first along the stream's lower course. Silt and other eroded materials piled up on the land and had to be removed, and some of the farmland was lost permanently. Marbletown has planned to work with its farmers to acquire development rights to at least outside the creek's flood plain, which cannot be developed, and further protect the rare plant and animal communities along the creek in addition to minimizing the effect of any future floods.
Flooding concerns in the lower Esopus have also led to criticism of the DEP for maintaining the reservoir at capacity levels that may be higher than necessary, requiring releases during periods of heavy rain that aggravate flooding. In 2010 the city began implementing new computer software that more closely monitors water levels in all its reservoirs as well as data that allows it to estimate near term water availability. Local officials praised the move but said they would keep working for DEP to be more conscious of its impact on downstream property owners.
Further downstream, in the Saugerties area, conservation efforts have been led by the Esopus Creek Conservancy, a non-profit organization that works to conserve the landscapes and ecosystems around the creek. It was created in 1999 from a local citizen's efforts to protect a section of creekside property from development. Five years later, with the help of the Catskill Center for Conservation and Development, the land was purchased and the conservancy formed. It is now the Esopus Bend Nature Preserve, just outside the village of Saugerties, that protects a long stretch of crucial habitat along the south shore of the creek. Trails within it lead to views over the creek to the Catskill Escarpment beyond. Nevertheless, in January 2013 the EPA directed the state to act on the muddy lower Esopus, which it classified as "impaired".
In 2007, the Lower Esopus Watershed Partnership (LEWP), a coalition of several municipalities, was founded "to foster appreciation and stewardship of the Lower Esopus Watershed."
Tributaries
Birch Creek
Bushnellsville Creek
Elk Bushkill
Fox Hollow Brook
Giant Ledge Stream
Hanging Birds Nest Brook
Hatchery Hollow Brook
Seneca Hollow Stream
Maben Hollow Brook
McKenley Hollow Brook
Lost Clove Creek
Shandaken Tunnel
Peck Hollow Creek
Broadstreet Hollow Creek
Woodland Creek
Stony Clove Creek
Beaver Kill
Little Beaver Kill
Bush Kill
Saw Kill
Plattekill Creek
Tannery Brook (Saugerties)
Tannery Brook (Kingston)
Stony Creek
See also
List of fly fishing waters in North America
List of rivers of New York
Notes
References
External links
Esopus Creek Conservancy
Upper Esopus Creek Stream Management Plan
Conservation Plan
Rivers of New York (state)
Tributaries of the Hudson River
Catskill/Delaware watersheds
Rivers of Ulster County, New York |
4362738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%20Cuddy | Lisa Cuddy | Lisa Cuddy, M.D., is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama House. She is portrayed by Lisa Edelstein. Cuddy was the dean of medicine of the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Teaching Hospital in New Jersey. Cuddy quit her job after the events of season seven's finale "Moving On".
Storylines
Cuddy's job title in House is Dean of Medicine and Hospital Administrator. She is Jewish, and has a mother and one sister; her father is dead. She began dreaming of becoming a doctor when she was 12, graduated from medical school at age 25 as second best in her class, and became the first female and second youngest Dean of Medicine at the age of 32 (she was actually 29 but she added three years to her age in order to seem more mature to the Selection Committee). Cuddy attended the University of Michigan, where she first met Gregory House (Hugh Laurie), and with whom she shared a one-night stand.
After hiring House to run the hospital's Diagnostics Department, Cuddy began setting aside $50,000 a year from the hospital's budget for potential legal expenses. When, during Season 1, the new Chairman of the Board Edward Vogler (Chi McBride) tries to have House fired for refusing to kowtow to his demands, Cuddy urges the board to save House and remove Vogler instead, losing the $100 million donation he had made to the hospital. In Season 2, it is revealed that Cuddy is trying to conceive a child. House agrees to administer the twice-daily injections necessary for her to undergo in-vitro fertilization and to keep the matter secret. In Season 3, Cuddy confesses to the hospital's Head of Oncology and House's best friend Wilson (Robert Sean Leonard) that she has made a total of three attempts at impregnation, one of which was miscarried. She is hurt when House, who was going through Vicodin withdrawal, tells her it is a good thing she has failed to become a mother, as she would suck at it. When House's career is threatened by Detective Michael Tritter (David Morse), Cuddy falsifies documents and perjures herself in court to cover up his wrongdoing.
Cuddy questions whether House has a romantic interest in her when he interrupts her repeatedly during a blind date. When Wilson takes Cuddy to the theatre and later to an art exhibition, House intervenes in an attempt to prevent Cuddy from becoming Wilson's fourth wife. In Season 5, Cuddy reveals that she is adopting a baby girl, to be named Joy, and then is devastated when the birth-mother decides to keep the baby. House consoles her, and the two share a passionate kiss. Cuddy professes not to want a relationship with House but is touched when he has her old desk from medical school brought out of storage for her when her office is renovated. In episode "Joy to the World", Cuddy becomes a foster mother and potential adoptive mother to a baby girl she names Rachel. She initially struggles with motherhood, revealing to Wilson that she feels nothing for Rachel but soon begins to bond with her. In episode "Under My Skin", Cuddy helps House detox from Vicodin; and the two sleep together. In the following episode, the Season 5 finale "Both Sides Now", this is revealed to have been a hallucination on House's part: in reality, he spent the evening alone and is suffering from psychiatric problems as a result of Vicodin and emotional trauma.
Throughout Season 6, Cuddy is busy with her adopted daughter and is in a relationship with a private investigator, Lucas, who was hired by House to spy on Wilson at the start of Season 5. She cared for House after he goes through rehab for Vicodin. After sensing romantic feelings from House, Cuddy tells House that she would like to be friends; but he refuses, quoting that is the "last thing he wants". In the Season 6 finale "Help Me", House gives Cuddy an antique medical text written by her great-grandfather, which prompts her to confess that she and Lucas were engaged. Cuddy, House and House's team go to Trenton to help victims where a crane collapsed on a building. House finds a woman named Hannah who is trapped under a mountain of rubble. The first responders and Cuddy both tell House that Hannah's leg needs to be amputated for a chance of survival. House and the girl refuse for this to happen. House and Cuddy later get in an argument over it. Cuddy claims that the reason why he is refusing is because he is bitter over her engagement and what he went through with his leg years ago. During their argument, Cuddy tells him that she doesn't love him and to move on. House then decides to amputate Hannah's leg. Afterwards she is sent to the hospital but on the way she dies due to a fat embolism, caused by the amputation. With the pain he is dealing with, Hannah's death, and what Cuddy said to him earlier, when House arrives home he rips the bathroom mirror off the wall to get his stash of Vicodin. As he gets ready to take the pills, Cuddy arrives just in time. She reveals to him that even though she was moving on with her life she can't stop thinking about him. She broke off her engagement to Lucas and tells House that she loves him and they kiss. He asks her if he is hallucinating this and she asks if he took the Vicodin. He says no and drops the pills on the floor. They smile and kiss again.
Cuddy's relationship with House progressed throughout most of Season 7. In Episode 15, "Bombshells", Cuddy discovers blood in her urine. After several tests, Wilson finds a mass in Cuddy's kidney and schedules a biopsy to take place later in the episode. Further "imaging shows enhancing masses across multiple lobes of Cuddy's lungs", of which Foreman points out "That's what kidney cancer looks like when it metastasizes". Finally, just before surgery to have the tumor removed, House shows up to support his girlfriend through this tough time. Cuddy realizes at the end of the episode that the only reason House was able to overcome his selfishness was because he had taken Vicodin before visiting her in the hospital. It is here that Cuddy breaks off the relationship with House after confronting him regarding her suspicion of his relapse. In the Season 7 finale, an angry House rams his car into her house. She resigns as Dean of Medicine after this event with Eric Foreman eventually replacing her.
Characterization
Cuddy was created by executive producer Bryan Singer, who had enjoyed Lisa Edelstein's portrayal of a high-priced call girl putting herself through law school on The West Wing, and sent her a copy of the pilot script. Edelstein was attracted to the program's "smart writing", and was cast in the role. The character has been described as "tough-as-nails" by Salon'''s Lily Burana, a woman who "clicks through the halls of the fictional Princeton-Plainsboro Hospital in low-cut sweaters and pencil skirts, bringing incredible Jewy glamour to prime time". The New York Times's Alessandra Stanley has similarly referred to her as the hospital's "comely but by-the-book chief administrator [...] who, like all heads of prestigious teaching hospitals, wears plunging necklines to work." Edelstein, questioned on whether she felt Cuddy's typical attire of tight-fitting, low-cut outfits was appropriate for her position, responded: "She doesn't care what people say [...] She's a television character, and I'm an actress playing a hospital administrator, and I don't want to be in frumpy clothes. I want to be a hot hospital administrator." TV Guide's Nina Hämmerling Smith calls Cuddy a foil for House, who "doesn't take [his] nonsense and knows how to keep him in check — more or less." The Washington Post's Tom Shales has deemed Cuddy House's "nagging nemesis", whose role is "to make House miserable". Discussing Cuddy's characterization in terms of her relationship with House, Edelstein has opined:
Co-executive producer Garrett Lerner has praised Edelstein's versatility in the role when asked to summarize Cuddy, stating:
Development
During the early fourth season of House, Cuddy received reduced screen time as the show focused on House's new fellows. Edelstein revealed that the show would return to its regular format after the season's ninth episode. However, production was halted by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, which delayed the remainder of the season. Edelstein commented: "Cuddy won't be sleeping with House unless we get the writers back. So I'm out there picketing." As a result of the strike, storylines involving Cuddy had to be pushed back into the show's fifth season, as the fourth season ran for a reduced number of episodes.
When Edelstein heard she had to do a strip scene in the episode "House's Head", she called actress Sheila Kelley, wife of Richard Schiff (with whom Edelstein had worked previously on The West Wing and Relativity). Kelley had worked on a movie about strippers long ago and Edelstein asked her for her advice on the choreography of the striptease. On the episode itself, Edelstein commented: "It is very interesting what happens in the first half of the finale in terms of learning about how House sees people and getting the world from his point of view entirely". Before the filming of the scene started, Edelstein showed the dance to Hugh Laurie, who, according to Edelstein, was "incredibly supportive, like a cheerleader". Edelstein commented that after the scene was filmed she, "felt beautiful, and it ended up being a really lovely experience".
Cuddy's desire for a baby paralleled Edelstein's personal life, with the actress explaining: "When the show started, I told the producers that at some point during the run of the show, if it was successful, that I was going to get pregnant one way or another. So they planted that seed in the character's story so it would be possible for me as a woman to experience that." When Cuddy became a mother to Rachel in the show's fifth season, executive producer Katie Jacobs discussed the need for Cuddy to find a balance between her personal and professional life, as well as the impact motherhood would have on her relationship with House: The tension and chemistry are still there. Neither one of them is actively fessing-up to looking for a relationship, but they are drawn to each other. None of the flirtatiousness is going to go away. The stakes are very high for them. The attraction is still there. We are absolutely going to continue that. It's real and it's palpable. And it's who they are.
Cuddy had a difficult relationship with her mother (played by Candice Bergen) after her father passed away. Although they are cordial, they tend to hide things from each other: Cuddy had misgivings about House meeting her mother for a long time; her mother hid an affair she was having for five years.
"Huddy"
The relationship between House and Cuddy is known by the portmanteau term "Huddy". Cuddy has what USA Today's Peter Johnson terms a "cat-and-mouse" relationship with House. Edelstein has described it as "a really complicated, adult relationship", explaining: "These are people who have very full lives and lots of responsibilities that perhaps conflict with their feelings for each other." The actress "would love for them to have a [romantic] relationship, because it could be as complicated as the rest of their relationship", however, she is unsure how it would affect the dynamics of the show. Jacobs commented at the end of the show's third season: "I can't see them pairing them in a permanent fashion. But they are close; they have gone through a lot together. Might there be a moment of weakness in which the two might explore their chemistry? Maybe." Questioned at the end of the fourth season on whether Cuddy and House would ever consummate their relationship on-screen, Jacobs responded: "there is heat and chemistry between them and I never want to see that go away because that is the essence of their relationship. [...] we'll never ignore [their chemistry] because, as I said, it's the very essence of them. She wouldn't forgive him over and over again if he wasn't so brilliant in her eyes, clearly she's got a soft spot for him. And he has one for her. You will continue to see that." Prior to the beginning of the fifth season, series creator David Shore discussed his intention to further the relationship between the two, as: "If House is capable of any relationship with anyone, it's Cuddy. We can't have them dancing around forever." Following the fifth season revelation that House had hallucinated a physical relationship with Cuddy, Shore commented on the storyline's continuation into the sixth season: "it would be dishonest to just let that disappear. Obviously House has feelings for her. Even though the love affair didn't happen, in House's mind it did." Edelstein does not know whether the two characters will eventually end up together, however believes that the combination of frustration and love Cuddy feels for House "makes for a very interesting relationship", as: "there's a great deal of admiration and respect, and also an incredible amount of annoyance and frustration, which is like how most relationships are in your life." At the very end of the sixth-season finale, "Help Me", House and Cuddy appear to have entered a romantic relationship. In the closing minutes of the episode, House came very close to relapsing and taking Vicodin once again, at which point Cuddy entered to tell him that she had ended her relationship with Lucas. She professed her love for House, which led to them kissing briefly. A close-up shot of their clasped hands was the closing shot of the episode, as well as the season. The relationship later ends in the season 7 episode; "Bombshells".
Reception
In 2005, Edelstein won the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television for her role as Cuddy. Following the show's pilot episode, Tom Shales noted in The Washington Post that: "The skirmishes between House and Cuddy could get awfully tired, but by the second episode there are already some provocative wrinkles in what had seemed a simple situation." TV Guide's Nina Hämmerling Smith has deemed the banter between Cuddy and House "one of the best things about the show", while Salon's Lily Burana has declared herself to be on "Team Cuddy" in terms of House's romantic interests. Following the season three episode "Merry Little Christmas", Mary McNamara for the LA Times wrote: "The Avid Viewer was also happy to see the seeds of a romantic relationship between House and Cuddy being sown — that had to be part of the show's original bible because really, who else could survive a romantic relationship with House now that Sela Ward's gone?" McNamara has opined that a romantic relationship between the two "makes perfect sense", as "she is the only one who seems able to accept House as he is, to give almost as good as she gets and to let most of his barbs fall where they may. How Edelstein can play this in a believable way is the point where acting moves from skill to art." When the show underwent a change of format at the beginning of the fourth series, McNamara commented positively on the changing dynamic in Cuddy's relationship with House, noting: gone is the increasingly dull and unbelievable tension between him and Cuddy. (As subordinate/boss, that is. The sexual tension, one hopes, is still in there somewhere.) Cuddy is done trying to squelch him; now she is just shooting for managed chaos. Which is so much more fun because it revolves more around the medicine and less around all the personal pathos of the staff.
However, as USA Today's Robert Bianco noted, when Cuddy and House finally began a physical relationship, in what later transpired to be a hallucination sequence, "It started a firestorm among fans who hated the change in the relationship". Following the pair's first screen kiss, IGN reviewer James Chamberlin opined that the event was "kind of awkward" and "just didn't feel right to me". With regards to Cuddy's season five storylines as a whole, Chamberlin commented: "Cuddy's interest in becoming a mother was something I enjoyed. [..] This plot contained some heart-wrenching moments, particularly when Cuddy had to a take on the case as both a doctor and a potential mother in "Joy." The New York Times's Lisa Belkin has also praised Cuddy's motherhood storyline, citing her as one of few examples of good parenting on television.
Discussing the numerous YouTube fan videos dedicated to the "Huddy" relationship, The New York Times's Ginia Bellafante has assessed: "It is not merely the unrelenting push-pull of the show's writing, but the "His Girl Friday" chemistry between the actors Hugh Laurie (House) and Lisa Edelstein (Cuddy) that inspires otherwise reasonable women to bizarre, time-consuming digressions of fantasy." Bellafante considers herself amongst these women, writing: Shamefully, I would have been overjoyed if the season finale had ended with House and Cuddy electing to spend the summer together in Corsica. This would have betrayed the show's primary covenant—to keep House miserable—and entirely erased its integrity. And yet I would mostly have wondered if House and Cuddy were going to make time for a stop in Sardinia. Following the fifth-season finale's revelation that the consummation of their relationship was a hallucination, Bellafante wrote: "I feel used and manipulated. I feel like a one-night stand who is never going to get calla lilies or a follow-up phone call. I feel hate for the show and I feel begrudging respect." Despite this, it is Bellafante's opinion that: "basically the show went in the obvious right direction, gratifying our base collective urge to finally see House and Cuddy together, not talking about lumbar punctures, in a fake-sex way that didn't ultimately impinge on the show's credibility." She considered: What would we really have done if House and Cuddy had woken up together, if he'd made her waffles, if she had eaten them wearing one of his shirts, if they spent the next day exchanging coy, knowing glances at Princeton-Plainsboro Hospital? Then we would have been watching Grey's Anatomy and we would have experienced not a jump-the-shark moment, but a bungee-jumping-the-Arctic moment. Her conclusion is that: House refuses to buy into the myth that a good woman can save an ornery jerk, and the finale made it clear what a dope you were to even think the show would try. It doesn't want to appease the woman who wants to appease her Harlequin Romance self. It wants to appease anyone who gets ticked off when a romantic comedy shows an accomplished woman in a skirt suit giving it all up for a jobless, slovenly idiot. The House-Cuddy attraction isn't an attraction of opposites. It's an attraction between two highly intelligent workaholics, two people too interesting for anyone else but ultimately unfit for each other—no matter how pathetically we'd like it to be otherwise.
Mike Hale for The New York Times has praised Edelstein's performance as Cuddy in comedic situations, writing: Lisa Edelstein may not be the funniest performer around, but she is without a doubt the best sport in American television: every week the writers of House find new ways to embarrass her and her character, Dr. Cuddy, who is engaged in an excruciating mating dance with Hugh Laurie's Dr. House. Ms. Edelstein somehow manages to maintain her dignity while playing a 40-something dean of medicine who acts like a teenage girl. The fourth season scene in which Cuddy did a pole dance was very positively received by critics, Mary McNamara stated that these scenes "in three minutes earned back the price of TiVo". James Chamberlin stated that he never expected Edelstein to do a strip tease, although he had hoped it.
Lisa Cuddy was elected TV's Most Crushworthy Female Doctor over Remy "Thirteen" Hadley in a poll held by Zap2it''.
References
External links
House (TV series) characters
Fictional American physicians
Fictional female doctors
Fictional American Jews
Fictional Jewish women
Fictional characters from New Jersey
Television characters introduced in 2004
American female characters in television |
4362806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20of%20Windows%20Vista | Development of Windows Vista | The development of Windows Vista began in May 2001, prior to the release of Microsoft's Windows XP operating system, and continuing until November 2006.
Microsoft originally expected to ship Vista sometime late in 2003 as a minor step between Windows XP (codenamed "Whistler") and the next planned major release of Windows, code-named "Blackcomb". Vista's original codename, "Longhorn", was an allusion to this plan: While Whistler and Blackcomb are large ski resorts in British Columbia, Longhorn is the name of a bar between the two mountains that Whistler's visitors pass to reach Blackcomb.
Gradually, Windows "Longhorn" assimilated many of the important new features and technologies slated for "Blackcomb", resulting in the release date being pushed back a few times. Many of Microsoft's developers were also re-tasked with improving the security of Windows XP. Faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on August 27, 2004, that it was making significant changes. "Longhorn" development started afresh, building on the Windows Server 2003 code-base, and re-incorporating only the features that would be intended for an actual operating system release. Some previously announced features, such as WinFS and NGSCB, were dropped or postponed.
After "Longhorn" was named Windows Vista in mid-2005, an unprecedented beta-test program was started which involved hundreds of thousands of volunteers and companies. Between September 2005 and October 2006, Microsoft released regular Community Technology Previews (CTP) to beta testers and two release candidates to the general public. Development of Windows Vista concluded with the November 8, 2006 announcement of its completion by co-president of Windows development, Jim Allchin.
2001–2002: Early development
The early development stages of Longhorn were generally characterized by incremental improvements and updates to Windows XP. During this period, Microsoft was fairly quiet about what was being worked on, as their marketing and public relations focus were more strongly focused on Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003, which was released in April 2003. Occasional builds of Longhorn were leaked onto popular file sharing networks such as IRC, BitTorrent, eDonkey and various newsgroups, and so most of what is known about builds before the first sanctioned development release of Longhorn in May 2003, is derived from these builds.
Most builds of Longhorn and Vista were identified by a label that was always displayed in the bottom-right corner of the desktop. A typical build label would look like "Longhorn Build 3663.Lab06_N.020728-1728". Higher build numbers didn't automatically mean that the latest features from every development team at Microsoft were included. Typically, a team working on a certain feature or subsystem would generate their working builds which developers would test with, and when the code was deemed stable, all the changes would be incorporated back into the main development tree at once. At Microsoft, several "Build labs" exist where the compilation of the entirety of Windows can be performed by a team. The lab in which any given build originated is shown as part of the build label, and the date and time of the build follow that. Some builds (such as Beta 1 and Beta 2) only display the build label in the version information dialog (Winver), and the icons are from Windows XP.
When installing the milestone 2 builds, the OOBE (the setup process) is the same as Windows XP, but with different music.
Milestone 2
Build 3663 (build date of July 28, 2002) was the first known build with leaked screenshots.
Build 3670 (build date of August 19, 2002) where some screenshots of this build showed a variation of the Device Manager implemented inside Windows Explorer. This feature later appeared in Windows 7.
Milestone 3
Build 3683 (build date of September 23, 2002) was leaked on October 20, 2002, and was the first Longhorn build leaked to the Internet. This build was the first of several that had a desktop watermark identifying itself as "Longhorn XP Professional". Visually it was not significantly different from Windows XP. One of the notable changes was that the Windows logo was only white, not colored like all the versions of Windows before it. Also the templates in the My Documents and My Pictures were notably different as well as the Open and Save as dialog boxes also included the template, incorporating aesthetic changes and a few new user interface options. A new "Sidebar" was also present, which contained many of the gadgets that would much later be seen in Windows Sidebar, such as an analog clock, slide show, and search capability. An option in this version of the sidebar also made it possible to move the Start button into it, and disable the traditional taskbar entirely. An early revision of WinFS was also included, but very little in the way of a user interface was included, and as such it appeared to early testers to be nothing more than a service that consumed large amounts of memory and processor time. The "Display Properties" control panel was the first significant departure, being built on the new "Avalon" API. It was the first sighting of the "Plex" style which Microsoft regarded as a place-holder theme for their development versions, until they were ready to demonstrate Aero.
Build 3706 (build date of October 29, 2002) was leaked on May 22, 2006. It was one of the first builds to include the Desktop Composition Engine (DCE), which later became the Desktop Window Manager (DWM). This build appeared on the Internet long after other builds from this period, and included several of the changes that were first reported as being part of later milestone builds, including Internet Explorer 6.05 and the "Plex" theme.
Build 3718 (build date of November 19, 2002) was leaked on April 30, 2004. It included the DCE and some early hardware-accelerated alpha transparency and transition effects. As a demonstration of the DCE's capabilities, programs flipped into the taskbar and twisted as they were minimized.
2003 and early 2004: New technology
Milestone 4
After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Build 4008 (with a build date of February 19, 2003) made an appearance on the Internet around February 28, 2003. It was also privately handed out to a select group of software developers. As an evolutionary release over build 3683, it contained a number of small improvements, including a modified blue "Plex" theme and a new, simplified Windows Image-based installer that operates in graphical mode from the outset, and completed an install of the operating system in approximately one third the time of Windows XP on the same hardware. An optional "new taskbar" was introduced that was thinner than the previous build and displayed the time differently.
The most notable visual and functional difference, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application. The Windows XP-style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars. A new search interface allowed for filtering of results, searching for Windows help, and natural-language queries that would be used to integrate with WinFS. The animated search characters were also removed. The "view modes" were also replaced with a single slider that would resize the icons in real-time, in a list, thumbnail, or details mode, depending on where the slider was. File metadata was also made more visible and more easily editable, with more active encouragement to fill out missing pieces of information. Also of note was the conversion of Windows Explorer to being a .NET application.
Milestone 5
Build 4015 (build date of March 28, 2003) was leaked to the Internet on April 28, 2003. Several features Microsoft had been working on were rolled into this build, such as a range of parental controls, also moved and enlarged the Windows logo to the left side of the Start button a lot of additional configurability for the sidebar (including being able to put it below the start bar at the bottom of the screen), and the notion of "Libraries" (later known as virtual folders) of files. These libraries collected content from around the hard drive. The user could then filter this content and save it in a folder. Microsoft had originally intended to replace all special shell folders (My Documents, My Music, etc.) with virtual folders. However, this change was deemed too drastic and was dropped after Beta 1's release in mid-2005. Libraries were later included in Windows 7. This build was also notable for the debut of the boot screen progress bar that is seen in the final release (though 4015's version was blue, not green). A new Download Manager shell location suggested that Internet Explorer would get a Mozilla-style download manager, though no such functionality was apparent. Significant memory leak problems with Windows Explorer and the Sidebar made this build difficult to use, which resulted in some third-party hacks to mitigate the problem. The back-end database of Outlook Express changed completely and became dependent on WinFS to store its email. WinFS itself still had significant performance and memory usage issues, and so it became common for testers to disable WinFS entirely, thus rendering Outlook Express inoperative.
At the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference (WinHEC) in May 2003, Microsoft gave their first public demonstrations of the new Desktop Window Manager and Aero. The demonstrations were done on a revised build 4015 which was never released. Several sessions for developers and hardware engineers at the conference focused on these new features, as well as the Next-Generation Secure Computing Base (previously known as "Palladium"), which at the time was Microsoft's proposed solution for creating a secure computing environment. Also at this conference, Microsoft reiterated their roadmap for delivering Longhorn, pointing to an "early 2005" release date.
Build 4028 (build date of July 1, 2003) was the first known Server build and was based on Windows Server.NET RC1, which later became Windows Server 2003. Traditional client bits, such as visual style and look, were present but disabled by default.
Build 4029 (Milestone 5 compile; build date of June 19, 2003), was leaked on September 23, 2003. This build contained a few of the technologies new to build 4015. Windows Explorer went through several other changes. Larger image and video previews were displayed in a tooltip when the mouse hovered over a file, column-level filtering of results was introduced, and the overall performance of Explorer was somewhat improved overbuild 4015, though the memory leak issues were not entirely resolved. There was also a new analog clock user interface. Batch image processing of images was also introduced, making it possible for a user to rotate several images at once.
Build 4029's name was displayed as "onghornLay rofessionalPay ersionVay 2003" (Pig Latin for Longhorn Professional Version 2003) in various places around the operating system. While some had presumed that screenshots of this build were fake because of this seemingly obvious mistake, Microsoft later explained that this was merely a test of some new code to locate and reduce the number of places in the operating system code that the name was defined.
Milestone 6
Build 4029 (Milestone 6 compile; build date of June 29, 2003) was similar to the Milestone 5 compile of build 4029 with minor improvements.
Build 4033 (build date of July 17, 2003) was similar to both Milestone 5 and 6 compiles of build 4029, but contained some UI improvements, including an updated Plex theme.
Build 4039 (build date of August 27, 2003) was leaked on August 22, 2007. This build includes Phodeo, a 3D view of displaying photos, and full DWM and glass.
Build 4042 (Milestone 6 compile; build date of September 5, 2003) was leaked on January 23, 2020, and is similar to builds 4040 and 4039. It was compiled four days before the first known Milestone 7 build, thus grouping it as a Milestone 6 build. This was the last build to contain the Plex visual style.
Milestone 7
Build 4042 (Milestone 7 compile; build date of September 9, 2003) was probably the earliest build to include the Slate theme (Lab06) instead of the Plex theme (winmain) seen in the previous builds. However, the Aero glass from Build 4039 was still present. The word "My" was removed from "Computer" and "Network Places", a change that carried over to the final version of the operating system. When Windows Sidebar was enabled, the word "Start" was removed from the Start button—a development used later in Windows Vista.
Build 4050 (build date of September 28, 2003) was shown at TechEd 2004 in Israel and was one of the many 4050-numbered builds used in Microsoft demos, notably in the 2003 Professional Developers Conference.
Build 4051 (build date of October 1, 2003) is the build that was given to the attendees of the 2003 PDC show. It was leaked on October 20, 2003, seven days before the start of the conference. It introduced the Slate theme, which debuted in 4042.Lab06. This build also contained an updated version of Internet Explorer with a version number of 6.05. New features noted by reviewers included a Download Manager, pop-up blocker, add-on manager and a tool to clear browsing history. Except for the download manager, which was eventually discarded, these features all appeared in builds of Internet Explorer included with preview builds of Windows XP Service Pack 2 a few months later.
Build 4053 (build date of October 22, 2003) was leaked on March 2, 2004, and had some minor changes.
Build 4066 (build date of February 26, 2004) was a build that, although identified itself as a "Server" build, contained many of the features only ever seen and associated with desktop builds. An updated version of Phodeo was included, as well as the Sidebar, a Mini-Windows Media Player, and associated sidebar tiles, a functioning build of the Desktop Window Manager and the Jade theme. This build also replaced many XP icons with new Longhorn icons, some of which greatly resemble icons in the final version of Vista. This build was leaked on December 20, 2008.
In May 2004, Microsoft changed its plans to include the Next-Generation Secure Computing Base technology with Longhorn. The technology, better known by its original code-name of "Palladium", had garnered much criticism from analysts, security specialists, and researchers, and was often cited by advocates of non-Microsoft operating systems as a reason to migrate to their preferred platform. Ross Anderson, for example, published a paper, collating many of these concerns and criticisms as part of a larger analysis on Trusted Computing. In light of a large amount of negative response not only from analysts, but enterprise customers and software developers, Microsoft shelved many aspects of the NGSCB project for an indefinite period. The only aspect of NGSCB that was included with the final release of the operating system is BitLocker, a drive-encryption technology which can make use of a Trusted Platform Module chip to facilitate secure startup and protect user data.
Build 4067 (private/lddm_dev_tech(davidmo)) (build date of February 12, 2004) was a private beta shown during the Jim Allchin keynote on WinHEC 2004.
Build 4067 (idx01) (build date of March 12, 2004) was an Itanium-only build that was leaked in July 2021. This build introduced an improved Jade theme, although the Slate theme was retained and was the default. Also, the Segoe UI font was introduced for the Jade theme.
Build 4074 (build date of April 25, 2004) is the official WinHEC 2004 preview build that was leaked in May 2004. This is also the most familiar pre-reset build. It was the first leaked build to have complete Aero effects in Windows Explorer and Internet Explorer from the Desktop Window Manager; however, a registry modification was required to extend the effect into the full UI.
Build 4083 (build date of May 16, 2004) was leaked on November 10, 2004. Sidebar, WinFS and Desktop Window Manager were dropped from this release. Considered highly unstable, including the absence of programs in the Start menu, and driver and installation issues.
Build 4093 (build date of August 19, 2004) was one of the last builds compiled before the development reset. Considered highly unstable, it contained Sidebar, WinFS, and an Avalon-based Windows Movie Maker, a preliminary version of Windows Anytime Upgrade, and the Microsoft Anna speech synthesizer. There was an Avalon-based Display Properties control panel applet hidden in the \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32 folder, similar to the one in Build 3683. There was also an early version of the .NET Managed rewrite of Desktop Window Manager that is not installed by default.
Mid-2004 to mid-2005: Development "reset"
By 2004, it had become obvious to the Windows team at Microsoft that they were losing sight of what needed to be done to complete the next version of Windows and ship it to customers. Internally, some Microsoft employees were describing the Longhorn project as "another Cairo" or "Cairo.NET", referring to the Cairo development project that the company embarked on through the first half of the 1990s, which never resulted in a shipping operating system (though nearly all the technologies developed during that time did end up in Windows 95 and Windows NT). Microsoft was shocked in 2005 by Apple's release of Mac OS X Tiger. It offered only a limited subset of features planned for Longhorn, in particular fast file searching and integrated graphics and sound processing, but appeared to have impressive reliability and performance compared to contemporary Longhorn builds. Most Longhorn builds had major Explorer.exe system leaks which prevented the OS from performing well, and added more confusion to the development teams in later builds with more and more code being developed which failed to reach stability.
In a September 23, 2005 front-page article on The Wall Street Journal, Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin, who had overall responsibility for the development and delivery of Windows, explained how development of Longhorn was "crashing into the ground" due in large part to the haphazard methods by which features were introduced and integrated into the core of the operating system without a clear focus on an end-product. In December 2003, Allchin enlisted the help of two other senior executives, Brian Valentine and Amitabh Srivastava, the former being experienced with shipping software at Microsoft, most notably Windows Server 2003, and the latter having spent his career at Microsoft researching and developing methods of producing high-quality testing systems. Srivastava employed a team of core architects to visually map out the entirety of the Windows operating system, and to proactively work towards a development process that would enforce high levels of code quality, reduce interdependencies between components, and in general, "not make things worse with Vista". These things, in conjunction with the fact that many of Microsoft's most skilled developers and engineers had been working on Windows Server 2003, led to the decision to "reset" development of Longhorn, building on the same code that would become Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1, instead of the older Windows.NET Server Release Candidate 1 (Build 3663).
This change, announced internally to Microsoft employees on August 26, 2004, began in earnest in September, though it would take several more months before the new development process and build methodology would be used by all of the development teams. Several complaints came from individual developers, and Bill Gates himself, that the new development process was going to be prohibitively difficult to work within. Changes at the build labs also resulted in a period of several months where no builds of Longhorn were leaked onto the Internet.
Longhorn "Omega-13" or Milestone 8/9
Build 3790.1232 (build date of August 19, 2004) is notable, as it was the first build of Longhorn based on the Server 2003 codebase, but with the Windows XP interface. Successive internal builds over several months gradually integrated a lot of the fundamental work that had been done over the previous three years, but with much stricter rules about what code could be brought into the main builds. Builds in this period were described variously as Longhorn "Omega-13", and as Milestone 8 / 9, depending on whether the new or old build tree was being worked on.
Builds 5000 and 5001 (build dates of August 3, 2004 and September 27, 2004, respectively, both leaked on January 23, 2020 ) are the other Windows Longhorn builds which also have Windows XP interfaces. For build 5001, the wallpaper is the same as Windows XP but has a bull with long horns in a humorous manner. The replacement of some "Windows XP" references with "Windows LH" ("LH" stands for "Longhorn") and the introduction of a highly unstable version of Windows Media Player 10 are also notable in build 5001. These hastily made rebrands raised concerns about the authenticity of the build prior to its leak, as well as several forum threads claiming that the images published by the original leaker of the build were falsified.
Build 5048 (build date of April 1, 2005) was the official WinHEC 2005 preview build, described as the Longhorn Developer Preview, and made available to WinHEC attendees on April 24, 2005. It was the only build from this period that was made available by Microsoft; it was not officially distributed outside of WinHEC, but the build quickly appeared on file-sharing networks. The Aero visual style made its first appearance in this build, and the Desktop Window Manager was present but disabled and hidden by default. At the keynote presentation, Bill Gates also announced that many of the WinFX developer APIs that were originally planned exclusively for Longhorn was going to be backported to Windows XP and Server 2003 and that the final user interfaces for Longhorn would not be seen for a while longer. Other features such as device-independent resolutions, rasterized icons, virtual folders, and registry virtualization were discussed as well. The debug checked version was leaked in December 2021.
Build 5048's closer resemblance to Windows XP than to the prior Longhorn builds from 2003 and 2004 surprised many, leading well-known Windows enthusiast Paul Thurrott to write: "My thoughts are not positive, not positive at all. This is a painful build to have to deal with after a year of waiting, a step back in some ways. I hope Microsoft has surprises up their sleeves. This has the makings of a train wreck." Months later, Thurrott stated that the Vista development process has since recovered in the more recent builds.
Build 5060 (build date of April 17, 2005) featured no major difference to Build 5048, apart from a new style logon screen and default desktop wallpaper.
Mid-2005 to November 2006: Windows Vista
Microsoft considered several names for its new operating system. In the end, Microsoft chose Windows Vista as confirmed on July 22, 2005, believing it to be a "wonderful intersection of what the product does, what Windows stands for, and what resonates with customers, and their needs." Group Project Manager Greg Sullivan told Paul Thurrott—"You want the PC to adapt to you and help you cut through the clutter to focus on what’s important to you. That's what Windows Vista is all about: "bringing clarity to your world." (a reference to the three marketing points of Vista—Clear, Connected, Confident), so you can focus on what matters to you." Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin also liked the name, saying that " Vista" creates the right imagery for the new product capabilities and inspires the imagination with all the possibilities of what can be done with Windows—making people's passions come alive."
Beta 1
Build 5098 (build date of June 28, 2005) includes most of the new features that will later be seen in Beta 1, but still identifies itself as Longhorn.
Windows Vista Beta 1 (build 5112, build date of July 20, 2005) which was released on July 27, 2005, was the first Longhorn build to be called Windows Vista and was available to Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN) and TechNet subscribers as well as a select group of Microsoft Beta testers.
Compared with the WinHEC build released earlier in the year, Vista Beta 1 was a large advancement in introducing new user interface features. The Windows Shell has drastically changed yet again, introducing virtual folders, a new search interface, several new high-resolution icons, and a revamped Windows Explorer interface that did away with the menus and most of the toolbar buttons that were present in previous versions. Beta 1 also introduced many of the underlying technologies slated for Vista, including the new networking and audio stacks, parental controls, and fairly complete working build of .NET Framework 3.0, then still referred to as WinFX.
Community Technology Previews
Build 5215 (build date of August 7, 2005), was leaked on December 2021. This build included an edition mention in the winver banner on the Starter/Ultimate editions.
Build 5219 (build date of August 30, 2005), Microsoft started releasing regular Community Technical Previews (CTP) to beta testers, with less stability work made to them than actual betas.
Build 5219, also known as CTP1 and September CTP, was distributed among 2005 PDC attendees on September 13, 2005, and has been released to Microsoft Beta testers and MSDN subscribers. This was the first public "Ultimate Edition" build, and included Super Fetch.
Although not enabled by default, this refresh saw the return of the Windows Sidebar, which had been removed as part of the development reset, and the introduction of Desktop Gadgets, both of which are part of Microsoft gadgets line of mini-applications. Microsoft stated that they intended to make additional gadgets available for download from a website over time. This build also supported a new version of Windows Media Center code-named "Diamond".
Although Microsoft had stated that WinFS will not make its debut in Windows Vista, users of build 5219 noticed that WinFS was included in that version. Several Windows 'rumor' sites and newsgroups such as Neowin and Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows speculated that WinFS would in fact be ready on time for Windows Vista's release.
Build 5231 (build date of October 4, 2005), also known as CTP2 or the October 2005 CTP, was released to MSDN subscribers and Microsoft Beta Testers on October 17, 2005. This "Ultimate" build introduced Windows Media Player version 11. An updated volume control utility was added, that could control the volume level of every running program.
Build 5259 (built on November 17, 2005) was released to Microsoft Technology Adoption Program (TAP) members on November 22, 2005. It was originally announced to be released on November 18 as a November CTP. Microsoft canceled the November CTP due to its instability, however, and released this build only to TAP members. The sidebar was temporarily removed; the build had a few new UI changes, including the ability to change the color and clarity of the UI. Windows AntiSpyware (soon to be "Windows Defender") was integrated. Outlook Express was renamed "Windows Mail". It was an IDW build and therefore had not gone through the CTP testing process. It leaked to the Internet on December 7, 2005.
December CTP (built on December 14, 2005, with a build number of 5270), was released to testers and MSDN on December 19, 2005, and was very close to feature complete. Since then, the feature-complete build was delayed until late January 2006. In this build, Windows AntiSpyware was renamed Windows Defender, the start button was also changed, IE7 had a new icon/logo, and the Windows XP sounds remained the same. There were some minor UI changes.
The December CTP was also the last build of Windows Vista that supported the bypassing of the WDDM driver model requirement, hence allowing the Desktop Window Manager (UXSS at the time of the build) to run using software vertex emulation. Because of this change post the 5270 builds, the well-known keys 'UseMachineCheck' and 'EnableMachineCheck do not allow running the Desktop Window Manager in software emulation mode.
Build 5284 (built on December 18, 2005) was the last build to be compiled in 2005, and to have at least one Longhorn reference.
February CTP (built on February 17, 2006, with a build number of 5308.17), was released on February 22, 2006, and was the first feature-complete CTP. This build was meant for enterprises. It was also the first build to have the upgrade compatibility. This build, according to Microsoft, had all but one feature (which should appear in the next CTP) that customers will see in the final release. However, later builds brought more improvements than previously expected. An unstaged revision was made to this build and was released on February 28, 2006, as build 5308.60 (built on February 23), which was released as a result of Windows Server "Longhorn" having many issues. The February CTP also incorporated numerous virtual folders including Attachments, Favorite Music, Fresh Tracks, Important E-mail, Last 7 Days E-mail, Last 30 Days Documents, Last 30 Days Pictures And Videos, Recently Changed, Shared By Me, Unread E-mail, and User's Files.
At the Intel Developer Forum on March 9, 2006, Microsoft announced a change in its plans to support EFI in Windows Vista. The UEFI 2.0 specification (which replaces EFI 1.10) was not completed until early 2006, and at the time of Microsoft's announcement, no firmware manufacturers had completed a production implementation which could be used for testing. As a result, the decision was made to postpone the introduction of UEFI support to Windows; support for UEFI on 64-bit platforms was postponed until Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008 and 32-bit UEFI will not be supported, as Microsoft does not expect many such systems to be built as the market moves to 64-bit processors. 32-bit UEFI was later supported with release of Windows 8 in 2012.
February CTP Refresh (built on March 21, 2006, with a build number of 5342.2) was released March 24, 2006. This build was shipped to technical beta testers and some corporate customers by Microsoft and was being used as a testing board for the extensive feedback they got from the February CTP. They described this release as an "External Developer Workstation", with the intent of providing an interim build between CTPs. Microsoft claimed it was still on track to deliver the next CTP in the second quarter, the build that will be the last in the Beta 2 fork. The build included minor UI changes, most notably improvements to the Media Center, new Aero and Aurora effects, a faster setup process, some new Sidebar gadgets, and slight improvements in overall performance and stability. The paint was also slightly improved, there's a new screenshot snapping/saving tool included and a slightly redesigned Network Center. This build did not meet CTP quality measurements, and was available only in Ultimate Edition, for both 32-bit (x86) and 64-bit (x64) systems.
Beta 2
April EDW (built on April 19, 2006, with a build number of 5365), which was released on April 21, 2006, introduced more changes to visual user interface elements, and to the behavior of User Account Control. A number of new backgrounds were also introduced, and two new screensavers were added as well. The Sidebar was enabled by default, as was automatic defragmentation of the hard drive. Hold'em, a game that shipped with some previous CTPs, was dropped due to apparent "political sensitivity" issues; Microsoft now offers it as a separate web download for Windows Vista Ultimate users.
Windows Vista Beta 2 Preview (built on May 1, 2006, with a build number of 5381) was leaked on May 2, 2006, and was officially released on May 6, 2006, to Microsoft's technical beta testers. It featured mostly performance tweaks and only a few minor changes compared to build 5365. With this build, Microsoft entered Beta 2 "escrow".
Windows Vista Beta 2 (built on May 18, 2006, with a build number of 5384), was released to Microsoft Developer Network subscribers (the first since 5308) and Microsoft Connect testers on May 23, 2006, in conjunction with Bill Gates's keynote presentation at the WinHEC 2006 conference. On June 6, Microsoft extended the availability of Beta 2 to all users, making Vista available as a free download in several languages from their website. Some technology websites described this release as "the largest download event in software history".
In June, Microsoft made two significant changes to its plans for Windows Vista. One issue, the inclusion of XML Paper Specification support in Vista and Microsoft Office 2007, had become a major point of dispute with Adobe Systems. When it was first introduced May 2005, XPS (known at the time as "Metro") was characterized as a "PDF-killer", but an Adobe representative stated that they were "not threatened" by its addition to "Longhorn". However, a year later, Adobe had changed their stance and saw the inclusion of the new document format as an anti-competitive attack on their Portable Document Format. While Microsoft refused to remove XPS altogether, noting that it is at the core of Vista's print spooling system, they have offered the ability to system builders and OEMs to remove any user-visible aspects of the document format from the operating system. A few days later, it was announced that PC-to-PC Sync would not ship with Windows Vista.
On June 14, 2006, Windows developer Philip Su posted a blog entry that decried the development process of Windows Vista, stating that "the code is way too complicated, and that the pace of coding has been tremendously slowed down by the overbearing process. " The same post also described Windows Vista as having approximately 50 million lines of code, with about 2,000 developers working on the product.
Pre-RC1
Build 5456 (build date of June 20, 2006) was released on June 24, 2006. Some of the new features included a revamped Aero subsystem and a completely overhauled and significantly less obtrusive User Account Control interface. "List view" in Windows Explorer was brought back, after having been removed in Beta 1. Microsoft developer Ben Betz later explained in a blog entry that, while they felt that removing List mode made sense based on usability research and its inability to support Windows Explorer's new "grouping" feature, the feature was restored based on a great deal of feedback from beta testers.
The release notes for the build state that the Time Zone bug that plagued almost all previous builds of Windows Vista had been patched, and quite a few issues in the Regional Settings and IME had also been resolved. A new "Windows Aero" mouse pointer scheme was introduced, which introduced anti-aliasing to the mouse pointer for the first time, and many of the remaining Windows XP-style icons have been replaced with new icons. The disk space used by a clean installation was also significantly reduced.
Build 5472 (build date of July 13, 2006) was released on July 17, 2006. Aside from incorporating several bug fixes and localization improvements, the build also introduced a revised "Basic" theme that replaces the gray theme seen in previous builds with a light blue theme. The Network Center was significantly revised as well, collating more status information in one place, and reducing the number of steps to get to most configuration options. More desktop backgrounds and icons were introduced, and Flip3D saw some layout tweaks. A new "Windows Aero" mouse cursor is set by default. The build was a huge performance improvement over Beta 2 and was comparable to and possibly even faster than that of Windows XP.
During a demonstration of the speech recognition feature new to Windows Vista at Microsoft's Financial Analyst Meeting on July 27, 2006, the software recognized the phrase "Dear mom" as "Dear aunt". After several failed attempts to correct the error, the sentence eventually became "Dear aunt, let's set so double the killer delete select all". A developer with Vista's speech recognition team later explained that there was a bug with the build of Vista that was causing the microphone gain level to be set very high, resulting in the audio being received by the speech recognition software to be "incredibly distorted".
On August 8, 2006, the Microsoft Security Response Center provided "critical" security fixes for Windows Vista Beta 2, making it the first Microsoft product to get security updates while still in beta.
Build 5536 (build date of August 21, 2006) was released on August 24, 2006, and between August 29 and August 31 to the first 100,000 users who downloaded it from the Microsoft site. Among notable changes, it featured new ties to the Windows Live online services by new icons in the Welcome Center, minor updates to the Aero appearance with a slightly more bluish tint to the glass effect, big speed improvements (including setup speed), many bug fixes and further tweaked anti-aliasing in the Flip 3D feature. It was released publicly on August 29, 2006.
RC1
Release Candidate 1 (RC1) (built on August 29, 2006, with a build number of 5600.16384) was released to a select group of beta testers on September 1, 2006. On September 6, RC1 was released to MSDN and Technet subscribers, as well as registered Customer Preview Program (CPP) members with Beta 2 PID's. On September 14, Microsoft re-opened the CPP to new members. The CPP ended on November 26, 2006.
The public release of Release Candidate 1 resulted in a number of extensive reviews and analyses on various technology news websites, both immediately after its release, and in the weeks following. Ars Technica's Ken Fisher wrote that performance had improved significantly over Beta 2, suggesting that faster machines may perform better than Windows XP; he also criticised the usefulness of the Windows Sidebar and the continued intrusiveness of User Account Control. CRN's review noted five specific categories of improvements to Release Candidate 1: Installation speed, device driver support, performance improvements in several components, security, and multimedia capabilities. Criticism of Vista's user interface arose as well, with Chris Pirillo describing the near-final state as "sloppy."
Pre-RC2
Build 5700 (build date of August 10, 2006), the first build of the RTM branch, was shown at the Student Day Presentation of Microsoft Tech-Ed 2006 in Australia. It appeared to run faster than the previous Pre-RC1 build 5472 with a few UI improvements. A higher build number does not necessarily indicate a newer build. Microsoft began work on the RTM branch at the same time as it was wrapping up the RC1 branch, allowing for mainstream RC1 developers to more easily "flow" into the new development stage. This parallel development helps explain why build 5700 is older than even some pre-RC1 builds.
Build 5728 (build date of September 17, 2006) was released on September 22, 2006, to technical beta participants. The following day, Microsoft released a 32-bit version of the build to the public, with a 64-bit version arriving on September 25. On October 1, Microsoft reached its goals for program participation and no longer offered the build to the public. In response to a significant amount of feedback from RC1 testers, 5728 contained many improvements, one of which was the inclusion of a check box in the Sound properties that allowed the user to disable the Windows Vista startup sound. The Welcome Center was also improved with new icons, eliminating the use of one icon for several different items, and all of the old icons in the User folder were replaced. With this build, Microsoft neared its goal of Vista installing in 15 minutes, with some reviewers reporting that 5728 took as little as 16 minutes to do a clean install. However, performing an upgrade installation from Windows XP was still slow, sometimes taking more than an hour to complete.
RC2
Release Candidate 2 (RC2) (built on October 3, 2006, with a build number of 5744.16384), was released to CPP members, TAP testers, MSDN/Technet subscribers, and other technical beta testers on Friday, October 6, 2006, and was available for download until October 9 in preparation for the final release of Windows Vista. Because of an aggressive development schedule, this was the final build that would be officially released to the general public for testing. Nevertheless, all pre-release product keys will work until the final RTM build. Several testers reported that RC2 was faster and more stable than build 5728. However, because RC2, which was a regular interim build, and not a major milestone as the name suggests, was not as rigorously tested as RC1, RC1 may have been more stable in certain situations. This build fixed many compatibility issues that plagued previous builds. Vista's GUI, which continued to be improved, contained some minor tweaks, one of the more prominent of which was the new ability to customize the color, but not the transparency, of maximized windows. In previous builds, windows became predominantly black when maximized, an effect that could not be altered by users. A Control Panel icon for Windows Sideshow was also added.
Pre-RTM
Because a release to manufacturing (RTM) build is the final version of code shipped to retailers and other distributors, the purpose of a pre-RTM build is to eliminate any last "show-stopper" bugs that may prevent the code from responsibly being shipped to customers, as well as anything else that consumers may find annoying. Thus, it is unlikely that any major new features will be introduced; instead, work will focus on Vista's "fit-and-finish". In just a few days, developers had managed to drop Vista's bug count from over 2470 on September 22 to just over 1400 by the time RC2 shipped in early October. However, they still had a way to go before Vista was ready for RTM. Microsoft's internal processes required Vista's bug count to drop to 500 or fewer before the product could go into escrow for RTM. For most of these builds, only 32-bit versions were released.
Build 5808 (build date of October 12, 2006) was released to TAP testers on October 19, 2006. This build was notable because it was the first build released to testers since Microsoft entered RTM "escrow" with build 5800. This explains why the build numbers jumped from 57xx to 58xx.
Build 5824 (build date of October 17, 2006) was released to a wide number of internal testers later that day in the hope that this build would become the final RTM. However, a catastrophic "show-stopper" bug was found where the OOBE hangs at the start of the WinSAT Assessment (if upgraded from Windows XP), requiring the user to terminate the msoobe.exe by pressing Shift+F10 to open Command Prompt using either command-line tools or Task Manager.
Build 5840.16384 (build date of October 18, 2006) was made available to internal testers. According to Paul Thurrott, this build did not contain the major bug in build 5824, and testing produced very positive feedback. This is also the last build to feature the Windows XP sound scheme.
Build 5840.16389 (build date of October 24, 2006) contained a large number of new and final icons, as well as a new set of final wallpapers, including a new default wallpaper based on the Aurora "swoosh" seen in prior builds.
RTM
Release to Manufacturing (RTM) (built on November 1, 2006, with a build number of 6000.16386) is the final release of Windows Vista that ships to customers. Microsoft announced this build had been finalized on November 8, 2006, after over five years of development.
The RTM's build number jumped to 6000 to reflect Vista's internal version number, NT 6.0. Jumping RTM build numbers is common practice among consumer-oriented Windows versions, like Windows 98 (build 1998), Windows 98 SE (build 2222), Windows Me (b.3000) or Windows XP (b.2600), as compared to the business-oriented versions like Windows 2000 (b.2195) or Server 2003 (b.3790). On November 16, 2006, Microsoft made the final build available to MSDN and Technet Plus subscribers. A business-oriented Enterprise edition was made available to volume license customers on November 30. Windows Vista was launched for general customer availability on January 30, 2007.
Mid-2007 to February 2008: Service Pack 1
Service Pack 1 Beta was only released on Microsoft Connect to selected testers on September 24, 2007. This build was offered optionally through Windows Update through a registry key installed by the tester. This key was later leaked to the net resulting in its deactivation by Microsoft. With this release, the build number for Vista jumped to 6001.16659.070916-1443. This build also removed the Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) from client computers, to be replaced by a downloadable version at a later date. Also removed was the "Search" menu option from the right-hand bar of the start menu (including the option to re-add it from the Start Menu customization list). This build broke the "HP Touch smart" family of applications, and also caused bugs with resuming from sleep, and in some cases rendered some 64-bit PCs with Trusted Platform Module (TPM) chips unable to finish booting. This build also contained unspecified improvements in Speed and responsiveness of the OS.
Service Pack 1 Release Candidate Preview was only released on Microsoft Connect to selected testers on November 12, 2007. With this release, the build number for Vista increased to 6001.17042.071107.1618. Changes in this build are covered by the Microsoft Connect Non-Disclosure agreement (NDA).
Service Pack 1 Release Candidate was first released to Microsoft Connect testers on December 4, 2007, with the same build released on MSDN and TechNet several weeks later. A few days after that, this build was released to the public officially on the Microsoft download center as a Public Preview of SP1. With this release, the build number of Vista increased to 6001.17052.071129.2315. This build contained several notable changes and enhancements.
Service Pack 1 Release Candidate Refresh was released on Microsoft Connect to selected testers on January 9, 2008 and was released to the public on January 11, 2008. This release has a build number of 6001.17128.080101.1935.
Service Pack 1 Release Candidate Refresh 2 was only released on Microsoft Connect to selected testers on January 24, 2008, in preparation for the final release of Service Pack 1 - through Windows Update only. This release has a build number of 6001.18000. Details of this build are covered by the Microsoft Connect Non-Disclosure agreement (NDA).
Microsoft announced that Service Pack 1 had been finalized on February 4, 2008, only 1 year after Vista's general availability. The final build of Service Pack 1 went live on Tuesday, March 18, 2008, over the Microsoft Download Center, and Windows Update. This build has been confirmed by sources at Microsoft as being the same code as RC Refresh 2, also giving it the same build number. The full build string of both this release and Refresh 2 is "6001.18000.longhorn_rtm.080118-1840".
Post-Service Pack 1
Build 6001.18063 (release date of June 24, 2008). Microsoft Released KB952709 as a Reliability and Performance update for Windows Vista this build is notable for two reasons. First, This is the first publicly released update that increases Vista build number beyond the 6001.18000 (final) build of Service Pack 1. Second, this build replaces the 6001. longhorn_rtm.080118-1840 build a string of SP1 with 6001.vistasp1_gdr.080425-1930. The longhorn build string was present during the early development of Vista but was not seen in the official release build or any update after until it was reintroduced during the SP1 beta and was left in when SP1 was released, this build marks its removal from the only release version of Vista to contain the longhorn codename prominently.
Late 2008 to April 2009: Service Pack 2
Microsoft started work on Service Pack 2 soon after Service Pack 1 was released, as Windows Server 2008 uses the same codebase as Windows Vista Service Pack 1.
Service Pack 2 is the last service pack to be released for both Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista simultaneously, sharing the same binary.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 Pre-Beta
Build Number 6002.16489.lh_sp2beta.080924-1740 (Version 105)
Released in October 2008.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 Beta
Build Number 6002.16497.081017-1605 (Version 113)
Released December 4, 2008. The download became available in the Microsoft Download Center.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 RC Escrow
Build Number 6002.16659.090114-1728 (Version 275)
Released in January 2009.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 Release Candidate
Build Number 6002.16670.090130-1715 (Version 286)
Released in February 2009.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 RTM Escrow build to Connect Beta Testers
Build Number 6002.17043.090312-1835 (Version ???)
Released March 2009. Available and can be installed via Windows Update
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 RTM Escrow
Build Number 6002.17506.090313-1730 (Version ???)
Released March 2009. Leak to file-sharing websites.
Windows Vista Service Pack 2 RTM
Build Number 6002.18005.090410-1830
Released 28 April 2009. Officially released by Microsoft via Windows Update on 26 May 2009.
See also
Development of Windows 7
Development of Windows XP
History of Microsoft Windows
References
External links
Windows Vista Bug Reports: An Analysis – Robert McLaws' analysis of bug counts through the Windows Vista beta test period
Windows Vista Builds List – A complete list of every known build of Longhorn and Vista, including build date, leak/release date, and which lab compiled it.
Windows Vista Localization – Video on the international development of Windows Vista
– How to Find Build and Revision Number of Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008 Installed
Windows Vista: Road to Gold – Paul Thurrott's story of his long journey with the development of Windows Vista (Part 1 of 7).
Windows Vista Screen Shot Gallery – Screenshots of Windows Vista beta versions and development progress
Early Longhorn concept dating back to 2003
Windows Vista |
4363042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oke%20Ila | Oke Ila | Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún (often abbreviated as Òkè-Ìlá) is an ancient city in southwestern Nigeria that was capital of the middle-age Igbomina-Yoruba city-state of the same name.
Òkè-Ìlá is a city in Ọṣun State, Nigeria. It is situated in the northeastern part of Yorubaland in southwestern Nigeria. Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún’s sister city (and sister kingdom) Ìlá Òràngún is located about to the northeast, separated by the north-trending ridges and gorges of the Oke-Ila Quartzites.
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún is currently capital of the Ifedayo Local Government Area of Ọsun State. The Ifedayo LGA (Local Government Area) Secretariat is located on the northern outskirts of the town. The administration of the two major towns and the several smaller towns and villages is conducted from the Ifedayo LGA Secretariat.
The paramount ruler of the town is Oba (Dr.) Adedokun Abolarin, Òràngún of Òkè-Ìlá (Aroyinkeye 1). He was a lawyer before his installation as the traditional ruler of the town. Abolarin College, one of the prominent schools in the town is owned by him.
Location
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún is located in Osun State, at an elevation of on one of the several mountains adjoining the eastern flanks of the Oke-Ila Ridge, a part of the Yoruba Hills. Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún is about directly west of the confluence of the Rivers Niger and Benue at Lokoja and about northeast of Osogbo, the capital of Osun State. It is about northeast of Lagos with Ibadan at about midway between. It is about southeast of the ancient city of Oyo (Oyo-Ile or Old Oyo) and about east of modern Oyo (Ago d'Oyo). It is northeast of the ancient city of Ile-Ife, about southeast of the ancient Yoruba city of Ilorin and about northwest of Benin City (more correctly Bini or Ibini) capital of the Kingdom of Benin.
Ila-Yara period
Original unified city-state at Ila-Yara
Before a dispute and split several centuries ago, the present Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún and Ìlá Òràngún constituted the original united kingdom centered on Ìlá-Yàrà, a city-state founded, according to legend, by Oduduwa's fourth son (according to legend), named Fagbamila and nicknamed Òràngún.
The dispute, said to be a succession dispute in one account, or a relocation site dispute by another account, centered on two brother-princes (Àpàkíìmò and Arútú Olúòkun) and their supporters, and led to a split of the Ila-Yara city-state and the eventual emigration of both factions from the Ila-Yara site.
Factional histories since Ila-Yara
Oral history of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom claims, that the dispute arose from the selection of a new site to move the kingdom to. Unfortunately, the Ifa oracle acknowledged as suitable both soil samples from the site selected by the Ìlá-Yàrà kingdom's official delegates commissioned by Prince Àpàkíìmò, as well as the site selected by the unofficial delegates commissioned by the kingdom's youth led by Àpàkíìmò's brother, Prince Arútú Olúòkun.
The kingdom's royal council insisted on the site selected by the kingdom's official delegates while the young people argued the advantages of the site selected by the delegates they commissioned. The younger prince, Arútú Olúòkun's faction led a migration of his faction out of Ìlá-Yàrà and founded Ìlá-Magbon. Thereafter, (according to oral history of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom), the official Ìlá-Yàrà kingdom under the "de jure" Òràngún Àpàkíìmò, migrated to their preferred site. The faction of the prince, Àpàkíìmò at Ìlá-Yàrà, founded Igbóhùn, is the modern Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún.
Oral history states that when earthworm pests subsequently bothered Prince Arútú faction's settlement at Ila-Magbon, Prince Arútú Olúòkun elected to "sink into the ground", because he was no longer able to travel when told by the Ifa oracle that they had to move to the Ila-Odo site which is the location of the modern Ìlá Òràngún, where the "Òrèrè" staff was first stuck into the ground. Oral history of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom also claims, that Òfínní, an Òràngún deposed from the Òràngún Àpàkíìmò;'s kingdom at Igbóhùn was the first Òràngún officially installed by the youth's faction after their exit from Ìlá-Yàra
Migrations
Relocations
Since the migration from Ìlá-Yàrà, the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom had settled at various locations, the most notable being Igbohun (the original name and site of the city-state), Okiri, Iladun, Omi-Ọsun (along the Omi-Ọsun river, a source of the Osun River), and the present site (Oke-Ila), which oral history claims is partly superimposed on, and contiguous with, the original Igbohun site, and reputedly has twice been previously occupied and abandoned.
Refugee settlements
The original population of the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom has over the centuries been joined by waves of migrations from other parts of Yorubaland, as well as refugees of various conflicts in the near and distant parts of Igbominaland. An example of additions to the original population are the Ọba'lúmọ̀ of Ìsèdó group who were also of the earlier Òbà diaspora.
Oral history gives examples of historical refugees that were hosted by the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom in separate quarters or wards, but have subsequently returned to their homelands, such as the Rore (or Irore), the Arandun and the Ora-Igbomina kingdoms.
It is conceivable that the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom itself had similarly been temporary guests as war-refugees of their neighbour-kingdoms, just like their sister-kingdom Ìlá Òràngún was for 15 years a refugee-kingdom at Omupo during the 19th century wars with the Ibadan empire, in which Oke-Ila and other Igbomina kingdoms were part of the "Ekiti Parapo" alliance with the Ijesha, fighting off the "tyranny" of Ibadan's "ajele" system of tribute-tax apportionment and collection.
Wars and slave raids
Both the domestic/internal African Slave Trade and the "export" oriented Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade adversely impacted the Oke-Ila Orangun Kingdom. Although various Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún oral-historians claim (like most Yoruba cities and kingdom) never to have been vanquished or captured for enslavement, snippets of clan-histories and kingdom-histories reveal that the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom was bothered for a significant part of its history by slave-raids and attacks from its neighbours. During the reign of one of her kings, the Orangun himself was a "king-in-exile" and a "refugee" for 40 years in the Oro kingdom (now in Kwara State) - a complex of nine consolidated settlements several kilometres northwest of his Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom. The return of this Orangun to the Omi-Osun area near the devastated old capital, gave him the nickname "Ayunrobo" - one who went to Oro and made it back.
Immigrants profile
The newer waves of migrations that stayed on in Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún can usually be identified from their traditional orature verses which usually make nostalgic references to their original homeland. Apart from the Isedo quarter/ward of Oke-Ila, the Iranyin quarter/ward is also an identifiable immigrant group that consolidated with the Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom. It is not yet ascertained if the Alapinni quarter of Oke-Ila Orangun are secondary immigrants from Oyo or direct immigrants from the then adjoining Nupe territories as were the Alapinni clan of the old Oyo Empire. The Aworo clan is said by oral-historians to be from Ekiti while orature citation of parts of the clan make references to Oyo as origin. The relationship of the Elemona clan to the Yoruba kingdom of Ilemona (west of Oke-Ila), is yet speculative until corroborated from their clan orature-verses. Similarly is the possible connection of the Obajoko title of the Iranyin clan to the Yoruba kingdom of Iranyin west of Oke-Ila.
Culture
Population and culture
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún has a population estimated (2005) to be 35,000 (suspected to be an under-estimation).
The people of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún kingdom speak a distinctive dialect of the Yoruba language called Igbomina (or Ogbonna). The people are mostly agrarian but have a significant number of artisans, traders, hunters of wild game, school-teachers, and other professionals.
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún is famous for the energetic dancing and acrobatic skills of its Elewe, the region's primary Egungun, a dancing masquerade ensemble representing the ancestors during various traditional festivals. The Egungun Elewe is unique to the Igbomina Yoruba subgroup. There are other less popular but unique and peculiar Egungun in the kingdom.
Natural physiographic features and tourist sites
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún is notable for the adventurous and breathtaking Ayikun-nugba Waterfalls (also spelt Ayikunnugba Waterfalls) situated in a cliffed gorge, and its associated caves with "mythical" underground passages. The Ayikun-nugba falls are located southwest of the town, along the north-trending ridge-and-gorge series of the Oke-Ila Ridge complex.
A second equally adventurous and breathtaking waterfall, the Omi-Ogan Waterfalls is located in the valley off the northern road into the town. at the bottom of very steep slopes. The waterfall flows down two mail mounds and collects into a pool at the bottom, feeding the westward flowing river the Omi-Ogan River.
Another tourist site is the Oke Lanfo Peak located southeast of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún, from the top of which a panoramic view of the surrounding towns within 50 kilometers can be seen. The ridges and gorges consist of the geologically defined Oke-Ila Quartzites, a series of metamorphic rocks about 550 million years old.
Modern history
Orangun Samuel Adeyemi, Arojojoye III
From Nigeria's independent take-off at the end of her colonial era under the British, Oba Samuel Adeyemi, Arojojoye reigned as Orangun, the Paramount King of Oke-Ila from 1969 until he "joined the ancestors" in November 2005. This ancient and historic Yoruba kingdom recorded several "firsts" during Orangun Adeyemi's reign, among which are the tarring of the link-road joining the city to the inter-state road at Asanlu junction, the inauguration of the premier community-sponsored secondary school -the Oke-Ila Grammar School (an alumnus of which rose to become in 2007 a full professor), the establishment of pipe-borne water supply, the electrification of the city, the designation of the city as capital of the new local government, and the construction of the local government headquarters in the city. Orangun Samuel Adeyemi led the kingdom of Oke-Ila Orangun into the third millennium before he joined his ancestors.
Orangun Adedokun Abolarin, Aroyinkeye I
Soon after the turn of the millennium, the current Orangun of Oke-Ila Orangun in Ifedayo Local Government area of Osun State, Oba Adedokun Abolarin was installed on December 8, 2006. Oba Adedokun Abolarin is from the Obasolo Ruling House, one of the three ruling houses among which the title rotates in Oke-Ila Orangun.
The new Òràngún of Òkè-Ìlá, Oba Adedokun Abolarin is a highly educated professional, holding a law degree, after a master's degree in International Relations, following a bachelor's degree in Political Science, all from Obafemi Awolowo University (formerly University of Ife). Until his installation, the new Òràngún of Òkè-Ìlá, Oba Adedokun Abolarin, a professional lawyer licensed to practice law in the Supreme Court of Nigeria, was the principal partner of Dokun Abolarin & Co., a firm of Solicitors and Legal Consultants, which had served as Company Secretary to various corporations among whom are Tell Publications (Publishers of Tell Magazine), Pacific Holdings, Peachtree Communications Ltd, Sportsmark International and Springtime Development Foundation.
Oba Adedokun Abolarin is an academic authority on Nigerian government and politics having researched and written on the period from the 1914 amalgamation to recent times, in which he evaluated component elements of federal, regional/state, and local government administration, analyzed Nigerian foreign policy, political parties and pressure groups.
As is traditional among the Yoruba for a new king or monarch, Oba Adedokun Abolarin chose at his installation the “reign name” Aroyinkeye I, translating as “one who finds honey to tend the title”. Citizens of this ancient Igbomina-Yoruba kingdom across Nigeria, and especially Europe and the Americas often express their thrill and excitement at the prospect of the development which the well-educated king promises for the city and its satellite towns.
Political rulers
Immigrant dynasties
Oke-Ila Orangun has a couple of historical minor kings (or royals) under the Orangun of Oke-Ila. These are kings of the wards/quarters (townships or sub-towns) of Oke-Ila that consolidated as immigrant communities in the last five centuries of Oke-Ila history, as early as at its foundation subsequent to the exodus from Ila-Yara. These Realm/Ward/Township Royalties retain varying degrees of royal privileges and perform their ancient royal traditions, which in Yoruba tradition is to be exercised in their clan's territory within the consolidated kingdom. However overriding royal power is retained over the entire kingdom by the Orangun who is paramount king over the entire kingdom.
The "Ward/Township King" of the Ìsèdó-Oke group is titled Ọba'lúmọ. The Ìsèdó-Oke group was the earliest (and possibly the largest single group) to join with the then Orangun Apakiimo to found his new kingdom (now called Oke-Ila) towards the end of the 15th century, about 1490 AD. The "Realm/Ward/Township royal" of the Iranyin group is titled "Obanla" but the position has not been filled in living memory. The role of the Obanla seems to have been taken up by (or given to) the Obajoko in the modern Royal Council of the Oke-Ila Orangun kingdom. The Iranyin group seem to be a more recent "consolidant" with Orangun's kingdom at Oke-Ila relative to the Isedo group.
The "Crowned Heads/Crownly Heads" Caucus & incumbents
In the traditional royal council of Oke-Ila, both "ward/township kings" are constituted with other royal clans - the heads of the Orangun ruling houses, into the Oriade ("Crowned Heads/Crownly Heads") - a "royal heritage caucus" of the "senate" or superior royal council.
"Minor kings" (of ancient immigrant wards/quarters)
The Ọba'lúmọ̀ of Ìsèdó-Oke ward/township is Olúfẹ́mi Ọládàpọ̀ Babalọlá. Oral historians state that Iranyin ward/township also has the royal title of "Obanla", but the highest ranking title-holder from the Iranyin ward is the Obajoko of Iranyin ward/township. (The "Obanla" title also exists in Ila Orangun). It is not clear if any other clan in Oke-Ila has maintained substantial relics of royal privileges. It seems that such clans would presumably be represented in the "Arewa" senate, except if removed or proscribed for some reason in historical times (before the British colonial period). However, a few other clans have maintained symbolic noble privileges.
Orangun Dynasty - ruling house heads
The heads of the Orangun ruling houses that are part of this "royal heritage caucus" of the "senate of ten" - (Arewa) are the Obasolo: Prince Adeoti Adesoji and the Elemoogun: Prince Adeyemi Olatunde.
Educational and religious institutions
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún has several primary and secondary schools most of which are privately owned. The premier secondary institution is the Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún Grammar School. The first primary schools are the Seventh-day Adventist Day School situated at the foot of a peak on the west edge of the city, and the Baptist Day School situated at the foot of the mountain on which the old city is located.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church of Nigeria and the Baptist Church (Nigerian Baptist Convention) were the first churches to be established in the city. Both denominations now have multiple churches in the city. Other churches include the Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion), the Apostolic Church, the Christ Apostolic Church, the Cherubim & Seraphim Church, the Aladura Church of the Lord, and many others. The city has a central masjid and other minor mosques where Muslims worship. The percentage of adherents of traditional religions is decreasing but there are worshipers of the major Yoruba traditional religions like Sango, Ogun, and Egungun.
Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún's town hall adjoins the palace of the Òràngún, the paramount king of the kingdom. It is named Apakiimo Town Hall, in honor of the last king of the unified kingdom who led the final exodus from Ila-Yara, capital city of the original unified kingdom that subsequently became the sister kingdoms of Òkè-Ìlá Òràngún and Ìlá Òràngún.
References
Populated places in Osun State
Nigerian traditional states
Towns in Yorubaland
Yoruba history |
4363081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict%20thesis | Conflict thesis | The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century with John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. It maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science, and that it inevitably leads to hostility. The consensus among historians of science is that the thesis has long been discredited, which explains the rejection of the thesis by contemporary scholars. Into the 21st century, historians of science widely accept a complexity thesis.
Studies on scientists and the general public show that the conflict perspective is not prevalent.
Historical conflict thesis
Before the 19th century, no one had pitted "science" against "religion" or vice versa in writing. The relationship between religion and science became an actual formal topic of discourse in the 19th century. More specifically, it was around the mid-19th century that discussion of "science and religion" first emerged because before this time, the term science still included moral and metaphysical dimensions, was not inherently linked to the scientific method, and the term scientist did not emerge until 1834. The scientist John William Draper (1811–1882) and the writer Andrew Dickson White (1832–1918) were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between religion and science. Draper had been the speaker in the British Association meeting of 1860 which led to the famous confrontation between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Henry Huxley over Darwinism, and in America "the religious controversy over biological evolution reached its most critical stages in the late 1870s". In the early 1870s, the American science-popularizer Edward Livingston Youmans invited Draper to write a History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1874), a book replying to contemporary issues in Roman Catholicism, such as the doctrine of papal infallibility, and mostly criticizing what he claimed to be anti-intellectualism in the Catholic tradition, but also making criticisms of Islam and of Protestantism. Draper's preface summarises the conflict thesis:
In 1874 White published his thesis in Popular Science Monthly and in book form as The Warfare of Science:
Such thesis was not to be intended, as many successively did, as a statement of complete and necessary enmity between science and christianity at all times. On the contrary White asserted that numerous examples of support from christianity to science can be observed:
In 1896, White published A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, the culmination of over thirty years of research and publication on the subject, criticizing what he saw as restrictive, dogmatic forms of Christianity. In the introduction, White emphasized that he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting Ezra Cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation.
The criticism of White is not entirely recent: historian of medicine James Joseph Walsh criticized White's perspective as anti-historical in The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time (1908), which he dedicated to Pope Pius X:
In God and Nature (1986), David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers report that "White's Warfare apparently did not sell as briskly as Draper's Conflict, but in the end it proved more influential, partly, it seems, because Draper's work was soon dated, and because White's impressive documentation gave the appearance of sound scholarship". During the 20th century, historians' acceptance of the conflict thesis declined until fully rejected in the 1970s. David B. Wilson notes:
In his course on science and religion, historian Lawrence Principe summarizes Draper's and White's works by saying:
In the coursebook, Principe writes:
Regarding the scholarship of Draper's work, Principe says:
Principe's summary comment on Draper's work at the end of his coursebook reads: "The book that started the conflict myth. Take a sense of humor and/or a stiff drink with this dated bit of melodrama."
However, according to historian of science and religion James C. Ungureanu, Draper and White actually hoped their narratives would preserve religious belief, not remove it. For them, science was ultimately a scapegoat for a much older argument that dated back to the Protestant Reformation, where progressive and liberal theologies had their conflict with traditional and orthodox theologies. This would place the notion of "conflict" within the history of theological ideas.
Modern views
Academic
Historians of science today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (those involving Galileo and Darwin) in favor of a "complexity" model, because religious figures took positions on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved in discrediting religion. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said: "White's and Draper's accounts of the actual interaction between science and religion in Western history do not differ greatly. Both tell a tale of bright progress continually sparked by science. And both develop and use the same myths to support their narrative, the flat-earth legend prominently among them". In a summary of the historiography of the conflict thesis, Colin A. Russell, the former President of Christians in Science, said that "Draper takes such liberty with history, perpetuating legends as fact that he is rightly avoided today in serious historical study. The same is nearly as true of White, though his prominent apparatus of prolific footnotes may create a misleading impression of meticulous scholarship".
In Science & Religion, Gary Ferngren proposes a complex relationship between religion and science:
A few modern historians of science (such as Peter Barker, Bernard R. Goldstein, and Crosbie Smith) proposed that scientific discoveries – such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion in the 17th century, and the reformulation of physics in terms of energy, in the 19th century – were driven by religion. Religious organizations and clerics figure prominently in the broad histories of science, until the professionalization of the scientific enterprise, in the 19th century, led to tensions between scholars taking religious and secular approaches to nature. Even the prominent examples of religion's apparent conflict with science, the Galileo affair (1614) and the Scopes trial (1925), were not pure instances of conflict between science and religion, but included personal and political facts in the development of each conflict.
Galileo affair
The Galileo affair was a sequence of events that begin around 1610, culminating with the trial and house arrest of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism. In 1610, Galileo published his (Starry Messenger), describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (published in in 1543). Galileo's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas. Part of the verdict on Galileo read "[Heliocentrism] is foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture". Nonetheless, historians note that Galileo never did observe the earth's motion and lacked empirical proof at the time; and that he was placed under house arrest, not imprisoned by the Inquisition.
The affair is an example commonly used by advocates of the conflict thesis. Maurice Finocchiaro writes that the affair epitomizes the common view of "the conflict between enlightened science and obscurantist religion," and that this view promotes "the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion." Finocchiaro writes, "I believe that such a thesis is erroneous, misleading, and simplistic," and refers to John Draper, Andrew White, Voltaire, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Karl Popper as writers or icons who have promoted it. Finocchiaro notes that the situation was complex and objections to the Copernican system included arguments that were philosophical and scientific, as well as theological.
Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the Inquisition's declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations. In 1632, Galileo published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book, and were voiced by a character named "Simplicio", who was a simpleton. This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo's position politically. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him "vehemently suspect of heresy", sentencing him to house arrest. Galileo's Dialogue was banned and he was ordered to "abjure, curse and detest" heliocentric ideas. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.
In 1559, Pope Paul IV promulgated the Pauline Index which is also known as . While it has been described by some as "the turning-point for the freedom of enquiry in the Catholic world", the effects of the Index were actually minimal and it was largely ignored. After less than a year, it was replaced by the Tridentine Index which relaxed aspects of the Pauline Index that had been criticized and had prevented its acceptance. It is inaccurate to describe the Index as being an enduring and definitive statement of Catholic censorship. It contained a list of "heretical" or "amoral" publications that were forbidden for Catholics to read or print and included not just heretics but anti-clerical authors and Protestant Christians.
Scientists and public perceptions
The conflict thesis is still held to be true in whole or in part by some scientists, including the theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking, who said "There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works." Others, such as Steven Weinberg, grant that it is possible for science and religion to be compatible since some prominent scientists are also religious, but he sees some significant tensions that potentially weaken religious beliefs overall.
However, global studies on actual beliefs held by scientists show that most scientists do not subscribe to conflict perspective (only about or less hold this view) and instead most believe that the relation is independence or collaboration between science and religion. As such, "the conflict perspective on science and religion is an invention of the West".
A study done on scientists from 21 American universities showed that most did not perceive conflict between science and religion either. In the study, the strength of religiosity in the home in which a scientist was raised, current religious attendance, peers' attitudes toward religion, all had an impact on whether or not scientists saw religion and science as in conflict. Scientists who had grown up with a religion and retained that identity or had identified as spiritual or had religious attendance tended to perceive less or no conflict. However, those not attending religious services were more likely to adopt a conflict paradigm. Additionally, scientists were more likely to reject conflict thesis if their peers held positive views of religion.
Science historian Ronald Numbers suggests though the conflict theory lingers in the popular mind due to few sets of controversies such as creation–evolution, stem cells, and birth control, he notes that the history of science reflects no intrinsic and inevitable conflict between religion and science. Many religious groups have made statements regarding the compatibility of religion and science, urging, for example, "school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth." The Magis Center for Reason and Faith was founded specifically to apply science in support of belief in a deity and the Christian religion. Some scholars such as Brian Stanley and Denis Alexander propose that mass media are partly responsible for popularizing conflict theory, most notably the myth that prior to Columbus, people believed the Earth was flat. David C. Lindberg and Numbers point out that "there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge Earth's sphericity and even know its approximate circumference". Numbers gives the following as mistakes arising from conflict theory that have gained widespread currency: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of the natural sciences". Some Christian writers, notably Reijer Hooykaas and Stanley Jaki, have argued that Christianity was important, if not essential, for the rise of modern science. Lindberg and Numbers, however, see this apologetical writing which lacks in careful historical study and overstates the case for such a connection.
Research on perceptions of science among the American public concludes that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science, and that they have no differences with nonreligious groups in propensity to seek out scientific knowledge, although there are often epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets. The Pew Center made similar findings and also noted that the majority of Americans (80–90 percent) strongly support scientific research, agree that science makes society and individual's lives better, and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists. Even strict creationists tend to express very favorable views towards science. A study of US college students concluded that the majority of undergraduates in both the natural and social sciences do not see conflict between science and religion. Another finding in the study was that it is more likely for students to move from a conflict perspective to an independence or collaboration perspective than vice versa.
Some scientific topics like evolution are often seen as a "point of friction" even though there is widespread acceptance of evolution across all 20 countries with diverse religious backgrounds in one study. Age, rather than religion, correlates better on attitudes on relating to biotechnology.
See also
Antireligion
Antitheism
Boundary-work
Continuity thesis
Faith and rationality
Fideism
Flat Earth
Non-overlapping magisteria
Religious intolerance
Relationship between religion and science
References
Further reading
Barbour, Ian G. When Science Meets Religion. HarperSanFrancisco, 2000.
Brooke, John H., Margaret Osler, and Jitse M. van der Meer, (editors). "Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions," Osiris, 2nd ser., vol. 16 (2001),
Mahner, M., Bunge, M. Is religious education compatible with science education?. Sci Educ 5, 101–123 (1996)
Ferngren, Gary (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Jones, Richard H., For the Glory of God: The Role of Christianity in the Rise and Development of Modern Science. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2011.
Lindberg, David C. and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. University of California Press, 1986.
Lindberg and Numbers, "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science," Church History 55 (1986): 338–354; reprinted with minor editorial correction and revision in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 39 (1987):140-49. (Can be found online here)
Merton, Robert K. Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England. Osiris 4 (1938): 360–632. Reprinted New York: Harper & Row, 1970. (Advances the thesis that Puritanism contributed to the rise of science.)
Ungureanu, James C. Science, Religion, and the Protestant Tradition: Retracing the Origins of Conflict. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.
Westfall, Richard S. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr. 1958. Reprinted Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Pr., 1973.
External links
A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science
The Mythical Conflict between Science and Religion by James Hannam
Criticism of religion
Historiography of science
Religion and science |
4363576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cre-Lox%20recombination | Cre-Lox recombination | Cre-Lox recombination is a site-specific recombinase technology, used to carry out deletions, insertions, translocations and inversions at specific sites in the DNA of cells. It allows the DNA modification to be targeted to a specific cell type or be triggered by a specific external stimulus. It is implemented both in eukaryotic and prokaryotic systems. The Cre-lox recombination system has been particularly useful to help neuroscientists to study the brain in which complex cell types and neural circuits come together to generate cognition and behaviors. NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research has created several hundreds of Cre driver mouse lines which are currently used by the worldwide neuroscience community.
An important application of the Cre-lox system is excision of selectable markers in gene replacement. Commonly used gene replacement strategies introduce selectable markers into the genome to facilitate selection of genetic mutations that may cause growth retardation. However, marker expression can have polar effects on the expression of upstream and downstream genes. Removal of selectable markers from the genome by Cre-lox recombination is an elegant and efficient way to circumvent this problem and is therefore widely used in plants, mouse cell lines, yeast, etc.
The system consists of a single enzyme, Cre recombinase, that recombines a pair of short target sequences called the Lox sequences. This system can be implemented without inserting any extra supporting proteins or sequences. The Cre enzyme and the original Lox site called the LoxP sequence are derived from bacteriophage P1.
Placing Lox sequences appropriately allows genes to be activated, repressed, or exchanged for other genes. At a DNA level many types of manipulations can be carried out. The activity of the Cre enzyme can be controlled so that it is expressed in a particular cell type or triggered by an external stimulus like a chemical signal or a heat shock. These targeted DNA changes are useful in cell lineage tracing and when mutants are lethal if expressed globally.
The Cre-Lox system is very similar in action and in usage to the FLP-FRT recombination system.
History
Cre-Lox recombination is a special type of site-specific recombination developed by Dr. Brian Sauer and patented by DuPont that operated in both mitotic and non-mitotic cells, and was initially used in activating gene expression in mammalian cell lines. Subsequently, researchers in the laboratory of Dr. Jamey Marth demonstrated that Cre-Lox recombination could be used to delete loxP-flanked chromosomal DNA sequences at high efficiency in specific developing T-cells of transgenic animals, with the authors proposing that this approach could be used to define endogenous gene function in specific cell types, indelibly mark progenitors in cell fate determination studies, induce specific chromosomal rearrangements for biological and disease modeling, and determine the roles of early genetic lesions in disease (and phenotype) maintenance.
Shortly thereafter, researchers in the laboratory of Prof. Klaus Rajewsky reported the production of pluripotent embryonic stem cells bearing a targeted loxP-flanked (floxed) DNA polymerase gene. Combining these advances in collaboration, the laboratories of Drs. Marth and Rajewsky reported in 1994 that Cre-lox recombination could be used for conditional gene targeting. They observed ≈50% of the DNA polymerase beta gene was deleted in T cells based on DNA blotting. It was unclear whether only one allele in each T-cell or 50% of T cells had 100% deletion in both alleles. Researchers have since reported more efficient Cre-Lox conditional gene mutagenesis in the developing T cells by the Marth laboratory in 1995. Incomplete deletion by Cre recombinase is not uncommon in cells when two copies of floxed sequences exist, and allows the formation and study of chimeric tissues. All cell types tested in mice have been shown to undergo transgenic Cre recombination.
Independently, Joe Z. Tsien has pioneered the use of Cre-loxP system for cell type- and region-specific gene manipulation in the adult brain where hundreds of distinct neuron types may exist and nearly all neurons in the adult brain are known to be post-mitotic. Tsien and his colleagues demonstrated Cre-mediated recombination can occur in the post-mitotic pyramidal neurons in the adult mouse forebrain.
These developments have led to a widespread use of conditional mutagenesis in biomedical research, spanning many disciplines in which it becomes a powerful platform for determining gene function in specific cell types and at specific developmental times. In particular, the clear demonstration of its usefulness in precisely defining the complex relationship between specific cells/circuits and behaviors for brain research, has promoted the NIH to initiate the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research Cre-driver mouse projects in early 2000. To date, NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research Cre projects have created several hundreds of Cre driver mouse lines which are currently used by the worldwide neuroscience community.
Overview
Cre-Lox recombination involves the targeting of a specific sequence of DNA and splicing it with the help of an enzyme called Cre recombinase. Cre-Lox recombination is commonly used to circumvent embryonic lethality caused by systemic inactivation of many genes. As of February 2019, Cre–Lox recombination is a powerful tool and is used in transgenic animal modeling to link genotypes to phenotypes.
The Cre-lox system is used as a genetic tool to control site specific recombination events in genomic DNA. This system has allowed researchers to manipulate a variety of genetically modified organisms to control gene expression, delete undesired DNA sequences and modify chromosome architecture.
The Cre protein is a site-specific DNA recombinase that can catalyse the recombination of DNA between specific sites in a DNA molecule. These sites, known as loxP sequences, contain specific binding sites for Cre that surround a directional core sequence where recombination can occur.
When cells that have loxP sites in their genome express Cre, a recombination event can occur between the loxP sites. Cre recombinase proteins bind to the first and last 13 bp regions of a lox site forming a dimer. This dimer then binds to a dimer on another lox site to form a tetramer. Lox sites are directional and the two sites joined by the tetramer are parallel in orientation. The double stranded DNA is cut at both loxP sites by the Cre protein. The strands are then rejoined with DNA ligase in a quick and efficient process. The result of recombination depends on the orientation of the loxP sites. For two lox sites on the same chromosome arm, inverted loxP sites will cause an inversion of the intervening DNA, while a direct repeat of loxP sites will cause a deletion event. If loxP sites are on different chromosomes it is possible for translocation events to be catalysed by Cre induced recombination. Two plasmids can be joined using the variant lox sites 71 and 66.
Cre recombinase
Cre recombinase can be synthesized by the corresponding gene under the direction of cell-specific promoters, including promoters under the control of doxycycline. An additional level of control can be achieved by using his Cre recombinase, engineered to reversibly activate in the presence of the estrogen analogue 4-hydroxy tamoxifen. This provides the advantage that the Cre recombinase is active for a short time. This prevents non-specific actions of Cre recombinase. The Cre recombinase can recognize cryptic sites in the host genome and induce unauthorized recombination, damaging host DNA. This tool is suitable for deleting antibiotic resistance genes, but above all it allows conditional knockouts that can be induced at specific times in the cell type of choice. Models thus obtained are more likely to mimic the physiological situation.
The Cre protein (encoded by the locus originally named as "Causes recombination", with "Cyclization recombinase" being found in some references) consists of 4 subunits and two domains: The larger carboxyl (C-terminal) domain, and smaller amino (N-terminal) domain. The total protein has 343 amino acids. The C domain is similar in structure to the domain in the Integrase family of enzymes isolated from lambda phage. This is also the catalytic site of the enzyme.
loxP site
loxP (locus of X-over P1) is a site on the bacteriophage P1 consisting of 34 bp. The site includes an asymmetric 8 bp sequence, variable except for the middle two bases, in between two sets of symmetric, 13 bp sequences. The exact sequence is given below; 'N' indicates bases which may vary, and lowercase letters indicate bases that have been mutated from the wild-type. The 13 bp sequences are palindromic but the 8 bp spacer is not, thus giving the loxP sequence a certain direction. Usually loxP sites come in pairs for genetic manipulation. If the two loxP sites are in the same orientation, the floxed sequence (sequence flanked by two loxP sites) is excised; however if the two loxP sites are in the opposite orientation, the floxed sequence is inverted. If there exists a floxed donor sequence, the donor sequence can be swapped with the original sequence. This technique is called recombinase-mediated cassette exchange and is a very convenient and time-saving way for genetic manipulation. The caveat, however, is that the recombination reaction can happen backwards, rendering cassette exchange inefficient. In addition, sequence excision can happen in trans instead of a in cis cassette exchange event. The loxP mutants are created to avoid these problems.
Holliday junctions and homologous recombination
During genetic recombination, a Holliday junction is formed between the two strands of DNA and a double-stranded break in a DNA molecule leaves a 3’OH end exposed. This reaction is aided with the endonuclease activity of an enzyme. 5’ Phosphate ends are usually the substrates for this reaction, thus extended 3’ regions remain. This 3’ OH group is highly unstable, and the strand on which it is present must find its complement. Since homologous recombination occurs after DNA replication, two strands of DNA are available, and thus, the 3’ OH group must pair with its complement, and it does so, with an intact strand on the other duplex. Now, one point of crossover has occurred, which is what is called a Holliday Intermediate.
The 3’OH end is elongated (that is, bases are added) with the help of DNA Polymerase. The pairing of opposite strands is what constitutes the crossing-over or Recombination event, which is common to all living organisms, since the genetic material on one strand of one duplex has paired with one strand of another duplex, and has been elongated by DNA polymerase. Further cleavage of Holliday Intermediates results in formation of Hybrid DNA.
This further cleavage or ‘resolvation’ is done by a special group of enzymes called Resolvases. RuvC is just one of these Resolvases that have been isolated in bacteria and yeast.
For many years, it was thought that when the Holliday junction intermediate was formed, the branch point of the junction (where the strands cross over) would be located at the first cleavage site. Migration of the branch point to the second cleavage site would then somehow trigger the second half of the pathway. This model provided convenient explanation for the strict requirement for homology between recombining sites, since branch migration would stall at a mismatch and would not allow the second strand exchange to occur. In more recent years, however, this view has been challenged, and most of the current models for Int, Xer, and Flp recombination involve only limited branch migration (1–3 base pairs of the Holliday intermediate), coupled to an isomerisation event that is responsible for switching the strand cleavage specificity.
Site-specific recombination
Site-specific recombination (SSR) involves specific sites for the catalyzing action of special enzymes called recombinases. Cre, or cyclic recombinase, is one such enzyme. Site-specific recombination is, thus, the enzyme-mediated cleavage and ligation of two defined deoxynucleotide sequences.
A number of conserved site-specific recombination systems have been described in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. In general, these systems use one or more proteins and act on unique asymmetric DNA sequences. The products of the recombination event depend on the relative orientation of these asymmetric sequences. Many other proteins apart from the recombinase are involved in regulating the reaction. During site-specific DNA recombination, which brings about genetic rearrangement in processes such as viral integration and excision and chromosomal segregation, these recombinase enzymes recognize specific DNA sequences and catalyse the reciprocal exchange of DNA strands between these sites.
Mechanism of action
Initiation of site-specific recombination begins with the binding of recombination proteins to their respective DNA targets. A separate recombinase recognizes and binds to each of two recombination sites on two different DNA molecules or within the same DNA strand. At the given specific site on the DNA, the hydroxyl group of the tyrosine in the recombinase attacks a phosphate group in the DNA backbone using a direct transesterification mechanism. This reaction links the recombinase protein to the DNA via a phospho-tyrosine linkage. This conserves the energy of the phosphodiester bond, allowing the reaction to be reversed without the involvement of a high-energy cofactor.
Cleavage on the other strand also causes a phospho-tyrosine bond between DNA and the enzyme. At both of the DNA duplexes, the bonding of the phosphate group to tyrosine residues leave a 3’ OH group free in the DNA backbone. In fact, the enzyme-DNA complex is an intermediate stage, which is followed by the ligation of the 3’ OH group of one DNA strand to the 5’ phosphate group of the other DNA strand, which is covalently bonded to the tyrosine residue; that is, the covalent linkage between 5’ end and tyrosine residue is broken. This reaction synthesizes the Holliday junction discussed earlier.
In this fashion, opposite DNA strands are joined. Subsequent cleavage and rejoining cause DNA strands to exchange their segments. Protein-protein interactions drive and direct strand exchange. Energy is not compromised, since the protein-DNA linkage makes up for the loss of the phosphodiester bond, which occurred during cleavage.
Site-specific recombination is also an important process that viruses, such as bacteriophages, adopt to integrate their genetic material into the infected host. The virus, called a prophage in such a state, accomplishes this via integration and excision. The points where the integration and excision reactions occur are called the attachment (att) sites. An attP site on the phage exchanges segments with an attB site on the bacterial DNA. Thus, these are site-specific, occurring only at the respective att sites. The integrase class of enzymes catalyse this particular reaction.
Efficiency of action
Two factors have been shown to affect the efficiency of Cre's excision on the lox pair. First, the nucleotide sequence identity in the spacer region of lox site. Engineered lox variants which differ on the spacer region tend to have varied but generally lower recombination efficiency compared to wildtype loxP, presumably through affecting the formation and resolution of recombination intermediate.
Another factor is the length of DNA between the lox pair. Increasing the length of DNA leads to decreased efficiency of Cre/lox recombination possibly through regulating the dynamics of the reaction. Genetic location of the floxed sequence affects recombination efficiency as well probably by influencing the availability of DNA by Cre recombinase. The choice of Cre driver is also important as low expression of Cre recombinase tends to result in non-parallel recombination. Non-parallel recombination is especially problematic in a fate mapping scenario where one recombination event is designed to manipulate the gene under study and the other recombination event is necessary for activating a reporter gene (usually encoding a fluorescent protein) for cell lineage tracing. Failure to activate both recombination events simultaneously confounds the interpretation of cell fate mapping results.
Temporal control
Inducible Cre activation is achieved using CreER (estrogen receptor) variant, which is only activated after delivery of tamoxifen. This is done through the fusion of a mutated ligand binding domain of the estrogen receptor to the Cre recombinase, resulting in Cre becoming specifically activated by tamoxifen. In the absence of tamoxifen, CreER will result in the shuttling of the mutated recombinase into the cytoplasm. The protein will stay in this location in its inactivated state until tamoxifen is given. Once tamoxifen is introduced, it is metabolized into 4-hydroxytamoxifen, which then binds to the ER and results in the translocation of the CreER into the nucleus, where it is then able to cleave the lox sites. Importantly, sometimes fluorescent reporters can be activated in the absence of tamoxifen, due to leakage of a few Cre recombinase molecules into the nucleus which, in combination with very sensitive reporters, results in unintended cell labelling. CreER(T2) was developed to minimize tamoxifen-independent recombination and maximize tamoxifen-sensitivity.
Conditional cell lineage tracing
Cells alter their phenotype in response to numerous environmental stimuli and can lose the expression of genes typically used to mark their identity, making it difficult to research the contribution of certain cell types to disease. Therefore, researchers often use transgenic mice expressing CreERt2 recombinase induced by tamoxifen administration, under the control of a promoter of a gene that marks the specific cell type of interest, with a Cre-dependent fluorescent protein reporter. The Cre recombinase is fused to a mutant form of the oestrogen receptor, which binds the synthetic oestrogen 4-hydroxytamoxifen instead of its natural ligand 17β-estradiol. CreER(T2) resides within the cytoplasm and can only translocate to the nucleus following tamoxifen administration, allowing tight temporal control of recombination. The fluorescent reporter cassette will contain a promoter to permit high expression of the fluorescent transgene reporter (e.g. a CAG promoter) and a loxP flanked stop cassette, ensuring the expression of the transgene is Cre-recombinase dependent and the reporter sequence. Upon Cre driven recombination, the stop cassette is excised, allowing reporter genes to express specifically in cells in which the Cre expression is being driven by the cell-specific marker promoter. Since removal of the stop cassette is permanent, the reporter genes are expressed in all the progeny produced by the initial cells where the Cre was once activated. Such conditional lineage tracing has proved to be extremely useful to efficiently and specifically identify vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and VSMC-derived cells and has been used to test effects on VSMC and VSMC-derived cells in vivo.
Natural function of the Cre-lox system
The P1 phage is a temperate phage that causes either a lysogenic or lytic cycle when it infects a bacterium. In its lytic state, once its viral genome is injected into the host cell, viral proteins are produced, virions are assembled, and the host cell is lysed to release the phages, continuing the cycle. In the lysogenic cycle the phage genome replicates with the rest of the bacterial genome and is transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division. It can transition to the lytic cycle by a later event such as UV radiation or starvation.
Phages like the lambda phage use their site specific recombinases to integrate their DNA into the host genome during lysogeny. P1 phage DNA on the other hand, exists as a plasmid in the host. The Cre-lox system serves several functions in the phage: it circularizes the phage DNA into a plasmid, separates interlinked plasmid rings so they are passed to both daughter bacteria equally and may help maintain copy numbers through an alternative means of replication.
The P1 phage DNA when released into the host from the virion is in the form of a linear double stranded DNA molecule. The Cre enzyme targets loxP sites at the ends of this molecule and cyclises the genome. This can also take place in the absence of the Cre lox system with the help of other bacterial and viral proteins. The P1 plasmid is relatively large (≈90Kbp) and hence exists in a low copy number - usually one per cell. If the two daughter plasmids get interlinked one of the daughter cells of the host will lose the plasmid. The Cre-lox recombination system prevents these situations by unlinking the rings of DNA by carrying out two recombination events (linked rings -> single fused ring -> two unlinked rings). It is also proposed that rolling circle replication followed by recombination will allow the plasmid to increase its copy number when certain regulators (repA) are limiting.
Implementation of multiple loxP site pairs
A classical strategy for generating gene deletion variants is based on double cross-integration of non-replicating vectors into the genome. Furthermore, recombination systems such as Cre-lox are widely used, mostly in eukaryotes. The versatile properties of Cre recombinase make it ideal for use in many genetic engineering strategies. As such, the Cre lox system has been used in a wide variety of eukaryotes, including plants.
Multiple variants of loxP, in particular lox2272 and loxN, have been used by researchers with the combination of different Cre actions (transient or constitutive) to create a "Brainbow" system that allows multi-colouring of mice's brain with four fluorescent proteins.
Another report using two lox variants pair but through regulating the length of DNA in one pair results in stochastic gene activation with regulated level of sparseness.
Notes and references
External links
Introduction to Cre-lox technology by the "Jackson Laboratory"
Molecular genetics
DNA
Genetic engineering
Genetics techniques |
4363966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Azerbaijan | History of Azerbaijan | The history of Azerbaijan is understood as the history of the region now forming the Republic of Azerbaijan. Topographically, the land is contained by the southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains in the north, the Caspian Sea in the east, and the Armenian Highlands in the west. In the south, its natural boundaries are less distinct, and here the country merges with the Iranian Plateau.
The entity of Caucasian Albania was established on its soil in ancient times. The Caucasian Albanian language spoken by the founders of Caucasian Albania was most likely a predecessor of the now endangered Udi language spoken by the Udi people. From the time of the Medes and the Achaemenid Empire, until the coming of the Russians in the 19th century, the territories of the republic of Azerbaijan and Iran usually shared the same history. Azerbaijan retained its Iranian character even after the Arab conquest of Iran and the conversion of the area's inhabitants to Islam. Some four centuries later, Oghuz Turkic tribes under the Seljuq dynasty entered the area, and Azerbaijan gained a large amount of Turkic inhabitants. Over the centuries, as the original population mingled with the immigrant Turkic nomads, the number of native Persian speakers gradually diminished, and a Turkic dialect nowadays known as Azerbaijani (or Azeri Turkic) gained hold.
One of the regional dynasties, the Shirvanshahs, after becoming a state under the roof of the Timurid Empire, helped the Timurids in the war against the Golden Horde State. After Timur's death, two Turkic independent and rival states emerged in the region, namely Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu. The Shirvanshahs, on the other hand, became independent again in this process and strengthened their local governments.
After the Russo-Persian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828, Qajar Iran was forced to cede its Caucasian territories to the Russian Empire; the treaties of Gulistan in 1813 and Turkmenchay in 1828 defined the border between Czarist Russia and Qajar Iran.
The region north of the Aras was Iranian until it was occupied by Russia during the 19th century. According to the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Qajar Iran recognized Russian sovereignty over the Erivan, Nakhchivan and Talysh Khanates (the last parts of Azerbaijan still in Iranian hands).
In the ensuing period, in post-Iranian Russian-held East Caucasia, an Azerbaijani national identity emerged at the end of the 19th century. After more than 80 years of being part of the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was established in 1918. The name "Azerbaijan", adopted by the ruling Musavat Party for political reasons, had been used to identify the adjacent region of northwestern Iran. Azerbaijan was invaded by Soviet forces in 1920, which led to the establishment of the Azerbaijan SSR. In the early Soviet period, the Azerbaijani national identity was finally forged. Azerbaijan remained under Soviet rule until the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, after which the independent Republic of Azerbaijan was proclaimed. Hostile relations with the neighboring Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict have been focal points within Azerbaijani politics since independence.
Prehistory
Azerbaijani prehistory includes Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages with the Stone Age divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras and the Chalcolithic era being a transitional period from the Stone age to the Bronze and Iron Ages.
Early prehistory
The Paleolithic era is divided into three periods: lower, middle, and upper. The era began with the first human habitation in the region and lasted until the 12th millennium BCE. The Azykh Cave in Khojavend District is the site of one of Eurasia's oldest archaic-human habitations. Remnants of pre-Acheulean culture at least 700,000 years old were found in the lowest layers of the cave. In 1968, Mammadali Huseynov discovered a 300,000-year-old partial jawbone from an early human in the Acheulean-age cave layer; it is one of the oldest human remains ever discovered in the territory of the former Soviet Union. Azerbaijan's lower Paleolithic is known for the Guruchay culture, which has features similar to the culture of Tanzania's Olduvai Gorge.
The Mesolithic era from approximately 12,000 to 8,000 BCE, is represented by caves in Gobustan National Park (near Baku) and Damjili (in Qazakh District). Rock carvings in Gobustan depict scenes of hunting, fishing, work and dancing.
The Neolithic era from the seventh and sixth millennia BCE, is represented by the Shulaveri-Shomu culture in Agstafa District; finds at Damjili, Gobustan, Kultepe (in Nakhchivan) and Toyretepe, and the Neolithic Revolution in agriculture.
Petroglyphs dating from 8,000 to 5,000 years ago depict long boats (similar to Viking ships), indicating a connection with Continental Europe and the Mediterranean Sea.
Later prehistory
The Chalcolithic era lasted from the sixth to the fourth millennium BCE, was the period of transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. The Caucasus Mountains are rich in copper ore, facilitating the development of copper smelting in Azerbaijan. A number of Chalcolithic settlements in Shomutepe, Toyratepe, Jinnitepe, Kultepe, Alikomektepe and IIanlitepe have been discovered, and carbon-dated artifacts indicate that inhabitants built homes, made copper tools and arrowheads, and were familiar with non-irrigated agriculture.
The Bronze Age in Azerbaijan began in approximately the second half of the fourth millennium BCE and the Iron Age began in approximately the seven and sixth centuries BCE. The Bronze Age is divided into early, middle and late eras and have been studied in Nakhchivan, Ganja, Mingachevir and Dashkasan District. The early Bronze Age is characterized by the Kura–Araxes culture, and the middle Bronze Age by painted earthenware or pottery culture. The late Bronze Age is demonstrated in Nakhchivan and by the Khojali-Gadabay and Talish-Mugan cultures.
Research in 1890 by Jacques de Morgan in the mountains of Talysh, near Lankaran, revealed over 230 late-Bronze and early-Iron Age burials. E. Rösler discovered late-Bronze Age materials in Karabakh and Ganja between 1894 and 1903. J. Hummel conducted research from 1930 to 1941 in Goygol District and Karabakh at sites known as Barrows I and II and other late-Bronze Age sites. Archaeologist Walter Crist of the American Museum of Natural History discovered a 4,000-year-old, Bronze Age version of hounds and jackals in Gobustan National Park in 2018. The game, popular in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia at the time, was identified in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhat IV.
Antiquity
The Achaemenids were defeated by Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. After the 247 BCE fall of the Seleucid Empires in Persia, the Kingdom of Armenia ruled portions of what is today Azerbaijan from 190 BCE to 428 CE. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was a branch of the Parthian Empire, and Caucasian Albania (present-day Azerbaijan and Dagestan) was under Parthian rule for the next several centuries. The Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom in the 1st century BCE, primarily remaining a semi-independent vassal state until the Parthians were deposed in 252 and the kingdom became a province of the Sasanian Empire. Caucasian Albania's King Urnayr adopted Christianity as the state religion during the fourth century, and Albania was a Christian state until the eighth century. Although it was subordinate to Sasanid Persia, Caucasian Albania retained its monarchy. Sasanid control ended with its 642 defeat by the Rashidun Caliphate in the Muslim conquest of Persia.
The migration and settlement of Eurasian and Central Asian nomads has been a regional pattern in the history of the Caucasus from the Sassanid-Persian era to the 20th-century emergence of the Azerbaijani Turks. Among the Iranian nomads were the Scythians, Alans and Cimmerians, and the Khazars and Huns made incursions during the Hunnic and Khazar eras. Derbent was fortified during the Sasanid era to block nomads from beyond the North Caucasus pass who did not establish permanent settlements.
Achaemenid and Seleucid rule
After the overthrow of the Median Empire, Azerbaijan was invaded by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE and integrated into the Achaemenid empire. This early Persian rule enabled the rise of Zoroastrianism and other Persian cultural influences. Many Caucasian Albanians came to be known as fire worshippers, a Zoroastrian practice.
Caucasian Albania, Parthians, and Sasanian conquest
The Albanian kingdom coalesced around a Caucasian identity to forge a state in a region of empire-states. During the second or first century BCE the Armenians curtailed the southern Albanian territories and conquered Karabakh and Utik, inhabited by Albanian tribes who included the Utians, Gargarians and Caspians. At this time, the border between Albania and Armenia was the Kura.
As the region became an arena of wars when the Roman and Parthian Empires began to expand, most of Albania was briefly dominated by Roman legions under Pompey; the south was controlled by the Parthians. A rock carving of what is believed to be the easternmost Roman inscription, by Legio XII Fulminata during the reign of Domitian, survives just south-west of Baku in Gobustan. Caucasian Albania then came fully under Parthian rule.
In 252–253, Caucasian Albania was conquered and annexed by the Sasanian Empire. A vassal state, it retained its monarchy; the Albanian king had no real power, however, and most civil, religious, and military authority was held by the Sasanid marzban. After the Sasanid victory over Rome in 260, the victory and the annexation of Albania and Atropatene were described in a trilingual inscription by Shapur I at Naqsh-e Rostam.
Urnayr (343–371), related by marriage to Shapur II (309–379), held power in Albania. With a somewhat-independent foreign policy, he allied with the Sasanian Shapur. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the Albanians provided military forces (particularly cavalry) to Shapur's armies in their attacks against Rome. The siege of Amida (359) ended in a Sasanian victory, and some Albanian regions were returned. Marcellinus noted that the Albanian cavalry played a role in the siege similar to that of the Xionites, and the Albanians were commended for their alliance with Shapur:
Close by him [Šapur II] on the left went Grumbates, king of the Chionitae, a man of moderate strength, it is true, and with shriveled limbs, but of certain greatness of mind and distinguished by the glory of many victories. On the right was the king of the Albani, of equal rank, high in honour.
After the 387 division of Armenia between Byzantium and Persia, the Albanian kings regained control of the provinces of Uti and Artsakh (south of the Kur) when the Sasanian kings rewarded them for their loyalty to Persia.
Medieval Armenian historians such as Movses Khorenatsi and Movses Kaghankatvatsi wrote that the Albanians were converted to Christianity during the fourth century by Gregory the Illuminator of Armenia. Urnayr accepted Christianity, was baptised by Gregory, and declared Christianity his kingdom's official religion.
The Mihranids (630–705) arrived in Albania from Gardman during the early seventh century. Partav (now Barda) was the dynasty's administrative centre. According to M. Kalankatli, the dynasty was founded by Mehran (570–590) and Varaz Grigor (628–642) assumed the title of "prince of Albania".
Partav was Albania's capital city during the reign of Grigor's son, Javanshir (642–681), who demonstrated his allegiance early to Sasanian shah Yazdegerd III (632–651). He led the Albanian army as its sparapet from 636 to 642. Despite the Arab victory in the 637 battle of Kadissia, Javanshir fought as an ally of the Sasanians. After the 651 fall of the Sasanian Empire to an Arab caliphate, he shifted his allegiance to the Byzantine Empire three years later. Constans II protected Javanshir, who defeated the Khazars near the Kura in 662. Three years later the Khazars successfully attacked Albania, which became its tributary in exchange for the return of captives and cattle. Javanshir established diplomatic relations with the caliphate to protect his country from invasion via the Caspian Sea, meeting with Muawiyah I in Damascus in 667 and 670, and Albania's taxes were reduced. Javanshir was assassinated in 681 by rival Byzantine nobles. After his death, the Khazars again attacked Albania; Arab troops entered in 705 and put Javanshir's last heir to death in Damascus, ending the Mihrani dynasty and beginning caliphate rule.
Middle Ages
Islamic conquest
Muslim Arabs defeated the Sasanian and Byzantine Empires as they marched into the Caucasus, making Caucasian Albania a vassal state after Javanshir's 667 surrender. Between the ninth and 10th centuries, Arab authors began calling the region between the Kura and Aras "Arran". Arabs from Basra and Kufa came to Azerbaijan, seizing abandoned lands.
At the beginning of the eighth century, Azerbaijan was the centre of the caliphate–Khazar–Byzantine wars. In 722–723, the Khazars attacked Arab Transcaucasian territory. An Arabian army led by Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah drove the Khazars back across the Caucasus. Al-Jarrah fought his way north along the west Caspian coast, recovering Derbent and advancing with his army to the Khazar capital of Balanjar, captured the capital of the Khazar khanate and placed prisoners around Gabala. Then al-Jarrah returned to Sheki.
During the ninth century, the Abbasid Caliphate dealt with uprisings against Arab rule. The Khurramites, led by Babak Khorramdin, staged a persistent revolt. Babak's victories over Arab generals were associated with his seizure of Babak Fort, according to Arab historians who said that his influence extended to Azerbaijan: "southward to near Ardabil and Marand, eastward to the Caspian Sea and the Shamakhi district and Shervan, northward to the Muqan (Moḡan) steppe and the Aras riverbank, westward to the districts of Jolfa, Nakjavan, and Marand".
Feudal states in 9th-11th centuries
After the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the territory of the contemporary Azerbaijan Republic was ruled by dynasties Shaddadids, Shirvanshahs and the Salarid, Sajid, and Buyid dynasties.
The Shirvanshahs
Shirvanshah, Shīrwān Shāh or Sharwān Shāh, was the title of the rulers of Shirvan: a Persianized dynasty of Arab origin. The Shirvanshahs maintained a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals from 861 to 1539, a continuity which lasted longer than any other dynasty in the Islamic world.
V.F Minorsky in his book titled "A History of Sharvan and Darband in the 10th–11th Centuries" distinguishes four dynasties of Shirvanshahs; 1. The Shirvanshahs (the Sassanids designated them for the protection of northern frontier); 2. Mazyadids; 3. Kasranids; 4. Derbent Shirvanshahs or Derbent dynasty.
At the end of the 10th – beginning of the 11th century they began wars with Derbent (this rivalry lasted for centuries), and in the 1030s they had to repel the raids of the Rus, and Alans.
The last ruler of the Mazyadid was Yazid ibn Ahmad, and from 1027 to 1382, the Kasranid dynasty began to rule the Shirvanshahs. In 1032 and 1033, the Alans attacked the territory of Shamakhi, but were defeated by the troops of the Shirvanshahs. The Kasranid dynasty ruled the state independently until 1066 when the Seljuk tribes came to their territory, and Shirvanshah I Fariburz accepted dependence on them, preserving internal independence.
Shirvan was reportedly independent during two periods: under the legendary sultan Manuchehr and Akhsitan I (who built Baku), and under the 15th-century House of Derbent. Between the 13th and 14th centuries, the Shirvanshahs were vassals of the Mongol and Timurid empires.
The Shirvanshahs Khalilullah I and Farrukh Yassar presided over a stable period during the mid-15th century, and Baku's Palace of the Shirvanshahs (which includes mausoleums) and the Khalwati Sufi khanqah were built during their reign. The Shirvanshahs were Sunnis, and opposed to the Shia Islam of the Safavid order. The Safavid leader Shaykh Junayd was killed in a 1460 skirmish with the Shirvanishah, leading to sectarian animosity.
Sajid dynasty
The Sajid dynasty was an Islamic dynasty that ruled from 879–880 until 941. The Sajids ruled Azerbaijan first from Maragha and Barda and then from Ardabil.
According to the Azerbaijani historian Abbasgulu aga Bakikhanov, from 908–909 to 919, the Sajids made the Shirvanshah Mazyadids dependent on them. Thus, at the beginning of the 10th century, the Sajid state included territories from Zanjan in the south to Derbent in the north, the Caspian Sea in the east, to the cities of Ani and Dabil in the west, covering most of the lands of modern Azerbaijan.
After the death of Yusuf ibn Abu Saj, the last ruler of the Sajid dynasty Deysam ibn Ibrahim was defeated by the ruler of Daylam (Gilan) Marzban ibn Muhammad who ended the Sajid dynasty and founded the Sallarid dynasty in 941 with its capital in Ardabil.
Sallarid dynasty
The Sallarid dynasty was an Islamic dynasty that ruled the territories of Azerbaijan, as well as Iranian Azerbaijan from 941 until 979.
In 943–944, the Russians organized a campaign to the Caspian region, which was many times more brutal than the 913/14 March. As a result of this campaign, which affected the economic situation in the region, Barda lost its position and essence as a large city and gave this position to Ganja.
The Sallaryid dynasty was forced to recognize the rule of the Shaddadids, which strengthened in Ganja in 971. Then, they was assimilated by the Seljuk Turks at the end of the 11th century.
Shaddadids
The Shaddadids were a Muslim dynasty that ruled the area between the rivers Kura and Araxes from 951 to 1199 AD.
Muhammad ibn Shaddad was considered the founder of the Shaddadid dynasty. Taking advantage of the weakening of Sallarids, Muhammad ibn Shaddad took control over the city of Dvin and established his state. The Shaddadids eventually extended their power over the territories of Azerbaijan and ruled major cities such as Barda and Ganja.
Fadl ibn Muhammad built the Khodaafarin Bridges along the Aras River to reconnect the territories between the north and south banks of Aras. In 1030, he organized an expedition against the Khazar khaganate.
In 1030, a new attack on Shirvanshahs by 38 Russian ships took place, Shirvanshah Manučehr was heavily defeated. At that time, Fadl I's son Askuya rebelled in Beylagan. Fadl I's loyal son Musa paid money to the Russians to save Beylagan. As a result, Askuya's revolt was suppressed, and he was executed.
Seljuks
The history of what comprises the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan as part of the Seljuk Empire may have been more pivotal than the Arab conquest since it helped shape the identity of modern Azerbaijani Turks. At the beginning of the 11th century, the region was occupied by waves of Oghuz Turks from Central Asia. The first Turkic rulers were the Ghaznavids from northern Afghanistan, who took over part of Azerbaijan by 1030. They were followed by the Seljuks, a western branch of the Oghuz Turks who conquered Iran and the Caucasus. The Seljuks pressed on to Iraq, where they overthrew the Buyids in Baghdad in 1055.
On September 30, 1139, a 7.7 earthquake struck Ganja, causing 200,000 to 300,000 deaths and great devastation.
The Seljuks then ruled an empire which included Iran and Azerbaijan until the end of the 12th century. During their rule, the sultan Nizam ul-Mulk (a noted Persian scholar and administrator) helped to introduce a number of educational and bureaucratic reforms. His death in 1092 began the decline of the Seljuk empire, which hastened after the death of the sultan Ahmad Sanjar in 1153.
After Rawwadid Vahsudan, Togrul Bey came to Ganja and Abulasvar Shavur accepted his rule in 1054.
In 1075, Alp Arslan annexed the last of the Shaddadid territories. According to the anonymous Tariḵ Bab al-Abwab, Alp Arslan appointed al-Bab and Arran as iqta to his slave Sav Tegin who seized these areas by force from Fażlun in 1075 and ended the dynasty's reign. A branch of the Shaddadids continued to rule in the Ani emirate as vassals of the Seljuq Empire, while the others were assimilated by the Seljuqs.
Referring to the work of Minorsky, Azerbaijani historian Sara Ashurbeyli states that in 1066–67, during the reign of Shah Fariborz b. Sallār (1063–1096), ruler of Shirvanshahs, Seljuk Turks headed by commander Qarategin made great marches to Shamakhi and Baku, and then Shah I Fariburz accepted to be dependent on the Seljuks by paying 40,000 dinars a year.
The absence of the sultan's name on the coins minted during the reign of his son Akhsitan I indicates that the Seljuk state was already weakened and the Shirvanshahs were independent.
Seljuk possessions were ruled by atabegs, vassals of the Seljuk sultans who were sometimes de facto rulers themselves. The title of atabeg became common during Seljuk rule in the 12th century. From the end of the 12th to the early 13th century, Azerbaijan became a Turkic cultural centre. Palaces of the atabeg Eldiguz and the Shirvanshahs hosted distinguished guests, many of whom were Muslim artisans and scientists.
The Atabeks of Azerbaijan's power base was centered around Nakhchivan and would focus on Georgia. It expanded to Arran and took control of from Baylagan to Shamkir. He made himself virtually independent ruler of Azerbaijan by 1146. His marriage to the Mumine Khatun enabled him to intervene in the dynasty dispute between the Seljuk sultans of Iraq, which began after Masud's death in 1152.
After the death of Shamsaddin Eldaniz in Nakhchivan in 1175, his son Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan succeeded him. Pahlavan transferred the capital from Nakhchivan to Hamadan in western Iran and made his younger brother, Qizil Arslan Uthman, the ruler of Azerbaijan. In 1174, Qizil Arslan captured Tabriz, which subsequently became his capital.
After Muhammad Jahan Pahlavan's death, his brother Qizil Arslan (1186–1191) ascended the throne. He continued his successful struggle against the Seljuq rulers. At the same time, the central power began to get weaker as mamluks, who had strengthened their dominance in their areas, did not want to obey the Sultan. Even Shirvanshah Akhsitan I who used to be Atabegs' attempted to intervene in the interior affairs of the Eldiguzids and opposed Qizil Arslans aspiration to the throne. In the response to this, Qizil Arslan invaded Shirvan in 1191, reached to Derbent and subordinated the whole Shirvan to his authority. In 1191, Toghrul III, the last Seljuq ruler was overthrown by Qizil Arslan. Then, by Khalif's leave, he proclaimed himself a Sultan, and then he was poisoned by Innach Khatun in September, 1191.
The Eldiguzid atabeg Abu Bakr attempted to stem the Georgian advance, but suffered a defeat at the hands of David Soslan at the Battle of Shamkor and lost his capital to a Georgian protégé in 1195. Although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Eldiguzids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays. The State's defense capability was stricken. Khorezmshahs' and Georgians' non-stopping forays aggravated the situation in the country and speeded up its decay.
In 1225, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu of the Khwarazmian dynasty ended Seljuk and atabeg rule and set himself up in the capital of Tabriz on the 25 of July in 1225.
Under the Seljuks, progress was made in poetry by the Persian poets Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209), Mahsati Ganjavi (1089–1159) and Khaqani (1120–1199), who lived in this region, and mark the zenith of medieval Persian literature. The region experienced a building boom, and the unique Seljuk architecture is exemplified by the 12th-century fortress walls, mosques, schools, mausoleums, and bridges of Baku, Ganja, and the Absheron Peninsula.
Ajami Abubakr oglu Nakhchivani is one of the architects who lived and created in Azerbaijan during the Atabegs of Azerbaijan. Ajami, also known as "Sheikh al-Muhandis", was the architect of the several famous architectural monumentssuch as Yusif ibn Kuseyir Mausoleum, Momine Khatun Mausoleum and Juma Mosque and the founder of the Nakhichivan School of architecture. The mausoleums of Nakhichivan was nominated for the List of World Heritage Sites, UNESCO in 1998.
Mongols and Ilkhanate rule
The Mongol invasions and conquests of Azerbaijan took place during the 13th and 14th centuries and involved large-scale raids. The Mongol invasion of the Middle East and the Caucasus impacted Azerbaijan and most of its neighbors. Invasions resulted in the incorporation of the territories of Azerbaijan into the newly established Hulagu state with the capital of Maragha in 1256 and lasted until 1357.
During the first invasion of Azerbaijan by the Mongols in 1220–1223, cities such as Zanjan, Qazvin, Maragha, Ardebil, Bailagan, Barda, Ganja, which were the territory of the Atabegs of Azerbaijan, were destroyed.
The Mongol forces approached Tabriz and got a ransom from the city in 1221. After destroying the city of Maragha, they attacked Diyarbakir and Ardabil and then again returned to Azerbaijan. Thus, the Mongols marched to the north, plundering Shirvanen route. In addition, Beylagan was plundered in the spring of 1221. This took them through the Caucasus into Alania and the South Russian steppes where the Mongols routed the Rus'-Kipchak armies at the Battle of the Kalka River (1223).
The second invasion of the Mongolians to Azerbaijan is connected with the name of Chormagan Noyon- a military commander of Genghis Khan in the 1230s. This march was organized by the order of the great Khan Ögedei against Jalâl ad-Dîn Khwârazmshâh, who was ruling these areas after putting an end to Atabek's power in Azerbaijanin 1225. Ögedei Khan sent 30,000 men under the command of Chormagan and the Khwarazmians were swept away by the new Mongol army. In 1231, the Mongols occupied most of Azerbaijan Four years later, they destroyed cities of Ganja, Shamkir, Tovuz, and Şabran on their way to Kievan Rus'. By 1236, Transcaucasia was in the hands of Ögedei Khan.
The third invasion of territories of Azerbaijan by Mongolians is associated with the name of Hulagu khan. After his brother Möngke's accession as Great Khan in 1251. The state established in the areas of modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, and parts of modern Iraq, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan, was an attempt to repair of the damage of the previous Mongol invasions.
Thus, the territories of Azerbaijan became a battleground between the Golden Horde and the Hulagu states.
After the death of Abu Sa'id, the Chobanids dynasty ruled over Azerbaijan, Arrān, and parts of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and west central Persia from 1335 to 1357, until the death of Malek Ashraf.
In 1364 Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka'us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366 Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the Kara Koyunlu, defeating their leader, Bairam Khwaja, at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvan Shah. Then, he was succeeded by his son Shaikh Hasan Jalayir.
End of Mongol rule and Kara Koyunlu-Aq Qoyunlu rivalry
Timur (Tamurlane) invaded Azerbaijan during the 1380s, temporarily incorporating it into his Eurasian domain. Shirvan, under Ibrahim I of Shirvan, was also a vassal state of Timur and assisted him in his war with the Mongol ruler Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde. Azerbaijan experienced social unrest and religious strife during this period due to sectarian conflict initiated by Hurufism, the Bektashi Order, and other movements.
After Timur's death in 1405, Shah Rukh (his fourth son) reigned until his death in 1447. Two rival Turkic rulers emerged west of his domain: the Qara Qoyunlu (based around Lake Van) and the Aq Qoyunlu, centred around Diyarbakır. The Kara Koyunlu were ascendant when their chief, Qara Yusuf, overcame Sultan Ahmed Mirza (the last of the Jalayirids), conquered lands south of Azerbaijan in 1410, and established his capital at Tabriz. Under Jahan Shah, they expanded into central Iran and as far east as Greater Khorasan. The Aq Qoyunlu became prominent under Uzun Hasan, overcoming Jahan Shah and the Qara Qoyunlu. Uzun Hasan ruled Iran, Azerbaijan, and Iraq until his death in 1478. The Aq Qoyunlu and Qara Qoyunlu continued the Timurid tradition of literary and artistic patronage, illustrated by Tabriz' Persian miniature paintings.
Early modern history
Safavid Iran and the rise of Shia Islam
The Safavid order was a Sufi religious order based in Iran and formed during the 1330s by Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252–1334), for whom it was named. The order converted to Twelver Shia Islam by the end of the 15th century. Some Safavid followers (notably the Qizilbash) believed in the mystical and esoteric nature of their rulers and their relationship to the house of Ali, and were willing to fight for them. The Safavid rulers claimed to be descended from Ali and his wife, Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad), through the seventh Imam Musa al-Kadhim. Qizilbash numbers increased by the 16th century; their generals waged a successful war against the Aq Qoyunlu, and captured Tabriz.
The Safavids, led by Ismail I, expanded their base in Ardabil; they conquered the Caucasus, parts of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and western portions of South Asia. Ismail sacked Baku in 1501 and persecuted the Sunni Shirvanshahs. Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Dagestan were conquered by the Safavids between 1500 and 1502.
During the reign of Ismail I and his son, Tahmasp I, Shia Islam was imposed upon the Sunni population of Iran and Azerbaijan. The conversion was especially harsh in Shirvan, where many Sunnis were massacred. Safavid Iran became a feudal theocracy during this period, and the shah was held to be the divinely-ordained head of the state and its religion. The Qizilbashi chiefs were designated wakils (provincial administrators), and the position of ulama was created. Wars with the rival Sunni Ottoman Empire continued during the reign of Tahmasp I, and the Safavid cities of Shamakha, Ganja, and Baku were occupied by the Ottomans during the 1580s.
Under Abbas the Great (1587–1630), the monarchy assumed a Persian Shiite identity. Abbas' reign was the Safavid zenith, and he repelled the Ottomans and re-captured the Caucasus (including Azerbaijan) between 1603 and 1607. Aware of Qizilbash power, Abbas continued the policy of integrating the Caucasus into Persian society and deported hundreds of thousands of Circassians, Georgians and Armenians to Iran. They served in the army, the royal house and in civil administration, effectively killing the feudal Qizilbash; the converted Caucasians (known as ghulams) were loyal to the shah, not their tribal chiefs. Their Armenian, Georgian, and Circassian descendants still live in Iran. The religious impact of Safavid Iran was significant in Azerbaijan due to its early-16th century conversion to Shia Islam, and the country has the world's second-largest population of Shiites (by percentage, after Iran).
18th- and early 19th-century khanates and cession to Russia
As civil conflicts took hold in Iran, most of Azerbaijan was occupied by the Ottomans from 1722 to 1736. Between 1722 and 1735, during the reign of Peter the Great, the Caspian coast (including Derbent, Baku and Salyan) came under Imperial Russian rule as a result of the Russo-Persian War.
After the collapse of Safavid Iran, Nader Shah (an Iranian military man of Turkoman origin) came to power. He seized Iran, banished the Afghans in 1729, and marched as east as Delhi in the hope of founding another Persian empire. Not fortifying his Persian base, however, exhausted Nader's army. He controlled Shah Tahmasp II and was regent of the infant Abbas III until 1736 when he had himself crowned as shah on the Mugan plain. Nader quickly established a new Iranian empire, amassing territory unknown since the Sasanians. He conquered the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, portions of Anatolia, large parts of Central Asia, and defeated the Mughals in the Battle of Karnal. Nader sacked Delhi, the Mughal capital, and brought much wealth back to Persia. Although his empire was short-lived, he is considered Asia's last great conqueror.
Nader Shah's Afsharid dynasty disintegrated after his assassination in 1747, and several Turkic khanates with varying degrees of autonomy emerged in the region. The eunuch Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar turned to the restoration of the outlying Safavid and Afsharid provinces. Returning to Tehran in the spring of 1795, he assembled a force of about 60,000 cavalry and infantry and set off for Azerbaijan in May. He intended to reconquer all territory lost to the Ottomans and Russians, including the region between the Aras and Kura formerly under Iranian Safavid and Afsharid control. The region contained a number of khanates, of which the most important was Karabakh (with its capital at Shusha); Ganja; Shirvan, across the Kura, with its capital at Shamakhi; and Christian Gurjistan (Georgia), on both banks of the Kura in the north-west with its capital at Tiflis. All were under nominal Persian suzerainty. The khanates warred constantly among themselves and against external threats. The most powerful northern khan was Fat'h Ali Khan of Quba (died 1783), who united most of the neighbouring khanates and mounted an expedition to seize Tabriz from the Zand dynasty. The Karabakh Khanate subdued neighbouring Nakhchivan and portions of Erivan.
Agha Mohammad Khan was victorious in the civil war which began with the death of the last Zand king. His reign is noted for the re-emergence of a united Iran. After the death of Nader Shah and the last of the Zands, most of Iran's Caucasian territories had broken away and formed khanates. Agha Mohammad Khan (like the Safavid kings and Nader Shah before him) viewed the region as no different from Iran, and his first objective after securing Iran was to reincorporate the Caucasus into it. Georgia was seen as an integral territory. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the subjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian empire was part of the process which brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. According to The Cambridge History of Iran, Georgia's secession was inconceivable; it had to be resisted like an attempt at separating Fars or Gilan Province. Agha Mohammad Khan did whatever was necessary to subdue and reincorporate the recently-lost regions after Nader Shah's death and the fall of the Zands, including suppressing what was seen as treason by the wali of Georgia: King Heraclius II, who was appointed viceroy of Georgia by Nader Shah.
Agha Mohammad Khan demanded that Heraclius II renounce the Treaty of Georgievsk, which had been signed several years earlier, denouncing dependence on Persia and agreeing to Russian protection and assistance in its affairs. He demanded that Heraclius II again accept Persian suzerainty in return for peace and security. The Ottomans, Iran's neighbouring rival, recognized Iranian rights to Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries. Heraclius appealed to Empress Catherine II of Russia for at least 3,000 Russian troops; although he received no response (leaving Georgia to fend off Persia alone), he rejected Agha Mohammad Khan's ultimatum. Agha Mohammad Khan invaded the Caucasus, crossing the Aras and recapturing Shirvan, the Erivan, Nakhchivan, Derbent, Talysh, Shaki and Karabakh Khanates, and Igdir. The Battle of Krtsanisi resulted in the sack of Tiflis and the reintegration of Georgia into Iran. When he returned with 15,000 to 20,000 Georgian captives, Agha Mohammad was crowned shah in 1796 on the Mughan plain, as Nader Shah had been sixty years earlier.
He was assassinated while preparing a second expedition against Georgia in 1797 in Shusha, and Heraclius II died early the following year. Iranian rule of Georgia was short-lived; in 1799, the Russians marched into Tbilisi. Russia had pursued a policy of expansion with its southern neighbours (the Ottoman Empire and Iran) since the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The two years following Russia's entrance into Tbilisi were a time of confusion, and Georgia was absorbed by Russia in 1801. Iran would not allow the cession of Transcaucasia and Dagestan, leading to the Russo-Persian War of 1804-1813 and the 1826-1828. Eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and Azerbaijan were ceded to Russia in the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay. Although the 1804–1813 Russo-Persian War disrupted trade and agriculture in the Caucasus, the 1826–1828 war was primarily fought in Iran. As a result of the wars, long-standing ties between Iran and the region were severed during the 19th century.
Tadeusz Swietochowski wrote,
Svante Cornell wrote,
According to The Cambridge History of Iran,
Transition from Iranian to Russian rule
According to Audrey L. Altstadt, Russia had been moving militarily towards the Caucasus since 1790. After its defeat by Russia, Qajar Iran ceded Dagestan, Georgia, and most of Azerbaijan to Russia. Local khanates were abolished (Baku and Ganja) or accepted Russian patronage.
The 1826–1828 Russo-Persian war resulted in another defeat for Iran. The Qajars ceded their remaining Caucasian territories: the remainder of Azerbaijan (the Nakhchivan and Lankaran Khanates) and Armenia's Erivan Khanate. Tariffs were lowered on Russian goods, and Russia could keep a navy in the Caspian Sea. The Treaty of Turkmenchay defined Russian-Iranian relations until 1917, establishing the present borders of Azerbaijan and Iran as khan rule ended. In the newly-Russian-controlled territories, two provinces were established which became most of present-day Azerbaijan: Elisavetpol (Ganja) in the west and Shamakhi District in the east. Azerbaijanis are now divided between Azerbaijan and Iran. The Russian conquest sparked an exodus of Caucasian Muslims toward Iran, including many Turkic peoples from north of the Aras.
Despite the Russian conquest, throughout the entire 19th century, preoccupation with Iranian culture, literature, and language remained widespread amongst Shia and Sunni intellectuals in the Russian-held cities of Baku, Ganja and Tiflis (Tbilisi, now Georgia). Within the same century, in post-Iranian Russian-held East Caucasia, an Azerbaijani national identity emerged at the end of the 19th century.
From the Russian conquests to the 1840s, Azerbaijan was governed by the Tsar's military. Russia reorganized the region's khanates into provinces, each governed by an army officer with a combination of local and Russian law. Due to the officers' unfamiliarity with local customs, however, Russian imperial law was increasingly applied; this led to local discontent. Russian administration was unequal to non-Christian Azerbaijanis; religious authorities were kept under control, disturbing non-Christians. Russia made concerted efforts to control the application of Islamic law, and two ecclesiastical boards were created to oversee Islamic activity; it appointed a mufti for the Sunni board and a shaykh al-Islām for its Shia counterpart. In 1857 Georgian and Armenian religious authorities were permitted to censor their respective communities, but Muslim religious works were approved by a censorship board in Odessa. Azerbaijani Turks were subject to Russian proselytizing.
During the late 1830s, plans were made to replace the military rule with a civil administration. When the new legal system became effective in January 1841, Transcaucasia was divided into a Georgian-Imeretian province and a Caspian oblast centered in Shamakhi. New administrative borders ignored historic borders or ethnic composition. By the end of military rule in Azerbaijan, Russian imperial law applied to all criminal and most civil matters; the jurisdiction of traditional religious courts and Qadis was reduced to family law. After an 1859 earthquake, the capital of the eastern province was transferred from Shamakhi to Baku.
Baku was integrated into the Russian Empire in accordance with the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan, and Azerbaijan experienced significant economic development during the second half of the 19th century. The separate currencies of the former khanates were replaced by the ruble, and their tariffs were abolished; these reforms encouraged further investment in the region. Russia began investing in joint-stock companies, and by the 1840s steamships began sailing on the Caspian. Trade in the port of Baku increased from an average of 400,000 rubles during the 1830s to 500,000 in the 1840s and 700,000 to 900,000 rubles after the Crimean War.
Although oil had been discovered and exported from the region centuries before, the 1870s Azerbaijani oil rush led to prosperity and growth in the years leading to World War I and created huge disparities in wealth between the largely-European capitalists and the local Muslim workforce. During the 1870s, Baku experienced rapid industrial growth due to the oil boom. Azerbaijan's first oil refinery was established near Baku in 1859, and the region's first kerosene plant was built in 1863. Oil wells built during the 1870s sparked the boom, and oilfields were auctioned. This system secured investors' holdings, encouraging further investment. Most of the investors were elite Russians and Armenians; of 51 oilfields sold at the first auction, five were bought by Azerbaijani Turks. Two of Baku's 54 notable 1888 oil-extraction firms were owned by Azerbaijanis, who participated in greater numbers in small-scale extraction and refining operations; 73 of 162 oil refineries were Azerbaijani-owned, but all except seven of them employed fewer than 15 people. In the decades after the oil rush (and its foreign investment), other industries grew in Azerbaijan. The banking system was one of the first to react to the oil industry. In 1880, an offshoot of the state bank opened in Baku. In its first year of operation, it issued 438,000 rubles; in 1899, all Baku banks had issued 11.4 million rubles in interest-bearing securities. Transportation and shipping also developed as a result of the expanding oil market, and the number of vessels on the Caspian quadrupled between 1887 and 1899. The Transcaucasus Railway, completed in 1884, connected Baku (on the Caspian Sea) to Batum on the Black Sea via Ganja (Elizavetpol) and Tiflis. In addition to transporting oil, the railroad develop new relationships between rural agricultural regions and industrial areas. The region was further interconnected with new communications infrastructure; telegraph lines connected Baku to Tiflis via Elizavetpol in the 1860s, and a telephone system operated in Baku during the 1880s.
Modernisation—compared to the neighboring Armenians and Georgians—was slow to develop amongst the Tatars of the Russian Caucasus. According to the 1897 Russian Empire census, less than five percent of the Tatars were able to read or write. The intellectual and newspaper editor Ali bey Huseynzade (1864–1940) led a campaign to 'Turkify, Islamise, modernise' the Caucasian Tatars, whereas Mammed Said Ordubadi (1872–1950), another journalist and activist, criticized superstition amongst Muslims.
The oil rush was spurred by Armenian magnate Ivan Mirzoev and his drilling practices. Oilfields were auctioned primarily to Russians, Armenians, and Europeans, most notably Robert Nobel of Branobel. By 1900, Baku's population increased from 10,000 to about 250,000 as a result of worker migration from the Russian Empire, Iran, and elsewhere. The growth of Baku fostered the emergence of an Azeri nationalist intelligentsia influenced by European and Ottoman ideas. Influential thinkers such as Hasan bey Zardabi, Mirza Fatali Akhundov and (later) Jalil Mammadguluzadeh, Mirza Alakbar Sabir, Nariman Narimanov encouraged nationalist discourse, railed against poverty, ignorance, and extremism, and sought reforms in education and the emancipation of dispossessed classes (including women). The financial support of philanthropic millionaires such as Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev bolstered the rise of an Azeri middle class.
An economic and political crisis erupted in Baku after the Russo-Japanese War, beginning with a general strike of oil workers in 1904. The following year, class and ethnic tensions resulted in Muslim-Armenian massacres during the 1905 Russian Revolution.
The situation improved between 1906 and 1914 when a limited parliamentary system was introduced in Russia and Muslim MPs from Azerbaijan promoted Azeri interests. The pan-Turkist and pan-Islamist Musavat Party, inspired by Mammed Amin Rasulzade's left-wing modernist ideology, was formed in 1911. Clandestine at first, the party expanded rapidly in 1917 after Russia's October Revolution. Key components of Musavat ideology were secularism, nationalism and federalism, or autonomy within a broader political structure. The party's right and left wings differed on certain issues, however, most notably land distribution.
When Russia became involved in World War I, social and economic tensions spiked. Its 1917 revolution granted self-rule to Azerbaijan, but also renewed ethnic conflicts between Azeris and Armenians.
Modern history
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
When the Russian Empire collapsed in 1917, the Transcaucasian Federation was founded by Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian intelligentsia. The federation was short-lived, and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 28 May 1918 by the Musavat. The name "Azerbaijan", adopted by the party for political reasons, had been used to identify the adjacent region of northwestern Iran.
It was the Islamic world's first democratic republic. In Baku, however, a coalition of Bolsheviks, Dashnaks and Mensheviks fought against a Turkish Islamic army led by Nuri Pasha. The coalition, known as the Baku Commune, inspired (or tacitly condoned) the massacre of local Muslims by Dashnak-Armenian forces. It collapsed, and was replaced by the British-controlled Centrocaspian Dictatorship in July 1918. After battles in August and September, the joint forces of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and Ottoman Empire (led by Nuri Pasha) entered Baku and declared it the Azerbaijani capital on 15 September 1918.
Azerbaijan was proclaimed a secular republic, and its first parliament met on 5 December 1918. Although the British administration initially did not recognize the republic, it cooperated with it. The situation in Azerbaijan had more or less stabilized by mid-1919, and British forces left in August of that year. However, advancing Bolshevik forces, victorious in the Russian Civil War, began to threaten the republic (involved in a conflict with Armenia over Karabakh) by early 1920.
Azerbaijan was recognised by the Allies as an independent nation in January 1920 at the Paris Peace Conference. The republic was governed by five cabinets, formed by a coalition of the Musavat, the Socialist Bloc, the Independents, the Liberals, the Hummet and the Ittihad parties. The premier of the first three cabinets was Fatali Khan Khoyski, and Nasib Yusifbeyli was premier of the last two. Parliamentary president Alimardan Topchubashov, the recognized head of state, represented Azerbaijan at the peace conference.
Aided by dissidents in government, the Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Most of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt which had broken out in Karabakh. The Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence easily; as many as 20,000 died resisting what was essentially a Russian reconquest. The formation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic was facilitated by popular support of Bolshevik ideology, particularly by workers in Baku. On the day of the invasion, a Soviet government was formed under Nariman Narimanov. The same fate befell Armenia by the end of 1920, and Georgia in March 1921.
Soviet Azerbaijan
After the government surrendered to Bolshevik forces, Azerbaijan was proclaimed a Soviet socialist republic on 28 April 1920. The Congress of the Peoples of the East was held in Baku in September of that year. Nominally an independent state, the Azerbaijan SSR was dependent on (and controlled by) the government in Moscow. It was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, with Armenia and Georgia, in March 1922. In accordance with a December 1922 agreement, the TSFSR became one of the Soviet Union's four original republics. The TSFSR was dissolved in 1936, and its three regions became republics of the USSR. In the early Soviet period, the Azerbaijani national identity was finally forged.
Like other Union Republics, Azerbaijan was affected by Stalin's purges during the 1930s. Thousands of people were killed during the period, including Huseyn Javid, Mikail Mushfig, Ruhulla Akhundov, and Ayna Sultanova. The Azerbaijan SSR supplied much of the Soviet Union's gas and oil during World War II, and was a strategically important region. Although the June 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union reached the Greater Caucasus in July 1942, the Germans did not invade Azerbaijan. The 1950s were a period of rapid urbanization and industrialization, and a sblizheniye (rapprochement) policy began to merge the peoples of the Soviet Union into a monolithic nation.
Azerbaijan's oil industry lost its relative importance to the Soviet economy during the 1960s because of a shift in oil production to other regions of the Soviet Union and the depletion of known terrestrial oil resources; offshore production was not considered cost-effective. Azerbaijan had the second-lowest rate of growth in productivity and economic output of the Soviet republics, ahead of Tajikistan. Although ethnic tensions (particularly between Armenians and Azerbaijanis) began to grow, violence was suppressed.
In an attempt to end the structural crisis, the government in Moscow appointed Heydar Aliyev as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan in 1969. Aliyev temporarily improved economic conditions and promoted alternative industries, such as cotton, to supplement the declining oil industry. He consolidated the republic's ruling elite (which now consisted almost entirely of ethnic Azerbaijanis), reversing the previous rapprochement. Aliyev was appointed a member of the Communist Party's Politburo in Moscow, the highest position attained by an Azeri in the Soviet Union, in 1982. In 1987, when Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika began, he retired.
The Gorbachev era was marked by increasing unrest in the Caucasus, initially over Nagorno-Karabakh. Ethnic conflict, centering on Armenian demands for the unification of Azerbaijan's Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast with Armenia by March 1988, began in February of that year amid pogroms against the Armenian populations of Baku and Sumgait. Although Moscow imposed military rule several times, unrest continued to spread.
The ethnic strife revealed the Communist Party's shortcomings as a champion of national interests, and independent publications and political organizations emerged in the spirit of glasnost. By fall 1989, the Popular Front of Azerbaijan (PFA) seemed poised to seize power from the Communist Party before the party split into conservative-Islamic and moderate wings. The split was followed by an outbreak of anti-Armenian violence in Baku and intervention by Soviet troops.
Unrest culminated in violent confrontation when Soviet troops killed 132 nationalist demonstrators in Baku on 20 January 1990. Azerbaijan declared independence from the USSR on 30 August 1991 and became part of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The First Nagorno-Karabakh War began by the end of the year, ending in a tense cease-fire which has persisted into the 21st century. The refusal by both sides to negotiate resulted in a stalemate, as Armenian troops retained their positions in Karabakh and corridors to Armenia which were seized from Azerbaijan.
Contemporary history
Independent Azerbaijan
Mutallibov presidency (1991–1992)
Azerbaijan SSR president Ayaz Mutallibov and Georgian president Zviad Gamsakhurdia were the only Soviet leaders to support the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, and Mütallibov proposed constitutional changes to permit direct nationwide presidential elections.
The 1991 Azerbaijani presidential election, in which Mutalibov was the only candidate, was held on 8 September 1991. Although the election was neither free nor fair by international standards, Mutalibov became the country's formal president. The proposed 18 October 1991 declaration of independence by Azerbaijan's Supreme Soviet was followed by the dissolution of its Communist Party, although its former members (including Mutallibov) retained their posts. In a nationwide December 1991 referendum, Azerbaijani voters approved the Supreme Soviet's declaration of independence. The country was first recognized by Turkey, Israel, Romania and Pakistan, and the United States followed suit on 25 December.
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict continued, despite efforts to negotiate a settlement. Early in 1992, Karabakh's Armenian leadership proclaimed an independent republic. Armenia gained the upper hand in what was now a full-scale war, with covert assistance from the Russian Army. Atrocities were committed by both sides; the 25 February 1992 Khojaly massacre of Azerbaijani civilians was criticized for the government's inaction, and Azerbaijani troops killed and captured Armenian civilians in the Maraga massacre. Mütallibov, pressured by the Azerbaijani Popular Front Party, submitted his resignation to the National Council on 6 March. His failure to build an adequate army he could control caused the downfall of his government. Shusha, the last Azerbaijani-inhabited town in Nagorno-Karabakh, came under Armenian control on 6 May. Eight days later, the Supreme Council investigated the Khojaly massacre, absolved Mutallibov of responsibility, overturned his resignation and restored him as president. The following day (15 May), armed Azerbaijan Popular Front forces seized the National Council and the state-owned radio and television stations and deposed Mutallibov, who fled to Moscow. The National Council was dissolved, and the National Assembly (composed of Azerbaijan Popular Front members and former communists) was formed. Two days later (as Armenian forces took Lachin), Isa Gambar was elected National Assembly chair and assumed the duties of the president until national elections scheduled for 17 June 1992.
Elchibey presidency (1992–1993)
The former communists failed to present a viable candidate for the 1992 Azerbaijani presidential election and PFA leader, former dissident and political prisoner Abulfaz Elchibey was elected president with over 60 percent of the vote. Elchibey's program included opposition to Azerbaijan's membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States, closer relations with Turkey, and a desire for improved links with the Iranian Azerbaijanis.
Heydar Aliyev, who had been prevented from running for president by an age limit of 65, was doing well in Nakhchivan but had to contend with an Armenian blockade of the exclave. Azerbaijan halted rail traffic into and out of Armenia, cutting most of its land links with the outside world. The negative economic effects of the Nagorno-Karabakh war on both countries illustrated Transcaucasian interdependence.
Within a year of his election, Elchibey faced the same situation which had led to Mutallibov's downfall. The fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh turned in favour of Armenia, which seized about one-fifth of Azerbaijan's territory and created over one million internally displaced persons. A military rebellion led by Surat Huseynov broke out in early June 1993 in Ganja. The PFA leadership found itself without political support as a result of the war's setbacks, a deteriorating economy, and opposition from groups led by Aliyev. In Baku, he seized power and quickly consolidated his position, and an August vote-of-confidence referendum removed Elchibey from the presidency.
Heydar Aliyev presidency (1993–2003)
A presidential election was held on 3 October 1993, which Heydar Aliyev won overwhelmingly.
Aliyev had some of his opposition, including Surat Huseynov, arrested by March 1994. In 1995, the military police were accused of plotting a coup and disbanded; the coup plotters were linked to right-wing Turkish nationalists. The following year, Former National Assembly speaker Rəsul Quliyev went into exile, and Aliyev's position as absolute ruler was unquestionable by the end of 1996.
As a result of limited reforms and the signing of the October 1994 contract for the Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli offshore oilfield complex, which led to increased oil exports to Western markets, the economy began improving. However, extreme levels of Corruption and nepotism in Aliyev's government prevented Azerbaijan from more sustained development, however, especially in non-oil sectors.
In October 1998, Aliyev was re-elected to a second term. Although his weakened opposition accused him of voter fraud, there was no widespread international condemnation of the election. Aliyev's second term was characterized by limited reforms, increasing oil production and the dominance of BP as Azerbaijan's main foreign oil company. The Shah Deniz gas field is part of the European Commission's Southern Gas Corridor, and a gas export agreement was signed with Turkey. Work on the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and the South Caucasus gas pipeline began in 2003; the oil pipeline was completed in 2005, and the gas pipeline in 2006. Azerbaijan was a party to the aborted Nabucco pipeline.
Aliyev's health began to fail. He collapsed during a televised April 2003 speech, and made his son Ilham the unopposed presidential candidate in October. After several months in the Cleveland Clinic with heart and kidney problems, he died on 12 December 2003.
Ilham Aliyev presidency (2003–present)
In another controversial election, Heydar's son Ilham Aliyev was elected president that year. The election, marred by violence, was criticised by foreign observers. Opposition to the Aliyev administration is widespread, with opponents advocating a more democratic government. Aliyev was re-elected in 2008 with 87 percent of the vote, however, as opposition parties boycotted the election. After a 2009 constitutional referendum, presidential term limits were abolished and freedom of the press was restricted.
The 2010 election produced a National Assembly loyal to Aliyev; for the first time in Azerbaijani history, no candidate from the main opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front or Musavat parties was elected.
The Economist called Azerbaijan's regime authoritarian, ranking it 135th out of 167 countries in its 2010 Democracy Index.
Demonstrations were held against Aliyev's rule in 2011, calling for democratic reforms and a new government. Aliyev responded with a security crackdown, using force to crush protests in Baku and refusing to make concessions. Over 400 people were arrested during the protests, which began in March. Opposition leaders, including Musavat's Isa Gambar, vowed to continue demonstrating despite police suppression.
On 24 October 2011, Azerbaijan was elected a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. From 1 to 5 April 2016, clashes resumed between Armenian and Azerbaijani armed forces.
In April 2018, President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in the election that was boycotted by the main opposition parties as fraudulent.
On 27 September 2020, new clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact. Both the armed forces of Azerbaijan and Armenia reported military and civilian casualties. The Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement and the end of the six-week war between Azerbaijan and Armenia was widely celebrated in Azerbaijan, as they made significant territorial gains.
See also
Origin of the Azerbaijanis
Western Azerbaijan (political concept)
References
Notes
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Altstadt, Audrey. The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity Under Russian Rule (Azerbaijan: Hoover Institution Press, 1992).
Altstadt, Audrey. Frustrated Democracy in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan (2018)
Ashurbeyli, S. "History of Shirvanshahs" Elm 1983, 408 (in Azeri)
de Waal, Thomas. Black Garden. NYU (2003).
Goltz, Thomas. "Azerbaijan Diary: A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic".M.E. Sharpe (1998).
Gasimov, Zaur: The Caucasus, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 18, 2011.
Kalankatu, Moisey (Movses). The History of Caucasian Albanians. transl by C. Dowsett. London oriental series, vol 8, 1961 (School of Oriental and African Studies, Univ of London)
At Tabari, Ibn al-Asir (trans by Z. Bunyadov), Baku, Elm, 1983?
Jamil Hasanli. At the Dawn of the Cold War: The Soviet-American Crisis Over Iranian Azerbaijan, 1941–1946, (Rowman & Littlefield; 409 pages; $75). Discusses the Soviet-backed independence movement in the region and argues that the crisis in 1945–46 was the first event to bring the Soviet Union in conflict with the United States and Britain after the alliance of World War II
Momen, M. An Introduction to Shii Islam, 1985, Yale University Press 400 p
Shaffer, B. Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002).
Swietochowski, Tadeusz. Russia and Azerbaijan: Borderland in Transition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995).
Van der Leew, Ch. Azerbaijan: A Quest for Identity: A Short History (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000).
History of Azerbaijan Vol I-III, 1960 Baku (in Russian)
External links
Timeline starting in 1828 from BBC News
History of Azerbaijan: Primary Documents; Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University.
A Guide to the United States’ foreign relations: Azerbaijan (Includes links to other United States government documents related to Azerbaijan); Office of the Historian, State Department of the United States.
la:Atropatene (res publica)#Historia |
4364072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jes%C3%BAs%20Rafael%20Soto | Jesús Rafael Soto | Jesús Rafael Soto (June 5, 1923 – January 17, 2005) was a Venezuelan op and kinetic artist, a sculptor and a painter.
His works can be found in the collections of the main museums of the world, including Tate (London), Museum Ludwig (Germany), Centre Georges Pompidou (Paris), (Roma) and MoMA (New York). One of the main museums of art in Venezuela, in his home town, has his name in tribute to him.
Early life
Jesús Rafael Soto was born in Ciudad Bolívar in Venezuela. The eldest of four children born to Emma Soto and Luis Garcia Parra, a violin player. From a very young age, Soto wanted to help support his family anyway he could, but art was the most interesting to him. He picked up the guitar and also began recreating famous pieces of art that he found in various books, magazines and almanacs.
At 16, Soto started his serious artistic career when he began to create and paint posters for the cinemas in Ciudad Bolivar. "At that age - says the artist -, the only artists that I knew were the lettering painters. My family was very happy. I could earn some money, make lettering till the end of my days. Nobody looked further than that..."
In 1938, Soto participates in a student group affiliated to surrealism ideas and publish in the local journal some poems that scandalize the society. In the group, Soto learns about automatic writing and charcoal drawing. "I drew heads, portraits, I had a great technique. Finally, there were people that made a petition, the bishop asked to see it and he signed it. I got a scholarship…"
Education
In 1942 he received a scholarship to study artistic training at the Escuela de Artes Plásticas y Artes Aplicadas (Plastic and Applied Arts School) in Caracas, finishing his studies in 1947. Once there, he took classes in "pure art" and the "training course for instructors in art education history." The director of the school, Antonio Edmundo Monsanto, was instrumental to Soto’s career as well as other very important Venezuelan artist (Omar Carreño, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Narsico Deboug, Dora Hersen, Mateo Manaure, Luis Guevara, Pascual Navarro, Mercedes Pardo and Alejandro Otero) since he often brought inspirations from foreign countries to his students, including the latest from the avant-garde: cubism.
"When I got in the Fine Arts School - says Soto -, the first thing I saw was the reproduction of a dead nature of Braque". This image caused such impact on him because "...the color started to separate off the form" and because of the multiplicity of the viewing points that he wanted to represent. For Soto, this was the starting point.
Influences
After Soto had graduated from Escuela de Artes Plasticas y Artes Aplicadas, receiving a teaching degree, he was then hired to be the director of the Escuela de Bellas Artes de Maracaibo from 1947 to 1950. When he was teaching there, he received a government grant to travel to France, and settled in Paris.
In France, Soto discovered Paul Klee and Piet Mondrian’s work, and the latter suggested the idea of ‘dynamizing the neoplasticism’. This, joined with Soto's will to create a new sort of movement that would add to three dimensional art concluded in associations with Yaacov Agam, Jean Tinguely, Victor Vasarely, and other artists connected with the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles and the Galerie Denise René.
Career
In the beginning, Soto painted post-impressionist works, latter getting interested in Cubism. After getting in touch with Malevich, Mondrian and the constructivists, Soto started to experiment with optical phenomena and op art and then he began to make art that was more than just pictures.
The first serial works
In the 1950s, Soto experimented with serial art: the repetition of formal elements in the plan, the depersonalization of the work and the revelation of the relativity of the vision. He achieved the reproduction of vibratory phenomena and, above all, the rupture of notions like composition and equilibrium. Making the work of art a fragment of an infinite reality, that could be repeated without varying its essential structure. Without a beginning, an end, up, down, right, left. Helped by notions from the mathematics and music fields, Soto makes his serial art.
Incorporation of time and real movement
The next step on Soto's works was incorporating time and real movement through the treatment of the space. The work should be an autonomous object, where "real" situations were put into play, and not a plan where a determinate vision was projected. At the same time that the spectator was moving in front of the work of art, to obtain from it its optical vibrational effects, time and real movement were being incorporated. In his Dos cuadrados en el espacio (1953), Soto began a series retaking the approaches of Malevich, specially about adopting the square as the "only valid form".
In his Desplazamiento de un cuadro transparente (1953–54) he created a spatial effect on a plane surface that latter was developed in a tridimensional way, superimposing two or more Plexiglas sheets, transparent but painted with straight or curved drawings that changed the way they were seen as the spectator moved, inviting the participation of the public. This work was the response to a discovery: the ambiguity of spatial perception
In 1955 Soto participated in the exhibition Le Mouvement, in the Denise René gallery, in Paris. Other artists being shown were Yaacov Agam, Marcel Duchamp and Victor Vasarely. The exhibition prompted the publication of the ‘Yellow Manifest’ about kinetic art and the visual researches involving spectators and stimulus. The kinetic art movement gained force in Europe and Latin-America after this exhibition.
Dematerialization of form
As results of the optical vibratory states that Soto achieves from the superposition of plans, a new situation appears: the outbreak of the solid body, its dematerialization in our retina, phenomena that is produced for the first time in Permutación (1956). In Estructuras cinéticas de elementos geométricos (1955-57) and Armonía transformable (1956) is added a new element that was relegated in his research: color. It is about the superposition of different plexiglass planes, where color frames are inscribed, introducing new vibratory elements. The real division of the plane that had previously undergone an unfolding is produced here. Its structure already suggests a true spatial dimension, as a consequence of the equivalence of its obverse and its reverse. The situation becomes more complex, due to the multiplication of different lines, colors and directions. Plexiglass, medium that had provided the possibility of conforming aleatory states, begins to be an impediment and the search for a new way of materializing vibration starts.
The conformation of a new visual order
To the preoccupation of searching for a new way of materializing the vibratory states is added the concern to approach human scale, integrating Soto's works to architecture. This is how in Estructura Cinética (1957) the frames that had been drawn on plexiglass become real elements: metal rods welded between them. Soto's works become real special objects that visitors are able to penetrate.
In the 1950s and beginning of the 1960s, starting from his basic concept of matter and space as different manifestations of energy, Soto had already structured the conceptual platform of his plastic language. Works like Escritura and Muro de Bruselas, both from 1958, already contain all the elements that will be developed later.
"My work of art - as Soto says -, is totally abstract. It was born from a reflection about painting and the propositions of our biggest (artists). I don't copy nature, I isolate fundamental properties of the reality. For me, works are, before all, signs, no matter. It would be wrong to see in the work that is in front of you the object of my art, it isn't there if not as a witness, sign of another thing..."
Space plenitude
All of Soto's work, from start to end, answers to the same necessity of materialize his concept of the world as an impossible reality to measure in a human scale; vision where are vital the energy and space as essential situations inside nature. To reveal this situations in all of its complex dimension was the impulse that has fed his plastic research.
"When you enter a penetrable, you have the sensation of being in a light swirl, a total plenitude of vibrations. The Penetrable is a kind of concretization of this plenitude in which I make people move and make them feel the body of space. Is a way of materializing what exist, is an immaterial state, one state that for me isn't irreal, but a reality. Reality exists all over the place and fill all the universe. Emptiness doesn't exist, anywhere. This is my basic line of thought."
Contributions
'Soto would set the bases for an art that transcended the conventional parameters of painting and sculpture.' By inviting the spectator to participate in the work, instead of merely looking from a distance, Soto more deeply engages the audience, and makes the experience more intriguing and stimulating. Soto had a partner in this movement. On the other hand, his counterpart Carlos Cruz-Diez focused more on the way colours are perceived by the eye. One of his series called Fisicromias (Physiochromies) shows how coloured light is perceived and displaced through one's eyes. Another artist that participated in this style was Alejandro Otero. His series Colortions (Rhythmicolors) combine the same concepts of the perception of colour in the eye and participators' movement with the work, but gave greater attention to how the colours are controlled with vertical lines.
Jesús Rafael Soto died in 2005 in Paris, and is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse.
Impact
Like many other Venezuelan artists from this time, Jesus Rafael Soto and Carlos Cruz-Diez considered their works a response to what they felt the problems were in art of their time. They wanted to express a more universal process of art. Because of this, their works are contributions that continue to enrich the art world. Their willingness to contribute and put themselves in a more universal approach to art, was a direct rebuttal to the traditional views of art in Latin America. With Venezuela, this was a way for them to add what they felt was missing in the art of Latin America.
Painting, in history was an act of responding to the situation at hand in the mind of Soto and Cruz-Diez. "Everything else was academic, anachronistic, or as Alejandro Otero said, "the work of a man hiding behind time.""
Collections
In 1973, the Jesús Soto Museum of Modern Art opened in Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela with a collection of his work. Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva designed the building for the museum and Italian op artist Getulio Alviani was called to run it. Something that is different about this gallery is that a large number of the exhibits are wired to the electricity supply so that they can move.
Environmental integrations
1957: "Structure cinétique", Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas, Venezuela
1958: "Wall of Brussels", I.V.I.C., Caracas, Venezuela (made for Universal Exhibition of Brussels, 1958). "Tour de Bruxelles", I.V.I.C., Caracas, Venezuela (made for Universal Exhibition of Brussels, 1958).
1967: "Volume suspendu", Expo 67, Pavililon of Venezuela, Montreal, Canada (ephemeral environment in the pavilion made by architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva for intégration of Soto's monumental artwork, Universal Exhibition in Montréal, 1967).
1968-69: ''Ephemeral Environment'' made for the end year festivities, Place Furstenberg, Paris, France.
1969: "Mur cinétique" (2), UNESCO, Paris, France. "Progresión a centro móvil", Torre Capriles, Caracas, Venezuela. "Paralelas vibrantes", Torre Capriles, Caracas, Venezuela. "Volumen cinético", Torre Capriles, Caracas, Venezuela.
1970: Hall, Deutsche Bundesbank, Francfort, Germany. "Extension et progression dans l'eau", Rethel college, The Ardennes, France. Hall, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Rennes, France.
1971: "Vibración amarilla", I.V.I.C., Caracas, Venezuela.
1972: Hall, pharmaceutical Laboratory Sandoz, Basle, Switzerland.
1972-82: Complejo Cultural Teresa Carreño, Caracas, Venezuela.
1973: "El gran mural de las escrituras", Banco Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela. "Extension et progression dans l'eau", Paseo Ciencias, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
1973-95: "Penetrable", Parque García Sanabría, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain.
1974: "Mur cinétique", International duOffice for Work, Geneva, Switzerland.
1975: Hall and restaurant of the personnel, Régie Renault, Boulogne- Billancourt, France. "Progression", CES (college), Moreuil, France.
1977: "Suspended Virtual Volume", Royal Bank of Canada, Toronto, Canada. "Mural Cavendes", Edificio Cavendes, Caracas, Venezuela.
1979: "Environnement", Reception, Cars-Motors, Caracas, Venezuela. "Gran escritura negra", Banco de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela. "Volumen virtual suspendido", Centro Banaven, Caracas, Venezuela. "Interférences vibrantes", West Deutsche Landesbank, Dortmund, Germany.
1982: "Progresión suspendida amarilla y blanca", Entidad de Ahorro y Préstamo, Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela.
1983: "Progresión amarilla", Metro Chacaíto, Caracas, Venezuela. "Cubo virtual azul y negro", Metro Chacaíto, Caracas, Venezuela.
1984: "Extensión azul y blanca", Seguros La Seguridad, Caracas, Venezuela. "Volumen virtual polícromo", Deutsche Eisenbahn Versicherung, Cologne, Germany.
1985: "Esfera Japón", Edificio Banco Lara, Caracas, Venezuela.
1987: "Cubo Meneven", Edificio Corpoven, Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela.
1988: "Ovoide Polar", Fundación Polar, Caracas, Venezuela. "Cubo Provincial", Banco Provincial, Caracas, Venezuela. "Mur Polychrome", CFDT, Paris, France. "Ecriture", CFDT, Paris, France. "Large Sphere of Seoul", Olympic Park, Seoul, South Korea (made for Olympiade of Arts during Olympic Games in Seoul, 1988). "Media esfera roja", Seguros La Seguridad, Caracas, Venezuela. "Cubo virtual", Torre Banco Provincial, Caracas, Venezuela.
1992: "Media esfera azul y verde", Seville, Spain (made for Universal Exhibition in Seville, 1992).
1993: "Dos cubos virtuales", Darier Hentsch & Cie., Geneva, Switzerland.
1993-94: "Cubo de Francia", Ambassade de France, Caracas, Venezuela.
1995: "Welcoming Flag", Dowa Fire & Marine Insurance Company Phoenix Tower, Osaka, Japan.
1989-1995: "Volume virtuel Air France", Air France Head Office, Roissy, France.
1997: Integration of four artworks, Hall, KPMG, La Défense (Paris), France. "Cube noir Penetrable", Fondazione Il Giardino di Daniel Spoerri, Seggiano (Grosseto), Italy. "Sphère bleue", Samsung Plaza, Gare de Suhyun (Megaport of Bundang), South Korea. "Penetrable of Tongyoung", Tongyoung Nammang Open Air Sculpture Park, Korea (1997). "Virtual Ellipsoids", Dresdner Bank Head Office, Berlin, Germany. "Esfera de Caracas", motorway Francisco Fajardo, Caracas, Venezuela.
1998-99: "La esfera de Margarita", Porlamar, Margarita Island, Venezuela.
2001: "Large ovale", new Chinese Petroleum Corporation Head Office, Taipei, Taiwan.
Individual exhibitions
Prizes
Bibliography
Abadie, Daniel. Entrevista para el catálogo de la Exposición Soto: cuarenta años de creación, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Caracas, 1983
Abadie, Daniel; Gómez, Hannia; Nordmann, Agnés and Pierre, Arnaud. Soto A Gran Escala. Published by MACCSI.
Boulton, Alfredo. Jesús Soto. Editorial Armitano, 1973
Brodsky, Estrellita and Rich, Sarah. Soto: Paris and Beyond, 1950-1970. New York University, 2012.
Clay, Jean. Rostros del Arte Moderno. Monte Avila Editores, Caracas, 1971
Cuevas, Tatiana, Obrist, Hans Ulrich, Santoscoy, Paola. Jesús Rafael Soto. "Visión en Movimiento", 2007.
Hernández D’Jesus, Enrique. Entrevista publicada em el suplemento especial del Diario de Caracas, 1993
Huerta, Ninoska. Soto Classical and Modern. Fundación Corp Group Centro Cultural, Caracas, 2000.
Jiménez, Ariel. Texto para el catálogo de la exposición retrospectiva de Jesús Soto. Francia, Abbaye Saint André Centre d’Art Contemporain Meymac. 1992
Jiménez, Ariel. Texto para el catálogo de la exposición SOTO: Re-pensar lo visible, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Maracay Mario Abreu, 1993
Jiménez, Ariel. Jesús Soto in Conversation with Ariel Jiménez. Fundación Cisneros/Colección Patricia Phelps de Cisneros
Joray, Marcel and Sot,o Jesús Rafael. Soto. Éditions du Griffon, Paris, 1984. ASIN: B0018PFZBK
Lemaire, Gerard-Georges. Soto (Serie Mains et merveilles). Editions La Difference, Paris, 1997
Messer, Thomas M., Renard, Claude-Louis, Soto, Jesús. Soto: A Retrospective Exhibition, catalogue published to coincide with the exhibition. Accompanying text in English, French and Spanish, Published by: The Solomon R Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1974.
See also
National Prize of Plastic Arts of Venezuela
References
External links
Artist's official Website
1923 births
2005 deaths
People from Ciudad Bolívar
20th-century Venezuelan sculptors
20th-century Venezuelan male artists
Male sculptors
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
Venezuelan contemporary artists |
4364523 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fission%20products%20%28by%20element%29 | Fission products (by element) | This page discusses each of the main elements in the mixture of fission products produced by nuclear fission of the common nuclear fuels uranium and plutonium. The isotopes are listed by element, in order by atomic number.
Neutron capture by the nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs also produces actinides and transuranium elements (not listed here). These are found mixed with fission products in spent nuclear fuel and nuclear fallout.
Neutron capture by materials of the nuclear reactor (shielding, cladding, etc.) or the environment (seawater, soil, etc.) produces activation products (not listed here). These are found in used nuclear reactors and nuclear fallout. A small but non-negligible proportion of fission events produces not two, but three fission products (not counting neutrons or subatomic particles). This ternary fission usually produces a very light nucleus such as helium (about 80% of ternary fissions produce an alpha particle) or hydrogen (most of the rest produce tritium or to a lesser extent deuterium and protium) as the third product. This is the main source of tritium from light water reactors. Another source of tritium is Helium-6 which immediately decays to (stable) Lithium-6. Lithium-6 produces tritium when hit by neutrons and is one of the main sources of commercially or militarily produced tritium. If the first or only step of nuclear reprocessing is an aqueous solution (as is the case in PUREX) this poses a problem as tritium contamination cannot be removed from water other than by costly isotope separation. Furthermore a tiny fraction of the free neutrons involved in the operation of a nuclear reactor decay to a proton and a beta particle before they can interact with anything else. Given that protons from this source are indistinguishable from protons from ternary fission or radiolysis of coolant water, their overall proportion is hard to quantify.
Germanium-72, 73, 74, 76
If Germanium-75 is produced, it quickly decays to Arsenic. Germanium-76 is essentially stable, only decaying via extremely slow double beta decay to .
Arsenic-75
while arsenic presents no radiological hazard, it is extremely chemically toxic. If it is desired to get rid of arsenic (no matter its origin), thermal neutron irradiation of the only stable isotope will yield short lived which quickly decays to stable . If Arsenic is irradiated with sufficient fast neutrons to cause notable "knockout" (n,2n) or even (n,3n) reactions, Isotopes of germanium will be produced instead.
Selenium-77, 78, 79, 80, 82
Se-79, half-life of 327k years, is one of the long-lived fission products. Given the stability of its next lighter and heavier isotopes and the high cross section those isotopes exhibit for various neutron reactions, it is likely that the relatively low yield is due to Se-79 being destroyed in the reactor to an appreciable extent.
Bromine-81
The other stable isotope is "shadowed" by the long half life of its more neutron rich isobar .
Krypton-83, 84, 85, 86
Krypton-85, with a half-life 10.76 years, is formed by the fission process with
a fission yield of about 0.3%. Only 20% of the fission products of mass 85 become 85Kr itself; the rest passes through a short-lived nuclear isomer and then to stable 85Rb. If irradiated reactor fuel is reprocessed, this radioactive krypton may be released into the air. This krypton release can be detected and used as a means of detecting clandestine nuclear reprocessing. Strictly speaking, the stage which is detected is the dissolution of used nuclear fuel in nitric acid, as it is at this stage that the krypton and other fission gases like the more abundant xenon are released. Despite the industrial applications of Krypton-85 and the relatively high prices of both Krypton and Xenon, they are not currently extracted from spent fuel to any appreciable extent even though Krypton and Xenon both become solid at the temperature of liquid nitrogen and could thus be captured in a cold trap if the flue gas of a voloxidation process were cooled by liquid nitrogen.
Increase of fission gases above a certain limit can lead to fuel pin swelling and even puncture, so that fission gas measurement after discharging the fuel from the reactor is most important to make burn-up calculations, to study the nature of fuel inside the reactor, behaviour with pin materials, for effective utilization of fuel and also reactor safety. In addition to that, they are a nuisance in a nuclear reactor due to being neutron poisons, albeit not to the same extent as isotopes of xenon, another noble gas produced by fission.
Rubidium-85, 87
Rubidium-87 has such a long half life as to be essentially stable (longer than the age of the earth). Rubidium-86 quickly decays to stable Strontium-86 if produced either directly, via (n,2n) reactions in Rubidium-87 or via neutron capture in Rubidium-85.
Strontium-88, 89, 90
The strontium radioisotopes are very important, as strontium is a calcium mimic which is incorporated in bone growth and therefore has a great ability to harm humans. On the other hand, this also allows 89Sr to be used in the open source radiotherapy of bone tumors. This tends to be used in palliative care to reduce the pain due to secondary tumors in the bones.
Strontium-90 is a strong beta emitter with a half-life of 28.8 years. Its fission product yield decreases as the mass of the fissile nuclide increases - fission of produces more than fission of with fission of in the middle. A map of 90Sr contamination around Chernobyl has been published by the IAEA. Due to its very small neutron absorption cross section, Strontium-90 is poorly suited for thermal neutron induced nuclear transmutation as a way of disposing of it.
Strontium-90 has been used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) in the past because of its relatively high power density (0.95 Wthermal/g for the metal, 0.46 Wthermal/g for the commonly used inert perovskite form Strontium titanate) and because it is easily extracted from spent fuel (both native Strontium metal and Strontium oxide react with water by forming soluble Strontium hydroxide). However, the increased availability of renewable energy for off-grid applications formerly served by RTGs as well as concern about orphan sources has led to a nigh-total abandonment of in RTGs. The few (largely space based) applications for RTGs that still exist are largely supplied by despite its higher cost, as it has a higher power density, longer half life and is easier shielded since it is an alpha emitter while Strontium-90 is a beta emitter.
Yttrium-88 to 91
The only stable yttrium isotope, 89Y, will be found with yield somewhat less than 1% in a fission product mixture which has been allowed to age for months or years, as the next-longest lived yttrium isotopes have half-lives of only 107 days (88Y) or 59 days (91Y). However, a small amount of yttrium-90 will be found in secular equilibrium with its parent strontium-90 unless the two elements are separated from each other.
90Sr decays into 90Y which is a beta emitter with a half-life of 2.67 days.
90Y is sometimes used for medical purposes and can be obtained either by the neutron activation of stable 89Y or by using a device similar to a technetium cow.
As the half lives of the unstable Yttrium isotopes are low ( being the longest at 106 days), yttrium extracted from strontium-free moderately aged spent fuel has negligible radioactivity. However, the strong gamma emitter will be present as long as its parent nuclide is. Should a nonradioactive sample of Yttrium be desired, care must be taken to remove all traces of strontium and sufficient time to let the short lived Y-90 (64 hours half life) decay must be allowed before the product can be used.
Zirconium-90 to 96
A significant amount of zirconium is formed by the fission process; some of this consists of short-lived radionuclides (95Zr and 97Zr which decay to molybdenum), while almost 10% of the fission products mixture after years of decay consists of five stable or nearly stable isotopes of zirconium plus 93Zr with a halflife of 1.53 million years which is one of the 7 major long-lived fission products. Zirconium is commonly used in cladding of fuel rods due to its low neutron cross section. However, a small share of this zirconium does capture neutrons and contributes to the overall inventory of radioactive zirconium isotopes. Zircalloy cladding is not commonly reused and neither is fission product zirconium, which could be used in cladding as its relatively weak radioactivity would be of no major concern inside a nuclear reactor. Despite its high yield and long live, Zr-93 is generally not deemed to be of major concern as it is not chemically mobile and emits little radiation.
In PUREX plants the zirconium (regardless of source or isotope) sometimes forms a third phase which can be a disturbance in the plant. The third phase is the term in solvent extraction given to a third layer (such as foam and/or emulsion) which forms from the two layers in the solvent extraction process. The zirconium forms the third phase by forming small particles which stabilise the emulsion which is the third phase.
Zirconium-90 mostly forms by successive beta decays out of Strontium-90. A nonradioactive Zirconium sample can be extracted from spent fuel by extracting Strontium-90 and allowing enough of it to decay (e.g. In an RTG). The Zirconium can then be separated from the remaining strontium leaving a very isotopically pure Zr-90 sample.
Niobium-95
Niobium-95, with a half-life of 35 days, is initially present as a fission product. The only stable isotope of niobium has mass number 93, and fission products of mass 93 first decay to long-lived zirconium-93 (half-life 1.53 Ma). Niobium-95 will decay to molybdenum-95 which is stable.
Molybdenum-95, 97, 98, 99, 100
The fission product mixture contains significant amounts of molybdenum. Molybdenum-99 is of enormous interest to nuclear medicine as the parent nuclide to but its short half life means it'll usually be decayed long before the spent fuel is reprocessed. can be produced both by fission followed by immediate reprocessing (usually only done in small scale research reactors) or in particle accelerators. As Molybdenum-100 only decays extremely slowly via double beta decay (half life longer than the age of the universe) the molybdenum content of spent fuel will be essentially stable after a few days have passed to allow the Molybdenum-99 to decay.
Technetium-99
99Tc, half-life 211k years, is produced at a yield of about 6% per fission; see also the main fission products page. It is also produced (via the short lived nuclear isomer Technetium-99m) as a decay product of Molybdenum-99. Technetium is particularly mobile in the environment as it forms negatively charged pertechnetate-ions and it presents the biggest radiological hazard among the long lived fission products. Despite being a metal, Technetium usually doesn't form positively charged ions, but Technetium halides like Technetium hexafluoride exist. TcF6 is a nuisance in uranium enrichment as its boiling point () is very close to that of uranium hexafluoride (). The issue is known to enrichment facilities because spontaneous fission also yields small amounts of Technetium (which will be in secular equilibrium with its parent nuclides in natural uranium) but if fluoride volatility is employed for reprocessing, a significant share of the "uranium" fraction of fractional distillation will be contaminated with Technetium requiring a further separation step.
Technetium-99 is suitable for nuclear transmutation by slow neutrons as it has a sufficient thermal neutron cross section and as it has no known stable isotopes. Under neutron irradiation, Tc-99 forms Tc-100 which quickly decays to stable a valuable platinum group metal.
Ruthenium-101 to 106
Plenty of radioactive ruthenium-103, ruthenium-106, and stable ruthenium are formed by the fission process. The ruthenium in PUREX raffinate can become oxidized to form volatile ruthenium tetroxide which forms a purple vapour above the surface of the aqueous liquor. The ruthenium tetroxide is very similar to osmium tetroxide; the ruthenium compound is a stronger oxidant which enables it to form deposits by reacting with other substances. In this way the ruthenium in a reprocessing plant is very mobile, difficult to stabilize, and can be found in odd places. It has been called extremely troublesome and has a notorious reputation as an especially difficult product to handle during reprocessing. Voloxidation combined with cold trap collection of the flue gases could recover the volatile ruthenium tetroxide before it can become a nuisance in further processing. After the radioactive isotopes have had time to decay, recovered ruthenium could be sold at its relatively high market value.
In addition, the ruthenium in PUREX raffinate forms a large number of nitrosyl complexes which makes the chemistry of the ruthenium very complex. The ligand exchange rate at ruthenium and rhodium tends to be long, hence it can take a long time for a ruthenium or rhodium compound to react.
At Chernobyl, during the fire, the ruthenium became volatile and behaved differently from many of the other metallic fission products. Some of the particles which were emitted by the fire were very rich in ruthenium.
As the longest-lived radioactive isotope ruthenium-106 has a half-life of only 373.59 days, it has been suggested that the ruthenium and palladium in PUREX raffinate should be used as a source of the metals after allowing the radioactive isotopes to decay. After ten half life cycles have passed over 99.96% of any radioisotope is stable. For Ru-106 this is 3,735.9 days or about 10 years.
Rhodium-103, 105
While less rhodium than ruthenium and palladium is formed (around 3.6% yield), the mixture of fission products still contains a significant amount of this metal. Due to the high prices of ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium, some work has been done on the separation of these metals to enable them to be used at a later date. Because of the possibility of the metals being contaminated by radioactive isotopes, they are not suitable for making consumer products such as jewellery. However, this source of the metals could be used for catalysts in industrial plants such as petrochemical plants.
A dire example of people being exposed to radiation from contaminated jewellery occurred in the United States. It is thought that gold seeds used to contain radon were recycled into jewellery. The gold indeed did contain radioactive decay products of 222Rn.
Some other rhodium isotopes exist as "transitory states" of ruthenium decaying before further decaying towards stable isotopes of Palladium. If the low level radioactivity of Palladium (see below) is deemed excessive - for example for use as an investment or jewelry - either of its predecessors can be extracted from relatively "young" spent fuel and allowed to decay before extracting the stable end-product of the decay series.
Palladium-105 to 110
Much palladium forms during the fission process. In nuclear reprocessing, not all of the fission palladium dissolves; also some palladium that dissolves at first comes out of solution later. Palladium-rich dissolver fines (particles) are often removed as they interfere with the solvent extraction process by stabilising the third phase.
The fission palladium can separate during the process in which the PUREX raffinate is combined with glass and heated to form the final high level waste form. The palladium forms an alloy with the fission tellurium. This alloy can separate from the glass.
107Pd is the only long-living radioactive isotope among the fission products and its beta decay has a long half life and low energy, this allows industrial use of extracted palladium without isotope separation.
Palladium-109 will most likely have decayed to stable silver-109 by the time reprocessing happens. Before reaching silver-109, a nuclear isomer will be reached; . However, unlike for there is no current use for .
Silver-109
While the radioactive silver isotopes that are produced quickly decay away leaving only stable silver, extracting it for use is not economical, unless as byproduct of platinum group metal extraction.
Cadmium-111 to 116
Cadmium is a strong neutron poison and in fact control rods are often made out of cadmium, making the accumulation of cadmium in fuel of particular concern for the maintenance of stable neutron economy. Cadmium is also a chemically poisonous heavy metal, but given the number of neutron absorptions required for transmutation, it is not a high priority target for deliberate transmutation.
Indium-115
While Indium-115 is very slightly radioactive, its half life is longer than the age of the universe and indeed a typical sample of Indium on earth will contain more of this "unstable" isotope than of "stable" Indium-113.
Tin-117 to 126
In a normal thermal reactor, tin-121m has a very low fission product yield; thus, this isotope is not a significant contributor to nuclear waste. Fast fission or fission of some heavier actinides will produce 121mSn at higher yields. For example, its yield from U-235 is 0.0007% per thermal fission and 0.002% per fast fission.
Antimony-121, 123, 124, 125
Antimony-125 decays with a half life of over two years to which itself decays with a half life of almost two months via isomeric transition to the ground state. While its relatively short half life and the significant gamma emissions (144.77 keV) of its daughter nuclide make usage in an RTG less attractive, Sb-125 could deliver a relatively high power density of 3.4 Wthermal/g.
Fluoride volatility can recover antimony as the mildly volatile (solid at room temperature) Antimony trifluoride or the more volatile (boiling point ) Antimony pentafluoride.
Tellurium-125 to 132
Tellurium-128 and -130 are essentially stable. They only decay by double beta decay, with half lives >1020 years. They constitute the major fraction of natural occurring tellurium at 32 and 34% respectively.
Tellurium-132 and its daughter 132I are important in the first few days after a criticality. It was responsible for a large fraction of the dose inflicted on workers at Chernobyl in the first week.
The isobar forming 132Te/132I is: Tin-132 (half-life 40 s) decaying to antimony-132 (half-life 2.8 minutes) decaying to tellurium-132 (half-life 3.2 days) decaying to iodine-132 (half-life 2.3 hours) which decays to stable xenon-132.
The creation of tellurium-126 is delayed by the long half-life (230 k years) of tin-126.
Iodine-127, 129, 131
131I, with a half-life of 8 days, is a hazard from nuclear fallout because iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland. See also Radiation effects from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster#Iodine-131 and
Downwinders#Nevada.
In common with 89Sr, 131I is used for the treatment of cancer. A small dose of 131I can be used in a thyroid function test while a large dose can be used to destroy the thyroid cancer. This treatment will also normally seek out and destroy any secondary tumor which arose from a thyroid cancer. Much of the energy from the beta emission from the 131I will be absorbed in the thyroid, while the gamma rays are likely to be able to escape from the thyroid to irradiate other parts of the body.
Large amounts of 131I was released during an experiment named the Green Run in which fuel which had only been allowed to cool for a short time after irradiation was reprocessed in a plant which had no iodine scrubber in operation.
129I, with a half-life almost a billion times as long, is a long-lived fission product. It is among the most troublesome because it accumulates in a relatively small organ (the thyroid) where even its comparatively low radiation dose can cause great damage as it has a long biological half life. For this reason, Iodine is often considered for transmutation despite the presence of stable in spent fuel. In the thermal neutron spectrum, more Iodine-129 is destroyed than newly created since Iodine-128 is short lived and the isotope ratio is in favor of . Depending on the design of the transmutation apparatus, care must be taken as Xenon, the product of Iodine's beta decay, is both a strong neutron poison and a gas that is nigh impossible to chemically "fix" in solid compounds, so it will either escape to the outside air or put pressure on the vessel containing the transmutation target.
127I is stable, the only one of the isotopes of iodine that is nonradioactive. It makes up only about of the iodine in spent fuel, with I-129 about .
Xenon-131 to 136
In reactor fuel, the fission product xenon tends to migrate to form bubbles in the fuel. As caesium 133, 135, and 137 are formed by the beta particle decay of the corresponding xenon isotopes, this causes the caesium to become physically separated from the bulk of the uranium oxide fuel.
Because 135Xe is a potent nuclear poison with the largest cross section for thermal neutron absorption, the buildup of 135Xe in the fuel inside a power reactor can lower the reactivity greatly. If a power reactor is shut down or left running at a low power level, then large amounts of 135Xe can build up through decay of 135I. When the reactor is restarted or the low power level is increased significantly, 135Xe will be quickly consumed through neutron capture reactions and the reactivity of the core will increase. Under some circumstances, control systems may not be able to respond quickly enough to manage an abrupt reactivity increase as the built-up 135Xe burns off. It is thought that xenon poisoning was one of the factors which led to the power surge which damaged the Chernobyl reactor core.
Caesium-133, 134, 135, 137
Caesium-134 is found in spent nuclear fuel but is not produced by nuclear weapon explosions, as it is only formed by neutron capture on stable Cs-133, which is only produced by beta decay of Xe-133 with a half-life of 3 days. Cs-134 has a half-life of 2 years and may be a major source of gamma radiation in the first 20 years after discharge.
Caesium-135 is a long-lived fission product with much weaker radioactivity. Neutron capture inside the reactor transmutes much of the xenon-135 that would otherwise decay to Cs-135.
Caesium-137, with a half-life of 30 years, is the main medium-lived fission product, along with Sr-90.
Cs-137 is the primary source of penetrating gamma radiation from spent fuel from 10 years to about 300 years after discharge.
It is the most significant radioisotope left in the area around Chernobyl.
Barium-138, 139, 140
Barium is formed in large amounts by the fission process. A short-lived barium isotope was confused with radium by some early workers. They were bombarding uranium with neutrons in an attempt to form a new element. But instead they caused fission which generated a large amount of radioactivity in the target. Because the chemistry of barium and radium the two elements could be coseparated by for instance a precipitation with sulfate anions. Because of this similarity of their chemistry the early workers thought that the very radioactive fraction which was separated into the "radium" fraction contained a new isotope of radium. Some of this early work was done by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
Lanthanides (lanthanum-139, cerium-140 to 144, neodymium-142 to 146, 148, 150, promethium-147, and samarium-149, 151, 152, 154)
A great deal of the lighter lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, and samarium) are formed as fission products. In Africa, at Oklo where the natural nuclear fission reactor operated over a billion years ago, the isotopic mixture of neodymium is not the same as 'normal' neodymium, it has an isotope pattern very similar to the neodymium formed by fission.
In the aftermath of criticality accidents, the level of 140La is often used to determine the fission yield (in terms of the number of nuclei which underwent fission).
Samarium-149 is the second most important neutron poison in nuclear reactor physics. Samarium-151, produced at lower yields, is the third most abundant medium-lived fission product but emits only weak beta radiation. Both have high neutron absorption cross sections, so that much of them produced in a reactor are later destroyed there by neutron absorption.
Lanthanides are a problem in nuclear reprocessing because they are chemically very similar to actinides and most reprocessing aims at separating some or all of the actinides from the fission products or at least the neutron poisons among them.
External links
The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA Color-map of fission product yields, and detailed data by click on a nuclide.
Periodic Table with isotope decay chain displays. Click on element, and then isotope mass number to see the decay chain (link to uranium 235).
References
Inorganic chemistry
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear physics
Nuclear technology |
4364873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen%20Zille | Helen Zille | Otta Helene Maree (née Zille ; born 9 March 1951), known as Helen Zille, is a South African politician. She has served as the Chairperson of the Federal Council of the Democratic Alliance since 20 October 2019. From 2009 until 2019, she was the Premier of the Western Cape province for two five-year terms, and a member of the Western Cape Provincial Parliament. She served as Federal Leader of the Democratic Alliance from 2007 to 2015 and as Mayor of Cape Town from 2006 to 2009.
Zille is a former journalist and anti-apartheid activist and was one of the journalists who exposed the cover-up around the death of Black Consciousness leader Steve Biko while working for the Rand Daily Mail in the late 1970s. She also worked with the Black Sash and other pro-democracy groups during the 1980s. In the political arena, Zille has served in all three tiers of government, as the Western Cape's education MEC (1999–2001), as a Member of Parliament (2004–2006), as Mayor of Cape Town (2006–2009), and as Premier of the Western Cape (2009–2019).
Zille was selected as World Mayor of the Year in 2008. She was also chosen as Newsmaker of the Year 2006 by the National Press Club in July 2007. Zille speaks English, Afrikaans, Xhosa, and German.
Following her departure from the premiership in May 2019, she joined the South African Institute of Race Relations as a senior policy fellow in July 2019, though she suspended her fellowship in October 2019. She started her own podcast, Tea with Helen, in August 2019. Zille declared her candidacy for Federal Council Chairperson of the DA in October 2019. She won the election.
Early life and career
Early years, education and family
Helen Zille was born in Hillbrow, Johannesburg, the eldest child of parents who separately left Germany in the 1930s to avoid Nazi persecution due to the fact that her maternal grandfather and paternal grandmother were Jewish.
Zille was believed to be the grandniece of the Berlin painter Heinrich Zille. She gave corresponding hints by herself in the past but withdrew them in her autobiography published in 2016. The Berlin genealogist Martina Rhode had documented before that there was a mix-up in the handwritten notes of her uncle Heinrich between people with the same name but different birthplaces and dates of birth.
Her mother was a volunteer with the Black Sash Advice Office. While her family lived in Rivonia, she was educated at Johannesburg's St Mary's School, Waverley, one of the city's private education schools. She studied at the University of the Witwatersrand, where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree. Around 1969, she joined the Young Progressives, the youth movement of the liberal and anti-apartheid Progressive Party.
Political journalism
Zille began her career as a political correspondent for the Rand Daily Mail newspaper in 1974. During September 1977, the South African Minister of Justice and the Police J.T. Kruger announced that anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko had died in prison as the result of an extended hunger strike. Zille and her editor Allister Sparks were convinced Kruger's story was a cover-up, and Zille obtained concrete proof of this after tracking down and interviewing doctors involved in the case.
Consequent to the publication of the story, headlined "No sign of hunger strike—Biko doctors", Minister Kruger immediately threatened to ban the newspaper, and Zille received death threats. Zille and Sparks were represented at the subsequent quasi-judicial Press Council by defence lawyer Sydney Kentridge. The two were found to be guilty of "tendentious reporting", and the paper was forced to issue a correction. Kentridge later helped confirm the accuracy of Zille's account when he represented the Biko family at the inquest into his death. That inquest found Biko's death had been the result of a serious head injury but failed to find any individual responsible.
Zille resigned from the Rand Daily Mail along with editor Allister Sparks, after the paper's owner, Anglo American, demanded that Sparks quiet the paper's equal rights rhetoric.
Anti-apartheid movement
Zille was heavily involved in the Black Sash movement during the 1980s. She served on the regional and national executives of the organisation, and was also vice-chair of the End Conscription Campaign in the Western Cape. During this time, she was arrested for being in a "group area" without a permit and received a suspended prison sentence. Zille and her husband later offered their home as a safe house for political activists during the 1986 State of Emergency, and she was temporarily forced into hiding with their two-year-old son.
Zille was also actively involved in the South Africa Beyond Apartheid Project and the Cape Town Peace Committee. She later gathered evidence for the Goldstone Commission which investigated attempts to destabilise the Western Cape before the elections in 1994.
Education policy work
Zille formed a public policy consultancy in 1989, and in 1993 she was offered the position of Director of Development and Public Affairs at the University of Cape Town. During this time Zille also chaired the governing body of Grove Primary School, and in 1996 led a successful challenge against government policy limiting governing bodies' powers to appoint staff.
Zille was then invited by the Democratic Party (now the Democratic Alliance) to write a draft policy for Education in the Western Cape. In 1999 she became a Member of the Western Cape Provincial Legislature and was appointed MEC for Education.
In 2004, Zille became a Member of Parliament with the DA. Within the DA, she rose to the level of deputy federal chairperson and served as national party spokesperson and spokesperson for education.
Mayoralty
2006 municipal elections and aftermath
In the 2006 municipal elections, the DA became the single largest party in Cape Town with 42.0% of the vote, ahead of the African National Congress (ANC). Zille was elected mayor by 106 votes to 103 on 15 March 2006, after the DA obtained the support of several smaller parties.
Subsequently, Zille's multi-party government decided to revoke the appointment of Cape Town City Manager Wallace Mgoqi, whose term of appointment had been extended by the outgoing ANC executive mayor, Nomaindia Mfeketo. Zille's decision was upheld by the High Court, which ruled that the extension of Mgoqi's appointment by the previous mayor had been unlawful.
Zille has faced considerable opposition and confrontation from the ANC. In September 2006, the provincial ANC MEC Richard Dyantyi announced that he planned to replace the city's mayoral system with an executive committee. The move would have resulted in reduced mayoral power, and the governing party would not itself have been able to assign the ten seats on the committee, which would instead have been allocated on a proportional representation basis. Dyanti and Zille agreed to retain the current mayoral system if the ANC were provided with two additional sub-committees in areas of the city controlled by the ANC. The matter was thus resolved.
Issues
Zille's commitments as mayor included Cape Town's role as a designated host city for the 2010 World Cup, as well as the construction and financing of the Cape Town Stadium, which hosted 8 FIFA World Cup football matches in 2010.
A particular concern of Zille's was the problem of drug abuse in Cape Town, especially crystal methamphetamine (tik) abuse. She called for the promotion of drug rehabilitation centres and further funding from the government to battle drug abuse and met with local communities to discuss the issue.
Zille objected to plans to incorporate the metro police into the broader police service, arguing that such a move would remove considerable power from local government and vest more control in the hands of the National Police Commissioner at the time, Jackie Selebi, who was later convicted of corruption.
Achievements
Housing and service delivery
Although provincial rather than local government is tasked with housing delivery, Zille claimed that her municipality's efforts to reform housing lists and improve verification processes also allowed housing delivery to be increased from 3000 units per annum under the ANC, to 7000 units per annum between 2006 and 2008 under her administration as mayor.
In an article titled "The ANC is pro-poverty not pro-poor" published shortly before the 2009 general election, Zille pointed out that no budget allocation existed for upgrading informal settlements under the ANC administration, whereas in 2007 her administration had set a dedicated budget for the provision of water, electricity, and sanitation.
DA Leader
Election
On 15 March 2007, Zille declared herself a candidate to succeed outgoing leader of the DA, Tony Leon. A favourite from the start, with backing from the Western Cape, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, the Northern Cape, the Free State and even the Eastern Cape (regarded during much of the build-up as the stronghold of main rival Athol Trollip), she was elected as the new leader by a large majority on 6 May 2007. She indicated that she would lead the party from outside Parliament, while continuing in her position as executive mayor of Cape Town.
Issues
When she became the leader of the DA, Zille challenged the majority government on several issues.
Crime
Of particular concern to Zille was the government's response to alarming crime statistics released in July 2007. She has accused the national government of rewarding criminals by placing individuals convicted of serious crimes high up on their national parliamentary lists. Zille has said that the DA would reinstate child protection units, the South African Narcotics Bureau and the Scorpions unit, all of which have been disbanded.
In August 2008, Zille announced proposals to boost the size of the police force to 250 000, employ an additional 30 000 detectives, improve detention programmes and use of information technology, and radically overhaul the justice system. She also said the party's comprehensive new crime plan would include provisions for a Victims of Crime Fund.
Health
Zille warned against the controversial National Health Amendment Bill, legislation allowing greater state intervention in private health care. She warned that the state will destroy the system. She outlined the possibility that the Bill could drive away thousands of skilled medical professionals. Together with her political party, she proposed an alternative health plan, for the privatisation of state healthcare. The National Health Amendment Act became law in 2013 and provides for the establishment of a new Office of Health Standards Compliance.
Judicial independence
As DA leader, Zille has also frequently questioned judicial independence in South Africa, in light of the alleged behaviour of the Cape judge president John Hlophe in trying to influence the Constitutional Court judges to rule in favour of ANC president Jacob Zuma. She also cited racism directed towards those in the judiciary, and has criticised the perceived double standards vocally.
Political debate
In June 2008, she challenged the president of the ANC and the 2009 presidential candidate, Jacob Zuma to a public debate on ten key issues such as the arms deal, disbanding of the Scorpions, the situation in Zimbabwe, HIV/AIDS and labour legislation. Zuma declined to participate.
Campaign against drug and alcohol abuse
Eight members of a group called the People's Anti-Drug and Liquor Action Committee (PADLAC) were arrested in September 2007 outside the Mitchell's Plain police station. Zille was then arrested when she visited the police station to investigate. The group had been distributing pamphlets in the campaign against the abuse of alcohol and drugs in Cape Town. Police alleged that she supported vigilante groups opposed to drug abuse. She appeared in the Mitchell's Plain Magistrates Court later that week for contravening the Regulation of Gatherings Act. Zille was expected to sue the Minister of Police for wrongful arrest. Zille subsequently appeared briefly before the Mitchell's Plain Magistrates Court together with a group of ten persons who had been arrested with her.
On 30 September 2007 it was reported that senior intelligence sources, who were apparently unhappy with the ANC's plans to subvert state institutions to do ANC bidding, had leaked information to Zille that operatives with weapons were infiltrating PADLAC with the ultimate objective of bringing down the leader of the opposition. In October 2007, Zille was acquitted of all charges brought before the Mitchell's Plain Magistrates Court on the grounds that the prosecution's case against her and nine other defendants did not stand a chance of succeeding. Zille reiterated her intention to sue the South African Police Service (SAPS) branch in the Western Cape for wrongful arrest.
In March 2008, Helen Zille took her anti-drugs campaign to Johannesburg, leading a protest march. Marchers wore DA T-shirts, bearing the message No to drugs and save our children.
It is not clear that Zille's activities have had any particular impact on problems of crime and substance abuse in the Western Cape. The latest crime statistics suggest that the Western Cape is responsible for 34% of drug-related crime in South Africa.
United Nations
In April 2008, Zille was asked to address the United Nations in New York City on population and development, offering her experience and lessons as mayor of Cape Town.
Zille is a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organisation which campaigns for democratic reformation of the United Nations; she believes that it is necessary as it will "ensure that the citizens of every country feel more connected to the UN and its programmes".
World Mayor award
Zille was nominated as one of 820 world mayors and was winner of the 2008 World Mayor Award in October 2008.
There was controversy when the ruling ANC used its majority in the National Assembly to block (without notice) a motion by the DA acknowledging Zille's achievement in winning the 2008 World Mayor award.
Resignation as Party Leader
In April 2015, Zille announced that she would not be standing for re-election as party leader.
Premier of the Western Cape
2009 election
The 2009 general elections presented Zille with her first major electoral contest as leader of the DA. She was selected as the candidate for Premier of the Western Cape, and her party succeeded in winning a 51.46 percent of the province's vote. Zille was installed as Premier, and replaced as mayor by Dan Plato. Nationally, the DA gained significant ground as official opposition, winning 16.66 percent of the vote, and increasing its tally of seats in both houses of Parliament to 80.
Row with Jacob Zuma
In May 2009, shortly after being elected Premier, Zille wrote a letter to the Cape Argus newspaper that was accidentally copied by her spokesperson to the Sowetan newspaper. Responding to criticism from gender lobby groups and the ANC over her all-male provincial cabinet, Zille stated in the letter that the ANC had never even been led by a woman, and that its leaders set bad examples on gender issues. She cited South African President Jacob Zuma's "deeply sexist views", accused him of being a "womaniser", and condemned him for putting "all his wives at risk of contracting HIV" by having unprotected sex with an HIV positive woman. Zuma, a polygamist, admitted in his rape trial that he had known that the woman with whom he had had sex was HIV positive.
Zille's condemnation of Zuma's behaviour was then used by the Sowetan as the basis of a front-page story titled "Zuma an AIDS risk". The paper stated that Zille had "launched an extraordinary new attack" on Zuma. This heralded a wave of attacks on Zille from both the ANC and a number of its alliance partners. The ANC Youth League claimed Zille was racist, and that her all-male cabinet consisted of "boyfriends and concubines so that she can continue to sleep around with them". The claim, made without substantiation, drew the ire of the DA, who consulted with their lawyers over a possible defamation suit. The Umkhonto we Sizwe Military Veterans Association restated the Youth League's sex claims, and warned it would launch "a political programme aimed at rendering the Western Cape ungovernable". The ANC also criticised Zille, but distanced itself from the remarks of its Youth League, stating that they were "deeply embarrassing". In response, Zille claimed that the whole row exemplified South Africa's warped approach to gender issues.
Land dispute
In May 2009, Zille accused the ANC of asset stripping. She related to the transfer of 1 000 hectares of provincial land in the Western Cape to a national body. The transfer was signed off by the former premier Lynne Brown on 21 April 2009, the day before the national elections. Zille alleged that the deal was done "secretly, in bad faith and with an ulterior motive". The ANC responded by claiming that the land deal had been publicly tabled in Parliament several times over the years and there was nothing sinister about it. Zille later said that she would call for a review and rescinding of the agreement and would lodge a dispute at an intergovernmental relations meeting, but the matter was resolved in January 2010, when the ANC's Minister of Human Settlements, Tokyo Sexwale, agreed to return the land to the province before the matter could be taken to court.
2014 elections and re-election
Ahead of the 2014 elections, in 2013, Thembu King Dalindyebo joined the DA as an ordinary member while he was appealing convictions for various crimes, which was seen by some as a cynical ploy by the DA to court voters. When confronted about the membership, Zille noted that no other ordinary members were subject to tests or "due diligence" investigations, but also that the DA's constitution required Dalindyebo's membership to be terminated if his appeals failed. In October 2015, Dalindyebo's convictions were upheld, and his membership of the DA was terminated.
Following the 2014 general elections, the DA won 59.38% of the vote and 26 seats in the Western Cape provincial legislature, an increase of 3.25%. Under her leadership, the party also won 89 seats in the National Assembly and 22.23% of the National vote. Zille was sworn into a second term on 26 May with 27 votes out of 42, her opponent being Marius Fransman of the ANC.
Succession as premier
In September 2018, the Democratic Alliance announced that it had selected Alan Winde to be the party's Western Cape Premier candidate for the 2019 South African general election. The other candidates nominated for the position were Fazloodien Abrahams, Bonginkosi Madikizela, David Maynier, Kelly Baloyi, Jacobus MacFarlane and Micheal Mack. Zille was constitutionally barred from running for a third term as premier, as the South African constitution prohibits a premier from serving more than two consecutive terms. Following the May 2019 general election, the Democratic Alliance retained its majority in the Western Cape Provincial Parliament. Zille left office on 22 May 2019.
Later career
Joining the IRR
Following her leaving public office in May 2019, it was revealed in July 2019, that she had joined the South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) as a senior policy analyst. The SAIRR said upon the announcement: "The joining of forces between Ms Zille and the IRR brings together two of the loudest reformist voices in the country." The institute soon published a controversial opinion column in September 2019, calling for Maimane to be sacked as DA leader and replaced with Alan Winde. Senior DA officials denounced the opinion piece, though Zille defended it. She soon suspended her IRR fellowship in October 2019.
Tea with Helen
Zille formed her own podcast, Tea with Helen, in August 2019 intending to engage in conversation with people who disagree with her political views. The podcast is aired on YouTube, iTunes and Spotify. The first guest on the show was Business Day's former editor-in-chief, Peter Bruce. Other people who have featured on the podcast include Ferial Haffajee, Max du Preez and Adam Habib. Zille tried to reach out to EFF leader, Julius Malema, but he rejected the invitation.
Federal Council Chairperson
On 4 October 2019, Zille declared her candidacy for Federal Council Chairperson of the DA, as incumbent James Selfe had announced his retirement. Zille made the announcement after she described the party as being in "distress and political turmoil". The position is similar to the role of Secretary-General of any given political party's leadership structure. The election was held later that month and Zille won it.
Controversies
2008 Xenophobia comments
The DA and mayor Helen Zille drew criticism for their response to the 2008 xenophobic attacks in Cape Town. In particular, Finance Minister Trevor Manuel accused Zille of "fanning the flames", by speaking out against foreign drug dealers while on a visit to Mitchell's Plain. Zille responded that she had been completely misquoted, and challenged Manuel to read newspaper transcripts of her speech. Zille has also accused the ANC government of creating a dependency culture lacking of economic development that has fuelled xenophobia.
Criminalisation of deliberately spreading HIV with multiple partners
While addressing a wellness summit hosted by the Western Cape Health department, Zille had called for irresponsible men who knew they were HIV positive, yet refused to use condoms and had multiple sexual partners, to be charged with attempted murder, and for a shift in focus from the treatment of preventable diseases to unpreventable diseases. Some AIDS activists warned against such a move and called Zille's remarks "careless and misleading." Among those who criticized Zille's position were the Constitutional Law scholar Pierre de Vos and prominent AIDS activist and director of Section 27, Mark Heywood.
Refugees from Eastern Cape
In 2012, Zille was embroiled in controversy after she tweeted: "While E Cape education collapsed, WC built 30 schools – 22 new, 8 replacement mainly 4 E Cape edu refugees. 26 MORE new schools coming".
Her statement followed on from a protest in Grabouw about overcrowding at a local school. The ANC called Zille's reference to "refugees", with regard to Eastern Cape pupils who flocked to the Western Cape for a better education, "inhumane".
Zille later apologized and said she was "very, very sorry about the impact of those words". She was "sorry because it was never meant in that context at all, and it was never said in that way at all. She said "What I was trying to show up was what (Basic) Education Minister Angie Motshekga calls a 'horror story' of education in much of the Eastern Cape".
Failed merger with Agang
As DA Party Leader, Zille presided over a failed attempt to merge with opposition party Agang, then led by Mamphela Ramphele. After announcing the merger, and Zille famously kissing Ramphele at the news conference, the merger fell apart after five days when the DA could not come to an agreement on the way forward with Ramphele: she wanted to remain the leader of Agang while also running for the presidency of the DA, but Zille told her this would not be legal. The ANC suggested that foreign parties were funding the merger.
Colonialism controversy arising from a trip to Singapore and Japan
In March 2017, after a trip to Singapore and Japan which cost R600,000 for five people, Zille commented on Twitter that the legacy of colonialism was not all bad because it had left a legacy of infrastructure and institutions, which South Africa could build upon. The consequent outrage led to internal disciplinary hearings. Zille was also investigated for her comments about the legacy of colonialism by the Human Rights Commission for "a potential violation of human dignity".
Criticism and disciplinary hearing
Following accusations that she was defending colonialism, Zille noted that her views had been misconstrued, but also apologised "unreservedly for a tweet that may have come across as a defence of colonialism. It was not."
Among those who disagreed with her were other DA members, such as Mbali Ntuli, who stated that colonialism was "only" negative, and who herself faced a disciplinary hearing in 2017 for "liking" in December 2016 a Facebook comment that characterised Zille as racist; Phumzile van Damme, who stated that there was not "a single aspect of [colonialism] that can be said to be positive or beneficial to Africans"; and party leader Mmusi Maimane, who stated "Colonialism‚ like Apartheid‚ was a system of oppression and subjugation. It can never be justified," but also said in the aftermath that Zille was not a racist and that she had "consistently fought oppression". DA MP Ghaleb Cachalia defended Zille as well-intentioned. He agreed with her that colonialism was not solely negative, and noted that many prominent intellectuals, including Chinua Achebe, Ali Mazrui, Godfrey Mwakikagile and Manmohan Singh, have expressed similar sentiments.
The ANC and Economic Freedom Fighters both demanded that Zille be removed from her position as Western Cape Premier.
As a result of her online comments, Zille was referred to the DA's Federal Legal Commission for a disciplinary hearing on charges of bringing the party into disrepute and damaging the party's image. Following this news, Zille further defended herself by noting that Nelson Mandela had held the same opinion about colonialism. Her continued defence of her comments exacerbated internal friction in the Democratic Alliance between her and her detractors, and was seen to undermine the party leader, Maimane. Maimane stated that the disciplinary charges against Zille were not limited to Twitter, and included "a series of comments [...] that have exacerbated and amplified the original tweet". Some of her subsequent writings, in which she defended her views, further strained her relationship with Maimane.
Costs
In April 2017, Zille faced further criticism about her visit to Singapore, which was characterised as extravagant at a price of R1 million. According to Zille's spokesperson, R636,000 was travel expenses, and another R500,000 was for "direct business engagements". Also according to the spokesperson, the trip, which included a visit to Japan, was intended to strengthen Asian investment in halaal food, and to encourage tourism to the Western Cape from that region. Zille defended herself by stating that she had gone without an assistant in order to limit the expense of the trip.
Apartheid tweets
In late-June 2020, Zille commented on Twitter that "There are more racist laws today than there were under apartheid". She also tweeted that had not former President F.W. de Klerk "decided to dismantle apartheid", the ANC "would still be bogged down in the mess of its so-called liberation camps and infighting" because the ANC "had no viable armed struggle to speak of.” John Steenhuisen, the interim leader of the DA at the time, distanced himself from Zille's views, and the Federal Legal Commission of the party launched an investigation into her comments.
Dr Duncan Du Bois, a historian and political analyst, supported Helen Zille's assertion. He pointed out that, based on research by James Myburgh, the Apartheid government passed 59 pieces of race-based legislation over a period of 70 years, whereas the post-Apartheid government has passed 90 laws with racial representativity mandates over a period of 25 years. Political analyst James Myburgh considered Helen Zille's comments "hyperbolic" but "not (far) wrong". Myburgh's analysis, however, included post-Apartheid laws mandating racial representation on the boards of individual statutory bodies, but did not include Apartheid-era laws specific to the Bantustans.
Allegations of nepotism
While Zille was Premier, evidence emerged that she had used her influence to provide her son, Paul Maree, who was in the process of developing his private business, with state procured equipment to test his software products. These allegations came to light when questioned by MPL Cameron Dugmore, who referred the matter to the Public Protector's office for investigation. MPL Dugmore alleged that pressure was put on the Education Department by the Premier to ensure that the tablets be provided to her son, and that other businesses were prejudiced in the process, and that the nepotism matter was clear. MPL Dugmore also requested the Western Cape Legislature investigate the Premier for Breach of Ethics.
Personal life
Zille married Professor Johann Maree in 1982, and they have two sons. She is a member of the Rondebosch United Church in Cape Town.
Published works
Zille, Helen (October 2016). Not Without a Fight. Penguin Books. ISBN 9781776090426
Zille, Helen (April 2021). #StayWoke: Go Broke: Why South Africa won’t survive America’s culture wars (and what you can do about it). Independently Published. ISBN 9798727953457
References
External links
Helen Zille winner of the 2008 World Mayor Prize
Helen Zille's blog
Helen Zille's interactive social media profile at Zoopy.com
City Mayors profile
Quotes about Cape Town's mayoral system
Zille voted Newsmaker of the year
CapeInfo interview with Helen Zille
Interview with Helen Zille at metkere.com
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1951 births
Calvinist and Reformed anti-apartheid activists
Democratic Alliance (South Africa) politicians
Democratic Party (South Africa) politicians
Living people
Mayors of Cape Town
Members of the Western Cape Provincial Parliament
Alumni of St Mary's School, Waverley
Politicians from Johannesburg
Premiers of the Western Cape
South African Calvinist and Reformed Christians
South African people of German descent
Women mayors of places in South Africa
University of the Witwatersrand alumni
White South African anti-apartheid activists
20th-century South African women politicians
20th-century South African politicians
21st-century South African women politicians
21st-century South African politicians
Black Sash
South African people of German-Jewish descent
Women members of provincial legislatures of South Africa
Women premiers of South African provinces |
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